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THE NEW
SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
Of
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
KDITCDBY
SAMUEL MAOAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
iEditor-inrChief)
WITH THB ASSISTANCB Of
CHARLES COLEBROOE SHERMAN
AMD
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(^Asmndate Ediian)
AND THE POU.OWINQ DKPARTMCNT KDITOIIS
CLARENCE AUeVSTINE BECKWITH, D J).
{Ikparlmeni of SyttematUs Theology)
HENfiT EINGf CA&BOLL, LL.D.
{Ikpartmeni of Minor Denominatumi)
JAMES FRASGIS DKISCOLL, D.D.
{D^artmeni of lAtwrgict and Rdigioui Orden)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDT, PH.D., LL.D.
{Department of the Old TeetamerUi
HENRY STLVESTER NASH, DJ).
{Department of the New Tetiament)
ALBERT HENRY NEWKAN, DJ)^ LLD.
(Dgxirftnori <^ Chxureh fltKory)
FRANK HORACE YIZETELLT, F.SJL.
{DtpartmeiU of Prommaalion and ZVpoyreg^Ay)
Complete in Zv^lve IDolumes
FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
/ '
COPYBIQHT, 1908, BY
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
Beglstered at Statlonen* Hall, Londoiu Bnglaod
IPrinted in the United Stales of Ameried]
PublUhed December, 1906
117238
EDITORS
BAKXTEL MAGAX7LEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor-in-Chief. )
Pratenor of Cbarcli Hlstoi7« New York UnlTenity.
ASSOCL\TE EDITORS
0HABLB8 OOLSBBOOK SHEBKAN
IdltortD BUdlal Critlclani and Theology on ''The New Inter-
nAdooal KncjdopedJa,*^ New York.
OEOBGE WILLIAM OILMOEE, M.A.
New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical Hiatory and Lecturer
on Comparative Bellfflon, Banffor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME II.
OLABEVOE AXTOTJSTINE BEOKWITH, D.D.
{Department of Sustematic Tkeologu.)
Profeaor of Syatematio Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
EEHBT KINO GABBOLL, LL.D.
{JkpartmerU of Minor DenomituUions.)
On o( the Correaponding Secretartea of the Board of Foreign
3llfllooB of tlie Methodist Episcopal Church, New York.
JAKES FBANGIS DBISOOLL, D.D.
CDeparffMnt of LUwrgie* and RetigUnui Orders.)
Frartlent of St. Joseph^s Seminary, Yonkera, N. Y.
HUBEBT EVANS, Fh.D.
(Q^lce Editor.)
ftonMriyof the Editnrial Staff of the *' Bnoyclopndia Brltan-
nlea** Company, New York City.
JAMES FBEDEBIGK McOUBBT, Ph.D.,
LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental lAnguages, University College, Toronto.
HENBT SYLVESTEB NASH, D.D.
{Department of the New TeMament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the Now Tes-
tament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Moss.
ALBEBT HENBT NEWMAN, D.B., LL.D.
{Department of Church Htetory.)
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Waco, Tex.
FBANB HOBAGE VIZETELLT, F.S.A.
{Department of PronuneicUion and Tupography.)
Associate Editor of the Standard Dictionary, etc.
New York City.
CONTRIBUTOES AND COLLABOBATORS, VOLUME II.
SBNST OHBISTIAN AGHELIS,
Th.D.,
Profeaor of Practical Theology, University of Marburg.
8AXUEL JAMES ANDBEWS (f), D.D.,
Late Pistar of tlie Catliolle Apostolic Church, Hartford, Conn.
CABL FBANKI4N ABNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D.,
PTDfesMiraC Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty,
University of Breslau.
7EBEN0Z BALOOH,
Profcaor of Church History, Reformed Theological Academy,
Debreczln, Hungary*
EDTJABD BABDE (f),
Ute iTofeaMT of New Testament Exegesis, School of Theology,
Geneva.
HEBMANN BABGE, Ph.D.,
Gymnaslal Professor in Leipslc
BAXUEL JUNE BABBOWS, D.D.,
Qiiomuttdlug Seerstary of the Prison Association of New York.
JOSUOTNES BELSHEIM,
P<wtor Emerttos in Chrlstlanla, Norway.
EABL BENBATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of K6nlg8berg.
IliMANTTEL GUSTAP ADOLP BENZIN-
OEB, Ph.D., Th.Llc,
Formerly Prlvat-dooent in Old Testament Theology, University
of Berlin, Member of the Executive Committee of the
German Society for the Exploration of
Palestine, Jerusalem.
SAMX7EL BEBGEB (f), D.D.,
Late Librarian to the Faculty of Protestant Theology, P«ir1s.
GABL ALBBEGHT BEBN0X7LLI, Th.Lic,
Professor in Berlin.
GABL BEBTHEAU, Th.D.,
President of the Society for Innere Mlsfllun, and Pastor of
St. MichaePs Church, Hamburg.
WILLIBALD BEYSGHLAG(t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
AMY GASTON BONET-MATTBT, D.D.,
LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity,
Paris.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IL
OOTTIJEB KATEAJr AJBL BOITWBTSOH,
Th.D.,
PrateHor of drareh Hlftory, Unlrenity of GOtttogen.
7BIBDBI0H BOSSE, Ph.D., Th-Lic,
IxtnordlnaiT ProfteMr of Theology* UnlTeraitr of GraUkwild.
GTJBTA7 BOBBE&T, Ph.D., Th.D.,
PBfltor Emeritus, Btattgut.
JOHANNES FBZEDBIOH THEODOB
BBIEOEE, Ph.D.y T1l.D.,
Profenorof Gharcli HlitoiT, UnlTenttj of Leipiio.
0HABLE8 ATJGTJBTUS BBIGGS, D.D.,
XiiU-D.,
Protenor of Tlieolofciflal Kncyclopedla mmI BymboUoi, Union
Tbeologloal 8einimu7i New Tork.
FBANTB PEDEE WZLLIAK BUHL, Ph.D.y
Th.D.y
Piofeaor of Ortental Langoagei, Unlventtj of Oopenlniren.
EABL BUBOEE (t)» Th-D.,
Late Supreme Oonatatortal GouncUor, Munlota.
WALTEB 0A8PABI,Pli.D., Th.Lic.,
Prof enor of Practical Theology* Pedagogloi, and Dldactto, and
UnlTeralty Preacher, Unlyerrity of Kriangen.
JAOaiTEB EUGENE OHOIST, ThJ).,
Paator In Genera, Swttaerland.
FEBDINAND OOHEB, Tli.Iiiay
Oonalstoilal Councilor, Ilf Old, HanoTer.
AL]
LEXIS IBiNfiE DTI PONT COLEMAN,
X.A.,
Instnictor In EngUah, College of the City oC New Toik.
aXJSTAP HEBMAN DALKAN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profenor of Old Testament Exegesis, UnlTerstty of Lelpelc,
and President of the German Brangelloal Archeo-
loglcal Institute, Jerusalem.
SAXUEL MABTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D.,
PRrfesBor of Church History, UnlTenlty of Berlin.
FBANZ WILHELM DIBELIUB,Ph.D.,Tli.D.,
Supreme Conslstorlal CouncUor, City Superintendent, and Pas-
tor (tf the Kreuskliche, Dresden.
JAMES 7BAN0IS DBISOOLL, D.D.,
President of St. Joseph*s Seminary, Tonkers, N. T.
HENBT OTIS DWIOHT, LL.D.,
Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society, Coedltor
of the '' Encyclopedia of Missions.** New Toife.
EMIL EGU, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, UnlyerBity of Zn^kdi.
DAVTD EBDMANN (t), T1l.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological
Faculty, Unl?er8ity of Breslau.
ALFBED EBIGHSON (f), PI1.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, Unlyersity of Strasbnig.
OABL FEY, Ph.D.,
Pastor at COsseln, near Halle.
JOHN FOX, D.D.,
Oomspondlng Secretary of the American Bible Sode^, New
York.
EMDL ALBEBT FBIEDBEBQ, I>r.Jur.,
Prat easor of Ecclesiastical, Public and German Law, Dnlyenlty
ofJjBlpslo.
THEODOB GEBOLD, Th-D.,
President of the Consistory, Stiasbnrg.
OEOBGE WILLIAM GILMOBE, X-A.,
Fbrmeriy Lecturer on Compai«tl?e Religion, Bangor Tlieoki-
leal Seminary* Associate Editor of the Scbafp-
HBRZOO EKCTCLOPIDIA.
WILHELM GLAMANN,
Pastor at Siebeneichen, near LOwenberg, Pmasla.
WILHELM OOETZ, PI1.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technlsche Hochschule, aal
Professor, MUltary Academy, Munich.
OASPABBENl! GBEOOBT, PI1.D., Dr.Jur.,
T1L.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, UnlTenfty of Leipsic
PAUL GBUENBEBG, Th^Lic,
Pastor In Strssburg.
GEOBG GBTJETZMAOHEB, PhJ3., Th-Lic,
Extraotdlnary Professor of Chnroh History and of the Kei
Testament, UnlTsnity of Heidelberg.
BEINHOIiD OBUNDEMANN, P1l.D.,
TI1.D.,
Pastor at MOn, near BelJdg, Prussia.
HERMANN OX7THE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, UnlTenlty of Lelprfc
ADOLF HABNAOX, M.D., Ph.D., T1l.D.,
Protessor of Churoh History, UnlTerslty of BerUn, and Genenl
Dhector of the Boyal Library, Berlin.
ALBEBT HAUOK, PhJ>., Dr.Jur., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, UnlTerslty of Leipsic, Edltor-ift
Chief of the Hauok-Hxbzoo Biauknctklopadik. j
HEBMAN HAXTPT, PIlD.,
Professor and Director of the UnlTerslty Library, Giesieii.
JOHANNES HATJBSLEITEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of the New Testament, UnlTerrity of GreUSiwaM.
OABL FBIEDBIOH GEOBG HEINBICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, UnlTerslty of Lelp*.
EDGAB SONNEOKE, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Betheln, HanuTer.
HERMANN HEBING, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, UnlTerrtty of Halle.
MAX HEBOLD, Th.D.,
Dean, Neustadtpan-der-Alsoh, BaTarta, Editor of Slona.
JOHANN JAKOB HEBZOG (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Batormed Theology, UnlTerslty of Erlsngv,
Vouader of the Hauok-Hessoo BiAuni ctklopaoix.
ALFRED HEGLEB (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Lste Professor of Church History, UnlTerslty of T&biiigeD>
JOHANNES HESSE,
lofmer Editor of the EvangeUKhet Miations-MagoiBin aod
President of the Publishing Soototy at Calw, WOrttemberi.
PAT7L HDrSOHUrS (t), LL.D.,
Late Professor of EcdeslasUcal Law, UnlTerslty of Bertls.
HEBMANN WILHELM HEINBICH HOSI^
SOHEB, Th.D.,
Pastor of the Nlkolaiklrehe, Lelpsio, Editor of the ^n0efM<"<
JEvanaeUMJt-lAUhmiaehe KinhenzeUMng and of
the ZTksoIogisehM I4toftitiirt4att.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IL
loi
HOI«Ly Ph.D.y Tll.D.y
Proiewor of Gbnreh HlitoiT, Untrenitj of Berlin.
AL7BBD JKHKMTAB, PI1.D., Th^Lic,
Putor of the Lattierklrelie, Lelpilo.
MABLTZS XASHIiSBy ThJD.,
Profanr of DognuUloi and New Testament Izegeiif, UnlTer-
sltyof HaUe.
ADOIiF KAMPHATJBEK, Th.D.,
rwlMKir of Old Teitainent Sxegeiif, UnlTeralty of Bonn.
PETE& OI7BTA7 KAWEBATJ, Th.D.y
Oooalitortal Councilor, ProfeHor of PractlGal Theology, and
Untreralty Preacher, Vntrenlty of Braalaa.
BXJI>OLF XITTELy Ph.D.,
Prof—ir of Old Teatament Bxegeais, Unlrenlty of Leiptlc.
FBISDBIOH HBBXANV THEODOB
XGIiDSy Ph.D., Th.D.y
ProfeaMT of Gbnrch History, Uulieiilty of Kilangen.
HBBMANV GX78TA7 EDTJABD EBUSOEK,
PI1.D.9 T1l.D.,
Prafeaor of Church Hlitoiy, UnlTerrity of Olenen.
J0HAHNB8 WTTiHKTJg KUNZXy Ph.D.,
Profeaorof ByatemAlle and Praettoal Theology« VniTerslty of
GrellnrakL
L. A. VAV LAVGBBAAD, PliJ3.,
Lekkerterk, Holland.
LT7DWIO TiKMMKy Th.D.y
Profeaor of Syatematte Theology, UnlTenlty of Heidalheig.
EDTJABD lABEPPy Ph^D.^
BuperlnteDdent of the Boyal Orphan Aiylum, Stuttgart
ATJ017ST I1E8BZBII', Pli.D.y
PgpliMor of BtakTonle Langnagea, UnlTenlty of Lefpalo.
FBIBDBIOH ABMZN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profeawff of Church History, Unlvenlty of Halle.
ANDEB8 HBBXAVLUVDSTBOX, TI1.D.,
PruftMM* of Church History, Boyal UnlTerslty of Vpsala,
Sweden.
JAXEB PBEDEBZOK XcCXrEDT, PI1.D.,
LL.D.,
Profeaorof Oriental Languages, Unlrerslty College, Toronto.
PHTTiTPP MEYEB, Th.D.,
Saprene Oonslstortel ConncUor and Member of the Boyal
Consistory, Hanorer.
OABL THEODOB XIBBT, Th.D.y
ProiesKMr of Chnrch History, UnlTenlty of Martnng.
IBVBT FBIBDBIOH XABL XUELLEB.
Th.D.,
Pniesnr of Beformed Theology, UnlTerslty of Krlangen.
OEOBG mjELLEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Councilor for Schools, Lelpslc
JOSEF KUELIiEBy Th.D.,
Pastor In EberKlorf , Benss.
HIK0LAT7S KUELLEB, Ph.D., Th.D.,
KdnofdJnary PioftMsar of Christian Archeology, UnlTenlty of
0HBI8TOF EBEBHABD NESTLE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Pntenr hi the Theologloal Seminary at Blaalhronn, WQrttem-
berg.
XABL JOHANNES NEXTKANN, PhJ3.,
ProfesBorof the History of Art, UnlTerslty of KleL
ALBEBT HENBT NEWXAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Bay-
lor UnlTerslty), Waoo, Tez.
JT7LIX7S NET, Th.D.,
Supreme Conalstorial Councilor in Bpeyer, BaTaria.
FBEDEBIK OHBISTIAN NIELSEN (f),
Th.D.,
Late Bishop of Aalboig, Denmark.
FBIEDBIOH ATJGTJST NITZSOH (f),
Ph.D.,
Late Prof essor of Theology, UnlTerslty of Kiel.
HANS OONBAD VON OBELU, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Beligion,
UniTersity of J
KABQABET BLOODOOOD PEEBE,
Inspectress ■General of the Maitlnlst Order for America.
OHABLES PFENDEB,
Pastor of the Brangellcal Lutheran Church, Paris.
BEBNHABD PIOK, Ph.D., D.D.,
Pastor of the Phst Gennan Brangellcal Lutheran Church,
Newark, N.J.
FBEDEBIOK DT7NOLIS0N POWEB, LL.D.,
Pastor of the Garfield Memorial Church, Washington, D. C.
WILUAX PBIOE,
Pormeriy Instructor in French, Tale College and Sheflleld Soiea-
tiflo School, New HaTen, Conn.
FBANZ PBAETOBIUS, PhJ3.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, UnlTerslty of Halle.
GEOBG OHBISTIAN BIETSOHEL, Th.D.,
PrQ(^sK>r of Practical Theology and UnlTerslty Preacher, Unl-
Terslty of Leipsic
SIEOFBIED BIETSOHEL, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of German Law, Unlvenlty of TAhingen.
HENDBIK OOBNELIUS BOGGECf), Th.D.,
Late Professor of History, UniTersity of Amsterdam.
EUOEN SAOHSSE, Th.D.,
UnlTerslty Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology In the
iTangeUcal Theological Faculty, UnlTenlty of Bonn.
DAVID SOHLEY SOHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Allegheny, Pa.
PHUJP SOHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church Hhitofy, Union Theological Seminary,
New Torfc, Feunder of the Schaft-Hibzoo Emctclopidia.
BEINHOLD SOHBID, Th.Lic.,
pastor at Oberholahelm, WQrttemberg.
BIOHABD XABL BEBNHABD SOHBIDT,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Jurisprudence and ClTll and Criminal Procedure,
UniTersity of Freiburg.
JOHANN SOHNEIDEB,
Pastor at Neckarflteinach, Hesse.
THEODOB SOHOTT (f), PhJ>., Th.D.,
Late Llhrarian and Profeswr of Theology, UnlTerslty of Stutt-
SBTt
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME U.
JOHAKir FBIBDBIOH BITTBR VON
SOHULTEy Z>r.Jur.y
rrofcwor of Gemutn Eocletlasttoal Law and of the Hlitory of
Law, UnlTenltr of Bonn.
VZOTOB SOHUIiTZB, TlL.D.y
Profenor of Chnroh History and Christian Archeology, Unlyei^
sltyof OreU^ald.
HANS SOHULZ, Fh.D.,
Oymnaslal Professor at SteirUts, near Beilln.
LUDWIO SOHULZE, Ph.D., Th.D.y
Professor of Systematic Theology, UnlTersity of Bostook.
OTTO SBEBASS, Ph.D.,
Educator In Lelpsto, Germany.
BEINHOLD SEBBEBQ, Th.D.y
Professor of Systematic Theology, Uniyersfty of Berlin.
EMIL SEHLING, Z>r.Jur.y
Professor of Eodeslasttcal and Commercial Law, Unlyenlty of
Srlangen.
FBIEDBIOH ANTON EMIL SDSXTEBT,
PI1.D., TI1.D.9
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, UnlTer-
sity of Bonn.
EMTL ElilAS STEXNUETEB, Fh.D.y
Professor of German Language and Literature, Unlyerslty of
Erlangen.
GEO&G EDUABD STEITZ (f), Th.D.,
Late Pastor Un Frankfortron-the-Main.
ALFRED STOEOXIUS, Ph.D.,
Astor Ubrary, New Tork.
HEBKANN LEBEBEOHT 8TBA0K, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Bxtraordlnaiy Profenor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic
Languages, UnlTersity of Berlin. •
PAX7L TSOHAOKEBT, PhJ}., ThJ>.9
{Professor of Church History, Unirersity of OAttlngesi.
JOHANN GEBHABB T7HLH0BN (f), TIl JD.,
Late Oonslstorlal Councilor, HaaoTer.
MABVIN BIOHABDSON VINOENT, 1>J>.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Crttldsm, Unloa
Theological Seminary, New Tork.
WILHEUC VOOT (f), PI1.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, UnlTersity of Ros-
tock.
8TA0Y BEUBEN WABBUBTON,
Assistant Editor of The BaptUl MiuUmary Ma/oasine^ Boatoo.
BENJAMIN BBEOKINBEDOE WABFIKLD,
D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology, Princeton Tbeo-
logioal Seminary.
AXJOTJ8T WILHELM WEBNEB, T1i.I>.,
Pastor Primarius, Guben, Prussia.
FBANOIS METHEBALL WHITLOOX,
Pastorof the Bethlehem Congregational Church, dereiaiuU a
BIOHABD PAT7L WUELXEB, PluB.,
ProftMsor of English, UniTenrity of Leipsio.
AXJOTJBT wuisNSOHE, Ph.D.9 ThJD.,
Titular Professor in Dresden.
THEODOB ZAHN, Th.D., LiU.3>.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introductloa, Uni-
Terelty of Erlangen.
HEINBIOH ZIHMEBy Pli.D.y
Professor of Celtic Philology, UnlTendty of Berlin.
OTTO ZOEOXLEB (f ), Ph.D., Th.I>.,
Late Professor of Church History, UnlTersity of GreUswald.
BIBUOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX-VOLS. I AND H
Tbe following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in Tolumes I and II, and brings the literature down to November, 1908. In this list each
title entry is printed in capital letters.
Absaham: F. Wilke, Wtsr Abraham eine kitionsche
PendfdichkeU t Leipsic, 1907.
Abultaraj: Bar Hebraeus, Buck der Strahlen. Die
yrdssere Gratntnatik des Barhebraeus, Ueber-
$eUufkg nach einem kriiitch berichti^en Texte
mii textkritischem Apparai und einem An-
hang: Zttr Terminolome, by A. Mobeig. Ein-
leiiuna and vol. ii., Leipsic, 1907 (the first
part has not yet appeared).
Africa: J. D. Mullens, The Wandmful Story of
Uganda, London, 1908.
A. H. Baynes, South Africa, London, 1908.
R. H. MiUigan, The Jungle Folk of Africa, New
York, 1W8.
Agnobticibm: H. G. Sheklon, Unbdufin the Nine-
teenth Century, New York, 1907.
Aqrafba: C. R. Gr^ry. Daa Freer-Logion, Leip-
sic, 1908 (on tne Logia-fragments possessed
by C. L. Freer, of Detroit).
B. Pick, Paralipomena: Remains ofGoepeU and
Sayings of ChriO. Chicago, 1908.
Alexander IV.: F. Tenckhoff, Papst Alexander
IV., Paderbom, 1907.
Alexander of Hales: K. Heim, Das Wesen der
Gnade und ihr VerhOUnis tu den natUrlichen
Funktionen des Menschen bei Alexander
Haknsis, Leipsic, 1907.
Altar: R. Kittel, Studien zur hebrdischen Areh&dfr
ogie, i.l 18-168, Leipsic, 1906.
Ambrose, Saint, of Milan: J. E. Niederhuber,
Die EsehaUdogie des heUigen Ambrosius,
Paderbom, 1907.
P. de Labriolle, S. Ambroise, Paris, 1906.
Angelb: R. W. Britton, Angds, their Nature and
Service, London. 1906.
Apocrtfha: L. Couara, Die reUgidsen und sUtUehen
Anschauungen der aUtestamentUchen Apak-
rytfien und Pseudepiqraphen, Gtltersloh, 1907.
A. Fuchs, Textkritische Untiarsuchungen turn
hdnttiachen Ekklesiastikus, Freiburg, 1907.
R. Smend, GrieckischrsyrischrhebrdisSher Index
zur Weiskeit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin, 1907.
F. Steinmetser Neue Unterstichungen Ober die
GesekiMUckkeU der JudOhertdhlung, Leipsic,
1907.
J. Mailer, BeitrOge zur ErklOrung und KritOc
des Buekes TobiL Giessen, 1906.
Apologbtigb: W. H. Turton. The Truth of Chris-
tiamiy: a Manual of Christian Evidences,
London, 1906.
E. F. Scott, The Apologetie of the New Testa^
ment. New York, 1906.
H. E^rton, The Liberal Theology and tke
Ground of Faitk; being Essays towards a eon-
servoHve Restatement of Apologetic, London,
1908.
Apostolic CoNSTiTunoNs: F. X. Funk, DidascaKa
et constUuHonesapostolorum I, -I I, ,Faderhom,
1906.
Arabia: R. Dussiaud, Z^es Arabes enSyrie avant
VIslam, Paris, 1907.
Archeoloot, Bibucal: I. Benzinger, Hebrdische
ArchOologie, Ttlbingen, 1907.
Architecture: A. K. Porter, Medieval Arckiteo-
ture. New York, 1908.
Arianism: S. Rogala. Die AnfUnge des arianischen
Streites, Paderoom, 1907.
Art: S. F. H. Robinson, CeUic Illuminative Art in
the Gospel Books of Durrow, Lindisfame and
Kdls, London, 1906.
J. R. AUen. CeUic Art in Pagan and Christian
Times, Philadelphia, 1908.
Margaret E. Tabor, The SainU in AH, New
York, 1906.
Asceticism: Bibliotheca Franciseana ascetica medii
aevi, vol. iv., Quarrachi, 1907.
Abherah: F, Limdffreen, Die BentUzung der Pflan-
zenwelt in aer aUtestamentUchen Rehgion,
Giessen, 1906.
Asia Minor: F. St&helin, Geschichte der kleit^
asiatischen Galater, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1907.
Assyria: A. T. Ohnstead, Western Asia in the Days
of Sargon of Assyria, B.C. 7t»-706, New York,
1908.
AuosBURO, Bishopric of: A. Steichle, Das Bist-
kum Augsburq, kistorisck und statistisck
besehrieben, vol. vii., Augsburg, 1906 sqq.
AnosBURo Confession and its Apology: Ada
oomiciorum Augustas ex Ktteris PhUipfi Jonas
et dUomm ad M. Luther, ed. G. Berbig, Leip-
sic, 1907.
Auoustinb, Saint, of Hippo: B. Dombart, Zur
Textgesckickte der CivUas Dei Augustins seit
dem Entstehen der ersten Drucke, Leipsic, 1907.
O. Blank, Die Lehre des heUigen Augustinus vom
Sakramente der Eucharistie, Paderbom, 1906.
F. X. Eggersdorfer, Der heilige Augiutinus als
Pddagoge und seine Bedeutung fOr die Ge-
sckickte der Bildung, Freiburg, 1907.
P. Friedrich, Die Maridogie des heUigen Augus-
tinus. Cologne, 1907.
O. Z&nker, Der Primal des Wittens vor dem
InieOect bei Augustin, Gtltersloh, 1907.
Seripta eontra Donatistas, part i., ed. Petschenig,
Leipsic, 1908.
Saint Augustine of Hippo, with Introduction by
the Bishop oj Southampton (The Library of
the Soul), London, 1906.
H. Becker, Augustin. Studien zu seiner gei^
tigen Entwiekdung, Leipsic, 1908.
Augustinians: Codex diptonuOieus Ord. E. S.
Augustini, vol. iii., Papiae (Rome), 1907.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I AND H
Babylonia: M. Jastrow, Die Religion BabyUmiens
und Aesyrienef Giessen, 1907.
Early Sumerian Paalnu; Texts in Tranditerti'
turn toith Trand., Critical Commentary and
Introduction^ Leipsic, 1908.
O. A. Toffteen, Keeearchee in Aaeyrian and
Babylonian Geography, part 1, ChicagOi 1908.
H. Radau, Bd, the Chnet of Ancient Times,
Chicago, 1908.
Bach,J.S.: H. Perry, Life of Johann Sebadian
Boc*. New York, 1908.
Bamberg, Bishopric of: H. T. von Kohlhafen,
Das Domkapitel des aUen Bisthum Bamberg
und seine Canoniker, Bambeig, 1907.
J. KOrber, Lose Blatter aus meines Bruders
Ltben und Skrijptsn, Bin StUck Bamberger
Geschichte als Scherflein lum 9. Bisthum^
centenar, Bambeig, 1907.
J. Looehom, Die QeschichU des Bisthums Bam^
berg, Naeh den QueUen heofbeUelf vol. vii.,
Das Bisthum Bamberg 17t9-1808, Bambeig,
1907 sqq.
Banks, L. A.: Sermons vohidk have Won Souls, New
York, 1908.
Baptism: J. T. Christian, The Form o/ Baptism in
Sculpture and Art, Loiusville, Kv,, 1907.
J. M. Lupton, De baptismo, Cambria^, 1908.
Baptists: J. S. Flory, Literary Activity of the
German Baptist Brethren in the Eighteenth
Century. Elgin, 111., 1908.
£. Y. Mullens, The Axioms of Rdigion; a New
Interpretation of the Baptist Faith, Philadel-
phia, 1908.
Barlaam and Josophat: Gui von Cambrai und
Josophas, nach dem Handschriften von Paris
und Monte Cassino, ed. Carl Appel, Halle,
1907.
Barnabas: " Epistle," ed. Jos. Vixsini, Rome,
1907.
BsscHER, H. W.: S. M. Griswold, Sixty Years with
Plymouth Church, Ifew York, 1907.
Beschbr, W. J.: The tkOed Events of the OH Tes-
tament: being a Presentation of Old Tettor
ment Chronology, Philadelphia, 1908.
Best, J. A.: The Church, the Churches, and the
Sacraments, London, 1907.
A Shorter Manual of Theology, London, 1908.
Behaism: Les Lemons de SaitU-Jeanrd'Acre d'Ad-
Oul-B^ha, recueilliis par Laura Clifford
Barney, traduit du person par Hippolyte
Dreyfus, Paris, 1908.
Abdu'T Baha, Some answered Questions: Col-
lected and Translated from the Persian by
Laura Clifford, Philadelphia, 1908.
Benedict of Nursia: L. Delisle, Le Livre de Jean
de Stavdat sur S. BenoU, Paris, 1908.
Studien und Mitteilungen aus dem Benedietiner'
und dem Cistercienser-Orden, 28 Jahrgang,
Rajgen, 1907.
Die Kegel des heUigen Benedictus erkldri in
ihrem geschichtlidien Zusammenhang und mit
besonderer Rucksichtattf das geisUiche Leben,
Freiburg, 1907.
G. Meier, Der hnUge Benedikt und sein Orden,
R^gensbuiv, 1907.
Benediction: wT H. Dolbeer, The Benediction,
Philadelphia, 1908.
Bennett, W. H.: The Rdigion of the Post-Exilic
Prophets, Edinburgh, 1907.
The Life of Christ according to St. Mark, Lon-
don, 1907.
Bentley, Richard: A. T. Bartholomew, Richard
BerUley, a Bibliography of his Works, London,
1908.
Berkeley, G. : The Principle of Human Knowledge^
new ed., London, 1907.
The Querist; containing Several Queries pro-
posed to the Consideration cf the Public, parts
1^, Dublin, 1735-37, reprinted Baltimore,
1908.
Bernard, Saint, of Clair vaux: On Consideraiion.
Translated by George Lewis, London, 1908.
Besant. a. : London Lectures of 1907, London, 1 907.
Beza, T.: A Tragedie ^ Abraham's Saarifiee, transL
bv Arthur Gokling, ed. M. W. Wallace,
Toronto, 1906.
Bible Societies: J. Fox, Bound the World for the
American Bible Society, New York, 1908.
Bible Versions, A, III.: F. C. Burkitt. Early
Eastern Christianity, lect. 2, New York, 1904.
The Four Gospds from the Codex Corbei^ngis
London, 1908.
Bible Versions, B, IV.: A. F. Gasquet, The Old
English Bible, and Other Essays, New York,
1908.
M. B. Riddle, The Story o/ the Revised New
Testament, Philadelphia, 1908.
J. I. Mombert, Handbook, 2d ed. London, 1907.
M. W. Jacobus, ed., Roman Catholic and Prater
tant Bibles Compared: the Gould Prite Essctue,
2d ed., New Yorkj 1908.
F. Viffoiux>ux, Dictumnaire de la Bible, fasc
sonoii. cols. 1549-51, Paris, 1906.
Biblical Criticism: J. R. Cohn, The Old Testament
in the Light of Modem Research, London,
1908.
Biblical Introduction: A. Schub, Btbhsche
Studien, ed. O. Bardenhewer, vol. zii., part 1,
Doppdberichte im Pentateuch. Ein Beiirag
zwr ainleitung in das AUe Testament, Frei-
burg, 1908.
C. Rfiech, Die heQigen Schriften des AUen Tes-
taments; ausfiihrlich/s InhaUsHbersichi mii
kurtg^asster jipesieller Einleitung, MOnster,
1908.
F. Barth. Einleitung in das Neue Testament,
Gtltersloh, 1908.
C. F. G. Heinrid, Der Utterarische Charakter
derneutestamentUchenSchr^ten, Leipsic, 1908.
BiBUCAL Theoloqt: R. S. Franks, The New Testa-
ment Doctrines of Man, Sin, and SalvaHon,
London, 1908.
Black, H.: Christ's Service of Love [Communion
sermons and meditations], New York, 1907.
Blavatbkt, H. v.: F. S. Hoffman, The Sphere of
Rdigion, New York, 1908.
Bu88,£.M.: The Missionary Enterprise, New York,
IvOo.
BoEHME, J.: The Supersensual Life, or the Life
which is above Sense, Eng. transl. by W. Law,
new ed., London, 1907.
Bobtrius: In Isaaogen PorpJwrii commenta, ed.
S. Brandt, Vienna and Leipsic, 1906.
Bonet-Maurt, G.: France, chriAianisme el dvi-
ligation Paris 1907.
Booth, W.: The Seven SpiriU: or, What I teach
my Officers, London^ 1907.
BoRROiCEO, C: Die NuntuOur von Giovanni Fran-
cesco Bonhomini 1679-1681, Documente vol.
ly Die NuntiatwberichU Bonhomini und sdne
Correspondenz mil Carlo Borromeo aus dem
Jahre 1679, Solothum, 1906.
Boston, T.: A General Account of my Life, ed.
G. D. Low, London, 1908.
BoussET, W.: What is Rdigion? London, 1907.
Boyd, A. K. H.: Sermons and StrayPapers. WiA
Biographical Sketch by Rev. W. W. TuUodi,
London, 1907.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX— VOLUMES I AND U
zi
Brabmanism: J. C. Oman, The Brahmins, TheisU,
and MtuUnu of India, London, 1907.
L. D. Bamett, BrahmorKnowMge, an Outline
qf the Philoaophy of the Vedanta, set forth by
the Upaniehada and by Sankaara, London,
1907.
M. Bloomfield, The ReUaian ^ ihe Veda, the
Andeni Retiffion of India. New York, 1908.
Bbent, C. H.: Leadertkip: The WiUiam Bdden
Noble Lecturee . . . at , , . Harvard, New
York, 1908.
Bbbblau, Bishopbic of: Oeackiehte dee Breelauer
Domee und Seine Wiederheratdlung, Breslau,
1907.
Verdfi^eniHehunffen otM dem fOretbiachoJliehen
DidMeaanrArckiv su Bredau, Breslau, 1905
sqq.
Breviabt: a. Schulte, Die Paalmen dee Breviere
nebai den Caniiea sum praktischen Gebraudie,
Paderbom, 1907.
Budget, Saint, of Kildarb: J. A. Knowles,
St. Brigid, Patroness (^Ireland, London, 1907.
Bridget, Saikt, of Swbdbn: K. Krqgb-Tonning,
Die heUige Birgitta in Schweden, Kempten,
1907.
Brookb, S. A.: The Sea Charm <^ Venice, London,
1907.
Studies in Poetru, London, 1907.
Brown, A. J.: The Foreign Missionary, An Ineamch
tian qf a World Movement, New York, 1907.
Browne, R.: C. Burrue. The "Retractation" of
Robert Browne, Father af Congregationalism,
London, 1907.
Brownb, Sir Thomab: Works, ed. C. Sayle, 3 vols.,
Edinbufgh, 1907.
BuDDHiBic: Jataka, by £. B. Cowell, vol. vi., New
York, 1907.
P. L. Narasu, The Essence of Buddhism, Lon-
don, 1907.
D. T. Susuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism,
London, 1907 (Japanese).
Soyen Sbaku, Sermons €f a Buddhist Abbot,
London, 1907.
Taba Kanai, The Praises of Amida. Seven
Bvddkiei Sermons. Translated from the
Japanese by Rev. A. Lloyd. London, 1907.
H. F. Hall, The Inward Light, 2d impression,
London, 1908 (Buddhism in Burman).
K. von Haae, New Testament Parallels in Bud-
dhistic Literature, New York, 1908.
BuLUNGBB, H.: BuUingers Korrespondens mU den
GraubUndem, part iii., Oct., 15G&-June, 1575,
ed. T. Schiess, Basel, 1906.
Burnet, G.: T. E. S. Clarke and (Miss) H. C. Fox-
croft, Life qf Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salis-
bury; with BibUographieal Appendixes; and
an Introduction by C. H. Firth, London and
New York, 1908.
Cabala: Kabbala denudata. The Kabbalah Un-
veiled: oonlatmno the following books from
the Zohar: the Book of Concealed Mystery,
the Qreater Holy Assmbly, the Lesser Holy
Assembly, traneUUed into English, New York,
1908 (republication of edition of 1887).
Cajetan, T.: r. Kalkoff, Cardinal Cajdan auf dem
Augtburger Reiehstaae von ISIS, Rome, 1907.
Calvin, J.: A. Dide, Michd Servet et Calvin, Paris,
1907.
Cambridge Platonibtb: E. A. George, The Seven^
teenth Century Men o^ Latitude; the Fore-
runners qf the New Theologu, London, 1908.
Campbell, R. J.: Christianity and the Social Order,
London, 1908.
Thursday Mornings at the City Temple, London,
1908.
Canon of Scbiptubb: J. Leipoldt, Geschichte des
neutestamentKchen Kanons, 2 parts, Leipsic,
1907-08.
Canonesses: K. H. Schafer, Die KanomssenOifter
im deutsehen Mittelalter. Ihre Entwicklunf
und innere Einrichtung im Zusammenhang mit
dem AUchrisUiehen dargestdlt, Stuttgart, 1907.
Capito, W.: P. Kalkoff, W. Capita im Dienste
Enbischqf AlbrechU von Maxns, Berlin, 1907.
Cafuchinb: Verdffentlichungen aus dem Archiv der
rhein-westfaUsdien Kapueinerordensprovins,
Mains, 1907.
Cablbtadt, a. R. B. von: K. M Oiler, Luther und
Carlstadt. Stikke aus ihrem gegenseitigen
Verhaltnis untersucht, Ttlbincen, 1907.
Cabmeuteb: MonumentahistorieaCarmeUtana,Yoh
I, Lirin, 1905-07.
Cabtrage, Stnodb of: A. Alcais, Figures et ricits
de Carthage chritienne, Paris, 1907.
Catechisms: F. Cohrs, Die evangeUschen Katechis-
musversuche vor Luthers Enchiridion, Berlin,
1907.
Cathabinb of Sienna: The Dialoaue, transl. by
Algar Thorold, new and abridged ed., Lon-
don, 1907.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
[Abbfeviatioos in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information cou*
ceming the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.-xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.]
ADB..
Adw...
AJP..
AJT..
jABoemeine dmiaehe BiooraphUt
' 1 1876 ■qq.. voL 63, 1007
Leipne,
'acainst
\ Amerioan Jowmal
' I more. 1880 aqq.
ALKO.
Am....
AM A..
ANF..
ASB..
ASM..
of PhUology, B«1U-
) American Journal of Thoology, Chioaco.
1897 sqq.
jjrp \Arthiv likr kaiKoliadiea Kirehenrochi,
'*^* j Innabruck, 1857-61. Mains. 1872 aqq.
iArtMv fikr lAtteratur- und Kirdtengo-
{ aehidUo dea MUUlaUera, Freibuxis.
( 1885 aqq.
Axnerican
AlfhantUunoen der MUndtensr AkadomiOt
• 1 Munieh. 1763 aqq.
AnU-NioenB FaUiera, American edition
by A. Qeyeland Coxe. 8 Tola, and in-
dex. Buffalo. 1887: vol. ix., ed. Allan t
. Menaiea, New York. 1807
Apoe Apocrypha, apocryplial
Apol Apologia, Apology
Arab Arabic
Aram Aramaic
art article
Art.8chmal Schmalkald Articlea
I Acta aandorum, ed. J. Holland and others,
' t Antwerp, 1643 saq.
{Ada aandorum ordinU S. Benodidi, ed.
J. MabiUon, 9 vols., I'aris, 1668-1701
Assyr Assyrian
A. T AlUa TeMlammt, " Old TesUment "
Aun. Con AugsbuTK Confession
A. V Authorised Version (of the English Bible)
AZ AUgemeinc ZeUung, Augsburg, TObingen,
Stuttgart, and TQbingen, 1708 sqq.
^. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philotophy
and PgycKology, 3 vols, in 4, New Yoric,
1001-05
Baldwin.
iKdioaafy
Benzingsr,
ArdkAologit
Beitholdt,
BinleUiuig. ,
J I. Bensinger, HebrikiBdie ArchAologie,
. 1 _ 2d ed-TFrsibuiis, 1007
-
r
L. Beriholdt, HiatoriadtrKritiMehe Bin-
Uitung . . . dea AUen und Ncuen Tea-
^„^^ « iamonU, 6 vols.. Erlangen. 1812-10
BPfiS British and Forei^ Bible Society
BiB^k^. iJ. Bingham. Ortginea eecleaiaaticm, 10
flglifli^ < vols., London, 1708-22; new ed.,
"^"^ I Oxford, 1856
(If. Bouquet. Roeueil dea hiatoriena dea
Booqnst. Roeuea< GauUa at do la France, continued by
( Tarious hands. 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76
-. (Archibald Bower. Hiatory of tha Pqpaa
Bowsr, Popss. ..< ... to 1768, conHnuedlnf S. H. Cox,
\ 8 Tola.. Philadelphia. 1846-47
BOB SBapOet Quarterly Renew, Philadelphia,
„T" \ 1867 sqq.
BRO See Jaff6
(^t Gantades, Song of Solomon
**!» caput, " cliApter "
C^Uicr AafaMTs S ^ Ceillier. Hiatoira dea auleura aaeria at
aocil -—"J eeeUeiaatiguea, 16 vols, in 17, Paris,
^r^ I 1858-60
V^?* Chronicon, ** Chronicle "
\f^ I Chronicles
"Chroa IlChroniclea
CIO \Corpua inacripHdmum Oraearum, Berlin,
1825sqq.
CIL ^Corpua inaeriptUmum Latinarum, Berlin,
Corpua inaeriptionum SemUiearum, Paris,
1881 sqq.
CIS
«d
"^•D eodsr Beaa
^Z'^"^^ eodex Theodoaianua
rj- -: • Epistle to the Colossiasa
P*". '("^ column, columns
V^r Confaeaionea, " Confessions ''
First Epistle to the Corinthiasa
i&:.
II Cor Second Epistle to the Corinthiasa
COT See Schrader
rno SThe Church Quarterly Review, London,
^^* 1 1875 sqq.
\ Corpua reformatorum, begun at Halle,
CR < 1834. vol. Ixxxix., Berlin and Leipsio,
( 1005 sqq.
f M. Creigfaton, A Hiatory of As Papacy
Crsighton,
Papacy.
.i'5
DB.
from tha Oreat Schiam to the Sack of
Rome, new ed., 6 vols., New York ana
^ London, 1807
rQKT S Corpua acriptorum ecdeeiaeHcorum Lati-
^^^^ 1 norum, Vienna. 1867 sqq.
r^un \ Corpua acriptorum hiatorue ByaanHnm,
^^"^ 1 40 vols.. Bonn, 1828-78
Currier, Rtiioioua j C. W. Currier, Hietory of Raligioua Ordera,
Ordera 1 New York, 1806
D Deuteronomist
nATT i P* Cabrol. Dictionnaire d*arehSologie dir^-
^^^^ 1 Hanna et de liturgie, Paria. 1003 aqq.
Dan Daniel
J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4
vols, and extra vol., Edinburgh and
New York. 1808-1004
W. Smith and S. Cheetham. Dictionary
of Christian Anti^Uiea, 2 vols., London,
1875-80
W. Smith and H. Wace. Dictionary of
Chriatian Biography, 4 vols., Boston,
1877-87
J. Hastinn, J. A. Selbie, and J. C. Lam-
bert, A Dictionary of Chriat and the Ooe-
pe2«,Edinburgh and New York. 1006 sqq.
.Deuteronomy
Da vir. HI Da viria iUuatribua
De Wette- ( W. M. L. de Wette, Lchrhuch der hie-
Schrader, Ein^< toriach4aritiachen Einleitung in die
leitung ( Bibel, ed. R Schrader, Berlin, 1860
DQQ See Wattenbach
' L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of
National Biography, 63 vols, ana
DC A.
DCB.
DCQ.
Deut.
DNB.
supplement 3 vols.,
V. 63
London.
1886-1001
lVtv»fl> 7«*«wf«i^ \ 8' 1^ Driver, Introduction to the Literature
Lmver. IfitrodWS^) - ^ ^^ T^tnnutnL J(th -d Naw
tion.
, of the Old Teatament, 6th ed., New
( York, 1804
E Rlohist
j T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encydo-
SB -{ poadia Bibliea, 4 vols., London and
I New York. 1800-1003
Bed Ecdeaia, *' Church "; eodssioslicus. " ec-
clesiastical "
Eodes Ecclesiastes
Ecdus Ecclesiasticus
ed edition: edidiLj* edited by "
Eph Epistle to the Ephesians
Epiet Epiatola, Epiatolea, " Epistle," " Epistles "
Ersch and Gni- I J. S. Kne/ti and J. G. Gruber, AUgemeine
ber, Encyklo-{ EncykiopiUlie der Wiaaenachaften und
pAdie f KUnate, Leipsic, 1818 sqq.
E.V English versions (of the Bible)
Ex Exodus
Esek Esekiel
ftuc faaciculue
Friedrich, KD..
Fritssche, Exe-
oetiachea Hand-
ouch
J. Friedrich, Kirchengeachichte Deutad^
landa,2 vols.. Bamberg. 1867-69
O. F. Fritssche and C. L. W. Grimm,
Kurtgefaaatea exegetiachea Handbuch
tu den Apoeryphen dea AUen Taata-
^ merUa, 6 parts, Zurich, 1851-60
.Epistle to the Galatians
Gal
riMk ««iH TT*rriv i "• Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documenta
Gen Genesis
Germ German
QQj^ S Oottinaiache gdehrle Anzeigen, G5ttingen,
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVUnONS
Lireaory,
Textkritik..
^^ ^^ ( Bury. V Tols., London. 1896-1900
Gk Greek, Gredied
C. R. Grefory, TesUeHHkdsM N^u&n Teaia-
menU,2 vole.. Leipsie. 1901-02
C. GroBB, The Sourof and lAtBrahm of
BnoUMk Hialory , , , to 1486, London.
Habakkuk
A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbe. CauneilM
and BeeUmoMtieaL Doeumenia Relating
to Ormi BriUUn and Ireland, 8 rob.,
. Oxford. 1860-78
Rafera to patrisiie works on hereeiee or
heretics, TertulUan's De vrmearipi'
the Froe kaireeeie of Irensus,
Panaritm of Epiphanius, ete.
Gross, Soweee,,
Hab
Haddanand
Stubbs, Coun-
eUe
Bar.
Hag
Harduin. Con-
cilia
the
Hamack, Dogma
Hamack, LiUera-
Hauok, KD.
Hauok-Heraog.
RB vr..
Heb.
J. Harduin. ConeUionm eeOeeHo regia
maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1716
A. Hamaek, Hietory of Dogma . . . from
As Sd German eintion, 7 vols.. Boston,
1895-1900
A. Hamaok, Oeeehiekto der aUekriei-
IMienUur bie Bueebwe, 2 vols.
in 3, Leipsick 1898-1904
Kirdiiengeeek\
Heiele,ConeUief^
geechidUe
Heimbuoher, Ot'
den und Kon-
grtgunonen,. , ,
Helyot. Ordree
Henderson. Doc-
auck.
lande, vol. i., Leipsie 1904; vol. ii.
1900; vol. iii.. 1906; vol. iv.. 1903
ReaiencukiopHdie fUr protoetonHeehe The-
ologie und Kvrehe, founded by J. J.
Heraog, Sd ed. by A. Hauek, Leipsie,
, 1896 sqq.
Epistle to the Hebrews
Hebr Hebrew
, C. J. von Hefele, ConeiUengeeekUkto, oon-
tinued by J. HergenrSther, 9 vols.,
Freiburg. 1883-«3
If. Heimbuoher. Die Orden und Kangre-
goHionen der kaikolieeken Kirdie, 2
vols., Paderbom. 1896-97
P. Helyot. Hietoire dee ordree meiMie-
li^uss. rdigieux ei mUiiairee, 8 vols..
Pans. 1714-19; new ed., 1839-42
E. F. Henderson. Select HietoriocA Doeth-
menu of the Middle Agee, London, 1892
Hist History, Aislotre, hietona
HiMi m^i jHietorta ecdeeiaeUea, eedeeim, '* Chureh
If Ml. eoet ^ History"
Horn HomiUa, homiliai, "homily, homilies"
Hos Hosea '
Isa Isaiah
Ital ItaUan
J Jahvist (Yahwist)
J A Jowrnal AeiaHque, Paris, 1822 sqq.
jP. Jaff«. Biblio^eca rerum Oermani-
sorum, 6 vols., Berlin. 1864-73
P. Jaffd, Begeela ponUficum Ramanorum
. . . ai annum 1168, BerUn, 1861;
2d ed., Leipsie. 1881-88
Jammal ef the American OrienkU Sodetg,
New Haven. 1849 sqq.
Journal ef Biblioal lAlerature and Bxege-
first appMred _a8 Journal of the
Jntt^BRO.
Jaff«.
JAOa
JBL.
JB..
JE..
Sodeiy of BiUieal Lileraiure and Bxe-
0Mis. liiddletown. 1882-88, then Boe-
ton. 1890 sqq.
The Jewiek Bneudopeiia, 12 vols.. New
York. 1901-06^
The combined narrative of the Jahvist
) (Yahwist) and Etohist
Jer Jeremiah
Jo«phu^^«l...|"5;ij;;..'<>-«*"* "Antiqultt- of the
Josephus, Ajrion.. .Flavius Josephos, '* Against Apion "
Josephus, Life,. . . .Life of Flavius Jossphus
Josephus. War.
Josh
JPT,
JQR.
JTS,
Flavins Josephus, *' The Jewish War "
Joshua
JahHHkker Hir proteakmHeehe Theologie,
Leipsie. 1876 sqq.
The Jeufieh Quarlerly Review, London.
, 1888 sqa.
j Journal of Theotogical Studiee, London,
Julian. Hymr-
nology
:i^
1899 sqq.
. Julian. A Dictionary of Hymnology,
i revised edition,London, 1907
Jaarboeken voor WeteneehavpelUke Theo-
logie, Utrecht. 1845 sqq.
KAT SeeSchrader
KB See Schrader
KD See Friedrieh, Hauek. Rettberg
Wetter und WeUe*» Kirehenlexikon, 2d
ed., by J. HergenrOther and F. Kaulen,
12 vobi.. Freiburg. 1882-1903
G. Kr6ger. Hietory of Bwrly ChriaUan
Literature in the FiirsC Three CsnfuHss,
New YoriE, 1897
KL,
KrUter, Hietory
Krumbaeher.
..)
K. Krumbaeher,
tiniee
1897
CfeechidUe der bysan-
2d ed.. Munich,
Labbe, ConeUia<
Tianigan. Bed,
nsn
Liehtenbeiger.
BSR
fcrtptorum
vols., Bon
Borne, 1826-88
Mann. Popss. . . .
Mansi. ConeOia..
Matt
MoCUntoek and
Strong, Cydo"
P. Labbe.
el amplieeima coUectio, 31 vols., Fkar-
enoe and Venice, 1759-96
Lamentations
J. lAnigan. iPoelsfiosiical Hietory of
Ireland to Ote ISth Century, 4 voIsl.
, Dubtin. 1829
Lat Latin. Latinised
Leg Jjspss Legum
Lev Levitieus
F. Liehtenbeiger, Bneyeiopidie dam eei-
encee rdigieueee, 18 vols.. Puis. 1877-
1882
T.nr— !■ fvan }0. Lorena. Deuiwehlande Qetehidttaguei-
Lorena.lX#V...{ Isa imMiUelaltar, 8d. ed.. BertinTlSS?
LXX The Septuagint
I Mace IMaooabese
II Maee II Maccabees
Mai, Nova so^-IA.. Mai. jScKp
Mai !!'.!!!. .Maiaeu
R. C. Mann. Liess ef the Popm %ti dhs
Bariy Middle Agee, London, 1902 sqq.
G. D. Mansi. aandtorum condUarum
eotteetio nova, 81 vols., Florenoe and
Venice, 1728
Matthew
J. MoClintock and J. Strong. Cudopeedia
of BiUieal, TVksob^coL andSSni^
aetical Literature, 10 vols, and supple-
. ment 2 vols.. New York. 1869-87
MeiMMNsnfa Oermanim hieloriea, ed. O. H.
Ferts and others. Hanover and Ber-
lin. 1826 sqq. The following abbrevia-
tions are used for the sections and sub-
sections of this work: AnL, Aniiuui-
fates. ** Antiquities "; AueL anL,Aue'
form osifijiMUsiiiM. ** Oldest Writers ";
Chron, una.. Chroniea minora, ** Lesser
Chronicles ''; Dip., Diptomata, ** Di-
ptomas, Doeuments"; BpieL, Bpie-
lola/** Letters "; OeeL ponL Rom,,
Oeeta pontiflcum Rotnanorum, ** Deeds
of the Popes of Rome "; Leg., Legee,
*' Laws ": Lib. de Ute, LibeUi da Hte
inter reonum el eacerdotium eieculorum
xietsit fionecripti, ** Books eonceming
the Strife between the Civil and Eccle-
siastical Authorities in the Eleventh
and Twelfth Centuries": Nee, Ne-
erologia OermaniiB, ** Necrology of
Germany": Poet, LaL ttvi Car.,
PoekTLaUni avi CaroHni, "Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time"; PoeL
Lot, med. cBvi. Posto Latini medii tevi,
"Latin Poets of the Middle A«s ":
Script, Scriptoree, " Writers "; Script
rer. Oerm., Scriptoree rerum Oermam-
carum. " Writers on German 8ub-
iects ": Scrivt rer. Langob., Scriptarm
rerum Langobardicarum et itaUcarwm,
"Writers on Lombard and Italian
Subjects"; Script rer. Merov.^Scrip-
toree rerum Merovingiearum, '* Writers
on Merovingian Subjects "
MGH,
Mie
Maman,Lalif»
Chrietiamty,.
Mirbt,QusBsfi...
Moellsr.Cftrie.
MPO
MPL
MS.. M8S.
H. H. Mifanan. Hietory of LaHn Chrie-
tianitu, Induding that of Uie Popee te
. . . Nicholae V., 8 vols.. London.
1860-61
C. Mirb t. OmsBsm mw Geeekichte dee Papdr
tame und dee riSmieehen JCoMolicisMM.
Tabingsn. 1901 ^^
W. MoeUer, Hidory of ike Ckriotiae
Churdi, 3 vols.. London. 1802-1900
J. P. Mine. Patridogia cureue eompUtee,
, eerieeOraea, 162 vols.. Pktfis, 1857-66
.J. P. Migne. Patrologia cureue eompUtu*.
^eerieeLattna, 221 vols.. Paris, 1844-64
Manuscript, Manuscripts
L. A. Muratori, Rerum ItaUearum serin-
Cores. 28 vols., 1723-51
^suss Ardwv der OeeeUedtaft f^ Altars
deulsdks GeeehidUekunde, Hanow,
1876 sqq.
Nahum
n.d no date of publication
Neander. Chrie-i^J^^*^*.^^^'^ S}**^ 4 ^ ^^^r**-
fSsOkiiw* 1 ^ Rdigion and Church, 6 vols, and
Mm uauroi. . . i ^^^ Boston. 1872-«1
Neh Nehemiah
Muratori, Scrip-
NA
Nah
Nieeron, MS-
NKZ„
R. P. Ni(
vols.. Pteis, r^ :: - • • . «
i^sMs kirehUAe Zmtodurift, Lstpaie. 1880
tr. Miceron. MAiiotriBS pour
\*h%etoire dee hommm iUuairee .
rols.. Pteis, 172tl--t5
LIST OPABBREVUTIONS
XV
Nowmck, Archa-iW. Nowsek. LeKrbueh der h^Aiaehen
oloffie \ ArckOoloaie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894 -
D.p no place of publication
1 The Nioene and Posi-Nicene FatKera, Ist
NPNF i series. 14 vols.. New York. 1887-92; 2d
( series. 14 vols.. New York. 1890-1900
M ^ (New Testament. Novum TeHameniumt
f Nouveau TutamttU, Neu§9 TMiamerU
Num Numbers
Ob Obadiah
( J. Wordsworth, H. J. White, and others.
OLBT •{ Old-LaHn BtkUoal TexU, 6zford, 18^
r BQQ.
0 n n. iOrdo aancH BwnedieH, "Order of St.
"•^"- 1 Benedict"
O. T Old Testament
OTJC See Smith
P Priestly document
L. Pastor. The Hielory of the Popee from
the Cloee of Ike Middle Agee, 6 vob..
London. 1891-1902
^^ ^ i Patree ecdeeia Anolieanm, ed. J. A. Qiles,
'^*'* I 34 vols.. Ix>ndon. 1838-46
PEP P^estine Exploration Fund
1 Pfet First Epistle of Peter
II Pet Second Epistle of Peter
Pliny, HieL nai. .Fhny, Hieioria ruUuralia
iv«f*k*««L jVm%.\^' Potthast. BMiotheea hiaioriea wtedii
*^*22^ ^^i avi, Weoioeieer durdi die OeediichU-
"•••^ { werke, BerUn. 1896
Prov Proverbs
Pa Psalms
Ptetor, Popes.
PEA,
DOB J ) Fn»o0e(lin0* of ffte Society of
^^^^ I Arefceoto^. London. 1880 sc^^.
BibHcal
i
I.T..
of ffte Popss,
qq.T 9}*^ (que) vide,
Redactor
n.iv^ i>^MM JL. von Ranke, Hietory
Ranks. Popee. . . ( 3 ^^y^ London. 1896
RDM Re»ue dee deux mondee, Paris, 1831 sqq.
RB See Hauok'Hersog
Reich. Awu- \ E. Reich SeUtA DoeumetUe lUuelraiing Me-
mtenia | diavol and Modem Hieiory^ London. 1906
RSJ Revue dee Hudee Juivee, Paris, 1880 sqq.
R^ttlMnr KD » F. W. Rettberg. /Ctrc^^noescfctcWe Deutocfc-
KetttMfS. AV. . . ^ ,^^ 2 ^^^ Gottingen, 1846-48
Rev Book of Revelation
Ricfater. JTtrtAeiH
redU
RobinBOii, Re-
eeartkee, and
Later Re-
Robineon, EurO'
peanHiatory. .
Rom
jtrtR iRe9ue de Vhittoire dee religiona, Paris,
A, L. Riehter, LihHnteh dee kaOtoUeehen
Ufuf tvanoflinihrn Kirehenrechtet 8th
ed. hv W. KiLhl. l^eipsic. 1886
K, JlobiD^on, Bildieal Reeearehee in
FaleMint. Ho^ivju 1841. and Later
Biblicai BeKarcJir* in PaUaUne^ 3d ed.
of the whole, 3 veils.. 1867
J. H. lldbiuson, Haadinot in European
MiMiory. 2 voh., L^oston, 1904-06
.Epi*tle lo the Uomims
pop SRetrwt dc* tcisncet *cdiaiaaiique9t Arras,
*"* 1 18fiO-74. Aum-r 1876 sqq.
Pf»p SHrvue de Ot. , el de philoeophiet
'^''^ 1 Lausanne, IHJH
R. Y Revised Verrion (of the English Bible)
•oe atteutum, '* oentury "
I Sam I Samuel
II Sam II Samuel
SitKunoaberithte der Berliner Akademie,
B«iflnri882 sqq.
F. Max MOller and others. The Sacred
Booke of tike Eaat, Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
vol. xlvUi., 1904
airrerJ Ba&ktiff ih€ Old TeMtament (" Rain-
Imiw Bible >, Lcipnic!. London, nad
P. Stbaflf. Hiatory of £^e Christutn CAurdl.
vols. iHv., vi, vii,. New York, li&ia 2-^2,
vol. v., part 1. by D. 8. SchafF. 1907
r. Sch&ff, The Cr&dM of Chriatertdam,
3 vol*. New York. 1877 g4
E. ScLradef.^ Cuneiform itiMeriptiona and
the Old Teatamenl, 2 vols,, London,
1HS6-SS
E. 8chr»der, Die KciHn*thTiften und daa
Alt« Teatammt. 2 vols.. BerUn, 1902-08
E. Sfjhrader. KtilinjichrifnicAa Bililittth4^,
6 vol?-. Berlin, lS^B-1901
E. Schtlfier, OfMcfiichSe rfet iHditchtn
lolkes im ZeiStil^er Jetu Christi, 3 vols,,
Lcipwe. 180^1901; En^* tratLsl., 5
vola.. New York. 1891
- -..- ScripU/rea, *' writers **
Scriveuy. ^ iF.H. A.EmvvnerJnirodutHonioNewTei'
Introduehan . . \ tam^nt Cntid^^m. 4th ed.» I^tidou, 1894
Sant , .8mtr7ttia; ' ' Spnteneea "
B- J AVrif ttij Jftu, " Society of Jr«us "
SK ) ThtMoi/UKhe Studien und Kritik^n, Ham-
'' ] hufic. 1S26 Miq.
*-■ ^- • • J Biisunaalierit^te dtr MUnchener Aka-
1 detiw, Htmich, 1800 sqq.
SB A .
SBB.
SBOT.
Schaff. Cftfisliaii
Ckurda
Behaff. Crwis. .
8dinder,C07.
BdmKSer.iTAr.
SefanKfar, KB,,.
BchOrer.
GesdUeftte.
Rmi«h K'««A]kv« j W. R. Smith, /Cins&ip and Marriaoe in
Smith. /Ctnefttp. . j ^^^^^ ^^^^ London. 1903 ^^
RmUK n7*^^ j W. R. Smith, The Old Teatament in the
BmitH. OTJL ....< j^^^^^ Church, London, 1892
flmif k i>..r>«>&..«. I W. R. Smith, Propheta of laroA . , . to
Smith. PropheU.. { ^ g.^^ (Jsnhi^rLondon,. 189JS
Smith.
iScm
ReL
S. P. C. K. .
8. P. G
of\W. R. Smith. Religion of the Semitea,
. . 1 London. 1894
i Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge
Sodety for the Propagation of the Gospel
- in Foreign Parts
sq., sqq and following
Strom Stromata, "Miscellanies "
S.V sub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, Introdue- S H. B. Swete. Introduction to the Old Tee-
tion ( tament in Oreek, London. 1900
Syr Syriac
TBS Trinitarian Bible Society
Thatcher and (O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal,
Mediaval
McNeal. &niro0'{ Source Book for
Book ( New York. 1906
I Thess First Epistle to the Thessalonians
II Thess §5^?<i ^R"^!S ^ ^^'^ Thessalonians
ThT -.....-
A
Hietory,
TiUemont.
fnoirea..
I Tim
MS-
TheoUmadte Tijdaehrift, Amsterdam and
Leyden. 1867 sqq.
L. S. le Nain de TiUemont, MSmoirea
. . . eoct^ttosfi^iies dea aix premiere
aOdee, 16 vols.. Paris. 1693-1712
First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim Second Epistle to Timothy
Theologiadur Jahreabericht, Leipsic. 1882-
1887. Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick. 1889-
1897. BerUn. 1898 sqq.
Theotogiachea LitteratwWatt, Bonn. 1866
TJB.
TheMogieihe
TLB.
^^ \ 187tfsqq.
Tob Tobit
Theologiadie
TQ
TS
TSBA.
TSK,,.
TV.
Wattenbaeh,
DQQ
Wellhausen.
Heidentum,.
Wellhausen.
Prdtagomiana.
ZA
Zahn, Einln-
tung
lAtteraJturaeitungt Leipnc,
Tabingen,
QuartaUdirifty
1819 sqq.
J. A. Robinson. Texta and Studiee,
Cambridge. 1891 sqq.
Tranaactiona of the Society of Biblical
Archaeology, London. 1872 sqq.
TheologietJie Studien und KritUeen, Ham-
burg, 1826 sqq.
Texte und Unterauckungen eur Geadtiehte
der aliehriatlichen Litterofur, ed. O. von
Gebhardt and A. Hamack, Leipsic,
I 1882 sqq.
m^m STUbinger Zeitachrift fUr Theologie, TQ-
^^^ i bin«m, 1838-40 '— i^
Ugolini. Theaaw-\B. tJgolinus, Theaaurua antiquitatum
rue 1 aaerarumt 34 vols., Venice. 1744-60
V, T VetuaTeatamentum, Vieux Teatament, "Oki
Testament "
W. Wattenbaeh, Deutaeklanda Geaehichta-
queUan^ 5th ed.. 2 vols., Berlin. 1885;
dth ed.. 1893-94
J. Wellhausen, Reate arabiaehen Heiden-
tuma. Berlin. 1887
J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena aur Oeaehichte
faraela. fith ed , Rerlin, 1905. Eng.
Zeit4chrift fUr Atat/rujiogit, Leipsie,
1885-88, Berlin. IS8^ E*qq.
T. Zahn. Einleituno in titti Ncue Teata^
ment, 3d ©iJ^, LeipHic^ 1007
T. Z»iin, Geachiekte dea neuieakunent'
lichen Kanoru, 2 vtilf,. Lftip-Hic. 1888-92
Zeitschrift fQr die alttiikimenUiiAe Wia-
»enMchafl, Giessen. 1881 ^^q.
Z€itsckrifi f Or denjUachet AUerthumunddeut'
trhtLttemtuT, Merlin, 1870 Bqq.
ZeiUchrift dtr d^niUchen mftrQenl^ndiadun
Zahn, Kanon.,
ZATW
ZDAL
ZDMQ,
ZDP....
ZDPV,.
Zech..
Zeph..
ZHT..
ZKO .
ZKR .
ZKT..
ZKW.
ZPK.,
ZWT,,
GeM^llarhaft, Leipnic. 1847 mq.
ZeiiarAriH far deutache Philttlogie, Halle,
1869 iqq.
ZeiUchrift d^ dftUadun PaUUtinthVer'
dnj; Leiptiie, 1878 sqq.
ZeobAnAh
ZtiUdirift fiir die hiaturiafhe Theologie,
pull] shed HUG^Eu4vety at Leipsic^
HaiiiburK. and Gothik. 1832-76
ZtitMrhrifi fikr Kirckengeachv^it, Gotha,
187li H4q.
ZeitacJiriii Jiir Kirehenretht, B«rlin, Ttt-
btDg£Mi» f neibuTigH 1861 »Qq.
Ztiisfhrift fiir katholi^:he Thealoeia, Inna-
brurk. 1877 aqcj.
Zciltchrxft fUr kirchlitfie Wiasrnachaft und
kirtrhtichrJt l^i}€tt, Ijejpaic, 1880^9
ZtviMrhrift fiir I^iiUMtafUiamuf! und Kir€ke,
ErlsJigen, 1S38 76
Ztittchrift /fir tritMenacKaftliche Theotogie,
Jeoa. lE5aH}0. UaUe. l«^l-67, Leipsie.
1868 sqq.
SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The foUowing system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew :
IC = ' or omitted at the
beginning of a word.
a = b
3 = bh or b
j = gh or g
ti = d
*1 = dh or d
n = h
1 = w
3 = k
3 = kh or k
^ = 1
D = m
3 = n
D = s
B = p
B = ph or p
V = ?
1 = r
B^ = sh
n = t
n = th or t
The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt io indicate quantity or quality. Arabic
and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek Is
written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled ; when by mere division and accen-
tuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
o as in not iu as in duration
c = k " " cat
ch " " church
cw = qu as in ^een
dh (th) " " the
f " " /anoy
g (hard) " " go
H " " loch (Scotch)
hw (iDfc) " " tofey
i " "/aw
< In aooentod ayllsblM only ; in onaoeentod syllables it approzimateB the sound of e in over. Silent n (aa In Frenca
words) is rendered d.
* In German and French names Q approximates the sound of u in dune.
as in
sofa
tt ti
arm
M «
at
it U
fars
tt tt
pen*
tt tt
fate
U tt
tin
tt tt
tt tt
obey
5
tt U
no
S
tt
tt
nor
u
tt
u
fidl«
a
it
tt
rule
V
u
tt
but
0
tt
tt
bum
oi
u
tt
pthe
ou
tt
tt
out
ei
tt
tt
oil
ia
tt
<f
few
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
BASILICA: 1. Legal codes. Since the great
codification of the Roman law by Justinian, the
Carpus juris civilis, was written in Latin, it could
not meet the needs of the East, and required Greek
translations. To do away with the uncertainty
which had arisen from such versions, in 878 the
emperor Basil the Macedonian had a handbook
put together, covering forty titles, and put out a
revision in 885. A further revision and codifica^
tion of the older laws, edited once more under Leo
the Wise (886), bears the Greek name of to baailika.
It is in sixty books, based on Justinian's compila-
tion from the older versions and commentaries,
with extracts from his later constitutions known
as the NovdUB, and from Basil's handbook men-
tioned above. (E. Friedberq.)
2. Early form of Christian churches. See Archi-
TECTUttE, ECCLESIABTICAL.
Biblioobapht: C. E. ZachariA, HisloruB juria Oraeo-Romani
delineatio, pp. 35-36. Heidelberg, 1839; Mortreuil, HU-
Mn du droit BytanHn, iMit ii, pp. 1 sqq.. part iii, pp. 230
■qq.. Pferu, 1843-46; Knimbacher, OMchiekte, pp. 171,
257-258. 606. 607. 609, 610, 977.
BASILIDES, bas-i-ldi'dtz, AFD THE BASILID-
lAHS: Basilides, a famous Gnostic, was a pupil
of an alleged interpreter of St. Peter, Glaucias by
name, and taught at Alexandria during the reign of
Hadrian (117-138). He may have been previously
a disciple of Menander at Antioch, together with
Satumilus. The Acta Archelai state that for a time
he tau^t among the Persians. He composed
twenty-four books on the Gospel, which, according
to Qanent of Alexandria {Stromata, iv, 12), were
entitled " Exegetics." Fragments of xiii and xxiii,
preserved by Clement and in the Acta Archelai,
supplement the knowledge of Basilides furnished
by his opponents. Origen is certainly wrong in
ascribing to him a Gospel. The oldest
BsBlidei. refutation of the teacWgs of Basili-
des, by Agrippa Castor (q.v.), is lost,
and we are dependent upon the later accounts of
liemeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Hippolytus.
The latter, in his PhilosophutMna, gives a presen-
tation entirely different from the other sources.
It either rests on corrupt accounts, or, more prob-
ably, on those of a later, post-Basilidian phase
of the system. Hippolytus describes a monistic
■ystem, in which Hellenic, or rather Stoic, concep-
tions stand in the foreground, whereas the genuine
XL— 1
Basilides is an Oriental through and throu^, who
stands in closer relationship to Zoroaster than to
Aristotle.
The fundamental theme of the Basilidian specu-
lation is the question concerning the origin of evil
and how to overcome it. The answer is given
entirely in the forms of Oriental gnosis, evidently
influenced by Parseeism. There are two principles,
uncreated and self-existent, light and darkness,
originally separated and without knowledge of
each other. At the head of the " kingdom of light "
stands " the uncreated, unnamable
His System. God." From him divine life imfolds
in successive steps. Seven such reve-
lations form the first ogdoad, from which issued the
rest of the spirit-world, till three himdred and sixty-
five spirit-realms had originated. These are com-
prised under the mystic name Abrasax (q.v.), whose
numerical value answers to the number of the
heavens and days. Being seized with a longing
for light, darkness now interferes. A struggle of the
principles commences, in which originated our
system of the world as copy of the last stage of the
spirit-world, having an archon and angel at its
head. The earthly life is only a moment of the
general purification-process which now takes place
to deliver the world of light from darkness. Hence
eversrthing which is bad and evil in this system
of the world becomes intelligible when regarded in
its proper relations. Gradually the rays of light
find their way through the mineral kingdom,
vegetable kingdom, and animal kingdom. Man
has two souls in his breast, of which the rational
soul tries to master the material or animal. For
the consummation of the process an intervention
from above is necessary, however. The Christian
idea of the manifestation of God in Jesus Christ
is the historical fact which Basilides subjects to his
general thoughts. God's " mind " (Gk. nous)
descended upon Jesus as dove at the Jordan, and he
proclaimed salvation to the Jews, the chosen people
of the archon. The suffering of Jesus, Baisilides
admitted as a historical fact, but he did not imder-
stand how to utilize it religiously. The Spirit of
God is the redeemer, not the crucified one. Jesus
suffered as man, whose light-nature was also con-
taminated through the matter of evil. But the
belief in the redemption which came from above
lifts man beyond himself to a higher degree of exist-
Basnaere
Bathlziff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
2
ence. How far the individual can attain it
depends on the degree of pure entanglement in
former degrees of the spirit-world. In the per-
fected spirit-world the place will be assigned to
each which belongs to him according to the degree
of his faith.
Among the Basilidians, Basilides' son, Isidore,
occupies a prominent place. Of his writings (" On
the Excrescent Soul," " Exegetics," " Ethics ")
some fragments are extant. The sect does not seem
to have spread beyond Lower Egypt.
The Basi- In opposition to the rigid ethics of
iidians. their master, the Basilidians seem
often to have advocated libertinism.
According to Clement of Alexandria they cele-
brated the sixth or the tenth of January as the day
of the baptism of Jesus. On the importance of
this fact for the origin of the ecclesiastical festival
of the Epiphany, cf. H. Usener, Rdigionageschicht-
liche Untersuckungen, i (Bonn, 1889).
G. KRt^GER.
Bxblioorapht: The fragmenta of Baailides are ooUeoted in
J. E. Grabe, S-pieOegium 88. Patrum, ii, 36-43. Oxford.
1690; in A. Stieren's edition of Irenseus, i, 001-003, 007-
000, Leipaic, 1853; and in A. Hilgenfeld, Keiaergeachichte
de9 UrehrUteniumM, pp. 207-217. Leipsic, 1884. The
sources are Irenseus (Hcer., I. xxiv, 1; cf. ii, 16 et passim),
Clement of Alexandria (Strom., ii, 8; iii. 1; iv, 12. 24, 26;
V, 1), Origen (Hom. i on Luke; com. on Romans, v)» £u-
sebius (Chron., an. 133; HtMt. eccL, IV. vii, 7), the Acta
Arehelai (Iv), Epiphaniua (Hctr., xxiii, 1; xxiv; xxxii. 3),
and HippolytuB {PhiloBophumenat vii, 2-15). Consult A.
Neander, Oenetiaehe Sniwickluno der vomehmaten (^luxiv-
adten Syateme, Berlin, 1818 (the most exhaustive treat-
ment); F. C. Baur, Die chrisdiche Gnona, TQbinsen. 1835;
J. L. JBxx>hi,Baailidiaphilo9oph\ gnoatici aerUerUiaa ex Hip-
polyti Ixbri, Berlin. 1852 (valuable); G. Uklhom. Daa
baeilidtaniache Syatem, Gfittingen, 1855; H. L. Mansel,
Onoatie Hereaiea, London, 1876 (has able lecture on Bas-
iUdcs); Hort, in DCB, i, 268-281 (very thorough);
A. Hilgenfeld. in ZWT, xxi (1878). 228-250; idem. Die
KetBergeaehiehte dea Urdirietentuma, pp. 207-218. Leipsic,
1884; G. Salmon, The Croaa^erencea in the Philoaophou-
WMTia. in Hermalhena, xi (1885). 380-402; H. St&belin. Die
gnoatiachen QueUen Hippoltfta, in TU, vi, 3, Leipsic. 1800;
Schaff. Chriatian Church, ii, 466-472; fiarnack. Lit-
teratur, i, 167-161; u. 1, 280-207: KrQger, Hxatory, pp.
70-71; MoeUer. CftrislianCAurc^, i, 141-144; J. Kennedy, in
the Journal of (he Royal Aaiatic Society, 1002, pp. 377-416.
BASNA6E, ba^'nOzh': The name of a family of
Normandy which has produced several men prom-
inent in the history of French Protestantism.
1. Benjamin Basnage was for fifty-one years
pastor at Sainte-Mdre-£glise, near Carentan (27
m. B.e. of Cherbourg), where he was bom in 1580
and died in 1652. During the religious wars he
was repeatedly chosen by his coreligionists, on
account of the constancy of his character and his
great learning, to represent them in political and
ecclesiastical assemblies. He was president of the
general synod at Alengon in 1637, and as deputy
at Charenton in 1644 he did much to defend the
rights of the Protestants and to reconcile the theo-
logians. In the year of his death he was ennobled
by the government of Louis XIV. Of the many
polemical tractates which he wrote, the best known
is De Vital visible et invisible ^ V6glise et de la
parfaite eatief action de Jisus Christ, centre la fable
du purgatoire (La Rochelle, 1612).
2. Henri Basnage, younger son of Benjamin,
was bom at Sainte-M^re-£glise Oct. 16, 1615; d.
at Rouen Oct. 20, 1695. He was one of the most
eloquent advocates in the parliament of Rouen
and one of the most famous jurists of his time.
He defended the cause of the Reformed Church
courageously, and his reputation was such that after
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was almost
the only Protestant who could follow the profession
of law in Rouen.
8. Samuel Basnage, son of Antoine, younger
son of Benjamin, was bom at Bayeux 1638; d. at
Ziltphen 1721. He was first pastor at Vauxcelles,
then at Bayeux till 1685. He went with his father
to the Netherlands and became pastor there of the
Walloon congregation at Zatphen. Of his theo-
logical writings the most important are: Morcde
thiologique et politique sur Us vertus et les vices des
hommes (2 vols., Amsterdam, 1703); and Annules
poUtico-ecclesiastici (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1706).
4. Jacques Basnage (de Beauval), son of Henri,
was bom at Rouen Aug. 8, 1653; d. at The Hague
Dec. 22, 1723. He first studied the classical lan-
guages at Saumur under Tanneguy, father of the
famous Mme. Dacier, afterward theology at Geneva
under Turretin and Tronchin, finally at S^dan
under Jurieu. In 1676 he was chosen pastor at
Rouen; after the suppression of the church at
Rouen in 1685, Louis XIV granted him permission
to retire to Holland. In 1691 he was made pastor
of the Walloon congregation at Rotterdam, and in
1709 of the French congregation at The Hague.
The prime minister Heinsius respected him highly
and employed him in different diplomatic missions.
The fame of his diplomatic ability reached the
court at Versailles, and when, in 1716, the Abb^
Dubois was sent to The Hague by the Duke of
Orleans, then regent, in behalf of the triple alliance,
he was instmcted to associate with Basnage.
When an insurrection of the Camisards in the
C^vennes was feared, the regent applied to Basnage.
He supported energetically the zealous Antoine
Court, then twenty years old, in restoring the
Protestant Church in Southern France, but, partial
to the principles of passive obedience, as preached
by Calvin, he severely condemned the insurrection
of the Camisards and even blamed the first preachers
in the Desert. About this time the States General
of the Netherlands appointed him historiographer.
His numerous works are partly dogmatic or polemic,
partly historical. The former include especially
his writings against Bossuet: Examen des nUthodes
proposies par Messieurs de VassembUe du dergl de
France, en 1682, pour la reunion des Protestants a
VEglise romaine (Cologne, 1682); lUponse A M.
VMque de Meaux sur la leUre pastorale (1686).
His historical works are: Histoire de la religion
des iglises rifomUes (2 vols., Rotterdam, 1690:
1725); Histoire de VEglise depuis J^sus Christ
jusqu'h present (1699); Histoires du Vieux et du
Nouveau Testament, representees par des figures
gravies en taiUe-douce par R. de Hooge (Amsterdam,
1704); Histoire des Juifs depuis Jisus Christ
jusqu'd, present (1706). G. Bonbt-Maury.
Bibuoorapht: J. Aymon, Toua lea eynodea noHonaux dea
tgliaea riformSea, The Hague, 1710; P. Bayle, Diction^
naire hiatorupie et critique, Amsterdam, 1740; D. Houard,
DicOonnaire de la coutume de Normandie, Rouen, 1780:
Lamory, Eloife de Baenaoe, in BuUsUnd'hietoire du proie*-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Basnaere
Bathing
tatUigme fran^au, vol. z, p. 42; xiii. pp. 41-48; E. and ]6.
Haac. ^ France protettante, 2d ed. by M. Bordier, 5 vols.,
Pfths* 1877-86; F. Puaux, Lea JPricureeura fran^aie de la
toUranee, ib. 1881; J. BianquiB, La Rivoeation de I'Mit
de Naniee, Rouen, 1885.
BASSERMAIIN, HEINRICH GUSTAV: German
Lutheran; b. at Frankfort-on-the-Main July 12,
1S49. He was educated at the universities of Jena,
Zurich, and Heidelberg in 1868-73, but interrupted
his studies to serve in the campaign of 1870-71
in the First Baden Dragoons. He was assistant
pastor at Arolsen, Waldeck, from 1873 to 1876,
when he became privat-docent of New Testament
exegesis at the University of Jena. In the same
year he was appointed associate professor of prac-
tical theology at Heidelberg, where he was made
full professor and university preacher in 1880. He
has written: Dreissig ckristliche Predigten (Leipsic,
1875); De loco MaUhcei r, 17-SO (Jena, 1876);
Handbuch der geisilichen Beredaamkeit (Stuttgart,
1885); Akademiache Predigten (1886); System der
Liturgik (1888); GeschichU der badiachen Gottes-
diemtordnung (1891); Sine ira et studio (Tttbingen,
1894); Der badische Katechismus erkldH (1896-97);
Richard Rothe aU praktischer Theolog (1899); Zur
Frage des Unionskateckismxis (1901); Ueber Reform
des AbendmaJds (1904); Wie studiert man evange-
lische Theoloffie f (Stuttgart, 1905); and Goti :
Funf Predigten (G6ttingen, 1905). Since 1879
he has also edited the Zeiischrift fur fraktische
Theoiogie in collaboration with Rudolf Ehlers.
BASTHOLH, CHRISTIAN: Danish court preach-
er, and an influential representative of the prev-
alent rationalism of his time; b. at Copenhagen
Nov. 2, 1740; d. there Jan. 25, 1819. He had a
varied education, and was specially attracted to
philosophy and natural science, but was persuaded
by his father to embrace a clerical career without
any real love for Christian doctrine or the Church.
He was preacher to the German congregation at
Smyrna from 1768 to 1771. His renown as a great
orator won him in 1778 the position of court
preacher, to which other court offices were subse-
quently added. Full of the ideas of the " Enlight-
enment," he felt called upon to be a missionary
in their cause to his coimtrymen, and published
a number of works in popular religious philosophy
and history which have long since fallen into obliv-
ion. His greatest success was his text-book of
sacred oratory (1775), which so impressed Joseph II
that he introduced it into all the higher educational
institutions of the empire, though its recommenda-
tions seem laughable to-day. He published a history
of the Jews (1777-82), attempting to " rationalize "
it after Michaelis, and a translation 'of the New
Testament with notes (1780). A small treatise
on improvements in the liturgy (1785) aroused a
storai of controversy; his idea was to make the
service " interesting and diversified," after the
model of balls and concerts; to exclude from
hymnody not only everything dogmatic but all
that was not joyous; and to eliminate from the
sacramental rit^ whatever was contrary to soimd
reason. In the days of the French Revolution,
he offered so many concessions to the antireligious
spirit that he made himself ridiculous even in the
eyes of freethinkers; and his book on '* Wisdom
and Happiness " (1794) taught a Stoicism only
colored by Christianity. In 1795 he lost his library
by fire, and with the new century withdrew from
public life and authorship to live quietly with his
son, a pastor at Slagelse, absorbed in the study of
philosophy and science. (F. Nielsen.)
BATES, WILLIAM: English Presbyterian; b. at
London Nov., 1625; d. at Hackney July 14, 1699.
He was graduated at Cambridge 1647, and was
vicar of St. Dunstan's-in-the-West, London, until
1662, when he lost the benefice for non-conformity;
he was one of the commissioners to the Savoy Con-
ference (q.v.) in 1661 and represented the non-
conformists on other occasions in negotiations
with the Churehmen; was chaplain to Charles II
and had influence in high places both imder Charles
and his successors. He is said to have been a
polished preacher and a sound scholar. Perhaps
the best known of his works is The Harmony of
the Divine AUribvies in the Contrivance and Accom-
plishment of Man*s Redemption (2d ed., London,
1675). A collected edition of his works, with
memoir by W. Farmer, was published in four vol-
umes at London in 1815.
BATHING: The bath in the East, because of
the heat and the dust, is constantly necessary for
the preservation of health, and to prevent skin-
diseases. The bathing of the newly bom is men-
tioned in Ezek. xvi, 4; bathing as part of the
toilet in Ruth iii, 3; II Sam. xii, 20; Ezek. xxiii,
40, and elsewhere. As the Law attached great
religious value to the purity of the body, it pre-
scribed bathing and ablutions for cases in which it
was apparently impaired (see Defilement and
Purification, Ceremonial). Ablution was re-
quired when one approached the deity (cf. Gen.
XXXV, 2; Exod. xix, 10; Lev. xvi, 4, for the high
priest on the Day of Atonement). Bathing in
" living" (i.e., running) water was regarded as most
effective in every respect (Exod. ii, 5; II King? v,
10; Lev. xv, 13). More accessible and convenient
were the baths arranged in the houses. To a well-
furnished house belonged a courtyard, in which was
a bath — ^according to II Sam. xi, 2, an open basin.
Susannah (verses 15 sqq.) bathes in a hedged garden
and uses oil and some kind of soap; the Hebrew
women used bran in the bath, or to dry themselves
(Mishnah Peaahim ii, 7). The feet, being pro-
tected by sandals only, were exposed to dust and
dirt, and no attentive host omitted to give to his
guests water for their feet before he entertained
them (Gen. xviii, 4; xix, 2; I Sam. xxv, 41; cf.
Luke vii, 44; John xiii, 1-10). The washing of
hands before meals was customary for obvious
reasons; but it is not expressly attested before
New Testament time, and then as a religious enact-
ment which the Pharisees rigidly observed (Matt.
XV, 2; Luke xi, 38); so in general with reference
to washings and bathing? the pimctilious were at
that time more exacting. The efficacy of warm
springs was recognized at a very early period (cf.
Gen. xxxvi, 24, R. V., and the name Hammath,
Josh, xix, 35; xxi, 32). They were found near
Tiberias (Josephus, War, II, xxi, 6; Ant.,
Bath Kol
BauzB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
XVIII, ii, 3; Life, xvi ; Pliny, v, 15), Gadara, the
capital of Penea, and Callirrho^, east of the Dead
Sea (Josephus, War, I, xxxiii, 5; Pliny, v, 16).
Public baths are mentioned in Josephus, Ant,,
XIX, vii, 5, but their existence in Palestine can
not be proved before the Greco-Roman time.
C. VON Orelu.
Abuses connected with the public baths in early
Christian times called forth protests from many
of the heathen and led some of the emperors
to attempt restrictive precautions. The Church
Fathers also raised their voices, but it is noteworthy
that though there was public censure (e.g., of women,
particularly of virgins who were immodest in the
bath), there was no formal, ecclesiastical prohibition
of the public baths. The use of the bath was re-
mitted during public calamities, penance. Lent,
and for the first week after baptism. From the
time of Constantine it was usual to build baths
near the basilicas, partly for the use of the clergy,
and partly for other ecclesiastical purposes.
Bibuoorapht: For Hebr. cuatom consult DB, i, 257-258.
On the Christian. DC A, i. 182-183; the article " Baden "
in KL, i. 1843-46, covers both subjects.
BATH KOL: Literally "daughter of the voice,"
an expression which signifies in itself nothing
more than a call or echo, for which it is also
used. When the term is applied to a divine
manifestation, it implies that it was audible to the
human hearing without a personal theophany.
In the Old Testament the notion is found in Dan.
iv, 28 (A. V. 31), " a voice fell from heaven." In
the New Testament similar ideas are the heavenly
voice at the baptism of Jesus (Matt, iii, 17; Mark
i, 11; Luke iii, 22), at his transfiguration (Matt,
xvii, 5; Mark ix, 7; Luke ix, 35), before his passion
(John xii, 28), and the voices from heaven heard
by Paul and Peter (Acts ix, 4; cf. xxii, 7 and xxvi,
14; X, 13, 15). A voice from the sanctuary is
mentioned by Josephus (Ant., XIII, x, 3; cf. Bab.
So^ah 33a; Jerus. Sofak 24b), and was called ha^ kol
by the rabbis, who were of opinion that such heav-
enly voices were heard during all the tune of Israel's
history, even in their own time. According to
Bab. Sotah 4Sb; Yomah 9a, this "voice" was the
only divine means of revelation after the extinction
of prophecy. They narrate legendary stories of
such divine voices which settled religious difficulties.
Different from the bath kol proper is the idea that
natural sounds or words heard by accident
are significant heavenly voices. This superstition
was not uncommon, as Jems. Shabhat 8c shows.
Rabbi Joshua was of the opinion that such things
must not influence any legal decision (Bab,
Baba Me^*a 59b; Berakot 51b). Rabbi Johanan
lays down as general rule that that which was
heard in the city must be the voice of a man, in the
desert that of a woman, and that either a twofold
"Yea " or twofold " Nay" is heard (Bab. Megillah
32a). (G. Dalman.)
Bibuoorapht: F. Weber, SyaUm der alUvnaoooaisn poidstt-
niUchmi ThsoUoU, PP. 187. 194. Leipaic, 188C; W. Bacher,
Agada der Tannaiten, i, 88. note 3, Straaburs. 1884; idem,
Agada der palOetiniedten AmorOer, i, 351, note 3, ii, 26,
ib. 1892-M; S. Louia, Ancient TradiHone of Supernatural
Vaiee»: Bath Kol, in TSBA, ix. 18; JE, ii, 588-602.
BATIFFOL, PIERRE HENRI: French RomAn
Catholic; b. at Toulouse Jan. 27, 1861. He waa
educated at the Seminary of St. Sulpioe, Paris
(1878-82), and the University of Paris (1882-S6;
Docteur 6s lettres, 1802), and since 1898 has been
rector of the Institut Catholique at Toulouse.
He was created a domestic prelate to the Pope
in 1899, and in theology is an orthodox Roman
Catholic, inclining toward the critical school in
matters of history. Since 1896 he has been the
editor of the BtUiothtque de Venseignement de Vhis-
toire eccUsiaslique, foimded by him in that year,
and since 1899 has also edited the monthly Bulletin
de UtUrature eccUaiastiqite. He has written L'Ab-
baye de Roseano, contribution d, Vhistoire de la VfMti-
cane (Paris, 1892); Histoire du hrevikre ronuxin
(1893); Six lemons sur lea Svangilee (1897); Trac-
tatue Orwenie in libros eanctarum scripturarum
(1900); Etudee d'histoire et de tfUoloffie positive
(1902); and L'Enseignement de Jieus (1905).
BATTEN, LORING WOART: Protestant Gpis-
copalian ; b. in Gloucester Coimty, N. J., Nov.
12, 1859. He was educated at Harvard Uni-
versity, the Philadelphia Divinity School, and
the University of Pennsylvania. He was ordered
deacon in 1886 and ordained priest in the following
year, and was instructor and professor of the Old
Testament in the Philadelphia Divinity School from
1888 to 1899, when he became rector of St. Mark's,
New York CSty. He is also lecturer on the Old
Testament in the General Theological Seminary,
New York City. In addition to numerous briefer
studies, he has written The Old Teetament from
the Modem Point of View (New York, 1889) and
The Hebrew Prophet (London, 1905).
BATTERSOn, HERMON 6RISW0LD: Protr
estant Episcopalian; b. at Marbledale, Conn.,
May 27, 1827; d. in New York City Mar. 9,
1903. He was educated privately, was rector at
San Antonio, Texas. 1860-61, and at Wabasha,
Minn., 1862-66. In 1866 he removed to Philadelphia
and was rector of St. Clement's Church there 1869-
1872, of the Church of the Annunciation 1880-^89;
became rector of the Church of the Redeemer,
New York, 1891, but soon retired. He published
The Missionary Tune Book (Philadelphia, 1867);
The Churchman's Hymn Book (1870); A Sketch
Book of the American Episcopate (1878; 3d ed.,
enlarged, 1891); Christmas Carols and Other Verses
(1877); Gregorian Music, a manual of plain song
for the offices of the American Church (New York,
1884; 7th ed., 1890); Vesper BeUs and Other Verses
(1895).
BAUDISSIN, WOLF WILHELM, GRAF VON:
Gennan Protestant; b. at Sophienhof, near Kiel,
Germany, Sept. 26, 1847. He was educated at the
universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Leipsic (Ph.D.,
1870), and Kiel from 1866 to 1872, and was privat-
docent at Leipsic in 1874-76, when he accepted
a call to the University of Strasburg as associate
professor of theology. Four yeafs later he was
promoted to full professor, but in the following
year went to Marburg as professor of Old Testament
exegesis. He remained at Marburg, where he
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bath Kol
Baum
t rector in 1893-94, until 1900, when he went to
Berlin as professor of Old Testament exegesis, a
chair which he still holds. In theology he is an
adherent of the historical school of investigation,
and seeks to elucidate the religion of the Old Testa-
ment by other Semitic faiths. He has written:
Tranalatwnis aniiqwB arabica libri Jobi qua super-
9uni nunc primum edita (Leipsic, 1870); Euiogius
und Alvar, ein AbaehniU spaniacher Kirchenge-
tekidUe aus der Zeit der Maurenherrachaft (1872);
Jahve et Moloeh, Hve de ratione inter deum Israeli-
tarum et Molockum intercedente (1874); Studien
zur aemUUchen Rdigionegeechichte (2 vols., 1876-
1878); Die Geechichte dee aUtestamenUichen Priester-
thume untereucht (1889); August DiUmann (1895);
Einleitung in die Bucher des Alien Testaments
(1901); and Esmun-Asklepias (Giessen, 1906).
BAU^R, BRUNO: A modem Biblical critic,
of the most extreme radicalism; b. at Eisenberg
(36 m. 8. of Halle), in the duchy of Altenburg, Sept.
6, 1809; d. at Rixdorf, near Berlin, Apr. 15, 1882.
He was educated in Berlin precisely in HegePs
most brilliant period. He took his place at first
in the conservative wing of the Hegelian school,
of which his teacher Marheineke was the leader,
and reviewed the Leben Jesu of David Friedrich
Strauss, who had been his fellow student, unfavor-
ably, accusing Strauss of " entire ignorance of what
criticism means." He imdertook also to defend
Marbeineke's position by issuing (1836-38) the
Zeitsehrift fur spekulative Theologie, In 1838
he published the Kritik der Geschichte der Offen-
banmg (2 vols., Berlin). A year later Altenstein,
minister of public worship and instruction, ap-
pointed him to a position in the University of Bonn,
and his prospects seemed promising. But he was
already in a fair way to break with his past, as
shortly appeared in his Kritik der evangelischen
Gesehiehle dee Johannes (Bremen, 1840) and Kritik der
evangeUschen Geschichte der Synoptiker (3 vols., Leip-
sic, 1841 ), which went beyond Strauss, and, adopting
the theory of WiUce that Mark is the original gos-
pel, derived the whole story, not, with Strauss,
from the imagination of the primitive Christian
community, but from that of a single mind. This
extreme carrying out of Hegelian principles nat-
urally aroused wide-spread excitement. Eichhom,
who had succeeded Altenstein as minister, put the
question to the Prussian imiversities whether the
holder of such views could be allowed to teach. The
answers were not unanimous; but Bauer injiu^d
his own cause by a still more amazing and reckless
onslaught on traditional theology (Theologische
Schamloeigkeitenf in the HaUische Jahrbucher fur
deutache Wissenschaft, Nov., 1841), and was de-
prived of his academic post in March, 1842.
His literary activity continued incessant. Living
on his small estate at Rixdorf, he poured forth a
sucoeasion of volumes on the history of the eight-
eenth and nineteenth centuries between 1843 and
1849. In 1850 he came back to his old field, and
in the next three years had renewed his attack on
the gospels and included the Acts and the Pauline
epistles, considering even the four admitted by the
Tilbingen school as second-century Western prod-
ucts. In the place of Ohrist and Paul, to him
Philo, Seneca, and the Gnostics appeared the real
creative forces in the evolution of Christian concep-
tions. He continued his attempts to prove the
connection between Greco-Roman philosophy and
Christianity in Christus und die Casaren (Berlin,
1877). Here he places the genesis of the Christian
religion practically as late as the reign of Marcus
Aurelius, and the original gospel in that of Hadrian,
after which " clever men " were busy for some forty
years in the composition of the Pauline epistles.
Only the framework of the new religion was Jewish;
its spirit came from further west; Christianity
is really '' Stoicism becoming dominant in a Jewish
metamorphosis." Bauer left practically no fol-
lowers in Germany for such remarkable theories.
His fantastic hypercriticism found a home for a
time in Holland with AUard Pierson, Naber, and
'Lom&n; and still later it made some attempts
to gain a foothold in Switzerland with Steck's
assault upon Galatians. (J. Haubsleiter.)
Bibuoorapht: Holtsmann, in Prote9tanti$ehe Kirchtmeit-
ung, 1882. pp. 640-545; F. C. Bsur, Ktrehenoeachichle df
neunwehrden Jahrhunderta, Leipsic, 1862; O. Pfleiderer, Die
Entuncklung der proteatarUtBehen Thedogie in DeuUdUand
eeii Kant, pp. 295-297, Freibuis, 1891. On the teaohinc
of Bauer and the opposition it aroused consult E. Bauer,
Bruno Bauer und aeine Oegner, Berlin, 1842; O. F. Gruppe,
Bruno Bauer und die akademieche Ldtrfreiheit, ib. 1842.
BAUER, WALTER FELIX: German Protestant;
b. at K6nigsberg Aug. 8, 1877. From 1895 to
1900 he studied at the universities of Marburg,
Berlin, and Strasburg, and since 1903 has been
privat-docent for church history at the University
of Marburg. He has written Mundige und Unmun-
dige bei dem AposteL Paulus (Marburg, 1902) and
Der Apostdos der Syrer in der ZeU von der Mitte
des vierten Jahrhunderts bis zur SpaUung der syri-
schen Kirche (Giessen, 1903).
BAUM, baum, HENRY MASON: Protestant
Episcopalian; b. at East Schuyler, N. Y., Feb. 24,
1848. He was educated at the Hudson River
Institute, Claverack, N. Y., but did not attend a
college. He received his theological training at
De Lancey Divinity School, Geneva, N. Y., and
was ordained to the priesthood in 1870. He was
successively rector of St. Peter's Church, East
Bloomfield, N. Y. (1870-71), missionary to Allen's
Hill, Victor, Lima, and Honeoye Falls, N. Y. (1871-
1872), rector of St. Matthew's Church, Laramie City,
Wyo. (1872-73), in charge of St. James's Church,
Paulsborough, N. J. (1873-74), rector of St. Mat-
thew's Church, Lambertville, N. J. (1875-76),
and rector of Trinity Church, Easton, Pa. (1876-80).
From 1880 to 1892 he was editor of The Church
Review, and in 1901 foimded the Records of the
Past, which he edited until 1905. He has taken a
keen interest in the preservation of the antiquities
of the United States, and was the author of the act
passed by the Senate in 1904 for the protection of
these archeological remains. In that year he also
founded the Institute of Historical Research at
Washington, and has since been its president.
In theology he is a firm believer in the historical
accuracy of the Bible. He has written Rights and
Duties of Rectors, Church Wardens, and Vestrymen in
Bamn
Baor
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the American Church (Philadelphia, 1879) and The
Law of the Church in the United States (New York,
1886).
BAUM, JOHAim WILHELM: Protestant Ger-
man theologian; b. at Flonheim (17 m. b.8.w.
of mainz) Dec. 7, 1809; d. at Strasburg Nov. 28,
1878. When he was thirteen years of age, he was
sent to Strasburg to the house of his uncle, where
he prepared himself for the ministry. Having com-
pleted his studies, he was made teacher at the theo-
logical seminary at Strasburg in 1835. This posi-
tion he resigned in 1844 and accepted the position
of vicar of St. Thomas's in that city, whose first
preacher he became in 1847. At the close of the
Franco-Prussian war, the German government
appointed him professor in the University of Stras-
burg. He belonged to the liberal Protestant
party of his country, and made himself known by
his writings on the history of the Reformation, as
well as that of his own time, including Franz
Lambert von Avignon (Strasburg and Paris, 1840);
Theodor Beta nach handschriftlichen Quellen darge-
etelU (2 vols., Leipsic, 1843-45); Johann Georg
StubeTf der Vorgdnger Oberlins im StevrUhale und
Vorkdmpfer einer neuen Zeit in Straaeburg (Stras-
burg, 1846); Die Memoiren d*Avbign^^8 dee Huge-
notten von altem SchroU und Kom (Leipsic, 1854);
Capito und Butzer, Straseburge Reformaloren (Elber-
feld, 1860), being the third part of Le6en und
ausgewdhUe Schriften der Vdter und Begrunder
der reformirten Kirche. Besides these works
written in German, he published in French Les
^glisut riformiee de France sous la croix (Strasburg,
1869); Les MHn(nres de P. Carrihe dit Corteis
(Strasburg, 1871); Le Proems de Baudichon de la
Maison-Neuve (Geneva, 1873). For a number
of years Baum assisted his colleagues Reuss and
Cunitz in the edition of Calvin's works published in
the Corpus reformaiorum.
Biblioorapht: Zur Erinnerung an J. W, Baum, Reden,
Btraaburg, 1878; M. Baum, J. W. Baum, einprotettantiteheM
Charakterbild aua dem ElaasB, Bremen, 1880.
BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL: German theolo-
gian and active promoter of free church life;
b. at Haseldorf, near Hamburg, Mar. 25, 1812;
d. at Rostock July 21, 1889. He was educated at
Altona, Kiel, and Berlin, becoming in the last-named
place an outspoken adherent of Hengstenberg.
But the study of Domer during a period of seven
years (1839-46) spent at Kiel as a teacher con-
vinced him that the traditional orthodox view
of the person of Christ was inadequate to explain
the mystery of redemption; he passed from Heng-
stenberg to Schleiermacher, with his principle that
Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, and then to
Hofmann, in whose Weissagung und ErfOUung
he saw a theology that could lead him further on
his road. In his treatise LUurgie und Predigt
(Kiel, 1843) he lays down his ph>granmie, to which
as an old man he was still proud of having adhered.
Here he classes as stumbling-blocks in the Church's
way a variety of ancient institutions, laws, and
customs, viz.: the misleading notion of a " Chris-
tian State " ; the use of compulsion in the Church
(as in the case of baptism); the power of civil
rulers within the Church, in allowing which the
Reformers had brought back a B3rzantine system;
the diversity of teaching among Protestants; and
the failure to recognize the menace of the Roman
errors. About the same time (1843-44) appeared
his commentary on the Pentateuch, to which
Delitzsch appealed when in 1850 he reconunended
his friend to succeed him in the Rostock professor-
ship, but which none the less he sliarply criticized
in some points. In the eventful years 1846-50
he was pastor of St. Michael's church at Sleswick,
and was one of the leaders of the clergy of Sleswick-
Holstein in their struggle for the German right
to the duchies. After the battle of Idstedt, he
was obliged to escape from Sleswick with his
family to Hobtein, where his call to Rostock found
him. Here he was expected to take part in the
upbuilding of the Church of the duchy, which was
under Kliefoth's leadership; but two men more
diametrically opposed in their whole way of looking
at things could scarcely have been foimd. Baum-
garten frankly expressed his own view of the eaiiiest
history of the Church in his Apostelgeschichte (2
vols., Halle, 1852), and of its modem needs in his
Nachtgesichie Sacharjas (Brunswick, 1854). It
was not difficult to make a collection of heretical
propositions from the writings of a man who cared
so little to express himself in time-honored formulas,
and who was wrestling with such modem problems;
and the attempt was soon made. The Grand Duke
dismissed him from the theological commission in
1856; the consistory examined his works, it must
be admitted without strict adherence to constitu-
tional rules or to the principles of fairness, foimd
a whole series of departures from the received
doctrine, and deprived him of his position. He
declined an invitation to go to India as a missionaiy,
preferring to remain and carry on the struggle for
a complete reconstruction of the Evangelical Church
in Germany. With this aim he was for thirteen
years a zealous member of the Protestant Union
from 1863 to 1876, but left it when it showed
intolerance in the Heidelberg case. His life grew
more and more lonely, though he could always count
on a few faithful friends, like Studt, Ziegler, and
Pestalozzi. He was a member of the Reichstag
from 1874 to 1881, in which he showed himself a
determined opponent of St6cker and of the Jesuits,
and stood for his principles of religious liberty
and complete separation of Church and State.
He was a man of great natural endowment, fitted
for useful constructive work in theology, if the un-
fortunate circumstances in his career had not forced
him to expend his energy in the combat to which
most of his niunerous later writings have reference.
(J. HAU88LEITER.)
Biblioorapht: His autobiosraphy was edited and pub-
lished posthumously by K. H. Studt, 2 vols., Kiel. 1801.
BAUMGARTEN, OTTO: German Protestant;
b. at Munich Jan. 29, 1858. He was educated at
the universities of Strasburg, Gottingen, Zurich,
and Heidelberg, and from 1882 to 1887 was pastor
at Baden-Baden and Waldkirch, while from 1888
to 1890 he was chaplain to the orphan asylum at
Berlin-Rununebburg. In 1890 he became privat-
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baiun
Baur
docent at the University of Berlin, and in the same
year was called to Jena as associate professor of
practical theology, where he remained until 1894,
when he went to Kiel as full professor of the same
subject. He is also university preacher and chap-
lain of the academic sanitarium at the same institu-
tion of learning. He has written: Volksschtde und
Kirche (Leipsic, 1890); Der Seelsorger unserer
Tage (1891); Predigten aus der GegenwaH (Tu-
bingen (1902); Neue Bahnen : Der Religions-UrUer-
richi vom StandptmkU der tnodemen Theologie aus
(1903); Prtdig^PrMeme, Hauptfragen der moder-
nen Evangdiume'Verkundigungen (1903); and Die
Voraueadtun^loeigkeit der 'proiestantischen Theo-
logie (Kiel, 1903).
BAUHGARTEN, SIEGMUND JAKOB: German
theologian; b. at WoUmirst&dt (8 m. n. of Magde-
burg), Saxony, Mar. 14, 1706; d. at Halle July
4, 1757. He studied at the Halle Orphan Asylum,
of which his father had been first inspector, and
at the University of Halle. He became inspector
of the Halle Latin School in 1726, assistant preacher
to the younger G. A. Franke in 1728, associate on
the theological faculty in 1730, and ordinary pro-
fessor in 1743. He was a good teacher and his
lectures were usually attended by from 300 to 400
hearers. His learning was vast and he was an
industrious writer, publishing voluminous works
on exegesis, hermeneutics, morals, dogmatics, and
history, such as Auszug der Kirchengeschichie (4
vols., Halle, 1743-62); Evangdiache Glavbenalehre
(3 vols., 1759-60); Geschichte der Religiansparteien
(1760); Nachriehl von merkwUrdigen Buchem (12
vols., 1752-57); and the first sixteen volumes in
the AUgemeine WeUhisiorie (1744 sqq.). By adopt-
ing the formal scheme of the philosophy of Wolff
and applying it to the theological ideas in which
he was educated, Baumgarten came to form a
transition from the Pietism of Spener and Francke
to the modem rationalism. His enthusiastic dis-
ciple, J. S. Sen:iler, who was called from Altdorf
to Halle on his reconmiendation, edited many of
his works and wrote his biography (Halle, 1758).
(F. BOBSE.)
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIED-
RICH OTTO: (xerman theologian; b. at Merseburg
(56 m. s.s.e. of Magdeburg), Prussian Saxony,
July 31, 1788; d. at Jena May 31, 1843. He studied
theology and philology at Leipsic and became
university preacher there in 1810; in 1812 extraor-
dinary professor of theology at Jena, ordinary
professor, 1817. He gave lecttues on all branches
of so-called theoretic theology except church his-
tory, especially New Testament exegesis. Biblical
theology, dogmatics, ethics, and history of doctrine.
Gentle and sympathetic, and shrinking from
theological strife, he was misunderstood in his time.
His exegesis was painstaking, free from prejudice,
and acute; as historian of dogma he imderstood
the origin and development of religious ideas and
doctrines as few others have done; and as system-
atic theologian he was prof oimd and truly evangel-
ical. His principal works were: EirUeitung in das
Studium der Dogmatik (Leipsic, 1820); Lehrbuch
der chngtlieh€n DogmengesMchte (Jena, 1832);
Compendium der christlichen Dogmengeechichte (Leip-
sic, 1840), completed by K. A. Hase (1846); Theolo-
gische Audegung der johanneischen Schrifien (2 vols.,
Jena, 1843-15). (F. Bosse.)
Biblioorapht: H. C. A. EiehBt&dt, Memoria L. F. O. Baum-
gartenii-CnuHi, Jena, 1843; K. A. Hase's preface to his
completion of the Kompendium der DoifmengeachiehU,
Leipme, 1846; ADB, ii, 161 sqq.
BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, AND THE
LATER TUBINGEN SCHOOL.
I. The Period of the Hiatory of Dogma.
Baiir's Early Life and Activity (8 1).
Baur's Relation to Schleiermacher and Hegel (S 2).
1 1. The Period of Biblical Criticism.
Historioo-Critical Study of the New Testament ({ 1).
Applied to the Writings of Paul (8 2).
The Fundamental Assumption of the School (S 3).
Applied to the Gospels (8 4).
Deyeloped by Schwegler (S 5).
III. The Period of Church History.
Political Complications (8 1).
Baur's Works on Church History (S 2).
His Theories and Conclusions (S 3).
Their Weakness and Decline (8 4).
The treatment of both Ferdinand Christian
Baur and the Later Tubingen School in the same
article is justified by the fact that the period of
distinctive theological and philosophical views
which characterized the school in its palmy days
really ceased with the death of its foimder, or at
least lost the former local identification. Con-
sidering the Ttlbingen School in this strictly limited
sense, its history, together with that of Baur him-
self, may be divided into three periods — that of
preparation, or of the history of dogma, before 1835;
that of prosperity, or of Biblical criticism, 1835-
1848; and that of disintegration, or of church his-
tory, after the latter date.
I. The Period of the History of Dogma: Baur
was bom at Schmiden, near Cannstatt (4 m. n.e.
of Stuttgart), June 21, 1792; he died at Ttibingen
Dec. 2, 1860. He was the son of a WQrttemberg
pastor and was educated first at Blaubeuren and
then (1809-14) at Tubingen. Here, besides fol-
lowing the usual thorough course in philology, he
was strongly attracted by the study of philosophy.
Fichte and Schelling were then at the height of their
influence; but that it did not draw the yoimg
student away from the standpoint of the older
Tubingen School (q.v.), in which he had been
brought up, may be seen from his first published
writing, a review of Kaiser's Biblische Theologie
in 1817, which condemned rationalistic
z. Baur's caprice in the treatment of the
Early Life Old Testament. After a short em- '
and Ac- ployment as tutor in the Tubingen
tivity. seminary during the same year, he
was named professor in the lower
seminary which had grown out of his old school at
Blaubeuren. The nine years of his stay here were
active and happy ones. Though his work was mainly
philological and historical, he showed his interest
in the philosophical and theological movements
of the time. The doctrines of Schleiermacher
received his attention, and found an echo in his
three-volume work Symbolik und Mgthologie (Stutt-
gart, 1824-25). In this book, remarkable for its
time, he indicated his future course in the phrase,
Baur
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
** Without philosophy, history seems to me dumb
and dead." The attention it attracted won Baur
a place in the theological faculty of Tubingen on
its reorganization (1826) after the death of his old
teacher Bengel. His impressive and inspiring
personality at once drew the yoimg men to him,
and his influence in tho faculty was contested only
by Dr. Steudel, the solo survivor of the old school
body.
The fact that in the course of his further intel-
lectual development Baur gradually came into
conflict with the theology of Schleier-
3. Haul's macher may be partly explained by
Relation to the difference in the mental constitu-
Schleier- tions of the two men. There was
macher and no trace in Baur's method of the fusion
HegeL of sentiment and reason which char-
acterized the other; only the intel-
lectual side was allowed to be heard. His
strong point was his faculty of conceiving
historical phenomena objectively, amid the sur-
roundings and from the standpoint of their
age. His relation to the philosophy of Hegel is
somewhat difficult to determine exactly; but it
may be safely asserted that his fundamental views
on the essence of religion and the course of history
were taken from the Hegelian system. The transi-
tion from Schleiermacher to Hegel was a gradual
process which took place between 1826 and 1835,
in the nine years which have been called the period
of preparation. It is probable that at first Baur
was unconscious of its extent, and it was not until
he applied the Hegelian principles to the canon
that they brought, him into sharp conflict with
traditional orthodoxy. His SyrnboUk was logically
followed by his works on Manicheanism and
Gnosticism (TQbingen, 1831 and 1832)— phe-
nomena lying on the border between theology and
philosophy, between Christianity and paganism.
In his tractate on the opposition between Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism, in answer to Mdhler
(TQbingen, 1834), Hegelian terminology begins to
appear distinctly, though the foundation still rests
on Schleiermacher. The influence of the Hegelian
system on Baur was a very fructifying one. No
department of history had suffered more from the
leveling tendency of rationalism than the history
of dogma. Since Hegel had taught the application
of the iron rule of development to the phenomena
of the intellectual life as well as to other phenomena,
he pointed the way to a profounder understanding
of the beliefs which appeared frequently so hap-
hazard and so arbitraiy, to a knowledge of laws
which prevailed over individual will. Thus, when
Baur went on from the philosophy of religion to
Christian dogma, and in that to the most important
parts (the Atonement, Ttibingen, 1838, the Trinity
and the Incarnation, 1841-43), he became a pioneer
of the history of dogma in the modem sense. Even
though the Hegelian categories proved a bed of Pro-
crustes for Christian dogmas, and though the under-
standing of these suffered from the defects of the
Hegelian conception of religion, the impulse had
none the less been given to a profoimder study.
More recent historians of dogma have felt them-
selves entitled to correct Baur's views, as set forth
in the above-mentioned works, in almost every
point; but these views had won him, by the end
of this first period, a prominent place in the raziks
of those who were trying to strike out new lines in
the study of Christian history; and when Schleier-
macher's chair at Berlin waa vacant in 1834, the
Prussian minister Altenstein thought for a time
of appointing Baur to it.
n. The Period of Biblical Criticism: The second
period, however, is the one which comes to mind
when the TQbingen School is mentioned. Though
certain books already named are of later date, tne
period may be properly begun with 1835, in which
year Strauss's Le6en Jesu drew general attention to
the questions to which Baur was already inclined to
turn. The application to the canon of Scripture
of the HegeUan laws of historical development
was peculiarly appropriate to the place in which
Baur carried on his work, since the distinguishing
mark of the older Tnbingen School had been a
Biblical supematuralism, for which dogma was
nothing more than the teachings of Scripture,
arrived at by means of exegesis. He felt himself
driven to a consideration of this question by the
need of a settlement with the school from which
he had sprung and with his own past; by his studies
in the history of dogma, since the source of dogma,
in the last resort, unless it is a mere collection of
irresponsible opinions, is the Bible; and by his
investigation of Gnosticism, which could not fail
to raise the question of the canon.
In 1835 appeared (at Stuttgart and TQbingen)
Baur's work on the Pastoral Epistles. According
to his own account of this and of his article on the
Corinthian parties {TZT, 1831), it was his lectures on
the Epistle to the Corinthians which first opened up
the vista of more far-reaching lustorico-critical
investigation into the controversies of the apostolic
age, and led him to follow out, by means of New
Testament and patristic studies, his independent
conception of the clash of heterogeneous elements
in the apostohc and subapostolic days, their
parties and tendencies, their conflicts and com-
promises— ^to demonstrate the growth of a catholic
Chiuch as nothing but the result of a previous
historical process. Dealing with Schleiennacher's
treatment of I Timothy, he considered
X. Historico- the three pastoral epistles from the
Critical same historical standpoint, and defined
Study of the the task of New Testament criticism
New Testa- by asserting that the origin of such
ment writings (as to the authenticity of
which more evidence was needed
than the accepted name of an author on their face
and a vague, uncertain, and late tradition) could
only be explained by a complete view of the whole
range of historical circumstances in which, accord-
ing to definite data, they were to be placed. With
this character of historic objectivity, the new
criticism, which naturally could not but seem
merely negative and destructive in contrast with
the unfounded assumptions that it controverted,
intended to meet the arbitrary subjectivity of the
hypotheses which had, up to that time, played
so large a part in New Testament critidsm. The
above statement, substantially in Baur's own
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baur
vordfi, expreoaes fully the guiding principle of the
Tfibingen School. In the name of fidelity to fact,
Baur was conducting a regular cdege of the forti-
fications which had been thrown up by his own
predecessors around the Christian doctrines, when
Strauss's assault upon the central bastion attracted
general attention. It was not without value to him
as a diversion, under cover of which he was able
to pursue undisturbed for a while longer his critical
work. During the next decade the Ttlbingen School
acquired an importance which seemed to threaten
the foundations of dogma from a new quarter,
relentlessly contrasting the accepted image of Christ,
as drawn according to the subjective Christian mind
by Schleieimacher, with the results of objective
historical criticism. The main part of the task
seemed to be left to Baur himself; he was not so
fortunate as the leaders of the old TObingen School,
who had their allies in the other theological chairs.
On the other hand, he had with him a large number
of young and enthusiastic disciples, such as the tal-
ented Eduard Zeller, later his son-in-law, the still
bolder and braver Schwegler, Kdstlin and Planck,
Ritschl and HOgenfeld, the last two the most prom-
inent allies who came from outside of Wdrttemberg.
Baur had begun his critical work with Paul,
and the same apostle engaged the attention of the
school in its later publications. Searching inves-
tigations of the Epistle to the Romans appeared in
the TZT in 1836, and aroused alarm and opposition.
These, together with considerable ma-
2. Applied to terial which he had published in the
the Writings Theologiache JahrbUcher, begun in 1842
ofPsnL by Zeller and edited from 1847 to
1857 by himself and Zeller jointly,
which became the organ of the new school, he put
together in 1845 (Stuttgart) into a monograph on
Paul. The result reached by this part of his work
was the denial of the authenticity of all the letters
passing under the apostle's name, except Galatians,
I and II Corinthians, and Romans, of which last
also the two concluding chapters were questioned.
Finally, in agreement with Schneckenburger but
still more radically, the postapostolic origin of the
kds was asserted. It was not difficult to conjec-
ture what would happen to the Gospels when they
were thrown into the same crucible.
The theory of the " objective criticism," as it
devdoped, was that the older apostles, with their
origiDiJ body of disciples, were differentiated from
the other Jews only by their belief that the cruci-
fied Jesus was the Messiah. All the elements of a
new religion contained in his life and teaching were
forgotten, or lay undeveloped in the
3*TheFim- apostles' memoiy, though a Stephen
dsmental attempted to enforce them and sealed
Afsomption his testimony by his death. When
of the Paul, by a wonderful divination, by
SchooL a train of reasoning from the cross
and the resurrection, rediscovered
these dements of universality and freedom, the
Church stood suspiciously aloof. The older apos-
tles, indeed, with a liberality difficult to under-
stand in the premises, accepted Paul as an equal
fellow laborer and admitted his right to the mission
to the Gentiles. But a section of the Church re-
mained obstinately hostile. Paul appears, there-
fore, constantly prepared for combat, and when an
epistle presents him in any other mood, it is ipso
facto unauthentic. In view of these facts, it became
all the more necessary for the next age to emphasise
the unity of the Church; when, accordingly, there
is perceived a conciliatory tone in an epistle, when
it speaks much of the Church and its unity of belief,
no further mark of a postapostolic origin is needed.
The school believed itself able to prove from the
Apocalypse, considered as a product not merely
of Judaic narrowness but of positive opposition to
Paulinism, and still more from the pseudo-Clem-
entine homilies, that no acconunodation took place
in the apostles' lifetime.
These views, for all their possible usefulness as
against an exaggerated notion in the opposite direc-
tion, still left one question unanswered — what
really was the Christianity of Christ? This led
inevitably to the question, burning since Strauss,
of the status of the Gospels; but it was nearly
ten years before Baur brought his disciples to that.
In the Jakrbuch for 1844 he attempted to use his
critical principles to disprove the authenticity of
the Gospel of John. This treatment he supple-
mented by further investigations on the canonical
gospels, and published the whole result in sub-
stantive form in 1847 (Tubingen).
4. AppUed In a certain sense it was favorable
to the to the traditional view. The order
Gospels, of the canon was approximately
that of their composition. Biatthew,
in whom the Judaic tendency is strongest, would
then be nearest to the source; Mark would show a
tendency to accommodation and minimizing of
differences; and this would show all the more
cleariy the Pauline tendency of Luke. The fourth
Gospel, finally, was supposed to display in eveiy
feature the tendency to sink these differences in a
higher unity, and to take a stand for the conflicts
of the second century. Gnosticism, Montanism,
and the nascent Trinitarian controversy. This
work of Baur's marks the close of the great period
of the school. His disciples were now ready to
come to his aid. Schwegler's book on Montanism
(Tubingen, 1841), Ritschl 's on Luke and the Gospel
of Marcion (Tubingen, 1846) and on the origin of
the primitive catholic Church (Bonn, 1850),
KOstUn's on the Johannine system (Berlin, 1843),
were all important; but the most significant was
Schwegler's on the subapostolic age (Tubingen,
1846), which attempted constructive reasoning,
using the writings which had been declared unau-
thentic as memorials of the development of Judaism
and Paulinism into what came later.
According to Schwegler, Judaism had no need of
further development; the impulse came from Paulin-
ism, in such a way that the Judaic party
5. Devel- decided, in order to preserve the unity
oped by of the Church (Gk. monorchia), to make
Schwegler. some concessions, requiring things of
similar import with those demanded by
the paeudadelphoi of the New Testament, but
more easily fulfilled by the Gentiles. If circum-
cision had to be abandoned, so much the more
weight was laid upon baptism as the (Christian
Baur
Bauslln
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
1.0
equivalent; if the works of the Law were
dropped, works were still required; Israel's pri-
macy vanished, but a general aristocratic tend-
ency could be maintained in the episcopate;
Paul could not be cast out, but he could be sub-
ordinated to Peter. Schwegler then watches this
development and compromise in two places, Rome
and Asia Minor. In Rome he traces the succession
of writings of Judaistic origin thus: first the
Shepherd of Hermas and Hegesippus; then Justin,
the Clementine Homilies, and the Apostolic Con-
stitutions; then James, the Second Epistle of Clem-
ent, Mark, the Clementine Recognitions, and II
Peter. On the Pauline side he finds the concilia-
tory writings to begin under Trajan with I Peter;
then follow Luke and Acts; then the Pastoral
Epistles and the letters of Ignatius. Montanism
being in his view only an offshoot of Judaism, the
Pauline victory falls in the pontificate of Victor
(189-199), under whom Montanism was condemned
at Rome. The Pauline party, indeed, had already
made no slight concessions, in order to ward off
Gnosticism — though the Gnostics and especially the
Marcionites ultimately were of great service to Paul-
inism in securing the universality of Christianity.
He sees the process as somewhat different in
Asia Minor, where the opponents of Paul rallied,
not as in Rome around Peter, but around John;
here the solution was the formation of a body of
Christian dogma, while in Rome it had been a
unity of organization with a Roman primacy.
While at Rome the supposed Ebionite works are
more numerous than the Pauline, it is the contrary
in Asia Minor; the Apocalypse is here the single
Ebionite memorial, while on the other side Gala-
tians, Colossians, Ephesians, and the Johannine
Gospel form an imposing series of steps in the
development. Bold, however, and fascinating as
are the combinations set forth in this work, and
brilliant as is its execution, it may be pointed out
(though space does not permit of illustration) that
there is scarcely a theologian to-day who is disposed
to accept this train of reasoning as even an approxi-
mately satisfactory solution of the problems sug-
gested. And even in those days, the starting-point
of the whole process of development still remained
to be discussed. It was already obvious that with-
out tracing it back to the person and teaching of
Christ, the question of how the primitive catholic
Church came into existence was insoluble. At-
tempts in the direction of establishing the entire
critical position by showing a genetic development
of the earliest organization and dogma out of the
gospel of Christ himself marked a third period in
the history of the Tubingen School.
m. The Period of Church History : The political
upheaval of 1S48 had its influence on the future of
the school. The attempts made here and there to
introduce its conclusions, under cover of the polit-
ical movements of the time, into the genersJ life
of the Church could not fail to bring up the question
whether ecclesiastical activity was possible for
adherents of the school. It was answered in the
negative not only by opponents; some of Baur's
own disciples felt that they must either modify
the scientific conclusions they had learned from
him, or seek a secular calling, as M&rklin, whose
life was written by Strauss, had done in 1840.
It was not surprising, then, that the
X. Political German governments thought twice be-
Complica- fore appointing to academic positions
tions. men whose influence was so distiub-
ing, and that the younger generation
hesitated to follow Baur further, after his most
important disciple, Zeller, was obliged in 1849 to
exchange a theological chair for that of philosophy
at Marburg. Baur, felt the isolation in which he
thus began to find himself; but his temperament
allowed him to hold fast longer than others to the
illusion of the identity of church teaching and
Hegelian speculation. He relaxed nothing of his
zeal for the solution of the important problem ^which
still remained, the estabUshment on a critical
foundation of a positive story of the development of
Christianity from its origin down through the
centiu^.
In 1852 Baur published a book (Leipsic) on the
epochs of church history as a preliminary, con-
taining brilliant and frequently sharp criticism
of earlier historians. His own efforts in this direc-
tion began with the work Das ChrieterUhum und
die chrisUiche Kirche der drei ersten
3. Baur's Jahrhunderte (Leipsic, 1853), and was
Works on continued in Die chrisUiche Kirche
Church vam Anfang dee A- bis Ausgang des 6.
History. Jahrhunderts (Leipsic, 1859). After
his death appeared (Leipsic, 1861)
the third part, completed by himself. Die christ'
liche Kirche des MittelaUers in den HauptmomerUen
ihrer Entwicklung ; and two further volumes were
published from his carefully prepared lecture-
notes — Kirchengeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed-
ited by Zeller (Leipsic, 1862), and Kirchenge-
schichte der neueren Zeit van der Reformation bis
zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts^ edited by his son
Ferdinand (Leipsic, 1863), thus completing the
entire survey.
If there is sought in these books an answer to the
question as to the real primitive Christianity which
lay back of Paul and back of Ebionitism, as to the
person of Christ himself, it may be put, once more
substantially in Baur's own words (from the im-
portant controversial pamphlet against Uhlhom..
Die Ttibingen Schule und ihre SteUung zur Geqen-
wart, Leipsic, 1859), as follows: The real inward-
ness of Christianity, its essential center point, may
be found in what belongs to the strictly ethical
content of the teaching of Jesus, in the Sermon
on the Mount, the parables, and similar utterances;
in his doctrine of the Kingdom of God and the con-
ditions of membership in it, designed to place
men in the right ethical relation to
3. HisTheo- God. This is the really divine, the
riesand universally human element in it, the
Conclusions, part of its content which is eternal and
absolute. What raises Christianity
above all other religions is nothing but the purely
ethical character of its acts, teachings, and require-
ments. If this is the essential content of the con-
sciousness of Jesus, it is one of the two factors which
compose his personality; it must have a corre-
sponding form, in order to enter, in the way of
11
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baur
BftimHn
hiMorical development, into the general conscious-
ness of humanity; and this fonn is the Jewish
conception of the Messiah, the point of contact
between the mind of Jesus and the world that was
to believe in him, the basis on which alone a relig-
ious community destined to broaden into a Church
could be built. We can, therefore, have no clear
and definite conception of the personality of Jesus
if we do not distinguish these two sides of it and
consider them, so to speak, under the aspect of an
antinomy, of a process which develops itself grad-
ually.
If we try to get at the heart of Baur's whole
view of the subject, stripping his presentation of
its somew^hat pathetic enthusiasm, it will appear
not so very different from Kant's expression, that
the faith of pure reason came in with Christ, indeed,
but was so overlaid in the subsequent history that
if the question were asked which was the best period
in the entire course of church history, it might be
unhesitatingly answered by the choice of the pres-
ent, in which a nearer approach than ever before is
made to pure religious doctrine. As long as Baur
had gone no further into the really primitive essen-
tial import of Christianity than to consider the
Pauline dogmatics as' representing it, the develop-
ment of the Chureh could perfectly well seem to
him to have proceeded in a wholly rational manner.
The dogmatic and ecclesiastical decisions of the
eariy ages could, in their context, appear " reason-
able," and Baur himself, in contrast
4. Their with a writer like Gottfried Arnold
WeaknesB or with the imhistoric rationalism,
and Decline, almost an orthodox historian, always
in harmony with the course of events
as it proceeded. Not only Athanasius and Augus-
tine, but Gregory VII and Innocent III had full
justice at his hands. But this involved an equally
tolerant acknowledgment of the claims of the nine-
teenth century. If the humanitarianism of Goethe
and Schiller seemed better adapted to the needs of
educated men in this age than the Chureh in its
older form, here also the living must take prece-
dence; and suddenly the place of the old Chureh
was taken by a broad " conmnmion " in which all
the heroes of the intellect, even the most modem,
took their place as saints. But when the question
came to be asked what this prevalent humanism
had in common with ancient Christianity, it became
apparent that the whole long process of devel-
opment was really a totally unnecessary d^Umr,
whose purpose it was difficult to discover. It
could scarcely be denied that a historical method
which saw the essence of Christianity in ethics
exclusively, which knew nothing of the need of
redemption, and which was unable to give any
positive aocoimt of the person of Christ, was one
in which the Hegelian conception of development
practically disappeared. Yet the distinguishing
mark of the school of Baur had been the application
of this very conception to Christian history, espe-
cially that of the primitive age — the attempt to
show the course of history as rational and necessary;
and thus, in the person of its head, the Tilbingen
School deserted the fundamental principle which
to its palmy days it had sought to enforee. It
was, then, not surprising that uncertainty showed
itself among the members of the school on the
question of the Gospels. The less a definite tend-
ency could be proved in the synoptics, the more
they were shown to offer at least a substratum of
purely historical matter, so much the more pressing
became the question how the school's view of his-
tory could be reconciled with the actual course of
events. When the attempt to construct the latter
a priori failed, an advantage was given to the
" literary-historical " method with which Hilgen-
feld imdertook to replace the criticism of tendency.
In his Hiatorischrkritische EinltUung in das neue
TeatamerU (Leipsic, 1875) the TQbingen views were
modified in a large number of points. Thus the
results supposed to have been attained by the
" objective criticism " of Baur were called in ques-
tion by his own fellow workers; and when he died,
it is hardly too much to say that his school, at least
in the narrower sense, died with him.
(J. Hausbletter.)
Bxbuookapbt: Two of Ferdinand Christian Baur's books
are accessible in English translation: Paul, the Apoatle of
J€SUB ChriH, 2 vols., London. 1873-75; The Chureh Uietory
of the Firet Three Ceniuriee, 2 vols., ib. 1878-79.
Consult: A. B. Bruce, F. C. Baur and hie Theory of
the Origin of Chrietianity, New York, 1886; Worte der
Srinnerung an Ferdinand Chrietian Baur, TQbingen, 1861;
U. Beokh, Die TUbinger hiatoriache Schule, kritieeh be-
UuehM, in ZPiC,xlviii (1864), 1-67. 69-96; C. Weizs&cker.
Ferdinand ChrieHan von Baur. Rede eur akademieehen Feier
eeinM 100. Oeburtetagee, Stuttgart. 1892; O. Ffleiderer.
Z« F. C. Bourse OedddUniee, in Proteetantieche Kirchen-
eeitung, 1892. No. 25; R. W. Mackay. The TUHngen
School, and ita Anteeedente, London, 1863; S. Berger. F.
C. Baur, Lee Originee de Vieole de Tubingii^ et eee principea,
Strasburg. 1867; C. U. Toy, The ToHnoen Hiatorical
School, in BQR, iii (1869), 210 sqq. Works on N. T. In-
troduction usually discuss the TQbingen School, as do
those on the church history of the nineteenth century.
BAUR, GUSTAV ADOLF LUDWIG: Lutheran;
b. at Hammelbach (17 m. n.e. of Heidelberg), in
the Odenwald, June 14, 1816; d. at Leipsic May
22, 1889. He studied at Giessen, where he became
docent in 1841, professor extraordinary, 1847,
ordinary, 1849; he became pastor at Hamburg,
1861, and professor of practical theology at Leipsic,
1870. He was a member of the commission for
revising Luther's translation of the Bible. Besides
numerous sermons he 'vaaiiodErkldrungdes Propheten
Amos (Giessen, 1847); Grundzuge der HomUetik
(1848); Geschichte der alitestamentlichen Weissagung
(first part, 1861); Boetius und Dante (Leipsic,
1874); Grundzuge der Erziehungslehre (4th ed.,
Giessen, 1887); he wrote the greater part of the
first volume of Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung
(Stuttgart, 1884), and Die christliche Erziehung
in ikrem Verhdltnisse zum Judenthum und zur
aniiken Welt (2 vols., 1892).
Bibliographt: Q. A. Baur. Trauerfeier bei dem BegrObniaa
G. A. L. Baure, Leipsic, 1889.
BAUSLIN, DAVID HENRY: Lutheran; b. at
Winchester, Va., Jan. 21, 1854. He studied at
Wittenberg College (B.A., 1876) and Theological
Seminary, Springfield, O. (1878), and held pastor-
ates at Tippecanoe CSty, O. (1878-81), Bucyrus,
O. (1881-88), Second Lutheran Church, Spring-
field, O. (188^-93), and Trinity Church, Canton,
O. (1893-96). In 1896 he was appointed professor
BavarianB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
12
of historical and practical theology in the Witten-
berg Theological Seminary. He has been for several
years a member of the " common service " com-
mittee for the General Synod of the Lutheran
Church, and was president of the General Synod
of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United
States 190&-07. He has written /« the Ministry
an Attractive VocaHon r (Philadelphia, 1001), and
has been editor of The Lutheran World since
1901.
BAUSMAN, BENJAMIN: Reformed (German);
b. at Lancaster, Pa., Jan. 28, 1824. He was edu-
cated at Marshall College (B.A., 1851) and the
Theological Seminary, Mercersburg, Pa. (1852).
He was ordained to the Reformed ministry in 1853,
and held successive pastorates at Lewisburg, Pa.
(1853-61), Chambersburg, Pa. (1861-63), First
Reformed Church, Reading, Pa. (1863-73), and
St. Paul's Reformed Church, Reading, which he
foimded in 1873. He was president of the General
Synod of the Reformed Church at Baltimore in
1884. He was editor of The Reformed Messenger
in 1858 and of The Guardian from 1867 to 1882.
In the year 1867 he foimded Der reformiaie
Hausfreund, of which he is stiU the editor. He
has written Sinai and Zion (Philadelphia, 1860);
Wayside Gleanings in Europe (Reading, 1878);
Bible Characters (1893); and Precept and Practice
(Philadelphia, 1901); in addition to editing Har-
baugh's Harfe, a collection of poems in Pennsyl-
vania Dutch (Reading, 1870).
BAUSSET, b6"86', LOUIS FRANCOIS DE: Car-
dinal; b. at Pondicherry Dec. 'l4, 1748; d. at
Paris June 21, 1824. He studied in the Seminary
of St. Sulpice; was appointed Bishop of Alais,
1784; emigrated in 1791, but returned in 1792
to Paris, and supported himself, after a short
imprisonment, by literary labor. In 1806 he was
made canon of St. Denys, and in 1815, after the
second return of Louis XVIII, director of the
council of the University of Paris, peer of France,
and cardinal 1817. He wrote the Histoire de
FeneUm (3 vols., Paris, 1808) and Histoire de
Bossuet (4 vols., Versailles, 1814).
BAUTAIN, bd^'tan', LOUIS EUGENE MARIE:
French philosopher; b. at Paris Feb. 17, 1796;
d. at Viroflay, near VersaiUes, Oct. 16, 1867. He
became professor of philosophy at Strasburg in
1819. He was a pupil of Cousin and a student of
German philosophy, and, his teaching not being
acceptable to the church authorities, he was sus-
pended in 1822. He modified his views and took
holy orders in 1828, and resumed teaching. In
1834 he again fell into difficulty with the Bishop
of Strasburg because of his teachings concerning
the relation of reason and faith; in 1838 he went
to Rome and sought in vain to have his views
approved there. In 1840 he submitted, became
vicar-general of Paris in 1849, and professor at
the Sorbonne in 1853. He held that the human
reason can not prove such facts as the existence of
God and the inmiortality of the soul, and that the
truths of religion are communicated purely by
divine revelation. His most important works
were: Philosophic du Christianisme (2 vols., Stras-
burg, 1835); Psyehdogie expMmentale (2 vob.,
1839; new ed., with title Esprit humain et u»
faculUs, Paris, 1859); Philosoj^ie morale (2 vok.,
Paris, 1842); La morale de V^vangUe comparie
auz divers systhnesde morale (1855). He had much
repute as an orator and published an £tude sur
Vart de parler en public (1856; Eng. tranal.. The
Art of Extempore Speaking, London, 1858).
Bibuooeapht: E. de R6gny, L*AbbS BoMlain, Paris. 1884.
BAUTZ, JOSEF: Roman Catholic; b. at Keeken
(near Cleves) Nov. 11, 1843. He was educated at
Monster, where he became privat-docent of apcio-
getics and dogmatics in 1877, being promoted to
the rank of associate professor in 1892. He has
written Die Lehre vom Auferstehungsleibe (Pader-
bom, 1877); Der Himmel, spehdativ dargesteUt
(Mainz, 1881); Die HdUe, im Anschluss an die
ScholoHik (1882); Das Fegfeuer. Im Ansddiui
an die Scholastik (1883); Weltgericht und WeUende.
Im Anschluss an die Scholastik (1886); Grundzuffe
der christlichen Apologetik (1887); and Grundzuge
der katholisehen Dogmatik (4 vols., 1888-93).
BAVARIA: A kingdom in the southern part
of the German Empire, and, next to Prussia, the
largest of the states of the Empire; area, 29,282
square miles; population (1900), 6,176,057, of
whom 4,357,133 (70.5 per cent.) are Roman
Catholics; 1,749,206 (28.3 per cent.) Protestants:
5,430 Old Catholics; 3,170 Mennonites; 54,928
(.9 per cent.) Jews; and 4,142 of various faiths.
The division of the chief confessions is based in
great part on the historic conditions prevailing
in 1624 and 1648, although the development of the
cities has been the cause of many changes, the
proportion of Protestants having increased in
Munich and that of the Roman Catholics in Nurem-
berg. The old Bavarian circles of Upper and
Lower Bavaria, as well as the Upper Palatinate,
have always been essentially Roman
Protestant- Catholic. Upper Bavaria received its
ism in first Protestant citizens in the eariy
Bavaria, part of the nineteenth century, but
in consequence of the rapid growth
of Munich in recent years the Protestants of that
city alone numbered 78,000 in 1900. Six pastor-
ates and six immovable vicariates are also contained
in the district, and seven small churches have been
built in market-towns and villages. Since the six-
teenth century Lower Bavaria has possessed the
Protestant enclave of Ortenburg with certain
neighboring places, while more recently commu-
nities have been established in the larger cities,
especially Passau. The Upper Palatinate was not
completely converted to Roman Catholicism in
1622-28, since the duchy of Sukbach and the im-
perial city of Regensburg retained congregations
of both confessions, who used the same churches;
but with the increase in population the proportion
of Protestants steadily declined. The district
now has four deaneries with forty-eight pastorates.
In the three old Bavarian districts provision i*
made for the Protestant Diaspora by itinerant
preachers, four of whom work in Upper Bavaria
18
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bau«man
Bavarians
and two in Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate
combined. Since 1805 Swabia has belonged in
great part to Bavaria. It consisted originally of a
gioiqp of territories belonging to free cities, the
derfy, and knights of the empire. Only the first
categoiy was predominantly Protestant, and even
here Roman Catholicism has gained steadily.
Swabia contains the following Protestant dean-
eries: Augsburg, Ebermergen, Kempten (including
Lindau and Kaufbeuren), Leipheim, Memmingen,
N6rdlingen, and Oettingen.
FranUah North Bavaria is composed, on the one
hand, of the episcopal territories of the bishoprics
of Eichst&tt, Bamberg, Wdnsburg, and a portion of
the electorate of Mains, and, on the other, of the
Protestant principalities of Ansbach and Bai-
reuth, Nuremberg, Rothenburg, and other free
cities, and enclaves of the orders. This entire region
is stron^y Roman Catholic, although Lower Fran-
conia has a considerable number of Protestant
communitieB (116 pastorates, exclusive of Wtirz-
burg, Schweinfurt, and Aschaffenburg). In the
larger section of Bavaria the historical divisions
between Protestant and Roman Catholic, at least
in the smaller towns, are stiU maintained, but in
the minor portion, the Rhine Palatinate, there are
few political communities which do not have a
considerable minority of adherents of one or the
other creed. In Speyer the proportions are almost
equal, Roman Catholics numbering about 9,000
and the Protestants 8,000.
The legal position of the Protestant Chiut^h in
Bavaria is regulated by an edict of Sept. 8, 1809, while
its foreign rdations are governed by the constitution
of 1818. Both Protestantism and Roman Catholi-
cism are officially recognized, and controversies
seldom arise between the two, except in regard to
the creed in which children shall be brought up,
methods of conversion, particularly in the Evan-
gelical Diaspora, and the use of burial-grounds in
Roman Catholic communities. In 1824 the official
designation of the Protestants was declared to be
" Protestant Church."
The Reformed Church in the Palatinate first
regained official recognition together with the
Lutherans at the general consistory at Worms in
1815, and the Bavarian government created a con-
sistory at Speyer on Dec. 15, 1818, for the "Prot-
estant Churches of the Palatinate," a presbyterial
and synodical constitution being introduced at the
same time. In 1848 the Protestant Chiut^h of
the Palatinate and the consistoiy of Speyer were
placed directly under the jurisdiction of the ministry
of state. The attempt to create a more definite
confessional status led, in the sixth decade of the
last century, to a victorious agitation on the part
of the liberal element. Since 1879 the presbyteries
have had the right to propose candidates for vacant
pastorates. In Bavaria proper diocesan synods
are held annually, and general 83mods eveiy four
yeare.
There are few Protestants in Bavaria, except
those who belong to the Evangelical Lutheran
Church, nor are the professed adherents of sects
numerous. A distinct organization was granted
the Reformed in Bavaria proper in 1853, although
they are stiU under the control of the Supreme
Consistoiy. The Greek Church was recognized
in 1826, but the Anglican Church is officially ignored
like the Mennonites. The last-named have six
communities in the Palatinate and four in Bavaria
proper. Until 1887 the Old Catholics were reckoned
as Roman Catholics, but are now declared to be a
separate body, though full recognition has not been
granted them.
, The Roman Catholic Church in Bavaria is highly
organized and extremely active, while its wealth
and political influence are constantly
Roman increasing. The kingdom is divided
Catholicism into two archdioceses with eight
in Bavaria, dioceses. The archdiocese of Munich-
Freising comprises the su£fragan dio-
ceses of Augsburg, Passau, and Regensburg; and
the archdiocese of Bamberg includes the dioceses
of Eichstatt, WQrzburg, and Speyer. The educa-
tion of the clergy, in agreement with the concordat
of 1817, is entrusted to the bishops. The develop-
ment of orders has been very rapid, especially in
the sisterhoods for the education and the care of
the sick. The number of cloisters has also increased
rapidly, with a corresponding gain in real estate,
and this development is aided by the generous
gifts and foundations of the Roman Catholic popu-
lation, the property of the 8,600 institutions being
valued at more than 150,000,000 marks; while
that of the 1,800 Protestant institutions is worth
only 19,600,000 marks. The Roman Catholic
clergy in Bavaria number some 4,900, or a pro-
portion of one to 816 of the laity, while the Protes-
tants have but about 1,300 clergymen, or one to
1,200 laymen. Wilhelm Goetz.
BiBLXoaRAPBT: V. A. Winter, OuehiehU der Sehickaale dtr
tvangelUeken Lehre in und dtwchBayem^ 2 vols., Munich,
1809-10; E. F. H. Medicus, OttehiehU der evangdiachen
Kirche im KOnigreieh Bayem^ E^langen, 1803; J. M.
Mayer, Oeaehichte Bayenu, Rat'sbon, 1874; J. Hergen-
rOther, Handbueh der KirchenifeMchidUe, 3 vols., Freiburg,
187&-80 (literature of the subject is given, iii, 183);
8. Riexler, OeeehichU Bayenu, 4 vols., Gotha, 1878-99;
Wand, Handbueh der Verfaeeung und VerwaUung der pro-
teBtantUch-ev.-chritUiehen Kirche der PfaU, 1880; Bei'
irdge tur StaUaUk dee KUnigreiehM Bayem, Munich, 1892;
StaUatiadte MiUeUungen aua den deutadien evangeli§ehen
LandeakircKen, Stuttgart. 1880-96.
BAVARIANS, CONVERSION OF THE: The
origin of the race later known as the Bavarians
is imcertain. The older hypothesis that they came
of Celtic stock is now generally abandoned. For
a time it was thought that they were a conglomerate
of the remains of several tribes belonging to the
Gothic family; but the view put forward by Zeuss
(Die Herkunft der Bayem, Munich, 1857) that they
are to be identified with the Marcomanni is now
almost universally accepted, and has strong sup-
port in the facts.
The Marcomanni are first mentioned by Csesar
{Bel. Gal., i, 51). In his time th^ lived on the
upper Main. Tacitus knows of them as inhabiting
what is now Bohemia {Germ., xlii; cf. Annal.,
ii, 26 sqq.). Here they maintained their position
for centuries, and here they took the name of
Baiowarii or Baioarii. During this period, Chris-
tianity foimd an entrance among them. Paulinus,
in his life of Ambrose (xxxvi), tells of a queen
Bavarians
Baxter
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
14
of the Marcomanni named Fritigil who was con-
verted by a wandering Italian Christian, and asked
Ambrose for written instructions in
FiiBt Ac- the faith, which he gave in modum
qnaintance cateehiami. The account goes on to
with ChrlB- say that she thereupon came to Milan,
tianity. but found the bishop dead. As Am-
brose died Apr. 4, 397, she must
have crossed the Alps in the summer of that year.
If the queen was a Christian, it is hardly likely
that her religion would have been unknown to her
people. That Arianism also reached the Marco-
manni through Gothic influences is not improbable.
However that may be, the bulk of the people were
pagan when they settled in 488 on the strip of
territory granted them by the Romans between
the Lech and the Enns.
The name of Bavarians is first applied in the
Prankish list of tribes belonging to the first quarter
of the sixth century. The territory which they
occupied was no desolate wilderness. In the val-
leys and around the lakes there was a thin agri-
cultural population which held to the Latin tongue
and doubtless also to the Christian faith. Not
all the cities were destroyed; Juvavmn and Lau-
riacmn lay in ruins; but neither Castra Batava
nor Castra Regina was without inhabiteuits, and
here also Christianity undoubtedly held its own
with the Romanic population. Christians and
heathens thus living as neighbors, a starting-point
was afforded for missionary efforts. The ecclesias-
tical organization had, it is true, been broken up;
only in southern Bavaria a bishopric foimded in
Roman times maintained its existence at Seben,
and the diocese of Augsburg stretched over a part
of the Bavarian territory. Under these circmn-
stances the fact was of decisive importance that
the Bavarians no sooner occupied their new home
than they came into a position of dependence on
the Frankish kingdom. The first ducal family,
that of the Agilulfings, was of Frankish origin and
professed Christianity, and the first
Labors outsiders who labored for the spread
of Mis- of the faith in Bavaria came from the
sionaries. Frankish kingdom. Eustasius of Lux-
euil (q.v.), the successor of Columban,
worked there, and left missionaries trained by
him when he returned to Burgundy. Later,
Rupert, bishop of Worms, found a wide field here
for his activity; Emmeram and Corbinian (qq.v.)
were Franks. Side by side with them there seem
to have been at a very early period some Scoto-
Irish monks, but there is no record of their labors.
The result of the combined operation of these
imperfectly known factors was the acceptance of
Christianity by the Bavarian race as a whole,
which was completed in the course of the seventh
century. It is a remarkable fact that it was not
accompanied by the organization of a local epis-
copate; as far as can be told the direction of eccle-
siastical affairs was in the hands of the dukes;
it is Theodo who invites Rupert thither, and who
treats with the pope in regard to church institutions.
From this fact it would appear that the Christian
profession of the dukes played a decisive part in
the conversion of the people at large. The exist-
ence of the Church without diocesan bishops was
made possible by the fact that the wandering
monks and missionaries were frequently in episcopal
orders, and could thus perform the strictly episcopal
functions.
The above-mentioned Duke Theodo, acting in
concert with the pope, endeavored to introduce
a more regular organization. With this end m
view, he visited Rome in 716, and had an agree-
ment with Pope Gregory II as to the measures to
be taken. At least four dioceses were to be fotmded
corresponding to the divisions of the secular juris-
diction. The bishop of the most
Organiza- important place was to be set as
tion of metropolitan at the head of the
Bishoprics. Bavarian Church, the pope reserving
the right to consecrate him, and if
necessary to name an Italian. Order was to be
brought into the ecclesiastical affairs by a general
visitation; the Roman use was to be taken as the
model in liturgical matters. But these plans
were never carried into execution, apparently by
reason of the death of Theodo. The organization
of the Bavarian bishoprics, involving the termina-
tion of the missionary period, was only accomplished
by Boniface (q.v.), who paid a short visit to the
country in 719, and returned in 735 or 736 to make
a formal visitation by virtue of what was practically
a metropolitan jurisdiction over the whole of
Germany, for the purpose of acquiring full infor-
mation as to the prevailing conditions. His
definite organizing work is introduced by a brief
(738 or 739) from Gregory III to the bishops of
Bavaria and Alemannia, enjoining them to receive
Boniface with fitting honors as his representative,
and to attend a synod to be held by him. In 739
Boniface undertook the settlement of diocesan
boundaries and institutions, and provided three
of the four bishoprics of Bavaria with bishopa
consecrated by himself — Erembrecht, brother of
Corbinian, at Freising, Gavibald at Regensbuig,
and John, a newcomer from England, at Salzbui^—
while Vivilo, who had been consecrated by the pope,
remained at Passau. Gregory III confirmed these
arrangements on Oct. 29, and the subordinate
divisions of archdeaconries and parishes were
soon organized. The decisions of the Synod of
Reisbach (799) show the parochial system in full
operation. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Hauek« KD, vol. i; S. Riealer. Ge»diidde
BauernM, vol. i, Gotha, 1873; Rettbeis, KD, 2 vols.;
Friedrioh, KD, 2 vols.
BAVmCK, HERMAN: Dutch Reformed; b.
at Hoogeveen (35 m. s. of Groningen), Holland,
Dec. 13, 1854. He was educated at the gymnasium
of Zwolle, the theological seminary of the Reformed
Church at Kampen, and the University of Leyden
(D.D., 1880); he was then pastor at Franeker.
Friesland (1881-^2), and professor of dogmatic
theology in the theological seminary at Kampen
(1882-1903). Since 1903 he has been professor
of dogmatics and apologetics at the Free Uni-
versity, Amsterdam. In theology he adheres to the
principles of the Heidelberg Confession and the
canons of the Synod of Dort. He has written
De Ethiek van H. Zunngli (Kampen, 1880); De
15
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bavarians
Baxter
Wetenadiap der heUige Godgeleerdheid (1883); De
Theologie van Prof. Dr. D, CharUepie de la Saussaye
(Leyden, 1884); De KaiholicUeit van Christendom
en Kerk (Kampen, 1888); De algemeene Oenade
(1894); Gereformeerde Dogmatiek (4 vols., 1895-
1901); BeginseUn der Psychologie (1897); De Of-
ferande dee Lofe (The Hague, 1901); De Lebenheid
dee Geioofs (Kampen, 1901); Hedendaagache Moraal
(1902); Roeping en WedergthoarU (1902); Gode-
dienst en Godgeleerdheid (Wageningen, 1902);
Christelijke Wetenschap (Kampen, 1904); Chris-
telijke Wertldbeechouwing (1904); Pcedagogische Be-
gineelen (1904); and Bilderdijk aU Denker en
Diekber (1906).
BAXTER, RICHARD: One of the greatest of
English theologians; b. at Rowton (42 m. n.e.
of Shrewsbuiy), Shropsliire, Nov. 12, 1615; d. in
London Dec. 8, 1691. Though without a university
education, and always sickly, he acquired great
learning. In 1633 he had a brief experience of
court life at Whitehall (London), but turned from
the court in disgust and studied theology. In
1638 he was ordained by the bishop of Worcester
and preached in various places till 1641, when he
began his ministiy at Kidderminster
Ministry (18 m. s.w. of Birmingham), as
at Kidder- " teacher." There he labored with
minster, wonderful success so that the place
was utterly transformed. When the
C^ivil War broke out (1642) he retired temporarily
to Gloucester and then to Coventry because he
sided with the parliament, while all in and about
Kidderminster sided with the king. He was,
however; no blind partisan and boldly spoke out
for moderation and fairness. After acting as an
army chaplain he separated from the army, partly
on account of illness, and returned to Kidder-
minster.
In the spring of 1660 he left Kidderminster and
went to London. He preached before the House
of Commons at St. Margaret's, Westminster, Apr.
30, 1660, and before the lord mayor and aldermen
at St. Paul's, May 10, and was among those to give
Charles II welcome to his kingdom. Charles
made him one of his chaplains and offered him
the bishopric of Hereford, which he
In London, declined. He was a leader on the Non-
conformist side in the Savoy Con-
ference (1661) and presented a revision of the
Prayer-book which could be used by the Non-
conformists. He also preached frequently in
different ptdpits. Seeing how things were going,
he desired permission to return to Kidderminster
as curate, but was refused. On May 16, 1662,
three days before the Act of Uniformity was passed,
he took formal farewell of the Church of England
and retired to Acton, a west suburb of London.
From this time on he had no regular charge and
until the accession of William and Mary in 1688
be suffered, like other Non-conformist preachers,
from repressive laws often rigorously and harshly
enforced. On Sept. 10, 1662, he married Margaret,
daughter of Francis Charlton, of Shropshire, twenty-
four years his junior, who possessed wealth and
social position, and made him a devoted helpmeet.
cheerfully going with him into exile and prison and
spending her money lavishly in the relief of their
less fortunate fellow sufferers. She died June 14,
1681, and Baxter has perpetuated her memory in a
singularly artless but engaging memoir (London,
1681).
During all these years on the verge of trouble
because he persisted in preaching, he was actually
imprisoned only twice, once for a short period,
and again from Feb. 28, 1685, to Nov. 24, 1686.
The judge who condemned him the second time
was George Jeffreys, who treated him
Imprison- with characteristic brutality. The
ment charge was that in his Paraphrase
of the New Testament (1685) Baxter
had libeled the Church of England. But insult,
heavy and indeed ruinous fines, enforced wander-
ings, anxiety as to personal safety, and imprison-
ment had no power to daimt Baxter's spirit. He
preached constantly to great multitudes, and ad-
dressed through his writings a still vaster throng.
The Toleration Act of 1688 ended his sufferings
and he died in peace.
Baxter was one of the most voluminous of Eng-
lish authors, and one of the best. But there is no
complete edition of liis 1G8 treatises, only of his prac-
tical works. A few of his works are in verse {Poet-
ical Fragments f reprinted, London, 1821), though
he has small claim to be called a poet, and one
familiar hymn (" Lord, it belongs not to my care ")
has been manufactured out of a longer one of his.
The after-world knows him by reputation as the
author of The Reformed Pastor (1656),
Writings, a treatise on pastoral theology still
usable; A Call to the Unconverted to
turn and live and accept of mercy while mercy may
he had, as even they woidd find mercy in the day of
their extremity ; from the Living God (1657), uttered
as a dying man to dying men and impressive to-day;
but chiefly because of The Saints* Everlasting Rest :
or a treatise of the blessed state of the Saints in their
enjoyment of God in glory. Wherein is shewed its
excellency and certainty; the misery of those that
lose it, the way to attain it, and assurance of it ; and
how to live in the continual delightful foretaste of it,
by the help of meditation. Written by the author
for his own v^e, in the time of his languishing, when
God took him off from all publike imployment ; and
afterwards preached in his weekly lecture (1650).
The "Saints* Rest " gained a reputation it has never
lost, but the 648 pages of the original edition have
proved too many for posterity and the work is
read nowadays, if at all, only in an abridgment
of an abridgment. The best brief characterization
of this faithful, fearless, and gifted religious teacher
is on his monument at Kidderminster, erected by
Churchmen and Non-conformists, and unveiled
July 28, 1875: " Between the years 1641 and 1660
this town was the scene of the labours of Richard
Baxter, renowned equally for his Christian learning
and his pastoral fidelity. In a stormy and divided
age he advocated unity and comprehension, point-
ing the way to everlasting rest." In many re-
spects Baxter was a modem man.
Baxter's theology was set forth most elaborately
in his Latin Methodus theologicB ChristiancB (London,
Baxter
Beaoh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
16
1681); the Christian Directory (1673) contains
the practical part of his system; and Catholic
Theology (1675) is an English expo-
His rition. His theology made Baxter
Theology, very mipopular among his contempo-
raries and caused a split among the Dis-
senters of the eighteenth century. As summarized
by Thomas W. Jenkyn, it differed from the Calvinism
of Baxter's day on four points: (1) The atonement
of Christ did not consist in his suffering the identical
but the equivalent punishment (i.e., one which would
have the same effect in moral government) as that
deserved by mankind because of offended law.
Christ died for sins, not persons. While the bene-
fits of substitutionary atonement are accessible
and available to all men for their salvation, they
have in the divine appointment a special reference
to the subjects of personal election. (2) The elect
were a certain fixed number determined by the
decree without any reference to their faith as the
ground of their election; which decree contemplates
no reprobation but rather the redemption of all
who will accept Christ as their Savior. (3) What
is imputed to the. sinner in the work of justification
is not the righteousness of (Christ but the faith of
the sinner himself in the righteousness of Christ.
(4) Eveiy sinner has a distinct agency of his own
to exert in the process of his conversion. The Bax-
terian theory, with modifications, was adopted by
many later Presbyterians and Congregationalists
in England, Scotland, and America (Isaac Watts,
Philip Doddridge, and many others).
Bibuooeapbt: Baxter's Praetieal Work* were collected by W.
Orme and published in 23 vols., London, 1830; vol. i con-
tains Orme's Li/« avd Timm of Richard Baxter^ published
separately in 2 vols., the same year; a table of the con-
tents of this edition of Baxter's works is found in Darling's
Cydopadia Biblioaraphioa, pp. 20&-206, London, 1854;
the PracHeal Work9 appeared also in 4 vols., ib. 1847;
and SeUci Practical WritingM, ed. L. Bacon. 2 vols., New
Haven, 1844. An AnnoUUed Liat of th€ WriHnga of R.
Baxter is appended to the ed. of What Miut we do io be
Saved f by A. B.Qrosart, London, 1868. The chief source
for a life is the autobiographical material left to M. Syl-
vester, who published it as ReliguuB Baxteriana, London,
1006, abrid^ by £. Galamy, 1702, this enlarged and re-
published in 2 vols., 1713. A notable paper on Baxter
by Sir James Stephen, originally published in the Edin-
biargh RevieWf is to be found in his Eeaaye, vol. ii, Lon-
don, 1860. Among the biographies may be mentioned
A. B. Grosart, Reffreeentaiive NoftcowformiatM, II, Riduard
Baxter, ib. 1879; 0. D. Boyle, Men Worth Remembering,
Richard Barter, ib. 1883; J. Stalker, Riduard Baxter, Edin-
burgh, 1883; DNB, iii. 429-437; J. H. Davies. Life
of Riduud Baxter, London, 1887. The account of his trial
is given by Maeaulay in his Hietory of England, vol. ii.
Consult also Baxter'e Making Light of Chriet, mih an
Beeay on hie Life, Minietry and Theology, by T. W. Jen-
kyn, London. 1846.
BAYLE, b6l, PIERRE: French Protestant; b.
at Carla (11 m. w. of Pamiers), department of
Aridge, Nov. 18, 1647; d. at Rotterdam Dec. 28,
1706. He was the son of a Calvinist clergyman,
and, in 1666, began his studies at the Protestant
Academy at Puylanrens, whence he went to the
University of Toulouse in 1669. Not satisfied
with the objections of the Reformed against the
dogma of a divinely appointed judge in matters of
faith, he became a Roman Catholic. He spent
eighteen months at the Jesuits' College in Toulouse,
and then returned to Protestantism and went to
Geneva (1670), where, living as a tutor in private
families, he studied theology as well as the Car-
tesian philosophy. His friendship with Jacques
Basnage and Minutoli began there. Later he accom-
panied pupils to Rouen and in 1675 to Paris. Then
he spent several years as a lecturer on philosophy
at S^dan; when that academy was closed by order
of the king (1681), he accepted an appointment
as lecturer on philosophy at the " £oole iUuatre "
of Rotterdam. In this refuge of liberty, Ba^de
wrote most of his works. The revocation of the Exlict
of Nantes raised his indignation, and several of the
best Protestant works called forth by that disgraceful
piece of policy proceeded from the pen of Bayle.
The conclusion at which he arrives by his dose
reasoning is: that matters of belief should be
outside the sphere of the State as such — a dan-
gerous principle for Catholicism, and the book was
at once put on the Index. Even among Protes-
tants Bayle had adversaries. Jurieu, his jealous
and violent opponent at Rotterdam, considered
toleration equal to indifference, and reproached
Bayle with dangerous skepticism, which made his
position very difficult. He tried for an appoint-
ment in Berlin. But the realization of this wish
was prevented by the death of the great Klector
Frederick William. Jurieu continued his attacks
and even went so far as to represent Bayle as the
head of a paity. -working into the hands of Louis
XIV by aiming at a split between the princes allied
against France. William III gave credence to this
and influenced the magistrate of Rotterdam to
remove Bayle from his position (1693). From
that time he lived for his literary work, chiefly
bearing on philosophy and the histoiy of literature.
His Dictionnaire hiatorique et critique [(2 vols, in
three parts Rotterdam, 1697; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1702;
11th ed., 16 vols., Paris, 1820-24; Eng. transl., 5
vols., London, 1734-38)] was most favorably re-
ceived by all the learned men of Europe, though
it brought on him a revival of the reproach of
skepticism, of want of respect for the Holy Scrip-
tures, even of Manicheism. Called to j ustif y himself
before a commission appointed by the presbytery
of Rotterdam, he was treated with great mod-
eration, and consented to change some of the ofFen-
sive articles, which appeared in their new form in
the second edition of his Dictionnaire. Accusations
against him came up again from time to time,
and he tried to refute them in minor philosophical
works. Besides the Dictionnaire his works include:
LeUrea d, M. L. Z>. A. C, docteur en Sorbonne, oit il
est prouv4 que lea comHea ne aont point le pr^aage
d*avcun malheur (Cologne, 1682); Critique g^nfrale
de VHistoire du Calviniame de M. Maimbourg
(Amsterdam, 1682); RecueU de quelquea pieces eon-
cemant la philoaophie de M. Deacartea (Amsterdam,
1684); Nouvellea de la R^publique dea leUree (16S4r-
1687); Ce que c'eat quela France toute catholique aous
le rhgne de Louia4e-Orand (St. Omer, 1685); Comr-
mentaire philoaophique aur cea parolea de J. C:
"Contraina-lead'enirer" (Amsterdam, 1686) ; R&ponee
de Vauieur dea Nouvellea de la R&puJUique dee lettrea
en faveur du P. Malebranche aur lea pkneirs dea
aena (Rotterdam, 1686); Avia important auz rifu-
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baxter
Beaoh
gt/9 9wr leur prochain reUmren France (Amsterdam,
1690; 1709) ; Ltttres choiaies avec des remarques (Rot-
terdam, 1714); NouvelkaUUres (The Hague, 1739).
G. Bonet-Maurt.
Bibuoobapht: B. de la Monnoye (pseudonym for Du Re-
rest), Hiatoire du Mr. Bayle ei BeM ouvrage; Amsterdam,
1716; P. dee Maiseaux. ViedeP. Bayle, The Haffue. 1730, re-
printed frook the 3d ed. of the i>iclumfiair», Amsterdam, 1 730,
reproduficd in the Ens* transl. of the " Dictionary," ut sup.;
E. and E. Haas. La France proteakmle, ii, 60-63, 9 vols.,
Paria, 1846-50; L. Feuerbach, P. BayU, tin Beitrag nw
G€9ekidUm der PhiloeophiB und der Meneehheii, Leipsic,
1848; J. P. Damiron, Mhnoire »ur Bayle et eee doctrinee,
Paris, 1850; C. A. St. Beuve, in Lundie, vol. ix, ib. 1852;
F. Bouillier, Hieioire de la jjiiloeophie eartieienne,ii, 476,
ib. 1854; C. Lenient, £tude eur Bayle, ib. 1865; E. Jean-
maire. Eeaai eur la erUique religieuee de Bayle, Stras-
hurg, 1862; Voltaire, Sitels de Louie XIV, chap. 36;
A. Deachamps, La Oeniee du eceptieieme irudii ehee
Boyle, Bruasels, 1870; J. Denis, BayU et Jurieu, Caen,
1886; P. Janet, Hieioire de la ecienee politique dane eee
rapparU aree la morale, Paris, 1887.
BATLET, JAMES ROOSEVELT: Roman Cath-
olic archbishop of Baltimore; b. at Rye, N. Y., Aug.
23. 1814; d. in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3, 1877. He
was a nephew of Elisabeth (Bayley) Seton (** Mother
Seton ")» founder of the order of Sisters of Charity
in America; was graduated at Washington (Trinity)
College, Hartford, Conn., 1835; rector of St.
Peter's church, Harlem, New York, 1840^1;
received into the Roman Catholic Church at Rome,
1842; studied in Paris and Rome, and was ordained
priest in New York, 1843; was professor in St.
John's College, Fordham, New York, and its acting
president, 1845-46; became secretary to Bishop
Hughes of New York, 1846, bishop of Newark,
1853, archbishop of Baltimore and primate of
America, 1872. He published a volume of pas-
toral letters; Sketch of the History of the Catholic
Church an the Island of New York (New York, 1853);
Memoirs of Simon Gabriel BmU, First Bishop of
Vineennes (1S61).
BATLY, LEWIS: Anglican bishop; b. perhaps
at Carmiuthen, Wales, perhaps at Lamington (6
m. s.w. of Biggar), Scotland, year unknown; d.
at Bangor, Wales, Oct. 26, 1631. He was educated
at Oxford; became vicar of Evesham, Worcester-
shire, and in 1604, probably, rector of St. Matthew's,
Friday street, London; was then chaplain to Henry
Prince of Wales (d. 1612), later chaplain to King
James I, who, in 1616, appointed him bishop of
Bangor. He was an ardent Puritan. His fame
rests on The Practice of Piety, directing a Christian
how to walk that he may please God (date of first
ed. unknown; 3d ed., London, 1613). It reached
its 74th edition in 1821 and has been translated
into French, German, Italian, Polish, Romansch,
Welsh, and into the language of the Massachusetts
Indians. It was one of the two books which John
Bunyan's wife brought with her — the other one
being Arthur Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to
Heaven — and it was by reading it that Bunyan
was first spiritually awakened.
BiBUOQaarar: A bioKraphical preface by Grace Webster
is prefised to the PraeHee of Piety, London, 1842; con-
Mih also A. k Wood, Athenm Oxonieneee, ed. P. Bliss, ii,
625-531. 4 vols., ib. 1813-20.
XL— 2
BAY PSALM BOOK: A metrical translation
of the Psalms, published by Stephen Daye at Cam-
bridge, Mass., in 1640 and the first book printed
in America. The work of translation was begun
in 1636, the principal collaborators being Thomas
Welde, Richard Mather, emd John Eliot, the mis-
sionary to the Indians. The rendering, as the
translators themselves recognized in their quaint
preface to the book, was a crude specimen of Eng-
lish, and carxying to the extreme their belief in
the inspiration of the Bible, they tortured their
version into what they conceived to be fidelity to
the original. The meter, moreover, is irregular,
and the rimes are frequently ludicrous. The
general spirit and form of the translation may
be represented by the following rendering of Ps.
xviii, 6-9:
6. " I in my streights, cal'd on the Lord,
and to my God cry'd: he did heare
from his temple my voyoe, my crye,
before him came, unto his eare.
7. ** Then th' earth shooke, A quak't, A moQtaines
roots mov'd, A were stird at his ire,
8. ** Vp from his nostrils went a smoak,
and from his mouth devouring fire;
By it the coales inkindled were.
0. ** Likewise the heavens he downe-bow'd,
And he descended. A there was
under his feet a gloomy cloud."
Of the first edition of the Bay Psalm Book only
eleven copies are known to exist. In 1647 a second
edition, better printed and with the spelling and
punctuation corrected, was published either by
Stephen Daye or possibly by Matthew Daye or
even in England, and this edition long remained
in general use among the Puritans of New England.
A reprint of the first edition (71 copies) was issued
privately at Cambridge in 1862.
Biblioobapht: R. F. Roden, The Cambridge Preee, New
York. 1006.
BDELLIUM, del'i-um (Hebr. hedhoM): One
of the products of the land of Havilah, mentioned
with gold and the a^^m-stone (E. V. " onyx ")
in Gen. ii, 11-12. In Num. xi, 7, manna is said
to have resembled it. It was, therefore, some-
thing well known to the Hebrews, but the
exact meaning is uncertain. Some have thought
that it was a precious stone, perhaps the pearl;
others identify it with myrrh or with musk. The
most probable and generally accepted explanation
is that it was the gum of a tree, much prized in
antiquity and used in religious ceremonies. Pliny
(Hist, not,, xii, 35) describes it as transparent,
waxy, fragrant, oily to the touch, and bitter; the
tree was black, of the size of the olive, with leaves
like the ilex, and fruit like the wild fig; he desig-
nates Bactria as its home, but states that it grew
also in Arabia, India, Media, and Babylonia. It
probably belonged to the balsamodendra and was
allied to the myrrh. I. Benzinoer.
BEACH, HARLAN PAGE: Congregationalist;
b. at South Orange, N. J., Apr. 4, 1854. He was
Beard
Bebb
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
18
educated at Yale College (B.A., 1878) and An-
dover Theological Seminary (1883). He was
instructor in Phillips Andover Academy 1878-80,
and was ordained in 1883. He was missionary
in China for seven years, and from 1892 to 1895
was instructor and later superintendent of the
School for Christian Workers, Springfield, Mass.
He was appointed educational secretary of the
Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions
in 1895, and held this position until 1906, when he
was chosen professor of the theory and practise of
. missions in the Yale Divinity School. He has been a
corporate member of the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions since 1895 and of
the cooperating committee of the same organi-
zation since 1906, as well as chairman of the ex-
hibit committee and executive committee of the
Ecumenical Conference in 1900, member of the
Bureau of Missions Trustees since 1901, member
of the executive conmiittee of the Yale Foreign
Missionary Society since 1903, member of the advi-
sory board of Canton Christian College and trustee
of the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy since
1905. In theology he is a moderate conservative.
He has written The Cross in the Land of the Trident
(New York, 1895); Knights of the Labarum (1896);
New Testament Studies in Missions (1898); Davm
on the Hills of T'ang : or, Missions in China (1898);
Protestant Missions in South America (1900);
Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions (2 vols.,
1901-03); Two Hundred Years of Christian Activity
in Yale (New Haven, 1902); Princely Men of the
Heavenly Kingdom (New York, 1903); and India
and Christian Opportunity (1904).
BEARDy CHARLES: English Unitarian; b. at
Higher Broughton, Manchester, July 27, 1827,
son of John Relly Beard, also a well-known Uni-
tarian minister and educator (b. 1800; d. 1876);
d. at Liverpool Apr. 9, 1888. He studied at Blan-
chester New College 1843-48, was graduated B.A.
at London University 1847, and continued his
studies at Berlin 1848-49; became assistant min-
ister at Hyde Chapel, Gee Cross, Cheshire, 1850,
minister 1854, minister at Renshaw Street Chapel,
Liverpool, 1867. From 1864 to 1879 he edited The
Theological Review, Besides sermons, addresses,
etc., he published Port Royals a Contribution to
the History of Religion and Literature in France
(2 vols., London, 1861); The Reformation in its
Relation to Modem Thought (Hibbert lectures for
1883); and Martin Luther and the Reformation in
Germany untU the Close of the Diet of Worms
(ed. J. F. Smith, 1889).
BEARD, RICHARD: Cumberland Presbyterian;
b. in Sumner County, Tenn., Nov. 27, 1799; d. at
Lebanon, Tenn., Nov. 6, 1880. He was licensed
in 1820; graduated at Cumberland College, Prince-
ton, Ky., 1832, and was professor of Greek and Latin
there 1832-38, and in Sharon College, Sharon, Miss.,
1838-43; president of Cumberland College 1843-54;
professor of systematic theology in Cumberland
University, Lebanon, Tenn., after 1854. He pub-
lished the following k>ooks. Why am I a Cumberland
Presbyterian r (Nashville, 1872); Lectures on The-
ology (3 vols., 1873-75); Brief Biographical Sketches
of Some of the Early Ministers of the Cumberland
Presbyterian Church (1874).
BEARDSLEE, CLARK SMITH: Congrega-
tionalist; b. at Coventry, N. Y., Feb. 1, 1850. He
was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1876),
Hartford Theological Seminary (1879), and the
University of Berlin. He was instructor in He-
brew at Hartford Theological Seminary from 1878
to 1881, and then held successive pastorates at Le
Mars, la. (1882-85), Prescott, Ariz. (1885-86),
and West Springfield, Mass. (1886-88). In 1888
he was appointed associate professor of systematic
theology at Hartford Theological Seminary, and
four years later was made professor of Biblical
dogmatics and ethics, a position which he still
holds. In theology he is a BibUcal Evangelical.
He is the author of Christ* s Estimate of Himself
(Hartford, 1899); Teacher-Training with the Master
Teacher (Philadelphia, 1903); and Jesus the King
of Truth (Hartford, 1905).
BEATIFICATION: An intermediate stage in
the process of canonization. It is in modem usage
itself the result of a lengthy course of inquiry into
the life of the person under consideration, and is
solemnly declared in St. Peter's at Rome. By
it the title of " Blessed " is attributed to the sub-
ject, and a limited and partial cultus of him per-
mitted, as in a certain country or order. See
Canonization.
BEATIFIC VISION: The direct and unhindered
vision of God, which is part of the reserved blessed-
ness of the redeemed (I Cor. xiii, 12; I John iii, 2;
Rev. xxii, 3, 4 ). The conception of its nature
must necessarily be very vague, but belief in its
existence is said to be founded upon Scripture and
reason. The only question concerns its time.
This has been much disputed. The Greek Church
and many Protestants, especially Lutherans and
Calvinists, put the vision after the judgment day
(so Dr. Hodge, Systematic Theology , iii, 860). A(>-
cording to the view prevalent among Roman Catho-
lic theologians, the vision, though essentially com-
plete before the resurrection, is not integrally so
until the soul is reunited to the glorified b<xiy (con-
sult H. Hurter, Theologice dogmatica compendium,
vol. iii, De Deo consummatore, chap, v, 10th ed.,
Innsbruck, 1900).
BEATON, bi'tan (BETHUNE), be-thOn' or
be-tan', DAVID: Cardinal-archbishop of St.
Andrews; b. 1494; assassinated at St. Andrews
May 29, 1546. He was the third son of John Beaton
of Auchmuty, Fifeshire; studied at the universities
of St. Andrews and Glasgow, and at the age of
fifteen went to Paris and studied law; became abbot
of Arbroath in 1523; bishop of Mirepoix in Langue-
doc 1537; cardinal Dec., 1538. He was made
lord privy seal in 1528; succeeded his uncle, James
Beaton, as archbishop of St. Andrews in 1539;
was consecrated archbishop of Glasgow at Rome in
1552; became chancellor and prothonotary apos-
tolic and legate a latere in 1543. He served his
country in many important diplomatic missions.
19
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beard
Bebb
In the bitter political contests of the time between
the French and English parties he sided with the
former, and fought with energy and courage for
the independence of Scotland against the plans of
Henry VIII. In the religious contests between
Romanists and Reformers he took as decidedly the
part of the hierarchy and did not scruple to use
intrigue and force when argument and persuasion
failed. His memory has been darkened by his
severity against heretics and his inunoral life.
The case of George Wishart (q.v.) is adduced as a
particulariy flagrant piece of religious persecution;
but it must be remembered that he lived in a rude
country in turbulent times, and the Reformers were
implicated in political intrigues and treasonable
plots. The execution of Wishart was the imme-
diate cause of a conspiracy to put Beaton out of
the way, and certain members of the Reform
party murdered him in his bedchamber.
Bibuoobapht: R. Chambers, Livet of lUuatriouM Scotchmen,
ed. T. Thoauon. 5 vols.. Edinbursh. 1835; C. R. Rogers,
Life of Georoe Wishart, ib. 1876; DNB, iv. 17-18; J. Herk-
len. Cardinal Beaton, Prieet and Politician, London, 1891.
BEATTIE, FRAlfCIS ROBERT: Presbyterian;
b. at Guelph, Ont., Mar. 31,1848; d. at Louisville,
Ky., Sept. 4, 1906. He was educated at the
University of Toronto (B.A., 1875), Knox Theo-
logical College, Toronto (1878), Illinois Wesleyan
University (Ph.D., 1884), and Presbyterian Theo-
logical College, Montreal (D.D., 1887). He was
tutor in Knox College in 1876-78, and held Cana-
dian pastorates at Baltimore and Coldsprings
(1878-82) and Brantford (1882-88), in addition
to being examiner to Toronto University in 1884-
1 . - >. In t he latter year he entered the Presbyterian
Cliurch, South, and was appointed professor of
apologetics in Columbia Seminary, Columbia, S. C,
remaining there until 1893, when he became
professes of apologetics and systematic theology in
the Presbyterian Theologicsd Seminary of Ken-
tucky at Louisville. He published Utilitarian
Theory of Morals (Brantford, Ont., 1884); Methods
of Theism (1887); Radical Criticism (Chicago, 1894);
PreAyterian Standards (Richmond, Va., 1896); and
Apologeiux (vol. i, 1903). He also edited the Afe-
marial Volume of the Westminster Assembly CeUbror
tion at Chartatte, N. C. (Riclunond, Va., 1897), and
was associate editor of the Christian Observer
from 1893 and of The Presbyterian Quarterly from
1895.
BEATTIE, JAICES: Scotch poet; b. at Laurence-
kirk (70 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh), Kincardineshire,
Oct. 25, 1735; d. at Aberdeen Aug. 18, 1803. He
studied at the Marischal College, Aberdeen (M.A.,
1753), and, after seven years as a school-teacher,
became professor of moral philosophy and logic
at that institution in 1760. In reply to Hume he
wrote An Essay on the Nature and Immutability
of Truth (London, 1770), which was popular and
successful, but has little value as a philosophical
work. Other works of his were: Dissertations ,
Moral and Critical (1783) ; Evidences of the Christian
Religion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1786); and Elements
of Moral Science (2 vols., 1790-93). His poems,
of which the chief is The Minstrel (books i-ii, 1771-
1774), are much better than his philosophical wri-
tings; and it is for them that he is remembered.
Bibuoorapht: Sir William Forbes, An Account of the Life
and WrtHnge of Jamee Beattie, Edinbursh, 1806; DNB,
iv, 22-25.
BEAUSOBRE, b0"s5'br, ISAAC DE: One of
the most distinguished preachers of the French
Protestant Church; b. at Niort (220 m. s.w. of
Paris), in the present department of Deux-S6vres,
Mar. 8, 1659; d. in Berlin June 5, 1738. He was
descended from a Protestant family of Gascogne,
whose head took refuge in Geneva in 1578. He
began his theological studies at the celebrated
academy of Saumur, was ordained at the last
synod of Loudun, and was called to bd minister
of the church at Chatillon, department of Indre,
1683. During the religious persecution, he fled
in Nov., 1685, to Rotterdam, where he was wel-
comed at the house of the princess of Orange and,
through her, was appointed chaplain to her daughter,
princess of Anhalt-Dessau. In 1694 he was appointed
chaplain to the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick
III, and was called to Berlin as minister of the
French Church. He stayed there for thirty-six
years, preaching with much success, and was
loaded with favors by King Frederick II. Among
other honorable missions, he was sent in 1704 to
the Duke of Marlborough, and, in 1713, to the
conunissioners of the Treaty of Utrecht, to ask for
the exchange of Huguenot galley-slaves for French
prisoners. He was privy councilor of the king
of Prussia, director of the French House and of
the French schools, and superintendent of all the
French churches in Berlin.
His works are: Defense de la doctrine des Ri-
formis sur la Providence^ la pridestination, la grdce,
et VEucharistie (Magdeburg, 1693); Les Psaumes
de David mis en rime frangaise (Berlin, 1701); Le
NouveaurTestament de J. C, traduU en frangais
sur Voriginal grec, avec des notes litt&ales (Amster-
dam, 1718); Histoire crUiqus de Manichie et du
Manich&isme (1739); Sermons (4 vols., Lausanne,
1755); Histoire de la Reformation ou origine et pro-
gr^s du Luthdranisme dans V Empire de 1617 d, 1636
(4 vols., Berlin, 1785-86). G. Bonet-Maury.
Biblioqrapht: A life is prefixed by A. B. de la Chapelle
to Beaueobre'a Remarguee . . . eur le Nouveau Testament,
2 vols.. The Hacue. 1742. Consult J. H. S. Formey, £loge
dee aeadimiciene de Berlin, 2 vols., Berlin, 1757; E. and
"k. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ii, 1 27,
Paris, 1877; C. J. G. Bartholmeas. Le Grand Beaueobre,
in BvUOin de la aociiti d'hietoire du proteetantieme frangaia,
ib. 1876.
BEBB, LLEWELLYN JOHN MONTFORT:
Church of England; b. at Cape Town Feb. 16, 1862.
He was educated at New College, Oxford (B.A.,
1885), and was fellow (1885-98), tutor (1889-98),
and librarian (1892-98) of Brasenose College.
He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Salis-
buiy from 1893 to 1898, and to the bishop of St.
Asaph from 1898 to 1902, and was also curator of
the botanical garden, Oxford, in 1896-98 and Grin-
feld lecturer on the Septuagint in the University
of Oxford in 1897-1901. From 1892 to 1896 he
was vice-principal of Brasenose Collegei Oxford,
and since 1898 has been principal of St. David's
College, Lampeter, Wales. He was select preacher
Bebanbiuv
Beoket
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
20
at Cambridge in 1904, and has written Evidence
of the Early Versions and Patristic Quotations on
ihe Text of the New Testament, in Studia Biblica,
ii (Oxford, 1890), and lias edited Sermons Preached
before the University of Oxford (1901) and U. Z.
Rule's Cfraduated Lessons from the Old Testament
(1902).
BEBEITBURG, LUPOLD VON: Bishop of
Bamberg, best known for his writings on eccle-
siastico-political subjects; d. 1363. He came of
a knightly Prankish family, and studied canon
law at Bologna. From 1338 to 1352 he was a
member of the chapters of WQrzburg and Mainz
and dean of St. Severus at Erfurt. In 1353 he
was made bishop of Bamberg, and remained there
till his death. In the strug^e between Louis the
Bavarian and Popes John XXII, Benedict XII,
and Clement VI, he was among the jurists who
took the emperor's side. His treatise De juribus
regni et imperii Romanorum (ed. J. Wimpfeling,
Strasburg, 1508; S. Schard, in De jurisdictionef
avetoritate, et prceeminentia imperiali oc potestate
ecdesiastica variis auctoribus scripta, Basel, 1566,
and often), dedicated to Louis' supporter, the
elector Baldwin of Treves, deals less with abstract
ideas and Aristotelian politics than with historical
considerations. Two minor works of his have also
been preserved, one in praise of the devotion of the
old German princes to the Church (in Schard, ut
sup.), the other a lament over the condition of the
Holy Roman Empire (ed. Peter, Wiirzburg, 1842).
(E. Friedberq.)
Bibuooeapht: J. Looshom, Die QfchiehU dea BUihuma
Bambero, iii. 346-306, Biachof Lupoid III von Bthenbvay,
Munich, 1891; A. Ussermann, ETpUctypahM BambergentUt
pp. 176-180, San Bias, 1802; S. Rieiler. Dm liierariachen
Widertadur der PApHe, pp. 107-114, 180-192, Leipaio,
1874; F. Joel, Lupoid III von Btbenhurg, vol. i, Sein Leben,
Halle, 1891 (the result of diligent research).
EEC, ABBEY OF: Benedictine abbey of Nor-
mandy, situated at the present village of Le Bee-
Hellouin (7 m. s.w. of Rouen). It was foimded
about 1034 by Herluin, a noble Norman, who was
first abbot. Mainly because of its great teachers,
Lanfranc (who came to the abbey about 1042
and was prior 1045 or 1046-66) and Anselm (en-
tered the abbey 1060; prior 1063-78; abbot 1078-93;
see Anselm, Saint, op Canterbury), it became
a famous center of learning for Normandy and, after
the Conquest, for England. Among those who
studied there were: Anselm of Lucca, afterward
Pope Alexemder II; Anselm of Laon; Gilbert
Crispin, abbot of Westminster, author of the life
of Herluin; Milo Crispin, biographer of Lanfranc
and certain of the early abbots; Amulf and Gun-
dulf, bishops of Rochester; Ivo of Chartres; Gut-
mund, archbishop of Aversa; and William, arch-
bishop of Rouen. Its fifth abbot, Theobald,
became archbishop of Canterbuiy (1139); and the
seventh abbot was Vacarius, who about the middle
of the twelfth century introduced the study of the
Roman law into England. The abbey was des-
troyed during the French Revolution
BiBUOaKAFBT: The Chronieon Beeeenait dbbaHa^ with the
lives by the Crispins above referred to, are in D'Ach^ry's
•dition ol tha works of Lanfranc, Paris, 16i8; reprinted
in MPL^ cl; and the Gesia of seven Abbots of Bee, by
Peter the Monk, written 11 50, are in MPL, dxxzL
BEGAN (VERBEECE, VAN DER BEECK),
MARTIN: Jesuit; b. at Hilvarenbeeck (35m. n.e. of
Antwerp), in Brabant, Jan. 6, 1563; d. in Vienna
Jan. 24, 1624. He joined the JesuiU in 1583;
taught philosophy and theology at schools of the
order in Cologne, Wdrzbuig, Mainz, and Vienna;
and became oonfessor to the emperor Ferdinand II.
in 1620. He engaged in controversy with Lutherans,
Calvinists and Anabaptists, and in particular at-
tacked the Church of England. In his Contro-
versia Anglicana de potestate pontifids et regis (Mainz,
1613) he defended the morality of assassinating a
heretic king; and in Qu<sstiones de fide hca-eticis
servanda (1609) he declared that no promise or
oath given to a heretic was binding. The former
work was condemned at Rome. His collected
works were published in two volumes at Mainz,
1630-31.
BECK, JOHANN TOBIAS: German theologian;
b. at Balingen (40 m. s.s.w. of Stuttgart), WOrt-
temberg, Feb. 22, 1804; d. at Tflbingen Dec. 28,
1878. He studied at Tubingen 1822-26, was pastor
at Waldthann and Mergentheim, went to Basel as
extraordinary professor in 1836, and in 1843 to
Tilbingen, where he remained as professor and
morning preacher till his death. He has been char-
acterized as the most important representative of
the strictly Biblical school of theology in the nine-
teenth century. He aimed to base all doctrine on
the Bible, and allowed value to Church teaching?
only as interpretations of the Bible. He held an
extreme view of revelation and inspiration, and
hardly entered into critico-historical questions.
His life was plain and simple, and his kind heart
won general affection. He published, besides
several collections of sermons, the following works:
Einleitung in das System der christlichen Lekre
(Stuttgart, 1838, 2d ed., 1870); Die GebuHdes christ-
lichen Lebens, sein Wesen tmd sein Gesetx (Basel,
1839); Die {^ristliche Lehnrissenschaft nach den
biblischen Urkunden, i, Logik (Stutt^urt, 1841, 2d
ed., 1875); Die christHche Menschenliebe, das Wort
und die Gemeinde Christi (Basel, 1842); Umriss der
biblischen SedenUhre (Stuttgart, 1843, 3d ed,
1873; Eng. transL, Biblical Psychology, Edinburgh,
1877); Leiifaden der christlichen Glaubenslehre fur
Kirche, Schule und Haus (Stuttgart, 1862, 2d ed.,
1869) ; Gedanken aus und riach der Schrift fUr christ-
liches Leben und geistliches Ami (Frankfort, 1859;
2d ed., 1878). After his death were published
commentaries on the epistles to Timothy (GQtersloh,
1879) and the Romans (2 vols., 1884), and on Rev.
i-xii (1883); PastoraUehren des Neuen Testaments
(1880; Eng. transL, Pastoral Theology, Edinburgh,
1882); Vorlesungen aber chrisUiche Ethik (3 vols.,
1882-^); Brief e und Kemworte (1885); Vorlesungen
aber chrisUiche Glaubenslehre (2 vols., 1886-87);
VoUendung des Reiches Gottes (1887). (A. Hauck.)
Bxblxogeapht: For hie life consult: Worte der Erinntryng,
Tabinsen, 1879 (the part by Weissftcker is esped&lly val-
uable); B. J. BjgKenbach, 7. Beck, ein SduriftffMrter
gum Himmelreieht Basel, 1888. On his theology consult:
F. liebetrut, J. 7. Seek und miim StOlung sur Kirekt,
21
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bebanbiuv
Beoket
Berlin. 1858; C. Sturhahn, Die Reehtfwrtigungriehre nach
BmI mii BtrHeknehiiouno wm Ebrard'9 Sda, Leipaio, 1890.
On bis work aa a preacher: A. Brdmel, HomiUUaehe Charak-
terhikUr, 2 Tola., ib. 1874; A. Nebe. Gead^iehU der Predigt,
rol m, Wieebaden, 1870.
BECKET, THOMAS (oommoDly called Thomas
a Becket) : Archbishop of Canterbury 1162-70,
the moat determined English champion of the
rif^ta and liberties of the Church in his day;
b. in London between 1110 and 1120; assassinated
at Canterbury I>ec. 29, 1170. His parents were of
the middle class. He received an excellent edu-
cation, which he completed at the University of
Paris. Returning to England, he attracted the
notice of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury,
who entrusted him with several important missions
to Rome, and finally made him archdeacon of
Canierbuiy and provost of Beverley. He so dis-
tinguished himself by his zeal and efficiency that
Theobald commended him to King Henry II when
the important office of chancellor was vacant.
Henry, like all the Norman kings, desired to be
absolute mAster of his dominions, in both Church
and State, and could well appeal to the traditions
of his house when he planned to do
Life before away with the special privileges of
his Conae- the English clergy, which he regarded
cratioii. as so many fetters on his authority.
Becket struck lum as an instrument
well adapted for the accomplishment of his designs;
the young man showed himself an accomplished
courtier, a cheerful companion in the king's pleas-
ures, and devoted to his master's interests with
such a firm and yet diplomatic thoroughness that
scarcely any one, unless perhaps it was John of
Salisbury, could have doubted that he had gone
over completely to the royal side. Archbishop
Theobald died Apr. 18, 1161, and the chapter
learned with some indignation that the king ex-
pected them to choose Thomas his successor.
The election was, however, consummated in May,
and Thomas was consecrated on June 3, 1162.
At once there took place before the eyes of the
astonished king and country an unexpected trans-
formaticm in the character of the new primate.
Instead of a gay, pleasure-loving courtier, he stood
forth an ascetic prelate in simple monastic garb,
ready to contend to the uttermost for the cause
of the hierarchy. In the schism which at that time
divided the Church, he declared for
Archbishopy Alexander III (q.v.), a man whose
1 163. devotion to the same strict hierarch-
ical principles appealed to him; and
from Alexander he received the pallium at the
Council of Tours. On his return to England, he
proceeded at once to put into execution the project
he had formed for the liberation of the Church of
En^and from the very limitations which he had
formerly helped to enforce. His aim was twofold:
the complete exemption of the Church from all
civfl jurisdiction, with undivided control of the
clergy, freedom of appeal, etc., and the acquisition
and security of an independent fund of church
property. The king was not slow to perceive the
inevitable outcome of the archbishop's attitude,
and called a meeting of the clergy at Westminster
(Oct. 1, 1163) at which he demanded that they
should renounce all claim to exemption from civil
jurisdiction and acknowledge the equality of all
subjects before the law. The others were inclined
to yield, but the archbishop stood firm. Henry was
not ready for an open breach, and offered to be
content with a more general acknowledgment and
recognition of the " customs of his ancestors."
Thomas was willing to agree to this, with the sig-
nificemt reservation " saving the rights of the
Church." But this involved the whole question
at issue, and Henry left London in anger.
Henry called another assembly at Clarendon for
Jan. 30, 1164, at which he presented his demands
in sixteen constitutions. What he asked involved
the abandonment of the clergy's in-
The Con- dependence and of their direct con-
stitutions of nection with Rome; he employed all his
Clarendon, arts to induce their consent, and was
apparently successful with all but the
primate. Finally even Becket expressed his will-
ingness to agree to the constitutions; but when it
came to the actual signature he definitely refused.
This meant war between the two powers. Henry
endeavored to rid himself of his antagonist by ju-
dicial process and summoned him to appear before
a great coimcil at Northampton on Oct. 8, 1164, to
answer charges of contempt of royal authority and
maladministration of the chemcellor's office.
Becket denied the right of the assembly to
judge him, appealed to the pope, and, feeling that
his life was too valuable to the Church to be risked,
went into voluntary exile on Nov. 2, embarking in
a fishing-boat which landed him in France. He
went to Sens, where Pope Alexander was, while
envoys from the king hastened to work against
him, requesting that a legate should
Becket be sent to England with plenary au-
Leaves thority to settle the dispute. Alex-
England, ander decHned, and when, the next
day, Becket arrived and gave him a
full account of the proceedings, he was still more
confirmed in his aversion to the king. Heiury
pursued the fugitive archbishop with a series of
edicts, aimed at all his friends and supporters as
well as himself; but Louis VII of France received
him with respect and offered him protection. He
spent nearly two years in the Cistercian abbey of
Pontigny, until Henry's threats against the order
obliged him to move to Sens again. He regarded
himself as in full possession of all his prerogatives,
and desired to see his position enforced by the
weapons of excommunication and interdict. But
Alexander, though sympathizing with him in theory,
was for a milder and more diplomatic way of reach-
ing his ends. Differences thus arose between pope
and archbishop, which were all the more embit-
tered when legates were sent in 1167 with authority
to act as arbitrators. Disregarding this limita-
tion of his jurisdiction, and steadfast in his prin-
ciples, Thomas treated with the legates at great
length, still conditioning his obedience to the king
by the rights of his order. His firmness seemed
about to meet with its reward when at last (1170)
the pope was on the point of fulfilling his threats
and exconununicating the king, and Henry, alarmed
Baoket
Beeoher
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
22
by the prospect, held out hopes of an agreement
which should allow Thomas to return to England
and resume his place. But both parties were
really stiU holding to their former ground, and the
desire for a reconciliation was only apparent.
Both, however, seem for the moment to have be-
lieved in its possibility; and the contrast was all
the sharper when it became evident that the old
irreconcilable opposition was still there. Henry,
incited by his partisans, refused to restore the ec-
clesiastical property which he had seized, and
Thomas prepared to issue the pope's sentence
against the despoilers of the Church and the bishops
who had abetted them. It had been already sent
to England for promulgation when he himself
landed at Sandwich on Dec. 3, 1170, and two days
later entered Canterbiuy.
The tension was now too great to be endured,
and the catastrophe which relieved it was not long
in coming. A passionate word of the angry king
was taken as authority by four knights, who imme-
diately plotted the murder of the archbishop, and
accomplished it in his own cathedral
Becket As- on Dec, 29. The crime brought its
own revenge. Becket was revered by
the faithful throughout Europe as a
martyr, and canonized by Alexander in 1173; while
on July 12 of the following year Henry humbled
himself to do public penance at the tomb of his
enemy, which remained one of the most popular
places of pilgrimage in England until it was des-
troyed at the Reformation (see Canterbury).
(Carl Mirbt.)
Bibuoorapht: The Boorees for a life were collected by J.
C. Robertson in MaieriaU fwr the HUL of Thoma» Becket,
8 vols., in RoUa Seriet, London, 187&-85 (contains all the
known contemporary lives, others of later date, the Epis-
ties, and other material); cf. the Vila, tpiatoltB et religuice,
ed. J. A. Giles in PEA, 8 vols., Oxford, 1845-46, and
J. A. Giles, Lift and Letters of ThomaM & Becket, 2 vols.,
London, 1846. For later discussions and lives consult:
M. Coumier, L'Archevtque de CarUorMry, 2 vols., Paris,
1845: J. C. Robertson, Beckei, London, 1859; W. F.
Hook, JAvea of the ArchUthops of Canterbury, ii. 354-507.
ib. 1862; B. A. Freeman, in Historical Essay; series 2,
ib. 1880; idem, in Contemporary Review, Mar.- Apr.. 1878;
J. A. Froude, Life and Times of Becket, in Short Studies,
vol. jv, ib. 1883; idem, in Nineteenth Century, ii (1877),
15-27. 217-229, 389-410, 669-691; C. P. Stanley, Histor-
ical Memorials of Canterbury, pp. 59-125, 189-302, London,
1883; W. H. Hutton, St. Thomas of Canterbury, ib. 1889
(from contemporary lives); J. Morris, Life and Martyr-
dom of St, Thomas Becket, ib. 1891 (Roman Catholic, deals
with monasteries and churches associated with Becket);
M. Schmiti, Die politischen Ideen des Thomas Becket, Cre-
feld. 1893; E. A. Abbott. SL Thomas of Canterbury: his
Death and Mirades, 2 vols.. London. 1898 (travernes the
earlier accounts in a critical examination); DNB, Ivi,
165-173.
BECKWITH, CHARLES MINNIGERODE:
Protestant Episcopal bishop of Alabama; b. in
Prince George Co., Va., June 3, 1851. He studied
at the University of Georgia (B.A., 1873), was mas-
ter of the Sewanee Grammar School, University of
the South (Sewanee, Tenn.), 1873-79, and was
graduated from Berkeley Divinity School, Middle-
town, Conn., in 1881. He was oixlered deacon and
advanced to the priesthood in the same year, and
was rector of St. Luke's, Atlanta, Ga. (1881-86),
Christ Church, Houston, Tex. (1886-92), and
Trinity, Galveston, Tex. (1892-1902). In 1902 he
was consecrated fourth bishop of Alabama. He
has written The Trinity Course of Church Instruc-
tion (New York, 1898) and The Teacher'a Comr
panion to the Trinity Course (1901).
BECKWITH, CLARENCE AUGUSTINE: Con-
gregationalist; b. at Charlemont, Mass., July
21, 1849. He studied at Olivet College, Olivet,
Mich. (B.A., 1874), Yale Divinity School (1874-76),
and Bangor Theological Seminary, from which
he was graduated in 1877. He became pastor of
the First Congregational Church, Brewer, Me., in
1877, of the South Evangelical Congregational
Church, West Roxbury, Mass., in 1882, professor
of Christian theology at Bangor Theological Sem-
inary in 1892, and professor of systematic theolog}'
at Chicago Theological Seminary in 1905. Ho
holds that " the realities of the Christian religion
and the facts of Christian experience which wc
share with Christians of all ages are to be inter-
preted by us in terms of modem thought." He
has written Realities of Christian Theology (New
York, 1906).
BECKX, PIERP^ JEAN: Generalof the Jesuit.<;
b. at Sichem (33 m. s.e. of Antwerp) Feb. 8, 1795:
d. at Rome Mar. 4, 1887. He entered the Society
of Jesus at Hildesheim in 1819, and was professed
in 1830. He was active as a pastor at Hamburg,
Hildesheim, and Brunswick, and in 1826 was sta-
tioned at Kdthen as the confessor of the newly con-
verted duke and duchess of Anhalt-Kothen. From
1830 to 1848 he was in Vienna, where he exercised
much influence, especially over Mettemich, and
was made procurator of the Society of Jesus in that
country in 1847; when his Order was expelled
from Austria in 1848, he was appointed rector of
the University of Ix>uvain. Four years later, how-
ever, the Jesuit* were readmitted to Austria, largely
through his unceasing activity, and in 1852 he re-
turned to Vienna as provincial of the Society. In
the following year he was elected general, and held
this oflace until 1883, when, on account of his ad-
vancing years, the vicar-general Antoine M. Ander-
ledy was appointed to assist him. In the follow-
ing year Beckx resigned the generalship in favor of
Anderledy. The successful fortunes of the Jesuits
dtuing the attacks upon them both in Austria and
Germany were due in great part to his ability and
tact, and in his administration the numbers of the
Society were almost doubled. He was the founder
and editor of the famous CiviUd Cattolica, and sdso
wrote the anonymous Der Monat Marid (Vienna.
1838; Eng. transl. by Mrs. Edward Hazeland,
London, 1884).
Biblioobapht: A. M. Verstraeten, Leven van den hoogerr-
vaarden Pater Petrus Beckx, Antwerp, 1889.
BEDE or BJEDA (called '* the Venerable "):
The first great English scholar; b. in Northumbria
(according to tradition, at Monkton, Durham, 5
m. e. of Newcastle) 672 or 673; d. at the monas-
tery of Jarrow (6 m. e. of Newcastle) May 25, 7:55.
Almost all that is known of his life is contain<Ml in
a notice added by himself to YuaHistoria ecclejiiastira
(v, 24). which states that he was placed in the moiia"^-
tery at Wearmouth at the age of seven, that he became
23
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beoket
Beeoher
deacon in his nineteenth year, and priest in his
thirtieth. He was trained by the abbots Benedict
Biscop and Ceolfrid (qq.v.), and probably accom-
panied the latter to Jarrow in 682. There he spent
his life, finding his chief pleasure in being always
occupied in learning, teaching, or writing, and zeal-
ous in the performance of monastic duties. His
works show that he had at his command all the
learning of his time. He was proficient in patris-
tic literature, and quotes from Pliny the Younger,
Vergil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace, and other classical
writers, but with some disapproval. He knew
Greek and a little Hebrew. His Latin is clear and
without affectation, and he is a skilful story-teller.
Like all men of his time he was devoted to the alle-
gorical method of interpretation, and was credu-
lous concerning the miraculous; but in most things
bis good sense is conspicuous, and his kindly and
broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness,
his unfeigned piety, and his devotion to the service
of others combine to make him an exceedingly
attractive character. His works were so widely
spread throughout Europe and so much esteemed
that he won the name of '' the teacher of the Middle
Ages."
Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical,
and theological. The scientific include treatises
on grammar (written for his pupils), a work on
natural phenomena (De rerum natura), and two
on chronology (De temporibus and De temporum
ratione). The most important and best known
of his works is the Histona ecdeaiastica gentis
Anglorum, giving in five books the history of
England, ecclesiastical and poUtical, from the tune
of Capsar to the date of completion (731). The
first twenty-one chapters, treating of the period
before the mission of Augustine, are compiled
from earlier writers such as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper
of Aquitaine, and others, with the insertion of
legend and tradition. After 596, documentary
sources, which Bede took pains to obtain, are used,
and oral testimony, which he employed not without
critical consideration of its value. His other his-
torical works were lives of the abbots of Wear-
mouth and Jarrow, and lives in verse and prose of
St. Chithbert. The most numerous of his writings
are theological, and consist of commentaries on
the books of the Old and New Testaments, homi-
lies, and treatises on detached portions of Scripture.
His last work, completed on his death-bed, was
a translation into Anglo-Saxon of the Gospel of
John.
Bibuoorapht: The collected editions of Bede's works
(rach aa by J. A. Giles, with Eng. transl. of the historical
works and life, PairM ecdeaia Anglicana, 12 vols., Lon-
don, 1843-^44; in MPL, xc-xcv) leave much to be desired.
Good editions of the historical works, particularly of the
Hiabft-iu eeelenaaHeaf have been issued by J. Smith, Cam-
bridce. 1722; J. Stevenson, HiaL ted., London, 1838.
Opcro hiaioriea minora, 1841; G. H. Moberly, Oxford.
1869; J £. B. Mayor and J. R. Lumby, HUL eed., books
iii and ir, Ckmbridse. 1881; A. Holder, Freiburg, 1890;
C. Fluouner, 2 vols., Oxford. 1896; Bed. HUt., transl.,
introduction, life, and notes, by A. M. Sellar, London,
1907. The two works on chronology have been edited by
T. Mommsen in MOH, Chron. min., iii (1898). There
are Fjiglwh versions of the Bedsnaatical Hiatory by Ste-
rm», 1723, revised by J. A. Giles, London, 1840; J.
StereoKm, ib. 1853; and L. Gridley. Oxford, 187a The
old Eng. version of the Hiat. ecd., with transl. and in-
troduction, was ed. by T. Miller, in 4 |>arts, ib. 1870.
For Bede's life consult the introductions and notes to the
editions mentioned, particularly those of Stevenson and
Plummer; Q. F. Browne, The Vanerable Bede, in The
FaiheraforBngliahReadera, London, 1879, New York, 1891;
K. Werner. Beda der Eknanrdige und aeine Zeit, Vienna.
1881; J. B. Lightfoot, in Leadera of the Northern Church,
London, 1890 (biographical sermons); F. Phillips, in
Faihera of the Engliah Church, vol. i. London, 1891. (sim-
ple, scholarly, fair); W. Bright, Early Engliah Church
Hiatory, pp. 367-371 et passim, Oxford, 1897.
BEDELL, WILLIAM: Irish bishop; b. at Black
Notley, near Braintree (50 m. n.e. of London),
Essex, England, on or near Christmas day, 1571;
d. at Drum Corr, near Kilmore, County Cavan,
Ireland, Feb. 7, 1642. He studied at Emmanuel
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1588; M.A., 1592; B.D.,
1599), was ordained priest Jan. 10, 1597, and settled
at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, in 1602. In 1607
he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton,
British ambassador at that city, and there he made
the acquaintance of a number of noteworthy men,
including Marco Antonio de Dominis and Father
Paolo Sarpi, author of the Hiatory of the Council
of Trent, the last two books of which, as well as
Sarpi's History of the Venetian Interdict, he after-
ward translated into Latin. He retiuned to Bury
St. Edmunds in 1610, and removed to Homings-
heath, a neighboring parish, in 1616. In 1627
he was appointed provost of Trinity College, Dublin;
in 1629 he became bishop of the united dio-
ceses of Kilmore and Ardagh (County Longford);
in 1633 he resigned the latter see owing to con-
scientious objections to pluralities, and the belief
that the proper administration of the diocese re-
quired a separate bishop . His position was difficult ;
the dioceses were in wretched condition, and his
earnest efforts to effect improvement stirred up
opposition. Nevertheless he reformed many abuses
and enjoyed great esteem among the people. He
wrote a short simmiary of Christian doctrine in
English and Irish (published, Dublin, 1631), and
a translation of the Old Testament into Irish was
made xmder his supervision (published, London,
1685). When the rebellion of 1641 broke out, he
refused to leave his diocese, and, after suffering
many hardships, died of fever brought on by the
privations which he had undergone. His Life
vnth the Letters between Waddestoorth and Bedell
was published by Bishop Burnet (London, 1685),
and has been rewritten several times. The best
biography is one by his son (ed. for the Camden
Society T. W. Jones, London, 1872).
BEECHER, CHARLES: Congregationalist, fifth
son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn.,
Oct. 7, 1815; d. at Georgetown, Mass., Apr. 21,
1900. He was graduated at Bowdoin College 1834
and at Lane Theological Seminary 1836; became
pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Fort
Wayne, Ind., 1844; of the First Congregational
Church, Newark, N. J., 1851; of the First Church,
Georgetown, Mass., 1857. He lived in Florida 1870-
1877, and for two years was State superintendent
of schools. He published: The Incarnation (New
York, 1849); A Review of the Spirittud Manifested
tions (1853) ; David and his Throne (1855); Redeemer
Beeoher ^
BeelasebaD
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
24
and Redeemed (Boston, 1864); and SpiritudL Manv-
festatians (1879). With John Zundel he edited the
music for The Plymouth Collection of Hymns and
Tunes (New York, 1855), and, alone, the Auto-
hiographyf Correspondence, etc, of his father (2 vols.,
1865).
BEECHER, EDWARD: Congregationalist, sec-
ond son of Lyman Beecher; b. at East Hampton,
L. I., Aug. 27. 1803; d. in Brooklyn July 28, 1895.
He was graduated at Yale 1822; began his theo-
logical studies at Andover and continued them
while acting as tutor at Yale 1825-26; was pastor
of the Park Street Church, Boston, 1826-30;
president of Blinois College, Jacksonville, 111.,
1830-44; pastor of the Salem Street Church, Boston,
1844r-55, and editor of The Congregationalist 1849-
1853; pastor at Galesburg, HI., 1855-71; after 1871
resided in Brooklyn. He was lecturer on church
institutions at the Chicago Theological Seminary
(Congregational) 185^-66. In 1837 he defended
the freedom of the press in the case of Elijah P.
Lovejoy, an antislavery agitator at Alton, 111.
When Lovejoy 's presses were destroyed by the
mob, Beecher helped to obtain and secrete a new
one, and was with Lovejoy and his brother, Owen,
the night before the former was killed (Nov. 7,
1837). To resist the mob spirit he aided in found-
ing the Illinois State Antislavery Society, drew
up its constitution, and issued a Statement of Anti-
slavery Principles, and Address to the People of
Illinois. He published a Narrative of Riots at
Alton (Cincinnati, 1838). His views as to the nature
and cause of sin and on the atonement were set
forth in two works, The Conflict of Ages, or the
Great Debate on the Moral Relations of God and Man
(Boston, 1853) and The Concord of Ages, or the
Individual and Organic Harmony of God and Man
(New York, 1860), in which he expressed the belief
that the present life is a continuation of a preceding
existence as well as a preparation for a future one;
that the material system is adapted to regenerate
men, who have made themselves sinful in the pre-
vious state; and that ultimately the conflict be-
tween good and evil will disappear, and harmony
be established. The doctrine of divine suffering
he held to present the character of God in its most
affecting and powerful aspects, and to be essential
to a true view of the atonement. He also published .
On the Kingdom of God (Boston, 1827); Baptism
with Reference to its Import and Modes (New York,
1849); The Papal Conspiracy Exposed and Protes-
tantism Defended in the Light of Reason, History,
and Scripture (New York, 1855) ; History of Opinions
on the Scriptural Doctrine of RdrHnttion (1878).
BEECHER, HENRY WARD: Congregation-
alist, fourth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litch-
field, Conn., June 24, 1813; d. in Brooklyn Mar.
8, 1887. He was graduated at Amherst 1834,
and at Lane Theological Seminary 1837; became
pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Lawrenceburg,
Ind., 1837, at Indianapolis 1839, and of Plymouth
Church (Congregational), Brooklyn, 1847. The
congregation was newly formed at that time, but
soon became famed for its numbers and its influence,
while Beecher attained to the position of the most
popular and widely known preacher in America.
As a public lecturer he was no less successful.
In his sermons he disregarded conventionalities
both in subject and manner. His wit and humor
appeared in his preaching, which, nevertheless,
was earnest and edifying, and revealed a great
character, sincere and reverent; his public prayers
in particular were truly devotional (cf. Prayers
from Plymouth Pulpit, New York, 1867). No
slight dramatic power, robust health and physical
strength, and a striking personal appearance added
to the effect of his eloquence. Personally he was
a most estimable and attractive man, of generous
instincts, of rare humanity, and catholic sympar
thies. He was active in the antislavery coDt«st,
but deprecated revolutionary measures. In 1863
he publicly advocated the Union cause in a series
of addresses in the cities of England at a time when
the sympathies of the people of England were
strongly with the Southern Confederacy, and his
success at this time before bitterly hostile audiences
is one of the greatest feats of intellectual and ora-
torical achievement (these addresses were published
as The American Rd)ellion : Report of the Speeches
delivered in Manchester, etc., Manchester, 1864,
and are reprinted in Patriotic Addresses from 1850
to 1885 by Henry Ward Beecher, edited, with a
review of Mr. Beecher*s personality and influence
in public affairs, by John R. Howard, New York,
1889).
In later life the development of Beecher's mind
led him to desire a freedom which he thought could
not be attained within strictly denominational
lines, and, actuated also by the wish not to com-
promise his brethren by alleged heresies, in 1882,
with his church, he withdrew from the Congrega-
tional Association to which he belonged. The
chief points of his divergence from the orthodox
position of the time related to the person of Christ,
whom he considered to be the Divine Spirit under
the limitations of time, space, and flesh; to miracles,
which he considered divine uses of natural laws;
and to future punishment, the endlessness of which
he denied, inclining to a modification of the anni-
hilation theory.
Beecher was a regular contributor to The Inde-
pendent from its foundation in 1848 to 1870, and
its editor for not quite two years (1861-63). He
was editor of The Christian Union (since 1893 known
as The Outlook), 1870-81, and made it the pioneer
non-denominational religious paper. He also
wrote much for The New York Ledger. His ser-
mons were published weekly after 1859 (under the
title The Plymouth Pulpit), and have appeared in
book-form in numerous volumes. Sermons . . .
selected from published and unpublished discourses
and revised by their author, edited by Lyman Abbott
(2 vols., New York, 1868), is a representative col-
lection. His addresses, lectures, and articles were
also gathered into many books, such as Lectures
to Young Men (Indianapolis, 1844; rev. eds., New
York, Boston, 1850 and 1873); the Star Papers,
or experiences of art and nature (selections from
The Independent; so called from his signature, *;
2 vols., New York, 1855-58); Eyes and Ears (re-
printed from The New York Ledger, Boston, 1862);
25
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beeoher
Beelsebab
Ledure-Room Talks (New York, 1870); A Summer
Parish (1875); Evolution and Religion (1885).
His books of most permanent value were The Life
of Jesus the Christ (i, New York, 1871 ; ii, left incom-
plete at his death and supplemented by extracts
from his sermons, 1891), and the Yale Lectures on
Preaching (Lyman Beecher lectures before the
Yale Divinity School, 1872-74; 3 vols., also col-
lected edition in one volume, New York, 1881).
He compiled The Plymouth Collection of Hymns
and Tunes (1855), and wrote Norwood^ or Village
Life in New England, a novel (1867).
Bibliookapht: Lyman Abbott and 8. B. Halliday, Henry
Ward BMcker, Hartford, 1887; tbe Biography by his eon
William C. Beecher and Samuel Booville, assisted by his
wife. 1888; John Henry Barrows, Henry Ward Beecher,
the Shakmpeare of the Pulpit, New York, 1893; the Auto-
biographical Reminieeenoee edited by T. J. Ellinwood, his
prirmte stenographer for thirty years, 1808; Lyman
Abbott, Henry Ward Beecher, Boston. 1903; N. L. Thomp-
son, The Hietory of Plymouth Church, New York, 1873.
BEECHER, LYMAH : Presbyterian; b. at New
Haven, Conn., Oct. 12, 1775; d. at Brooklyn Jan.
10, 1863. He was graduated at Yale 1797;
studied theology under President Dwight the fol-
lowing year, and, after preaching on probation for
a year at East Hampton, L. I., was ordained as
pastor there, 1799; in 1810 he removed to Litch-
field, Conn., and in 1826 to Boston, as pastor of
the Hanover Street Church (Congregational). In
1832 he became president and professor of the-
ology at the newly formed Lane Theological Semi-
nary, Cincinnati, where for the first ten years
he also served as pastor of the Second Presby-
terian Church. In 1851 he returned to Boston,
and after 1856 lived in Brooklyn. He was a pro-
found student of theology, but eminently practical
in his preaching, which was marked by an imcom-
mon union of imagination, fervor, and logic. His
convictions were strong, his courage great, and
he acted with an impulsive energy which generally
succeeded in accomplishing what he thought should
be done. The death of Alexander Hamilton called
forth a sermon on dueling (preached before the
Presbytery of Long Island, Apr. 16, 1806; pub-
lished in several editions) which did much to
awaken the popular conscience on the subjept.
At Litchfield he took a decided stand in favor of
a general reformation of public morals, and in
particular against the convivial habits of the time.
During his Boston pastorate he was a leader on
the conservative side in the Unitarian controversy.
In Cincinnati hard feelings evoked by the anti-
Flavery contest, and certain problems inevitable
during the formative period of the seminary and
in a new society, made his career a stormy one;
but he worked with characteristic energy and
retired with honor. During the earlier stages of
the differences which led to the disruption of the
Presbyterian Church in 1837 he was charged with
holding heretical views on the atonement, and was
tried and acquitted by both presbytery and synod in
1835; throughout the entire contest he was one of
tbe New School leaders. His seven sons all became
clergymen and his daughters, Catherine Esther
Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Isabella
Beecher Hooker, became well known for literary
and philanthropic work. During his second resi-
dence in Boston Lyman Beecher prepared a col-
lected edition of his Works (i, Lectures on Political
Atheism and Kindred Subjects; Six Lectures on
Intemperance, Boston, 1852; ii, Sermons, 1852;
iii, Vieu>s of Theology as Developed in Three Ser-
mons and on his Tnals, 1853).
Bibuoobapbt: His Autobiography, Correepondenee, etc
WM edited by his son Charles Beecher, rev. ed., 2 vols.,
New York, 1865; consult also D. H. Allen, The Life and
Servicee of Lyman Beecher, a Commemorative Diecouree,
Cincinnati, 18G3; J. C. White, Pereonal Reminiecencee of
Lyman Beecher, New York, 1882; E. F. Haywood, Lyman
Beecher, Boston. 1904.
BEECHER, THOMAS KIimiCUTT: Congre-
gationalist, sixth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at
Litchfield, Conn., Feb. 10, 1824; d. at Ehnira, N. Y.,
Mar. 14, 1900. He was graduated at Illinois
College, Jacksonville, 111., 1843; became school
principal at Philadelphia, 1846, at Hartford, Conn.,
1848; pastor at Williamsburg (Brooklyn), L. L,
1852, of the Independent Church (afterward
called the Park Church), Elmira, 1854, where he
served a long pastorate and became widely known
for his eccentricities, but still more esteemed for
his charities and respected for the practical good
sense of many of his plans and ideas. He developed
one of the first " institutional " churches, and his
Sunday-school was a model one. His chief publica-
tion was Our Seven Churches (New York, 1870),
a volume of discourses upon the different denomi-
nations in Elmira. In Time with the Stars, a book
of children's stories, appeared posthumously (1902).
BEECHER, WILLIS JUDSON: Presbyterian;
b. at Hampden, O., Apr. 29, 1838. He studied at
Hamilton College (B.A., 1858) and Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary (1864), and was ordained to the
ministry in 1864. After a pastorate at Ovid, N. Y.,
1864-65, he was appointed professor of moral
science and belles-lettres in Knox College, Gales-
burg, HI. In 1869 he became pastor of the First
Church of Christ in the same city. Two years
later he was appointed professor of the Hebrew
language and literatuie in Auburn Theological
Seminary. In 1902 he delivered the Stone Lec-
tures at Princeton Theological Seminary. He was
a member of the Assembly's Committee on the Re-
vision of the Confession of Faith (1890-92), and
in theology is a progressive conservative. Besides
preparing the Old Testament Sunday-school lessons
for the Sunday School Times since 1893, he has
written Farmer Tompkins and his Bibles (Philadel-
phia, 1874); General Catalogue of Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary (Auburn, 1883); DriU Lessons in
Hebrew (1883); Index of Presbyterian Ministers,
1706^1881 (Philadelphia, 1883; in collaboration
with his sister Mary A. Beecher); The Prophets and
the Promise (New York, 1905); and The Teaching
of Jesus concerning the Future Life (1906).
BEELZEBUB, be-erze-bub (properly, in all the
New Testament passages — Matt, x, 25; xii, 24,
27; Mark iii, 22; Luke xi, 15, 18, l^^Beelzfhind)i
The name of the prince of the demons; i.e., of
Satan. The reading BeeUebovl has also this in its
favor that the Greek oUcodespotis, " master of the
Be«lsebub
Beg-hards
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
26
house '' (Matt, n, 25), seemB to play upon be'd zebtU
(Jbe^el being the Aramaic fonn for the Hebrew ha'al).
Nothing more than a play upon the word is to be
sought in oikodespoUs, which is not a translation
of the Aramaic; " master of the (Satanic) king-
dom " would be a meaningless designation of the
prince of hell. In spite of the correctness of the
reading Beelz^HnU, it is justifiable to trace this name
to the much older name Baal-zebub, which is found
in the Old Testament as that of an idol.
Baal-zebub was honored in Ekron, where he had
a temple and an oracle, which- w^as consulted by
Ahaziah, king of Israel (II Kings i, 2, 3, 16). The
name as it stands means " lord of flies **; the Sep-
tuagint calls the god directly " fly "; so also Jose-
phus (Ant., IX, ii, 1). In classical mythology, there
was a god who protected from flies. It is related
that Hercules banished the flies from Olympia by
erecting a shrine to Zeus Apomuios (" averter of
flies "); and the Romans called Hercules Apomuios.
A similar deity is mentioned as acting and honored
in different places, the excuse for such worship
being the plague which flies cause in those warm
countries. Both the sending of flies and the dri-
ving them away were referred to the same divinity.
As may be inferred from the name Baal, the Baal-
zebub of the Philistines was essentially identical
with the principal god or gods of the Phenicians.
He may have been lord of flies as sun-god, because
flies are most numerous in midsummer, when the
sun is hottest. And that he had an oracle is to be
explained by a substitution of effect for cause.
Flies come obedient to certain atmospheric condi-
tions^ hence the god was considered to have caused
these conditions, and so at length his control was
extended to other events, and accordingly he was
consulted (see Baal).
Beelzebul was early identified with Baal-zebub,
and, as was so often the case, was turned into a bad
demon, in accordance with later Jewish ideas.
Since lightfoot (flora Heb., s.v.), it has been com-
mon to say that the name of the demon Beelzebul
was purposely made out of Beel-zebub, in order to
express contempt and horror; i.e., " lord of dung,"
instead of " lonl of flies." But, inasmuch as such
a name for Satan does not occur outside of the New
Testament, it is better to seek its derivation in the
old Ekronic v/orship, which might, in New Testa-
ment times, have still existed. Beelzebul may
therefore be looked upon as the same name as
Beel-zebub, and therefore as ha\'ing the same
meaning.
Biblioobapbt: E. C. A. Riehm. Handw&rierbuch dea hi-
tdiBchen AUerthutnM, B.y., Bielefeld, 1893-04 (revives the
theory that the Syriac form may have meant simply " an
enemy," cf. KAT, p. 461); J. Selden. De dia Syru, Lon-
don, 1617; J. Lightfoot. HorcB }iebraica on Matt. xii. 24,
and Luke xi, 15. ib. 1675; F. C. Movers. Die Phdnisier
i. 260-261, Bonn. 1841; idem, in J A, 1878, pp. 220-225;
P. Schols, GOUendienst und Zatd)erweaen hei den alien
HebrAem, pp. 170-173. Regensburg. 1877; Nowack. ilr-
chOohgie. ii, 304-306; EB, l 614-^16; JE, ii. 62fMS30.
BEER, b6r, 6E0RG: German Lutheran; b. at
Schwcidiiitz (31 m. s.w. of Breslau) Nov. 12, 1865.
He studied in Berlin and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1887),
taught in Erbaeh 1889-91, and became privat-docent
at Breslau in 1892. Two years later he went in the
same capacity to Halle, and in 1900 to Strasburg
as associate professor of the Old Testament. He
has written AKrozzdWs Ma/pAfid al^faldsifat, t, die
Logik (Leyden, 1888); Individual- und Gemeinde-
paalmen (Marburg, 1894); and Der Text des Bucku
Hiob unUrsuchi (1897); besides preparing the
translation of the Martyrdom of Isaiah and of the
Book of Enoch for E. Kautzsch's Apokryphen und
Pseudepigraphen des AUen Testaments (Tubingen,
1900).
BEER, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at
Bielitz (40 m. w.s.w. of Cracow) Dec. 5, 1863.
He was educated at the universities of Vienna and
Bonn, and since 1893 has been reader in Spanish
at the latter university, as well as a custodian at the
Imperial and Royal Library at Vienna since 1888.
He is a collaborator on the Vienna Corpuf
paJtrum ecdesiasticorum laHnorum. In theology
he advocates " the scientific investigation of Chris-
tian revelation." Among his works special mention
may be made of his Die Anecdota Bordertana
Avgustineischer Sermonen (Vienna, 1887); HeUige
Hohen der Griechen und Rdmer (1891); Die Quel-
len far den liber diumus concilii BasUiensis des
Petrus Bruneti (1891); and Urkundliche Beitrdge
tu Johannes de Segovia (1896); in addition to
editions of Wydif's De composUione hominis
(London, 1887); and De enie prcBdicamentali
qua:stiones tredecim (1891), and of the Monu-
menta conciliorum generalium (3 vols., Vienna,
1892-96).
BEET, bit, JOSEPH AGAR: English Wesleyan;
b. at Sheffield Sept. 27, 1840. He attended Wesley
College, Sheffield (1851-56), and took up mining
engineering, but afterward studied theology at the
Wesleyan College, Richmond (1862-64). He was
pastor 1864-85 and professor of systematic the-
ology in Wesleyan College, Richmond, 1885-1905.
He was also a member of the faculty of theology
in the University of London 1901-05. He de-
livered the Femley Lecture on The Credentials of
the Gospels in 1889, and lectured in America in 1896.
Though long recognized as one of the ablest theo-
logians and exegetes of his denomination, his
sympathy with the modem critical school of inter-
pretation and particularly his views on eschatology
have occasioned much criticism. In The Lest
Things (London, 1897; 2d ed., 1905) he opposed
the belief that the essential and endless permanence
of the soul is taught in the Bible and denied that
eternal punishment necessarily means endless to^
ment, holding that Ihe sinner may suffer a relative
annihilation of his mental and moral faculties and
sink into a dehumanized state. He reiterated the:«
views in The Immortality of the Soul ( 1901 ). ChaiigBS
of heresy were brought against him at the Confer-
ence of 1902, but he was reelected to his professor-
ship on condition that he refrain from expressing
his opinions on immortality and future punish-
ment. To regain liberty of speech in 1904 he gave
notice that he would retire from his chair in twelve
months. His other works are: Comm^entary on
Romans (London, 1877); Holiness as Understood
by the Critics of the Bible (1880); Commentary on
Corinthians (1881); Commentary on Galatiant
27
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beelasebub
Beff hards
(1883); Commentary on Ephesians, Philippians, Co-
iossians, and Philemon (1890); Through Christ to
God (1892); The Firm Foundation of the Christian
Faith (1892); The New Life in Christ (1895);
Xature and Christ (New York, 1896); Key to Un-
lock the Bible (1901); Transfiguration of Jesus
(1905); and Manual of Theology (1906).
BEETS, b^tz, HEIIRY: Christian Reformed; b.
at Koedijk (a village near Alkmaar, 20 m. n.w.
of Amiiterdam), Holland, Jan. 5, 1869. He came
to the United States at an early age, and studied
at John Calvin 0)llege and Theological Seminary
of the Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids,
Mich. After graduation in 1895, he was pastor at
Sioux Center, la., until 1899, and since the latter
year has been pastor of the Lagrave Street Chris-
tian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids. He has
been secretary of the Board of Heathen Missions
of his Church since 1900, stated clerk of its synod
since 1902, and a member of the joint commit-
tee of American and Canadian Churches for the
revision of the Psalms in meter since 1902. In
theology he is a firm Calvinist, adhering strictly
to the creeds of the Synod of Dort and the Webt-
minster Standards. He has been associate editor
of De Oereformeerde Amerikaan^ a monthly, since
1898 and editor-in-chief of The Banner, a weekly,
since 1904. He has written Het Leven van Fres.
McKinley (Holland, Mich., 1901); Sacred History for
Juniors (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1901); Sacred His-
tory far Seniors (1902); Compendium of the Chris-
tian Religion (1903); Primer of Bible Truths
(1903; in collaboration with M. J. Bosma); and
Kerkenarde der Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk
(1905; in collaboration with W. Heyns and G.
K. Hemkes).
BEGG, JAMES: Minister of the Free Church
of Scotland; b. at New Monkland, near Airdrie
(10 m. e. of Glasgow), Lanarkshire, Oct. 31, 1808;
d. in Edinburgh Sept. 29, 1883. He studied at
Glasgow and Edinburgh; was ordained muiister
at Maxwelltown, Dumfries, May, 1830; became
colleague at Lady Glenorchy's Chapel, Edinburgh.
Dec., 1830, minister in Paisley 1831, at Liberton,
near Edinburgh, 1835, and, after the Disruption in
1843, at Newington, a suburb of Edinburgh. In
1865 he was moderator of the General Assembly
of the Free Chinch. He began his career as an
ardent supporter of evangelical \iew8 and a decided
opponent of the " moderate "• party in the Church.
He was strongly opposed to lay patronage and to
voluntaryism. He strenuously resisted the aggres-
sions of the dvil courts on the jurisdiction of the
Churdi and was disposed to continue the fight
within the Establishment; but in May, 1843, he
left with his brethren. (See the section on the
Free CSiurch of Scotland in the article Prebby-
TEBiAHs.) In the Free Church he became the
leader of a minority opposed to all change and
when he was charged with standing in the way of
piugicas he ^oried in his steadfast adherence to the
ideas of his youth; his followers were most numer-
ous in the Highlands. He was an advocate and
suj^rter of popular education and was interested
in a movement to secure better homes for the
working classes. He wrote much for periodicals
and edited several journals at different times (The
Bulwark, for the maintenance of Protestantism;
The Watchvjord, against the union with the United
Presbyterians; The Signal, against instrumental
music in worship). Among his larger publica-
tions were A Handbook of Popery (Edinburgh.
1852); Happy Homes for Workingmen and How to
Get Them (London, 1866); Free Church Principles
(Edinburgh, 1869), and The Principles, Posi-
tion ^ and Prospects of the Free Church of Scotland
(1875).
Uibliogbapht: T. Smith, Mmnoir9 of Jame» Begg, 2 vols..
Edioburgh, 1885-88; DNB, iv. 127-128.
BEGHARDS, BEGUINES.
Origin (« 1).
The Early Communities (§ 2).
Extension during the Twelfth Centiuy (§3).
Relation to the Mendicant Orders (§ 4).
The Male Communities (§ 6).
Persecution as Heretics (§ 6).
Surviving Beguinages in the Netherlands (| 7).
Beghards and Beguines are the names applied
to certain religious communities which flourished
especially in the Middle Ages. The Beguines were
women and earlier in origin than the male associar
tions, the Beghards (also called in France Biguins).
As early as the thirteenth century the authentic tra-
dition as to the origin of the Beguines had been
lost, so that it was possible in the fifteenth for the
belief to gain acceptance that they had been founded
by Begga, the canonized daughter of Pepin of Lan-
den and mother of Pepin of Heristal.
I. Origia. This behef was supported by several
scholars in the early seventeenth
century, and approved at Mechlin and at Rome.
In 1630 Puteanus (van Putte), a Louvain professor,
produced three documents supposed to date from
1065, 1129, and 1151, relating to a convent of Beg-
uines at Vilvorde, near Brussels. The view as to
the date of their origin which these documents
supported was prevalent for two centuries, and is
presupposed in the modem works of Mosheim and
of Lea; but the researches of Kallmann proved
finally in 1843 that Puteanus's documents were
forgeries, probably belonging to the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. The origin of these com-
munities is now, accordingly, almost universally
placed in the twelfth century, and attributed to a
priest of Li6ge, Lambert le Bdgue (q.v.).
The scarcity of information about the earUest
period has caused the significance of the move-
ment to be underestimated or misconceived. As
a matter of fact, the career of Lambert has many
points of affinity with those of his younger con-
temporaries Peter Waldo and Francis of Assisi.
Like them, he renounced his property, to endow
with it the hospital of St. Christopher at Li^ge
and the new convent of Beguines there. He felt
his special mission to be the preaching of repentance,
which brought him into conflict with the ecclesias-
tical authorities when he attacked the vices of the
clergy, but had an enduring influence especially
on the women of Li6ge. By 1210 there is con-
Baffbards
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
28
temporary testimony to the existenoe there of
" whole troops of holy maidens "; the ascetic spirit
took hold also of the married women,
a. The Early who frequently made vows of oonti-
Communi- nence. Religious excitement did not
ties. fail to produce pathological phenom-
ena; stories are told of visions, proph-
ecies, convulsions, incessant tears, loss of speech,
and the like. Probably between 1170 and 1180
some of Lambert's followers, to whom his opponents
gave the name of Beguines in mockery, had formed
a sort of conventual association on a suburban
estate belonging to him. By the analogy of the
later Beguinages, they probably inhabited a num-
ber of small houses grouped about the church and
hospital of St. Christopher, and shut off by a wall
from the outer world. The first inmates were
mostly women of position, who renounced their
property and supported themselves by their own
labors.
The religious impulse given by Lambert contin-
ued active after his death (probably 1187), and
familiarized the people of the Netherlands with
the idea of ascetic following of Christ long before
the advent of the mendicant orders. Throughout
the next century, the need of founding similar in-
stitutions for the large numbers of
3. Extension Beguines was felt, first in Flanders
during the and then in the neighboring French
Twelfth and German districts. In France St.
Century. Louis showed them special favor, and
erected a large Beguinage in Paris,
modeled after the Flemish, in 1264; others sprang
up, large or small, in all parts of France during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The exten-
sion of the system in the other Latin countries was
probably considerable, but exact data are wanting.
In Germany only a few towns on the lower Rhine,
such as Aix-la-Chapelle and Wesel, had Beguinages
in the strict sense. Here the usual rule was for
women who wished to renounce the world at first
to live separately in their own houses or in solitary
places; as time went on, they came together in
larger or smaller houses put at their disposal by
pious gifts, and formed communities of a monastic
type. The growth of these convents was remark-
able, and continued from the first third of the thir-
teenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth,
by which time the majority of German towns had
their convents of Beguines. The statutes varied
much in the different houses; the number of inmates
was between ten and twenty on an average. There
was no imiform dress, but most of the members wore
hoods and scapulars resembling a religious habit.
Sometimes those who had property retained full
control of it; in other cases a portion fell to the
convent when they died or left. Celibacy was re-
quired as long as they stayed, but they were always
free to leave and marry.
The name of " voluntary poor," which many
convents bore, and the regulations of such houses,
show the continuance of Lambert's influence in
favor of desertion of the world and penitential as-
ceticism; but the Franciscan ideas, very similar in
their tendency, which were widely spread not long
after, found here a fruitful soil. As early as the
thirteenth century a large proportion of the Beg-
hards or Beguines of France, Germany, and north-
em Italy were imder the direction of Franciscans
or Dominicans, and so closely related
4. Relation with the penitential confraternities
to the Men- attached to both these orders that the
dicant Or- members of these (tertiaries) were
ders. commonly known in the Latin coun-
tries as beffuini and beguincB — a fact
which has caused much confusion in the study of
the history of the real Beguines. The disapproval
of these latter by the papal authorities brought
about, when it came, a still closer identification
with the tertiaries; many joined these for pro-
tection, and in the fifteenth century numerous
Beguinages were transferred to the Augustinian
order. While the original Beguines abstained from
begging, it became more common among them in
France and Germany by the beginning of the thir-
teenth century. As in the Latin countries the Beg-
uines are found among the extreme defenders of
the Franciscan ideal of poverty, so we find fre-
quently among those of Germany the belief that
their strict poverty designated them as the true
followers of Christ. In accordance with this view,
they were apt to withdraw themselves from the
teaching of the clergy and listen rather to the ex-
citing exhortations of their " mistresses " or of
wandering preachers in sympathy with their be-
liefs. They developed a system of extreme cor-
poral austerity, and lost themselves in mystic
speculations which increased their tendency to see
visions and to condenm the ordinary means of
grace; even the moral law seems at times to have
been regarded as not binding upon them. The
impulse of apocalyptic enthusiasm, given by Jos-
chun of Fiore (q.v.) and spread by the " spiritual "
Franciscans among the laity, as well as the quietis-
tic mysticism of the Brethren of the Free Spirit
(q.v.), found an. entrance into their houses before
the end of the thirteenth century. Early in the
next century, the influx of women of high social
position declined more and more, and the new
foundations took on more of the modem character
of benevolent institutions. By the end of the fif-
teenth century, in Germany at least, they had
almost completely lost their first religious fervor
and had forfeited much of the popular respect they
had formerly enjoyed.
As to the Beghards or male communities, the
question whether the first associations known by
this name can be directly connected with Lambert
le B^gue, or sprang up after his death in imitation
of the Flemish Beguinages, can not be decided with
our present knowledge. They are first met with
in Louvain (c. 1220) and Antwerp (1228). The
names heguin and begard (Flemish usually hogard;
Middle High German begehart and Megger) were given
in mockery and are of Walloon origin; other names
are Lollards (probably from the Mid-
5. The die Dutch IdUerif to murmur; see
Male Com- Lollards), "voluntary poor,** boni
munittes. pueri, boni valetif etc. In the course
of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies they spread throughout Germany, into Po-
land and the Alpine districts, and even into the
29
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beff hards
Latin countries; but their numbers were much
smaller than those of the Beguines. As early as
the thirteenth century a number of their houses,
too, connected themselves with the tertiaries of
the two great mendicant orders. Like the Beg-
uines, many of them were partizans of the views of
the " spiritual " Franciscans and Fraticelli. They
practised begging ostentatiously, frequently had no
fixed abode, and wandered about in small groups,
begging and winning adherents for their cause.
They did not abandon this mode of life even after
papal prohibitions were directed against them, but
strengthened themselves by the adhesion of sym-
pathisers who were expelled from the convents,
and remained in close relations with the Beguines,
by whom they were regarded as martyrs to the
Franciscan ideal of poverty and channels of mys-
tical revelations. In the Netherlands the fifteenth-
century Beghards appear for the most part as reg-
ular Franciscan tertiaries, organized from 1443 as
a separate Ccngregatio Zepperensia beghardorum
teriieB regulcs S, Francisci, with the convent of Zep-
peren, near Hasselt, as their mother house. In-
ternal dissensions later split them into two branches.
In the seventeenth century they were united with
the Lombard congregation of regular tertiaries,
and did not survive the Revolution. The internal
organization of their houses corresponded generally
to that of the Beguines. The earliest Dutch Beg-
hards were mostly weavers, who continued to fol-
low their trade; later they frequently copied and
sold manuscripts. The German Beghards followed
a variety of occupations; but at the end of the
Middle Ages begging was their main source of
revenue. A special inner group was that of the
" Voluntary Poor " (also called Poor Brothers, Cel-
lites, Alezians; in the Netherlands Lollards, Mate-
nuxruy Cdlebroeden ; see Alexianb), who required
the entire abandonment of property by their mem-
bers and bound them by permanent vows. Their
strict organization, their enthusiasm for poverty,
their zealous devotion to charitable duties, all point
to a tradition reaching back to the beginning of the
Begfaard system. They are further contrasted with
the ordinary Begirds by the fact that they held
aloof for the most part from the Franciscan affilia-
tions which have been seen to be so common. In
the fifteenth century they associated themselves
with the Augustinians. Public opinion, by the end
of the Middle Ages, was even more unfavorable to
the Beghards than to the Beguines; popular sat-
irists and preachers alike speak of them as hypocrit-
ical beggars with a tendency to deceit and inuno-
rality; and the Reformation swept away the last
renmants of them, in Germany at least.
The persecution of Beghards and Beguines as a
heretical sect began in the second half of the thir-
teenth century, probably as a consequence of their re-
lation to the "spiritual" Franciscans (see Francis,
S.UKT, OF AflSIBI, AND THE FRANCISCAN OrDER). By
1300 the name beguinitt was commonly used in the
Latm countries as the accepted designation for the
heretical " spiritual " party and Fraticelli, which
natmaUy prejudiced the general opinion of the ortho-
dox convents of Beghards and Beguines. Still more
<lamaging was the fact that the German bishops,
about the same time, assumed that the panthe-
istic heresy of the Brethren of the Free Spirit (q.v.)
found its chief support in their houses. Though,
as a matter of fact, this was probably
6. Persecu- true only of a small section, the name
tion as of Beghards was conmionly adopted
Heretics, in Germany for the adherents of that
heresy. During the fourteenth cen-
tury the belief spread that in some convents of
Beghards and Beguines there existed an iimer circle
of " the perfect " who were alien from the doc-
trines of the Church and the laws of morality, to
which the younger members were admitted only
after years of probation. Whether or not these
accusations were true, which it is now next to im-
possible to determine, the bitter hostility shown
against the Beghards and Beguines probably finds
its simplest explanation in the conflicts which arose
at the end of the thirteenth century between the
episcopate and the secular clergy, on the one hand,
and the mendicant orders, especially the Francis-
cans, on the other, since these latter gained their
lay following largely through the numerous houses
of Beghards and Beguines. Several German pro-
vincial coimcils (Cologne 1306, Mainz 1310, Treves
1310) passed strong measures against them, and
the Council of Vieime (1311) struck at them even
harder, imdertaking to suppress them entirely on
the charge of spreading heretical doctrines under a
cloak of piety. The execution of these decrees of
suppression, which took place under John XXII,
caused great confusion in the Church of Germany,
the mendicants and sometimes the magistrates at-
tempting to defend the Beguines. Since their total
suppression appeared impracticable, John XXII
compromised by making a distinction and granting
toleration to the orthodox Beguines. Persecution
did not, however, cease; and with the powerful
support of the Emperor Charles IV, it was taken
up once more by Urban V and Gregory XI. With-
out regard to the varying senses of the names, all
Beghards and Beguines alike were condemned as
heretics, excommunicated, and outlawed. Their
property was to serve for pious purposes, for the
support of the inquisitors, or for repairing city
walls and roads. Between 1366 and 1378 remorse-
less persecution raged against them throughout
Germany; but even then they found advocates,
especially among the secular magistrates, and Greg-
ory XI was finally prevailed upon to repeat the
distinction between orthodox and heretical Beg-
uines and Beghards, and to tolerate the former.
About 1400 another storm broke out, aroused by
the attacks which the clergy of Basel, especially
the Dominican Johaimes Miilberg made upon the
Beguines of that city. By 1410 the Beguines in the
dioceses of Constance, Basel, and Strasburg were
driven from their convents. At the time of the
Council of Constance (1414-18), which showed
itself well disposed toward them, they won a vic-
tory of some importance when they secured the
condemnation as heretical of a treatise directed
both against them and against the Brethren of the
Conunon Life by the Dominican Matthseus Grabo.
Attacks were still made upon them, none the less,
and that a general feeling inspired such attacks is
iSf'
hards
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEHZCKi
80
shown by the fact that the name ** Beghard " con-
tinued through the hfteenth century to be applied
to the most various heretics, imtil it adhered per-
manently to the Bohemian Brethren or Picards.
In what is now Belgium and Holland, the ex-
ample of Lambert's first followers was widely fol-
lowed, as has been seen; here the Beguines flour-
ished most, and here they have maintained their
existence to the present day. A long series of
accounts of mystical visions, hysterico-
7. Surviving ecstatic phenomena, and extreme
Beguinages austerities shows that the strong
in the religious impulse of the beginning
Hefheilands. remained operative imtil after the
Reformation. Heretical mysticism
was not without its adherents: in 1310 Margareta
Porete, a Beguine of Hainault and the author of a
book of apparently pantheistic libertinism, was
executed in Paris, and the mystic Hadewich Blom-
maerdine (q.v.) of Brussels (d. 1336) found adherents
among the Beguines of Brabant and Zeeland.
The bishops and princes, however, protected the
communities in times of persecution. In the four-
teenth century the contemplative life was largely
given up in favor of diligent work for the sick and
poor, and later for the education of girls. The
French Revolution deprived these institutions of
their religious character, which they regained in
1814. At present there are fifteen Beguinages in
Belgium, only two of which are of any size, both at
Ghent, numbering 869 inmates in 1896. The
larger one, transferred in 1874 to St. Amandsberg
just outside the city, is a complete model of a small
town, with walls, gates, streets, and gardens. The
total number of Beguines in Belgiiun was 1,790
in 1825, 1,480 in 1866, and about 1,230 in 1896.
In Holland two houses have survived, one at Am-
sterdam with thirteen inmates and one at Breda
with fortyndx. (Herman Haupt.)
Bibuoorapht: E. Hallmaiin, Die OeeehiefUe dea Urrprunga
der hdoiKken Bephinen, Berlin, 1843 (perhaps the best
book on the subject ); J. L. von Mosheim, De BeghardxM
dt Bs^ttimfrus, Leipsic, 1790; F. von Biedenfeld, Ur-
aprung . . . §OmUieher MOncka- und KloaUrfrauanrOrden^
Weimar. 1837; O. Uhlhom, Die chrietliehe lAateethAtio-
keiiimMiUelaUer, Stuttgart. 1884; H. Haupt, BeUrOge eur
Oeeehiehte der Stkte von freiem OeUte und dee Beoharden^-
fums, In Zeiteehrift fmr KircKengtechichte, vii (1884), 503
■qq.; H. C. Lea. Hietory of the Inquieitum, ii, 350-517,
Philadelphia. 1888; P. Fr^d^rioq. Lee DocumenU de Qlaegovo
eencemafU Lambert de Bkgue, in Bulleiine de Vacadimie de
Belgique, third series, udx (1895). 148-165, 990-1006;
"ReimbuebaTtOrdenundKongregationen, i. 501, ii, 422-425;
A. Neander, ChrieHan Church, iv, pa^iHim, ▼, passim;
W. MoeUer, Chrietian Church, ii, 475-478.
BEGIN, b6''gah^ LOUIS NAZAIRE: Roman
Catholic archbishop of Quebec; b. at L^vis, Quebec,
Jan. 10, 1S40. He was educated at the Seminary
of Quebec (1857-62) and Laval University (B.A.,
1863). He then began the study of theology at
the Grand Seminary of Quebec, but was chosen
to fill a chair in the newly established faculty of
theology in the University of Laval, and was
sent to Rome to study. He was ordained to the
priesthood in 1865, and returned to Quebec in
1868, where he taught dogmatic theology and
ecclesiastical history at Laval University until
1884, in addition to being prefect of the Little
Seminary and having charge of the pupils of the
University during the last few years of this period.
In 1884 he accompanied the archbishop of Quebec
to Rome to defend the rights of Laval University,
and on his return was appointed principal of the
Normal School, remaining there imtil 1888. In
the latter year he was consecrated bishop of C3ii-
coutimi, and three years later was appointed
coadjutor, with the title of archbishop of Gyrene,
to Cardinal Taschereau. On the death of the
Cardinal in 1898, he became archbishop of Quebec.
He has written La PrimauU et VinfcnllUnliU des
Bouverains porUifea (Quebec, 1873); La Sainte
Venture et la rhgle de la foi (1874; EngJish trans-
lation by G. M. Ward, London, 1875); Le CviU
catholique (1875); Aide-^m^maire, ou ckronoloffie
de Vhistoire du Canada (1886); and CaUehieme de
eoniroverse (1902). «
BEHAISM: A development of Babism (q.v.).
The Bab had taught that the greatest and last of
all manifestations of divinity was to appear and,
through his teachings, wipe out all distinctions of
sects. In 1862, twelve years after the Bab's exe-
cution, Beha Lllah, a high-bom Persian and Babite
leader, claimed to be the fulfilment of this teaching.
He was imprisoned and exiled and died in Acre,
Syria, in 1892. His son, Abdul Beha Abbas, then
became the leader and " Center of the Covenant/'
from his residence in Acre, where he lives under
government surveillance, a far-reaching propaganda
has gone forth and pilgrims find their way thither
even from distant America.
Behaist missionaries are not allowed to accept
money, though they may be entertained by con-
verts or others interested. Their message consists
in a recital of the history of their religion and the
lives of the Bab and Beha Ullah. The Old and
New Testament prophecies and the sacred books of
ethnic religions are studied in the belief that they
establish the Behaist doctrines. Their sacred wri-
tings are the works of Beha Lllah, of which the most
remarkable is the Book of Ighan. They are mostly
short sentences called " communes," consisting of
prayers or truths for the guidance of life. The
explanation of the Book of Ighan and the " Hidden
Words " in Arabic and Persian is a part of the
regular preaching. The beauty of service to the
poor and suffering is a cardinal precept. Sim-
plicity in food and dress is another, and herein
Abdul Beha is an example to his followers. Polyg-
amy is not allowed and all goods are held in com-
mon. It is believed that God has manifested him-
self at different times according to the needK
of the race, the chief manifestations having been
three in number; via., Jesus — ^whose life and teach-
ings are commended, — ^the Bab, and Beha Ullah,
who is the greatest and last; after him there will be
no other manifestation, and whosoever does not
believe on him after having heard his words will
not have another chance to enter the kingdom.
Certain feasts are observed commemorating events
in the life of Beha UUah, and one which was in-
stituted by the Bab consists in a simple repast
such as fruits, nuts, and cool water, held at the
home of a believer eveiy nineteen days; a vacant
31
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
^'
Ixards
seat is left at the head of the table for the absent
master, and passages from the " Hidden Words "
are read as the food is passed.
Behaist congregations are known as " assemblies."
The first in America was established in Chicago by
a Syrian, Ibrahim Kheirallah, in 1894. There are
now thirty-five in America, each independent of
the others and ow^ning no authority but that of
Abdul Beba. It is churned that the mission of
Behaism is to unify the worid and bring all religions
into ooe.^ BIargabet B. Peeke.
BiBLiooKArinr: Coiuult the UteratuTB siven under Babbm;
E. D. RooB, BabUm, in Great Rdiffion$ of the Worlds Lon-
don, 1901; Mirsa Husain AH, Le Litre de la certitude . . .
UaduU . . . par H. Dreufna, Paris, 1004; Le Bet/an arabet
U livre mcri du Babytme, tranfll. by A. Nicolas, Paris, 1906;
BehaUUah, Lee Preeeptea du Behaieme: lee omemente —
lee paroUe du paraditt lee eplendeure, lee revilalione, transl.
by H. Dreyfus and U. Chirasi. Paris. 1906.
BEHMEH, JACOB. See Boehme.
BEISSEL, JOHlf CONRAD. See Communism,
II. 5; DuNKEBS, I, 2.
BEISSEL, STEPHAN: German Jesuit; b. at
.Vachen Apr. 21, 1841. He was educated at the
univeraitiea of Bonn and Mtlnster and at the semi-
nary at Cologne. He was ordained to the priest-
hood in 1871 and lived two years in France, three
in England, fifteen in Holland, and four in Luxem-
burg, passing the remainder of his time at Aachen
and Oologne. He has written Baugeschichle der
Kirche de» heiligen Viktor zu Xanten (Freiburg,
1$S3); Geldweri und Arbeitalohn im MiUelalter
(1884); Verekrung der Heiligen in Deutschland bis
rum Beginn de» dreizehnlen Jahrhunderts (1885);
Bilder der Handschrift dee Kaisers Otto im MUnster
za Aachen (Aachen, 1886); Geschichte der Ausstat-
t^.ig der Kirehe dea heiligen Viktor zu Xanlen (Frei-
burg, 1887); Geschichte der trierschen Kitchen und
Ihrer ReUquien (2 parts, Treves, 1889); Evange-
lienbuch des heiligen Bemward von HUdesheim
(llildesheim, 1891); Verekrung der Heiligen und
ihrrr Reliquien in Deutschland wdhrend der zweiten
HalfU des Mittelallers (Freiburg, 1893); Vatikanin
sche Miniaturen (1893); Der heilige Bemward
mm HUdesheim als Kunstler (Hildesheim, 1895);
Fra Giawmni Angelico da Fiesole, sein Leben und
seine Werke (Freiburg, 1895); Die Verekrung
Utiserer Lieben Frau in Deutschland wdhrend des
MiUelaUers (1895); Bilder aua der Geschichte der
aUchriaUiehen Kunst und Liturgie in Italien (1899);
Das LAen Jesu Christif geschildert auf den Flugeln
des HochdUars eu Kalkar (in collaboration with
J. Joest, Gladbach, 1900); Das Evangelienbuch
Heinrieha III und die Dome zu Goslar in der Biblio-
thek £U Upsala (DOsseldorf, 1900); Die Aachen-
fdhri (1902); Betrachtungspunkte fur alle Tags des
Kvrthenjakres (10 vols., 1904-05) ; and GeschichU der
EvanQeUenbUcher in der ersten Hdlfte des Mittel-
aUers (Freiburg, 1906); in addition to two vol-
mneB of the Zur Kenntnis und WUrdigung der
miUelalterlichen AltOre Deutschlands (Frankfort,
1895-1905) begun by E. F. A. MQnzenberger.
' ReqoMte for literature may be addressed to Mr. John
Meson Ramey, Corcoran Building, Washington, t). C.
BEKKER, BALTHASAR: Dutch precursor of
rationalism; b. at Metslawier (4 m. n.e. of Dok-
kum) Mar. 30, 1634; d. in Friesland June 11, 1698.
He studied at Groningen under J. Alting and in
Franeker, where he was rector of the Latin school,
was made doctor of theology, and preacher in 1666.
Being an enthusiastic follower of the Cartesian
philosophy, he published at Wesel in 1668 an
Admonitio sincera et Candida de phUosophia Car"
tesiana^ and gave greater offense by his catechisms
in 1668 and 1670. He was accused of Socinianism,
although Alting and other theologians pronounced
him to be orthodox. After many controversies,
he accepted a call as preacher to Weesp, and, in
1679, to Amsterdam. The appearance of a large
comet in 1680 induced him to issue a work against
popular superstition, which stirred up more com-
motion; and, in 1691, in De betoverde Wereld,
published at Leeuwarden, he denied the existence
of sorcery, magic, possessions by the devil, and of
the devil himself. The consistory of Amsterdam
instituted a formal process against him, and he was
deposed July 30, 1692. He went to Friesland,
where he edited the last two books of his work.
H. C. RoooEf.
Biblioorapbt: A complete list of Bekker's writinss and
of the opposing works called out is given in A. van der
Linden, B. Bekker, Bibliooraphie, The HaEtM. 1889. For
his life consult J. G. Walch, Einleitung indie R^iffioneatni
tigkeUen atieeerhaU> der lutheriechen Kirche, vol. iii, part 3,
490 sqq., Jena, 1734; M. Schwager. Beitrag eur Oeediiehte
der IfUolerane, oder Leben, . . . B. Bekkere, mil einer For-
rede SemUre, Leipsic. 1780; J. M. SchrGckh, iCtreAsntfis*
eekichte eeU der Reformation, viii. 713-722. ib. 1808; D.
Lorgion, B. Bekker in Franeker, The Hague, 1848; idem,
B. Bekker in Ameterdam, 2 vols., Groningen, 1860; W. P.
C. Knuttel. Balthaear Bekker, The Hague, 1906.
BEKKOS, JOHAITNES. See John (Johannbs)
Bekkob.
BEL: A great Babylonian god, whose name,
like the equivalent Hebrew Ba'al, originally and
all through the history of the language was also
used in the sense of " lord " or " owner " (see Baal).
The usage of the two words as names of deities
also ran through parallel courses; for Bel at one
time in Babylonia was a local deity like each of the
Baals of the Canaanites. He was the patron
deity of the city of Nippur in central Babylonia
(the modem NufTar), where his temple, of great
antiquity, has been imearthed by the Pennsyl-
vania expedition. The reason why there were not
many Bels in Babylonia was that political union
on a large scale was very early effected in that
country, while it was always impossible among the
Canaanites; and Nippur was the center of an
extensive community in very remote times.
When, under priestly influence, Babylonian the-
ology was systematized, to this great god Bel was
assigned sovereignty of the earth, while Anu ruled
in the highest heaven, and Ea over the deep. These
formed the chief trinity with primary and uni-
versal dominion.
But it is not the Bel of Nippur whose name ap-
pears in the Bible and Apocrypha. On account of
the rise and supremacy of the city of Babylon under
Hammurabi (2250 B.C.), Marduk (Merodach), the
god of that city, was invested with the prerogatives
Bel
Bellamy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
32
and even with the name of Bel, so that in the com-
paratively modem Old Testament times "Bel"
stands for " Merodaeh " and for him only (so in Isa.
xlvi, 1; Jer. li, 44; in Jer. 1, 2 both names occur
together, meaning practically "Bel-Merodach")*
The Babylonian Bel was not only adopted by the
Assyrians as one of their chief gods (of course lower
than Asshur), but like Ishtar (see Ashtoreth),
Sin, and Nebo, he seems to have obtained wor-
shipers in the West-land. Such, at least, is an
inference which has been drawn from the proper
names Bildad ("Bel loves"), Ashbel ("man of
Bel "), and Balaam. Moreover, " Bel " is found as an
element in several Phenician and Palmyrene names.
See Babylonia, VII. J. F. McCurdy.
BiBLiooRAPHT : A. H. Sayoe, ReLigion of tht Ancient Babv-
loniana, London, 1887; idem, Rdigion of Ancient Egypt
and Bt^lonia, Edinburgh, 1002; M. Jaatrow. Rdiffion of
Babylonia, Boston, 1808; idem, in DB^ extra vol., pp.
638-639, 545; Schrader, KAT, pp. 354-358.
BEL AlfD THE DRAGON. See Apocrypha, A,
IV, 3.
BELGIC CONFESSIOH: A statement of belief
written in French in 1561 by Guy de Br^s (q.v.)
aided by H. Saravia (professor of theology in
Leyden, afterward in Cambridge, where he died
161 S), H. Modetus (for some time chaplain of
William of Orange), and G. Wingen. It was
revised by Francis Junius of Bourges (1545-1602),
a student of Calvin, pastor of a Walloon congre-
gation at Antwerp, and afterward professor of
theology at Leyden, who abridged the sixteenth
article and sent a copy to Geneva and other
churches for approval. It was probably printed
in 1562, or at all events in 1566, and afterward
translated into Dutch, German, and Latin. It
was presented to Philip II in 1562, with the vain
hope of securing toleration. It was formally
adopted by synods at Antwerp (1566), Wesel
(1568), Emden (1571), Dort (1574), Middleburg
(1581), and again by the great ^nod of Dort, April
29, 1619. Inasmuch as the Anninians had de-
manded partial changes, and the text had become
corrupt, the Synod of Dort submitted the French,
Latin, and Dutch texts to a careful revision. Since
that time the Belgic Confession, together with the
Heidelberg Catechism, has been the recognized
Bjrmbol of the Reformed Churches in Holland and
Belgium, and of the Refonned (Dutch) Church in
America.
The Confession contains thirty-seven articles,
and follows the order of the Gallican Confession,
but is less polemical, full, and elaborate, especially
on the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Church, and
the Sacraments. It is, upon the whole, the best
Bjrmbolical statement of the Calvinistic system
of doctrine, with the exception of the Westminster
Confession.
The French text must be considered as the
original. Of the first edition of 1561 or 1562 no
copies are known. The Synod of Antwerp, in
September, 1580, ordered a precise parchment
copy of the revised text of Jimius td be made for
its archives, which copy had to be signed by eveiy
new minister. This manuscript has always been
regarded in the Belgic churches as the authentic
document. The first Latin translation was made
from Junius's text by Beza, or under his direction,
for the Harmonia Confessionum (Geneva, 1581).
The same passed into the first edition of the Corpus
et Syntagma Confesnanum (Geneva, 1612). A
second Latin translation was prepared by Festus
Hommius for the Synod of Dort, 1618, revised and
approved 1619; and from it was made the English
translation in use in the Reformed (Dutch) Church
in America. It appeared in Greek 1623, 1653, and
1660, at Utrecht.
Biblioobaphy: An excellent description and short history
is given by Schaff in CreetU, i, 502-508, with the text in
iii, 383-436, where the literature is given.
BELGIUM: A kingdom of northwestern Europe;
area, 11,373 square miles; population, 6,800,000.
After a revolt from Holland in 1830, Belgium was
recognized with its present boundaries by the
Powers in 1839, when it was declared to be neutral
territory. The population belongs to two nation-
alities, the northern portion, wl^ch is the larger,
being Flemish (Low German), and the southern
Walloon (French); the vernacular of forty-one
per cent, is French. The boundary between these
two components may be defined as running
from Maestricht west to the French department
Nord.
The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, since
the Dutch Protestants, who were numerous from
1815 to 1830 have, for the most part, emigrated.
[The Protestants constitute less than one-half
of one per cent, of the entire population.] The
Evangelical confessions are represented in many
cities, however, by immigrants from Germany in
recent decades, as well as by Anglicans and Meth-
odists and converts to Protestantism. The most
numerous of these Protestant communions is the
Union dea ^glises J6vangdiqite8 Protestantes de la
BelgiquCf which was founded in 1839 and consists
of French, Dutch, and German congregations,
being represented in Li6ge, Venders, Seraing,
Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, La Bouverie, Dour,
Paturages, Jolimont, and Toumai.
Protestants. The permanent bond of the Union
is a board of directors, chosen at the
annual synod of the congregations interested.
Recognition by the State as a legal ecclesiastical
body assures state aid to its clergy, the usual salary
being 2,220 francs, although it occasionally runs
as high as 4,000 and 6,000. An "evangelization
conunittee " of the Union cares for scattered mem-
bers, and especially for the religious education
of children by " evangelists " where Protestant
schools do not exist. The Union has between
16,000 and 18,000 members. The SocUU J^van-
gdique or Sgliae Chritienne Missionnaire Bdge is
a free church consisting of converts from Roman
Catholicism or their children. It is strongest in
the Walloon districts and haa numerous places of
worship, imited into three districts, whose repre-
sentatives (Conseila Sedionnaires) meet four times
annually. Over these three councils, to which
each ooDgregation sends a pastor and a layman,
83
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bel
Bellamy
is the synod, of which the permanent executive body
Is the Camiti Administrateur. The clergy are
trained chiefly in Switzerland and are subordinate
to the sjmod. This Church possesses few schools
of its own, but in public schools of one class with
twenty Protestant children and in those of several
dasaes with forty children it is entitled to give
religious instruction through its own clergy. It
has now about 11,000 members. There are Eng-
lish churches at Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, and
Ostend, and at Antwerp and Brussels there are
Presbyterian congregations; in the first-named city
an agent of the American Seamen's Friend Society
is also active. The Dutch Reformed and the
Swedish Lutherans have small congregations in
Brussels and Antwerp respectively.
The Roman Catholic Church of Belgium was
organised in 1561, when the authority of the
foreign bishops was abrogated, and in 1839 the
Bjrstem was readjusted to harmonize with the new
boundaries. The most of the clergy receive their
training at the episcopal seminaries and a small
proportion at the University of Louvain. The
State has no control over the appointment of
priests, who are subject only to their bishops.
The Roman Catholic Church, however,
Roman receives from the State an annual
Catholic stipend of more than 4,800,000 francs.
Chinch, although it does not enjoy any eccle-
siastical prerogative. Its influence
on the life of the people is exerted chiefly through
the monasteries, of which there are more than 220
for monks, with some 5,000 members, and about
1,500 nmmeries, with over 27,000 sisters. The
members are employed in large numbers in the pub-
lic schools, the right being given the communities
by the law of 1884 to " adopt " private schools,
or schools conducted by the religious organizations.
A number of intermediate schools are also imder
ecclesiastical control, as well as the University of
Louvain. Academic training is also provided for
by the state universities of Ghent and Li^ge, and
by the free university of Brussels.
In its hierarchic organization, Belgium consti-
tutes the province of Mechlin, and its dioceses
are divided according to the political boundaries
of the country. The archdiocese of Mechlin on the
Dyle was created by a papal enactment of 1559,
which first came into full operation in 1561. It
contains fifty-five parishes and over 600 chapels
of ease in the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp.
The suffragan bishoprics are those of Bruges,
Ghent, Li^, Namur, and Toumal (Doomik).
Bruges, founded in 1559, has forty parishes and
245 chapels of ease; Ghent, established in the
same year, also has forty parishes
Diocesan and 310 chapels of ease; Li^ge, dating
OrgBaoMi" from the fourth century, has an equal
tion. number of parishes and 570 chapels
of ease; Namur, created in 1559
(1561), has the same number of parishes and 700
chapels of ease; and Doomik, the seat of a bishop
since 1146, controls thirty-three parishes and 445
chapels of ease, its see comprising the Hennegau,
with the exception of five parishes belonging to
the French diocese of Cambrai.
The Jews of Belgium, who nimiber about 5,000,
are divided into twelve rabbinical districts.
WiLHEUC GOBTTK.
BxauoGRAPHT: Balan, Hi^ovre ooyUemporainB ds la BtL-
ifique, LyoDB, 1891; Ardiive» BelffM, revue erUique d'hie-
toriographie nationale, Ldttieh, 1890 sqq.; Z^i BHffique et
le Vatican. DocumenU et travatuc UgielaHfet 3 vob., Bnu-
sels, 1880-81; G. Venpeyen, Le Parti eaiholique beige,
Ghent, 1893; J. Hoyois, La Politique caOtolique en Bd-
gique dejniie 1814, Louyain, 1895; O. Goppin, L' Union
eaeerdotale, ton Aiaiotre, eon eeprit et eee conetitutione,
Namur, 1896; U. Berli^ra, Monaetieon belge^ vol. i, Paris,
1897; La Beige eccUeiaetique (an annual).
BELIAL, WU-ol ("worthlessness"): A word which
occiu^ once in the New Testament (II Cor. vi,
15; better reading Beliar) as the name of Satan,
hardly as that of Antichrist; the Peshito has " Sa-
tan.'' In the Old Testament beliyya*al is not used
as a designation of Satan, or of a bad angel; it is
an appellation, '' worthlessness " or " wickedness "
in an ethical sense, and is almost always foimd
in connection with a word denoting the person or
thing whose worthlessness or wickedness is spoken
of; as, " man of Belial," " son of Belial," " daugh-
ter of Belial," " thoughts of Belial," etc. In a few
instances heliyya^al denotes physical destruction; so
probably Ps. xviii, 4 (II Sam. xxii, 5), " floods of
destruction" (A. V. ''ungodly men"; R. V. "un-
godliness"). To imderstand this passage to
refer to the prince of hell is against Old Testa-
ment usage. Occasionally the adjimct is omit-
ted, as in II Sam. xxiii, 6; Job xxxiv, 18;
Nahiun i, 15, where the word means the '' bad," the
" destroyer," the " wicked." Although thus orig-
inally not a proper name, but an appellation, in
the later Jewish and Christian literature it passed
over into a name for Satan, not as the " worthless,"
but as the " destroyer." It is so used in II Cor.
vi, 15, where Paul asks: " What harmony is there
between Christ and Belial?" "Belial ' stands for
' Satan " also in Jewish epigrapha and apocalyptic
writings, such as the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs, the Book of Jubilees, and the Jewish in-
terpolations in the Sibylline Oracles. In the Syriac,
hdiyya*al is translated by " lord of the air," as
though the word were composed of hel and the
Syriac o'ar (-Gk. (Or; cf. Eph. ii, 2).
BiBLioaRAPHT: J. Hamburger, s.v., in Real^Encyklopddis
fUr Bibel und Talmud, vol. i. Leipsic, 1891; W. Bouaset.
Der Antichriet, pp. 86-87. 99-101. Gdttingen. 1896; T. K.
Chesme, in Expoeitor, 1895, pp. 435-439; F. Hommel. in
Expoeitory Timee, viii. 472; EB, i. 525-527.
BELLAMY, JOSEPH: Congregationalist; b. at
New Cheshire, Conn., Feb. 20, 1719; d. at Bethle-
hem, Conn., Mar. 6, 1790. He was graduated at
Yale, 1735, and was licensed to preach at the age
of eighteen; was ordained pastor of the church at
Bethlehem Apr. 2, 1740. During the Great Awa-
kening he preached with much zeal as an itinerating
evangelist; later he established a divinity school
in his house, where many prominent New England
clergjrmen were trained, as well as some not in-
tended for the ministry (among them Aaron Burr).
He was a disciple and personal friend of Jonathan
Edwards, and the most gifted preacher among his
followers, being thought by some to be equal to
Whitefield. In his True ReligUm Delineated (Bos-
Bellannine
BeUs
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
34
ton, 1750) he sets forth in spirited style the plan of
salvation and of the Christian life after the Ed-
wardean conception, and he explicitly advocates
the doctrine of a general atonement. In the Wis-
dom of God in the Permission of Sin (1768) he argues
that, while sin is a terrible evil, God permits it as a
necessary means of the best good, and the universe
is ** more holy and happy than if sin and misery
had never entered." God could have prevented
sin without violating free will. On the whole his
work was more general than specific, modifying
the prevalent conceptions in the direction of greater
simplicity and reasonableness. He sometimes ap-
proaches quite near subsequent forms of expres-
sion. A collected edition of his works appeared at
New York (3 vols., 1811), and another (and better)
at Boston, with memoir by Tryon Edwards (2 vols.,
1850).
BELLARMINE, bel"lar-min'.
In Louvain (§1). In Rome. The Di»putatione» (| 2).
New Duties after 1589. Controversial Writings (| 3).
Roberto Francesco Romolo Bellarmino, the fa-
mous Roman Catholic controversialist, was bom
at Montepulciano (26 m. s.w. of Arezzo), in Tus-
cany, Oct. 4, 1542; d. in Rome Sept. 17, 1621. He
was a nephew of Pope Marcellus II, and came of
a noble though impoverished family. His abilities
showed themselves early; as a boy he knew Vergil
by heart, and composed a number of poems in
Italian and Latin; one of his hymns, on Mary Mag-
dalene, is included in the Roman breviary. His
father destined him for a political career, hoping
that he might restore the fallen glories of the house;
but his mother wished him to enter the Jesuit order,
and her influence prevailed. He entered the Ro-
man novitiate in 1560, remained in Rome three
years, and then went to a Jesuit house at Mondovi
in Piedmont. Here he learned Greek, and taught
it afl faflt as he learned it. His systematic study
of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where
his teachers were Thomists, the Jesuits not yet hav-
ing had time to develop a theology of their own.
After a visit to Venice, where he increased his
renown as a public speaker, Bellannine was sent by
the general, Francis Borgia, in 1569, to Louvain,
then the most famous Roman Catholic university.
He was ordained priest at Ghent on Palm Sunday,
1570, by the elder Jansenius. A strict Augustin-
ian theology prevailed among the teachers at Lou-
vain, represented by Bajus, the precursor of Jan-
senism (see Bajus, Michel). Bellarmine had not
enough deep knowledge of his own nature or Chris-
tian experience to be able to appreciate the Augus-
tinian doctrines of the corruption of man and the
necessity of divine grace to any good movement
of the will. He contended accordingly against
the propositions of Bajus, though
z. In his own views and expressions in
LouvauL the great controversy on grace were
always a little imcertain. He was
the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where
the subject of his course was the Summa of St.
Thomas; he also made extensive studies in the
Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him
the material for his book De scriptoribus ecclesias-
Hcis (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and en-
larged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Oudin. In the
Netherlands he gained a knowledge of the great
controversy with the Protestants which he could
hardly have got in Italy, though he seems never to
have come into personal contact with the evangel-
ical leaders. Finally he learned Hebrew, and wrote
his often reprinted grammar. His genius for teach-
ing, clearness of thought, and adroitness in contro-
versy were indisputable.
Bellarmine's residence in Louvain lasted seven
years. His health was undermined by study and
asceticism, and in 1576 he made a journey to Italy
to restore it. Here he was detained by the com-
mission given him by Gregory XIII to lecture on
polemical theology in the new Roman Ck)llege.
He devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose
activities grew his celebrated DisptUationes de
eoniroversiis Christiana fidei, first published at
Ingolstadt, 4 vols., 1581-93. It occu-
2. In Rome, pies in the field of dogmatics the same
The **Dis- place as the Annales of Baronius in
putationeB." the field of history. Both were the
fruits of the great revival in religion
and learning which the Roman Catholic Church
had witnessed since 1540. Both bear the stamp
of their period; the effort for literary el^ance,
which was considered the prindpal thing at the
beginning of the sixteenth century, had given place
to a desire to pile up as much material as possible,
to embrace the whole field of human knowledge,
and incorporate it into theology. Bellarmine's
exposition of the views and arguments of the Prot-
estants is surprisingly full and accurate, so much
BO that the circulation of the book in Italy was
for a time not encouraged. He fails, like most of
his contemporaries, in imderstanding the principle
of historical development, and his belief in author-
ity, pressed to an extreme, injured his sense of
truth and allowed him to handle both the Bible
and history in an arbitrary manner. The first
volume treats of the Word of God, of Christ, and
of the pope; the second of the authority of councils,
and of the Church, whether militant, expectant,
or triumphant; the third of the sacraments; and
the fourth of grace, free will, justification, and good
works. The most important part of the work
is contained in the five books on the Roman pontif .
In these, after a speculative introduction on forms
of govenmient in general, holding monarchy to
be relatively the best, he says that a monarchical
government is necessary for the Church, to preser>'e
unity and order in it. Such power he considers to
have been established by the commission of Christ
to Peter. He then proceeds to demonstrate that
this power has been transmitted to the successors
of Peter, admitting that a heretical pope may
be freely judged and deposed by the Church since
by the very fact of his heresy he would cease to be
pope, or even a member of the Church; this is
almost like an echo of the great coimcils of the
fifteenth century. The third section discusses
Antichrist; Bellarmine gives in full the theory
set forth by the Greek and Latin Fathers, of a
personal Antichrist to come just before the end of
the world and to be accepted by the Jews and
35
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bellarmine
Bells
enthroned in the temple at Jerusalem — thus en-
deavoring to dispose of the Protestant exposition
which saw Antichrist in the pope. The fourth
section sets forth the pope as the supreme judge
in matters of faith and morals, though making the
concessions (confirmed indeed by the Vatican
Council) that the pope may err in questions of fact
which may be known by ordinary human knowl-
edge^ and also when he speaks as a mere unofficial
theologian, doctor privaHu. His assertions are much
more unbounded in the last part, which treats of
the pope's power in secular matters. While he
says that the pope has no direct jurisdiction in
such things, he yet stoutly contends for the power
of deposing kixigs, absolving subjects from their
allegiance, and altering civil laws, when these actions
are necessary for the good of the souls oonunitted
to the charge of the chief pastor.
Until 1589 Bellarmine was occupied altogether
as professor of theology, but that date marked
the beginning of a new epoch in his life and of new
dignities. After the murder of Henry III of France
Sixtus V sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to nego-
tiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to
accompany him as theologian; he was in the city
during its siege by Henry of Navarre. The next
pope, Clement VIII (1591-1605), set great store
by him. He wrote the preface to the new edition
of the Vulgate, and w^ made rector of the Roman
College in 1592, examiner of bishops
3. 5ew Du- in 1598, cardinal in 1599, and in 1602
ties after archbishop of Capua. He had written
1589. Cos- strongly against pluralism and non-
troyersial residence, and he set a good example
WritxngB. himself by leaving within four days
for his diocese, where he devoted
himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and firmly
executed the reforming decrees of the Council of
Trent. Under Paul V (1605-21) arose the great
conflict between Venice and the papacy, in which
Fra Paolo Sarpi was the spokesman of the Republic,
protesting against the papal interdict, reasserting
the principles of Constance and Basel, and denying
the pope's authority in matters secular. Bellar-
mine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theo-
logians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's
life by giving him warning of an impending mur-
derous attack. He soon had occasion to cross
swords with a more prominent antagonist, James I
of England, who prided himself on his theological
attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to
the English archpriest Blackwell, reproaching him
for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent
disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked .
him in 1608 in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly
cardinal answered at once, making merry with
delicate humor over the defects of the royal Latinity .
James replied with a second attack in more cateful
style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and
all the monarchs of Christendom, in which he posed
as the defender of primitive and truly Catholic
Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers
more or less the whole controversy. In reply to
a posthumous treatise of William Barclay, the
celebrated Scottish jurist, he wrote another Trao-
iahu de potettaie summi potUificia in rebus tem-
poralibus, which reiterated his strong assertions
on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in
France, where it agreed with the sentiments of
neither the king npr the bishops. He was among
the theologians consulted on the teaching of Galileo
when it first made a stir at Rome. In his old age
he was allowed to return to his old home, Monte-
pulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which
he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in
Rome. He received some votes in the conclaves
which elected Leo XI, Paul V, and Gregory XV,
but only in the second case had he any prospect
of election. Since his death the members of his
order have more than once attempted to prociu^
his canonization, but without success. The best
of the older editions of his works is that in seven
vols., O>logne, 1617; recent ones are those of Paris,
1870-74, and Naples, 1872. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliographt: A list of the worka of Bellarmine is given
in H. Hurter, Nomendator literariiu, i, 273 sqq.. Inns-
bruck, 1802. His autobiography, written in 1613, was
issued in Lat. at Rome, 1675, at Louvain, 1753, and in
Lat. and Germ., ed. J. J. I. von Ddllinger and F. H.
Beusch, Bonn, 1887; it was used in MS. by J. Fuligatti.
Vita del Cardinale R. BeUarmino, Rome, 1624. The
lives by D. Bartoli, Rome, 1677, N. Prison, Nantes. 1708,
and F. Hense, Paderbom, 1868, are mere eulogies and
add nothing of value; indeed it is said that the auto-
biography and the works founded upon it have done
much to prevent Bellarmine's canonisation. Consult
Niceron, Af ^moires, zxzi, 1 sqq.; J. B. Couderc, Le V6-
n^rable Cardinal Bellarmin, 2 vols., Paris, 1803.
BELLOWS, HEIIRY WHITNEY: American
Unitarian; b. in Boston June 11, 1814; d. in New
York Jan. 30, 1882. He was graduated at Harvard
1832, and at the Cambridge Divinity School 1837;
was ordained pastor of the First Congregational
Society (Unitarian), Chambers Street, New York,
Jan. 2, 1838, and remained there till death; during
his pastorate the church was twice moved, to
Broadway between Spring and Prince Streets and
the name changed to the Church of the Divine
Unity, and again to 4th Avenue and 20th Street,
where it took the name of All Souls' Church. Dr.
Bellows was the organizer, president, and chief ad-
ministrator of the United States Sanitary Com-
mission (1862-78), and during the Civil War he
superintended with rare efficiency the distribution
of supplies valued at $15,000,000 and $5,000,000
in money; at a later period he was president of
the first civil service reform association organized
in the coimtry. He was president of the Nar
tional Unitarian Conference 1865-79. He wrote
much for the periodicals of his denomination and
was the chief originator of The Christian In-
quirer (New York, 1846) and for five years its
principal contributor. He also published a number
of books, of merely personal and transient interest.
BELLS: The use of bells as adjimcts to Chris-
tian worship was not without precedent in pre-
Christian times. Among the Jews the vestment
of the high priest was adorned with little bells
(Ex. xxviii, 33); and among the pagans the
priests of Proserpine annoimoed the beginning of
the sacrifice by ringing bells. There is no evidence
of early Christian use of them to siunmon people
to prayer; this seems to have been done by word
of mouth, even as late as TertuUian and Jerome.
BeUs
B«mbo
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
36
In the Egyptian monafiteries the Old Testament
use of trumpets still survived, and the soimd made
by knocking, pieces of wood together served the
same purpose; this custom is still sometimes used
in the Roman Catholic Church on the last three
days of Holy Week, when the ringing of bells is
forbidden [and survives in some
Early Use. places in the East]. The first positive
evidence of the use of bells in con-
nection with Christian worship is foimd in Gregory
of Tours (d. 595), who speaks of them as being
rung at the beginning of the liturgy and the canon-
ical hours. From the seventh century on, bells
are often mentioned in the inventories of Western
churches, and by 800 they were so common as to be
found even in village churches. A capitulary of
. Chariemagne (801) prescribes that priests shall
ring their bells at the accustomed hours of the day
and night. In the ninth century some Eastern
instances occur; thus Orso I, Doge of Venice, pre-
sented twelve bells to the Byzantine emperor,
who placed them in a tower near St. Sophia. But
outside of Russia they never attained the same
importance as in the West. The Mohanunedans
usually removed them in the countries they con-
quered; and Zwingli attempted to abolish their
use in Switzerland, though most of the Reformers
only protested against superstition in the use of
them, especially their consecration.
Walafrid Strabo distinguishes two classes of
bells in his time, vasa productUia and fusilia,
wrought and cast. Of the now rare examples of
the former class the best known is the ** Saufang "
at Cologne, so called because the
Haterial legend ran that it had been dug up
and Form, by pigs about 613; it is made of three
plates of iron fastened together with
copper nails. Similar and perhaps older examples
are in the Edinburgh Museum. For the casting
of bells a mixture of copper and tin was employed
in the Middle Ages; ofterv/ard lead, zinc, iron,
and antimony were used with copper. At present
the best bell-metal is supposed to be a mixture of 77
to 80 per cent, of good copper with 20 to 23 per cent,
of pure tin. The earliest cast bells resemble cow-bells
in form, though there are some shaped more like
a beehive or a pear. Their dimensions are small.
As far as can be judged from the extant examples,
the custom of putting inscriptions on beUs does
not go fmther back than the twelfth century, and is
by no means general even then. On cast bells
the inscriptions are rarely incised; where this
occurs, it is a sign of antiquity. Later they are
more oonmionly raised, and in either Roman or
Gothic capitals down to the end of
iDicriptions. the fourteenth century; then small
letters were used imtil about 1550,
and since then more modem types of letters have
been usual, except in recent deliberate imitations
of the old style. Until well into the fourteenth
eentury Latin was the regular language; then the
reraacular came into use. The earliest inscriptions
w«re slu^rt; from the end of the sixteenth century
tfnu^h Umger ones became usual, frequently almost
ftJiifig tlie surface of the bell. They are mostly
I^U^m d4KUcatiooi or prayers, or declarations of the
purpose of the bell, such as Funera pUmgo,
fulffura frangoy sahbata pango; excUo len09,
dissipo ventoSf paco cmentM. Besides inscriptions,
the sides of bells were adorned with pictures,
coats of arms, seals, and various symbols, among
the oldest being, besides the cross, the dove with
the olive-branch, and the Agnu9 Dei.
As early as the Frankish sacramentaries and the
Pontifical of Egbert special formulas for the bene-
diction of bells are mentioned. This practise was
connected in those days with superstitious notions,
so that Chariemagne was obliged to regulate it in
789. But the formulas of benediction themselves
attributed a quasimagical effect to
Bene- the bells thus consecrated. Accord-
diction, ing to present Roman Catholic usage,
the blessing of bells is an episcopal
prerogative, though priests may exercise it in case
of necessity with the pope's permission. The cero
monies somewhat resemble those of baptism,
which has given rise to the practise of naming bells,
and in the Middle Ages of appointing sponsors
for them, from whom rich christening gifts were
expected. The Schmalkald Articles declared bit-
terly against these practises as " popish jugglery "
and " a mockery of holy baptism."
The main use of bells has always been to an-
nounce the time of public worship. It is also a
common Roman Catholic practise to ring the church
bell at the consecration in the mass, as in some
Protestant localities at the Lord's Prayer after the
sermon, that those who are absent may unite
themselves in spirit with the congregation. During
the mass, moreover, a small bell (called the " Sane-
tus" or "sacring" bell) is rung at
Present the specially solemn parts — ^the Sane-
Use. ius, the beginning of the canon, the
consecration, and the Dtmdne, rum
sum dignu9. Bells have been rung also at certain
regular times to call to mind some mystery, as
the passion and death or the incarnation of Christ
(see Anoelub), or to bid to prayer for sinners, for
the faithful departed, or for peace. The ringing
of joyous peals at marriages, and the announcement
of a death by solenm tolling (originally intended to
move the hearers to prayer for the soul, either
before or after death) are ancient practises; the
latter existed, at least in the monasteries, in the
time of Bede. In some parts of En^and a special
bell was tolled with a similar intention before the
execution of a criminal. (Nikoiaub MOixer.)
Biblioorapbt: Literature on the subjeet ia siTen in H. T.
EUaoombe, PraeUoal Remark9 on Btljrua and Ringert,
wiih an Appendix on Chimino, London. 1861^-60: H. Ott«,
Qlodeenkunds, pp. 1-^ Leipsio, 1884; and F. W. Scfau-
bart, Dii Qloeken im HenogOium AnhaU, pp. xiv-zvii,
Deoeau, 1896. H. T. EUaoombe has a series of works
treating of English bells, among which are: Sundry Words
AboutBeUa, Exeter. 1864; Chtm^ BeUaof Devon, ib. 1872;
Churdi BeUe of Somereel, 1875; Churdi BeUe of GUntctater-
ehixe, 1881. Consult also: Joseph Anderson. Scotland m
Early Timee, 1st series, pp. 167-216. Edinburgh. 1881;
F. W. Warren, Lituryy and RUudl of the Celtic Churdi, p.
92, Oxford, 1881; Margaret Stokes. Early Chrie^an AH
in Ireland, pp. 60 sqq.. London, 1887: J. T. Fowler,
Adamnani Vita S. Columbae, pp. xliii-xHv, Oxford. 1894;
K. H. Bergner, Zur Olockenkunde ThUtringene, Jena, 1896;
Eneydopadia Brilannioa, k.v.. contains interesting mate'
rial not easily found elsewhere; DC A, i, 184-186.
87
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bells
Bemli
ibo
BELSHAH, THOMAS: English Umtaiian; b.
at Bedford Apr. 26, 1750; d. at Hampstead Nov.
1 1 , 1829. He finished his studies at the Dissenting
Academy of Daventry and in 1770 became teacher
there; in 1778 he became minister of an independ-
ent chapel at Worcester, but returned to Daventry
as teacher and preacher in 1781. Having adopted
Unitarian views he resigned in 1789, and was
professor of divinity at the college of Hackney
until it ceased to exist in 1796. In 1794 he succeeded
Dr. Priestley as minister of the Gravel Pit Unitarian
Chapel at Hackney, and in 1805 became minister
of the Essex Street Chapel, London. He published
much, sermons, controversial writings, and general
theological works, including Elements of the Phi-
losophy of the Mind and of Moral Philosophy (Lon-
don, 1801); Letters to the Bishop of London in
Vindication of Unitarians (1815); The Epistles
of St, Paul Translatedf with an Exposition and
Notes (2 vols., 1822); he was principal editor of
The New Testament in an Improved Version upon
the Basis of Archbishop Newcomers New Translation ;
with a critical text and notes critical and explanatory
(1808). American Unitarianism (4th ed., Boston,
1315) is extracted from his Memoirs of the Revd.
T, Lindsey (London, 1812).
BzBLicmaAPRT: J. Williams, Menunn of Thotnaa Bdaham,
London, 1833; DNB, iv. 202-203.
BELSHAZZAR. See Babtlonia, VI, 7, { 3;
Persia.
BELSHEIM, JOHARlfES: Norwegian Protes-
tant; b. at Valders (about 100 m. n.w. of Chris-
tisknia) Jan. 21, 1829. He received only an ele-
mentary education in his early years, and from
1851 was a teacher in village schools until 1858,
when he was enabled to enter the University of
Christiania, from which he was graduated three
years later. He was tutor at a teachers' seminary
in 1863-64, and was then appointed pastor of a
small parish in Finmarken near the Russian fron-
tier. Six years later he was called to a larger
pariah in Bjelland, in the extreme south of Nor-
way, but resigned his pastorate in 1875 and settled
at Christiania, where he was enabled to continue
his studies by his pension and a small additional
stipend, while a government subvention later ren-
dered it possible for him to visit foreign libraries.
He has written Om Bibelen, dens Opbevaring, Over-
sattdse, og Udbredelse (3d ed., Christiania, 1884);
TU Forsvar for nogle omtvistede Steder i det Nye
TestamenU (1876); Veiledning i BibeUns Historie,
med udf&rligeTe Oplysninger om det Ny^Testamentes
Bogtr (ChriBtiania, 1880); Den evangdiske His-
tories Trovcerdighed og de Nytestamentlige Skrifters
Oprinddse (1891); De GammeUestamentiige Skrif-
iers TrowBrdighed og Oprindelse (1892); Om Mose-
bogeme og nogle andre Gammeltestamentlige Skrif-
ter : Et Indlag imod den modeme Kritik (1896).
He likewise edited Codex aureus^ sive quatuor Evan-
gelia ex eodice pwrpureo aureoque in Bibliotheca Re-
gia Halmensi asservata (Christiania, 1879); Die
Aposjelgeschichte und die Offenbarung Johannes aus
dan Oigas Librorum auf der koniglichen Btbliothek
ftt Stockholm (1879); Das Evangelium des Mat^
thausausdsmlateinischen Cod. ff 1 Carbiensis auf der
kaiserlichen Btbliothek eu St. Petersburg, nebst dem
Briefs Jacobi (1881); Der Brief des Jacobus in dUer
lateinischer Udtersetzungnaehdem Cod. ff 1 Carbien-
sis in St. Petersburg (1884); Palimpsestus Vindobo-
nensis : Antiquissima Veteris Testamenti fragmenta
(1885); EpistvloB Paulina e Cod. Sangermaniense
Petropolitano (1885); Evangelium des Marcus nach
dem griechischen Codex Theodorce purpureus Petro-
politanus (1885); Codex Vindobonensis purpureus
antiquissimv>s : Evangeliorum Luca et Marci irans-
lationis Latincs fragmenta (Leipaic, 1885); Frag-
menta Vindobonensia : Brudistiicke der Apostelge-
sMchte, des Briefes Jacobi und ersten Briefes Petri
nach einem Palimpsest auf der kaiserlichen Hofbib-
liothek zu Wien (Christiania, 1886); Codex ff 2 Car-
biensis, sive quatuor Evangelia . . . Latina trans-
latio e eodice in Bibliotheca Nationali Parisiensi
asservata (1 887 ) ; A ppendix epistularum Paulinarum
e eodice Gtrmanensi (1887); Codex Cotbertinus
Parisiensis : Quatuor Evangelia . . • Latina trans-
latio post editionem Petri Sabatarii cum isto eodice
coUata (1888); Evangelium secundum Matthomm
. . . Latina transUUio e eodice olim Claramontano,
nunc Vaticano (1892); Libri Tobit, Judit, Ester . . .
Latina transUxtione eodice olim Freisingensi, nunc
Monachensi (Trondhjem, 1893); Acta Apostdorum.
. . . Latina translatio e codiee Latino-Grceco Lavr
diano Oxoniensi (Christiania, 1893); Codex VerceU
lensis: Quatuor Evangelia ex reliquiis codicis Ver-
ceUensis . . . etex editions Juliana principi (1894);
Evangelium Palatinum: Reliquia quatuor Evan-
geliorum cum Laiina translations e eodice purpurea
Vindobonensi et ex editions TischendorfUma (1896);
Fragmenta Novi Testamenti in translatione Latina
ex libra qui vacatur Speculum (1899); and Codex
Veronensis : Quatuor Evangelia e eodice in biblio-
theca episcopali Veronensi asservata et ex editions
Blanchini (Prague, 1904). Of these the first, sec-
ond, fifth, sixth, seventh, ninth, tenth, eleventh,
and fourteenth are editiones principes. Of his
numerous translations, special mention may be
made of versions of the catechism of Cyril
(Christiania, 1882) and the De Imitations Christi
of Thomas k Kempis (1890).
BEMA: In classical literature a semicircular
platform at the end of a basilica, which supported
the official seat of the judge. When the basilican
style was adapted to Christian use (see Architec-
ture, Ecclesiastical), the apse, or similar semi-
circular termination of the building, was reserved
for the seats of the bishop and clergy, and the same
name was sometimes applied to it. In a more re-
stricted sense it signifies any elevated place in the
church, such as that from which the gospel was
read, and is thus synonymous with ambo (q.v.).
BEMBO, PIETRO: Cardinal aud humanist;
b. in Venice May 20, 1470; d. in Rome Jan. 18,
1547. He was the son of a senator, and studied at
Padua and Ferrara, in the latter place attracting
the attention of Alfonso d'Este and his wife, Lu-
crezia Borgia. He spent six years at the court of
Urbino, where he became acquainted with Raffael.
He then went to Rome, where Leo X recognized
his ability as a Latinist by making him Iris si^cre-
tary. As he held this office to the death uf the
Benatah
Benedict
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
38
pope (1521), the sixteen books of Latin letters of
Leo X are practically, as to their form, of Bembo's
composition. Returning to Padua, Bembo made
his house the meeting-place of humanist circles.
In 1530 he was commissioned by the Venetian sen-
ate to complete the history of the republic begun
by Marcantonio Sabellico. His part of the work,
covering the years 1487-1513, has been justly criti-
cized as to historic accuracy by Justus Lipsius
(PolUicaf i, Leyden, 1589, 9, note). On the other
hand, not only in the /2tm«, but also in his letters,
there is a regrettable tendency to a loose frivolity
strongly bordering on pagan morals. This tend-
ency, shown also in his manner of life — ^he was
the father of several illegitimate children — was no
obstacle to his being made a cardinal (1539). From
that time on (he was now sixty-nine), he is said to
have changed his life. He held two bishoprics,
Gubbio and Bergamo, but he lived in Rome till his
death. His Opera were published in three vols, at
Basel, 1567; Strasburg, 1611-52; four vols., Venice,
1729. His Rime (Venice, 1530) have often been re-
printed; as has his Gli Aaolani (1505), a dialogue
on the nature of love. K. Benrath.
Bibuookapht: The first VUa was issued by Giovanni della
Casa at Florence* 1667, a second is found in the Venice
edition of his works, ut sup., while a third was published
by L. Beceadelli in Monutnenti di varia lettenUura^ vol. i,
Bologna, 1799, and also by W. P. Oreswell, Memoira of
. . . P€inu Bembu9, Manchester. 1801. Consult also V.
(^BO, Un D€cennio deUa vita di M. P. Bembo, ISHSl,
Turin, 1886; J. P. Niceron, Mfmoirf, xi, 368. xx, 32. 43
vols., Paris, 1729-15; W. W. Westoott, Tabula Bembina;
The leiac Tablet of Cardinal Bembo, iU Hietory and Sionifi'
cance, Bath, 1887.
BEHAIAH (" whom Yahweh built ") : The name
of several Israelites. The most important of them
is the valorous son of Jehoiada of Kabzeel, a city in
the south of Judah (Josh, xv, 21). He is honorably
mentioned (II Sam. xxiii, 20 ff.; cf . I Ghron. xi, 22 ff.)
among the mighty men of David, to whom he always
faithfully adhered. Three heroic exploits of his
are mentioned in justification of his rank: he slew
the two sons of Ariel (according to the LXX), either
a distinguished Moabite (so Josephus, Ant., VII, xii,
4) or the king of Moab, in the war with that people
(II Sam. viii, 2); he killed a lion which had fallen
into a pit in time of snow; and, finally, he overcame
an Egyptian giant, who carried a spear so large
that it seemed like a tree thrown across a ravine
(according to an addition of the LXX), or like a
weaver's beam (according to I Chron. xi, 23);
Benaiah disarmed his opponent and killed him
with his own weapon. Being prominent among
David's " thirty heroes," Benaiah was set over
the Cherethites and Pelethites, David's body-
guard (II Sam. viii, 18; xx, 23). In the beginning
of Solomon's reign, to whom he became devoted
at once (I Kings i, 8), Benaiah still held this office
and executed the judgment of the king upon
Adonijah and Joab (I Kings ii, 25, 30, 34), and
became Joab's successor as commander-in-chief
(I Kings ii, 35). When, under David, the army
was organized, besides his regular office he had
command over one of the twelve divisions of 24,000
men (I Chron. xxvii, 5, 6, where his father, Jehoiada,
strange to say, is called *' the priest," which is no
doubt a mistaken gloss founded upon I Chron.
xii, 27). C. VON Orelli.
BENDER, WILHELM (FRIEDRICH): German
Protestant; b. at MUnzenberg ( 10 m.s.e. of Giessen),
Hesse, Jan. 15, 1845; d. at Bonn Apr. 8, 1901. He
studied at Gdttingen and Giessen, 1863-^, and
at the theological seminary at Friedberg, 186&-67;
became teacher of religion and assistant preacher
at Worms, 1868; ordinary professor of theology
at Bonn, 1876; was transferred to the philosophical
faculty, 1888. He belonged to the extreme Ritsch-
lian school, and published Der Wunderbegriff
de8 Neum TestamenU (Frankfort, 1871); ScUeier-
machers Theologie mit ihren phUosophischen Grund-
lagen (2 vols., NOrdlingen, 1876-78); Friedrich
Schleiermacher und die Frage nach dem Wesen der
Religion (Bonn, 1877); Johann Konrad Dippd.
Der Freigeist aue dem Pietismus (1882); Refor-
mation und Kirchenthum, eine akademische Fest-
rede zur Feier dee vierhundertjdhrigen Geburts-
tage Martin Luihers (1883), which caused a great
stir and many protests against Bender; Das Wesen
der Religion und die Grundgesetze der Kirchenbildung
(1886); Der Kampf urn die Seligkeit (1888); Mytho-
logie und Metaphysik, Grundlinien einer GeechichU
der Weltanschauungen (Stuttgart, 1899).
BENEDICITE: The name given, from its first
word in the Latin, to the canticle which stands io
the Anglican Prayer-book as an alternative to
the Te Deum, commonly used in Advent and Lent,
and in the Roman breviary as a part of the priest's
thanksgiving after celebrating mass. It is taken
from the apocryphal fragment of the Song of the
Three Holy Children (verses 35-65), which supple-
ments the narrative of Dan. iii, and seems to have
been used in public worship in the postexilie
Jewish Church, and in the Christian at least from
the fourth century.
BENEDICT: The name of fourteen popes and
one antipope.
Benedict I: Pope 574-578. He was a Roman
by birth, the son of Boniface, and succeeded
John III, who died July 13, 573, but was unable
to be consecrated before June 3, 574, because the
Lombards had cut off communication with Con-
stantinople and the imperial confirmation could
not be obtained. Owing to the troubles of the
barbarian invasion and a great famine, which
occupied his mind, the Liber ponHficalis (ed. Du-
chesne, i, Paris, 1886, 308) finds scarcely anything
to say of his acts. He died July 30 or 31, 578,
during the siege of Rome by the first Lombard
Duke of Spoleto. (A. Hauck.)
Biblxoobaprt: Paulus Diaconus, Hietoria Lanifobardorvm,
ii, 10. iii, 11. in MOH, Script, rer. Lanoob., pp. 12-187.
ed. Waits. Hanovar. 1878; Jaff^, Regesta, i, 137: Bower.
Popee, i. 380-382; F. GrasoroviuB, OeeehidUe der Sladt
Rom, u, 19-20, Stuttgart, 1876. Ens. trand.. London.
1805; L. M. Hartmann, OeechicKte Italiene, ii. 48. 165.
Gotha, 1003.
Benedict II: Pope 683-685. He was elected
after the death of Leo II, which took place on July
3, 683, though the imperial confirmation was de-
layed for almost a year. The Liber pontificalis (ed.
89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benalfth
Benedict
Ducheflne, i, Paris, 1S86, 363) asserts that the em-
l>eror Constantine Pogonatus conceded the right
to piYHseed at once to consecration for the future;
but this is very doubtful, as it would amount to
a total renunciation of the right of confirmation,
and it is certain that several successors of Benedict
waited to obtain it either from the emperor himself
or his representative, the Exarch of Ravenna.
During the interval intervening before his conse-
cration, Benedict signed himself with the desig-
nation presbffter et in Dei nomine electus sanctte
sedis apoHdica. Like his predecessor, he had at
heart the complete recognition by the Western
Church of the sixth ecumenical council (Third Con-
stantinople, 680). With this end in view, Leo II
had sent the notary Peter to Spain, and imme-
diately after his election Benedict wrote to Peter
to carry out his commission. His wish was grati-
fied by the condemnation of monothelitism in the
fourteenth Council of Toledo (Nov., 684). Even
before his consecration, which finally took place
June 26, 684, he espoused the cause of Wilfrid of
Yoric (q.v.) and wrote in recognition of his innocence
and his rights. Benedict died May 8, 685.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibuoorapht: The Vita ia in ASB, 7th May, ii. 197-198.
Consalt Vita WUfridi, chap, xlii aqq., in T. Gale, His-
ior%<B Ant^ioante Bcripioret quinque, i, 74 eqq., Oxford,
1691; Mann. Popec, vol. i. part 2, pp. 54-^, Lond., 1902;
JuS4, Hegeaia, i, 241; J. Langen, Oetchichte der riHniachen
Kirdtevan Leo I hi* Nikolaua l, p. 579, Bonn. 1885; Hefele.
Coneilienoesehichte, iii. 322, Ens. transl., v. 215; Bower.
Pape&. i. 487-489; L. M. Hartmann. Geachichte Italiena, ii.
262-263. Gotha. 1903.
Benedict m: Pope 855-858. He was chosen
immediately after the death of Leo IV by the clergy
and people of Rome, but owing to the setting up
of an antipope, Anastasius, by the emperor Lothair
and his son Louis II, was not consecrated for more
than two months (Sept. 29). Soon afterward the
Saxon king, Ethelwulf, and his son Alfred, visited
Rome and made liberal gifts to the Church. In
his relations with secular powers and important
prelates, Benedict displayed the same unbending
principle which was carried out by his famous
successor Nicholas I (q.v.), already a person of much
influence. He con finned the powerful Hincmar,
archbishop of Reims, in his primacy, only on
condition that the rights of the apostolic see should
be safeguarded. In England he protested against
the deposition of bishops by tyrannous lay nobles.
The strug^e with the Eastern Church in which
Nicholas was involved had its origin in Benedict's
pontificate, arising out of the case of the arch-
bishop of Syracuse, who was deposed by the patri-
arch of Constantinople, Ignatius (q.v.), and ap-
pealed to Leo IV and after his death to Benedict.
Before Ignatius was expelled by a faction and re-
placed by the famous Photius, Benedict died
C^r. 7, 858). (A. Hauck.)
BiBLTOOKArgT: Liber pontiflealit, ed. Duoheene, ii, 140.
Fans. 1892; Epielola Nicoiai /, in Maniri, Concilia, vol. xv;
Jair^ Regeeta, i. 339-340; J. HergenrOther, PhoHue, i.
358 K|q.. Receoibiizs, 1867; R. Baxmann, Die Politik
der PApeie von Gregor 1 bu aul Oregor VII, i. 355 sqq.,
Bberfeia, 1868; J. Langen. Oetefctc^te <2er rOmiechen Kirehe
von Leo I bU Nikolaue /, p. 884. Bonn. 1885; Hefele. Con-
ciHtngewehiehie, iv. 201; Bower, Popee, ii. 227-229.
Benedict IV: Pope 900-903. Owing to the
scantiness of the sources for the history of the papacy
at this period, the chronology is very uncertain;
the exact date of Benedict's elevation can not be
determined, though it is probably May, not later
than June, 900. Like his predecessor, John IX, he
recognized Formosus (q.v.), by whom he was himself
ordained priest, as a lawful pope at a Roman
synod in August. When Louis of Burgundy
(Louis III) made his victorious descent into Italy
and wrested it from Berengar, Benedict crowned
him as emperor in Feb., 901. He died in July or
Aug., 903. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoosapht: Liber pontificalie, ed. Duchesne, ii. 283,
Paris, 1802; JafT^. Regeaia, i. 443; Hefele. ConcUienge-
aehicKte, iv, 570-571; Bower, Popee, ii, 304-305.
Benedict V (called Grammaticus): Pope 964.
At the end of 963, the emperor Otto I deposed the
dissolute John XII in a synod at Rome and caused
a prominent Roman layman to be put in his place
as Leo VIII, taking an oath of the people that they
would thenceforth choose no pope without his
consent and that of his son. He had scarcely left
the city when John XII returned and drove out
and anathematized Leo. The emperor came
back to chastise this rebellion, but before he arrived
John XII died (May 14, 964). A deputation met
Otto and begged him not to replace Leo, but to
permit a new election. In spite of his refusal,
the Romans chose the cardinal deacon Benedict,
a man of blameless life and great learning who had
been one of the opponents of John's unworthy rule.
He had pledged fidelity both to Otto and to Leo,
but the fear of imperial domination of the Church
had brought him to support Jolm on the latter's
return. The people were firm in their intention
to defend Benedict against the emperor; but the
pressure of famine forced them to give him up
(June 23, 964). He was brought to trial before a
synod. After asking the pardon of Otto and of Leo,
and surrendering the insignia of his office to the
latter, he was deprived of his episcopal and priestly
functions, though allowed to retain those of deacon.
To avoid any possibility of his changing his mind,
he was sent to Germany, where he remained prac-
tically a prisoner, in the charge of the archbishop
of Hamburg, until his death, which occurred not
earlier than July 4, 966, (A, Hauck.)
BiBUoasAPHT: Liber ponHfiealia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 151,
Pans. 1892; Jaff^. Regeata, i. 460; J. M. Watterich.
Romanorum pontificum . . . vita, i. 45. Leipsic, 1862;
A. Ton Reumont, GeechichU der Stadt Rom, ii, 280. Berlin.
1868; W. von Giesebrecht. Geachichte der deutachen
Kaieerzeil, i, 468, Brunswick. 1873; F. Gregorovius, Go-
ackietUe der Stadt Rom, iii. 364. Stuttgart. 1876; Bower,
Popee, ii. 320-321; Hefele, ConcUiengMchichU, iv, 610.
626; Hauck, KD, iii. 235-238.
Benedict VI: Pope 972-974, He was elected
immediately after the death of John XIII (Sept.
6, 972), but was not consecrated until the 19th of
the following January, apparently waiting for the
emperor Otto's confirmation. After the death of
Otto I, the affairs of the empire fell into disorder.
Crescentius, the son of Theodora, conspired with
the deacon Boniface to overthrow Benedict, who
Btttedlot
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
40
was imprisoned and, after Boniface had assumed
the pap«l authority, was strangled in July, 974.
(A, Hauck.)
Bxbxjogbapht: Liber ponlificalU, cd. Duchesne, ii, 255,
Patu, 1892; Jaff^ Regetta, i. 477; J. M. Watterich. Pon^
fi/lcum Romanorum . . . vtlcB, i, 65-66, Leipsic, 1862;
Neander, CkriMtian Church, iii, 330-331 (reference to
a letter of Benedict, given Mansi, Concilia, xix, 53);
Hefele, Coneilienoetchiehte, iv, 632; Bower, Pope9, ii, 324.
Benedict VII: Pope 974-983. He was a Roman
by birth, said to have been a kinsman of the xx)werf ul
Roman prince and senator Alberic. He was bishop
of Sutri when, on the flight of Boniface VII, he
was called to the papal throne, and confirmed by
the emperor Otto II. As far as we know, his first
act was to condemn Boniface in a synod at Rome.
He displayed a great desire to maintain friendly
relations with the German prelates; Archbishop
Willigis of Mainz was appointed papal legate for
Germany and Gaiil, with the right of crowning the
German kings. Benedict showed his subservi-
ency to the emperor by agreeing to the suppression
of the bishopric of Merseburg in a synod at Rome
(Sept. 10, 981), without regard to the arguments
brought against such a proceeding. He was a de-
voted friend of monasticism, as is shown not only
by the numerous privileges bestowed upon monas-
teries, but by the restoration of that of Saints Boni-
face and Alexius on the Aventine and the building
of the monastic church of Subiaco. He supported
the reforming movement, condemning simony at
a synod in March, 981. That he upheld the claim
of the papacy to universal jurisdiction may be in-
ferred from the fact that he sought to establish re-
lations with pl&oes as distant as Carthage and Da-
mascus, giving an archbishop once more to the
North African Church, and appointing the metro-
politan of Damascus, who had been driven out by
the Arabs, abbot of St. Boniface. He died in Oct.,
983. (A. Hauck.)
Biblxoobapbt: Liber ponHfiealia, ed. Duchesne, ii, 258,
Paris, 1892; Jaff^, Regeata, i, 479; J. M. Watterich.
Romanorum porUifieum . . . vita, i, 66, 686, Leipsic,
1862; A. von Reumont, OeechicKte der Stadt Rom, ii, 294,
Berlin, 1868; F. Gregoroviua. Geechiehte der Stadt Rom, iii,
372, Stuttgart, 1876; Bower, Popec, ii. 325; Hefele, Con-
dUengeeehichte, iv, 633; Hauck, KD, iii. passim.
Benedict Vin (Theophylact) : Pope 1012-24.
He was the son of Count Gregory of Tusculum,
chosen by his brothers' influence, after they had
defeated, by force of arms, the Crescentian party,
who set up another Gregory as antipope (see
Greoort VI, antipope). Benedict was conse-
crated Apr. 20, 1012, and Gregory fled to the
court of Henry II, who, however, recognized
Benedict, and was' rewarded by a promise of
coronation in St. Peter's. He descended into Italy
toward the end of 1013, and was crowned, with his
wife Cunigunde, in the following February. Soon aft-
erward a synod was held in his presence, at which,
it is said at his suggestion, the Constantinopolitan
Creed was made a part of the Roman liturgy; after
this he left Pope Benedict to contend with his nu-
merous enemies — the Crescentian faction, the Arabs,
and the Greeks. The first he suppressed; the
Mohammedan invaders, who threatened Italy from
Sardinia, were defeated and driven out of the island
in June, 1016, by the aid of the Pisans and Genoese;
he supported those who were attempting to free
southern Italy from the Byzantine rule, and gained
them the help of a body of Norman knights, who
conquered the Greeks, though only temporarily. He
accepted Henry's invitation to meet him in 1020 at
Bamberg, where the emperor renewed the " Otto
nian privilege " to the Church, and gave up Ba-n-
berg to ecclesiastical rule. In the following year
Henry crossed the Alps for the third time; Bene-
dict met him at Benevento in 1022, and was pres-
ent when he conquered the Greek fortress of Troja
and broke the power of Pandulf IV of Capua, an
ally of the Byzantines. These successes, again
temporary, are less important than the synod heM
by the pope and emperor jointly at Pavia Aug. 1,
1022. Here Henry's reforming plans were ex-
tended to Italy. After a strong exhortation from
the pope, the synod renewed the condenmation of
clerical marriage and took measures to prevent the
alienation of church property. Henry wished to
carry his reforms into France also,» and with this
purpose met King Robert at Ivois in Aug., 1023.
Another synod at Pavia was projected, but before
it could be held both Benedict and Henry had died,
the former Apr. 9, 1024. (A. Hauck.)
Bzbliooiu.pbt: Liber ponHficaliM, ed. Duoheane, ii, 268,
Paris. 1892; Jaff^, Regeeta, i. 506; J. M. Watterich.
Romanorum ponHficum . . . vito, i, 69, 700, Leipsic.
1862; A. von Reumont, OeeehidUe der Stadt Rom, ii.
329, Berlin, 1868; W. von Gieaebrecht, Geadtiehte der
deutuKen Kaiaeraeit^ ii, 122 sqq., Brunswiclc. 1S75;
P. F. Sadee, Die Stelluno Heinridia il ntr Kirche, Jena.
1877; Hefele, CancUienifeachichte, iv, 670; Bower, Pope*,
ii, 835-837; Hartmann. in Mittheilungen dee inaUhUe far
Merreiehieehe GeechidUe, xv (1894). 482 sqq.; Hauck.
KD, iii. 518 eqq.; P. G. Wappler, Papet Benedikt VIII,
Leipaic. 1897.
Benedict IX (Theophylact): Pope 1033-48. He
was the son of Count Alberic of Tusculum, and
nephew of Benedict VIII and John XIX, the latter
of whom he succeeded by his father's intrigues and
violence, though he was only ten years old. His
life was incredibly scandalous, and the strife of fac-
tions continued. A murderous assault upon him
and his expulsion from Rome followed (the date
can not be determined). He owed his restoration
to the emperor Conrad II, who came into Italy in
the winter of 1036. Benedict met him obsequi-
ously at Cremona in the following Jime, taking no
notice of the fact that he had broken the Church's
laws by imprisoning Aribert, archbishop of Milan,
and expelling the bishops of Piaoenza, Cremona,
and Vercelli from their sees; in fact, in Mar., 1038,
he went so far as to excommimicate Aribert. By
similar complaisances he won the favor of Conrad's
successor, Henry III, for whom, in 1041, he obli-
gingly exconununicated the Hungarian nobles, who
had (Mven out their king, Peter. The Romans bore
with these conditions until the end of 1044, when
they rose and drove Benedict out, afterward elect-
ing John, bishop of Sabina, in his stead, under the
tide of Sylvester III. Benedict succeeded in send-
ing John back to Sabina inside of two months; but,
doubting his own ability to maintain his position,
he decided to abdicate, adding one more shameless
41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedict
act of simony by selling the papacy (May 1, 1045) to
the archpriest John Gratian (who called himself Greg-
ory VI, q. v.) for the sum of a thousand pounds of sil-
ver and the continued enjoyment of the Peter's pence
from En^and. Henry III came to Italy in the
autumn of 1046, and decided to remove Gregory.
He convened a synod at Sutri, which deposed Syl-
vester even from the priesthood and induced Greg-
ory to resign his claims (Dec. 20, 1046); a few days
later, another synod in Rome deposed Benedict
also, and Suidger of Bamberg succeeded to an un-
disputed papacy as Clement II. When he died,
however, nine months later, Benedict made an at-
tempt to recover his see. He was soon put down
by the imperial authority, and retired to Tusculum.
When and where he died is not known.
(A. Hauck.)
BiBXjoGmArar: Jaffd, RegeHa, i, 519; J. M. Watterich,
Romanantm ponHfieum . . . vi<<s, i, 71, 711, Leipsie,
1862; A. von Reumont, Oetchidtte der Stadt Rom^ ii,
338, Berlin, 1868; O. Lorens, Papatwihl und KaUertum,
p. 69, Berlin, 1874; F. Gregoroyius, GeMchichte der Stadt
Rom, iv, 39, Stuttgart, 1877; Bower. Popet, ii. 340-343;
Neander. Ckriatian Chwreh, iii, 375-377, 409, 445, 448;
Hefele. ConeUimge^chichte, iv, 70&-707, 714; Hauck, KD,
iii. 559. 509-571.
Benedict X (Johannes Mincius): Pope 1058-59.
He was bishop of Velletri before, unwillingly, he
was elected and enthroned in the night between
Apr. 3 and 4, 1058, by the noble factions which had
6o long dominated the papacy and were soon to
lose their power. Peter Damian and the other
rcfonning cardinals fled; but before they left Rome
they proQoimced an anathema upon the new pope.
Meantime Hildebrand was on his way back from
Germany. At Florence he heard the news, and
after conferring with the empress Agnes, regent
for her son Henry IV, arranged for the election of
a pope acceptable to the strict churchmen. At
Sienna in December Gerard, bishop of Florence, was
chosen and took the title of Nicholas II. In Jan-
uary he held a synod at Sutri which pronoimced
the deposition and excommunication of Benedict
X. The latter was driven from Rome by the
forces set in motion by Hildebrand, and finally
found it expedient to abdicate, which he did for-
mally at a synod in the Lateran, Apr., 1060. He
is said to have lived twenty years longer as a
prisoner in the monastery of St. Agnes. Gregory
VII, in whose reign he died, permitted him to be
buried with the obsequies of a rightful pope, as
which, indeed, he was reckoned imtil the fourteenth
century. (A. Hauck.)
BiBUocaAPfrr: Liber pontificalU, ed. Duchesne, ii, 279,
Parim 1802; Jaff^, Regetta, i, 556; J. M. Watterich. Ro-
wianonun ponHfieum . . . vita, i, 203, 738, Leipsic, 1862;
W. Ton Gieaebrecht, Geschiehte der deuUehen Kaiaer-
ml. iii. 24. Brunswick, 1875; F. OreKorovius, Oeachiehte
der Sladi Rom, iv, 107, Stuttgart. 1877; J. Langen, Oe-
•ehidUe der r&miaehen Kirehe von Nikolaue I hie Oregor
VII, p. 500. Bonn. 1892; Bower, Popea, ii, 340-343;
Neaoder. ChrieUan Church, iii, 387; Hefele, Coneilienf/e-
•dtiekte, ir. 798, 828; Hauck, KD, iii, 679-681.
Benedict XI (Niccolo Bocasini): Pope 1303-
1301. He was bom in 1240 at Treviso, entered the
I)ominican order in 1254, and spent fo\u1;een years
in diligent study, which enabled him to write several
Biblical oNnmentaries. He became prior of his
house, provincial of Lombardy, and in 1296 general
of the order. Boniface VIII made him a cardinal
priest in 1298, and soon after cardinal bishop of
Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he went to Hungary
as papal legate. He remained true to Boniface
VIII, and on his death was elected (Oct. 22, 1303)
to succeed him. He found himself at once in dif-
ficulties as the heir to the policy and the enemies
of Boniface (see Boniface VIII), but by a concilia^
tory prudence he found his way out of them. First
he won back the powerful Colonna family, restor-
ing to them their dignities and possessions tmder
certain limitations which marked his sense of their
misconduct. Frederick of Sicily was brought to a
sense of his feudal obligations toward the papacy,
which he had thought to escape. To Tuscany,
Benedict sent Nicholas of Prato, his successor as
cardinal bishop of Ostia, to make peace between
the Bianchi and Neri factions in Florence. This
mission was not very successful, but Benedict had
better fortune with the most difficult task left to him
by his predecessor, the effecting of a reconciliation
with France. Philip the Fair was ready for peace,
but apparently made the condition that a general
council should be called to pass a post-mortem con-
demnation on Boniface. Benedict met him half way,
and on Mar. 25, 1304, released him from his excom-
munication; then he annulled a number of other
measures of his predecessor which had been specially
felt as grievances in France, and on May 13 withdrew
the sentences passed against Philip and his counsel-
ors, even those who had taken part in the outrage
of Anagni, with the exception of the ringleader
William of Nogaret. He, together with all the Ital-
ians who had taken part in the violence offered to
Boniface, was excommunicated on June 7, and
summoned to appear before Benedict to receive
sentence. A few weeks later, however (July 7),
Benedict died in Perugia, whither he had retired
on account of turbulence in Rome. The rumor
immediately spread that he had been poisoned, at
the instigation, it was variously asserted, of Philip
the Fair, of the Colonna, of the Franciscans (who
were jealous of the favor shown to the Dominicans),
of the opposition cardinals, or of William of No-
garet, who had most to gain by a change, and who,
in fact, received his absolution from Benedict's
successor. ^ (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Ptolenueus of Lucca, Vitce ponHfieum
Romanorum^ in Mtutitori, 8criptore», xi, 1224; B. Gui-
donis. Vita ponHfieum Romanorum, ib. iii. 672; W.
Drumann, OeaehiehU Bonifaeiua VIII, ii, 147, Kdnigsberg.
1862; L. Gautier, Benott XI, itude eur la papauU au com-
mencement du xiv. eiMe, Paris, 1863; G. Grandjean, Benoit
XI, Parin, 1863; idem. Le Regiatre de Benott XI, recueil de
huUee, Paris, 1884-85; P. Funke, Papat Benedikt XI,
MOnster, 1801; Bower, Popea, iii, 56-58; Neander, ChriaHan
Church, V, 10; Hefele, ConciliengeachichU, vi, 375-300.
Benedict XH (Jacques Foumier): Pope 1334-
1342. He was a native of Languedoc, of humble
orig^, and as a boy entered the Oistercian monas-
tery of Bolbonne in the diocese of Mirepoix, mi-
grating later to that of Fontfroide in the diocese of
Narbonne, of which his uncle was abbot. The
latter sent him to the University of Paris. Pope
John XXII gave him the bishopric of Pamiers and
later of Mirepoix, and made him cardinal in 1327.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
48
He was rather unexpectedly elected pope Dec. 20,
1334, and began hia reign with reforming meas-
ures. The bishops and abbots who lingered at the
eourt of Avignon were sent home, the system of
petitions was regulated, and care was taken to se-
lect worthy men for vacant benefices. Benedict
planned to restore the strict discipline of the Bene-
dictines and Cistercians, as well as of the men-
dicant orders, and entirely avoided the reproach
of nepotism. Soon after his elevation, the Romans
begged him to return to them, and he promised to
do so, but was prevented by the French majority
in the Sacred College. Later he thought of re-
moving to Bologna, but finally settled down in
Avignon and began the building of a magnificent
palace. His attitude toward theological and eccle-
siastical controversies was a pacific one. He con-
demned the opinion so strongly held by his prede-
cessor, that the souls of the just do not enjoy the
Beatific Vision until after the last judgment. Ne-
gotiations took place with the Eastern Church
looking toward reimion; in 1339 the emperor An-
dronicus sent ambassadors to Avignon, really with
a view to gaining military aid against the Turks,
but holding out prospects of ecclesiastical accom-
modation, which, however, came to little. He won
a moral triumph in Spain by inducing Alfonso XI
of Castile to break off his adulterous connection
with Eleonora de Gusman, and rendered no slight
service to the Christian cause in the peninsula by
making peace between Castile and Portugal, and
thus enabling the Christian forces to unite against
the Mussulmans and to defeat them completely at
Tarifa. The most difficult problem was the treat-
ment of Louis of Bavaria. Benedict showed him«
self conciliatory, and Louis sent an embassy to
Avignon (1335); but Philip VI, against whose in-
terests this reconciliation would have been, pre-
vented it then, and a second time in the autumn
of the following year. This gave the alliance of
Louis to Ekiward III of England against France.
The electoral princes finally asserted their rights; on
July 15, 1338, they swore to defend the customs and
liberties of the empire and to prevent any infringe-
ment of their electoral prerogative; the next day
they declared that the king of the Romans chosen
by them stood in no need of papal confirmation,
and notified Benedict of their attitude. At the
diet held in Frankfort (Aug. 6, 1338), Louis went
even further, denying any connection between the
coronation by the pope and the right to bear the
title of emperor, at the same time asserting the in-
validity of all the censures pronounced against him-
self and the empire by John XXII. None the less,
in the following year he reopened negotiations with
Benedict; and when he had an opportunity of con-
cluding peace with Philip VI, he deserted his Eng-
lish ally, hoping to gain Philip's support with the
pope. He spoiled his own case, however, by his
encroachments on the Church's law of marriage
and its power in such matters. In order to marry
his son, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, to Mar-
garet, heiress of the Tyrol, he declared her previ-
ous marriage with Prince John of Bohemia null and
void (following an opinion of Occam's), and on Feb.
10, 1342, in spite of the impediment of oonsan-
guinity in the third degree between the couple, had
the marriage performed. Benedict had no oppor-
tunity to pass judgment upon these acts, as he died
on Apr. 25 of the same year. (A. Hauck.)
BDnjooKAPHT: lAber poiUifiealit, ed. Duchesne, ii, 486, 527.
PariB, 1802; eight accounts of his life are collected in t..
Baluse. Vita paparum Avenonenaium, i, 107-244, Paris,
1003; Muratori, Scripton; iii, 527 aqq.; J. M. Wattericfa.
Hiomanorum ixm^^unim mto, i, 203-204, Leipsic, 1862:
A. Pichler, (TescAidUe der kirchlichen Trtnnung iirucftm
dem Orient und Occident, i, 358. Munich. 1864; C. Muller.
Der Kampf Lvdwiga . . . mit der rdmiscAen Cttrie, vol. ii.
Ttlbinsen, 1880; A. Rohrmann. Die Proewratorien Lud-
trige dee Baiem, Gdttingen. 1882; Bower. Popes, iii, 88-
02; Pastor. Popee, i, 84-86; Benoit Xll, Lettree dotet,
patentee et eurialee ee rapportant d la France, ed. G. Daa-
met, Paris. 1800; Hefele. CancUiengeediidUe, vi. 636-663.
Benedict XHI: 1. The title was first borne by
Pedro de Luna from 1394 to 1417, in the Great
Western Schism. He came of a noble family in
Aragon, studied in France, taught canon law at the
University of Montpellier, and was made cardinal by
Gregory XI. When the schism broke out between
the partisans of Urban VI and Clement VII, he took
the latter^s side, and went to Spain and Portugal as
Clement's representative in 1379. In
Sides with 1393, again, he appeared at a meeting
Clement of English and French dignitaries, in
Vn in the the hope of winning England away
Great from the party of Boniface IX, the
Schism, pope elected in Rome to succeed Ur-
ban VI. When the University of Paris
in 1394 suggested three ways to end the schism—
the resignation of both claimants, the submission of
both to the decision of a tribunal agreed upon be-
tween them, or the calling of a general council-
Clement sent him to Paris to prevent the choice of
the first; but in fact he declared in favor of it, pos-
sibly with an eye to his own chances. Clement died
the same autumn, and the cardinals of his party
nearly all agreed that whichever of them might be
chosen pope should do all in his power to end the
schism^ even by abdicating if necessary; and no
voice was louder in this agreement than Pedro de
Luna's. He was unanimously chosen on Sept. 28,
consecrated and crowned Oct. 11. He reiterated
his willingness to do anything for peace; but when
the next year an embassy representing the king of
France, a national synod, and the University of
Paris approached him to urge the abdication of
both popes, he declined, recommending rather a
personal meeting of both to discuss the question.
To this he adhered in spite of the opposite
view of all his cardinals but one and of the
personal entreaties of the dtikes of Berry, Bur-
gundy, and Orleans. Charles VI held a second
national council at Paris (end of Aug., 1396), and
tried to gain the support of the European sovereigns
for his plan. In June, 1397, the ambassadors of
France, England, and Castile pressed the necessity
of abdication upon Benedict, who declined for
himself while reconmiending it to Boniface IX.
No more success attended a joint embassy (1398)
from Charles and Wenceslaus, king of the Romans,
headed by Pierre d'Ailly, bishop of Cambrai.
Charles held a third council in May, 1398, which
decided that France should withdraw from Bene-
dict's obedience. When this decision received the
48
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedict
royal assent and was promulgated (July 27), all the
cardinals but three forsook Benedict, and open
warfare broke out. Benedict, practically a prisoner
in his palace, yielded so far (Apr., 1399) as to sign
a solemn undertaking to abdicate whenever his
rival would do the same or should die or be expelled
from Rome; but he secretly protested that his
promise was null and void, as having been given
under compulsion. France was now practically
without a pope; and the longer this anomalous
condition continued, the more imeasi-
Coorse of ness it caused. Leading churchmen,
ETentstn such as Gerson and Nicholas de C14-
France, manges, began to write in favor of a
return to Benedict XIII. Finally
Charies called a meeting of bishops and nobles
(May, 1403), to reconsider the question. Before
they met Benedict had contrived to escape from
Avignon, and the city had declared for him, once
be was free. It is not surprising, therefore, that
the assembled magnates dedared for a restoration
of France to his obedience, though on condition that
he should renew his promise in regard to abdication,
and undertake to submit the question how to end
the schism to a general council within a year.
This left things much as they had been in 1394 and
1395. Boniface IX died soon after (Oct. 1, 1404);
but his successor, Innocent VII, showed just as
little inclination to abandon his claims. Benedict,
still attached to his own plan of a personal confer-
ence, undertook a journey to Genoa, without any
result except to produce fresh irritation in France,
whose clergy were taxed to pay the expenses of the
experiment. Another national oouncU (1406) de-
dared in favor of withdrawing his right to present
the bishoprics and benefices; but the Duke of Or-
leans stood out for complete obedience and hin-
dered the execution of this decision. New hopes
were aroused, on the death of Innocent VII, by
the choice (Nov. 30, 1406) of Gregory XII, who at
once dedared himself willing to take any measures,
even that of abdication, to end the schism. A meet-
ing was planned between the rivals for the autumn of
1407, but it fell through. In November Benedict
lost a powerful friend by the murder of the Duke
of Orleans, and was so unwise in 1408 as to attempt
to enforce the observance of the French obedience
by threats of excommunication. In May Charles
prodaimed France absolutely neutral in the con-
test. Benedict, fearing for his safety, fled to his
native Aragon.
The cardinals of both factions deserted their
respective popes and in Jime took counsel together
with a view to calling a general council. This met
in 1409 at Pisa, sununoned both claimants before it,
proceeded to hear testimony when they did not
appear, and on June 5 declared both,
The Cotui* as heretics, schismatics, and per-
db of jurers, not only deposed but excom-
PSaa and municated. Benedict still asserted
Constance, his claims, and Spain, Portugal, and
Scotland adhered to him. New nego-
tiations with him were undertaken by the Council
of Constance in 1414, but he stubbornly refused to
Tidd, even to the persuasions of the emperor
Sigismund. Finally the patience of his own sup-
porters in Spain and Scotland was worn out, and
they renoimced him in the Concordat of Narbonne
(Dec, 1415). He entrenched himself in the moun-
tain JfajBtness of PefUsoola, near Valencia, which
belonged to his family, and proudly told the envoys
of the council that the true Church was there only.
On July 26, 1417, the Council of Constance once
more deposed and excommunicated him; and he
remained in his castle, with a court of but four
cardinals, until his death at the age of nearly ninety
in Nov., 1424. (A. Hauck.)
2. Benedict Xm was also the name borne by
Pietro Francesco d'Orsini-Oravina, pope 1724-30.
He was bom Feb. 2, 1649, at Gravina in the king-
dom of Naples, and in 1667, renouncing his rights of
succession to the ducal estates, entered the Domini-
can order at Venice, taking the name of Vincenco
Maria. He studied theology at Venice and Bologna,
philosophy at Naples. In 1672 he was made a
cardinal by Clement X, and archbishop of Bene-
vento in 1686. After administering his diocese
admirably for thirty-eight years, and spending
his leisure in the composition of theological works,
he was almost unanimously dected pope (May
29, 1724), after the death of Innocent XIII. At
first he took the name of Benedict XIV, but changed
it to Benedict XIII in the conviction that Pedro
de Luna was a schismatic and not a legitimate pope.
His pontificate began with an attempt to restrain
the pomp and luxury of the cardinals, which was
as vain as his similar attempts to reform the rest of
the clergy. Though the prescriptions of the Lateran
coundl of 1725 in this direction were not much
heeded, it is memorable because in it Benedict con-
firmed the constitution Unigenitus, and thus
aided the Jesuits. He had the satisfaction of
receiving in 1728 the unconditional submission of
De Noailles, archbishop of Paris, the head of the
Galilean opposition. Weakness was the principal
characteristic of his dealings with the secular powers
of Europe. He left such matters almost entirely
in the hands of his favorite Cardinal Coscia, whose
interest it was to keep on good terms with the
powers. Thus the emperor Charles VI obtained
the privileges which he claimed in Sicily as the suc-
cessor of the older rulers, who had been legati noli
of the Holy See. Thus also the king of Sardinia
got the best of a long contest with Rome; and
only one state fouiid the curia stubborn. The
king of Portugal, John V, requested the red hat
for Bichi, the papal nimcio at Lisbon, and when
it was refused showed great hostility to the pope,
even threatening in 1728 to break off all relations
between the Church of Portugal and Rome. Bene-
dict was unpopular in Rome, owing to the mis-
government of Coscia, who, when the pope died
(Feb. 21, 1730), was obliged to flee in disguise,
and later was imprisoned for ten years by Clem-
ent XII. (A. Hauck.)
BiBUoaRAPHT: 1. Pedro de Luna: A Vita ia found in £.
Baluxe, Vita paparum Avenonienaium, i, 661-568, Paris,
1693; the Eng. transl. of several orisinal documents
which are pertinent is given in Thatcher and McNeal,
Source Book, pp. 325-329; Theodorie of Nieheim, De
Schiemate, ed. G. Erler, ii, 33 sqq., Leipsic, 1890; Char-
tuhrium UMveraitatie Ports, ed. H. DeniflCt iii. 662
Benedict
THE KEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
44
■qq.. Pariji, 1894; Kehrmann, FmhkreicKa innere Kirchev-
•politik, Jena, 1890; Bower. Popet, iii. 146-149, 162. 162-
163, 206; Neander. ChrUtian Church, v, 66, 62-77, 84,
106-107; Hefele. ConcUienoeBehiehte, vi, 827-1031; Pas-
tor, Popes, i, 166-201; N. Valois, La France et le tfrand
echieme d^ocddevU, 2 vola.. Paris, 1896; Creighton, Papacy,
i, 140-316, 374. 2. Pi.'tro Francesco: His works were
issued in 3 vols.. Ravenna. 1728, and the bulls afe in the
BuUarium Romanum, vol. xxii, Turin, 1871. For his
life consult A. Borgia. BenedicHXlll vUa, Rome, 1752; A.
von Reumont. Geachichte der Stadt Rom, iii, 662-663, Ber-
lin, 1868; Bower. Popee, iii, 339; J. Chantrel, Ls Pape
Benoit Xlir, 1724-30, Paris, 1874; M. Brosch. GeechichU
dee Kirehenetaate, ii, 61 sqq., Gotha. 1882; Ranke. Popee,
vol. iii. No. 158.
Benedict XIV (Prosporo Lorenzo Lambertini) :
Pope 1740-68. He was born [Mar. 311 1675 at
Bologna; at thirteen he entered the Collegium Vlemr-
entinum at Rome, and after studies in theology and
philosophy, took up the law, practising as advocate
of the consistory, and as promotor fidei, in which
office he laid the foundations of his famous work
on beatification and canonization. Clement XI
and Innocent XIII gave him several Roman dig-
nities; Benedict XIII made him archbishop of
Ancona (1727) and cardinal (1728); in 1731 Clement
XII transferred him to the more important see of
Bologna, where he found time to write his works
on the mass, on the festivals, and Qucestiones
canonicce. After the death of Clement XII the
conclave was at a deadlock for six months between
the French, Austrian, and Spanish factions, and
finally agreed on Lambertini as a compromise
candidate (Aug. 17, 1740).
Benedict was a man of great learning and piety,
and did much for the welfsu-e of the Pontifical States,
by the promotion of agriculture, conunerce, and
manufactures and by a decrease in taxation. His
expressed principle that in him " the pope must
take precedence of the temporal ruler " was carried
out both in the strenuous efforts which he made
to raise the tone of the clergy and in his efforts
to remove all the misimderstandings which had
existed between the curia and the European
powers, even at the cost of considerable concessions.
He was not able entirely to remove the antagonism
between the eighteenth-century spirit
Friendly and religion, but he composed more
Relations than one difference temporarily. Thus
with Other he appeased John V of Portugal by the
Rulers. privilege of enjoying the revenues of
vacant bishoprics and abbeys in his
kingdom, as well as by the title of Rex fidelissimus.
In a concordat with Naples (1741) he went even
beyond the concessions which Benedict XIII had
made, and concluded another with the king of
Sardinia which was still less favorable to the ex-
treme claimB of the Church. Still another was
made with Spain in 1753, which went so far as to
allow King Ferdinand VI the right of nomination
to all the ecclesiastical benefices in his kingdom
except fifty-two. Friendly relations were also
maintained with the empire, and strict neutrality
observed in the war of the Austrian Succession,
although the contending armies not seldom crossed
the boundaries of the Papal States. When Albert
of Bavaria was elected emperor as Charles VII
and applied to Benedict for confirmation, he gave
b.im his hearty good wishes, but refused at first
to recognize his successor, Francis I, who had
neglect^ to observe this formality. He aban-
doned his opposition, however, and became an
active ally of Austria in the contest with Venice
over Aquileia. As a compromise measure, he finally
divided the patriarchate into two dioceses, that of
GOrz. which was to be Austrian, and that of Udine,
Venetian. Though he refused to confirm the guaran-
ties which the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, on be-
coming a Roman Catholic, was obliged to give for
the preservation of the rights of his evangelical
subjects, Benedict showed none of the temper of
a persecutor, and had friendly personal relations
with many Protestants. He was the first pope to
concede the title of king of Prussia to the ruler
whom the curia had previously styled margrave
of Brandenburg; and he yielded to Frederick the
Great's wishes so far as to allow the bishop of Bres-
lau to decide all Catholic causes in Prussia, appeals
to the pope being forbidden. In the Gallican con-
troversy he took a wise and tolerant part, reversing
a decision of De Beaumont, the archbishop of
Paris, which made formal assent to the constitution
Unigenitus a condition for receiving the sacra-
ments; in an encyclical of Oct. 16, 1756, he laid
down the rule that the ministrations of the Church
should be refused only to those who had publicly
contenmed the bull.
Benedict's conciliatory temper made him little
likely to sympathize with the Jesuits, with whom
he dealt at the very beginning of his reign in a way
tliat did not please them, deciding against them,
in the controversy over the " Chinese rites," the
question how far the principles of
The Jesuits. Christianity might be accommodated
for the purpose of making more speedy
conversions among the heathen, in two bulls —
the Ex quo singulari of 1742, and the Omnium
sollicitudinum of 1744 (see Accommodation, § 9).
Though he was no partizan of the Jesuits, it was
not until shortly before his death that he under-
took (1758) the long-planned reform of the order,
at least in Portugal, entrusting its execution to Sal-
danha, the patriarch of Lisbon.
In 1750 Benedict celebrated a jubilee with great
pomp, and invited the Protestants also to attend-
naturally with no other result than to call out a
number of polemical replies. To the end of his
life he found his chief diversion in the company
of learned men, of whom a circle assembled round
him once a week. During his pontificate he com-
posed his most important work, De aynodo due-
ccsana. He had a catalogue of the Vatican library
drawn up by the learned Assemani, founded
societies for the study of Roman and Christian
antiquities and of church history, and cooperated
in the foundation of the archeological academy
with Winckelmann, who came to Rome in 1755.
He died as he had lived, with cheerful, good-
humored words upon his lips, May 3, 1758.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibltograprt: His works were collected by Asevedo in 12
vols.. Rome, 1747-51, more completely, 15 vols., Venice,
17(.7. and in 17 vols., Prato, 1839-46; vols. 15-17 of the
Prato ed. contain the bulls; Brief e Benedictt XIV an Pw
40
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedict
Fnnetaeo Peggi h Bologna, 1729-58, ed. F. X. Kraus.
Freibttrs, 1888; Opera inedita, ed. F. Heiner. St. Louis,
1904. Ooosult: R. de Martinis, Acta Benedicti XIV, 2
vols., Naptes. 1884-85: A. Borgia, Vie de BenoU XIV,
Paris, 1783: H. Fonnby, Life and Miraclet of Benedict
X/F, London, 1858; A. von Ameth, Geechiehte Maria
Tkereeiae^u, 178, it, 54 sqq., Vienna, 1864, 1870; M. Brosch,
Oeeehiekte dee Kirdkenetaate, ii, 68, Qotha, 1882; Ranke,
Popee, ii, 433-443. iii. No. 164.
BEREDICT OF A5IAIIE: The reformer of the
Benedictine order in the Frankish empire. He
was bom about 750 in his father's county of Mague-
lone in Languedoc; d. at Inden (13 m. n.e. of
Aix-la-Chapelle) Feb. 11, 821. His youth was
spent at the court of Pepin and of Charlemagne,
where, as a page, he had opportunity to distin-
guish himaelf in feats of arms. During Charles's -
first Lombard campaign, Benedict rescued his
brother from drowning at the risk of his own life,
and the shock brought to a head the resolve which
had been slowly forming in him, to renounce the
world and give himself to the service of God in the
monastic life. This he entered in 773 at Saint-
Seine in the diocese of Langres. Returning home
in 779, he built a small monastery on his own land
near the little river Aniane (where the town of
Aniane, 16 m. w.n.w. of Montpellier, later grew
up), which was replaced by a larger one lower
down when the number of his disciples increased,
and by a third still larger about 792. This became
the center of Benedict's efforts for the reformation of
the monastic life in the south and southwest of
France. King Louis of Aquitaine, who had favored
him from the outset, entrusted him with the over-
sight of all the monasteries within his territory,
anid the greatest churchmen, such as Alcuin and
Leidrad of Lyons, sought his counsel. He had a
wide knowledge of patristic literature, and for-
warded the cause of education with zeal. He stood
out as a champion of the orthodox faith against
Adoptionism (q.v.), and wrote two treatises against
it, the first of which is specially interesting as show-
ing how dose was the practical connection between
Adoptionism and Arianism. His influence became
still wider with the accession of Louis the Pious,
who first brought him up to the Alsatian abbey
of MauimOnster, and then, to have him nearer
at hand, founded another for him at Inden, giving
him the general oversight of all the monasteries
in the empire. He could now hope to accom-
plish his great purpose of restoring the primitive
strictnesB of the monastic observance wherever
it had been relaxed or exchanged for the less
exacting canonical life. This purpose was clearly
eeen in the capitularies drawn up by an assem-
bly of abbots and monks at Aix-larChapelle in
817, and enforced by Louis's order throughout the
empire.
Benedict's chief works are compilations of the
older ascetic literature. The first of them is called
by his biographer, Ardo, lAber ex regulia diveraorum
patrwn eMectu9 ; an enlarged edition of this was
prepared by Lucas Holsten (published at Rome
only after Holsten's death, in 1661, with the title
Codex reguUxrum), The other work, called Con-
cordia reguLantm by Benedict himself, is based on
the first; in it the sections of the Benedictine rule
(except ix-xvi) are given in their order, with paral-
lel passages from the other rules included in the
Liber regvlarum, so as to show the agreement of
principles and thus to enhance the respect due to
the Benedictine. The Concordia was first pub-
lished in 1638 by H. Menard of the Congregation
of St. Maur, with valuable notes (reprinted in MPL,
ciii). A third collection of homilies, to be read
daily in the monasteries, has not been definitely
identified. Benedict's place is in the second rank
of the men who made the reigns of Charles and
Louis glorious. He had not the breadth of view
possessed by Charlemagne himself or by Adalhard,
nor the lofty endeavor for a fusion of secular and
spiritual learning of Paulus Diaconus and .Mcuin.
He was primarily an ecclesiastic, who zealously
placed his not inconsiderable theological learning
at the service of orthodoxy, but gave the best thing
he had, the loving fervor of an upright Christian
soul, to the cause of Benedictine monasticism.
(Otto Seebass.)
Bibliooraphy: The Vita by Ardo Smaraffdus, his sucoeasor
aa abbot, with preface by Hensohen, is in ASB, 12 Feb.,
ii, 606-620. in MPL, ciii, and is edited by Waits in MGH,
Script, XV, 108-220, Hanover. 18S7. There is a Fr.
transl., Montpellier. 1876. P. A. J. Paulinier. St Benoit
d* Aniane et la fondation du manaatire de ce nom, Mont-
pellier, 1871; P. J. Nioolai, Der heilige Benedict, OrHnder
von Aniane, Cologne, 1865; R. Foss. Benedikt von Aniane,
Berlin. 1884; O. Seebass. in ZKO, xv (1895). 244-260;
Hauck. KD, ii. 528-545.
BENEDICT BISCOP: First abbot of Wear-
mouth and Jarrow; b. of noble family about 628;
d. at Wearmouth (on the north side of the Wear,
opposite Sunderland, Durhamshire) Jan. 12, 689 or
690. Biscop was his Saxon name, his ecclesiastical
name was Benedict, and he was also called Baduc-
ing as a patronymic. He was a thane and favorite
of Oswy, king of Northumbria (q.v.), but in 663
decided to abandon the world and went to Rome.
He became a monk at the monastery of Lerins
about 665, and was appointed by Pope Vitalian to
conduct Theodore of Tarsus (q.v.) to Canterbury
in 668. In 674 be began to build the monastery
of St. Peter at Wearmouth on land given by Eg-
frid, king of Northumbria. In 681 or 682 he
founded the sister house, dedicated to St. Paul, at
Jarrow (5 m. farther north, on the south bank of
the Tyne). He made six visits to Rome, learned
the Roman ecclesiastical usages and the rules of
monastic life, and strove faithfully to introduce
them in England; he also brought back a rich store
of books, vestments, pictures, and the like. He
induced John, the archchanter of St. Peter's at
Rome, to accompany him to England and instruct
his monks; and he brought skilled workmen from
Gaul to build his monasteries, including the first
glass-makers in England.
Bibuoorapbt: The source for a biography is the life by
his great scholar Bede, Vita beatorum abbatum, chaps. 1-
14, best and most aooessible in the ed. of C. Plummer. i,
364-37d, with notes, ii. 365-866. Oxford, 1896, Eng.
transl. by P. Witoook, Sunderland, 1818; of. also Bede.
Hiet. eed., iv, 18, ▼, 19; Horn,, xxv. Consult also C. F.
Montalembert. Lee Moinee de Voeddent, iv, 456-487. Paris,
1868; DNB, iv, 214-216.
Bonadlet
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
46
BENEDICT OF NURSIA AND THE BENEDICTINE ORDER.
T. The Life of Benedict.
The Life of Benedict by Gregory
the Great (f 1). III.
Early Life (f 2).
Monte Gaaeino (f 3).
II. The Rule of Benedict.
General Characteristics (f 1).
Moderation (f 2). IV.
Organisation and Direction of the
Monastic Life (| 3).
The Earlier History of the Bene-
dictine Order.
Period of Growth to the Time of
Charlemagne (I 1).
Period of Decline (| 2).
The History of the Order sines the
Ninth Century.
821-1200. Ecumenical Activity.
New Congregations (| 1).
1 200-1 563. Decay and Attempts
at Reform (f 2).
1563-1800. Tridentine Refonn.
New Congregations (| 3).
The Nineteenth Century (f 4X
1. The Life of Benedict: The only early authority
on the life of Benedict, dnoe the VUaPlaeidi has been
admitted to be untrustworthy ever since Mabillon,
and the worthlessness of the Vita saneti Mauri has
been recently demonstrated by Malnory, is prac-
ticaUy the single biography written by Gregory the
Great. But the expectations aroused by a life
written only fifty years after Benedict's death by
so distinguished an author are disappointed when
he is found, in the spirit of his time,
1. The Life exalting the greatness of his hero by
of Benedict the number and importance of his
by€hreffory miracles. This tendency has gone so
the Ohreat. far that GrQtsmacher is inclined to see
nothing actually historical in all this
mass of legendary details except the names of the
places where Benedict lived and worked, and the
names of his disciples. But this is going some-
what too far; Gregory expressly names four abbots,
themselves among these disciples and one of them
(Honoratus) still living at Subiaco, as witnesses to
the truth of his story; and the tradition must have
been still full and clear among the monks who had
migrated from Monte Cassino to the Lateran when
he wrote.
According, then, to what is left of Gregory's
account after removal of the legendary halo around
the saint's head, Benedict came of a considerable
family in the " province of Nursia," in the Um-
brian Apennines, and was bom toward the end of
the fifth century. He received at Rome the edu-
cation of his day, which, however, did not mean
much acquaintance with the Roman classical
authors, and seems to have included no Greek.
Shocked by the immorality aroimd him, he left
both the school and his father's house for a life of
solitary mortification. His first per-
2. Early manent abode was a cave by the Anio,
I^e. not far from Subiaco, where a monk,
Romanus, provided him with the
rough monastic garb and with scanty nourishment.
Here Benedict spent three years of stubborn con-
flict with his lower nature, until the spreading of
his fame by shepherds brought his soUtude to an
end. The monks of a nei^boring monastery (per-
haps at Vicovaro), whose head had just died,
begged him to come and rule them. He accepted
with reluctance, probably foreseeing what actually
happened when he attempted strictly to enforce
their rule. When their insubordination went as
far as an attempt to poison him, he discovered the
plot and gently rebuked them, then retired to his
beloved cave. Here, as new disciples came around
him, he established twelve small communities, each
with twelve inmates and a *' father " at their head.
Gregory does not say how long Benedict re-
mained in the neighborhood of Subiaco as director
of these pious groups; but the tradition of Monte
Cassino ascribes his migration thither to the op-
position of a jealous cleric named Florentius, and
places it in 529. The new place was about half-
*way between Rome and Naples, the Castrum Cati-
num of the Romans, who had had a military colony
there. On the summit of the mountain (now
Monte San Germano), which had been
8. Konte dedicated to the wor^p of Apollo by
Oaaeino. a population stiU largely pagan, Bene-
dict bmlt two chapels, imder the in-
vocation of St. John Baptist and St. Martin, and
then laid the foundations of the monastery which
was to have such a long and renowned history.
Though Gregory does not say so definitely, the tradi-
tional view may be accepted that he soon drew up
his rule, the mature outcome of his experience in
guiding and governing aspirants to the monastic
life of perfection. The disturbances of the time,
the wars between the Goths and the Byzantine on-
pire from 634, probably helped to increase the
numbers of those who sought a peaceful shelter at
Monte Cassino; and a daughter house was estab-
lished at Terracina. In the summer of 542, Totila,
king of the Goths, on his way through Campania,
desired to see the famous abbot. Gregory relates
that, to test his prophetic powers, the king sent one
of his officers in royal array to Benedict, who per-
ceived the deception instantly, and, when the young
king knelt before him, told him that he should enter
Rome, cross the seas, and reign nine years — which
came to pass. Gregory mentions Benedict's sis-
ter, Scholastica, in coimection with the last meeting
between the two in a house near the monastery;
she had been dedicated to the service of God from
her earliest youth. The date of Benedict's death
can not be determined from any of the authorities.
His body was buried near Scholastica's in the
chapel of St. John Baptist, and, according to
Pauius Diaconus, was translated about a century
later to the monastery of Fleury on the Loire.
n. The Rule of Benedict: Especially since the
celebration of the fourteen-hundredth anniver-
sary of Benedict's birth in 1880, his rule has been
made the subject of thoroughgoing studies, and
it is everywhere recognized as a code which cor-
responded admirably to its purpose of regulating
the common life of the western monks. In the
concluding passage of the prologue, probably added
later by Benedict, occur the words " Canstituenda
est ergo a nchia dornvnici schola servifii." Under
the later empire, the word schola was conunonly
employed to designate the body of guards in the
imperial palace under the magiater officii; thence
the name passed to the garrisons of provinciil
47
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedlot
towns, and was used sometimes for other bodies
or associations existing in them. As these mili-
tary organizations would have a defi-
1. G«n0xml nit« code of regulations, so it was
Character- natural for Benedict (called " magis-
iflties. tor " in the first line of the prologue)
to lay down a rule that should serve
for all who were enlisted in the spiritual army (" ser-
vitium ilominieum ") — priests or laymen, rich or
poor. It sqMLrated the monks more absolutely from
the woild them Basil or Cassian had done. Besides
the requirements of poverty, silence, and chastity,
others appear for the first time; that of " stabil-
ity " or a permanent residence in one monastery
as opposed to the wandering life of the earlier
monks, and a specially designated habit. The aim
of this life is complete surrender to the will of God,
accomplished through entire obedience to the ab-
bot and the rule. The abbot thus appears as an
absolute ruler, responsible to God alone. It is true
that in weighty matters he is to seek the coimsel
of the brethrai, but the iiltimate decision rests
with him. Benedict seems to have hesitated in
placing a propositus or prior next to him as assist-
ant and, if need were, representative.
In laying down the system of daily prayer, Bene-
dict departed somewhat from the earlier practise
by instituting the office of compline as the seventh
of the canonical hours. The longest and fullest of
all the offices was the nodtima vigilia (matins), re-
cited at two o'clock. The day hours were much
shorter — lauds at daybreak, not long after matins;
prime; terce, with which at least on Sundays and
festivals the Eucharist was connected; sext; none;
vespers; and compline. One of the principles on
which the system of devotion was laid out was the
weekly recitation of the entire Psalter. When this
is compared with the requirement by Columban of
the recitation of thew hole 150 Psalms in the night
office of Saturday and Sunday, a second principle
is perceived which governed Benedict not merely
in the arrangement of the devotional exercises
but in aU his rule — a wise moderation
2. XodMm- and gentleness. It appears especially
tion. in the regulations for meals, of which
he aUows two daily, except at times
of fasting; it comes out in the rules for labor, which
show consideration for the weaker brethren, and
also in the system of punishment. Small offenses,
as unpunctuality at meals or office, are to be pun-
ished without harshness; more serious ones caU for
two private warning? and one in public, after which
the offender is cut off from the society of the breth-
ren at meals and prayers. If he is still obstinate,
corporal punishment is the next step, and finally,
if the prayers of the brethren have no effect, he is
to be expelled from the monastery. Penitents may
be twice taken back, but on a third lapse there is
no further possibility of restoration.
The fact that, in his provision for the clothing
of the monks, Benedict took accoimt of the condi-
tions of more than one province has been made a
ground for disputing the authenticity of the rule^
but the climatic difference between the hill-country
of his first settlement and the Campanian plain on
the banks of the Liris is sufficiently notable to find
some reflection in the rule. Benedict had lived as
an anchorite and as a cenobite, in convents of vary-
ing size and in different parts of Italy, at the head
of a single small house and of a whole group of
houses. When, therefore, with this manifold ex-
perience of what suited the monastic life of his
time, he drew up a rule for every
8. Orffani- p^^ ^f j^^ j^ g^jj^ ^ definite legislative
theMonaa- ^ ' Cassian, Pacbonuus, Jerome,
tic liife. Augustine — had given their prescrip-
tions, we may well believe that he
was acting to a certain extent with the conscious-
ness that he was giving to Italian monasticism a
new form, stronger and more consistent than had
been known before. This is the special importance
of Benedict's work, both for the Chiu'ch and for
the world at large. About the time when the
Roman See, vindicating and even increasing its
independence of Arian kings and Byzantine em-
perors, wajB preparing to erect its universal empire
on the ruins of the old, the monk appeared who
knew how to apply the old Roman talents of legis-
lation and organization to the growing but as yet
incoherent monajsticism. Thus he became the
foimder of the great Benedictine Order which for
centuries concentrated in itself the extraordinary
spiritual force of the technically " religious " life,
and contributed in so marked a degree to the ex-
tension of the Western Church. The striking in-
fluence of the order would, however, be inexplicable
if it had not early become the guardian of learning
and literatiu^. The rule required the brothers, in
addition to their manual labor, to devote one or
two hoiuv daily to reading; it provided for a con-
sent library from which the monks were to take
certain books for study at appointed times; each
brother was to have his tablet and stylus; Bene-
dict himself undertook the education of the chil-
dren' of prominent Romans; and in at least one
passage of the rule those who can not read are
spoken of as an inferior class. All these things
speak of learned and literary interests as belong-
ing to the original foimdation. Cassiodorus even
goes further than Benedict, in whose lifetime prob-
ably he founded the double convent of Squillace,
providing expressly for the study of classical litera-
ture— though it is impossible to determine how far
this influenced the Benedictine Order after the in-
fusion with it of Cassiodorus's monasteries.
nL The Earlier History of the Benedictine Order:
The history of the early extension of Benedict's
society is only scantily told. According to the
traditions of Monte Cassino, the third abbot, Sim-
plicius, achieved great success in this work. Under
the fifth, Bonitus, the mother house was destroyed
in 589 by the Lombards, the monks fleeing to Rome
(the imiversal refuge of those days), carrying with
them the copy of the rule written by
o^^l^to ^^®^c*'8 own hand. There was
the^n^of P'^'^^^^^y alJ^ady a monastery there
Oharle- ^^^ch followed this rule — ^that of St.
wiayw- Andrew, founded by the future Pope
Gregory the Great in 675; but Greg-
ory's attachment to the order was presumably in-
creased by the coming of the fugitives, who settled
Benedict
Benediotlon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
48
in a place given them at the Lateran by Pope
Pelagius. The miasion of Augustine to the Anglo-
Saxons from the monastery of St. Andrew in
596 (see Anolo-Saxonb, Conyersign of the)
opened a new field to the order. The Latin
rules of the Spanish bishops Isidore of Seville
(d, 636) and Fructuosus of Bragara show distinct
traces of an acquaintance with that of Benedict.
But more important was its introduction into the
Prankish kingdom in the first half of the seventh
century, since the attempt was there made to sub-
mit to it the entire monastic body . However it was
introduced, it soon become predominant, and took
the place of the rules of Columban and Cesarius.
At a Burgundian synod of 670 it was designated, with
the canons, as the only standard for monasteries;
and similarly in the synods held under the auspices
of Carloman and Boniface in 742 and 743 it is called
the norm for convents both of monks and of
nuns. The language of the capitularies of 811,
implying that only obscure traces of the prior
existence of other rules remained, shows how
completely it had occupied the field by the time of
Charlemagne.
In spite, however, of this supremacy, and of the
glory reflected on the order by such men as Aid-
helm and Bede, Alcuin and Paulus Diaconus, an
acute observer could already perceive traces of de-
cay. In some places the abbots abused the power
given them by the rule; in others laxity had begun
to creep in. There was thus room for
2. Period the reforming activity of Benedict of
of Decline. Aniane (q.v.), who attempted not
only to restore the pristine strictness,
but to supplement the rule by special ordinances
for the purpose of securing imiformity in the daily^
life of the Prankish monasteries. His success,
powerfully seconded as he was by the emperor
Louis the Pious, was not lasting. The ninth cen-
tury saw a considerable number of new founda-
tions, especially in Saxony, and the literary activ-
ity promoted by Charlemagne continued; but
there were many complaints not only of the giving
of monasteries to laymen but of decay in morality
and strict monastic discipline. In addition to
these things, grievous havoc was wrought in many
different quarters by the irruptions of the barba-
rians— in England by the Danes, in northern Ger-
many and France by the Normans, in the south of
Germany and the north of Italy by the Huns, and
on the Mediterranean coast by the Saracens.
(Otto Seebabs.)
IV. The History of the Order since the Ninth
Century: The palmy days of the order, from Bene-
dict of Aniane to Innocent III (821-1200) may be
designated as the time of ecumenical activity.
The family of monks which proceeded from Monte
Cassino controlled with its influence the civilization
of the entire Christian West. The Basilian monas-
teries of South Italy and Sicily, as well as the monks
and hermits of the Celtic Church in the British
isles, were able only for a time to maintain the
independence of their institutions. Patronized
and at the same time monopolized by Rome, the
Benedictine monastic character made itself the
standard of monasticism throughout Latin Christen-
dom. True, from the ninth century on there were
marked departures from the founder's ideal, in
consequence of which, even after the refomi by
Benedict of Aniane (q.v.), a number of similar
efforts at reform became necessary; but the call
to return to. the original vigor of the rule ever proved
its purifying power, and the total influence of the
order was rather enhanced than
ifion^^" decreased by the growing number of
iS?" ^^®^ reform congregations. The most
Aotivltv important of them after the tenth
New ConI century was the reform of duny (from
ffreffationB. ^10), with which were gradually blend-
ed more or less the smaller reforms of
a like tendency originating almost simultane-
ously in Flanders under Gerard of Brogne
(d. 959), in Lorraine under John of Gorze (d.
974), in England under Dunstan of Glaston-
bury (d. 988), from the monastery of St. Benignus
at Dijon (c. 990) under William of Volpiano (d.
1031) and in southern Italy by Alferius of Cava
(d. 1050) (see Clunt, Abbey and Conoreoation
of; John of Gorze; Gerard, Saint, 1; Dunstan).
More independent of the Benedictine institutions,
though proceeding from the order, were some reform-
ing movements of the eleventh century. Among these
were the famous congregation of Hirschau (q.v.),
c. 1060, which was distinguished by the rigor of its
discipline; that of Vallombrosa (see Gualbertu,
Giovanni), 1038, which, like Hirschau, devel-
oped with especial care the institution of lay brothe:^
(Jratrea oonversi), thus setting an important ex-
ample for later orders (see Monasticism); those
of Camaldoli, 1000; Grammont, 1076; Font^vraud,
c. 1100; (see Camaldolites ; Grammont, Ordea
OF ; Fontkvraud, Order of) ; and finally that of
Ctteaux, 1098. The last of these reforms, the ripest
and noblest fruit of the older Benedictine ideal, grew
so rapidly, and, especially under the influence of St.
Bernard, showed such power in the field of missioiH
ary and civilizing effort that it was oblig^ to leave
the Benedictine family and form, not a new congre-
gation but a new order, in spite of its adherence
to the fundamental form of monxustic discipline
as delineated in the RegtUa Benedicti (see Cis-
tercians). By this separation of the youngest
daughter from the mother, the latter ceased to be
regarded as the only normal type for western
monasticism. The ecumenical period of Bene-
dictine history ends with the last decades of the
twelfth century. It must thenceforth be traced
as the history of one order among several in the fife
of western civilization.
The period from Innocent III to the Coundl
of Trent (1200-1563) is a time of increasing iimer
decay and of futile efforts at reform. The first
attempt to restore discipline in the monasteries
of the order, which had become very
^o^2P^ worldly, was made in 1215 by the
and At *^ Fourth Lateran CouncU under Inno-
tempts at ^^^ ^^^' ^^ ordered that every three
Beform. years a general chapter should be
held, and that the visitatiox:8 pre-
scribed by this chapter should be made by Cirter-
cian abbots. Under this regulation the archbisbc^
'^f Canterbury and York introduced thct trienniil
49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benedict
BenediotioB
visitations into the Benedictine monasteries of
I!n£:land, and enforced them in repeated provin-
cial councils. For the monasteries of the Continent,
special importance attached to the edict of
Benedict XII, himself a Cistercian, who, after
introducing a 8tricter discipline into his own
order {lXio\ issiic^d in the following year an
edict concerning the Benedictines. This consti-
tution, known as Summa Afagistri or ConstiitUio
Btnedictina, decrees that in each monastery a
general chapter is to be held annually. For each
of the thirty-six provinces into which the order is
divided by it. triennial provincial chapters are
prescribed. But in spite of this measure, which
had a temporarily beneficial effect, spirituality
constantly declined. The reforms introduced after-
ward by the Council of Constance (1415), by a
provincial chapter of the Mainz province of the order
held at Petershausen (1417), by the congregation
of Bursfelde (q.v.) organized for the North-German
territories of the order, as well as by many Spanish
congregations (e.g., the Observance of Valladolid
under Ferdinand the Catholic, 1493), brought
about merely a temporary improvement in the con-
ditions.
The Tridentine reforming period (1563-1800)
was introduced by the decree De regularibuM et
monialibus passed in the twenty-fifth session of the
Council of Trent (Dec. 3, 1563), which opposes the
mischievous excess of exemptions (q.v.), puts the
female members of the order without exception
and the male members for the most part
under the supervision of the bishops, and insists
upon strict observance of the older regulations
concerning the holding of general
8- 1569- chapters, visitations, etc. Several new
A^^ ^1" Benedictine congregations sprang up
f* Hew ^'*^®'' ^^* influence of the Tridentine
Conneca- ^^™^I ™ South Germany one for
tions. Swabia (1564 ), one at Strasburg (1601 ),
one at Salzburg (1641), one for
Bavaria (1684); in Flanders the congregation of
St. Vedast near Arras, foimded about 1590; in
Lorraine that of St. Vanne and St. Hydulph,
which Abbot Didier de la Cour foimded in 1600
and Pope Clement VIII confirmed in 1604. An
outgrowth of the latter was the congregation of St.
^laur, founded in 1618 under the direction of the
same Abbot Didier, which spread all over France,
attaining the number of 180 monasteries, and
raised the work of the order in the direction of
learning to a prosperity which it never had before
(see St. Maur, Conorboation of). But after
about 1780, first the forcible secularization under
Joseph II, and then the storm of the Revolution
in France and the neighboring coimtries to the south
brought about the ruin of the order.
The epoch of restoration, which coincides with
the nineteenth century, has been able to save
only about 500 houses (with about
4. The 4,300 monks), out of the 37,000 houses
Nineteenth (abbeys or priories) which the order
Century, ntimbered before the catastrophes of
the eighteenth century. Yet in some
of the congregations there is at present a healthy
tnd vigorous life as far as the morals and discipline
II.— 4
are concerned and also as to achievements in
theological learning and Christian art (painting,
sculpture, etc.). In the latter respect the South-
German congregation of Beuron is especially dis-
tinguished. The two other South-German con-
gregations (the Bavarian and the Swabian) and
those of northern France and Belgium (especially
in the monasteries of Solesmes and Maredsous)
have recently produced some able scholars and
theologians. The Benedictines of the mother
house of the order at Monte Cassino (q.v.) and tlie
American congregations connected with it have
also rendered considerable services in the same
lines. O. ZOcKLBRf.
Bibuoorapht: The somewhat voluminouB early literatyre
on Benedict in the shape of poems and lives may be found
in part in MQH, Poet. Lot mtd. avi, i, 36-42, Berlin, 1881
(the Carmina of Paul the Deacon); MGH, Script.^ vol. xv,
parti, pp. 480-482, 674. Hanover, 1887 (Ex adventu eor^
poria S. BenedicH in agrwn FlaTiacenMm)\ four works on
the Miracles are published in MOU, Script, vol. xv, part
1. pp. 474-500. part 2 (1888). 8G3. 866, ix (1851). 374-
376. The VittB by Gregory and other writers as well
as the poems and relations of miracles may be found
in ASM, snc. i. pp. 28, 29-35. and ssc. ii. pp. 80, 353-358,
360-394; in ASB, Mar., iu. 276, 288-297. 302-357; and in
MPL, Ixxx, xcv. cxxiv, cxxvi, cxxxiii, cxxxiv, dx. Con-
sult: P. K. Brandes, Leben de$ heUigen Benedikt, Einsie-
deln, 1858; P. Lechner, Leben de$ heiligen Benedict Re-
gensburg, 1859; C. de Montalembert. Lee Moinee d'Occi^
denl, ii. 3-92 (on 8t. Benedict). 7 vols., Paris, 1860-77,
Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1861-79, new ed., with in-
troduction by Dom Gasquet on the Rule, 6 vols.. 1896;
P. HQgli, Der heilioe Benedikt, in Studien und MmKeilun-
gen aue dem BenedicL-Orden, year VI, vol. i(1885), 141-
162; J. H. Newman, Mieeion of St Benediet in Hiatorieal
Skelchee, vol. ii. London. 1885; F. G. Doyle, Teaching of
St Benedict. London. 1887; G. Grfltsmacher, Die Bedeu-
tung Benedikte . . . und eeiner Kegel, Berlin, 1892; L.
Tosti, St Benedict; Hietorieal Diecouraeon hie Life, transl.
from the Ital., London, 1896, cf. St Benedict and Orotta^
ferra, Beeaye on Toeti'e Life of St Benedict ib. 1896.
On the order: Bibliographiedee BinSdicHnede France, Bo-
lesmes, 1889; the fundamental work is J. MabilIon,ii nnaJes
ordinieS. Benedicti,6Yo\a., Paris, 1703-39; Montalembert, ut
■up.; Sir Jas. Stephens. The French BenedicHnee, in Beeaye
in EedeeiaeHeal Biography, London, 1867; 8. Branner, Bin
BenedikUnerhuch, Wfirsburg. 1880; Scriploree ordinie S,
Bertedicti in itnperio Auetriaeo-Hungarico, Vienna, 1881;
B. Weldon, Chronide of English BenedieHne Monke, Lon-
don, 1882 (covers the period from Mary to James II);
H. C. Lea, Hietory of Sacerdotal Celibacy, Philadelphia,
1884, and cf. his Hietory of <^ inquiaiHon, new ed., New
York, 1906; J. H. Newman, Ben0dictine Sehoole,hi Hie-
torieal Sketchee, ut sup.; F. M. Ranbek, SainU of ffis Order
of St Benedict, London, 1890; E. L. Taunton. Englieh
Black Monke of St Benedict 2 vols., ib. 1897; Heim-
bucher, Orden und Kongregatumen, i, 92-263. Of the Rule
among old editions the best is by L. Holstenius, Codex
regularum monaetioarum, i, 111-135. Augsburg, 1759; an-
other is by E. Bfart^ne in his Commentariue in regulam
S. Benedieti, Paris, 1600. The best edition is by E. Woelff-
lin. Benedict* regula fnonachorutn, Leipsio, 1895; serv-
ioeable are E. Schmidt, Die Regel dee heiligen Benedicte,
Regensburg. 1891, and P. K. Brandes. Leben und Regel dee
. . . Benedikt vols. ii. iii, Einsiedeln, 1858-63. The
Latin and Anglo-Saxon Interlinear TratMlaiicm was edited
by H. Logeman, London. 1888. The Rule was published
in E^. transl., London, 1886, ib. 1896. in Thatcher and
MoNeal, Source Book, pp. 432-485. in Henderson, Doeu-
mente, pp. 274-313; and by D. O. H. Blair, London,
1906. A bibliography of commentaries is in KL, ii,
324-325.
BENEDICTINES. See Benedict of Nursia.
BEITEDICTION; In the Roman Catholic Church
a part of every liturgical act, belonging to the class
of sacramentals (q.v.)— i.e., things which were
Ben«diotion
Benoflce
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
50
inBtituied, not by Christ but by the hierarchic
Church with divine authority, and which are sup-
posed, in their application to persons and things,
to communicate qtiasi ex opere operato through or-
dained priests the grace of God consisting in purifi-
cation, supernatural revivification, and sanctifi-
cation. The higher the hierarchical position of
him who bestows the blessing, the more power-
ful it is. Benediction and exorcism are always
connected; the latter breaks demoniac influences
and drives away the demons, while the former
communicates divine powers, not only positively,
but also negatively in the way of purification,
by blotting out sins of omission and the tem-
poral punishment of sins, and removing satanic
influences, thus having itself a sort of exorcism
though not explicit. Where exorcism alone takes
place, it is in an imperative manner, whereas the
benediction is precative, yet with an effective di-
vine power quasi ex apere operato by means of the
sign of the cross. The personal benediction effects
either a lasting habitus (e.g., anointing at baptism),
or a forma gratia actualis for a passing object and
condition (e.g., benediction for travelers, and the
sick); both kinds work either in the main negatively
by the removal of satanic influences or positively
in illumination and bestowal of supernatural
strength in body and soul. Benedictions of things
are idways primarily negative, and positive only
in the second place, that the use and enjoyment
of the objects may conduce to the welfare of man's
body and soul. The supernatural powers are
attached to the things by means of the benediction,
and in their effect they are independent of the con-
duct of man; either they make the things perma-
nently rea sacroe, affecting men in a purifying and
sanctifying manner (baptismal water, holy water,
rosaries, etc.), or they are of transient effect as
conveying God's grace and protection. Some-
times they are also connected with indulgences.
If anointing is applied, the benediction becomes
a consecration, whereby the thing is dedicated to
the service of God (e.g., monstrances, crosses,
pictures, flags, organs, etc.).
Aa to the Evangelical conception of the bene-
dictions, the words of Johann Gerhard give the
proper point of view: " The priests [in the Old
Testament] blessed by praying for good things;
God blessed by bestowing the good things. Their
blessing was votive, his effective. God promises
to confirm this sacerdotal blessing on condition
that it is given according to his word and will."
Thus it is only God who effectively blesses; that is,
oommtmicates divine powers of his grace and his
spirit; all human blessing is only intercession with
(Uh\ for his blessing. [According to the Roman
Catholic view, the objective difference between
lltiirgli'nl and extraliturgical, ecclesiastical and
iirlvaU! l)one<liction is that in the former the efficacy
uMinnritos from the Church as a body by whose
ttiilliorliy the rite was instituted and in whose name
if, Im r'on'fi^rml and, in consequence, is supposed to
\fn <(fnrtlnr timn in the latter where the effect de-
tri.M<lH on iUt^ intorroHHion of an individual.] Accord-
Uif hi Min lOviuiK^'llottl idea, there exists no objective
illfT^rwiw botwoon liturgical and extraUturgical,
ecclesiastical and private benediction; it is only
in a psychological way that the former may be
more efficacious for the fulfilment of the subjective
conditions of the hearing of prayer. Again, only
persons, not things, can be blessed with God's
spirit and grace. If things are nevertheless blessed,
it means that they are set apart for ritual use; and
so long as they are thus employed, they will be
sacred, while they are desecrated when used lightly
apart from ritual purposes. The benediction of
things takes place only by metonymy; the things
are mentioned, but the persons aro meant who
use them. Thus, e.g., a cemetery is dedicated to
its special use and handed over to the reverential
protection of the living; a church edifice is dedicated
by its being used and offered to the living congre-
gation as a valuable religious possession because of
its use. But the Roman Catholic traditions still
in many ways influence the ideas held even among
Protestants on the subject of benediction.
E. C. ACHELIS.
Biblioqsapht: O. Gretser, De benedieiumibuM, Ingol»tadt,
1616; J. Gerhard. De benedictume eceienatHea, pp. 1252-
1290. Jena. 1655: E. Bftart^ne, De antiquia ecdsna ritibut.
vol. iii. Rouen, 1700: J. C. W. Aucuati. DenkwHrdiokeilen
aut der chrisaiehen ArchOoloifie, iii. 302-393. x. 165 eqq..
12vols.. Leipaic. 1817-31 ; A. J. Bintorim, Segenund Flueh. in
DenkwHrdiokeiten, vol. vii. part 2. Mains. 1S41; L. Cole-
man. Apoatolical and Primitive Churd^^ chap. ziv. Lon-
don. 1844; V. Thalhofer. Handbuch der katholiachen Lx-
tuTffik, ii. 523-524. FreibuTB, 1890; Bingham. Origina,
XIV. IT. 16. XV. iii. 29; DC A, i. 193-200 (elaborate).
BEITEFICE.
Meaning of the Term (| 1). Appointment to a Benefiee
Remuneration of Clergy ( | 2). ( § 4).
Provisions Affecting Bene- Rights of a Benefice (| 5).
fices (I 3.) Tenure (( 6).
Benefice (beneficium ecdesiasticum) is a teitn
which includes two meanings: the spiritual, relating
to the ecclesiastical duties attached to it; and the
temporal, relating to the income and other worldly
advantages of the office. The latter is more strict-
ly the meaning of the word, though the connection
of the two was early recognized in the phrase
beneficium datur propter officium. Indeed, the term
henefi>cium is not generally used where there is only
the temporal side, with no corre-
I. Meaning sponding duties. Such a case may be
of the Term, a commenda, whose holder has a right
to the revenues of a church without
any responsibihties; or a prcBstimonium, which is
a charge for support on the revenues of the church;
or a pensiOf the use of a part of the revenues.
These relations, however, when they are penna-
nent fall under the general rules i^plicable to
benefices. The benefice proper is ordinarily per-
manent, though sometimes founded for a specified
time.
Historically in the primitive Church all the
property of a diocese formed one whole, admin-
istered by the bishop; its purpose was primarily
the support of the poor — ^bishop and clergy lived
as belonging to that class, and were supposed, if
they had no private means, to support themselves
by their own labors. Those who had no other
means of support received a monthly stipend from
51
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Banedlotion
Benefice
the geDeral fund. With the recognition of the
Church under Constantine, and the consequent
accession of considerable property
3. Remo- and state subventions, the ^stem
nemtionof changed. But in law the episcopal
Clergy, church was still the unit in any con-
sideration of diocesan property, and
the bishop still its exclusive custodian. This
remained the case when church property was
divided into three or into four parts (see C^surch
BuiLDiKG, Taxation for) and one part destined
for the support of the clergy. While, however,
it was long before the theory changed, in practise
there was a tendency to decentralization, and the
individual parishes began to be recognized as
separate units. This arose largely from donations
and endowments destined by the donor for a par-
ticular church, whose clergy were to be supported
out of their returns. After the fifth century it
became custonuuy for the bishops, instead of pay-
ing their clergy out of a central fund, to assign
pieces of land for their support and that of the poor
and of public worship. These assignments became
gradually irrevocable, and thus finally the diocesan
unity was dissolved, and the separate churches
came into permanent possession of these properties.
The intimate connection between officium and
befuficium is shown by a review of the provisions
affecting benefices. They are divided into regular
and secular, according as they are served by mon-
astic or secular clergy; into beneficia curaia, those
to which the cure of souls is attached, and rum
cwraUif such as those of chaplains,
3. Provisions canons of cathedrab, and the like.
Affecting The Council of Trent forbade changing
Benefices, a beneficium curatum into a nan
curatum or simplex. The erection
or ecmiititution of a benefice, the permanent attach-
ment of certain revenues to the performance of
oertain duties, was held to be reserved to the eccle-
siastical authorities. The foundation of bishoprics
was originally a function of provincial synods,
but later came to the pope, who also had power
alone to found collegiate churches. The bishop
has power to found other benefices within his 6io-
eese, and his oflidals decide whether the endowment
is sufficient and whether the proposed foundation
will be useful and not injure any other party.
The founder has certain rights of imposing con-
ditions for the tenure of his benefice, which, once
confinned, are perpetual.
The i^pointment to a benefice (provisio, inatituHo
cancniea) includes the choice of the person {desig-
natio) and the conferring of the benefice (coUcUio,
eoneeuio, insHtuHo in the narrower sense). The
designation to the greater benefices
4. Appoint- (bishoprics and the like) is sometimes
ment to a by election, sometimes by nomination
Benefica. of the sovereign; to the lesser, by
the choice of the bishop, frequently
on the ncMiiination of a patron. The collation is
the act of ecclesiastical superiors — of the pope to
bishoprics (eonfirmatio), of the bishop to the lesser
beneficea.
The conditions of a proper canonical appoint-
ment to a benefice are several: (1) A vacancy
must exist, and that a real one, not such as would
be caused by the forcible expulsion of the incmn-
bent. Thus expectancies (q.v.) are forbidden;
but the election of a coadjutor-bishop cum jure
eucceasiania is allowed. (2) The person appointed
must be a persona regularis and idonea, i.e., properly
qualified to hold the benefice. Under this head
comes the possession of the qualifications necessary
for ordination (q.v.), though, where it is required,
a delay of a year or other specified time may be
granted. Intellectual qualifications are included,
to be determined, according to the Council of Trent,
by examination; and the law has sometimes re-
quired native birth also, other things being equal.
(3) The appointment must be made within the
legal time, the rule being that no benefice shall
remain vacant more than six months; otherwise
the right of presentation is lost (see Devolution,
Law of). (4) There must be no simony involved.
(5) What are called subreption and obreption are
also forbidden; this affects especially cases where
a person obtains a benefice without letting it be
known that he already holds another. The church
law forbids plurality of benefices, except, for ex-
ample, in cases where a beneficium simplex is held
concurrently with a beneficium curatum, these
being held to be compatible. This rule was often
violated by papal dispensation, which caused great
dissatisfaction. (6) The proper forms, both in the
designation and in the collation, must be observed
(see Bishop; Investiture; etc.).
The rights and duties connected with a benefice
are partly matters of universal law, partly special
to the particular case. The inciunbent has a right
to the usufruct of any property belonging to the
benefice, tithes, fees, oblations, etc.
5. Rights All this is his absolutely; but the
of a view that he ought only to use so
Benefice, much of it as will suffice for his sup-
port, devoting the rest to ecclesiastical
purposes and especially to the poor, influenced
legislation very ^urly, so that what came from the
Church was supposed to revert to the Cihurch, if
it had not been used, at the cleric's death. This
rule, which at one time was positive, has been very
much relaxed, within certain limits. Of course
the incumbent's power over church property is
limited by the rights of his successor, and no ar-
rangements can be made lasting beyond his life-
time, unless by the concurrence of the proper
authorities.
A benefice is supposed to be conferred for life,
and is noimally vacated only by the death of the
inciunbent, but it may be vacated earlier by resig-
nation, either express or tacit. Resignation can
not be arbitrary with the incumbent, as he has by
his acceptance of it incurred certain obligations
from which he must be released — bishops by the
pope, the lower clergy by their bishops. There
must also be a valid ground for it.
6. Tenure. Tacit resignation may come about
through any act which ipso facto dis-
solves the relationship: the taking monastic vows
by the holder of a beneficium scBodare, the accept-
ance of a secular office, marriage (see Ceubacy),
the acceptance of another incompatible benefice.
Benefioium
Bennett
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
52
change of faith, etc. Vacation as a penalty may
occur through deprivation or remotion; this in-
cludes the transfer of a priest, as a disciplinary
measure, to a smaller charge.
[The technical use of the word benefice in Protes-
tant Churches is largely confined to the Church of
England, where a great part of the prescriptions
given above is still in force. In the statute law
of England the term is practically restricted to
a benefice with cure of souls, as distinct from
cathedral preferment.; In the State Churches of
Germany also the distinction between beneficium
and offidum is still maintained, and the erection
and alteration of benefices is a matter concerning
jointly the ecclesiajstical and secular authorities.
Here the ordinary collator to a benefice is the
consistory. The tendency of the most modem
legislation is toward giving the congregation a
voice in the selection of the pastor.
(E. Friedbero.)
Biblxoorapht: Bingham, Ongine*, book v; L. Thomassin.
Veiiu et nova eedeaia diaciplina. II, iii, 13, ( 5, Pam, 1608;
C. Gross, Da9 RecfU an der PfriLnde, Gras. 1887; Galante,
itbeneficio eccUnasHco, Milan, 1805; U. Stuts, OeMchiehU
ties kirchlichen Benefizialioetena von »einen AnfAngen bia
auf die Zeit Alexanden III. Berlin, 1895.
BENEFICIUM COMP£T£NTL£: The privilege
by which a condemned debtor is allowed to retain
so much of his income as is absolutely necessary to
Lis maintenance. Such a privilege exists in many
[>laces, in the interest of the public service, for
officials and also for clerics. For the latter the
custom is usually referred to the decree of Gregory
IX (1271-76) De solutionibua (iii, 23). This pas-
sage, however, only establishes the principle that
an unbeneficed clerical debtor can not be forced
to pay by spiritual penalties, and that the creditors
are to be content with sufficient security for pay-
ment when the debtor's circumstances improve.
The glosses, and common practise following them,
base the privilege upon the decree, and statute law
has confirmed it, restricting any levy upon the salary
or other income of such a cleric so that a certain
sum is left to him as congrua (austentaiio). This
privilege can not be pleaded in the case of debts
arising from unlawful transactions or of public
taxes. (E. Friedbbbg.)
BENEFIT OF CLERGY: A privilege dairoed
by the medieval Church,* as part of its general
plea of immunity from secular interference. It
allowed members of the clergy to have their trial
for offenses with which they were charged, not
before any secular tribimal, but in the bishop's
court. In England this covered practically all
cases of felony except treason against the king,
and by the reign of Henry II it had given rise to
great abuses. In many cases grossly criminal
acts of clerics escaped unpunished, and other
criminals eluded the penalty of their acts by declar-
ing themselves clerics. The question was one of
those on which the quarrel between the king and
Becket reached its acute stage; and by the Ck>n-
stitutions of Clarendon (1164; see Becket, Thomas)
Henry attempted to deal with it by decreeing
that clerics accused of crime w^ere to be first
arraigned in the king's court, which might at its dis-
cretion send them to an ecclesiastical court. If
convicted here and degraded (see Degradation),
the clerk was to lose his benefit of clergy and be
amenable to lay justice. Edward III extended the
privilege in 1330 to include aU persons who could
read (see Clerk); and it was not imtil the fifteenth
century that any very definite regulation of this
dangerous latitude was arrived at. Later statutes
guarded against the evasion of their provisions by
expressly declaring that their operation was " with-
out benefit of clergy," and the privilege was finaUy
abolished in 1827. There are a few early cases of
its use in the American colonies, especially the
Carolinas and Virginia; but an Act of Congress
put an end to it here in 1790.
BENEZET, ben'Vzet', ANTHONY: Quaker
philanthropist; b. at St. Quentin, France, Jan. 31,
1714; d. at Philadelphia May 3, 1784. He belonged
to a Huguenot family which settled in England in
1715, joined the Quakers there, and came to Phila-
delphia in 1731. He was a cooper by trade, but
gave his life after coming to America to teaching
and to philanthropic efforts, against slavery and
war, in behalf of the American Indians, and the
total abstinence cause. In 1742 he became Eng-
lish master in the Friends' School at Philadelphia
and in 1755 established a girls' school there. In
1750 he undertook an evening school for slaves.
He wrote many tracts against the slave trade
and printed and distributed them at his own ex-
pense; he also published A Short Account of the
People Called Quakers (Philadelphia, 1780); The
Plainnees and Innocent Simplicity of the Christian
Religion (1782); Some Obaervationa on the SiiuaHan,
Dispoeilion, and Character of the Indian Nalives
of this Continent (1784).
Bibuoorapht: R. Vaux, Memoir of Antiumy Benezet, Plul»>
delphia. 1817, revised by W. Armistead. Loudon, 1850.
BEN6EL, JOHANN ALBRECHT: German Lu-
theran; b. at Winnenden (12 m. n.e. of Stutt-
gart), Warttemberg, Jime 24, 1687; d. at Stuttgart
Nov. 2, 1752. He studied at Tubingen, and de-
voted himself especially to the sacred text; he was
also intent upon philosophy, paying particular at-
tention to Spinoza. After a year in the ministiy
as vicar at Metzingen, he became theological repe-
tent at Ttlbingen in 1708; and in 1713 was ap-
pointed professor at the cloister-school at Denken-
dorf , a seminary for the early training of candidates
for the ministry. During this year he traveled
through Germany, visiting the schools, including
those of the Jesuits, to learn their methods. At
Denkendorf he published in 1719 his first woric, an
edition of the EpistoUe Ciceronia ad famUiares, with
notes; then Gregorii panegyricus grace et latine
(1722), and Chryaoetomi libri vi deeacerdatio (1725),
to which he added Prodromus Novi Testamenti rede
eauteque ordinandi. His chief work, however, was
upon the New Testament. While a student* he
was much perplexed by the various readings in the
text, and with characteristic energy and perse-
verance he immediately began to investigate the
subject. He procured aU the editions, manuscripts,
and translations possible, and in 1734 published
his text and an Apparatue crUieiu, which becamo
53
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Benefieitixa
Bennett
the fltarting-point for modem text-criticism of the
New Testament, fiis famous canon was: " The
more difficult reading is to be preferred/' This
critical work was followed by an exegetical one,
Gnomon Novi Testamenti (Tubingen, 1742), which
has often been reprinted in Latin, and was trans-
lated into German by C. F. Werner (1853, 3d ed.,
1876) and into English in Clark's Library (5 w>ls.,
Edinburgh, 1857-58) and in an improved edition
by Lewis and Vincent (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1860-
1861). As a brief and suggestive commentary on
the New Testament, the Gnomon is still of use.
Bengers chief principle of interpretation, briefly
stated, is to read nothing into the Scriptures, but draw
everything from them, and suffer nothing to remain
hidden that is really in them. His Gnomon exerted
considerable influence on exegesis in Germany, and
John Wesley translated most of its notes and in-
corporated them into his AnnoUUory Notes upon the
Sew Testament (London, 1755). In 1740 appeared
Bengel's Erkldrte Offenbarung Johannis, often re-
printed (Eng. transl. by John Robertson, London,
1757); in 1741 his Ordo temporum, and in 1745 his
CyduB aive de anno magno consider atio. In these
chronological works he endeavored to fix the " num-
ber of the beast " and the date of the " millen-
nium," which he placed in the year 1836. In 1741
he was made prelate of Herbrechtingen; in 1749
member of consistory and prelate of Alpirspach,
with residence at Stuttgart; and two years later
Tubingen honored him with the doctorate.
(A. Hauck.)
BnuooKAPKT: The best life is by O. W&chter. J. A. Bentfel.
Ubenaabrim, Stutteart. 1865; cf. idem, Bengel und Otin^
gtr, QQtenloh, 1883; a life was written by his son and
included in the Introduetion to the Oitomon, where it is
nsuaUy fomid; in more complete form by his ereat-grand-
Bon J. C. F. Bxirk. /. A. BenoeU Ltben und Wirken, Stutt-
cnrt, 1831, Eng. transl. by Walker, London, 1837; E.
Nestte, Btngel aU GtUhrter, Tubingen. 1S93.
BEHHAM, WILLIAM: Church of England; b.
at Westmeon (16 m. n.e. of Southampton), Hants,
Jan. 15, 1831. He was educated at St. Mark's
College, Chelsea, and King's College, London
(Theological Associate, 1857), and was a village
achoobxiaster from 1849 to 1852, and a private
tutor from 1853 to 1856. He was ordered deacon
in 1857 and ordained priest in the following year, and
after acting as tutor in St. Mark's College from
1S57 to 1864, was editorial secretary of the Society
for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from
1864 to 1867. and professor of modem history in
Queen's 0)llege, London, from 1864 to 1871. He
was successively curate of St. Lawrence, Jewry,
London (1865-67), vicar of Addington (1867-73),
St. John the Baptist, Margate (1873-^0), and Mar-
den, Kent (1880-82), as well as Six-Preacher of
Canteibury Cathedral from 1872 to 1888, and Boyle
lecturer in 1897. Since 1882 he has been rector
of St. Edmund's, Lombard Street, and has also
been honorary canon of Canterbury since 1885.
He has likewise been rural dean of East City since
1903. In theology he is a Broad-church disciple
of F. D. Maurice. He has published the following
works: The Gospel of St. Matthew, wUh Notes and a
Commentary (London, 1862); English BaliadSf tnth
Introduction and Notes (1863); The Epistles for the
Christian Year, vnth Notes and Commentary (1864);
The Church of the Patriarchs (1867); Companion
to the Lectionary (1872); A New Translation of
Thomas A Kempis' " Imitatio Christi" (1874);
Readings on the Life of our Lord and His Apostles
(1880); How to Teach the Old Testament (1881);
Annals of the Diocese of Winchester (1884); A Short
History of the Episcopal Church in America (1884);
The Dictionary of Religion (1887); and Old St.
Paul's Cathedral (1902). He coUaboratod with
R. P. Davidson and with C. Welsh in Medicrval
London (1901); and etiitcd the Life of Archbishop
Tail (London, 1891); The Writings of St. John, in
the Temple Bible (1902), and the Ancient and Mod-
em Library of Theological Literature.
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (a town of Navarre,
on the Ebro, 160 miles n.e. of Madrid): Property
Benjamin ben Jonah, a Spanish rabbi, who in 1160
(or 1165; cf. Gr&tz, Geschichte der Judcn, vi, note
10) left home and traveled through Catalonia,
southern France, Italy, Greece, the islands of the
Levant, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia to Bag-
dad; thence he proceeded to Egypt by way of
Khuzistan, the Indian Ocean, and Yemen; and
finally returned to Spain in 1173. The informa-
tion which he gathered with great diligence not
only concerning the places visited, but also of ad-
joining lands, was written down in a Hebrew work
(Massa'oth shd rabbi Binyamin, " Itinerary of the
Rabbi Benjamin "), which is one of the most fa-
mous of early books of travel. Benjamin was credu-
lous, perhaps deficient in general information, and
interested primarily in things Jewish; his book
aboimds in errors and absurdities, but it does not
justify the charge of deliberate falsification, and it
contains much that is true and valuable not only
concerning the numbers, status, and dispersion of
the Jews of the twelfth century, but also concern-
ing general history, political conditions, trade, de-
scriptions of places, and the like.
Bibuoorapht: The " Itinerary " waa first publiBhed at
Constantinople in 1543; then Ferrara, 1556; Freiburg,
1683; and many times subsequently. Arias Montanus
and C. TEmpereur issued the text with a Latin transla-
tion, the former at Antwerp, 1575; the latter at Ley-
den, 1633. An English translation (from the Latin of
Arias Montanus) was published in PttrcAos's PUarinu,
London, 1625, and is given in Bohn's Early TraveU in
Palutine, London, 1848. Others (with text) are by A.
Asher. 2 vols., London, 1840-41. and M. N. Adler, Lon-
don, 1907, the latter based on a British Museum MS. whioh
differs considerably from other copies. A Oerm. transl.,
with text, notes, etc., by L. Orflnhut and M. N. Adlcr, was
published at Frankfort, 2 vols.. 1903-04. Consult also M.
N. Adler, in the Palestine Ebtploration Fund Qwsrterly
Statement, Oct., 1894.
BEIVIIETT, JAMES: Congregationalist; b. in
London May 22, 1774; d. there Dec. 4, 1862. He
studied for the ministry at Gosport under the Rev.
David Bogue; was ordained at Romsey, Ham-
shire, 1797, and was minister there till 1813, when he
became theological tutor of the Rotherham Inde-
pendent College, and minister of the church there;
pastor of the church in Silver Street (afterward re-
moved to Falcon Square), London, 1828-60. He
was an associate of the Haldanes in some of their
tours, was a secretary of the London Miflrionaiy
B«nnett
B«ntley
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
54
Society, was ohainnan of the Congregatioxud Union
1840, and attracted much attention by his defense
of Christianity against the unbelief of his time.
His publications include The History of Diasenten
from the Revolution to 1808, in collaboration with
Dr. Bogue (4 vols., London, 1808-12; 2d ed., 2
vols., 1833), continued in The History of DiaserUere
during the Last Thirty Yeare (1839); The Star of
the West, being memaire of R. DarracoU (1813);
Lectures on the History of Jesue Christ (3 vols.,
1825; 2d ed., 2 vob., 1828), supplemented by Lec-
tures on the Preaching of Christ (1836); Memoire of
the Life of DaM Bogus (1827): An AntidoU to In-
fidelity, lectures delivered in 1831, and A Second
AntidoU to Infidelity (1831); Justification as Re-
vealed in Scripture in Opposition to the Council of
Trent and Mr. Newman's Lectures (1840); The The-
ology of the Early Christian Church Exhibited in
Qu^ions from the Writers of the First Three Cen-
turies, Congregational lecture, 1841; Lectures on
the Acts of the Apostles (1846).
Bibuoobapht: MemoriaU of A« LaU Jamf Btnnett, D.D.,
induding Sermons Preached on the Oeeaeion of hie Death,
London, 1863; DNB, iv. 242-243.
BEHITETT, WILLIAM HENRY: English Congie-
gationalist; b. at London lifay 22, 1855. He was edu-
cated at Lancashire Independent College (1873-82)
and Owens College, Manchester, London Univer-
sity (B.A., 1875), and St. John's College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1882), and was professor in Rotherham Col-
lege from 1884 to 1888 and lecturer in Hebrew in
Firth College, Sheffield, in 1887-88. He has been
professor of Old Testament exegesis in Hackney
College, London, since 1888 and in New College,
London, since 1891. He was also first secretary
to the Board of Theology in the University of Lon-
don in 1901-03, and has been examiner in the Old
Testament to the University of Wales since 1904, as
well as a recognized teacher in the same institu-
tion since 1901. He has edited Chronicles and Jere-
miah in The Expositor's Bible (London, 1894-95);
Joshua in The Sacred Books of the Old Testament
(1895) and in The Polychrome Bible (New York, 1899);
General Epistles and Genesis in The Century Bible
(London, 1901, 1903); and Joshua in The Temple
Bible (1904). He has also written Theology of the
Old Testament (London, 1896); Primer of the Bible
(1897); and Biblical Introduction (1899; in collab-
oration with W. F. Adeney).
BSlIKO: Bishop of Meissen; b. at Hildesheim
or Goslar 1010; d. at Meissen June 16, 1106, ac-
cording to the traditional accounts. The first cer-
tain fact in his life is that he was a canon of Gos-
lar. He was made bishop of Meissen in 1066, and
appears as a supporter of the Saxon insurrection of
1073, though Lambert of Hersfeld and other con-
temporary authorities attribute little weight to his
share in it. Henry IV imprisoned him, however,
but released him in 1076 on his taking an oath of
fidelity, which he did not keep. He appeared
again in the ranks of the king's enemies, and was
accordingly deprived of his bishopric by the Synod
of Maims in 1085. Benno betook himself to Gui-
bert, the anttpope supported by Henry as Clement
III, and by a penitent acknowled^nent of his
offenses obtained from him both absolution and a
letter of commendation to Henry, on the basis of
which he was restored to his see. He promised,
apparently, to use his influence for peace with the
Saxons, but again failed to keep his promise, re-
turning in 1097 to the papal party and recognizing
Urban II as the rightful pope. With this he dis-
appears from authentic history; there is no evi-
dence to support the later stories of his missionary
activity and seal for chureh-building and for
ecclesiastical music. His elevation to the fame
of sainthood seems to have been due partly
to the need of funds to complete the cathedral
of Meissen, and partly to the wish to have a
local or diocesan saint. He was officially can-
onized by Adrian VI in 1523, as a demonstration
against the Lutheran movement, which Luther
acknowledged by a fierce polemical treatise. His
relics were solemnly dug up and venerated in 1524;
but as the Reformation progressed they were no
longer appreciated in Meissen, and Albert V of
Bavaria obtained permission to remove them in
1576 to Munich, of which city Benno is considered
the patron saint. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Several early aocounts in prose and mrae
of Benno's life and miracles were collected in ASB,
June, iii, 148-231. Consult: O. Langer. Biechaf Benno
von Meieeen, in MitO^eUunoen dee Vereine fOr GeechidUe
der Stadt Meieeen, i. 3 (1884). pp. 70^5. i. 5 (1886), pp.
1-38. ii. 2 (1888), pp. 09-144; K Blachatschek, Gteekiehte
der BiediSfe dee Hoehetiftee Meieeen, pp. 0&-O4. Dreeden.
1884; R. Doebner, AktenetQeke eur Geeehiekle der Vila
Bennonie, in Neuee Arofctv flir eSdteieche Oeeekiehte, Tii.
131-144, Dresden, 1886; K. P. WiU, Sand Benno, Bieekof
von Meieeen, Dresden, 1887.
BSirOIST (BE]fOrr\ be-nwa', BUS: French
Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 20, 1640; d. at Delft Nov.
15, 1728. His parents were servants of the Protes-
tant family La Tremoille. He early displa3red
fondness for the classics, studied at Montaigu
College and at Ia Marche (Paris), and taught pri-
vately in divinity at Montauban. In 1664 he was
ordained, and the following year was called to
Alengon, where he served for twenty years as Prot-
estant minister, with as much prudence as capac>
ity . He met with much opposition from the Roman
Catholics, especiaUy from the Jesuit De la Rue.
who attacked him and even incited a riot against
him. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
Benoist went to Holland, and was called as minis-
ter to the church of Delft, near The Hague, where
he stayed thirty years. He wrote Lettre d'un
pasteur banni de son pays d. une 6glise qui n'a pas
fait son devoir dans la demih-e persecution ((Cologne,
1666); Histoire et apologie de la retraite des pasteurs
d cause de la persecution de France (Frankfort, 1687);
Histoire de V6dU de Nantes (5 parts. Delft, 1693-95;
Eng. transl., London, 1694).
G. Bonkt-Maurt.
Bibuoobapht: P. Pascal, £lie B^tnoiet ei Vigliee rfforwUe
d'Alen^on, Paris, 1802; E. and E.Haac, La Fronoeprofes-
tonle, ii, 269 eqq., 2d ed. by Bordier, Paris, 1877 aiiq.;
BuUetin de la eociHS d*hietoire du proiertaiifitim fran^aiM,
1876, p. 250, 1884, pp. 112. 162.
BEirOIST (BSirOIT), RENE: Roman Catholic
theologian; b. at Saveni^res, near Angers, in 1521;
d. at Paris Mar. 7, 1608. He accompanied Mary
55
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BMintttt
B«ntley
Stuart to Scotland as her cozifessor in 1561; after
his return to France was appointed pastor of the
church of St. Eustache in Paris in 1569, and played
a consiHcuous part in the controversies of the
Ligue as one of the leaders of the opposition to
the Guiaes and the Ultramontanes. In 1566 he
published a translation of the Bible, which, however,
was little more than a reprint of the Geneva trans-
lation; it has been said that he knew little of either
Hebrew or Greek. The translation was condemned
by the theological faculty of the University of
Paris in 1567 and by Pope Gregory XIII in 1575,
and Benoist was expelled from the Sorbonne in 1572.
He was reinstated by Henry IV and, to reenter the
faculty, subscribed his own condemnation. He
exasperated the Ultramontanes still more by main-
taining that the king did not forfeit his right to the
throne by professing the Protestant faith. He
had influence in bringing about Henry's change of
faith, and the latter made him his confessor and
appointed him bishop of Troyes, but the pope
refused confirmation, and in 1604 he had to renounce
the office. He was a voluminous writer.
BtBUoaaArar: J. C. F. Hoefer, Biographie otniroU, v, 305,
46 Tolfl., Puis, 1852-66; C. du Plensin d'Argentr^, ColUetio
YMitctorwm II. i. 392-303. 533-534. 3 Tola.. Paria, 1728-36.
BERRATH, KARL: German Protestant theo-
k)gian; b. at DQren (22 m. s.w. of Cologne) Aug.
16, 1845. He was educated at the universities of
Bonn, Beriin, and Heidelberg (1864-67), and taught
in his native city until 1871. From 1871 to 1875
he studied in Italy, chiefly in Rome. In 1876 he
became privat-docent at Bonn and associate pro-
fessor in 1879. In 1800 he was called to Kdnigs-
berg as professor of church history. He has written
Bernardino Ochino wm Siena (Leipsic, 1875); Die
Quetten der Ualieniechen RefornuUionsgeschichte
(Bonn, 1876); Gtschiehte der Reformation in Venedig
(Halle, 1887); and JtUia Gamaga (1900). He has
also edited Die Stanma der heiligen Schrift, ein
ZeugnitM aUe dem ZeitaUer der Reformation (Leipsic,
1880); Luther's Schnft an den chrisaichen Adel
deutacher Nation (Halle, 1884); and K. R. Hagen-
bach's Lehrbuch der Dogmengesehichte (6th ed.,
Leipsic, 1889).
BERSLT, ROBERT LUBBOCK: Orientalist;
b. at Eaton (2 m. s.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Eng-
land, Aug. 24, 1831; d. at Cambridge Apr. 23, 1893.
He was educated at King's College, London, and
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; studied
in Germany; was appointed reader in Hebrew
at Gonville and Caius CV>llege 1863; elected fellow
1876; became lecturer in Hebrew and Ssrriac in
his cdlege; was made professor of Arabic 1887;
examiner in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament
in the University of London; was a member of
the Old Testament Revision Company; accom-
panied Mrs. Lewis and Birs. Gibson on the trip to
Sinai on which the palimpsest of the Syriac Gospels
was discovered (see Biblb Versions, A, III, 1, § 2).
He has edited The Missing Fragment of the Latin
Translation of the Fourth Book of Ezra^ discovered
and edited with an Introduction and Notes (Cam-
bridge, 1875); contributed The Harklean Version
of Hd>. xi, BS-^ii, 26 to the Proceedings of the
Congress of Orientalists of 1889; assisted in the
editing of the Sinai tic palimpsest; edited IV Mac-
cabees (to which he devot^ twenty-seven years
of labor), published posthumously (Cambridge,
1895); wrote Our Journey to Sinai, Visit to the
Convent of St, Calarina, with a chapter on the Sinai
Palimpsest (London, 1896); edited St. Clement's
Epistles to the Corinthians in Syriac (London, 1899).
Biblxoobapht: H. T. Francis. In Memoriam R. L. Benalj/,
Cambridge, 1893; DNS; Supplement, vol. i. 171.
BENSON, EDWARD WHITE: Archbishop of
Canterbury; b. at Birmingham July 14, 1820;
d. at Hawarden (6 m. e. of Chester) Oct. 11, 1896.
He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A.,
1852); became master at Rugby 1852; was or-
dained priest 1857; in 1859 was appointed first
head master of Wellington College (on the border
of Windsor forest, near Wokingham, Berkshire);
was appointed examining chaplain by the bishop
of Lincoln (Christopher Wordsworth) in 1868,
prebendary of Lincoln 1869, and chancellor and
residentiary canon 1872, when he resigned his
mastership and took up his residence at Lincoln.
In 1877 he was consecrated first bishop of Truro
(Cornwall); and was translated to Canterbury in
1883. He was a man of great energy, deter-
mined, and self-reliant. His industry was unremit-
ting, and he foimd time for reading and study, the
fruits of which appeared in the posthumous publi-
cations Cyprian, his Life, his Times, his Work
(London, 1897) and The Apocalypse (1899). His
administrative ability was shown in the develop-
ment of Wellington College, which was practically
his creation, and the thorough and efficient organi-
xation of the new diocese of Truro, where he formed
a divinity school to train candidates for holy orders,
began the erection of a cathedral, and founded
and strengthened schools. He was the first bishop
to appoint a canon missioner. As archbishop he
strove for legislation effecting reforms in church
patronage and discipline; opposed and prevented
the disestablishment of the Church of Wales;
created, in 1886, a body of laymen to act in an ad-
visory capacity with the convocation of his prov-
ince; cultivated cordial relations with the Nes-
torians and other Eastern Christians, but repelled
what may have been intended as an advance to his
own Church from Rome. He sat as judge in the
trial of Bishop King of Lincoln, charged with cer-
tain ritual offenses (1889-90), and in the judgment
which he delivered produced a masterly exposition
of the law of the prayer-book, based upon the entire
history of the English Church. Besides the works
already mentioned, a volume of Prayers, Public
and Private appeared posthumously (1899), and
he published during his lifetime several volumes
of sermons and addresses.
BiBLioaRAPHT: A. C. Benson, Life of E. W. Benson, 2 vols.,
London, 1899, abridged ed., 1901 (by his eldest son);
J. H. Bernard, ArchbUhop Benton in Ireland^ London,
1896; DNB, Supplement, vol. i, 171-179.
BENTLEY, RICHARD: English theologian and
scholar; b. at Oulton, near Wakefield (25 m. s.w.
of York), Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1662; d. at Cam-
bridge July 14, 1742. He was the son of a black-
Bentley
Berenffar
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZCX3
56
Bmith, was grounded in Latin by his mother,
studied at the grammar-school at Wakefield, and
was admitted at the age of fourteen (the usual
age of matriculation was seventeen or eighteen) to
St. John's College, Cambridge. He took his first
degree in 1680 with honor in logic, ethics, natural
science, and mathematics, and became schoolmaster
at Spalding in Lincolnshire. But Stillingfleet, the
wealthy and learned dean of St. Paul's, soon c»lled
him to London to superintend his son's studies.
He took his pupil in later years to Oxford and
reveled there among the manuscripts in pursuance
of his researches in profane and especially Biblical
literature, entering on his life's work of treating and
publishing texts. He had taken his M.A. at Cam-
bridge in 1684 and received the same degree from
Oxford probably in 1680. Before his twenty-fourth
year he had started for himself a hexapla dictionary;
in the first colunm stood every Hebrew word in
the Bible and in the other five all the different
translations of these words in Chaldee, S3rriac,
Latin, and Greek (both the Septuagint and Aquila).
His Latin letter of ninety-eight pages to John Mill
appeared in 1691 as an appendix to an edition of
the chronicle of Malalas and presented a mass of
critical research, including much drawn from
manuscripts; he moved over the field of classical
literature as if it were his library of which he knew
every inch, and showed himself a master in criti-
dnng the origin of books, in following up etymo-
logical rules, in explaining their use, and in dealing
with meter. Li this, hk virgin effort, he gave
explanations and corrections for some sixty Greek
and Latin authors. He wrote like an authority,
and in the happiest manner. He published Colli'
machua (1693), Phalaris (1699; the debate is still
interesting), Menander and Philemon (1710),
Horace (1711), Terence (1726), and Maniliua
(1739); his edition of Milton's Paradise Loet
appeflj*ed in 1732.
Ordained 1690, probably at once Stillingfleet's
house-chaplain, he became canon of Worcester in
1692, librarian to the king in 1694, chaplain in
ordinary to the king in 1695, D.D. from Cambridge
and Master of Trinity in 1699, vice-chancellor of
the University 1700, archdeacon of Ely 1701.
His intrigues secured his election as regius
professor of theology in 1717. His apparent love
of power led the academic senate, Oct. 17, 1718,
to deprive him, illegally, of his academic degrees,
which a decree of court restored to him in 1724.
He was almost always in hot water either in litera-
ture, in his college, or in politics. Legally deprived
of his mastership in 1734, he kept it, simply because
the man who should oust him did not choose to
move.
He delivered the first Boyle lectures (see Botle,
Robebt) in 1692, his intimate friend Isaac Newton
helping him. He wrote against the freethinker
Collins in 1713. Sterne quoted in Tristram Shandy
his sermon on papistry, 1715. In 1691 he wrote
to John Mill about the text of the New Testament,
in 1713 he discussed the readings, and in 1720 he
published his proposals for a new edition. At least
from 1716 on, and apparently as late as 1732, he
caused collations to be made in the libraries from
London to Rome. But he did not publish an edition,
probably because he found it impossible to give
what he wished to give. His collations are in the
library of Trinity College.
Caspar Ren£ Grboort.
Bibuookapht: The beet life ia by R. C. Jebb, in fn^ZiA
Men cf LeUen, London, 1887. Consult also J. H. Monk,
Life cf Richard BenOey . . . vnJOt an Aeoowd of kit Wri-
Une», 2d oorreoted ed.. lb. 1833; A. A. Ellis. BenUmi entita
Cambridse, 1862; DNB, tv, 306-314.
BENTOH, ANGELO AMES: Protestant Episco-
palian; b. at Canea (Khania), on the island of
Crete, July 3, 1837. He studied at Trinity
College, Hartford, Conn. (BA., 1856) and the
General Theological Seminary, New York dty
(1860). He held various parishes in North Caro-
lina from 1860 to 1883, when he was appointed
professor of mathematics and modem languages
at Delaware College, Newark, Delaware, being
transferred to the chair of Greek and Latin two
years later. In 1887 he accepted a call to the
University of the South as professor of dogmatic
theology, where he remained until 1894, being like-
wise rector of the Otey Memorial Church, Sewanee,
from 1 893 to 1 895. He was then rector at Albion , 111. ,
in 1895-1904, this being interrupted by a temporary
charge at Tarentum, Pa. Since 1905 he has held
a temporary charge at Foxburg, Pa. His chief
literary work has been the editing of the Church
Encydopedia (Philadelphia, 1884).
BENZINGER, DaCANUEL (6USTAV ADOLF):
German Orientalist; b. at Stuttgart Feb. 21, 1865.
He was educated at the University of Tubingen
(Ph.D., 1888; licentiate of theology, 1894), and
after a pastorate at Neuenstadt, WOrttemberg,
from 1894 to 1898, was privat-docent for Old Tes-
tament theology at the University of Berlin until
1901, when he retired, and has since resided in
Palestine. In theology he belongs to the historioo-
critical school. He has been a member of the
DeiU8cher Pal&stinaverein since 1888, editing its
journal in 1897-1902, and has also been on the
executive conmiittee of the DeuUcher Verein zur
Erforachung Paldstinaa since 1897. He has written
Hebrdiache Archdologie (Freiburg, 1894, 2d ed. 1907);
Commentarzuden KOnigabuchem (IB99) and Com^
mentor tu der Chronik (1901), both in the Kurzer
Hand'Kommentar eum AUen Teatament; and Ge-
achichU dea VoUcea larada (Leipeic, 1904). He like-
wise collaborated with R. J. Hartmann in Paldatina
(Stuttgart, 1899), and with Frolmmeyer in BUder'
atlaa zvr Btbelkunde (1905), and has edited Baede-
ker's Paldatina und Syrien since the third edition
(1889).
BENZO: Bishop of Alba, a zealous partisan of
Henry IV; b. about the begiiming of the eleventh
century; d. not earlier than 1085 or 1086. Little
that is definitely attested can be related of hia
life; but it may be reasonably conjectured that
he came originally from southern Italy, that be
gained some sort of a position at the German Court,
possibly as one of the chaplains of Henry III, and
that before 1059 he was raised to the bishopric of
Alba by Henry's influence. He was one of the most
devoted upholders of the Italian claims of the
67
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bentlay
Beren^at
Gennan kings, and a bitter opponent of the Hilde-
brandine party. His most prosperous days fell
in the period of the schism between Honorius II
and Alexander II, when he went to Rome (at the
end of 1061 ) charged by the empress Agnes with the
mission of supporting the former, the imperial
candidate for the papacy, to whom he remained
faithful even after Alexander's supremacy was
assured. Later, he was a victim of the Patarene
movement (see Patarenes), when in 1076 or 1077
popular disturbances drove him from his see. Ill
luck followed him during the rest of his life. Though
he may have taken part in Henry IV's first ex-
pedition to Rome, we never again find him in an
important political position; and the latest indi-
cations to be gathered from his writings leave
the picture of a man broken by poverty and illness,
and still waiting for the emperor to reward him for
long and faithful services. His Li&rt vii ad Henri-
cum IV do not make up a single work, but are a
collection of separate writings in both prose and
verse which he put together into a sort of mosaic
shortly before his death. Their special interest
lies in the fact that they give an admirable
insight into the views of the extreme imperialists,
who were carried away by boundless hatred of
Gregory VII. Benzo puts forth original views
on the constitution of the State and on ecclesiastical
politics from the standpoint of a convinced sup-
porter of the empire. His PanegyrictUy since the
time and manner of the composition of its several
books have been definitely determined, is now more
highly regarded as an authority on the period of
the schimi. Carl Mirbt.
BiauooBArHT: B«iiflo'8 Ad H^nrieum IV impenionm libri
MfKm. ed. K. Feria, » in MOH, Script, zi, 691-681.
HjUDOver, 1854. On turn life and work consult: W. Ton
Citiebrccbt, AnnaU§ AUahensn, pp. 123. 213-227, Ber-
lin. 1841; idem, OetthiehU der KaUeneii, ii. 636. Bruns-
wiek, 1876 (in apposition to the work of K. J. Will, next
mentioned); K. J. Will, Bengoa Panegyrikug, Marbuis,
1857; H. Lehmsrabner, Bmuo wm Alba, . . . aein Ixiben
imd . . . ** Pansgyrieua,*' Berlin, 1807; idem, Benso von
AWa, . . . ci«M QudUnunierBudiuno, ib. 1886; T. Lind-
ner. Benmf PansffyncM avtf Heituich IV, pp. 497-526,
Gdttincen, 1866; O. Delarc, in R^vue de* q^uutiona hiBto-
rvp^M, zliii (1888). 5-60; E. Steindorff, in Gdttin0erGe2e^(er
Anteio€r, No. 16. 1888, pp. 593 sqq.; Wattenbach, DQQ, ii
(1»86), 202. u (1894). 328-^29; C. Mirbt. Dm PvUiMUUk
im ZmkaUmr Or^oon VI J., Leipsie. 1894; Hauck, KD, vol iii.
BEREHGAR OP POITIERS: A younger contem-
porary and sealous adherent of Abelard (q.v.) . Prac-
tically nothing is known of his life except what may
be learned from his few brief writings. These,
however, are not without interest, partly because
(m spite of their being by no means completely
trustworthy) they are among the authorities for
the history of the Council of Sens in 1141, and
partly for the light which they throw on the mental
attitude and literary tone which prevailed among
the disciples of Abelard and opponents of Bernard
about the middle of the twelfth century. There
are three of them extant: an Apologeticua against
Bernard, an EpUtoia contra Carthuaienses, and an
Ejiutola ad episcapum Mimatenaemf the bishop of
Mende. The first was written not long after the
Council of Sens, but not until the sentence of In-
nocent II against Abelard was known. Toward
the end of it Berengar points out that other teach-
ers, such as Jerome and Hilary of Poitiers, had
made mistakes without being deposed; but a large
part of the tractate is a personal attack on Ber-
nard, accusing him of having made frivolous songs
in his youth, taught the preexistence of the soul,
and made up his commentary on the Canticles of
a lot of heterogeneous material, partly borrowed
from Ambrose. Especially bitter are his acciisa^
tions of duplicity and unfairness in connection, with
the Council of Sens. The shorter but equally ma-
licious letter against the Carthusians, who had
taken a stand against Abelard, accuses them of
breaking their vow of silence to speak calunmy,
and, while abstaining from the flesh of beasts, de-
vouring their fellow men. The third letter is written
in a different tone. Berengar's boldness had appar-
ently stirred up so much hostility that he feared
for his safety, left home, and sought an asylum in
the Cdvennes, whence he wrote to beg the bishop's
protection, not exactly as a penitent, though he im-
plies that he has approached more nearly to Ber-
nard's standpoint. Whether he succeeded in set-
ting himself right can not be told, as nothing is
known of his later life. (F. NiTZBCHf.)
Biblxoorapht: Berengar's works are usually printed among
Abelard's, e-g.. in Cousin's ed., ii, 771 sqq., 2 vols., Pans,
1849-69; also in MPL, clxxviii. Ckmsult also Hiaioin
IttUraire de la France, xii, 264 sqq., Paris. 1763; Hefele.
ConeUUnoeaehiehte, v, 427-428; S. M. Deutseh. DU Synode
von Sena, 1141* unddie Veruiieiluno AbAlarda, pp. 87-40,
Berlin, 1880.
BERENGAR OP TOURS.
Early Life (f 1).
Controversy over the Eucharist (f 2).
Berengar Submits at Rome (§ 3).
Reasserts his Views in Franoe (§ 4).
Berengar's Signifieanoe (f 6).
Berengar of Tours was bom perhaps at Tours, prob-
ably in the early years of the eleventh century; d.
in the neighboring island of St. Cosme Jan. 6, 1088.
He laid the foundations of his education in the
school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who repre-
sented the traditional theology of the early Middle
Ages, but did not succeed in imposing it upon his
pupil. He was less attracted by pure theology
than by secular learning, and brought away a
knowledge of the Latin classics, dialectical clever-
ness, freedom of method, and a general culture sur-
prising for his age. Later he paid more attention
to the Bible and the Fathers, espe-
I. Early cially Gregory and Augustine; and it
Life. is significant that he came to formal
theology after such preparation. Re-
turning to Tours, he became a canon of the cathe-
dral and about 1040 head of its school, which he
soon raised to a high point of efficiency, bringing
students from far and near. The fame which he
acquired sprang as much from his blameless and
ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. So
great was his reputation that a number of monks
requested him to write a book that should kindle
their zeal; and his letter to Joscelin, later arch-
bishop of Bordeaux, who had asked him to decide
a dispute between Bishop Isembert of Poitiers and
his chapter, is evidence of the authority attributed
to his judgment. He became archdeacon of An-
Berengar
Bergier
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
58
gers, and enjoyed the confidence of not a few bishops
and of the powerful Count Geoffrey of Anjou.
Amid this chorus of laudation, however, a dis-
cordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted
that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucha-
rist. In fact, he was disposed to reject the teach-
ing of Paschasius Radbertus, which dominated his
contemporaries. The first to take formal notice
of this was his foimer fellow student Adelmann
(q.v.), then a teacher at Li^ge, who
2. Contro- wrote to question him, and, receiving
▼ersy over no answer, wrote again to beseech him
the £u- to abandon his opposition to the
charist Church's teaching. Probably in the
early part of 1050, Berengar ad-
dressed a letter to Lanfranc, then prior of Bee,
in which he expressed his regret that Lanfranc
adhered to the eucharistic teaching of Pas-
chasius and considered the treatise of Ratram-
nus (q.v.) on the subject (which Berengar sup-
posed to have been written by Scotus Erigena) to"
be heretical. He declared his own agreement with
the supposed Scotus, and believed himself to be
supported by Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and
other authorities. This letter foimd Lanfranc in
Rome, after it had been read by several other peo-
ple; and as Berengar was not well thought of there,
Lanfranc feared his association with him might be
prejudicial to his own interests, and laid the matter
before the pope. The latter exconmiunicated
Berengar at a synod after Easter, 1050, and sum-
moned him to appear personally at another to be
held at Vercelli in September. Though disputing
the legality of his condenmation, he proposed to go,
first passing through Paris to obtain permission
from King Henry I, as nominal abbot of St. Martin
at Tours. Instead of granting it, however, the
king threw him into prison, where Berengar occu-
pied himself with the study of the Gospel of John,
with a view to confirming his views. The synod
was held at Vercelli without him; two of his friends,
who attempted to defend him, were shouted down
and barely escaped personal violence; Ratramnus's
book was destroyed; and Berengar was again con-
demned. He obtained his release from prison,
probably by the influence of Geoffrey of Anjou;
but the king still pursued him, and called a synod
to meet in Paris Oct., 1051. Berengar, fearing
that its purpose was his destruction, avoided ap-
pearing, and the king's threats after its session had
no effect, since Berengar was sheltered by Geoffrey
and by Bishop Eusebius Bruno of Angers, and found
numerous partisans among less prominent people.
In 1054 Hildebrand came to France as papal
legate. At first he showed himself friendly to
Berengar, and talked of taking him back to Rome
to get Pope Leo's authority with which to silence
his foes. But when he found that the latter could
do more to disturb the peace of the
3. Beren- Church than Berengar's friends, he
gar Sub- drew back. Under these circimi-
mits at stances Berengar decided to concede
Rome. as much as he could, and the French
bishops showed that they wished a
speedy settlement of the controversy, when the
Synod of Tours declared itself satisfied by Beren-
gar's written declaration that the bread and wine
after consecration were the Body and Blood of
Christ. The same desire for peace and the death
of Pope Leo were reasons why Hildebrand did not
press for Berengar's going to Rome at once; later
he did so, confident of the power of his influence
there, and accordingly Berengar presented him-
self in Rome in 1059, fortified by a letter of com-
mendation from Coimt Geoffrey to Hildebrand.
At a council held in the Lateran, he could get no
hearing, and a formula representing what seined
to him the most carnal view of the sacrament was
offered for his acceptance. Overwhelmed by the
forces against him, he took this dociunent in his
hand and threw himself on the ground in the silence
of apparent submission.
Berengar returned to France full of remorse for
this desertion of his faith and of bitterness against
the pope and his opponents; his friends were grow-
ing fewer — Geoffrey was dead and his successor hos-
tile. Eusebius Bruno was gradually
4. Reas- withdrawing from him. Rome, how-
serts his ever, was disposed to give him a chance;
Views in Alexander II wrote him an encour-
France. aging letter, at the same time warning
him to give no further offense. He
was still firm in his convictions, and about 1069
published a treatise in which he gave vent to his
resentment against Nicholas II and his antagonists
in the Roman council. Lanfranc answered it,
and Berengar rejoined. Bishop Raynard Hugo
of Langres also wrote a treatise De corpore d
sanguine Christi against Berengar. But the feel-
ing against him in France was growing so hos-
tile that it almost came to open violence at the
Synod of Poitiers in 1076. Hildebrand as pope
tried yet to save him; he simmioned him once more
to Rome (1078), and undertook to silence his ene-
mies by getting him to assent to a vague formula,
something like the one which he had signed at
Tours. But his enemies were not satisfied, and
three months later at another synod they forced
on him a formula which could mean nothing but
transubstantiation except by utterly indefensible
sophistry. He was indiscreet enough to claim the
sympathy of Gregory VII, who commanded him
to acknowledge his errors and to pursue them no
fmrther. Berengar's courage failed him; he con-
fessed that he had erred, and was sent home with
a protecting letter from the pope, but with rage in
his heart. Once back in France, he recovered his
boldness and published his own account of the pro-
ceedings in Rome, retracting his recantation. The
consequence was another trial before a synod at
Bordeaux (1080), and another forced submission.
After this he kept silence, retiring to the island of
Saint-Cosme near Tours to live in ascetic solitude.
Apparently his convictions were unchanged at his
death, and he trusted in the mercy of God under
what he considered the imjust persecutions to which
he had been subjected.
Berengar's real significance for the development
of medieval theology lies in the fact that he as-
serted the rights of dialectic in theology more defi-
nitely than most of his contemporaries. There
are propositions in his writings which can be under-
59
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berenffar
Berffier
stood in a purely rationalistic sense. But it would
be going quite too far to see in rationalism Beren-
gar's main standpoint, to attribute to
5. Beren- him the deliberate design of subvert-
gar's Sig- ing all religiouB authority — Scripture,
niftranrr. the Fathers, popes, and councils. This
would be to ascribe to a man of the
eleventh century views of which his age knew noth-
ing, which it even had no terms to express. The
contrast which he sets forth is not between reason
and revelation, but between rational and irrational
ways of understanding revelation. He did not
recognize the right of the prevailing theology to
daim bia assent, because it made irrational asser-
tions; the authorities to which he refused to sub-
mit were, in his judgment, only human authorities.
He spoke bitterly and unjustly of popes and coun-
cils, unable to forgive them for making him untrue
to himself; but this meant no rejection of the
Catholic conception of the Church. His opposi-
tion was limited to the euoharistic doctrine of his
time, and he controverted the theory of Paschasius
not least because he believed it was contrary to
Scripture and the Fathers, and destructive of the
veiy nature of a sacrament. (A. Hauck.)
Bxbuooaapbt: An edition of Berengar'a worka wm begun
by A. F. and F. T. Visoher. vol. i only was publiflhed
eontaining hi* D0 §aara etBma^ Berlin, 1834; cf. Mansi,
CoOeeba, mx, 761 aqq.; the works are also in Bouquet,
R^emtU, Tor, 2M-300. A eoUeetion of letters relating to
him (one of his own) was published by E. Bishop in Hi§-
tariatAm JaMnuh d$r G&rrea-OMeUaehaft, i, 272-280.
Monster, 1880. For his life consult H. E. Lehmann.
BsrtwgufM Tyronsiwts vUm ex fonHJbuM kauttm^ part i, Ros-
tock, 1S70 (no more published); J. Schmitaer. Berengar
«o» Taun, ttin Laben und mine Lehre, Munich, 1890.
GoQsult the works of Bemold of San Bias, in Labbe, Con-
eilia, iz, 1060, in Bouquet, Reeueil, ziv, 34-37, and in
MPh, ezlviii; B. Haurteu, HieUnre de la phUoeopkis
eootaeHqm, i, 225 sqq., Paris, 1872; Hefele, ConeUienge-
•dkuAte. vols. iT, t; KL, ii. 301-404; Neander, Ckriatian
Chunk, iii, 60^-621, iv. 84. 86, 02, 335, 337, 355.
BEREHGOZ : Abbot of St. Maximin's at Treves
in the twelfth century; d. about 1125. In the
records of the abbey he is first mentioned as abbot
in 1107, and for the last time in 1125. The register
of deaths contains his name against the date of
Sept. 24, without naming the year; but as his suc-
cessor, Gerhard, was installed in 1127, he must
have died either in 1125 or 1126. He rendered
considerable services to the monastery by procur-
ing from Henry V the restitution of a number of
alienated fiefs, and, besides five sermons for saints'
days, wrote two larger works: three books De laude
d inventione aanctiB erueU, and a series of discourses
De mysterio ligni domvnid et de luce visibili et in-
vigibili per qiuim antiqui patree dim meruerunt iUus-
trari. In the former he treats of the legend of the
discovery of the cross of Christ by Helena, the
mother of Constantine the Great, adducing a large
number of Old Testament types of the cross. The
latter deals with Christ under the aspect of the
fight of the world, shining from the beginning of
its history. Whether the commentary on the
Apocalypse which the Benedictines of St. Blaur
printed as an appendix to the second voliune of
their edition of St. Ambrose, ascribing it to a cer-
tain Berengaudus, is his or not must remain un-
certain. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuqobapbt: Berengos's works were edited by Christo-
phorus, Cologne, 1555, and appear in M. de la Bigne,
Magna hibUolheea, toI. vii, ib. 1618, also in MPL, olx.
Consult J. liiarx, GeeckickU dee EneHfte Trier, ii, 05. Trier.
1860; H. V. Sauerland. 7Vt«r«r Geeehiekte^iueUen, Trier,
1880; Hauck. KD, iii, 071-072.
BSRGSN FORMULA (Daa hergische Buck).
See Formula of Concord.
BERGER, DANIEL : One of the United Brethren
in Christ; b. near Reading, Pa., Feb. 14, 1832. He
studied privately at Springfield, O., taught school
1852-58, and served as pastor 1858-64. From
1864 till 1897 he was editor in the publishing house
of the United Brethren in Christ at Dayton, O.,
having charge of the denominational Sunday-
school literature 1869-93, and was a member of
the International Sunday-School Lesson Committee
from 1884 to 1896. In theology he is an Arminian.
He wrote the History of the Church of the United
Brethren in Christ for the American Church History
Series (New York, 1894), and a larger work with
the same title (Dayton, 1897), which is the official
history of the denomination.
BERGER, bftr^'zhd', SAMUEL: French Lutheran;
b. at Beaucourt (10 m. s.s.e. of Belfort), France,
May 2, 1843; d. in Paris July 13, 1900. He studied
at Strasburg and TObingen; in 1867 became assistant
preacher in the Lutheran Church in Paris; in 1877,
librarian to the Paris faculty of Protestant theology.
He was the author of F. C. Baur^ les origines de
Vicole de Tubingue et ses principes (Paris, 1867);
La Bible au seizihne sikcUf itude sur les origines
de la critique (1879); De glossariis et compendiis
Inblicis quibusdam medii avi (1879); Du rdle de la
dogmatique dans la predication (1881); La Bible fran-
foise au moyen Age (1884); De Vhistoire de la Vul-
gate en France (1887); Le Palimpsests de Fleury
(1889); Quam notitiam lingtue Hebraicas habuerint
Christiani medii aevi temporibus in Gallia (1893);
VHistoire de la Vulgate pendant les premiers siides
du moyen Age (1893); Notice sur quelques textes
latins inidits de VAneien Testament (1893); Un
Ancien Texte latin des Ades des Apotres (1895); Une
Bible copi^ d Porrentruy (jStudes de Thiologie et
d'Histaire, 1901, 213-219); and Les Prefaces joinUs
aux livres de la Bible dans les manuscrits de la
Vulgate f m^moire posthume (1902).
BERGIER, b&r^'zhyd', NICOLAS SYLVESTRE:
French Roman Catholic; b. at Damay (18 m. s.e.
of Mirecourt), Lorraine, Dec. 31, 1718; d. at Paris
Apr. 19, 1790. He gained repute while a teacher
at the college at Besan9on by essays in philology
and mythology; abandoned this line of study to
devote himself to Christian apologetics, and polem-
ics against the Encyclopec^ts. In 1765-68 he
published at Paris Le DHsme rifvU par lui-mhne
(2 vols.) and in 1768 the Certitude des preuves du
ckristianisms (2 vols.), which achieved a great suc-
cess and called forth replies from Voltaire and
Anacharsis Cloots. In 1769 followed Apologie de la
religion chritienne (2 vols.) against Holbach, in 1771
Examen du matirialisme (2 vols.), and in 1780 TraiU
historique et dogmatique de la vraie religion avec la
riftUation des erreurs qui lui ont Hi opposies dans les
diffirtns siteles (12 vols.). He also wrote a Dictton-
BargluB
Bernard of Batone
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
60
noire tfUologique (3 vols., 1789), which foimed part
of the Encydopidit, but has several times been sepa-
rately edited (latest by Le Noir, 12 vols., 1876).
As a reward for his services he was made canon of
Notre Dame in Paris and confessor to the aunts of
the king, with a pension of 2,000 livres.
Biblxoorapht: Biograjihie nouvelU df eontemporaint, ii,
378. Paris, 1821; Biograpkie giniraU, v. 14.
BERGIUS, JOHAmiES: Reformed theologian;
b. at Stettin Feb. 24, 1587; d. at Berlin Dec. 19,
1058. He studied at Heidelberg and Strasburg;
in 1615 became professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
where the theological faculty represented the Re-
formed faith; 1623 court preacher at Berlin. He
was present at the Colloquy of Leipsic (1631) and
the Thorn Conference (1645), but declined to at-
tend the Synod of Dort (1618), as he wished for
union rather than the establishment of Calvinism.
He was emphatically a mediator, and showed him-
self temperate and dignified in controversy. He
published many sermons.
Biblioorapht: D. H. Hering. BeUrOil* ntr GeadiidUB der
€vano€U»eK-reformirten Kirche in den preuMaiachrbranden'
hurgUehen lAtndem, i, 16 sqq., ii, 82. Breslau. 1784-85;
H. Landwehr, Die Kird»enpolitik Friedrich WilhelmB dee
Orouen KurfHrtten, pp. 150 sqq., Berlin, 1804.
BERKELEY, GEORGE: Bishop of Cloyne (in
County Cork, about 15 m. e.s.e. of the city of Cork);
b. probably at Dysert Castle, near Thomastown
(90 m. s.w. of Dublin), County Kilkenny, Ireland,
Mar. 12, 1685; d. at Oxford Jan. 14, 1753. He
studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1704;
M.A. and fellow, 1707; B.D. and D.D., 1721), and
filled various college offices from tutor (1707) to ju-
nior dean (1710) and junior Greek lecturer (1712).
He lived there in an atmosphere " charged with the
elements of reaction against traditional scholasti-
cism in physics and metaphysics." His Common-
Place Book (first printed in the Oxford ed. of his
works, 1871, iv, 419-502) shows how the stimulus
worked upon a mind naturally inclined to inde-
pendent investigation. Very early he adopted the
idea that no existence is conceivable,
Berkeley's and therefore none is possible, which
Philosophy, is not either conscious spirit or the
ideas (i.e., objects) of which such
spirit is conscious. Locke had affirmed secondary
and primary qualities of the material world; the
secondary qualities, such as color and taste, do
not exist apart from sensations; primary qualities
exist irrespective of our knowledge. Berkeley de-
nied this distinction, and held that external ob-
jects exist only as they are perceived by a subject.
Thus the mind produces ideas, and these ideas are
things. There are, however, two classes of ideas:
the less regular and coherent, arising in the imagi-
nation; the more vivid and permanent, learned
by experience, " imprinted on the senses by the
Author of nature '^ which are the real things — a
proof for the existence of God. According to
Berkeley matter is not an objective reality but a
composition of sensible qualities existing in the
mind. '* No object exists apart from the mind;
mind is therefore the deepest reality; it is the
priiLs, both in thought and existence, if for a mo-
ment we assume the popular distinction between
the two." Berkeley appeared as an author with
this theory already developed, and from it he never
wavered. In 1709 he published an Essay toward
a New Theory of Vision, an examination of visual
consciousness to prove that it affords no ground
for belief in the reality of the objects apparently
seen. In 1710 appeared a Treatise concerning the
Principles of Human Knowledge, in which his
theory received complete exposition.
Meanwhile Berkeley had taken orders, and, in
1713, he left Dublin, went to London, formed many
desirable acquaintances, and gained an enviable
reputation for learning, humility, and piety. The
same year he published Three Dialogues Between
Hylas and PhUonous (ed. in Religion of Science
lAbrary, No. 29, Chicago, 1901 ), " the finest specimen
in our language of the conduct of argument by dia-
logue." He visited the Continent in 1713-14 and
again in 1716-20. In 1721 he returned to Ireland,
again filled college offices at Dublin (divinity lec-
turer and senior lecturer, 1721; Hebrew lecturer,
1722; proctor, 1722), and was appointed dean of
Dromore (1722) and dean of Deny, " the best pre-
ferment in Ireland " (1724).
Berkeley now became devoted to a plan of es-
tablishing a college in the Bermuda Islands, went
to London to further the project in 1724, and in
1725 published A Proposal for the Better Supply-
ing of Churches in our Foreign Plantations, arid for
converting the savage Americans to Christianily by
a college to he erected in the Summer Islands, other-
wise called the Isles of Bermuda. By his enthuaiaam
and persuasive powers he won many
Berkeley's expressions of sympathy, and came to
American believe that the government would
Scheme, support the plan. In Sept., 1728, he
sailed for America and landed at New-
port, R. I., Jan., 1729. Three years of waiting con-
vinced him that his hopes were futile, and in Feb.,
1732, he returned to London. He published im-
mediately Alciphron or the Minute Philosopher, the
result of his studies in America and probably the
most famous of his works. It is a powerful refuta-
tion of the freethinking then popular and fashion-
able. In 1734 he was made bishop of Cloyne, and
there he lived, happy in his family and beloved for
his goodness and benevolence, till 1752, when he
went to Oxford to end his days with his son, a senior
student at Christ Church. He kept up his studies
after his appointment as bishop and published a
number of books, including the curious Philosoph-
ical Reflections, and Inquiries concerning the Virtuee
of Tar^water (1744; three eds. the same year, the
second called Siris, a Chain of Philosophical Re-
flections, etc,), in which he set forth a revision of
his philosophy, and expressed his faith in tar-water
as a universsd medicine, good for man and beast;
it was the most popular of his works.
On first coming to America Berkeley bought a
farm near Newport and bmlt there a house, still
standing, which he called " Whitehall " after the
English palace. The shore is about a mile from
the house, and a cleft in the rocks is still pointed out
as a retreat whither he was wont to go and where
he wrote much of Alciphron, This book is indeed
a permanent record of his life at Newport, and not
61
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bersrius'
Bernard of Botone
s little of its charm is due to this fact. He helped
found a phflosophical society at Newport and
preached there in Trinity Church, a fine old wooden
structure, which is stUl standing. He made at
least one convert, the Rev. Samuel Johnson (q.v.)y
episcopal missionary at Stratford, Conn., and i^ter-
ward first president of Columbia College, New
York. Attempts to show that he directly influ-
enced the early idealistic thought of Jonathan
Edwards have not proved successful. His Ameri-
esn plans and dreams inspired the poem, written
St uncertain date, which ends with the stanza:
WMtivard Um ooone of empire takes its way;
The four first acta already i>a8t,
A fifth shall eloee the drama with the day;
Time's noblest olbinniig is the last.
BnuooaAPHT: The standard edition of Berkeley's com-
plete works is by A. C. Fraaer. 4 vols.. Oxford. 1871. re-
iBoed 1901, of which vol. iv includes his Life and LetUrg
and An Account of hi» PhUo9ophy. Prof. Fraser has also
edited a volume of SeUcHona from Berkeley, 5th ed.,
Londoo, 1809, and contributed Berkeley to the Philo-
eopkieai Claaoiea series, Edinburgh, 1881. There is an
edition of The Worke of Qtorge Berkeley^ by Q. Sampson,
vith biographical introduction by A. J. Balfour, in Bohn's
FkOoeojikieal Library, 3 vols., London, 1897-98. An
American edition of the Principles, by C. P. Krauth,
Philadelphia, 1874, presents a valuable epitome of opin-
uns con<wming Berkeley. The sources for a biography
are a Life by Bishop Stock first published 1776, reprinted
in the Biographia BrUannica, vol. ii, 1780, and prefixed
to the first edition of Berkeley's CoUeeted Worke, 1784,
the details being obtained from Bishop Berkeley's brother.
Dr. Robert Berkeley; S. A. Allibone gives interesting de-
tails of Berkeley's residence at Newport in Critical Dic-
tionary of Englieh Liieraiure, i. 174-177, Philadelphia,
1891; DNB, iv. 348-356 adds a list of the works chrono-
logically arransed. Consult further D. Stewart, PhUo-
eopkieal Beoayo, Edinburgh, 1810; vol. v of his Colleded
Worka, 11 vols., ib. 1854-60 (on the idealism of Berke-
ley); S. Bailey, A Review of Berkeley' e Theory of Vieion,
London, 1842 (adverse in its pronouncement); J. 8. Mill,
Dieeeriatione and Diacueeione, ii, 162-197 and cf. vol. iv,
Boston, 1866; F. Frederichs. Der phenomenale Idealimnue
Berkeley'B und Kant* 9, Berlin. 1871; W. Graham, Ideal-
iam^ an Eooay. London, 1872 (connects Berkeley and
Hegel); G. Spickei^ Kant, Hume und Berkeley, Berlin,
1875; A. Penjon, Etude eur la vie et eur lee auvree pAi-
heojitiquee do Oearge Berkeley, Paris, 1878; J. Janitsch,
Kanfe Urtheile Hber Berkeley, Stra^burg. 1879; T. Loewy,
Drr Idealiemua Berkeley'*, in den Grandlagen unterevt^t,
Vienna. 1891; T. H. Huxley. ColUeted Euaye, vi, 241-
310. New York. 1894; M. C. Tyler. George Berkeley and
kit Ameritan Vioit, in Three Afen of Letter; ib. 1895.
BERLEBURG BIBLE. See Bibles, Annotated,
I, {3.
BER5, DISPUTATION OF: The decisive point
in the contest which definitely establiBhed the
Reformation at Bern. At first the movement
made slow progress there, as both the character of
the people and their manner of life rendered them
little susceptible to new ideas; even after a refonn-
ing party arose, for several years things continued
iti an undecided and vacillating condition. The
somewhat violent and domineering manner in
which the Roman Catholic authorities attempted
to use their victory at the Conference of Baden
(1526; Bee Badkn, Conference of) brought on
a crisis which, after the fashion of the time, it was
i^tempted to meet by means of a disputation.
Some of the Reformers invited to participate
dediiied, having in mind the result at Baden, and
the Roman Catholic dignitaries and celebrities
generally refused to attend. But a great number
of delegates and clergy appeared from Switzerland
and the South German states, including Zwingli,
(Ecolampadius, Butzer, Capito, Ambrose Blauxer,
and others. .The opening session was held on
Jan. 6, 1528, and the discussions lasted from the
following day till Jan. 26. They were based on
ten theses carefully prepared by Berthold Haller
and Franz Kolb and revised by Zwingli. The out-
come was that the ten theses were subscribed to
by most of the clergy of Bern, the mass was done
away with, the images were quietly removed from
the churches, and on Feb. 7 the Reformation edict
W8S issued, which gave the theses force of law,
annulled the power of the bishops, and made the
necessary regulations concerning the clergy, public
worship, church property, etc. The majority of
the country congregations soon gave in their ad-
herence. The influence of the disputation was felt
even in France, the Netherlands, and England.
Bzbuoorafht: The nets of the disputation were published
at Zurich, 1528, and scain in 1008 and 1701; the Ten
Theses are given in English in Bchaff, Creode, i, 3M-366,
and Chriatian Church, vii, 104-106, in German and Latin,
Creeda, iii, 208-210. Consult 8. Fischer, Ooackiehta dor
Disputation und Reformation in Bern, Bern, 1828; B. M.
Jackson, Huldreieh Zwingli, pp. 280-283. New York, 1903.
BERN, SYNOD OF: The name given to the
firstReformed synod at Bern (1532). The Reforma-
tion was established at Bern by the Disputation
and the edict of Feb. 7, 1528 (see Bern, Dispu-
tation of), but much remained to be done in the
way of consolidation and to finish the building
of the new Church. This task was entrusted to a
general synod, to which all the clergy of the land,
220 in niunber, were invited. It met on Jan. 9-14;
Capito from Strasburg was the principal figure,
and he collected the resulta of the discussion with
much care and labor. They form a church direc-
tory and pastor's manual which i» noteworthy,
even among the monuments of the Reformation
time, for its apostolic force and unction, its wannth
and sincerity, its homely simplicity and practical
wisdom.
Bibuographt: The acts of the synod were officially printed
at Basel. 1632. acain in 1728 and 1778. Both the oris-
inal and a modernised text were issued by Lauener, Basel.
1830. Consult M. Kirchhofer. Berthold Hatter, pp. 160
sqq., Zurich, 1828; Billeter, in the Bemer Beitriioe, ed.
F. Nippold, Bern, 1884 (especial y useful); E. Bloesch.
GeachicKte der adiweizeriack^ormierten Kirchen, i. 74-81.
Bern. 1808.
BERNARD OF BOTONE: Canonist of the
thirteenth centuiy; b. in Parma c. 1200; d. at
Bologna May, 1263. He studied law at Bologna,
where he became professor and canon; then spent
some time in Rome in an important official position
at the papal court, but toward the end of his life
returned to Bologna to lecture, especially on the
decretals. He is best known as the author or com-
piler of the Glaasa ordinaria (see Globses and
Glossators of Canon Law) on the decretals of
Gregory IX., but wrote also Casus longi and a Simv-
ma super titulis decretalium (cf. J. F. von 8chulte,
Die Geschichie der QueUen des kanonischen RechUf
ii, Stuttgart, 1877, pp. 114 sqq.
(£. Fbiedbsro.)
Bernard of Clairvans:
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
62
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX.
Life and Far-reaching Ae-
tivity.
Bernard's Importanoe
(§1).
Early Career. Abbot of
Clairvaux (f 2).
Activity for Innocent II
and asainst Anacletus
II (§ 3).
The Second Cnuade
(§4).
II. E^cclesiafltical and Theo-
logical Significance.
AsoetidBm (f 1).
Study of the Bible (f 2).
Grace and Works (f 3).
Bernard's My8ticism(S4).
Doctrine of the Church
(§6).
Monasticism (§ 6).
III. Writings.
IV. Hymns.
L Life and Far-reaching Activity: St. Bernard of
Clairvaux (Bemardua ClarcBvaUis) is one of the moat
prominent personalities of the twelfth century,
of the entire Middle Ages, and of church history
in general. He gave a new impulse to monastic
life, influenced ecclesiastical affairs outside of
monasticism in the most effective manner, and
contributed not a little toward awakening an
inner piety in large circles. As he
1. Bernard's knew how to inspire the majsses by his
Importance, powerful preaching, so also he under-
stood how to lead individual souls
by his quiet conversation, to ease the mind, and
to dominate the will. It waa said in his time that
the Church had had no preacher like him since
Gregory the Great; and that this was no exag-
geration is proved by Bernard's orations, which
in copiousness of thought and beauty of exposition
have few equals. Revered by his contemporaries
as saint and prophet, his writings, which belong
to the noblest productions of ecclesiastical litera-
ture, have secured him also a far-reaching influence
upon posterity. Praised by Luther aiid Calvin,
Bernard's name has retained a good repute among
Protestants, though he represented many things
which the Reformation had to oppose.
Bernard was bom at Fontaines (20 m. n.e. of
Dijon), France, 1090; d. at Clurvaux (in the
valley of the Aube, 120 m. s.e. of Paris) Aug. 20,
1153. He was the third son of the knight Tecelin
and Aleth, a very pious lady, whose influence
decided his future. While yet a boy he lost his
mother, and, not being qualified for military serv-
ice, he was destined for a learned career. He was
educated at Chatillon and for a time seemed
to be influenced by the world (cf. Af PL, clxxviii,
1857; Vita, I, iii, 6). But this period can not
have been of long duration; the memory of his
mother and the impressions of a solitary journey
called him back, and he resolved quickly and firmly
to break entirely with the world. He induced some of
his brothers, relatives, and friends to follow him, and,
after spending half a year together at Chatillon,
they entered the " new monastery " at Ctteaux
(see Cistercians) . In 1 1 1 5 a daughter
2. Early Ca- monastery was founded at Clairvaux
reer. Abbot and Bernard became abbot. He gave
of Clairvaux. all his energies to the foundation of
the monastery, and spent himself in
ascetic practises, which the famous William of
Champeaux, then bishop of Chalons, checked from
time to time (Ftto, I, vii, 31-32). Bernard soon
became the spiritual adviser not only of his monks
but of many who sought his advice and always left
Clairvaux impressed by the spirit of solemnity and
peace which seemed to be spread over the place
(Vita, I, vii, 33-34). His sermons also began to
exercise a powerful influence, which was increased
by his reputation as prophet and worker of mira-
cles (Vita, I, X, 46). According to the constitution
which the new order adopted, Clairvaux became
the mother monastery of one of the five principal
divisions into which the Cistercian community was
organized, and Bernard soon became the most in-
fluential and famous personality of the entire order.
As early as the pontificate of Honorius II (1124-30)
he was one of the most prominent men of the
Church in France; he enjoyed the favor of the
papal chancellor Haimeric (Epist,, xv), commu-
nicated with papal legates (Epiat,, xvi-xix, xxi),
and was coxisulted on important ecclesiastical
matters. At the Synod of Troyes (1128), to which
he was called by Cardinal Afatthew of Albano, he
spoke in favor of the Templars, secured their recog-
nition, and is said to have outlined the first rule
of the order (M. Bouquet, Historiens des Gauks
et de la France, xiv, Paris, 1806, 232). In the
controversy which originated in the same year with
King Louis VI, who was not antagonistic to the
Church but jealously guarded his own rights, Ber-
nard and his friars defended the bishop before the
king (Epist., xlv), afterward also before the pope
(Epiat., xlvi, cf . xlvii), though at first unsuccessfully.
With the schism of 1130 Bernard enters into the
first rank of the influential men of his time by
espousing from the very beginning the cause of
Innocent II against Anacletus II. This parti-
aanship of Bernard and others was no doubt in-
duced by the fear that Anacletus would allow him-
self to be influenced by family interests. On this
account they overlooked the illegal procedure in
the election of Innocent, regarding it as a mere
violation of formalities, defending it with reasons
of doubtful value, and emphasizing the personal
worth of that pope. At the conference which the
king held at Ktampes with spiritual and secular
grandees concerning the affair, Ber-
3. Activity nard seems to have taken the part of
for Innocent reporter. He also worked for the
n and pope by personal negotiations and
against Ana- by writing (Epist., cxxiv, cxxv).
clettis IL When Innocent was unable to main-
tain his ground at Rome and went
to France, Bernard was usually at his side. Later,
probably in the beginning of 1132, he was in Aqui-
taine, endeavoring to counteract the influence of
Gerhard of Angoul^e upon CV>unt William of
Poitou, who sided with Anacletus (Vita, II, vi, 36).
His success here was only temporary {Epist., cxxvii,
cxxviii), and not until 1135 did Bernard succeed,
by resorting to stratagem, in changing the mind of
the count (Vita, II, vi, 37-38). When in 1133
Lothair undertook his first campaign against Rome,
Bernard accompanied the pope from his temporary
residence in Pisa to Rome, and prevented the re-
opening of the proceedings concerning the rights
of the opposing popes (Epist., cxxvi, 8 sqq.). He
had previously visited (}enoa, animated the people
by his addresses, and inclined them to an agreement
with the Pisans, as the pope needed the support of
both cities (cf. Epist., cxxix, cxxx). It was also
63
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernard of Olairvaux
Bernard who in the spring of 1135 induced Fred-
erick of Staufen to submit to the emperor {Viia,
IV, iii, 14; Otto of Freising, Chran., vii, 19). He
then went to Italy, where in the beginning of June
the Council of Pisa was held; according to the Vita
(11, ii, 8), everybody surrounded him here, so that
it looked as if he were not in parte sollicUndinis,
but in plenitudine patestatis. Nevertheless, reso-
lutions were passed at that time regarding appeals
to the papal see, which could hardly have been
to the liking of Bernard. After the council he
succeeded in inducing Milan and other cities of
Upper Italy to submit to the pope and emperor
(Epigt., cxxix-cxxxiii, cxxxvii, cxl). In Milan they
attempted to elevate him almost with force to the
see of St. Ambrose (Vila, II, ii-v). During the
last campaign of Lothair against Rome, Bernard
went to Italy for the third time, in 1137; he worked
there successfuUy against Anacletus, and after the
Pentecost of 1138 he finally brought about the
submission of his successor to Innocent and thus
ended the schism (Epist,, cccxvii). After this he
left Rome. How great Bernard's influence in
Rome was at this time may be seen from his suc-
cessful opposition to Abelard (q.v.).
The ecclesiastico-political affairs of France soon
made a new claim upon Bernard's attention. The
young king, Louis VII, by making reckless use of
his royal prerogatives, caused friction, as when he
refused to invest Peter of Lach&tre, whom the
chapter of Bourges had elected archbishop. The
pope consecrated him, nevertheless, and thus pro-
voked a conflict which was enhanced by the parti-
sanship of Count Theobald of Champagne. After
a while Bernard was asked to mediate; he faithfully
performed this difficult task and enjoyed the con-
fidence of the king to the end of his life (cf . EpisL,
occiv), whereas his relations to the pope appear
to have been troubled toward the end (Epist.t
ccxviii; cczxxi, 3).
A very unexpected event was the election of
Bernard, abbot of Aquse Silvi^e near Rome, for-
meriy a monk in Clairvaux, as Pope Eugenius III
(1145-53). Bernard writes a little later {EpisL,
ccxxxix) that all who had a cause now came to
him; they said that he, not Eugenius, was pope.
And it is true that he exercised a remarkable influ-
ence in Rome especially at first, but Eugenius did
not always follow his counsels and views; he had
to consider the cardinals who were envious of
Bernard. About this time Bernard, at the request
of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, undertook a journey
to Languedoc, where heresy had advanced greatly
and Henry of Laiisanne (q.v.) had a large following.
Bernard's presence there, especially at Toulouse,
was not without effect, but to win permanent
success continual preaching was required. A
more important commission was given to him in
the following year by the pope himself, to preach
the crusade. At Vezelay, where the
4- The Sec- king and queen of France took the
ond Cm- cross. Mar. 21, 1146, Bernard's address
gade. was most effective. He then trav-
ersed the north of France and Flanders,
and the officious doings of the monk Radulf induced
him to gp into the regions of the Rhine; he suc-
ceeded in checking the persecutions of the Jews at
Mainz, which Radulf had occasioned. His journey
along the Rhine was accompanied by numerous
cures, of which the Vita (vi) contains notices in the
form of a diary. But he regarded it as the wonder
of wonders that he succeeded on Christmas day, 1146,
in influencing King Conrad in favor of the crusade,
in the face of all political considerations. During
the crusade Eugenius sought a refuge in France.
Bernard accompanied him, and was present at
the great council in Reims, 1148; in the debates
against Gilbert of Poitiers (see Gilbert de la.
Porr£e) following the council, Bernard appeared
as his main opponent; but the jealousy of the car-
dinals brought it about that Gilbert escaped unhurt
(Viia, III, V, 15; Otto of Freising, De gestie Frid.,
i, 55-57; Hist. porU., viii, MGH, Scrip,, xx, 522 sqq.).
About this time the first unfavorable news of the
crusade became known, and tidings of its complete
failure followed. No one felt the blow more keenly
than Bernard, who with prophetical authority to
speak had predicted a favorable issue {De consid,,
ii, 1). In the last years of his life he had to ex-
perience many things which caused him sadness.
Men with whom he had had a lifelong connection
died; his relations with Eugenius III were some-
times troubled (Epist., cccvi); the frailty and the
pains of his body increased. But his mental vitality
remained active; his last work, De consideraHone,
betrays freshness and unimpaired force of mind.
II. Ecclesiastical and Theological Significance:
Bernard's entire life was dominated by the resolu-
tion he made while a youth. To work out the
salvation of his soul, and — which meant the
same thing to him — ^to dedicate him-
I. Asceti- self to the service of God, was thence-
cism. forth the simi of his life. To serve
God demanded above all a struggle
against nature, and in this struggle Bernard was
in earnest. Sensual temptations he seems to have
overcome early and completely (Vita, I, iii, 6)
and an almost virginal purity distinguished him.
To suppress sensuality in the wider sense of the
word, he underwent the hardest castigations, but
their excess, which undermined his health, he after-
ward checked in others (cf. Vita, I, xii, 60). He
always remained devoted to a very strict asceticism
(^pis^, cccxlv; Cant., xxx, 10-12; Vita, I, xii, 60),
but castigation was to him only a means of godliness
not godliness itself, which demands of man still
other things. The new life comes only from the
grace of God, but it requires the most serious work
of one's own nature. How much importance
Bernard attached to this work, whose preliminary
condition is a quiet collection of the mind, may be
learned from the admonitions which he gives on
that point to Eugenius. That he prefers the con-
templative life to the active is nothing peculiar
in him; and he doubtless had the desire to devote
himself entirely to it. He may have believed that
only duty and love impelled hha to act. And yet,
as he was eminently fitted for action, such work
was probably also in harmony with his inclina-
tions. From his own experience he received the
strength to work, the thorough education of the
personality, by which he exereised an almost fafri
Bernard of Olairvaox
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
64
cinating power over others; on the other hand, his
practical activity excited in him a stronger desire
for contemplation and made it the more fniitf^
for him (De diversiSf sermo iii, 3-5).
Of Bernard's quiet hours, in spite of the many
pressing claims on him, one part was devoted
to study, and his favorite study was the Holy Scrip-
ture. His knowledge of the Bible
2. Study of was remarkable; not only does he
the Bible, often quote Bible-passages, but all
his orations are impregnated with
Biblical references, allusions, and phrases, to pay
regard to which is often essential for the correct
understanding. It is true that bis exegesis did
not go beyond the average of his time, yet he allows
the great fundamental thoughts and vital forms
of the Holy Scripture to influence him the more.
As he was nourished by them he also knew in a
masterly manner how to bring them near to others.
All qusJities of the great preacher were imited in
him; besides being vitally seised by the grace of
God, he had a hearty desire to serve his hearers,
an impressive knowledge of the human heart, and
a wesdth of thoughts and fascinating exposition,
which was indeed not free from mannerism. What
is missing in his sermons is reference to the variety
of the relations of life, and this is intelligible,
because he had monks as his hearers.
Religious geniality is the most distinguishing
quality in the whole disposition of Bernard; his
other rich gifts serve it, to it is due the impres-
sion which he made upon his time, and the im-
portance which he obtained in the history of the
JChiutsh. At the same time, Bernard is also a child
of his time; above all, of the Church of his time, in
which his religious life could develop without con-
flict. In this respect Bernard is related not to
Luther, but to Augustine, and between Augustine
and him stand Leo I, Nicholas I, and Gregory VII.
Thus elements are found in Bernard which point to
future developments combined with those which
belong only to the ecclesiastical consciousness of
the time. Bernard is most deeply permeated by
the feeling of owing everything to the grace of
God, that on the working of God rests the beginning
and end of the state of salvation, and that we are
to trust only in his grace, not in our
3. Grace and works and merits. From the for-
Works, giveness of sin proceeds the Christian
life (De diveraia, sermo iii, 1). Faith
is the means by which we lay hold of the grace of
God (/n vigil, naiiv, domini, v, 5; In Cant., sermo
xxii, 8; cf. also In Cant., Ixvii, 10; In vigil, not.
dam., sermo ii, 4). Man can never be sure of salva-
tion by resting his hope upon his own righteousness,
for all our works always remain imperfect. On
the other hand, Bernard does not deny that man
can and should have merits, but they are only
possible through the preceding and continually
working grace of God; they are gifts of God, which
again have rewards in the world to come as their
fruit, but without becoming a cause of self-glory.
Before God there is no legal claim, but an acqui-
sition for eternity through the work of the pious,
made possible and directed by God's grace.
A characteristic contrast to these thoughts.
which lead man again and again to himiility, is
the excessive glorification which Bernard devotes to
the saints, above all to the Virgin Mary. Though
he opposes {Epist., dxxiv) the new doctrine of ho'
immaculate conception, he nevertheless uses expres-
sions concerning the mother of Jesus which go veiy
far (e.g.. In nativ. Beat. Virg. Maria, v, 7; In
assumpt. Beat. Virg. Maria, i, 4; In adv. dom., u,
5). The same concerns also other saints (e.g., In
vigil. Petri et Pauli, { { 2, 4, and at the end of the
second oration In transitu B. Malachia). But
the importance of such expression which a Protes-
tant consciousness will never be able to adopt is
restricted by this, that they are only used on special
occasions, such as a feast of the saints. Otherwise
the saints stand in the background, Christ slone
stands in the foreground.
Bernard has silways been regarded as a main
representative of Christian mysticism, and his wri-
tings have been much used by later mystics and were
the main source for the Imttatio ChrisH. But just
here becomes evident how different the phenomena
are which are comprised under the name of mysti-
cism. With the Neoplatonic-DionjTsian mysti-
cism that of Bernard has some points of contact,
but it differs from it as to its religious character.
It is known how depreciatingly Luther speaks of
the Areopagite, but this animadversion does not
concern Bernard's mysticism. It is not man who
soars to divine height, but the grace of God in Christ,
which first pardons the sin and then lifts up to itself
the pardoned sinner. On this account
4* Bernard's the whole mysticism of Bernard
Mysticism, centers about Christ, the humbled
and exalted one; it likes to dweD
upon his earthly appearance, his suffering and death,
for it is the " work of redemption " which more
than anything else is fit to excite love in the
redeemed (In Cant., xz, 2; De grad. hum. in its
first chapters). At the same time Bernard per-
ceives thiat a sensual devotion, as it were, to the
suffering of Christ is not the goal with which one
must be satisfied; the thing necessary is rather to
be filled with the spirit of Christ and throu^ it
to become like Christ. By Christ's work of redemp-
tion the Church haa become his bride. To it, i.e.,
to the totality of the redeemed, belongs this name
first and in a proper sense, to the individual soul
only in so far as it is a part of the Church (In
Cant., xxvii, 6, 7; Ixvii; Ixviii, 4, 11). What it
receives from him is in the first place mercy and
forgiveness of sins, then grace and blessing. The
climax of grace is the perfect union, but in the
earthly life this is experienced by the pious at the
utmost in single moments (De consid., V, ii, 1; De
grad. hum., viii; De dUig. Deo, x). Wlien Bernard
speaks of becoming one with Christ and with God.
bus thought is clothed with Biblical expressions;
but that Bernard in point of fact does not intend
to go beyond the meaning of these words can be
seen by reading the explanations (In Cant., bad, 7
sqq.), where the union with God, to which the pious
sold attains, is most keenly distinguished from a
consubstantiality, as it exists between Father and
Son in the Trinity. Bernard is entirely free from
pantheistic thoughts, and that mysticism does not
65
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernard of Olairvan^
bring him in opposition to the Church his entire
ecclesiastical attitude shows.
The Church as organized, with its hierarchy,
at whose head stands the Roman bishop as suc-
cessor of Peter and vicar of Christ, is to Bernard
the exhibition of the kingdom of Christ on earth.
On this account it must enjoy perfect autonomy,
having a right of supervision over everything in
ChriBtendom, even over princes and states. It
even has a right over the worldly sword (De conaid.y
IV, 7; cf. EfMt., cclvi, 1). Nevertheless Bernard
is no blind adherent of the views of Gregory VII.
In the first place Bernard demands
5. Doctrine a perfect separation between secular
of the and spirituid affairs; the secular as
Church, such is to be left to the secular govern-
ment, and only for spiritual purposes
and in a spiritual sense is the pope to have super-
vision (De eonsid.j i, 6). But Bernard is also an
opponent of the absolute papal power in the Church.
As certainly as he recognizes the papal authority
as the highest in the Church, so decidedly does he
reprove the effort to make it the only one. Even
the middle and lower ranks of the Chiutsh have
their right before God. To withdraw the bishops
from the authority of the archbishops, the abbots
from the authority of the bishops, that all may
become dependent on the curia, means to make
the Church a monster (De coruid., iii, 8).
Notwithstanding Bernard's many-sided activity,
he was and remained above all things a monk,
and would not exchange his monachism either
for the chair of St. Ambrose or for the primacy of
Reims. Monachism is to him the ideal of Chris-
tianity. He acknowledges indeed that true Chris-
tianity is also possible while living in the world
{A])ol., iii, 6; In Cant.f Ixvi, 3; De div., ix, 3), but
such a life compared with monastic life seems to
him a lower, and in spiritual relation,
6. Monaa- a dangerous position (De div., xxvii,
tidnn. 2), a partition of the soul between
the earthly and heavenly. Monasti-
cism itself he regards in an ideal manner; it appeals
to him also not so much from the point of view of
merit as from that of the safest way to salvation.
To this the whole order of the monastery is sub-
serrient, aside from this it is of no value. Besides,
Bernard had relations with the different monas-
teries and monkish associations and was interested
in them (cf . with regard to the Premonstratensians
Epist., viii, 4; Ivi; and especially ccliii; concerning
other regular canons, Epist,, iii; xxxix, 1; Ixxxvii-
xe; and elsewhere). In his many relations with
the Quniaoensians, frictions were not wanting
(cf. Epiat., i; cbdv; cclxxxiii; etc., and especially
the Apologia ad Guilelmum), for the rise of the new
order took place partly at the expense of the old.
Nevertheless Bernard was highly esteemed by the
GuniacensianB, and close friendship associated
him with their head, the noble Peter the Venerable.
That it was not interrupted is mainly due to Peter,
who knew how to bear occasional lack of considera-
tion by his great friend (cf . Epist., clxvi, 1 ; clxviii, 1 )
without resentment {Epiat., ccxxix, 5). There
existed a mutual true affection and admiration;
the letters which they exchanged with each other
II.-n5
are an honorable monument for both men, and with-
out regard to differences of times and confessions
modem readers can appreciate them.
in. Writings: The works of Bernard in-
clude a large collection of letters; a number of
treatises, dogmatic and polemic, ascetic and
mystical, on monasticism, and on church govern-
ment; a biography of St. Malachy, the Irish arch-
bishop; and sermons. Hymns are also ascribed
to him (see below). The most important are the
letters, which constitute one of the most valuable
collections of church history; and the sermons, of
which those on the Song of Songs furnish the chief
source of knowledge of Bernard's mysticism.
The first and fifth books of his De conaideratione
are also of a mystic character, whereas ii, iii, and iv
contain a critique of church affairs of Ids time
from Bernard's point of view and lay down a pro-
gramme for papal conduct which a contemporary
pope would have found it difficult to follow.
S. M. Deutsch.
rV. Hymns: Five hymns are ascribed to Ber-
nard, viz.: (1) the so-called Rhythmtis de am-
temptu mundif " 0 miranda vanitas I 0 diviti-
arum I " (2) the Rhythmica oratio ad unum quodlibet
membrorum Ckriati palierUis, a series of salves ad-
dressed to the feet, knees, etc. of the Crucified; (3)
the Oratio devota ad Dominum Jesum et Beatam Mch
nam matrem ejus, " Summe summi tu patris unice ";
(4) a Christmas hymn, " LoUabundus exuUet fideUa
chorus"; (5) the Jubilus rhythmicus de nomine
Jesu, " Jesu dulcis memoria," on the blessedness
of the soul united with Christ. All these poetical
productions, besides being beautiful in form and
composition, are distinguished by a tender and
living feeling and a mystic fervor and holy love.
If they are really Bernard's, he deserves the title
of Doctor mellifluus devotusque. An addition to
the Salve regina, closing with the words, "0
demens, O pia, O dulcis virgo, Maria," is also
ascribed to him. Mabillon denies Bernard's author-
ship of all these hymns in spite of the ancient and
prevalent tradition. But one is inclined to accept
the tradition, especially since the scholastic Beren-
gar, in his Apologia Abelardi contra 5. Bemardum,
states that Bernard was devoted to poetry from
his youth. Gennan adaptations of the last section
of (2) by Paul Gerhard (1669), " O Haupt voU
Blut und Wunden," and of (5), "O Jesu stiss,
wer dein gedenkt," are in conmion use; there are
several English versions — as by J. W. Alexander,
" O Sacred Head, now wounded " and " Jesus,
how sweet thy memory is," and Ray Palmer's
" Jesus, the very thought of thee."
M. Herold.
Biblxoobapht: A very accurate list of the literature (2,761
entries, arraDged chronologically) is given by L. Janau-
sohek. in BUbiHograjihia Bemardina, Vienna, 1891. The
best edition of the works of Bernard is by J. M. Hors-
tium, revised and enlarged by J. Mabillon, Paris, 1667,
corrected and enlarged 1690 and 1719, reprinted in
MPL, clxxxii-dxzxv, of which the last vol. contains the
old Vita, and some valuable additions not found in Mar
billon. A new critical ed. of the SermoneB de tempore, de
eanetie, and de divereie has been published by B. Gsell
and L. Janauschek in vol. i of Xenia Bernardina^ Vienna,
1891. An Eng. transl. by S. J. Eales of the Life and
Workeof 8L Bernard of Clairvatuc from theed.of llabiUon,
4 vols, only completed, London, 188^-97, contains
Bernard of Olairvaux
Bernard, Olaude
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
66
the preface of liabillon to his second edition of the Opera,
a Bernardine Chronology, Li»t and Order of the LetUr;
and tranal. of the Letter; Sennont, and Cantieo Cantir
corum. Of the early biographies the most important is
the Vita prima, MPL, elxxzv. 225-466, the first book of
which, by William of Thierry, was written during Ber-
nard's lifetime, the second, by E^nald, abbot of Bona
Vallis. the other books by Gaufrid of Clairvaux. cf. G.
Haffer. VorBtudien su . . . Bemhard von Clairvaux,
Monster, 1886. Of later literature note J. Pinio. Com-
mentariue de S. Bernardo, in ASB, Aug.. iv. 101 sqq., and
in MPL, clxxxv. 643-044 (still Tery useful); and Ma-
billon's Prafatio (translated in Eale8.ut sup.). Of modem
lives the following deserve mention: A. Neander, Der
heiliffe Bemhard und 9ein ZeitaUer, Berlin. 1813, ed. S. M.
Deutsch, in Bildiothek theologiacher Ktauikerf vols, xxii-
zziii. Gotha. 1880. Eng. transl. of 1st ed.. Life of SL
Bernard, London. 1843; J. C. Morrison, Life and Timee
of JSL Bernard, London. 1877; F. Bdhringer. Bemhard
von Clairvatuc, No. xiii. in Die Kirdte Christi und ihre
Zeugen, Leipaio, 1878; S. J. £Iales, 8L Bernard, in The
Father* far Englieh Reader; London. 1800 (Roman (Cath-
olic); A. C. Benson and H. F. W Tatham. in Men of
Might, ib. 1802; R. 8. Storrs, Bernard of Clairvaux, the
Timee, the Man, and hie Work, New York, 1802; W. J.
Sparrow-Simpson, Leduret on 8L Bernard of Clairvaux,
London. 1806 (Roman Catholic); E. Vacandard. Vie de
Saint Bernard, Paris. 1805 (displajrs knowledge of the
subject and good taste and judgment so far as the ultra-
montane point of view of the author allows). Consult
further: W. von Giesebrecht. GeeehidUe der deutechen
Kaiaeneit, vol. iv. Brunswick. 1874; W. Bemhardi, Jahr-
bUeher dee deutedten Reiehe unter Lothair von Supplin-
berg, Leipaic, 1870, and unier Konrad III, ib. 1883; B.
Kugler. Analekten ntr Oeeehichte dee stueiten Kreuzzugee,
TQbingen, 1870; idem. Neue Analekten, ib. 1883; K. F.
Neumann. Bernhard von Clairvaux und die AnfAnge dee
sweiten Kreuzzugee, Heidelberg, 1882; G. Haffer, Die
AnfOnge dee su)eiten Kreuxeugee, in Hietariechee Jahrbuch
der OOrree-QeeeUeehafi, vol. viii, Bonn, 1887. On Ber-
nard's relation to Abelard: S. M. Deutsch, Die Synode gu
Sene 111 A und die Verurieilung Ab&larde, Berlin, 1880;
E. Vacandard. Abilard, ea lutte avec 8. Bernard, Paris,
1881. On Bernard as a preacher: A. Brdmel, Homile-
Heche Charakterbilder, pp. 53-06, BerUn. 1860; £. Va-
candard, S. Bernard, orateur, Rouen, 1877; R. Rothe,
Gee<^iehie der Predigt, pp. 216 sqq., Bremen, 1881; A.
Nebe. Zur Oeeehichte der Predigt, i. 250 sqq., Wiesbaden,
1870; E. C. Dargan. Hiet. of Preaching, pp. 208 sqq..
New York. 1005. On Bernard's teaching: A. Ritschl,
Die Chrietlidu Lthre von der Rechtfertigung und VsrsdAn-
ung, i. § 17. Bonn. 1870; idem, LeeefrOehte aue dem
heUigen Bemhard, in TSK, 1870, pp. 317-335; H. Reuter,
in ZKO, vol. i, 1876; G. Thomasius, Dogmenifeechichte. ed.
Seeberg, ii, 120 sqq., Leipeic, 1880; A. Hamack, Dogmen-
geechiehte, vol. iii. Freiburg, 1808. On Bernard as a hym-
nist: R. C. Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry, pp. 136-141. Lon-
don, 1864; S. W. Duffield. Englieh Hymne, pp. 200. 300.
317. 430, 600. New York. 1886; idem. LaHn Hymn-
Wriiere, passim, especially pp. 186-103, ib. 1880; Julian.
Hymnology, pp. 136-137; P. Schaff, Literature and Poetry,
ib. 1800. Discussions of St. Bernard from various points
of view will be found in the Church Histories dealing with
his period and also in works on the History of Philos-
ophy.
For Bernard's hymns: H. A. Daniel. Theeaunu hym-
nologicue, 6 vols.. Halle. 1841-56; C. J. Simrock, Lauda
Sion, Cologne. 1850; J. F. H. Schlosser. Die Kirche in
ihren Liedem dureh aOe Jahrhunderte. Freiburg. 1863; P.
Schaff, Chriet in Song, New York, 1868; J. Pauly, Hymni
breviarii Romani, 3 vols.. Aachen, 1868-70; F. A. March,
LaHn Hymne toith Englieh Notee, pp. 114-125, 276-270.
New York. 1874; W. A. Merrill, Latin Hymne Selected
and Annotated, Boston. 1004.
BERNARD OF CLUNY (Bemardus Marlanensis,
often called Bernard of Moriaix, Morlanensu being
improperly rendered Morlaix instead of Morlas):
Monk of Cluny; b. probably at Morlas (5 m. n.e. of
Pau, and then the capital of the province of B^am);
d. at Cluny probably about the middle of the twelfth
century. Nothing more is known of him, except that
he wrote a satirical poem of 2,991 lines, divided into
three books, and entitled De contemptu mundiy
dedicating it to Peter the Venerable. The theme
is a monastic and ascetic commonplace, but its
handling reveals vigor and satirical power. The
meter is a medieval adaptation of the dactylic
hexameter, so difficult that Bernard belie>'ed he
had divine assistance in keeping it up for so many
lines; each pair of lines rimes and the first thiid
of each line rimes with the second, thus (lines
1-2):
** Hora noviaaima, tempora pesoima sunt, Tigilemus.
Ecoe minaciter imminet arbiter ille supremus."
As to contents the poem is a satirical arraignment
of the twelfth century for its vices in Church and
society, sparing not even monks and nuns, but so
exaggerated that it can not be accepted as history.
The opening of the first book and the concluding
part of the third are on spiritual themes of uncom-
mon beauty. The poem exists in at least nine
contemporary manuscripts and so must have been
popular in its day. But it was forgotten until
Matthias Flacius lUyricus discovered it and, with
a view of showing that the evils of medieval Roman-
ism of which the Protestants complained were
already pilloried by Rome's faithful sons, printed
a few lines from its third book in his Catalogut
testium veritaiis qui ante nostram CBtatem redamaruni
papm (Basel, 1556), and the next year the entire
poem in the collection of similar poems which be
entitled Varia doctarum piorumque virorum de
corrupto Ecclesia statu poemata ante nostram aiaim
conscripta. This collection was reprint'Cd in 1754.
probably at Frankfort. The first to bring Ber-
nard's poem out separately was Nathan Chytneus
(Bremen, 1597), and he was followed by Eilhard
Lubin (Rostock, 1610), Petrus Lucius (Rinteln,
1626), and Johann and Heinrich Stem (Lune-
burg, 1640). Finally Thomas Wright reprinted it
in his Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of the Twelfth Cen-
tury (London, 1872, Rolls Series, No. 59). The
first complete translation, in prose, was published
by Henry Preble (AJT, Jan.-July, 1906). In 1M9
Trench published in his Sacred Lalin Poetry (Lon-
don) ninety-six lines from its first book, and
these attracted the delighted attention of John
Mason Neale, who translated them in his Medi-
eval Hymns and Sequences (London, 1851). His
translation from Bernard leaped into wonderful
popularity and was separately printed along with
other lines not in Trench, as The Rhythm oj
Bernard de Morlaix, Monk of Cluny, on the Cehstid
Country (London, 1859; often reprinted). One of
the hymns made by division out of tliis translation, I
"Jerusalem the golden," is found in all hymn-
books. Other pieces in prose and poetry are also I
attributed to Bernard. ,
Biblioorapht: S. M. Jackaon. The Soitrce of " Jerwum I
the Oolden " and Other Piecee Attributed to BemaM of
Cluny, Chicago, 1009 (contains Preble's translation of tb« !
De contemptu mundi, and an elaborate introduction and '
bibliography). j
BERNARD OF CORSTANCE: German teacher
and author of the eleventh century; d. at Gorvey
loss. He was a Saxon by birth, and about the
middle of the century presided with notable sue-
67
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernard of Olairvaux
Bernard, Olande
ress over the school at CooBtance, which he left
to teach at Hildesheim. During his residence
here he was asked by his teacher Adalbert and his
pupil Bemold (q.v.) to write on the questions
raised by the Roman synod of 1076, and answered
in a lengthy treatise against the opponents of
Clrrgoiy VII. His standpoint comes out even
more cleariy in his Liber canonum contra Henricum
IV , which on its first publication (M. Sdralek,
Die Streitschriften AUmanns van Passau und WezUoa
von Maim, Paderbom, 1890) was erroneously
ascribed to Bishop Altmann of Passau. It was
written after the Synod of Quedlinburg at Easter,
10S5, when the Gregorian party wafi in great diffi-
culties, and is an uncompromising declaration of
fidelity to the papal cause. Bernard was, in short,
as his pupil Bemold describes him, not only " a
most learned man " but also " most fervent in the
cause of St. Peter." Carl Mirbt.
Bibuogbapht: The two works mentioned above have been
e«lited by F. Thmner in MGH, Lib. eU lite, ii (1892). 29-
47. and i (1891), 472-516 respectively. Consult C. Mirbt.
Die PvUizietik im Zeitalter Qreoore VII, Leipsic. 1894; F.
Thaner, Zu meei Streiluhriften de$ 11. JahrhunderU, in
Stiue Ankie far alUr€d€ut»cheGe§chichU,xvi (1889). 529-
540; Hauck. KD, vol. iii.
BERNARD OF MENTHON: Founder of the
hospices on the Great and Little St. Bernard. Little
is Imown of his life, as modem criticism has hardly
touched it, and the older biographies are untrust-
worthy and legendary. According to them he
was bom at Menthon, near Annecy (25 m. s. of
Geneva), Savoy, in 923, and studied the liberal
arts, law, and theology. To avoid a marriage
planned by his parents, he fled to Aosta, where he
was ordained and later became archdeacon. In
addition to the most faithful performance of his
priestly duties, he founded the two hospices and
placed them in charge of canons regular, finally
dying at Novara in 1007. A sequence preserved
in the Ada Sanctorum, and dating probably from
the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth
century, speaks of a meeting between him and
Henry IV, which may possibly have occurred.
It is known that in the ninth century there was a
hospice under clerical auspices on the Mons Jovis,
the present Great St. Bernard, which may later have
fallen into decay. First in 1125, and often after
that date, we find mention of the church of St.
Nicholas on the Mons Jovis; in 1145 of the hoa-
pitaU, which in 1177 is called domiu hoapitalis SS.
Sicoiai et Bemardi Montis Jovis. It is thus not
improbable that Bernard restored the older foun-
dation; but it is more likely that this took place
at the beginning of the twelfth than at the end of
the eleventh century. The date of 1081 for Ber-
nard's death is no better attested than that of 1007.
Innocent XI canonized him in 1681. The larger
hospice, on which till 1752 the smaller depended,
was reformed during the Council of Basel, receiving
a very original constitution in 1438. Napoleon,
pleased by his reception there, placed the hospice
founded by him on the Simplon pass under the care
of the same conmiunity, and endowed the founda-
tion, which had lost a great part of the rich pos-
sessions formerly held by it in fourteen dioceses.
It is now supported by voluntary offerings from
all the Swiss cantons. A statue of Bernard was
erected near the hospice in 1905. (A. Hauck.)
Bibugorapht: The old lives are in ASB, 16 June, ii. 1071-
1089; Alban Butler, Livea of the Fathere, June 15, 2 Tola.,
London. 1857-60; an old text Le Myetkre de SL Bernard
de Menthon was published by A. L. de la Marehe, Paris,
1889. Consult L. Burgener, Der heilige Bemhard wm
Menthon, Lucerne, 1870; Mimoiree et doeumente fnMiit
par la eoditi d'hiaioire de la Suiue, vol. xxix, Lausanne,
1875; A. Lutolf, Ueher daa wxhre Zeitalter dee heilioen
Bernard von Menthon (006-1081), in TQ, Izi (1879). 179-
207; J. A. Duo, in MiaceUanea di etoria Italiana, xxzi.
343-388. Turin. 1894; Wattenbach, DOQ, ii (1886). 214.
ii (1894). 241.
BERNARD OF MORLAIX. See Bernard of
Cluny.
BERNARD OP TOLEDO: Archbishop of To-
ledo 1086-1125; b. at Agen (73 m. s.e. of Bor-
deaux), France, c. 1050; d. in Spain 1125. His
significance in the history of Spain lies in the fact
that from him dates the emergence of the Spanish
Church from its isolation and its dependence on
Rome. He became a monk in the monastery of
Cluny, whence he was sent to Spain with others
to assist the cause of the reforms of Gregory VII.
Here he was made (1080) abbot of St. Facundus
at Sahagun in the diocese of Leon, and finally
named by Alfonso VI for the archbishopric of
Toledo. Gregory's plans for Spain included (be-
sides a general crusiEuie against clerical marriage,
simony, and lay investiture) the substitution of the
Roman liturgy for the Mozarabic and the recog-
nition of the obligations of tribute from the Spanish
Church. The former point had been practically
gained before his death, in spite of strenuous oppo-
sition. Urban II, by raising Bernard's see to
primatial dignity, gave him the power necessary
to prosecute the work of Romanizing. His co-
operation made possible Urban's intervention at
the Synod of Leon (1091) and ignoring of the royal
right of investiture when Alfonso attempted to
appoint a Spaniard to the see of St. Jago, apparently
in order to counterbalance the influence of the
French Benedictines with whom the primate was
filling the episcopal sees. His career was through-
out that of a devoted adherent of the papacy.
Some reminiscences of his youthful days as a knight
appear in his forcible seizure of the Mohammedan
mosque at Toledo in his first year as archbishop
and in his plans for a crusade against the Saracens
of the East, which both Urban II and Paschal II
forbade, in view of the tasks which Spanish Christian
chivalry had at home. Four of his sermons, on
the Saltje Regina, are included among those of the
great Bernard. Carl Mirbt.
Bibugoraphy: J. Aschbaoh, Oeechichte Spaniena und Par-
tuifoU giur Zeit der Herrechaft der Almaraviden und AlmO"
haden, i. 129 eqq.. 339. 358 sqq.. Frankfort. 1833; Hi^
toria Compoetellana: EepaHa eagrada, ed. H. Floras, zx,
1-598. 615. Madrid. 1791; A. F. Gfrfirer. PapH Oregonue
VII und aein Zeitalter, iv, 484. 600-601. SchaffkauBen,
1864; Hefele. Concilienoeeehidite, v. 200. 261. 326-327;
idem. DerKardinal Ximenee, pp. 160 aqq., Amheim, 1863.
BERNARD, CLAUDE : Called the " poor priest "
and " Father Bernard "; b. in Dijon Dec. 23, 1588;
d. at Paris Mar. 23, 1641. ' He waa the son of a
jurist, studied law himself, and for a time led a life
Bernard
Berqnin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
68
of pleasure, but was converted by what he believed
was a vision of his departed father. He became
a priest and made Paris his residence, where he
spent his time preaching and visiting the poor and
sick, not shrinking from the most disgusting dis-
eases. He gave away all that he had, including
an inheritance of 400,000 francs.
BERNARD, JOmr HEIIRY: Church of Ireland,
dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin; b. at
Raniganj, Bardwan (126 m. n.w. of Calcutta),
India, July 27, 1860. He was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin (B.A., 1880), where he was elected
fellow and tutor in 1884, retaining his fellowship
until 1902. In 1886 he was ordained to the priest-
hood, and was chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland from 1887 to 1902. Smce 1888 be has
been Archbishop King's lecturer in divinity in the
University of Ireland, and has been dean of St.
Patrick's since 1902, where he had already been
treasurer from 1897 to 1902. He was examining
chaplain to the bishop of Down in 1889, and was
select preacher to the University of Oxford in 189^
1895 and to the University of Cambridge in 1898,
1901, and 1904. He has repeatedly been exam-
iner in mental and moral philosophy for the India
Civil Service, and has been a member of the Council
of the University of Dublin since 1892, as well as
a commissioner of national education for Ireland
from 1897 to 1903. He was likewise a member
of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in
1894, and of the Representative Church Body in
1897, while in 1902 he became a warden of Alex-
andra CoUegef Dublin, a commissioner of charitable
donations and bequests for Ireland in 1904, and
a visitor of Queen's College, Galway, in 1905.
He has written or edited the following works:
Kant's Critical PhUoaaphy for English Readers
(2 vols., London, 1889; in collaboration with J.
P. Mahaffy); Kant's Criticism of Judgment (1892);
From Faith to Faith (university sermons, 1895);
Archbishop Benson in Ireland (1896); Via Domini
(cathedral sermons, 1898); The Irish Liber Hymr
norum (1898; in collaboration with R. Atkinson);
The Pastoral Epistles, in The Cambridge Bible,
(Cambridge, 1899); The Works of Bishop BuUer
(2 vols., London, 1900); The Second Epistle to the
Connihians, in The Expositor's Bible (1903); St,
Patrick's Cathedral (1904); The Prayer of the King-
dom (1904); and has translated and edited The
Pilgrimage of St. Silvia (1896) and other publi-
cations of The Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society.
BERNARD, THOMAS DEHAIHT: Churoh of
England; b. at Clifton (a suburb of Bristol),
Gloucestershire, Nov. 11, 1815; d. at Wimbome
(21 m. n.e. of Dorchester), Dorsetshire, Dec. 7,
1904. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford
(B.A., 1838), was ordered deacon in 1840 and priest
in the following year, and was successively curate
and vicar of Great Baddow, Essex (184(M6),
vicar of Terling, Essex (1848), and rector of Wal-
cot, Somerset (1863-86). He was prebendary of
Haselbere and canon resident of Wells Cathedral
from 1868 to 1901, and chancellor of the same
cathedral after 1879, while from 1880 to 1895
he was proctor for the dean and chapter of WeUs.
He was also select preacher at Oxford in 1855,
1862, and 1882, and was Bampton Lecturer in 1864.
He wrote The Witness of God (university sermons,
London, 1862); Progress of Doctrine in the New
Testament (Bampton lectures, 1864, 4th ed., 1878);
The Central Teaching of Jesus Christ (1892); and
The Songs of the Holy NaHviiy (1895).
BERNARDDf OF SIENNA: Franciscan; b. of
noble parents at Massa (33 m. s.w. of Sienna)
Sept. 8, 1380; d. at Aquila (58 m. n.e. of Rome)
May 20, 1444. He entered the Franciscan order
1402; became its vicar-general 1437, and effected
many reforms in discipline and government. He
was the most famous preacher of his time and spoke
to great crowds in all parts of Italy with wonderful
effect. Three times he refused the offer of a bishop-
ric. He was canonized by Nicholas V in 1450 and
his day is May 20. His writings were first printed
at Lyons (1501), afterward at Paris (4 vok., 1636;
5 vols., 1650) and at Venice (4 vols., 1745). The
first volume contains his life by his scholar, St.
John of Capistrano. Bemardin's writings are for
the most part tractatus seu sermanes, which are
not so much sermons according to the modem view
as fonnal treatises upon morals, asceticism, and
mysticism.
Bibxjoorapht: The older aocounta of his life axe eoUected
in A8B, 20 May. vi, 262-318. Consult: P. Thureau-Dan-
gin, Un Pridicateur populair* , . . 8L Bemardin dt
Sienne (1S80-14UX Paria, 1806. Eng. tranal.. London.
1006; Berthaumier. Hittoirt de S. Bemardin dt Sienne,
Paris. 1862; J. P. Touaaaint. Leben du heUigen Bemardin,
Resensburg, 1873; F. ApoUinaire. La vie et lea auma dt
S. Bemardin, Poitiers. 1882; E. C. Dargan. Hiet. cf Preaek-
ing, pp. 317 aqq.. New York. 1006.
BSRNARDINES. See Cibtbrciamb.
BERlflCE, ber-nai's6 or ber^nis (for BERE-
NICE): Eldest daughter of Herod Aprippa I.
See Hkrod and hib Familt.
BERNO (BERN, BERNARD) OP REICHENAU:
Abbot of Reichenau (Benedictine abbey on an |
island in the Untersee of Lake Constance, 4 m. w.n.w.
of 0>nstance) 1008 till Yaa death, June 7, 1048.
He was monk in a monastery at PrQm near Treves
when appointed abbot; imder his rule Reichenau |
regained its prosperity, which had been lost under
his predecessor, the abbot Immo; the library was
enriched, scholars were attracted to the school,
and the church of St. Bfark was rebuilt. He vas
renowned personally as scholar, as poet, and, above
all, as musician; he accompanied the emperor,
Henry II, to Rome in 1014 for his coronation and
after his return introduced reforms in German
church music. Besides lives of saints and theolog-
ical and liturgical treatises he left a number of
letters and works upon music, which are published
in Gerbert, Scriptores ecdesiastici de musica sacroy
ii (St. Blaise, 1784). His writings are in MPL, cxliii.
(A. Hauck.)
BERNOLD: German ecclesiastical author; b.
probably in southern Swabia c. 1054; d. at Schaff-
hausen Sep. 16, 1100. He was educated at Con-
stance under Bernard (q.v.), with whom he con-
tinued in close relations. He began writing eariy,
and was present in Rome at the great eynod of
60
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bernard
Berquin
1079 when Berengar was condemned. The next
certain date is his ordination by the cardinal-legate
Otto of Ostia at Constance in 1084. From 1086 to
1091 he was certainly an inmate of the monastery
of St. BlatBe in the Black Forest; in the latter
year he migrated to Schaffhausen, where he re-
mained (though not without interruption, as his
presence at the battle of Pleichfeld shows) until
his death. He was a versatile author. His
ChroMcon (cd. G. Waitz, in MGH, Script., v, 1844,
385-467) is a valuable source for his own life-
time, though colored by his partisan support of
Gregory VII. His treatise De Berengarii hoeresi-
arduE damnaHone muUiplici is interesting for the
light which it throws on the attitude of German
theology before the beginning of the strictly
scholastic period. Most of his extant works, how-
ever, are of a practical nature, dealing with the
vexed questions of the church life of his time.
Though a zealous upholder of the reforming par
pacy, he was not a fanatic.
Carl BIirbt.
Bibuoorapht: C. Hirfot. Die PubliriHik im ZeitaUer Ore-
gon VII, Leipaic, 1894; A.Uneniiann, Qermania aacra
VrodnmuB, ii, 432-437. Freiburg. 1792; E. Strelau, Leben
md WerkedeeMinehet Btmald wm SL BUuien, Jena. 1889;
G. Meyer von Knonau, JahrbOdur dm deutaehen Reicha
unUr Hnnneh IV und Heinrieh V, Leiprie. 1890-1904.
BERHWARD: Bishop of Hildesheim 993-1022.
He came of a noble Saxon family, being the grand-
son of the count palatine Adalbero and the nephew
of Bishop Folkmar of Utrecht. He was educated
at the cathedral school of Hildesheim by Thang-
mar, later his biographer, and ordained by Willigis
of Mainz. In 987 he became chaplain at the im-
perial court and tutor to the young Otto III. On
Jan. 15, 993, he was consecrated bishop of Hildes-
heim. He protected his diocese vigorously from
the attacks of the Normans, and only once took a
wrong step as a temporal magnate — when, at the
accession of Henry II, he took the side of Margrave
Ekkehart, whose death, however, saved him from
the consequences of his mistake. He rendered
great services to literature and art. He died Nov.
20, 1022, a few weeks after the consecration of the
magnificent church of St. Michael which he had
buQt. Celestine III canonized him in 1193.
(A. Hauck.)
BnuooaAPBT: The Viia by Thsngmar ia in MOH, Script.,
IT. 764-782, the Jftracufa. ib. pp. 782-786. Hanover. 1841;
the eontmoation of the Vila by WolfheriuB, ib. xi, 16&-
167. 1854. Coamilt: A. Behulti, Der heUige Bamward
. . . umd enne VardintaU, Leipae, 1879; W. A. Neumann.
Btnward von Hilde^tim und mine Zeii, inMOtheilungen
dm kaieerUeken deterreiokieehen Mueetune fUr Kunet^ v.
73-80. 97-104. 124-130. 141-152. 168-173. Vienna. 1890;
B. Skirtn, Der heilige Bernward, in Shidien und Mit-
^eilun^n aua dem Benedit^ und dem Ciaterz.-Orden, xiv
(1893). 398^20; Wattenbach. DOQ, i (1893). 318. 346-
350. ii, 25. 360, 511; 8. Bexasel. Der heUige Bemward vcn
" ~" 1895.
BEROBAHS OR BARCLATITES. See Barclay,
John.
BERQUHf, YayiLBh', LOUIS DE: French Re-
fomier; b. at Passy-Paris June, 1490; d. at Paris
Apr. 17. 1529. He belonged to a noble family of
.\rtois and was lord of the estate of Berquin, near
Abbeville. In 1512 he came to Paris to finish his
studies, became acquainted with Lefdvre d'£taples
and the publisher Josse Badius, and was introduced
to Marguerite of Valois, sister of Francis I, through
whom he gained the king's favor. He belonged
to that group of godly humanists who wished a
reformation of the Church, but without a rupture
with Rome. He hated equally the ignorance of the
monks and the coarseness of Luther. Erasmus
seemed to him the true Reformer; with him there-
fore he opened correspondence and translated sev-
eral of his tracts, as well as Luther's De votia
monasticis. The doctors of the Sorbonne de-
nounced him as a heretic and on Biay 13, 1523,
the trial was held before the Parliament. Seven
of Berquin's writings and one of his translations
from Luther and Melanchthon were condemned
by the theological faculty and by the Parliament.
On Aug. 1, he was made prisoner, but was set
free by order of the king, Aug. 8. The Parliament
had already burned his papers and books. The
siege of Pavia and the captivity of the king (Feb.,
1525) increased the Parliament's power, and the
queen regent, Louise de Savoie, established (May
20) an extraordinary court to judge the heretics.
On the same day three of Erasmus's treatises were
censured. Berquin would have been permitted
to retire and live on his estates if he had consented
to keep silence. But he could not help speaking
the truth and (Jan. 8, 1526), being denounced by
the bishop of Amiens, he was again imprisoned.
His books were again judged and forty of his
propositions were declared heretical. He defended
himself by saying that his propositions were taken
from Erasmus and nobody adjudged the latter
a heretic. His books were nevertheless condemned
and he would have been burned with them if Mar^
guerite of Valois had not invoked the clemency of
her brother. Aug. 17 Francis sent a letter to the
Parliament commanding them to take no definite
steps without his advice. Although Erasmus ad-
vised silence, Berquin, confident of the king's favor,
resumed the struggle and quoted from No6l Beda's
writings against Erasmus, against the Sorbonne,
and Lefdvre d'^taples, twelve propositions as false
and heretical, and asked the king to allow the
Parliament to give judgment. From July, 1528,
until March, 1529, Berquin lived in security. He
was then again imprisoned and Parliament con-
denmed him " to have his tongue branded with a
red-hot iron and to remain a prisoner for the rest
of his life." Apr. 16 Berquin appealed to the king,
and the next day Parliament, taking advantage
of the king's absence at Blois, ordered Berquin to
be burned at the Place de Gr&ve. He was the first
Protestant martyr of France. Thtodore Besa
said of him: " If Francis had upheld him to the
last, he would have been the Luther of France."
Berquin's original works are all lost, only a
few of his translations being left: Enchtridion du
chevalier chreetien (Antwerp, 1529); Le vray moyen
de hien et catholiquement ae confesaer, par 6raame
(Lyons, 1542); Paraphrases sur le Nouveau Tes-
tament, and Le symbole des apdtres (both from
Erasmus, n.p., n.d.).
O. Bonit-Maubt.
Bamiyer
Berthold
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
70
Bibuoorapht: Sources for a biography are in T. B«ia.
Hiatoirt eccliaiatHqua dn igliaea rifamU«$ ds France, i, 7.
Paris, 1882; A. L. Herminjard, Corretpondanee dea RS-
formatntre, vol. ii and viii, especially vol. ii, containing
letters by Erasmus to Berquin, ii. 166-167, 169-160. and
the letter of Erasmus to C. Utenhovius. ii, 1803. 103. ib.
1878, 1803; a brief but lucid account of Berquin's lilfe is
contained in A. Chevillier, L'Origine de l\mTprimeria d«
Paris, ib. 1604. Consult: Hittoire du proiutantimn* franr
^is, 3d, 120, ib. 1846; Journal d*un bourffeoia da Porta,
ed. L. Lalanne, ib. 1804; Haur^u. in Revtia dea deux
mandea, Jan. 16, 1860; H. M.Baird, Riaeof the Huffuenota,
i, 128-168, London, 1880.
BERRUYER, bfti^'r(i"y6', JOSEPH ISAAC:
French Jesuit; b. at Rouen Nov. 7, 1081; d. at
PariB Feb. 18, 1758. He served as teacher of his
order for many years and won notoriety from an
attempt to rewrite the Bible in French in the form
of a romance fitted to the taste of his time; in
carrying out the idea, however, he introduced
much that was unfitting, heretical, and even blas-
phemous and obscene. He published the first
part, Hiatoire du peuple de Dieu depuis son origine
jusqu'd, la venue du Meaeie^ in seven volimies at
Paris, 1728. It called forth numerous protests
from both clergy and laity and was put on the Index
in 1734; certain of the Jesuits induced the general
to provide a new and expurgated edition (8 vols.,
1733-34). In 1753 Bemiyer published the second
part, including the Gospels, in four volumes, osten-
sibly at The Hague, but really at Paris; only a
few copies bore the author's name; it was emphat-
ically condemned by the French clergy and was
put on the Index in 1755. Nevertheless Berruyer
issued the third part, the Epistles, at Lyons (Paris)
in two volumes, 1757; it was condemned by the
pope the next year. The work was translated into
Italian, Spanish, Polish, and German, and was
reissued (expurgated) in ten volumes at Besangon
in 1851.
Biblxoorapht: E. H. Landon, EcdeaiaaUeal DicHonary, ii,
204, London. 1863; A. de Backer, Bibliothique dea Icri-
vaina de la eompaonie de Jiaua, iv, 340, 7 vols., Paris, 1863-
1861; F. H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen BUcher, ii,
804, Bonn. 1886.
BERSIER, bftr^'syd', EUGENE ARTUR FRAlf-
(^OIS: French Reformed; b. at Morges (7 m. w.
of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb. 5, 1831; d. at
Paris Nov. 19, 1889. He came of Huguenot
parentage, took elementary studies at Geneva and
Paris; visited America, 1848-50; studied theology
at Geneva, Gottingen, and Halle; became pastor
in Paris 1855 — in the Free Church until 1877
(until 1861 over the Faubourg St. Antoine Church;
until 1874, assistant of Pressens^ in the Taitbout
Church; until 1877, over the £toile Church), when
he and his congregation joined the Reformed
(established) Church of France. He was the
author of several popular volumes of sermons,
some of which have been translated into English:
in the Protestant Pulpit series (2 vols., London,
1869); Onenese of the Race in its Fall and its Future
(translated by Annie Harwood, London, 1871);
Sermons f tvUh Sketch of the Author (London, 1881;
2d series, 1885); St. Paul's Vision (translated by
Marie Stewart, New York, 1881; new ed. 1890);
The Gospel in Paris ; Sermons, with Personal
Sketch of the Author by Rev. Frederick Hastings
(London, 1884). There are translations also into
German, Danish, Swedish, and Russian. He wrote
also SolidariU (Paris, 1869); Histovre du Synode
de 187$ (2 vols., 1872); Ldturgie (now used in the
Reformed Church of France, 1874); Mes actu
et mes principes (1878); L* Immutability de Jcsui
Christ (1880); RoyauU de J^sus Christ (1881);
Coligny avant les guerres de religion (1884; 3d ed.,
1885; Eng. transl., Coligny : the Earlier Life
of the Great Huguenot, London, 1885); La Rt vo-
cation, discours . . . sur Vldit de r&vocation (1886):
Les R^fugOs fran^ais et leur industries (1886);
Projet de rivision de la liturgie des Eglises Riformita
en France (1888); Quelques pages d' histovre des Hu-
guenoU (1890).
Bibuoorapht: E. Stapfer. La PrSdieaHon d*Eugh*e Bertur.
Paris, 1893; J. F. B. Tinling, Beraier'a PuLpik Analyn*
of Public Sermona of . . . Euoine Beraier, London, 1900;
W. C. Wilkinson, Modem Maatera of Pulpit Diaeourae. pix
261-281. New York. 1905 ^highly laudatory).
BERTHEAU, b&r^'t6', CARL: German Lutheran;
b. at Hamburg July 6, 1836. He was educated
at the universities of Gottingen (1855-57, 1858-59)
and Halle (1857-58), and after teaching in the
schools of his native city became pastor of St.
Michael's Church there in 1867. Since 1897 he
has been president of the Hamburg Verein fur
innere Mission. In theology he belongs to the
positive evangelical school. He prepared the
third volume of K. Hirsche's Prolegomena tu
Thomas h Kempis (Berlin, 1894) and edited Lu-
ther's catechisms (Hamburg, 1896).
BERTHEAU, ERNST: Crerman Lutheran; b. at
Hamburg Nov. 23, 1812; d. at Gottingen May 17,
1888. He studied in Berlin and G5ttingen (Ph.D.,
1836) and became repetent at Gottingen 1836
extraordinary professor of Oriental languages and
Old Testament exegesis 1842, ordinary profeanr
1843. From 1870 he was a member of the com-
mission to revise Luther's Bible. His publications
include: Carminis Ephraemi Syri textus Syriaaa
secundum codicem bibliothecoe Angdicce denuo edi-
tus ac versione et brevi annotatione instrudus
(Gottingen, 1837); Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer
Gesetze in den drei mittleren Buchem des PejUa-
teuchs (1840); Zur Geschichte der IsraeHten, zwei
Abhandlungen (1842); an edition of the Syriac
grammar of Bar Hebrseus (1843); and commen-
taries upon Judges and Ruth (1845; 2d ed., 18S3),
Chronicles (1854; 2d ed., 1873), Esra, Nehemiah,
and Esther (1862), and Proverbs (1847; 2ded.,
1883), in the Kurtgefasstes exegetisches Handbuck
zum Alien Testament. (Carl Berthcau.)
BERTHIER, bftr^'ty^', GUILLAnME FRAN-
COIS: French Jesuit; b. at Issoudun (130 m.
s. of Paris), department of Indre, Apr. 7, 17(M;
d. at Bourges Dec. 15, 1782. He joined the Jesuits
in 1722. He added six volumes (Paris, 1749) to
the twelve already completed by Longueval.
Fontenay, and Brumoy of the Histovre de Vi^lise
gaUicane, bringing the narrative down to 1529;
from 1745 to 1762 he edited the MHnoires de Tri-
voux and displayed much moderation as well as
learning imder attacks from the Encyclopedists
and Voltaire. After the expulsion of his order
71
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berruyer
Berthold
from France in 1762 he waa appointed tutor to
the princes afterward Louis XVI and Louis XVIII,
but had to leave the country in 1764; after an ab-
sence of ten years he returned to Bourges. He
translated the Psalms (8 vols., 1785) and the Book
of Isaiah (5 vob., 1788-89) into French with notes.
His (Euvres apirUuelles were published at Paris
m five volumes in 1811.
BiBuo<nu.paT: A. de Backer, BMiothiqu* dea icrivaitu de la
eompagni» d» Jiaua, ■.v., 7 vola., Paris, 1863-61.
BERTHOLD OF CHIEMSEE. See PCrstinoer,
Besthold.
BERTHOLD OF LIVOITIA: Early missionary
and second bishop among the Livonians. He was
abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Lokkum, and
was consecrated bishop to succeed Meinhard about
1196 by Hartwig II, bishop of Bremen. After he
had failed to win the heathen by mild means with
peril of his life, he went to Saxony and returned
with a body-guard in 1198. The Livonians gath-
ered and were defeated in battle, but the bishop was
Blain Jidy 24, 1198. His successor was Albert of
Riga (q.v.).
BERTHOLD OF REGENSBXJR6: Franciscan
fiiar, the greatest popular preacher of the Middle
Ages in Germany; b. at Regensburg probably
earlier than the traditional date of 1220; d. there
Dec. 14, 1272. He was a member of the Fran-
dscan community founded at Regensburg in 1226.
His novitiate was passed under the guidance of
David of Augsburg; and by 1246 he is found in a
position of responsibility. By 1250 at the latest,
he had begun his career as an itinerant preacher,
first in Bavaria, where he endeavored to bring
Duke Otto II back to obedience to the Church;
then he appears farther westward, at Speyer in
1254 and 1255, then passing through Alsace into
Switzerland. In the following years the cantons
of Aargau, Thurgau, Constance, and Orisons, with
the upper Rhine country, were the principal scenes
of his activity. In 1260 he went farther afield,
traversing after that date Austria, Moravia, Hun-
gary, Silesia, Thuringia, and possibly Bohemia,
reaching his Slavonic audiences through an inter-
preter. Some of his journeys in the East were
probably in the interest of the crusade, the preach-
ing of which was specially entrusted to him by
Pope UrtMui IV in 1263.
The Gennan historians, from Berthold's con-
temporary. Abbot Hermann of Niedemaltaich,
down to the middle of the sixteenth century, speak
in the most glowing terms of the force of his per-
sonality and the effect of his preaching, which is
said to have attracted almost incredible numbers,
so that the churches could not hold them, and he
was forced to speak from a platform or a tree in the
open air. The gifts of prophecy and miracles
were soon attributed to him, and his fame spread
from Italy to England. He must have been a
preacher of great talents and success. Although
the manuscript reports of his sermons, which began
to circulate very early, are by no means to be trusted
as literal productions, w^e can still form from them
a tolerably accurate idea of the matter and manner
of his preaching. It was always of a missionary
character, based formally on the Scriptures for tha
day, but soon departing from them to apply tha
special theme which Berthold wished to enforce.
This generally finds its point in the insistent call
to true sorrow for sin, sincere confession, and
perfect penance; penance without contrition has
no value in God's sight, and neither a crusade nor
a pilgrimage has any good result unless there is a
finn purpose to renounce sin. From this stand-
point Berthold criticizes the new preachers of
indulgences. The extremely mixed character of
his audiences led him to make his appeal as wide
and general as possible. He avoids subtle theo-
logical questions, and advises the laity not to pry
into the divine mysteries, but to leave them to the
clergy, and content themselves with the credo.
The weighty political occurrences of the time are
also left imtouched. But everything that affects
the average man — his joys and his sorrows, his
superstitions and his prejudices — ^is handled with
intimate knowledge and with a careful clearness
of arrangement easy for the most ignorant to
follow. While exhorting all to be content with
their station in life, he denounces oppressive taxes,
unjust judges, usury, and dishonest trade. Jews
and heretics are to be abhorred, and players who
draw people's minds away to worldly pleasure;
dances and tournaments are also condenmed, and
he has a word of blame for the women's vanity and
proneness to gossip. He is never dry, always vivid
and graphic, mingling with his exhortations a
variety of anecdotes, jests, and the wild etymologies
of the Middle Ages, making extensive use of the
allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament
and of his strong feeling for nature.
(E. Steinmeter.)
Bibuoorapbt: The sermonB in German of Berthold were
edited or given in abstract by C. F. Kling, Berlin. 1824,
on which cf. J. Grimm in Wiener JahrbU^ier der Liieratur,
xxxii (1825), 194-267, and the Kleinere Schriften by J.
Grimm, Vienna, 1860. A complete edition of his Predig^
ten, ed. F. Pfeiffer, appeared vol. i, Vienna, 1862 (cf. K.
Schmidt in TSK, xxxvii, 1864, pp. 7-«2), voL ii, ed. J.
Strobl, Vienna, 1880 (cf. A. Schonbach, in Anzeiger fUr
deutachee AUertum, vii [1881], 337-385). On the Latin
sermons consult H. Leyser, Deutsche Predigten dee 15. und
14. Jahrhunderts, Leipsic, 1838; G. Jacob, Die lateiniMche
Reden dee eelioen BerViold mm Regentburg, Regensburg,
1880; Sermonee ad religioeoe viginti, ed. P. de a. Hoetsel,
Munioh, 1882. On his life and work consult: K. Ho£F-
mann, SUsungeberichte der MUnchener Akademie, ii (1867),
374 sqq.. ii (1868). 101; L. Kockinger. Berthold von
Regeneburg und Raimund von PeniaforU in Abhandlungen
der MUnchener Akademie, hietorieche Claaee, xiii, 3 (1877),
165 sqq.; K. Unkel, Berthold von Regensburg, Cologne,
1882. For his preaching consult: W. Wackemagel, Alt-
deuteehe Predigten, Basel. 1876; R. Cruel. OeechidUe der
dfiutechen Predigten im Mittelalter, pp. 306-322, Detmold,
1870; A. Linsenmayer. Geechichte der Predigt inDeutech-
land, pp. 333-354. Munich, 1886; E. C. Dargan, A History
of Preaching, New York, 1905.
BERTHOLD OF RORBACH: Heretical msrstic;
d. 1356. He appears first in Wtlrzburg, where he
was tried on a charge of teaching heresy, but saved
himself by recantation of the doctrines attributed
to him. He was again brought to trial at Speyer
in 1356, but this time refused to recant and was
burned. The accounts of his teaching show him
as an adherent of the quietistic mysticism of the
Bertboia
Bestznann
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
72
Brothen of the Free Spirit, sharing their dis-
belief in the meritoriousness of prayer and asceti-
cism; those who are " enlightened by God/' lay-
men as well as priests, may preach the Gospel and
change bread and wine into the divine substance.
The strange and shocking views attributed to him
on the passion of Christ can scarcely be reconciled
with his other teachings, and have probably come
down in a distorted form. (Herman Hauft.)
Bibuoorapbt: A. Jundt, Hi&toin du panthiUme pojnilaire
du moyen Affe, p. 106, Paris, 1876; H. Haupt, Die reHgidten
SekUn in Franken, p. 8. WOrBburg. 1882.
BERTHOLD THE CARMELITE. See Car-
BERTHOLDT, LEONHARD: Professor at Ei^
langen; b. at E^skirchen (14 m. w.n.w. of Nu-
remberg), Bavaria, May 8, 1774; d. at Erlangen
Mar. 22, 1822. He studied at Erlangen and became
professor extraordinary on the philosophical faculty
1805; full professor of theology 1810, in recog-
nition of his work upon Daniel (2 vols., Erlangen,
1806-08). His principal work was the Hiatoriachr
krUiache EwUeitung in die sdmnUlichen kanoniachen
und apokrypkUchen Schriften des Alien und Neuen
Testaments (6 vols., 1812). Of less interest is his
Einleitung in die theologischen Wissenschaften
(2 vols., 1821-22); and of still less, his Handbuch
der Dogmengeschichle (2 vols., 1822-23). As a
teacher, however, and as editor of the KrUisches
Journal der neuesten theologischen Litteratur, one of
the principal organs of the rationalistic party,
his activity was stimulating in many ways.
BERTHOLET, bar^'tO'lfi', ALFRED: Swiss
Protestant; b. at Basel Nov. 9, 1868. He was
educated at the universities of his native city,
Strasburg, and Berlin, and, after being Franco-
German pastor at L^om, in 1892-93, became
privat-docent for Old Testament exegesis in the
university of his native city in 1896. In 1899 he
was appointed associate professor of the same
subject, and in 1905 was promoted to his present
position of full professor. He was general secre-
tary of the Second International Ck>ngress for the
History of Religion held at Basel in 1904, and
has prepared the commentaries on Leviticus, Deu-
teronomy, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Ezekiel in
K. Marti 's Kurzer Handkommentar zwn AUen
Testament (5 vols., Freiburg and Tubingen, 1897-
1902), and has written Der Verfassungsgesetzent-
wurf des Hesekiel in seiner religionsgeschichtlichen
Bedeutung (Freiburg, 1896); Die Stellung der
Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden (1896);
Zu Jesaja 63 (1899); Die israelitischen Vorstellungen
vom Zustand nach dem Tode (TQbingen, 1899);
Btuidhismus und Christentum (1902); Die GefUde
der Seligen (1903); Seelenwanderung (Halle, 1904);
Der Buddhismus und seine Bedeutung filr unser
Geistesleben (Tubingen, 1904); and the section on
the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in K. Budde's
Oeschichte deraUhebrdischen LUeraJtur (Leipdc, 1906).
BERTRAM: The name by which Rstramnus
(q.v.) was formerly sometimes quoted.
BERTRAM, ROBERT AITEIN: English Con-
gregationalist; b. at Hanley (147 m. n.w. of Lon-
don), Staffordshire, Nov. 8, 1836; d. in London
Nov. 14, 1886. He ended his studies at Owens
GoUege (Victoria University), Manchester, 1858;
was pastor at Lymm, Cheshire, at Openshaw
(Manchester), and at Barnstaple, Devonshire;
edited The CkrisHan Age, 1880-^. He compiled
The Cavendish Hymnal (Manchester, 1864), and
published Parable or Divine Poesy, Illustrations
in Theology and Morals Selected from Great Divines
and Systematically Arranged (London, 1866); A
Dictionary of Poetical Illustrations (1877); A
HomUetiad Encyclopedia of Illustrations m The-
ology and Morals f a Handbook of Practical Divinity
and a Commentary on Holy Scripture (1878); A
Homiletical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah
(i, 1884; ii, jointly, with Alfred Tucker, 1888).
BERULLE, PIERRB DE. See Nkri, Phiup.
BERYLLUS OF BOSTRA. See MoNARcm-
ANIBM.
BESA]IT» bes'ant, AHIIIE; (WOOD): Theosophist:
b. at London Oct. 1, 1847. She was educated by
private tutors at dearmouth, Dorsetshire, London,
Bonn, and Paris, and later passed B.Sc. and M.B.
at London University. Originally a member of the
(Jhurch of England, she married Rev. Frank Besant.
vicar of Sibsey, Linoolnshire, in 1867, but was
divorced from him six years later and renounced
Christianity altogether. She then joined the Na-
tional Secular Society, and as a scientific material-
ist worked with Charies Bradlaugh, with whom
she edited the National Reformer. She was also
prominent in socialistic and labor movements, and
was a member of the Fabian Society and the Social
Democratic Federation. In 1887-90 she was a
member of the London School Board for Tower
Hamlets, but declined reelection. Meanwhile, her
views had undergone further change as a result
of psychological study, and in 1889 she joined the
Theoeophical Society, of which she has since been
a distinguished member, and its president in 1907.
She has made extensive journeys to all parts of the
world in the interests of theosophy, but has of lat-e
years resided chiefly in India. In 1898 she founded
the Central Hindu College, Benares, and is still
the president of its council, while in 1904 she estab-
lished the Central Hindu Girls' School in the same
city. In addition to a large number of briefer
articles and pamphlets, she has written Natural
Religion Versus Revealed Religion (London, 1874);
History of the Great French Revolution (1876); The
Lawof Population : Its Consequences and its Bearing
upon Human Conduct and Morals (1877); The
Gospel of Christianity and the Gospel of Free Thought
(1877); Heat, Light, and Sound (1881); Legends
and Tales (1885); The Sins of the Church (18S6);
Reincarnation (1892); Seven Principles of Man
(1892); Autobiography (1893); Death and After
(1893); Building of the Cosmos (1894); In the
Outer Court (1895); Karma (1895); The Self and
its Sheaths (1895); The Path of Disdpleship (1896);
Man and his Bodies (1896); Four Great Religiom
(1897); The Ancient Wisdom (1897); Evdutim
of Life and Form (1899); Dharma (1899); Story
of the Great War : Lessons from the MahdbhSraia
(1899); Avatdras (1900); Ancient Ideals in Modem
73
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berthold
Life (1901); Etoierie ChriatianUy (1901); Thought
Power: Its Control and CvUivatUm (1901); Th^
Reliffunu ProUem in India (Madras, 1902); The
Pedigree of Man (Benares, 1903); Study in Con-
9ciou8nes9 (London, 1904); and Theosophy and
New Psychology (1904). She has also translated
a number of free-thought works as well as the
BhagavadgUA (London, 1895), and has edited
Our Comer (London, 1883-^), and, in collabora-
tion with G. R. 8. Mead, The Theosoj^ical Review,
BESS, BERHHARD: German librarian and
historian; b. at Nentershausen (near Cassel) Biay
19, 1863. He was educated at the universi-
ties of Marburg and GOttingen, and, after being
privat-docent at the former university for several
years, was appointed to his present position of li-
brarian of the University of Halle in 1896. In 1902-
1903 he was also entrusted with the organization of
the library of the Prussian Historical Institute at
Rome. He has written Frankreiche Kirchen-
pUitik und der Protese dee Jean PetU (Marburg,
1S91), and Luther und das landesherrliche Kirchen-
regiment (1894). Since 1891 he has been the
editor of the Zeitsehrift fur Kirehengeschichte.
BESSARION, bes-flfi'ii-en, JOHARHES or BASIL-
niS: Cardinal; b. at Trebizond 1395; d. at Ra-
venna Nov. 19, 1472. He studied at Constantinople
and at Misithra in the Peloponnesus under Gemistos
Plethon; entered the Basilian order; became arch-
bishop of Nicsea in 1437. As such he labored at
Ferrara and Florence, 1438-39, for the union of
the Greek and Roman Churches (see Ferrara-
Florence, Council of). Having been made a car-
dinal, he remained in Italy, by voice and pen work-
ing for the union. His house at Rome became the
center not only for his fugitive countrymen, but also
for the cultivation of Greek literature in the West;
and during his activity as legate in Bologna, 1451^5,
he woriced in the same interest at that ancient
gymnasitun illusire. At the papal election in 1455
he lacked only a few votes of being chosen pope,
and his influence in the curia may be seen from the
numerous diplomatic missions with which he was
entrusted. While returning from a missionary
torn* to France, which he had undertaken for the
sake of reconciling Louis XI and the duke of Btur-
gundy, he died at Ravenna.
E. Benrath.
Bibuookapbt: On the works of BeaBsrion consult: Fabri-
chis-Hfltftes, Bibliotheea OrtBca, x, 491, xi, 480. Hamburg.
]807H)8; MPO, ebd. On his life and activities consult:
Ptator. Popes, voL iv, passim (well worth using); Creigh-
tott. Papacy, vols, ii-y, passim (gives an excellent treat-
ment of tb0 subject); G. Voigt, Die WiederbeMntng dee
daeeiaehen AUerthume, Berlin, 1859; J. Burohardt. Kul-
ter der lUnaieminee in Italien, Basel, 1860, Eng. transl.. 2
Tob.. London, 1878; H. Vast, Le Cardinal Beeeariony
Paris, 1878; R. RochoU, Beeearion, Leipsic, 1904.
BESSEL, GOTTFRIED: Abbot of Gdttweig,
near Vienna; b. at Buchhain, near Mainz, Sept. 5,
1672; d. at QOttweig Jan. 20, 1749. He studied at
Salsburg, entered the Benedictine order in 1693,
was onkined priest 1696, and was employed in
various dipkmiatic negotiations by the elector of
Mainz. In 1707 be converted the princess Eliza-
beth Christine of Brunswick to the Roman Catholic
faith, and, in 1710, her grandfather, the duke
Anton Ulrich, at which time he published Quia-
qtutginta Romanocatholicam fidem omnibus aliis
praferendi motiva (Mainz, 1708). In 1714 he be-
came abbot of Gdttweig. He prepared a chronicle
of the monastery, of which only the first part,
Prodromus, has been published (2 vols., Tegemsee,
1732).
BESSER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH: German
preacher and theological writer; b. at Wamstedt,
in the Harz, Sept. 27, 1816; d. near Dresden Sept.
26, 1884. He studied at Halle under Gesenius
and Tholuck (1837), then went to Berlin, where
he was influenced by Neander and Twesten, but
still more by Hengstenberg, Otto von Gerlach,
and others. He returned to HaUe in 1838 as sec-
retary to Tholuck, but a year later went as private
tutor to the house of Major von Schenkendorf
at Wulkow near Puppin. This had a decisive
influence on his life, through his intercourse there
with a persecuted Lutheran pastor, a guest in the
house, who had such an effect on him that, at his
ordination in 1841 as pastor at Wulkow, he refused
to sign the Union formula except with the reser-
vation that the Union related to conmion ecclesias-
tical organization without prejudice to the authority
of the Augsburg Confession. In 1845 he withdrew
his subscription, and after long negotiations was
deprived of his office in 1847. Connecting himself
with the Lutheran Church of Prussia, he became
pastor of Seefeld in Pomerania, and zealously
supported the movement to obtain equal rights
for the Lutherans with the Union. In 1853 he was
called to assist Graid in the direction of the Evan-
gelical Lutheran mission-house; but the strain of
continuous teaching was not suited to his vivacious
and impulsive nature, and sharp controversies
broke out over the then burning question of the
Indian castes, so that he returned willingly to pas-
toral life in 1857, becoming minister of Wtddenburg
in Silesia and also (1864) a member of the Lutheran
superior council of Breslau. Failing health com-
pelled him to resign his offices at Easter, 1884. His
Bibelstunden, which he began to write in 1843 and
continued at intervals till he had covered most of
the New Testament, have had a salutary influence
far besrond Germany. The list of his minor writings
is a long one, and includes a number of controversial
tractates against what he thought a hollow and
deceiving compromise, popidar biographies, devo-
tional works, and sermons. (H. H5i£CHBB.)
Bibuooraprt: A sketch of Besser's life appears in his Frs-
digUn und PrediataueMQoe, Breslau, 1886. His autobiog-
raphy (uncompleted) was continued to the year 1850
by Greve, Aue Beeeere Leben, in GoUhold, year 20, 1804-
1895, and completion is promised; cf. ALKO, 1884, pp.
1030-39.
BESTMAim, besf'man', HUGO JOHAlfNES:
German Lutheran; b. at Delve, Holstein, Feb. 21,
1854. He studied in Leipsic, Ttlbingen, Kiel,
Berlin, and Erlangen (lie. theol., 1877), and was
privat-docent in theology at Erlangen 1877-83.
He was then instructor in the gymnasium of the
orphan asylum at Halle 1883-^ and at the
Missionary Seminary in Leipsic 1884-86. Since
the latter year he has been pastor in M5lln
Beth
Bethnne-Baker
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
74
(Lauenburg). He hsa been a member of the com-
mittee of the Molln conference for theological
studies since 1896, and has written Qua ratione
AugtutiniLa notionea phUosophicB grceca ad dogmata
anthropologica deacribenda adhibuerU (Erlangen,
1877); Geschichte der chrisUichen Siite (2 vols.,
Nordlingen, 1880-85); Die iheologische Wisaenachaft
und die RitsM'ache Schvle (1881); Die Anfdnge
dee katholiechen ChrieterUume und dee lelame (1884);
Der ProteetarUiemue und die theologischen Fakvl-
taten (Kiel, 1891); and Geechichle dee Reiche GoUee
im Alien tmd Neuen Bunde (2 vols., Leipsic, 1896-
1900). He edited also J. C. K. von Hofmann's
Tkeologieche Encyclopddie (NOrdlingen, 1879) and
Der chrieUiche Herold (Hamburg and M5Un, 1898-
1899).
BETH, KARL: German Protestant; b. at FOr-
derst&dt (15 m. s. of Magdeburg) Feb. 12, 1872.
He studied in Tubingen and Berlin (Ph.D., 1898),
and was privat-docent in Berlin 1901-06. Since
1906 he has been professor of systematic and sym-
bolic theology at the University of Vienna. He has
written Die Grundanechauungen Sckleiermachere
in eeinem ereten Entwurf der philoaophischen Sitten-
lekre (Berlin, 1898); Die orientalische Kirche der
MtUelmeerlanderf Reiseetudien zur StatieUk und
Symbolik der griechiachen, armeniachen und koptir
achen Kirche (1902); Dae Weaen dee Chriatentuma
und die modeme kiatoriache Denkweiae (1904); and
Die Wunder Jeau (1905).
BETHLEHEM: A town in southern Palestine, in
the territory of Judah, often called Bethlehem
Judah (e.g., Judges xvii, 7, 8; cf. Matt, ii, 1, 5).
Its significance for the Judah of Davidic times or
earlier is as the home of Jesse (I Sam. xvi, 1), of
Joab, Abishai, and Asahel (II Sam. ii, 32), of El-
hanan (II Sam. xxi, 19), and as a place of sacrifice
(I Sam. xvi, 3, 5). It was occupied by the Philis-
tines in their war with David (II Sam. xxiii, 14).
Rehoboam made of it a city of defense
Old Testa- (II (]!hron. xi, 6), as it commanded
ment Hia- the roads south and west. Though in
tory. early times it was a place of impor-
tance because of its situation on cara-
van routes, it became overshadowed by the growth
of the capital. After the exile it was reckoned to
the Jewish conmiunity (Ezra ii, 21), and was
inhabited by Calebites who were driven north by
the Edomites pressing up from the south. This
possession is explained by the Chronicler on genea-
logical grounds, regarding the town as foimded by
Ssdma, a son of Caleb. The district of Ephratah,
which extended from Kirjath-jearim to Bethlehem,
became a possession of the Calebites and gave
occasion for the name Bethlehem Ephratah, used
Micah V, 2. The inhabitants were engaged in agri-
culture, viticulture, and cattle-raising.
For the Hebrews its fame rests upon its being
the home of David (Luke ii, 4, 11); to Christians
everywhere its name is familiar as the birthplace
of Jesus, according to the accounts in the Gospels
of Matthew and Luke. It has retained its name
unchanged to the present. Bait4ahm lies five and
a half miles south of Jerusalem, a little east of the
central watershed, at a level above the sea of about
2,500 feet. The slopes above it have been terraced
from early times, and their fertility rewards richly
the labor of the inhabitants in pro-
Present ducing olives, almonds, figs, and grapes.
Condition. The numerous trees of the terraces
give the place a refreshing appearance,
especially to the traveler from the bare heights of
Jerusalem. There is a spring some fifteen minutes
eastward from the town, and water is taken from
the aqueduct on the south leading into Jerusalem.
For the rest of the water-supply, dependence is had
upon cisterns. The population is about 8,000;
3,827 are Roman Catholics, 3,662 Greeks, 260
Mohanunedans, 185 Armenians; the rest are Copts,
Syrians, and Protestants. Two-thirds are engaged
in various handicrafts, the rest in husbandry,
and all are oppressed by burdensome taxes. At^
tempts have been made at various times to connect
particular parts of the town with David, naming
for him a house, a tower, and a well, but the tra-
ditions are insecm^ly founded. The "Well of
David " is the name given since the fifteenth cen-
tury to three large cisterns in the northeast.
More secure is the tradition about the birthplace
of Jesus, covered by the celebrated Church of St.
Mary, a basilica mentioned as early as 334 as built
by Constantine's order. Eusebius (" Life of Con-
stantine ") confirms this report; Socrates and Soz-
omen ascribe its erection to the empress Helena;
and Eutychius to Justinian. De VogQ4 supports
the first hypothesis on the ground of the unity
of plan, conformity of extent of choir
The Church and grotto, and absence of architec-
of St. Mary, tural marks of the Justinian period.
In this opinion he is supported by
the architect T. Sandel, who made a new examina-
tion in 1880. This may well be the oldest church in
the world. It was thoroughly restored by the
emperor Manuel Ck>mnenus, who adorned it with
mosaics, of which work but little remains, though
a description by F. Quaresmio (1616-26) with what
is left suffices to give a good idea of the whole. In
1478 (or 1482) the roof was repaired by Philip of
Burgimdy and Exiward IV of England, and re-
newed in 1672 by the Greek patriarch Dositheos.
In the latter year the Greeks obtained possession,
which the Latins had had since the crusades. In
1852 Napoleon brought it about that the Latins
were given a share in holding it. The church, now
in decay, can not be restored for fear of renewing
outbresJcs among Latins, Greeks, and Armenians.
From the southeast the church rises prominently
like a fortress; the north, east, and south sides
are less pleasing to one approaching from those
directions because of the cells of the monks of the
different communions. It has a nave and double
aisles, and its floor space is about ninety-eight feet
by eighty-seven between the cross aisles. The
transept and apse are unfortunately concealed by
a wall built by the Greeks in the seventeenth or
eighteenth century. The entire length of the pres-
ent church, including the entrance hall, is about
230 feet. Two flights of steps to the north and
south lead from the choir to the chapel of the
nativity, the walls of which are marble-lined and
hung with tapestries. The place of birth is marked
75
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beth
Bethune-Baker
by a sflver star in the floor of a niche. Opposite
is the place, a marbled hollow, of the old " genuine "
manger. A passage westward leads to the tomb
and chapel of Jerome.
This subterranean room, according to tradition
continuous since Constantine, is accepted as the
place of Jesus's birth. A tradition
The Tradi- can be traced back to Justin Martyr
tional Place that Jesus was bom in a cave, since
of Jesus's Joseph could find no acconunodation
Birth. in the village. But it has been dis-
proved that the present chapel is a
[natural] cave, while it must be noted that as early
as 728 it waa reported that the form of the cave
was changed and an oblong room hewn out. The
use of caves as adjuncts to inns or " shelters "
is in Palestine a peculiarity of the country.
Five minutes southeast from the church of St.
Mary is the so-called " Milk Grotto " of the Latins,
in which Joseph, Mary, and the child are said to
have concealed themselves from Herod's fury before
the flight into Egypt. The white of the limestone
is attributed to the fall of a drop of milk from Mary's
breast. Ten minutes northeast from Beth Sahur
(itself fifteen minutes east from Bethlehem) is
shown the "Grotto of the Shepherds," in which the
angels are said to have announced to the shepherds
the birth of the Holy Child. The underground
chapel is reached by a passage between two ancient
olive-trees.
One of the fruits of modem missions is the honor-
ing of Jesus in his birthplace, not by sanctuaries
in stone, but by provision for the education of the
young. Since 1860 there have been a number of
Protestant and Roman Catholic schools and estab-
lishments, the founding of which has spurred the
Greeks and Armenians to accomplish something
for the instruction of children belonging to their
communitieB. (H. Guthe.)
Bibuoorapht: Robmaon, Remarche; vol. ii; T. Tobler.
B^Odthem in PaUutina, Bern, 1849; V. Gu&in. DeBcripHon
de la Palutint, JvMe, i. 120 sqq., Paris. 1869; Survey of
Weatem PaletHnM, Memoir; vol. iii, sheet zrii, London,
1883; P. Palmer. Da» jettioe BeOdekem, in ZDPV, xvii
(1S94). 89 sqq.; Baedeker. PaUaUne and Syria, pp. 119-
127. New York. 1898; DB. i, 281; EB, i. 560-662. On the
church consult M. de VogOd, Lee jSglieee de la terre eainte,
Paris. I860: Quaresmius, ElueidaHo terra Mneto. il. 643
■qq., Antwerp. 1639. reissued Venice, 1880-82; G. Ebers
and H. Guthe. Pai&eHna in BUd und Wort, 2 vols., Leip.
sic. 1883-84.
BETHLEHEMTTES: The name of three religious
orders. (1) An association of BethleemitcB, known
only from Matthew Paris (Hist maj., 839), who
states that they existed at Cambridge, England,
about 1257 and wore the Dominican habit, with a
red star, referring to Biatt. ii, 9-10. (2) The
Knights and Hospitalers of the Blessed Mary of
Bethl^iem (Religio mUitaris ac hospUalis beatcB
Maria BeUUemUancB), founded by Pius II in 1459
to fight against the Turks. They wore a white
hsbit with a red cross, were given the island of
I«inno6 as their seat, and did not smvive the cap-
ture of the island by the Turks in the year of their
foundation. (3) More important are the Bethlehem
Brothers {Fratres BethlemitcB ; Spanish, Orden de
Bdemitaa) of Guatemabi (Central America), founded
there about ld50 by Pierre de Bethencourt and after
his death (1667) under the leadership of the brothers
Rodrigo and Antonio de la Cruz. Originally en-
trusted only with the care of the hospital of Maiy
of Bethlehem in Guatemala, the order was con-
firmed by Innocent XI in 1687 and given a con-
stitution and dress like that of the Capuchins.
Qement XI in 1707 granted them the privileges of
the mendicant orders. A society of Sisters of Bethl&*
hem was founded in Guatemala by Anna Maria
del Galdo in 1668, and both the male and female
branches spread in Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere.
A secularization-decree of the Spanish Cortes in
1820 suppressed both branches.
O. ZdCKLSBf.
Biblxoorapht: Heimbueher. Orden und Konffregationen, i,
497-498; G. Voigt, Enea Syfivio . . , ale Papal Pint, ii.
662. Berlin. 1863; Karl vom heiligen Aloys. Die kaiKo-
liedie Kirehe in ihrer geffenw&rHgen Auebreitung, pp. 510-
511, Regensburg. 1886; Helyot, Ordreamonaetiquee, iii, 347-
357, viii. 365 sqq.; KL, ii. 540-544 (oontains list of liter-
ature in Spanish).
BETHPHANY: A name sometimes given to the
festival more commonly known as the Epiphany.
It is a barbarous invention of the schoolmen, from
the Hebrew hSth, " house," and the Greek -phaneia^
" manifestation," which forms the latter part of
the word Epiphany; and was intended to empha-
size the miracle (in the house) at Cana in Galilee,
which is the third event commemorated by the
festival of the Epiphany (q.v.).
BETHSAIDA. See Gaulanitis.
BETHUinS, be-than', GEORGE WASHINGTON:
Reformed (Dutch) clergyman; b. in Greenwich,
now a part of New York City, Mar. 18, 1805; d. at
Florence, Italy, Apr. 27, 1862. He was graduated
at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1823; studied
at Princeton Seminary 1823-25; served for a year
as missionary among the negroes and sailors at
Savannah, Ga.; was ordained Nov., 1827, and was
pastor of Reformed (Dutch) churches at Rhinebeck
(1827-^0) and Utica (1830-34), N. Y., Philadelphia
(First Church, 1834-37; Third Church, 1837-49),
and Brooklyn (1851-59); was associate minister
at the Twenty-first Street Church, New York,
185&-61. He was famed as a preacher and orator,
as a poet, and as a wit. Of his numerous publica-
tions, perhaps that of most permanent value was
his edition of Walton's Complete Angler (New
York, 1847; new ed., 2 vols., 1880).
Bxblxooraprt: A. R. Van Nest, Memoire of Rev. Qeorge W.
BeOiuna, 2 vols.. New York. 1880.
BETHUNE-BAKER, JAMES FRANKLIN: Church
of England; b. at Birmingham Aug. 23, 1861 . He
was educated at Pembroke College,Cambridge (B. A.,
1884), and was head master's assistant at King
Edward's School, Birmingham, and assistant curate
of St. George's, Edgbaston, from 1888 to 1890. In
the following year he was elected fellow and dean
of Pembroke College, and since 1905 has also been
examining chaplain to the bishop of Rochester.
He has been the editor of the Journal of Theological
Studies since 1903, and has written The Influence
of Christianity on War (Cambridge, 1888); The
Sternness of Christ's Teaching (1889); The Meaning
BetkluB
Beysohlatf
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
76
of Hotnoouaioa in the ConstantinopolUan Creed (1901 );
An IrUroduction to ^ Early History of Christian
Doctrine (London, 1903); and Christian Doctrines
and their Ethical Significance (1905).
BETKinS, b^t'kt-98 (BETKE), JOACHIM:
Lutheran preacher and forerunner of the Pietistic
movement; b. at Berlin Oct. 8, 1601; d. at Linum,
near FehrbeUin (33 m. n.w. of Berlin), Dec. 12,
1663. After finishing his course at Wittenberg,
he became associate rector at Ruppin, then was for
more than thirty years pastor at Linum. He wrote
several theological and devotional works, by the
reading of which Spener said he had profited.
They contain edifying exhortations against for^
getting the need of sanctification in addition to
justification, but are marred by intemperate fanati-
cism; Betkius holds the clergy responsible for all
the anti-Christian phenomena of his time, and for
the divine judgments of the Thirty Years' war.
(F. W. DiBEUUB.)
BETRAYAL OF FILATE. See Apocrypha,
New Testament, B, I, 7.
BEURLIN, bei'^er-ltn, JAKOB: German Lu-
theran theologian; b. at Domstetten (35 m. s.w. of
Stuttgart) 1520; d. at Paris Oct. 28, 1561. In
Nov., 1533, he entered the university of TObingen.
When the Reformation was introduced in 1534,
he remained faithful to Catholicism, but dili-
gently studied philosophy and the writings of the
Ghurch Fathers, so that his transition to the new
doctrine took place quietly. In 1541 he was made
governor of the Biartinianum, and at the same time
lectured on philosophy. In 1549 he accepted the
pastorate of Derendingen near Tubingen, and in
1551 he was called as professor to Tubingen. On
June 2, 1557, he examined and signed, together
with other theologians, the Confessio Wirtember-
ffica, which had been prepared for the Council of
Trent, and in the month of August, together with
Brenz's friend Johann Isenmann (q.v.), he went to
Langensalza and afterward to Saxony to come to
an understanding with the theologians and coun-
cilors of the elector Maurice concerning the WOrt-
temberg 0>nfe8sion as compared with the Saxon,
which had also been prepared for the Council of
Trent. In Nov., 1551, in company with Luther's
former steward, Jodocus Neuheller, pastor at Ent-
ringen, he was sent as theological adviser of the
Wttrttemberg delegates to Trent, where they took
notes of the disputations. On Jan. 13, 1552,
both returned home, but on Mar. 7, Beurlin,
Brenz, Heerbrand, and Vannius again started for
Trent to oppose the erroneous decisions of the
council, and to defend the Confessio Wirtembergica
before it; but the council would not hear them in a
public session, and they returned home. Beurlin
now devoted all his time to his academic duties.
He lectured on Melanchthon's Loci, the Gospel and
First Epistle of John, and the Epistles to the Ro-
mans and Hebrews, and drilled the young theologians
in admirably conducted disputations. In May,
1554, the duke sent him to Prussia to pacify those
who had been stirred up by Osiander's teaching.
He was unsuccessful, however, and, disgusted with
the behavior of the factions, he declined the bishop-
ric offered to him by Duke Albert, and returned
home. In the interest of his academic office he
now retired in favor of Jakob Andre&, who was s
more willing interpreter of the iheok>gy and eo-
clesiastical policy of Brenz (q.v.). In Oct.,
1557, Beuiiin and his father-in-law, Mattiiseus
Alber, went to the religious conference at Worms
in place of the Thuringian theologians. At the
Stuttgart synod Beurlin also remained in tiie
background, but he assisted Brena in the de-
fense of the Confessio Wirtembergica against Peter
a Soto, and his attack upon the coitral point
of the Roman system is still worthy of consider-
ation. Vice-chancellor of the univernty after
1557, Beurlin was the leader of the Swabians
at the Erfurt Conference, Apr., 1561, and was
still more prominent on his last journey made
in the service of the Evangelical Church. King
Antony of Navarre sought both at Stuttgart and
Heidelberg for a theologian to advise him in
the controversy which arose in Sept., 1557, at the
religious conference in Poissy between the cardinal
of Guise and Beza concerning the relation of the
French Protestants to the Augsburg Confession.
Duke Christopher sent three theologians, Jakob
Beurlin, Jakob Andreft, and Balthasar Bidembach.
Before leaving, Beurlin was made chancellor of
the university and provost of the Collegiate Church
(Sept. 29). The theologians left Oct. 3, and arrived
at Paris Oct. 19. Meanwhile the conference at
Poissy had been broken off, and the theologians
had to wait till the king called them. On Oct. 24
Beurlin fell ill with the plague and died in Paris.
G. BoesEBT.
Bibuoohapbt: The eouroea are: T. Sohnepffitu, J. BeurhnM
redwioua el i$nmorialU, TQbingen, 1613; J. V. Andieft,
Fama Andreana, Stnuburg, 1530. Coasult G. C. F.
Fisohlin, Mtmoria thaoloiforum ViUebenfennum rMvadtels,
i, 82-87. Ulm. 1710; C. F. Sattler. OeachidUe van WOrttem-
berg wUbt der Regierung der Herzoge, Ulm, 1771; H. F.
Eiflenbach, BMckrtibung und OetchichU der Stodt wtd Unh
veraitat Tiibingen, pp. 106-112. TQbinsen, 1822; H. L. J.
Heppe, OeachidUe dee deutedien ProteelafUiemue, toL i.
Marburs, 1852-^69; C. von Weisaftcker, Lehrer und UfUer-
rieki an der evangeUech4heologie€hen FakulUU . . . Tir
hingen, Tabingen, 1877; C. A. Haae, Hertog AWredU von
Preueeen und eein Hafvrediger, Leipeic 1879; Q. BoBsert,
Die Reiee der wikrUembergiedten Theaiogen naxih Parit
ISei, in WOrUembergi^che Viertdjakrehefte, 1899. pp.
387-112.
BEVAN, bev'on, AlVTHONT ASHLEY: Chuich
of England layman; b. at Trent Park, Bamet (11
m. n.n.w. of London), Herts, May 19, 1859. He
was educated at the Gynmase litt^raire, Lausanne
(1877-79) and the University of Strasburg (1881-
1883), and in 1884 became a member of Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in
1890. Since 1893 he has been Lord Almoner's
reader in Arabic in the University of Cambridge.
In addition to minor studies, he has written A
Short Commentary on the Book of Daniel (Cambridge,
1892) and the Hymn of the Soul Contained in the
Syriac Acts of St, Thomas, Reedited vrith an EngliA
TranslaUon, in Cambridge Texts and Studia,
V (1897).
BEVAN, LLEWELYN DAVID: Congregation-
alist; b. at lianelly (15 m. s.e. of Carmarthen),
Carmarthenshire, Wales, Sept. 11, 1842. He
77
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Betklns
Beysohlair
studied at New College, London (B.A., University
of London, 1861; LL.B., 1866), and after being
assistant minister to Thomas Binney (q.v.) at the
King's Weigh-House Ch^[)el, London (1865-69),
held pastorates at Tottenham-Court Road Chapel,
London (1869-76), the Brick Presbyterian Church,
New York City (1876-82), and Highbury Quad-
rant Church, London (1882-^86). Since 1886 he
has been pastor of the Collins Street Congrega-
tional Church, Melbourne, Victoria. While in
En^and, he was associated with F. D. Maurice
(q.v.) in the Workingmen's College, London, and
was for several yean a professor in New 0>llege.
BEVERID6E, WILLIAM: Bishop of St. Asaph;
b. at Banow (8 m. n. of Leicester), and baptized
there Feb. 21, 1637; d. m London Mar. 5, 1708.
He was educated at Cambridge; was rector of
Ealing, a west suburb of London, 1661-72; of
St. Peter's, Comhill, London, 1672-1704, when he
became bishop. In his day he was styled " the
great reviver and restorer of primitive piety "
because in his much admired sermons and other
writings he dwelt so affectionately upon the Church
of the eariy centuries. His collected works (in-
complete) are in the Ltbrary of Angl(h-Catholic
Theology in 12 vols. (Oxford, 1842-48) and embrace
mx volumes of sermons; The Doctrine of the Church
of England Consonant to Scripture, Reason, and the
Fathers: A Complete System of Divinity (2 vols.);
Codex eanonum eccLesia primitivcB vindieatus ac
lUustratuB, with the appendices, I. Prolegomena
in Iwoducdv, sive pandectas eanonum ; and II. Prce-
fatio ad annotationes in canones apostolicos
(2 vols.); and the still read Private Thoughts on
Religion, and Church Catechism Explained. His
InstUutionum ehronologioarum libri duo, una cum
Ictidem ariihmetiees chronologica litMie (London,
I was onoe an admired treatise on chronology.
BiBLiooaAPBT: T. H. Home, Memoir of the Life and Wri-
Uttge of W. Beomidoe, London. 1824, also prefixed to hia
works in the Library of Angio-Catholie Thooion, ut sup.;
DKB, nr. 447-448.
BBTER, boiler, HARTMANN: Reformation
preacher of Frankfort, where he was bom Sept. 30,
1516, and died Aug. 11, 1577. In 1534 he went to
Wittenberg as student of philosophy and theology,
and received the master's degree there in 1539 and
became private teacher of mathematics. He re-
turned to his native city as preacher in 1546.
The Refonnation, introduced in Frankfort in 1522
by Hartmann Ibach, had been carried on in the
earlier yeem by compulsion and rash zeal on the
part of its adherents, and in later time was marked
by doctrinal controversies between the Lutheran
and Reformed tendencies. Beyer came with the
determination to win the victory for Lutheranism,
and to his activity was it due that by 1554 a com-
pact Lutheran congregation stood opposed to all
insinuations of Calvinism, while the earlier demo-
cratic and radical tendencies had been suppressed.
In the year named, three congregations of Protes-
tants from the Netheriands, who had first taken
refuge in England but fled that country after the
aeeesBkm of Mary, came to Frankfort under the
lead of Velerandus Polanus and Johannes a Lasco
(qq.v.), bringing with them a Reformed creed and
Reformed practises. Beyer was the soul of an
opposition which induced the city council to de-
prive them of the church they had used for worship
in 1561. In 1596 even the right of holding services
privately was forbidden.
The success of the emperor in the Schmalkald war
and the promulgation of the Augsbiu^ Interim
(May, 1548) brought the Frankfort Reformers face
to face with dangers which for the time quieted
doctrinal disputes. The council accepted the
interim cautiously, but its attempts to forbid
preaching against the new law and against Roman
teachings and practises, to reestablish chmrch
festivals, to prohibit the eating of meat on fast-
days, and like measures met with determined and
courageous resistance from Beyer and his col-
leagues. The former repeatedly expressed his con-
viction that church ordinances could be established
only with the consent of the congregation. The
struggle went on till 1577, but the preachers
gained the victory.
Beyer issued two pseudonymous writings against
the Roman Catholics in 1551 and while in Witten-
berg prepared a treatise on mathematics. His
sermons are preserved in forty-nine volumes in
manuscript in Frankfort. They are marked by a
beauty and force of language which make them
powerful even to-day. (0. E. SrBrrzt.)
BnuoaHAPHT: Q. E. Steiti, Dor hJkeriMcho Prddikani,
Hartmann Beyer, Frankfort, 1862.
BETSCHLAGy boi'shlOH, WILLIBALD: Gei^
man Protestant; b. at Frankfort Sept. 5, 1823;
d. at Halle Nov. 26, 1900. He studied at Bonn and
Berlin 1840-44; became vicar at Coblens 1849;
assistant pastor and religious teacher at Treves
1850; court preacher at Carlsruhe 1856; ordinary
professor of theology at Halle 1860; and after 1876
editor of the Deutsche Evangelische Bldtter, an organ
of the so-called Mittelpartei, whose leader he was
till the end of his life. To oppose the ultramontane
aggressions in Germany, he founded in 1886 the
Evangelischer Bund (see Bund, Evanoelibchbr).
Of his very numerous writings, besides sermons,
the following are worthy of mention: Die Chris-
totogie des Neuen Testaments (Berlin, 1866); Die pau-
linische Theodicee Rdm. ix-^ci (Beriin, 1868, 2d
ed., 1895); Die christliche Oemeindeverfassung im
ZeitaUer des Neuen Testaments (Haarlem, 1874);
Zur Johanneischen Frage (Gotha, 1876); the biog-
raphies of his brother, F. W. T. Beyschlag (Au«
dem Leben eines FrUhvoUendeten, 2 parts, Berlin,
1858-59, 6th ed., 1889), of Carl Ulhnann (Gotha,
1867), of Carl Immanuel Nitzsch (Halle, 1872,
2d ed., 1882), and of Albrecht Wolters (1880);
Zur deutschchristlichen Bildung (1880, 2d ed., 1899);
Das Leben Jesu (2 vols., Halle, 1885-86, 4th ed.,
1902); Der Friedensachluss xwischen Deutschland
und Rom (Halle, 1887); Reden in der Erfurter Vor-
Conferenz des evangelischen Bundes (1888); Godo-
fred, ein Mdrchen fUrs deuische Haus (1888);
Luther'a Hausstand in seiner reformaiorisdien
Bedeutung (Barmen, 1888); Die Reformation in
Italien (1888); Die r&mischrkatholischen AnsprHche
an die preussische Volkssehule (1889); Zur Verst&n-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
78
digung iiber den (^riaUichen Voraehungaglavben
(Halle, 1889); ErkenntnUapfade zu Christo (1889);
LHe evangeliache Kirche aU Bundeagenossin wider
die Socialdemokratie (Berlin, 1890); Neuteetament'
liche Theologie (2 vols., 1891-92, 2d ed., 1896;
Eng. transl., New Testament Theology, 2 vols., Ed-
inburgh, 1895, 2d ed., 1896); Christerdekre (Halle,
3d ed., 1903).
Biblioorapht: Consult his autobiography, Aut meinem
Leben, 2 vols., Halle. 1896-08; K. H. Pahnoke. Willibald
Beychlag, ein OedenkblaU, Tflbinsen, 1005.
BEZA, brza, THEODORE.
Early Life (I 1).
Teacher at Lausanne (I 2).
Joumejrs in behalf of the Protestants (fi 3).
Settles in Geneva (| 4).
Events of 1560-63 (fi 5).
Calvin's Successor (| 6).
Course of Events after 1564 (| 7).
The Colloquy of Mampelgart (| 8).
Last Days (S 0).
Humanistic and Historical Writings (S 10).
Theological Works (fi 11).
Besa's Greek New Testament (S 12).
Theodore Beza (Theodore de Bdze or de Besze),
(jenevan Reformer, was bom at V^zelay (8 m. w.s.w.
of Avallon), in Burgundy, June 24, 1519; d. at Ge-
neva Oct. 13, 1605. His father, Pierre de Bdze, royal
governor of V^zelay, descended from a Burgundian
family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot,
was known for her generosity. Theodore's father
had two brothers; one, Nicholas, was member of
Parliament at Paris; the other, Claude, was abbot
of the Cistercian monastery Froimont in the dio-
cese of Beauvais. Nicholas, who was
z. Early unmarried, on a visit to V^zelay was
Life. so pleajsed with Theodore that, with
the permission of the parents, he took
him to Paris to educate him there. From Paris
Theodore was sent to Orleans (Dec, 1528) to enjoy
the instruction of the famous German teacher
Melchior Wolmar. He was received into Wolmar's
house, and the day on which this took place
was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.
Young Beza soon followed his teacher to Bourges,
whither the latter was called by the duchess Mar-
garet of Angoul^me, sister of Francis I. Bourges
was one of the places in France in which the heart
of the Reformation beat the strongest. When, in
1534, Francis I issued his edict against ecclesias-
tical innovations) Wolmar returned to Germany,
and, in accordance with the wish of his father,
Beza went back to Orleans to study law, and spent
four years there (1535-39). This pursuit had little
attraction for him; he enjoyed more the reading of
the ancient classics, especially Ovid, Catullus, and
Tibullus. He received the degree of licentiate in
law Aug. 11, 1539, and, as his father desired, went
to Paris, where he began practise. His relatives
had obtained for him two benefices, the proceeds
of which amoimted to 700 golden crowns a year; and
his uncle had promised to make him his successor.
Beza spent two happy years at Paris and soon
gained a prominent position in literary circles. To
escape the many temptations to which he was
exposed, with the knowledge of two friends, he
became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl
of humble descent, Qaudlne Denosse, promising to
make this engagement public as soon as his drcum-
stances would allow it. He published a collectioD
of Latin poems. Juvenilia^ which made him famous,
and he was everywhere considered one of the best
Latin poets of his time. But he fell ill and his
distress of body revealed to him his spiritual needs.
Gradually he came to the knowledge of salvation in
Christ, which he apprehended with a joyous faith.
He then resolved to sever his connections of the
time, and went to Geneva, the French dty of
refuge for the Evangelicals, where he arrived with
Qaudine Oct. 23, 1548. .
He was heartily received by Calvin, who had
met him already in Wolmar's house, and was at
once publicly and solemnly married in the church.
Beza was at a loss for immediate occupation, so
he went to Tubingen to see his former teacher
Wolmar. On his way home he visited Viret
at Lausanne, who at once detained
a. Teacher him and brought about his appoint-
at Lausanne, ment as professor of Greek at the
academy there (Nov., 1549). In spite
of the arduous work which fell to his lot, Beza
foimd time to write a Biblical drama, Abraham
Sacrifiant (published at Geneva, 1550; Eng.
transl. by Arthur Golding, London, 1577, ed.,
with introduction, notes, and the French text of
the original, M. W. Wallace, Toronto, 1906), in
which he contrasted Catholidsm with Protes-
tantism, and the work was well received. In June,
1551, he added a few psalms to the Froich vermon
of the Psalms begun by Marot, which was also veiy
successful. About the same time be published bis
PassavantitLS, a satire directed against Pierre Lizet of
ill repute, formerly president of the Parliament of
Paris, and principal originator of the " fiery cham-
ber " {chambre ardente), who, being at the time
(1551) abbot of St. Victor near Paris, was eag^r
to acquire the fame of a subduer of heresy by pub-
lishing a number of polemical writing?. Of a more
serious character were two controversies in whicb
Beza was involved at this time. The first con-
cerned the doctrine of predestination and the con-
troversy of Calvin with Bolsec (see Calvin, John;
BoLSEC, J£r6me HermI»). The second referred
to the burning of Michael Servetus (q.v.) at
Geneva Oct. 27, 1553. In defense of Calvin and
the (jrenevan magistrates, Beza published in 1554
the work De htrreticis a civUi magietratu fnmiendis
(translated into French in 1560).
In 1557 Beza took a special interest in the Wal-
densians of Piedmont, who were harassed by the
French government, and in their behalf went with
Farel to Bern, Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, thence to
Strasburg, Milmpelgart, Baden, and Gdppingen. In
Baden and Gdppingen, Beza and Farel had to declare
themselves concerning their own
3. JoumeyB and the Waldensians' views on the
in behalf of sacrament, and on May 14, 1557, they
the Protes- presented a written declaration in
tants. which they clearly stated their posi-
tion. Thisdedaration waa well received
by the Lutheran theologians, but was strongly
disapproved in Bern and Zurich. In the au-
tumn of 1557 Beza undertook a second journey
with Farel to Worms by way of Strasburg to bring
70
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Besa
about an intercession of the Evangelical princes
of the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren
at Paris. With Melanchthon and other theologians
then assembled at Worms, Beza considered a union
of all Protestant Christians, but this proposal was
decidedly negatived by Zurich and Bern. False
reports having reached the German princes that
the hostilities against the Huguenots in France had
ceased, no embassy was sent to the court of France,
and Beza undertook another journey in the interest
of the Huguenots, going with Farel, Johannes Bud-
ddBUS, and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frank-
fort, where the sending of an embassy to Paris was
resolved upon.
U]X>n his return to Lausanne, Beza was greatly
disturbed. In union with many ministers and
professors in city and country, Viret at last thought
of establishing a consistory and of introducing a
church discipline which should inflict excommu-
nication especially at the celebration of the com-
munion. But the Bernese would have no Cal-
vinistic church government. This caused many
difficulties, and Beza thought it best
4. Settles in (1558) to settle at Geneva. Here
Geneva, he occupied at first the chair of
Greek in the newly established acad-
emy, and after Calvin's death also that of theology;
besides this he was obliged to preach. He com-
pleted the revision of Olivetan's translation of the
New Testament, begun some years before. In 1559
he undertook another journey in the interest of
the Huguenots, this time to Heidelberg; about the
same time he had to defend Calvin against Joachim
Westphal in Hamburg and Tileman Hesshusen
(qq.v.). More important than this polemical activ-
ity was Beza's statement of his own confession. It
was originally prepared for his father in justifica-
tion of his course and published in revised form
to promote Evangelical knowledge among Beza's
countrymen. It was printed in Latin in 1560 with
a dedication to Wolmar. An English translation
was published at London 1563, 1572, and 1585.
TranaUtions into German, Dutch, and Italian
were also issued.
In the mean time things took such shape in
France that the happiest future for Protestantism
seemed possible. King Antony of Navarre, yield-
ing to the urgent requests of Evangelical noblemen,
declared his willingness to listen to a prominent
teacher of the Church. Beza, a French nobleman
and head of the academy in the metropolis of French
Protestantism, was invited to Castle N^rac, but he
oould not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the
heart of the king. In the year following (1561)
Beza represented the Evangelicals at the Colloquy
of Poissy (q.v.), and in an eloquent manner defended
the principles of the Evangelical faith.
5. EventB of The colloquy was without result,
1560-63. but Beza as the head and advocate of
all Reformed congregations of France
was revered and hated at the same time. The
queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was
opened at St. Germain Jan. 28, 1562, eleven days
after the proclamation of the famous January edict
which granted important privileges to those of the
Refonned faith. But the colloquy was broken off
when it became evident that the Catholic party
was preparing (after the massacre of Vassy, Mar. 1)
to overthrow Protestantism. Beza hastily issued a
circular letter (Mar. 25) to all Reformed congrega-
tions of the empire, and with Cond^ and his troops
went to Orleans. It was necessary to proceed
quickly and energetically. But there were neither
soldiers nor money. At the request of Cond^, Beza
visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both. He also
wrote a manifesto in which he showed the justice of
the Reformed cause. As one of the messengers to
collect soldiers and money among his coreUgionists,
Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany,
and Switzerland. He went to Strasburg and Basel,
but met with failure. He then returned to Geneva,
which he reached Sept. 4. He had hardly been
there fourteen days when he was called once more
to Orleans by D'Andelot. The campaign was be-
coming more successful; but the publication of the
unfortunate edict of pacification which Cond^
accepted (Mar. 12, 1563) filled Beza and all Protes-
tant France with horror.
For twenty-two months Beza had been absent
from Geneva, and the interests of school and Church
there and especially the condition of Calvin made
it necessary for him to return. For there was no
one to take the place of Calvin, who was sick and
unable longer to bear the burden resting on him.
Calvin and Beza arranged to perform their duties
jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of Calvin
occurred soon afterward (May 27,
6. Calvin's 1564). As a matter of course Beza was
Successor, his successor. Until 1580 Beza was
not only mod^ateur de la compagnie
des pasteurSf but also the real soul of the great
institution of learning at Geneva which Calvin had
founded in 1559, consisting of a gymnasium and
an academy. As long as he lived, Beza was inter-
ested in higher education. The Protestant youth
for nearly forty years thronged his lecture-room to
hear his theological lectures, in which he expounded
the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy. As a counselor
he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors,
(jreneva is indebted to him for the founding of a
law school in which Francois Hotman, Jules Pacius,
and Denys Grodefroy, the most eminent jurists of
the century, lectured in turn (cf . Charles Borgeaud,
VAcadimie de Calvin, Geneva, 1900).
As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful,
not only in carrying on his work but also in giving
peace to the Church at (Geneva. The magistrates
had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the
direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which
were the " ministers of the word " and '' the con-
sistory," was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal
controversy arose after 1564. The discussions
concerned questions of a practical, social, or eccle-
siastical nature, such as the supremacy of the
magistrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching,
and the obligation of the pastors to sub-
7. Course of mit to the majority of the compagnie
Events after dea pasteura, Beza obtruded his will in
1564. no way upon his associates, and took
no harsh measiu'es against injudicious
or hot-headed colleagues, though sometunes he took
their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he
Beza
Bianohini
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
80
often experienced an opposition so extreme that
he threatened to resign. Although he was in-
clined to take the part of the magistrates, he
knew how to defend the rights and independ-
ence of the spiritual power when occasion arose,
without, however, conceding to it such a pre-
ponderating influence as did Calvin. His ac-
tivity was great. He mediated between the com-
pagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually
asked his advice even in political questions. He
corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed
party in Europe. After the massacre of St. Bar-
tholomew (1572), he used his influence to give to the
refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva. About
this time he wrote his De jure nuiffiatratutun, in
which he emphatically protested against tyranny
in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legiti-
mate for a people to oppose an unworthy magis-
tracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use
weapons and depose them. To sum up: Without be-
ing a great dogmatician like his master, nor a crea-
tive genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had quali-
ties which made him famous as humanist, exegete,
orator, and leader in religious and political affairs,
and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists
in all Europe. In the various controversies into
which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess
of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernar-
dino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at
Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained
some objectionable points on polygamy), and
Sebastian Gastellio at Basel (on account of his
Latin and French translations of the Bible) had
especially to suffer. With Reformed France Beza
continued to maintain the closest relations. He
was the moderator of the general synod which
met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided
not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge
the civil government as head of the Church, as the
Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher
Pierre Ramus demanded; it also decided to con-
firm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's
Supper (by the expression: " substance of the
body of Christ") against Zwinglianism, which
caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza
and Ramus and Bullinger. In the following year
(May, 1572) he took an important part in the na-
tional synod at Nimes. He was also interested in
the controversies which concerned the Augsburg
Confession in Gennany, especially after 1564, on
the doctrine of the person of Christ and the sacra-
ment, and published several works against West-
phal, Hesshusen, Selnecker, Johann Brenz, and
Jakob Andreft. This made him, especially after
1571, hated by all those who adhered to Luther-
anism in opposition to Melanchthon.
The last polemical conflict of importance Beza
encountered from the exclusive Lutherans was at
the Colloquy of MOmpelgart (q.v.), Mar. 14-27,
1586, to which he had been invit^ by the Lutheran
Count Frederick of Wttrttemberg at the wish of the
French noblemen who had fl^ to MOmpelgart.
As a matter of course the intended union which
was the purpose of the colloquy was not brought
about; nevertheless it called forth serious develop-
ments within the Reformed Church. When the
edition of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared
by J. Andre&, was published, Samuel Huber, of
Burg near Bern, who belonged to the
8. The Col- Lutheranizing faction of the Swiss
loquy of clergy, took so great offense at the
Miimpd- supralapsarian doctrine of predesti-
gatt. nation propounded at MOmpelgart
by Beza and Musculus that he felt
it to be his duty to denounce Musculus to the
magistrates of Bern as an innovator in docWine.
To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a
colloquy between Huber and Musculus (Sept. 2,
1587), in which the former represented the mii-
verssilism, the latter the particularism, of grace.
As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was ar-
ranged at Bern, Apr. 15-18, 1588, at which the
defense of the accepted system of doctrine was
at the start put into Beza's hands. The three
delegates of the Helvetic cantons who presided at
the debate declared in the end that Beza had
substantiated the teaching propounded at MOm-
pelgart as the orthodox one, and Huber was dis-
missed from his office.
After that time Beza's activity was confined
more and more to the affairs of his home. His
faithful wife Claudine had died childless in 1588,
a few days before he went to the Bern Disputation.
Forty years they had lived happily
9. Last together. He contracted, on the ad-
Days. vice of his friends, a second marriage
with Catharina del Piano, a Cienoese
widow, in order to have a heljHnate in his declining
years. Up to his sixty-fifth year he enjoyed ex-
cellent health, but after that a gradutd sinking
of his vitality became perceptible. He was active
in teaching till Jan., 1597. The saddest experience
in his old days was the conversion of King Henry IV
to Roman Catholidsm, in spite of his most earnest
exhortations (1593). Strange to say, in 1596 the
report was spread by the Jesuits in Gennany,
France, England, and Italy that Beza and the
Church of Geneva had retiimed into the bosom of
Rome, and Beza replied in a satire that revealed
the possession still of his old fire of thought and
vigor of expression. He was not buried, like
Calvin, in the general cemetery, Plain-Palais (for
the Savoyards had threatened to abduct his body
to Rome), but at the direction of the magistrates,
in the monajstery of St. Pierre.
In Beza's literary activity as well as in his life,
distinction must be made between the period of the
humanist (which ended with the publication of hiB
JuvenUia) and that of the ecclesiastic. But later
productions like the humanistic, biting,
10. Human- satirical Passavantiua and his Com-
istic and ptairUe de Measire Pierre lAzet . . .
Hiatorical prove that in later 3rears he occasion-
WritingB. ally went back to his first love. In
his old age he published his Cato
ceneoriua (1591), and revised his PoeTnata, from
which he pmrged juvenile eccentricities. Of his
historiographical works, aside from his Iconea (1580),
which have only an ioonographical value, mention
may be made of the famous Histoire ecdiHastique
dee ^glieea riformiee au Royawne de France (1580),
and his biography of Calvin, with which must be
81
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blanohlnl
named bis edition of Calvin's Epistola et responsa
:i575).
But all these humanistic and historical studies
sre BurpasBed by bis theological productions (con-
tained in Tractationes theologica). In these Beza
appears the perfect pupil or the alter
XX. Theo- ego of Calvin. His view of life is
logical deterministic and the basis of his
Works, religious thinking is the predestinate
recognition of the necessity of all tem-
poral existence as an effect of the absolute,
eternal, and inunutable will of God, so that even
the fall of the human race appears to him essential
to the divine plan of the world. In most lucid
manner Beaa shows in tabular form the connection
of the religious views which emanated from this
fundamental supralapsarian mode of thought.
This he added to his highly instructive treatise
Summa toUue Christianiemi.
Of no leas importance are the contributions of
Besa to Biblical science. In 1565 he issued an
edition of the Greek New Testament, accompanied
in parallel colunms by the text of the Vulgate and a
translation of his own (already published as early
as 1556). Annotations were added, also previ-
ously published, but now he greatly enriched and
enlarged them. In the preparation of
12. Beza's this edition of the Greek text, but much
Greek New more in the preparation of the second
Testament, edition which he brought out in 1582,
Besa may have availed himself of the
hdp of two very valuable manuscripts. One is
known as the Codex Beza or Cantabrigeneia, and
was later presented by Besa to the University of
Cambridge; the second is the Codex Claromontanua,
which Besa had found in Clermont (now in the
National Libraiy at Paris). It was not, however,
to these sources that Beza was chiefly indebted,
but rather to the previous edition of the eminent
Robert Stephens (1550), itself based in great meas-
ure upon one of the later editions of Erasmus.
Besa's labors in this direction were exceedingly
helpful to those who came after. The same thing
may be asserted with equal truth of his Latin
version and of the copious notes with which it was
accompanied. The former is said to have been
published over a himdred times. It is to be re-
gretted that the author's view of the doctrine of
predestination exercised upon the interpretation
of Scripture too preponderating an influence.
However, there is no question that Beza added
much to a dear understanding of the New Testa-
ment. EuokNB Choist.
BnuoasAPsr: J. W. Baum, 7*. Baa naeh handMehrifUidttn
wd mdirtH gUiduwitio^n Quetten, Leipsic, 1843-62 (mas-
terly, bat extends only to 1563); hia life by Heppe is in
▼oL ▼! of Ltbm und autaevOhUe Sekriften der Voter der
Ttformimrtgm Kirch§, Elberfeld, 1861 (complete and excel-
Irat, inferior only to Baum); A. de la Faye, De vita et
«Mk T. Bexm, Geneva. 1606 (by a farorite pupil of Besa);
J<r6me Bobee. Hiatoire de la ine^ nunare, doctrine et d&-
bordoMiilt deT.de Btae, Paris, 1582, republished Geneva,
1835 (Roman Catholic, a scurrilous and malignant libel):
P. C. SehloMer, LAen dee Theodor Beea wid dee Peter
iferfyr VermioU, HeidelberK. 1809; E. and E. Haa«, La
/VvMoc proteetanU, 2d ed. by Bordier. ii, 52Q-540, Paris.
1879; H. M. MoCraeken. Livee of the Leadere of Our Church
Unitereal, from the Germ, of F. Piper, pp. 352-362,
Phihdelphaa. 1879; 8eha£F, ChrieOan Chwrch, vol. vii. pas-
aim, especially ehi4>. xix; Moeller, Christian Church, « ol.
iii, passim; C. y. Proosdij, T. Beaa medearbeUer en opvol-
oer van Calvijn, Leyden, 1895; H. M. Baird, Theodore
Beaa, (he CoutteeUor of the French Reformation, New York.
1899 (the one book in English, and a worthy treatment
of the subject), cf. his Riee of Ihe Huquenote, passim,
ib. 1879; A. Bemus, T. de BUe d Laueanne, l«auHanne,
19(X); E. Choisy, L*£lat duriUen calviniate it Oenive au
tempa deT.de BHe, Geneva, 1902; Cambridoe Modem
Hietory, vol. ii. The Reformation, passim, vol. iii, London,
1904; A ThSodore de Biae U606-100S), CSeneva, 1906.
BEZOLD, b^"26ld', CARL ERNST CHRISTIAN:
German Orientalist; b. at Donauwdrth (25 m. n.n.w.
of Augsburg), Bavaria, May 18, 1859. He waa
educated at the universities of Munich (1876-79),
Leipsic (1879-80; Ph.D., 1881), and Strasburg
(1881), and became privat-docent at Munich in
1883. He continued his studies at Rome in the
spring of 1884 and at London in the summer of
1882 and 1887, while from 1888 to 1894 he was
employed in the British Museum. Since the latter
year he has been professor of Oriental philology
and director of the Oriental seminar at the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg. In 1884 he foimded, at
Leipsic, the Zeitackrift fur Keilsckriftforachungf
which was continued in the following year as the
Zeitachrift fur Aasyriologie, and which he has edited
to the present time. He likewise edited the second
edition of C. F. A. Dillmann's Grammatik der
dihiopiachen Sprache (Leipsic, 1899) and the Orienta-
liache Studien in honor of the seventieth birthday
of T. NOldeke (2 vols., Giessen, 1906), and was
the founder and editor of the Semitiatiache Studien
(Berlin, 1894 sqq.). In 1904 he became one of the
editors of the Archiv fur Religionaunaaenachaft.
He has also written Die groaae Dariuainachrift am
Fdaen von Behiatun (Leipsic, 1881); Die Ach&meni-
deninachriften (1882); Die Schatzhdhle, aj/riach und
deutach (2 vols., 1883-88); The Ordinary Canon of
the Maaa according to the Uae of the Coptic Church,
in C. A. Swainson's Oreek Liturgiea (London, 1884);
Kurzgefaaater Ueberblick iiber die hobyloniachroja-
ayriache Ldteratur (Leipsic, 1886); Catalogue of the
Cuneiform Tableta in ihe Kouyunjik Collection of
the Britiah Muaeum (5 vols., London, 1889-99);
The Tellrel'Amama Tableta in the Britiah Muaeum
(1892); Oriental Diplomacy (1893); Ninive und
Babylon (Bielefeld, 190S);Diehdbyloniachraaayriachen
KeUinachriften und ihre Bedetdung fUrdaa AUe Teator
men^ (Tubingen, 1904); Babyloniach-Aaayriache Texte
aberaetzt : t. Die Schdpfungalegende (Bonn, 1904); and
Kebra Nagaat, die Herrlichkeit der KGnige (Ethiopic
text and German translation, Munich, 1905).
BIANCHINI, bi''an-ki'n! (BLANCHINUS), GIU-
SEPPE: Italian Biblical scholar; b. at Verona
Sept. 9, 1704; d. after 1760. He was a member
of the Congregation of the Oratory, and the author
of two works bearing on the history of the Itala:
PaaUerium duplex juxta antiquam Ualicam ver-
aionem (Rome, 1740) and Evangeliarium qua-
druplex Latince veraionia antiqua aeu veteria Italica
(2 vols., 1749). The detailed statements in the
first volume are valuable, but the text is inferior
to Sabatier's Bibliorum aacrorum Latince veraionia
antiqucB (Reims, 1739 sqq.). The second, con-
taining some older codices, supplements Sabatier.
K. Benbath.
Bible
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
82
BIBLE.
The Bible in the Early Church (S 1).
In the Middle Ages and Reformation Period (S 2).
Modem Views and Criticism (S3).
Wherein the Bible is Unique (S 4).
The word " Bible " (from Gk. hiblia, " books ")
or " Holy Scripture " is the customary tenn in
Church and theology for the ecclesiastically ac-
knowledged collection of the Old and the New
Testament writings. As the writings of the Old
Testament canon are indicated in the New Testa-
ment by the term "The Scriptures" or "The
Scripture," so in the Middle Ages the whole was
designated by " The Books." By a misunder-
standing of the Greek form, the word was received
into the modem languages as a singular of feminine
gender.
The separation of these writings from all other
literature as " the Book of Books " is derived from
the practise of Jesus, who, with his contem-
poraries, acknowledged the authority of the Old
Testament literature (M. Kaehler, Jestis und das
AUe Testament, Leipsic, 1895). The Old Testa-
ment was conveyed, in t^e Greek translation of the
Septuagint, as the Word of God, to the Gentile Chris-
tians by the followers of Jesus. At the latest in the
beginning of the third century, the New
I. The Bible Testament canon was added to the Old
in the Early Testament, as is witnessed by the Syr-
Church, lac version (see Canon of Scripture).
And from that time the bipartite col-
lection was always treated as a whole, although the
uncertainty about some books (the so-called Ariti-
legomena) was not forgotten during the Middle Ages,
was recognized by Luther and other Reformers,
and was treated from a dogmatic standpoint
by Martin Chemnitz (Examen concUii Trideniini,
Frankfort, 1596). The controversy about the Old
Testament Apocrypha has never been settled.
What esteem the Bible enjoyed in the ancient
catholic Church is seen from its controlling position
in divine service, in the reading of Scripture, and in
the delivery of sermons founded on it, but especially
from the labor spent in translating it (see Bible
Versions, A).
It must not be imagined that the Middle Ages
did not rightly appreciate the Bible. It is necessary
to take into acooimt the great difficulties which
confronted the Church at that time in forming an
ecclesiastical language, and even a literary lan-
guage, for the Germanic and Slavic nations. In
the absence of modem philology the efforts made
are worthy of acknowledgment. The
2. In the hierarchical development of the Church
Middle tended to paralyze it by enforcing
Ages and uniformity in use of the church-lan-
Reforma- guage at the expense of intelligibility,
tion Period, and in the interest of an easier man-
agement put the " heretical book "
into the keeping of the ecclesiastical magistracy.
But the Reformation introduced a new epoch of
wide propagation and appreciation of the Bible.
The efforts of the Reformers to make this book
accessible to all Christians were taken up by Pietism
under Spener; the founding of the Canstein Bible
Institute (see Bible Societies, II, 1; Canstein,
Karl Hildebrand, Baron of) and the sending out
of the first missionaries opened the double way by
which the Bible, especially hi the nineteenth cen-
tury, has obtained its commanding position in the
world; knowledge of the Bible has been spread by
the Bible Societies (q.v.) through hundreds of new
translations (a work in which Englishmen and
Scotchmen, well read in the Scriptures, have dis-
tinguished themselves). The Bible has become
in the fullest sense the people's book in all Prot-
estant countries of the Old World, and the same
process is being repeated among the non-Christian
nations, to which missionary cooperation gives
the Bible and with it often also an alphabet and
a literary language.
Tlus zeal for the propagation of the Bible has
its root in the unique importance which the theology
of the Reformation ascribes to it. In opposiUon
to the ecclesiastical position of Rome, the Evan-
gelicals developed their doctrine of the "noraia-
tive or dedsive authority of Scripture" on the basis
of the uncontroverted character of the Scripture
as revelation. This high regard has as its founda-
tion the doctrine of " verbal inspiration " (see
Inspiration), which ascribes to the Bible all
requisite qualities, such as " perfection " in com-
municating the '' knowledge necessary for salva-
tion," " transparency," and the " power of inter-
preting itself by itself." Unobserved, the body of
pure doctrine, by the help of which the renewal
of evangelical activity had been acoomplished,
became transformed into a set of doctrines which
were mechanically combined, regardless of their
historical origin. In opposition to the adulterated
tradition of Rome, Protestantism
3. Modem could happily refer to the bulwark
Views and of Scripture, in which Roman Catho-
Criticism. lies also acknowledged divine reve-
lation. But evangelical theology first
succumbed to the attack which the " Enlighten-
ment " (Aufkldrung), about the middle of the eight-
eenth century, made upon all history and tiidi-
tion and especially upon historical revelation. In
vain the effort was made to prove dogmatically
the immediate divine origin of the Bible-letter,
while proof was also given in an ever-cogent man-
ner that the Bible is a production of human
authorship and tradition. This crisis was gradu-
ally overcome by the victory gained for the
'' historico-critical " method of treating the Bible,
but the right of historical revelation was estab-
lished over against "natural morality and re-
ligion." As in earlier times historical develoinnent
within the Bible was now and then perceived
(e.g., by Cocceius and Bengel), so now students
see in its writings documents of divine revelation
which entered into the human worid as historical
facts (so the Eriangen School). Only one group
of theologians of the nineteenth century (e.g.,
Hengstenberg and Rudelbach) went back again to
the old doctrine of verbal inspiration; most investi-
gators assumed a new attitude toward Scripture.
Documents to have value must be shown to be an-
cient and to be derived from a time near the events
they relate; there must be testimony to their genu-
ineness and credibility. But such merely histor-
83
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible
ical consideration of the Bible proved insufficient
and dangerous in the nex|; period. '' Liberal the-
ology. endowed with technical skill/' showed error
in Biblical tradition from a critical point of view,
and in place of the Biblical evidences it substi-
tuted conjecturally the details of a natural history
of religion, which it composed after the Hegelian
fomfiula to the effect that in the " historical revela-
tion " there is to be seen the development of
a religious idea, an act in the drama of the natural
develoiHnent of humanity (so F. C. Baur, E.
Reuss, and Wellhausen). The results of this mod-
em critician were propagated among the people
through the press and by 'pamphlets in a wild
confusion along with the older, would-be enlight-
ening defamations of the Bible (so by Reimarus,
Venturini, and Bahrdt). Over against this sprang
up a comprehensive literature which sought to gain
those who were estranged from the Bible and to
reassure disquieted readers. It was based on an
acknowledgment of the part the revelation of God
has played in the education of the race, and in a
scientific manner discarded the unjustified con-
clusions of the so-called constructive criticism,
at least as far as the New Testament is concerned.
In this intellectual battle it became evident that
the estimate of the Bible stands in an indissolubly
reciprocal relation to the position taken toward
positive Christianity in general.
It is therefore absolutely necessary (especially
for the ministry and for ecclesiastical instruction)
to have a dear insight into that which makes our
Bible the unique " Book of Books." This is ob-
tained by observing what it is that has given the
Bible its historical position. Throughout the whole
oouTse of its working in the human race the Bible
appears only in close connection with the Church,
the essential activity of which, according to the
Augsburg Confession (vii), is the preaching of " the
Word." The common object of both is to convey
the revelation of the living God. Whoever has
become a believer in the Gospel and recalLs his
experience perceives also that the service of the
Church by which he was led to it was inspired by
the Bible, and further observation of life and history
teaches that theeflicacyof the work of the Church
is dependent on the use it makes of the Bible.
For only in the Scripture is found the imchangeable
and therefore authoritative form of
4. Wherein preaching which first induced faith
thte Bible is in Christ and continues so to do. On
Unique, the other hand, the Christian also
recognizes that his personal relation
to the Bible is due to the " living voice of the Gos-
pel " and that through the Church he comes into
personal relation with the Bible. He understands
also that the Bible is the book of the Church (so
Luther), but not a text-book or devotional book
which in all its parts is immediately useful to the
individual Christian. In it are found productions
which are far remote from one another in date,
which originally were intended for entirely different
circles with quite peculiar wants. On this account
only the cooperation of different gifts and the dili-
gence of generations working on a scientific basis
can bring out its full content. Under the assump-
tion of this service of the Church each living Chris-
tian has the possibility of coming thus through his
Bible into inunediate touch with the historical
revelation of his God from the promise of the cove-
nant to the beginning of the mission to the Gentiles.
While historical inquiry establishes the historical
continuation, and divides the whole Bible into
single historical acooimts and documents, the view
of most Bible-readers is directed only to the Bible
as a whole, and seeks in every fragment a word of
God applicable to immediate questions and wants.
These divergent interests must be united by observ-
ing that the individual parts, by being compre-
hended as '' the Bible," receive a new worth, and
that in this very form they obtain an imperishable,
effective continuity, instead of being merely indi-
vidual moniunents of past times. The collection
is not an accidental one, but transcribes in char-
acteristic features the life of the human race as
it developed under the influence of the history
of revelation. To him therefore who sees in
reliance on God the stay of human life, the Bible
will also be the book of the human race. For
Christian belief the Bible appears thus as the great
fact in which Gkxi has inseparably interwoven the
faith-awakening knowledge of his revelation with
the history of the human race, and in it is discerned
the dear testimony to the goal of the human race
and the conquering offer of God's grace. On this
account it remains the historical and at the same
time the unchangeable form of the indispensable
means of grace. M. Kaehler.
Bibuoorapbt: M. Arnold, Ldterahare and Dogma^ latest ed.,
New York, 1902 (a rich book, but on rationalistic basis;
it called forth many replies which were answered in Qod
and the BibU, 1884); J. H. Crooker. The New Bible and
ii» New Ueee (Unitarian, ultrarationalistic); G. J. Metx-
ger, Der alte Bibelolaube und der modeme Vemunftglaube,
Stuttgart, 1893 (evangelical); J. T. Sunderland. The
Bible , . . iU Place among the Sacred Books of the World,
New York, 1893 (Unitarian); J. Denney, Studiea in The-
ology, London. 1895 (by a leader in English evangelical
thought); A. M. Fairbaim, Place of Chriet in Modem
Theology, London. 1896 (moderate in its theological posi-
tion); P. Miiller. Freieinn und Bibelglaube, Hamburg.
1896; W. Sanday, InapiraHon, London. 1896 (advanced
in the O. T. part, oonsenrative in treating the N. T.);
It L. Ottley. Aapeeta of the Old Testament, London. 1898;
T. Zahn, Die bleibende BedeiUung des neulestamenilichen
Kanons fOr die Kirche, Loipaic. 1898; S. Bemfeld. Das
Budi der BUcher, Berlin, 1899; C. A. Briggs. General In-
troduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899
(comprehensive and scholarly); R. S. MacArthur. Bible
Diffletdties and their AUeviaiive Interpretations, Boston,
1898; idem, The Old Book and the Old Faith, ib. 1899 (de-
cidedly conservative); L. W. Batten. The Old Testament
from the Modem Point of View, New York, 1901; R. Q.
Moulton, Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible,
Boston, 1901; P. Gardner, Historic View of the New
Testament, London, 1904 (from a scientific standpoint);
F. Bettex. Die Bibel Gottes Wort, 3d ed.. Stuttgart, 1903,
Eng. transl., Cincinnati. 1904; J. E. Carpenter. The Bible
in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1903 (scholarly and
reverent, but on scientific basis): J. Haussleiter. Die Auto-
ritat der Bibel, Munich [1904], 1905; M. Dods. The BibU,
tte Origin and Nature, New York, 1905 (Dr. Dods is well
known as a conservative critic); J. M. McMullen. The
Supremacy of the Bible, ib. 1906; W. Barry. The Tradition
of Scripture, its Origin, Authority, and Interpretation, Lon-
don, 1906; C. F. Kent, Origin and Permanent Value of the
O. T., New York, 1966; A. T. Pierson. The BibU and
Spirihud Criticism, ib. 1906; G. F. Wright, Scientific
Confirmations of O. T. History, ib. 1906; W. C. Selleck,
New Appreciation of (he Bible, Chicago, 1907; H. F. Wa*
ring. Chri^ianity and its Bible, ib. 1907.
Bible ChriBtianB
Bible r
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
84
BIBLE CHRISnAllS (BRYAHITES).
WillUm O'Bryao (f 1).
Early Organisation and Growth (f 2).
Dianennon (f 3).
Extension to America and Australia (f 4).
Union with the Methodists in Canada (16).
Union in Australia and England (f 6).
Bible Christians or Bryanites are popular names
of a body of Christians officially known as
the Bible Christian Connection. The designation
" Bryanites " is from their founder, William
O'Bryan; that of " Bible Christians " was due to
the persistent use of the Bible in private devotions
and public services by a peasantry in general but
scantily provided with the book, and to the consistent
practise of its precepts by their early ministry.
The sect has usually been classed with the Method-
ists and is now united with them.
William O'Bryan, the founder, was bom in
Gunwen (near Lostwithiel, 23 m. w. of Plymouth),
Cornwall, England, Feb. 6, 1778. He was the son
of a yeoman, was possessed of a vigorous mind and
retentive memory, and, having a good elementary
education, was, intellectually, con-
X. William siderably above his class. His home
O'Bryan. influences were devoutly religious
and resulted in his conversion at
eighteen, when he began at once to exhort. He
was licensed shortly i^ter as a " local preacher "
with the hope of entering the Wesleyan itinerancy;
meanwhile he engaged in business.
Serious illness (1804) reawakened in him a pro-
found conviction of his call, which delay and oppo-
sition had weakened for a time. For live years
more he was content to work on the Bodmin circuit
as a local preaeher of the Wesleyans, while still
in business. His fine presence, courteous manner,
great magnetism, and above all his fervent godli-
ness gave him much popularity as a preacher.
In his keen hunting for souls, he grew restive imder
restraint, overstepped the boimdary of the circuit
and plunged into the " wild wastes of Cornwall and
North Devon," where the voice of Methodism had
never been heard.
This in the mind of the Wesleyan authorities was
a " dangerous irregularity " of method, against
which Mr. O'Bryan had been cautioned, and, when
he appeared at the district meeting as a candidate
for the itinerancy, caused his ** first " rejection;
the financial responsibility which would be inciured
by accepting a married man, as he now was, was
named as the " second " cause for his " final "
rejection. He at once entered unoccupied fields
in a new campaign. His unquestioned moral
uprightness, indefatigable labors, and unsparing
•elf-sacrifice made his evangelical message remark-
ably successful; and the generosity which prompted
him to urge all his converts to enter the Church
that had rejected him from its highest office of
ministry compels admiration. A tendency to
despotic rule, to which by nature and force of
circumstances he was inclined (see below, § 3), led
to a separation in 1829 from the Connection which
he had foimded, and in 1835 to his emigration to
the United States with residence in New York City.
He revisited his spiritual children more than once
and was heartily welcomed. A generous poisioD
was provided for his support by the body. He
died in Brooklyn, Jan. 8, 1868, and was buried in
Greenwood Cemetery.
The germ of the Bible Cliristian denomination
consisted of twenty-two persons, converts of Mr.
O'Bryan, who were organized into a society on
Oct. 9, 1815, in the house of John Thome, Shebbear,
Devonshire, En^and. Within a year this number
became eighteen ministers and 1,500 members;
and at the sixth year seventy-eight ministers and
6,200 members. To carry forward a work extend-
ing BO rapidly, Mr. O'Bryan adopted
2. Early John Wesley's plan and '' chose and
Organiza- appointed " both men and women as
tion and itinerants. The proportion of women
Growth, was large in the early history of the
Church, and their work was eminently
successful; yet their munber steadily declined
and ultimately none remained in the itinerancy.
With this working force evangelism was extended
into Devonshire and Cornwall, the Sdlly and Chan-
nel Islands, and later by emigration (1820-30) to
America.
Organization into societies and circuits required
meeting-places and chapels — at first preaching was
mostly in the field, the village green, in hired halls,
and in houses — and all property acquired for such
purpose was held in Mr. O'Bryan's name. He also
presided over the conference, the first being held
at Launceston (1819), and composed of ministers
only. To all this absolutism, there
3. Dis- was serious objection, and an effort
■ension. to secure an amended deed by which
all property should be held in trust
for the Connection was begun in 1826. A crisis
was reached at the eleventh conference (1829),
when opposition to Bfr. O'Bryan's expressed inten-
tion " that if all the conference were opposed to his
views, his single vote was to determine every case,"
resulted in his adjourning the conference, and with-
drawing with comparatively few S3rmpathisers.
The conference refused to recognize his authority,
elected Andrew Cory president in his stead, and
proceeded with business. It was resolved "that
the conference be the organ of government; its
membership, ministers and laymen; and its next
place of meeting annually fixed." The conference
thus declared against an episcopacy, as it also de-
cided against ecclesiasticism by admitting laymen
to church government in equal numbers with
clerical members. Eight years later these separa-
tists negotiated terms of reunion, but Bfr. O'Biyan
never again imited.
Many members of the infant Church emigrated
to the colonies and the United States. In 1831
the Missionary Society of the Bible Christians in
En^and sent John Glass and Francis
4. Exten- Metherall as missionaries to Canada
sion to West and Prince Edward Island
America respectively. They also organised
and Au8- missions (1846) in the States of Wis-
tralia. consin, Ohio, and Michigan. In 1850
James Way and James Rowe were
sent out to Australia, and later work was begun in
New Zealand. For the next quarter of a century
86
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible ChriBtianB
Bible SeadinflT
the Church enjoyed undisturbed prosperity, estab-
lishing three publishing houses, and a denomi-
national college at Shebbear, Devonshire, England.
In 1882, 300 ministers and 34,000 members were re-
ported. This was the high-water mark numerically.
These years of extension had awakened, in a
much divided Methodism, a sense of the advisa-
bility of " union," in both England and the colo-
nies. The center of discussion was Canada, where
five Methodist sects wasted their energy in vigorous,
if not unseemly, rivalry. As early as 1866 the
Bible Christians and Methodist New Connection
approached the Methodist Protes-
5. Union tants of the United States upon the
with the question of union, but the overture
Methodisti ended in friendly expressions only.
in Canada. In 1870 the Methodist New Connection
made overtures to the Bible Chris-
tians, and in 1874 the former were absorbed by
the Wesleyan Methodists of Canada. The Bible
Christians announced as their policy — a policy
consistently held since organization — " That any
basis of union to be acceptable to this Conference
must tecure to the laity their fuU share of privileges
in the government of the Church." In 1882 a
eonmiittee was appointed by the Bible Christians
to meet with three other conunittees, representing
the Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists,
and the Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada.
This conunittee was explicitly instructed to reaffinn
" That no imion would be possible for their Church
that did not provide for a representation of the
laity in all church courts." A basis of union was
provided acceptable to all parties, voted upon by
every society, and in 1884 union was fuUy and
legally perfected. The uniting churches chose as
a name " The Methodist Church of Canada." The
parent body graciously consented to the separa-
tion, which affected the work in Canada and the
United States only.
The energy and resources of the En^ish and
Australian conferences were now devoted to an
enlargement of home missions and
6. Union in the establishment of a foreign mission
Australia in China, which has been successful,
and Bng- A union of the Australian conference
land. with other Methodist sects in that
colony left but the parent body bear-
ing the name; and in Aug., 1906, this Church
voted unanimously to unite with the Methodist
New Connection and the United Methodists, the
union to be formally and legally consimmiated in
1907. The name of " United Methodist Church "
wftB chosen for the new organisation. At the time
of approving the union the Bible Christians had
638 chi^>els, 202 ministers, and 30,000 members.
Francis Methe&all WHirLocK.
J. Thome, A Jubilee Memorial of the Riee
•md Pivgrtm of the Bible Chnetian Connexion^ London,
1866; J, O. Hmyman. A HUL of Vie Methodiet Revival of
«« Laet Century in Relation to North Devon, ib. 1886; [John
Tborne], Jamue Thome of Shebbear, a Memoir . . . from
hit Diary and Lettere, by hie Son, ib. 1873; F. W. Bourne.
TKt Centenary Life of Jamee Thome, ib. 1805; Brief Bio-
yraphieml Sketehee of Bible ChrieUane, Jersey. 1006; The
Book of Diedpline far 1^ People Known ae Bible Chrio-
, the Bible Chrietiui Book Room.
BIBLE READING BY THE LAIIT, RESTRIC-
TIOHS ON.
I. The Aneient Churoh.
II. The Middle Aces.
III. The Roman CathoUo Chm>eh since the Reformation.
Action by the Counoi] of Trent (f 1).
Rules of Various Popes (f 2).
Rules and Practise in Different Countries (f 3).
IV. The Greek Church.
V. The ETangelioal Churches.
L The Ancient Church: It is indisputable that
in Apostolic times the Old Testament was com-
monly read (John v, 47; Acts viii, 28; xvii, 11;
II Tim. iiiy 15). Roman Catholics admit that this
reading was not restricted in the first centuries,
in spite of its abuse by Gnostics and other heretics.
On the contrary, the reading of Scripture was urged
(Justin Martyr, xliv, ANF, i, 177-178; Jerome,
Adv, libroB Rufini, i, 9, NPNF, 2d ser., iii, 487);
and Pamphilus, the friend of Eusebius, kept copies
of Scriptmre to furnish to those who desired them.
Chrysostom attached considerable importance to
the reading of Scripture on the part of the laity
and denounced the error that it was to be
permitted only to monks and priests (De Laiaro
concio, iii, MPG, xlviii, 992; Hom.ii in Matt., MPG,
Ivii, 30, NPNF, 2d ser., x, 13). He insisted upon
access being given to the entire Bible, or at least to
the New Testament (Horn, iz in Col.-, MPO, brii,
361, NPNF, xiii, 301). The women also, who were
always at home, were diligently to read the Bible
(Horn, XXXV on Gen. xii, MPG, liii, 323). Jerome
recommended the reading and studying of Scrip-
ture on the part of the women (Epist., cxxviii, 3,
MPL, xxii, 1098, NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 259; Epiat.,
bodx, 9, MPG, xxii, 730-731, NPNF, 2d ser., vi,
167). The translations of the Bible, Augustine
considered a blessed means of propagating the
Word of God among the nations (De doctr. dirist,,
ii, 6, NPNF, Ist ser., ii, 536); Gregory I recom-
mended the reading of the Bible without placing
any limitations on it {Horn, iii in Ezek., MPL,
Ixxvi, 968).
n. The Middle Ages: Owing to lack of culture
among the Germanic and Romanic peoples, there
was for a long time no thought of restricting access
to the Bible there. Translations of Biblical books
into German began only in the Carolingian period
and were not originally intended for the laity.
Nevertheless the people were anxious to have the
divine service and the Scripture lessons read in
the vernacular. John Vlll in 880 permitted, after
the reading of the Latin gospel, a translation into
Slavonic; but Gregory VII, in a letter to Duke
Vratislav of Bohemia in 1080 characterized the
custom as unwise, bold, and forbidden {Epist., vii,
1 1 ; P. Jaff^, BRG, ii, 392 sqq.). This was a formal
prohibition, not of Bible reading in general, but of
divine service in the vernacular.
With the appearance, in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries, of the Albigenses and Waldenses,
who appealed to the Bible in all their disputes with
the Church, the hierarchy was furnished with a
reason for shutting up the Word of God. The
Synod of Toulouse in 1229 forbade the laity to have
in their possession any copy of the books of the Old
and the New Testament except the Psalter and
Bible BMdlnff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
86
such other portions as are contained in the Breviary
or the Hours of the Blessed Mary. " We most
strictly forbid these works in the vulgar tongue "
(Harduin, Concilia, xii, 178; Man^i, Concilia, xxiii,
104). The Synod of Tarragona (1234) ordered all
vernacular versions to be brought to the bishop to
be burned. James I renewed this decision of the
Tarragona synod in 1276. The synod held there in
1317 under Archbishop Ximenes prohibited to
Beghards, Beguines, and tertiaries of the Fran-
ciscans the possession of theological books in the
vernacular (Mansi, Concilia, xxv, 627). The order
of James I was renewed by later kings and con-
firmed by Paul II (1464-71). Ferdinand and
Isabella (1474-1516) prohibited the translation of
the Bible into the vernacular or the possession of
such translations (F. H. Reusch, Index der ver-
botenen Bucker, i, Bonn, 1883, 44).
In England Wyclif's Bible-translation caused
the resolution pajssed by the third Synod of
Oxford (1408): '* No one shall henceforth of his
own authority translate any text of Scripture into
English; and no part of any such book or treatise
composed in the time of John Wycliff e or later shall
be read in public or private, under pain of excom-
munication " (Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vi, 984).
But Sir Thomas More states that he had himself
seen old Bibles which were examined by the bishop
and left in the hands of good Catholic laymen
(Blunt, Reformation of the Church of England, 4th
ed., London, 1878, i, 505). In Germany, Charles
lY issued in 1369 an edict to four inquisitors against
the translating and the reading of Scripture in the
German language. This edict was caused by the
operations of Beghards and Beguines. In 1485
and 1486, Berthold, archbishop of Mainz, issued an
edict against the printing of religious books in
German, giving among other reajsons the singular
one that the German language was unadapted to
convey correctly religious ideas, and therefore they
would be profaned. Berthold's edict had some
influence, but could not prevent the dissemination
and publication of new editions of the Bible.
Leaders in the Chureh sometimes recommended
to the laity the reading of the Bible, and the Church
kept silence officially as long as these efforts were
not abused.
IIL The Roman Catholic Church since the Ref-
ormation: Luther's translation of the Bible and
its propagation could not but influence the Roman
Catholic Church. Humanism, through such men as
Erasmus, advocated the reading of the Bible and
the necessity of making it accessible by translations;
but it was felt that Luther's translation must be
offset by one prepared in the interest of the Church.
Such editions were Emser's of 1527, and the Dieten-
berg Bible of 1534. The Church of Rome silently
tolerated these translations.
At last the Council of Trent took the matter in
hand, and in its fourth session (Apr. 18, 1546)
adopted the Decretum de editione et usu librorum
scuTorum, which enacted the following: "This
synod ordains and decrees that henceforth sacred
Scripture, and especially the aforesaid old and vul-
gate edition, be printed in the most correct manner
possible; and that it shall not be lawful for any one
to print, or cause to be printed, any books what-
ever on sacred matters without the name of the
author; or in future to sell them,
X. Action or even to possess them, unless they
by the Coun- shall have been first examined and ap-
cil of Trent proved of by the ordinary." When
the question of the translation of the
Bible into the vernacular came up, Bishop Acqui of
Piedmont and Cardinal Pacheco advocated its pro-
hibition. This was strongly opposed by Cardinal
Madruzzi, who claimed that '' not the translations
but the professors of Hebrew and Greek are the
cause of the confusion in Germany; a prohibition
would produce the worst impression in Germany."
As no agreement could be had, the council ap-
pointed an index-commission to report to the pope,
who was to give an authoritative decision.
The first index published by a pope (Paul IV).
in 1559, prohibited under the title of BiMia pro-
hibita a number of Latin editions as well as the
publication and possession of translations of the
Bible in German, French, Spanish, Italian, Eng-
lish, or Dutch, without the permission of the
sacred office of the Roman Inquisition (Reusch,
ut sup., i, 264). In 1564 Pius IV pubhshed the
index prepared by the commission mentioned
above. Herein ten rules are laid down, of which
the fourth reads thus: ** Inasmuch as it is man-
ifest from experience that if the Holy Bible,
translated into the vulgar tongue.
2. Rules of be indiscriminately allowed to every
Various one, the rashness of men will cause
Popes. more evil than good to arise from
it, it is, on this p)oint, referred to the
judgment of the bishops or inquisitors, who may.
by the advice of the priest or confessor, permit
the reading of the Bible translated into the vulgar
tongue by Catholic authors, to those persons whose
faith and piety they apprehend will be augnnented
and not injured by it; and this permission must be
had in writing. But if any shall have the presump-
tion to read or possess it without such permission,
he shall not receive absolution until he have first
delivered up such Bible to the ordinary." Regu-
lations for booksellers follow, and then: *' Regulars
shall neither read nor purchase such Bibles without
special license from their superiors." Sixtus V
substituted in 1590 twenty-two new rules for the
ten of Pius IV. Clement VIII abolished in 1596
the rules of Sixtus, but added a " remark " to the
fourth rule given above, which particularly restores
the enactment of Paul IV. The right of the bishops.
which the fourth rule implies, is abolished by the
" remark," and the bishop may grant a dispensa-
tion only when especially authorized by the pope
and the Inquisition (Reusch, ut sup., i, 333).
Benedict XIV enlarged, in 1757, the fourth rule
thus: " If such Bible- versions in the vernacular are
approved by the apostolic see or are edited with
annotations derived from the holy fathers of the
Church or from learned and Catholic men, they are
permitted." This modification of the fourth rule
was abolished by Gregory XVI in pursuance of an
admonition of the index-congregation, Jan. 7, 1S36,
" which calls attention to the fact that according
to the decree of 1757 only such versions in the ver-
87
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Beadinir
nacular are to be pennitted as have been approved
by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations,"
but insistence is placed on all those particulars
enjoined by the fourth rule of the index and after-
ward by Clement VIII (Reusch, ut sup., ii, 852).
In England the reading of the Bible was made
by Heniy VIII (1530) to depend upon the per-
mission of the superiors. Tyndale's version,
printed before 1535, was prohibited. In 1534 the
Canterbury convocation passed a resolution asking
the king to have the Bible translated and to permit
its reading. A folio copy of Coverdale's trans-
lation was put into every church for the benefit
of the faithful, and fastened with a chain. In
Spain the Inquisitor-General de Valdes published
in 1551 the index of Louvain of 1550, which pro-
hibits ''Bibles (New and Old Testaments) in the
Spanish or other vernacular " (Reusch, ut sup., i,
133). This prohibition was abolished in 1778. The
Lisbon index of 1624 in Portugal prohibited quo-
ting in the vernacular in any book passages from
the Bible. In Italy the members of the order of
the Jesuits were in 1596 permitted to
3. Rules and use a Catholic Italian translation of
Practise in the Gospel-lessons. In France the
Different Sorbonne declared, Aug. 26, 1525, that
Countries, a French translation of the Bible or of
single books must be regarded as
dangerous under conditions then present; extant
versions were better suppressed than tolerated. In
the following year, 1526, it prohibited the trans-
lation of the entire Bible, but permitted the trans-
lation of single books with proper annotations.
The indexes of the Sorbonne, which by royal edict
were binding, after 1544 contained the statement:
** How dangerous it is to allow the reading of the
Bible in the vernacular to unlearned people and
those not piously or humbly disposed (of whom
there are many in our times) may be seen from
the Waldensians, Albigenses, and Poor Men of
Lyons, who have thereby lapsed into error and
have led many into the same condition. Con-
sidering the nature of men, the translation of the
Bible into the vernacular must in the present be
regarded therefore as dangerous and pernicious **
(Reusch, ut sup., i, 151). The rise of Jansenism in
the seventeenth century, and especially the appear-
ance, under its encouragement, of Quesnel's New
Testament with moral reflections under each verse
{Le Nouveau Testament en frajifois avec des reflexions
mcraies sur chaque vers, Paris, 1699), which was
expressly intended to popularize the reading of the
Bible, caused the renewal, with increased stringency,
of the rules already quoted. The Jesuits prevailed
upon Clement XI to publish the famous bull Unv-
g^Uus, Sept. 8, 1713, in which he condemned
seven propositions in Quesners work which advo-
cated the reading of the Bible by the laity (cf . H.J.
D. Denzinger, Enchiridion, Wiirzburg, 1854, 287).
In the Netherlands. Neercassel, bishop of Emmerich,
published in 1677 (in Latin) and 1680 (in French)
a treatise in which he dealt with the fourth rule
of the Tridentine index as obsolete, and urged the
diligent reading of the Bible. In Belgium in 1570
the unlicensed sale of the Bible in the vernacular
was strictly prohibited; but the use of the Ant-
werp Bible continued. In Poland the Bible was
translated and often published. In Germany
papal decrees could not very well be carried out.
and the reading of the Bible was not only not pro-
hibited, but was approved and praised. Biiluart
about 1750, as quoted by Van Ess, states, "In
France, Germany, and Holland the Bible is read
by all without distinction.'' In the nineteenth
century the clergy took great interest in the work
of Bible Societies. Thus Leander van Ess (q.v.)
acted as agent of the British and Foreign Bible
Society for Catholic Germany, and the society
published the New Testament of Van Ess,
which was placed on the Index in 1821. The
prince-bishop of Breslau, Sedlnitzki, who after-
ward joined the Evangelical Church, was also
interested in circulating the Bible. As the Bible
Societies generally circulated the translations of
heretics, the popes — Leo XII (May 5, 1824); Pius
VIII (May 25, 1829); Gregory XVI (Aug. 15. 1840;
May 8, 1844); Pius IX (Nov. 9, 1846; Dec. 8, 1849>-
issued encyclicals against the Bible Societies. In
the syllabus of 1864 " socialism, commimism, se-
cret societies, . . . and Bible Societies " are placed
in the same category. As to the effect of the papal
decrees there is a difference cf opinion within the
Catholic Church. In theory the admonition of
Gregory XVI no doubt exists, but practise often
ignores it.
IV. The Greek Church know^ of no such restric-
tion of use of the Bible as that of the Roman
Church. Nevertheless the Synod of Jerusalem of
1672 answered the first of the four questions:
'* Whether the Holy Scripture can be read by all
Christians," in the negative. Nicholas I of Russia
abolished in 1826 the Bible Society founded by
Alexander I for the propagation of the Bible in
the Russian vernacular.
V. The Evangelical Churches: Luther strove
to open the Bible to all, and his version served
that purpose. The principle that every Evangelical
Christian is at liberty to read the Bible remained
uncontroverted, though Semler (De antiquo ecciesice
statu commentatio, 37, 60, 68) makes the assertion
that the sacred writings, especially the apostolic
epistles, were not intended for the use of the peo-
ple and the congregations; that in the ancient
Church no universal use of the Bible existed, and
that the catechumens especially were proliibited
from using the Bible. Bible-compendiums for
special purposes and separate circles also came into
use in the Evangelical Church. Veit Dietrich
published in 1541 his Summarium of the Old and
the New Testament; Cromwell's soldiers had
The Soldier's Pocket Bible of 1643 (facsimile edition,
Cromwell*8 Soldier's Bible, London, 1895). The
restriction upon Bible-reading in the Evangelical
Church became of practical importance only in
the schools. For didactic purposes Amos Comenius
recommended oompendiums and special manuals
of Scripture, which the scholar was to use
till he could read the Gospel in the original.
The didactic needs were gradually satisfied by
the introduction of text-books of " Biblical
history," the Catechism, and collections of
Bible sentences. From time to time the ques-
Bible SooletlM
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
88
tion has been agitated whether the whole Bible
or so-called school Bibles should be used in the
schools. The principal reason adduced in favor
of the latter is that certain passages are objection-
able because they deal with sexual relations. But
these reasons are not well foimded, since reading of
the Bible has never been a cause of demoralisation.
The moral earnestness which without veiling calls
things by their right names is to be preferred to
a careful paraphrasing and veiling of the sense
which only the more excite impure desires.
(Gborg Riktschel.)
BiBLZooBAnrr: T. O. H«gelmaier. OeachidUe det Bibdver-
bote. Ulm, 1783; N. Le Maire, SanctuaHum profania ocdu-
•mm nv de aanetorum hitliorum in lingua vt^port tsu ver-
nacula tractahu, WQrsburK, 1662 (from the Fr. of 1651).
this was reproduced in substance in Die Bibd kein Ltm-
6ucA IHr Jedermann, MOnster, 1845; A. Amauld. Dt la
laetun de Vieriiure Mtnte. Paris (c. 1690): C. W. F. Waldi,
KriHeche Untereuehungen vom Gebraueh der heiUoen Sduift
unler dan alten Chrieten in dan ereten drai Jahrkundenea,
Leipsio. 1770; E. von Ess, Der haUige Chryeoalomue odtr
dia SHmmaderkatholiechan Kircha lOer doe nlUdiehe. hnL-
eama und erbaulieha Bibdlaeen, Darmstadt, 1824; J. B.
Bialon, La Ledure da la eainte Bible an langaa valgaire, 2
vols., LouTsin, 1846; Vom Leean dor hailigen &Ari/f.
Mains, 1846; F. H. Reusoh. Die Indioee libnntm prokitn'
larum dee eeekezehnian Jakrhundarte, Tilbinsen. 1886;
W. Walther, Die dautedta Bibelliberaetgung dee MiUdaUen,
Braunschweig. 1880; J. H. Kurts. Church Hi *ory^ \\
105. 3; 185. 1. New York. 1800; the text of the buU U^
0emfiM may be found in Reich. Doeumentt. pp. 386-388.
and the authoritative statement of the Greco-Runiaa
Church in Sohaff. Creada, m, 433-434.
British Bible Societies.
Precursors of the British and For-
eign Bible Society.
The British and Foreign Bible So-
ciety.
Origin and Constitution (I 1).
Present Organisation (S 2).
Foreign Work (§3).
Dissensions. Seceding Societies
(§4).
The National Bible Society of Soot-
BIBLE SOCIETIES.
4. The Hibernian Bible Society.
5. The Trinitarian Bible Society.
6. The Bible Translation Society.
II. Bible Societies on the Continent of
Europe.
1. Germany.
2. France.
3. The Netherlands.
4. Scandinavia.
5. Russia.
6. Switaerland.
m. Bible Sodeties in America.
1. The American Bible Society.
Organisation (i 1).
Constitution and Management (§2)
Summary of Work ($3).
Foreign Work ($4).
Controversies (f 5).
2. The American and Foreign Bible
Society and the American Bible
Union.
3. The Bible Association of Friends in
America.
Bible societies are benevolent associations formed
to increase the circulation of the Bible and making
special efforts to supply the Scriptures to those who
from poverty or other causes are destitute of them.
Printing the Bible or New Testament in suitable
styles, translation into all important languages
and even into the less important dialects, and some
effective esrstem of distribution in all accessible
places are commonly regarded as essential features
of the work of such societies. In some cases the
books are given without price; but it is not usual to
give away a large proportion. The cost of manu-
facture and of distribution, however, has to be
provided by voluntary contributions.
The Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge (q.v.), founded in London in 1698, was
the first to undertake to provide the common people
with the Bible. It continues this beneficent work
as one branch of its publication enterprise, and has
been the means of providing fairly good translations
of the Scriptures in many obscure languages of
Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. The Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel (q.v.), founded
in 1701, has also done and is still doing a good work
in circulating the Scriptures in connection with
its extensive missions. The Scottish Society for
Propagating Christian Knowledge, founded in 1709,
added the work of circulating the Bible to its
missionary enterprises in Scotland and in America.
The first society formed for the exclusive purpose
of publishing the Bible at a low price seems to
have been the Canstein Bible Institute, established
in 1710 at Halle in Germany by Baron Canstein
(see below, II, 1).
L British Bible Societies.— 1. Precnrson of the
BritiBh and Foreign Bible Society: In the last half
of the eighteenth century several societies sprang
up in Great Britain which had Bible distribution as
part of their programme; such as the Book Society
for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the
Poor (1750), the Bible Society, later known as the
Naval and Military Bible Society (1780), the Society
for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday
Schools (1785), the Association for Discounte-
nancing Vice and Promoting the Knowledge and
Practise of the Christian Rdigion (established in
Dublin, 1792), the French Bible Society (established
in London for printing the Bible in France, 1792),
and the Religious Tract Society (London, 1799;
see Tract Societies).
2. The BriUsh andForeism Bible Society: These
enterprises, however, did not supply the need.
The Rev. Thomas Charles (q.v.) of Bala in Wales
became much impressed with the need of the com-
mon folk about him, who could not obtain the Bible
except by persevering effort and much self-denial;
the Bible was not only scarce but costly. Mr.
Charles finally devoted himself to find-
ing some effective means of supplying
his people with the Scriptures. At
a meeting of the Religious Tract
Society in London in 1802, he aroused great
interest by his vigorous presentation of the
need of the people of Wales. The Rev. Joseph
Hughes, secretary of the Religious Tract Society,
exclaimed, "Surely a society might be formed
to provide Bibles for Wales; and if for Wales, why
not for the world ? " This remark contained the
germ from which grew the British and Foreign
Bible Society.
The idea of a Bible Society for the world led to
discussion and to study of the destitution of the
people. The Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf, pastor of
the German Lutheran Church in London, gave
effective information of the situation in European
countries. Members of the Religious Tract Society.
1. Origin
and Con-
stitution.
80
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible SooletlM
although they did not publicly appear, had much to
do with the preparatory work. On Mar. 7, 1804, a
public meeting was held at the London Tavern,
on the call of Bfr. Hughes. Three hundred persons
attended the meeting. It was quickly evident that
a society for increasing the circulation of the Bible
presented common ground, upon which all sects
and parties could stand. Dissenters met church-
men, and in their interest in the needs of the masses,
they forgot for a time their divergent interpre-
tations of the same book. The sole condition
necessary to union of action was that a text ac-
cepted by all should be issued without note or
ooniment. i
At this meeting a hastily drawn up set of by-laws
was adopted. An executive committee of thirty-
six laymen was chosen, fifteen from the Church of
Enj^and, fifteen from the Dissenting bodies, and
six foreigners residing in London. The Rev.
Joseph Hughes (Baptist) and the Rev. Josiah Pratt
(Church of England) were elected secretaries.
Seven hundred pounds were subscribed for the
work of the society, and the Bishop of London,
Dr. Porteus, was elected President.
The constitution of the society was soon after-
ward prepared; the Rev. John Owen, of the Church
of England, was added to the staff of the society
as a third secretary, and on nomination of Lord
Teignmouth, a former governor-general in India,
the Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf was appointed secre-
tary for foreign lands. Besides the Bishop of Lon-
don, the Bishops of Diu-ham, Exeter, and St.
Davids, and many other influential persons, among
whom were William Wilberforce and Granville
Sharp, long known as antislavery leaders, joined
this movement. >
As at present organized, the business of the
society is directed by a committee made up as
indicated above. Every subscriber of five guineas
annually is a governor, and every subscriber of
one guinea annually is a member of the society.
Every governor, and every minister
8. PrMant who is a member, has the privilege
Orvaniaa- of attending and voting at all meetings
tion. of the committee. The president,
the vice-presidents (numbering more
than a hundred), and the treasurer are considered
ez officio members of the oonmiittee. There are
two secretaries and three superintendents charged
with different departments of the work besides
several assistant secretaries. To excite wider
interest and to facilitate the distribution of the
Bible, auxiliary and branch societies are formed,
which pay their collections into a common fund and
receive back a certain proportion of the sum
ooUected in Bibles for distribution. There were
in 1906 more than 5,800 of the auxiliary and branch
societies and associations in England and Wales
alone.
The society began its career by first meeting
the wants of Wales. Twenty thousand Welsh
Bibles and five thousand Testaments were printed.
Providentially but a short time before this, the art
of stereotyping had been invented. When in 1806
the first wagon-load of Bibles came into Wales, it
was received like the ark of the covenant; and the
people with shouts of joy dragged it into the dty.
The society also distributed the Bible in an improved
Gaelic translation in the Highlands of Scotland,
and turned its attention to the Irish; in short, it
undertook to supply Great Britain and Ireland
with Bibles.
But the society did not forget that it is a foreign
as well as a British Bible Society. When it began
operations Europe was convulsed with war and
not so much was done as would otherwise have been
accomplished in the way of supplying the destitute
in European countries. Mr. Steinkopf and Robert
Pinkerton made extensive tours through Germany,
Switzerland, and Russia, and everywhere local
Bible societies sprang into existence
8. Foreign in their wake. Many of these societies,
Work. formed in 1812 and later, have done
good work, being aided with funds
and with grants of Bibles by the British Society
About the time of the formation of the British
Society two Scotchmen, John Paterson and Eben-
ezer Henderson, went to Copenhagen, intending to
go out as missionaries to India under the Danish-
Halle mission at Tranquebar. Their plan fell
through, but they met an Icelander, Thorkelin,
in Copenhagen, who told them of the destitution of
his countrymen. There were said to be only fifty
Bibles in Iceland for a population of fifty thousand.
The two Scotchmen laid the matter before the Brit-
ish and Foreign Bible Society, which promised to
pay half of the expense of printing five thousand
Testaments in Icelandic. The printing was stopped
by the outbreak of war. But in 1812 Mr. Hender-
son received permission to remain in Copenhagen
to complete the printing of the whole Bible in Ice-
landic, and, notwithstanding the war, to correspond
with the Bible society in England regarding this
work. The confidence thus shown in the motives
of the society was certainly remarkable at that
epoch; and it had much to do with the founding
of the Damsh Bible Society in 1814.
The British Society extended its work gradually
to the British colonies, where it works through
auxiliary societies. In Canada, the Canadian Bible
Society, which has united a large niunber of local
auxiliaries in one, is a society auxiliary to the
British Society, and has a secretary appointed by
the parent society in London. In Australia the
society has fifty-two auxiliaries with nearly 500
branches. In India, with the exception of Burma,
the society carries on its work through six strong
auxiliary societies. In Cape Colony the South-
African auxiliary has for its field the whole terri-
tory south of the Orange River. The whole num-
ber of auxiliaries and branch societies affiliated
with the British Society outside of the United King-
dom exceeds 2,200. The whole number of these
local societies, in Great Britain and abroad, which
the British and Foreign Society aids and from
which it receives donations, is over 8,160. Besides
these auxiliary societies the parent society makes
use of agencies, each in charge of a special agent,
devoted to the increase of the circulation of the
Bible in his own field. These agencies cover the con-
tinent of Europe, and Turkey, Siberia. China, Korea,
and Japan in Asia. In the three last-named coun-
Bibls BodetlM
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
90
tries special arrangements with the American Bible
Society and the National Bible Society of Scotland
prevent dashing and secure combination for the
translation of the Scriptures. Agencies of the
British society also promote the distribution of the
Bible in Egypt and North Africa and in nearly all
of the colonies of East and West Africa. Where
neither auxiliary nor agency has been established
the society works through the missions which are
in occupation of the ground in any part of the
worid.
This wide-epread work has not been brought to
its present extension without hindrances and diffi-
culties. The High-church party in the Church of
England has at times opposed the Bible Society,
preferring to work through the Society for the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge, which takes
care to have the Bible supplemented by the Book
of Common Prayer. Others have insisted that
the Bible is a dangerous book to put in the hands
of ignorant men without note or comment, and
for this reason have opposed the Bible Society.
In 1825 dissension arose within the Bible Society,
which continued during two years, over the ques-
tion of the Apocrypha. It was formally resolved
in 1827 that the fimdamental law of the society
forbids its circulating the Apocrypha, and that
therefore no persons or societies that circulate
the Apocrypha can receive aid from
*• ^"J?^" the society. This decision led to the
d^ g^" separation of a considerable number
oietleB " °' European societies from the British
society which had founded them.
The discussion also resulted in the secession of the
Scottish societies which originated the agitation
against the publication of the Apocrypha (see below,
3). In 1831 another agitation was raised against
the presence of Unitarians on the Board of Man-
agers. The society having refused to alter its
constitution so as to exclude non-Trinitarians,
a separate society called the Trinitarian Bible
Society was formed (see below, 5). With the
growth of foreign missions, a question as to trans^
lation of the words relating to baptism became
acute; and the controversy finally led to the for-
mation of the Bible Translation Society, which
was supported by Baptists who preferred to trans-
late " immerse " rather than to transfer the Greek
word haptizein (see below, 6).
But there has been a continuous and remarkable
growth of the society in spite of all obstacles and
opposition. In 1904 the centenary of the society
was celebrated in almost all countries of the Chris-
tian and non-Christian world. " Bible Day " in
Mar., 1904, will long be remembered not only as a
day of an inmiense popular declaration of faith
in the Bible as the revelation of God's will to men,
but as a time for expressing the warmest love and
sympathy, and gratitude withal, to the society
which then completed a hundred years of self-
sacrificing service of the nations. Not only were
special gifts sent into the treasury for the general
work of the society, but a special centenary fund
of $1,25C,000 was raised in that and the following
year to be used as a reserve for more firmly planting
the outposts of the society. The total issues of the
British and Foreign Bible Society, in the year
ending Mar. 31, 1906, amoimted to 5,416,569 copies
of the Bible or its parts. The total issues of the
society from its organization to Mar. 31, 1907,
amount to 203,931,768 copies, of which more than
80,000,000 copies were in the English language.
The president of the British and Foreign Bible
Society is the Marquis of Northampton. Its
headquarters are at 146 Queen Victoria St., London,
E. C; its periodicals are The Bible in the World
and The Bible Society Gleanings.
8. The National Bible Society of Sootland: In
1809 the Edinburgh Bible Society was formed, in
1812 the Glasgow Bible Society, and in 1821 the
Glasgow Auxiliary Bible Society. As mentioned
above, these societies seceded from the British and
Foreign Bible Society in consequence of the con-
troversy about circulating editions of the Bible
containing the Apocrypha. In 1859 the National
Bible Society was formed, and in 1861 all these
Scottish societies combined to form a new organiza-
tion which was incorporated as the National Bible
Society of Sootland. The fields of this society are
in Europe and Asia. One-fifth of its issues in 190&-
1907 were in Roman Catholic countries and about
one-half in China. Its issues in the year ending
Mar., 1907, amounted to 1,671,900 copies.
4. The Hibernian Bible Society: This society
was organized in 1806 as an auxiliary to the British
and Foreign Bible Society. It is now independent,
and devotes its attention mainly to the needs of
Ireland. In the year ending Mar., 1907, it cir-
culated 37,258 copies, which were purchased by
the society. The headquarters are in Dublin.
6. The Trinitarian Bible Society: Formed in
1831 as a protest against Unitarianism, this society
issued in the year ending Dec. 31, 1907. 89,214
copies of the Bible or its parts. The headquarters
of the society are at 7 Bury St., London, W. C.
6^ The Bible Translation Society: This society
organized in 1843 to serve the special interests
the British Baptist missions. It is now a part
f the Baptist Missionary Society, making no sep-
arate publication of its issues, and having its head-
quarters at the Mission House, 19 Fumival St..
London.
n. Bible Societies on the Continent of Europe.
—I. Germany: The first German Bible Society
was the Canatein Bible Institute, founded in Halle
in 1710 by Karl Hildebrand, Baron Canstein (q.v.),
with the definite purpose of placing the Bible
within reach of the poor. The Institute has issued
up to the beginning of 1907, over 7,000,000 copies
of the Bible and its parts. The issues for 1907
were 38,696 copies. The (first) Kurember? Bible
Society was formed in 1804, and received aid from
the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1806
it was removed to Basel in Switzeriand and took
the name of the Basel Bible Society. Its issues
during the year 1906 amounted to 32,708 copies.
The Berlin Bible Society was formed in 1806 as a
result of the energy of Father J&nicke, a Moravian
pastor, and was aided by the British and Foreign
Bible Society in its eariy years. In 1814 it was
converted into the Pmaaian Bible Society. It
now has many branches and devotes its attention
■ ^
B #^tl
-jWbt tl
01
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible SooietieB
mainly to the circulation of the Bible in Gennany.
In the year 1906 its issues amounted to 212,911
Bibles and Testaments. The headquarters of the
society are Klosterstrasse 71, Berlin C. The
Wiirttemberff Bibls Institute was formed in 1813
under the influence of Messrs. Steinkopf and Pink-
erton, of the British and Foreign Bible Society.
Its issues reported in 1906 were 334,953 copies. The
headquarters are at Christophstrasse 6, Stuttgart.
The Berff Bible Sooiety was formed at Elberfeld in
the old Duchy of Berg in 1814. It furnishes Scrip-
tures for use abroad in some small quantities.
The total of its issues in 1906 was 151,558 copies,
and the total of its issues in the 93 years of its
existence are 2,228,353 copies. The headquarters
of the society are at Marienstrasse 28, Elberfeld.
The Saxon Bible Society was formed in the year
1814. It has forty-two branches, and besides its
publications in German, it has published an edition
of the New Testament in the Chagga language,
spoken in the northern part of German East Africa.
Its total issues in 1906 amounted to 48,065 copies. The
headquarters are at Zinzendorfstrasse 17, Dresden.
The Bavarian Protestant Bible Sooiety was formed
in 1823. It is also called the Central Bible Sooiety.
Its issues in 1906 were 12,930 copies. The head-
quarters of the society are at Nuremberg. There
are also many local and state societies, of which
those of Hamburg, Sleswick, and Strasburg print
as well as distribute Bibles. A Roman Catholic
Bible Society, the Be^eneburff Bible Institute, was
organised in 1805 by G. M. Wittmann, head of
the seminary at Regensburg, with the assistance of
some bishops and many laymen. A translation
of the New Testament was prepared and 60,000
copies were distributed in ten years, but in 1817
the Institute was suppressed by Pope Pius VII.
In 1815 another Roman Catholic Bible Society was
founded at Heiligenstadt, which connected itself
with the Prussian society and organized auxil-
iaries. Leander van Ess (q.v.) at Marburg was
especially interested and his translation of the
New Testament was widely disseminated. He also
founded the Christian Brotherhood for Bissemi-
natinflr the Holy Scriptures with the support of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. The Heiligen-
stadt society flourished till 1830 and maintained
an existence till 1864, but received its support
chiefly from Protestants after the former date.
The translation of the New Testament made by
J. £. Goesner (q.v.) was also circulated by the
English society.
a. France: The French Bible Sooiety (London)
referred to above began the Bible movement in
France, but the outbreak of the Revolution pre-
vented the circulation of French Bibles printed
with English money. The Protestant Bible Society
of Paris was formed in 1818, and received aid from
the British and Foreign Bible Society for a time.
The subsidy was withdrawn after a few years
because the Paris Society included the Apocrypha
in its Bibles. The issues of this society in 1906
were 8,061 copies. A sharp controversy among
the French Protestants respecting the French
version led in 1864 to the formation of the Bible
Society of France. This society excluded the
Apocrypha from its Bibles and held to the version
of J. F. Osterwald (q.v.) of which it is now pub-
lishing a new revision. It has received aid from
the American Bible Society, and it circulates the
Bible in the French colonies in Asia and Africa.
Its issues in 1906 were 34,556 copies.
3. The Netherlands: The Netherlands Bible
Sooiety was formed in 1814. Its issues in the year
1904 amoimted to 93,977 copies, of which 57,573
copies were sent abroad to the Dutch East Indies,
Dutch Guiana, and South Africa. The headquarters
of the society are at Heerengracht 366, Amsterdam.
4. Scandinavia: The Danish Bible Sooiety was
organized in 1814. Its circulation in 1906 amounted
to 45,289 copies. The ITorweffian Bible Sooiety
was formed in 1816 under the influence of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. Its issues in
1904 were 63,300 copies, of which 751 copies were
sent to Denmark, and 11,041 copies to the United
States of America. Its total issues in eighty-eight
years ending Dec. 31, 1904, were 1,153,260 copies.
The headquarters of the society are at Christiania.
The Swedish Bible Sooiety was organized in 1814.
Its circulation in 1906 was 12,414 copies and its
total circulation from the beginning, 1,242,515 copies,
of which 666 were in the Lapp language.
5. Russia: The Bnsaian Bible Sooiety with
Imperial Sanction was formed in 1863. It circu-
lates the Bible in Russian and other languages under
the supervision of the Holy Synod. Its reports
show the contributions of the czar and czarina
and the grand dukes, but do not specify clearly
the circulation. It makes use of colporteur and
seems to do serious work. A Russian Bible Society
formed in 1812 did an important work in Bible
translation, but was suppressed by imperial ukase
in 1826. The Bussian EvangeUoal Bible Sooiety
was organized in 1831 for the purpose of circulatirg
the Bible among Lutherans and in the German
language. Its circulation in 1904 was 22,219
copies. The Finnish Bible Sooiety was formed iQ
1812 and its issues in 1903 were about 30,000 copies.
6. Switzerland: The Basel Bible Society, trans-
ferred to Basel from Nuremberg, has been men-
tioned above (II, 1). Local Bible societies exis»
in many of the cantons of Switzerland. Thej
seem, however, to be merely agents of distributioa
receiving Bibles from other societies, notably from
the British and Foreign Bible Society. Theit
circulation is therefore included in that of the othei
societies. Henrt Otib Dwiqht.
nL Bible Societies in America. — 1. The Amerioaa
Bible Sooiety: The Revolutionary War produced
a great scarcity of Bibles in the United States.
One year after the Declaration of Independence
Congress was memorialized to authorize the print-
ing of an edition of the Bible. This memorial was
referred to a committee, who found the difficulties,
especially of procuring proper material, type, and
paper, to be so great that Congress ordered the
importation at its own expense of 20,000 English
Bibles from Holland, England, or elsewhere. The
scarcity still continuing, in 1782 Congress recom-
mended to the people of the United States an edition
of the Bible printed by Thomas Aitken, of Phila-
delphia, '' being satisfied of the care and accuracy
Bible Societies
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
of the execution of the work." It was not until
1808 that the first Bible Society was organized in
Philadelphia. In 1809 sodeties were organized
in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and New
Jersey in the order named and by 1816 there were
128 such societies.
The idea of imiting these societies in one organi-
zation was a natural one and was much discussed.
The missionary travels of the Rev. Samuel J. Mills
(q.v.) in the West and South, reported in religious
periodicals, increased the desire for a national
organization, which he strongly advocated. On
Jan. 1, 1816, Elias Boudinot (q.v.), the president of
the New Jersey Bible Society, made a public com-
munication on the subject, and on Jan. 17 he issued
a circular letter appointing Wednes-
1. Or^an- day, May 8, 1816, as the time for
iaation. holding a convention for this pur-
pose in New York. Sixty delegates
representing twenty-eight Bible societies (besides
several other persons admitted to seats in the
convention) met on the day named in the Garden
Street Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, rep-
resentiog the Presbyterian, Congregational, Meth-
odist, Episcopal, Dutch Reformed, and Baptist
Churches, and the Society of Friends. The con-
vention was in session for two days, adopted a con-
stitution and in accordance therewith elected mana^
gers, who met in the City Hall, May 11, and elected
officers, Elias Boudinot being made president.
Under this constitution " the sole object shall
be to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy
Scriptmies without note or comment" (art. i).
The board of managers is composed of thirty-six
laymen, one-fourth of whom go out of office
every year, but are eligible for re-
^ti d ®^®*^^**^- Every clergjrman who is a
Manage- ^*'® member may meet and vote with
ment.* ^^® board of managers, provided he
receives no salary or compensation for
services from the society. The managers meet
regularly every month, consider and act on all
matters presented by ten standing committees
besides other matters originating in the board
itself and report all their proceedings to the annual
meeting of the members of the society held on the
second Thursday of May and usually in New York.
The society was incorporated in 1841. The
societies which already existed became for the most
part auxiliary to the national organization and in
addition many other auxiliary societies were
organized under its direction, the number at one
time reaching 2,200. Many of these, however,
have ceased to exist, the number now being 541.
The " Bible House," Astor Place, N. Y., the society's
headquarters, was erected in 1852 and was paid
for by funds contributed for the special purpose
and not from current receipts for benevolent work.
The ninety-first annual report of the board of
managers was presented May 9, 1907. The
total cash receipts were $575,820.94.
'"*' The total issues of that year were
^^^ 1,910,853, of which 1,010,777 were
issued from the Bible House in New
York, and 900,076 from the society's agencies
abroad, being printed on mission presses in China,
Japan, Siam, Syria, and Turkey. The total issues
of the society in Bibles, Testaments, and portioDs
amount to 80,420,382 copies, distributed as fol-
lows: Bibles 20,293,636 Testaments and portioDs
58,215,889.
The efforts of the society were at first directed
mainly to meeting the needs of the people of the
United States, but from the very first it was in
spirit and intention a foreign as well as a home
mission society. Bibles at the very begitming
were supplied to the North-American Ladiaos.
The third annual report shows that steps were
already taken for sending Spanish Bibles to Buenos
Ayres and the next year the society was reaching
out to West Africa. In 1836 the first foreign
agency was instituted in Constantinople, and in IS&t
the agency for the La Plata region in South America.
During the past thirty years this
4. Foreign work has largely increased and regular
Work. agencies have been established in
Japan, China, Brazil, Mexico, Korea,
Cuba, Siam and Laos, Central America, Porto Rico
and the Philippines, besides Venezuela and Colom-
bia, where the agencies have been temporarily
discontinued. These agencies have distributed a
total of 9,453,918 Bibles, Testamente, and portions
in China alone. Besides this the society has con-
tinually cooperated with missions and missionaries
in countries in all quarters of the globe. It has
stimulated Bible translation, initiating it in some
cases, cooperating with others more frequoitly
and securing needed revisions under its patronage
and partly or wholly at its expense. It has been
thus interested in about 100 translations and
revisions in all.
The labors of the society have been broken twice
by serious differences among its friends and sup-
porters. In 1835 missionaries in Burma published
at the expense of the society a translation of the
New Testament which rendered the Greek word
baptizein and its cognate terms by the English
" immerse " or an equivalent. After much dis-
cussion the managers resolved that they felt at
liberty " to encourage only such versions as con-
form in the principle of their translation to the
common English Version — at least
6. Contro- so far as that all the religious denom-
▼erales. inations represented in this society
can consistently use and circulate
such versions in their several schools and commu-
nities," and missionary boards were requested in
asking aid to state that the versions they proposed
to circulate were in accordance with this resolution.
The Baptists took offense and a controversy ensued,
the consequence of which was the formation of the
American and Foreign Bible Society (see below, 2).
In 1847 the committee on versions was instructed
to undertake a careful collation of different editions
of the English Bible with a view to perfecting its
text in minutiae. Their final report, made May 1.
1851. stated that in collating five standard copies
of English and American imprint with the original
edition of 1611 nearly 24,000 variations were found
solely in the text and punctuation, not one of which
marred the integrity of the text or affected any
doctrine or precept of the Bible. A standard then
03
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Sooieties
determined upon with the unanimous approval
of the board of managers was accepted generally
by the public and for several years Bibles printed
accordingly circulated without the slightest objec-
tion. But in 1856, and more decidedly in 1857,
the right of the society to circulate such an edition
was sharply challenged. Considerable public ex-
citement followed; the matter was debated in
religious and even secular joiunals as well as in
ecclesiastical bodies, and the board of managers
after long consideration, and debate finally took
action, Jan. 28, 1858, as follows:
RMolved. that this society's present standard English
Bible be referred to the standing oommittee on versions for
examination; and in all cases where the same differs in the
text or iu aeeeasories from the Bibles previously published
by the society, the oommittee are directed to correct the
seme by oonfonnins it to previous editions printed by this
society, or by the authorised British presses, reference being
ebo had to the original edition of the translators printed
in 1611; and to report such corrections to this board, to the
end that a new edition, thus perfected, may be adopted as
the standard edition of the society.
The committee reported in 1859 and 1860; and
from this "standard edition" all the society's
English Bibles are now printed.
'Die constitution of the society originally re-
stricted it to circulating only " the version now
in common use," in the English language. In
1904 at the annual meeting of the society on the
recommendation of the board of managers the
constitution was amended so as to permit the
publication of the Revised Version of the English
Bible, either in its British or American form, and
under this permission some editions of the Amer-
ican Standard Revised Version are now published
by the society under an arrangement with the
publishers. John Fox.
2. The American and Foreign Bible Society and
the Axneirican Bible Union: The American and
Foreign Bible Society was organized at Philadel-
phia in April, 1836, by Baptists who felt aggrieved
at the action of the American Bible Society con-
cerning the translation of the Greek bapHzeirif
referred to above (see III, 1, § 6). Rev. S. H.
Cone was made president. The society was de-
clared to be '^ founded upon the principle that the
originals in the Hebrew and Greek are the only
authentic standards of the Sacred Scriptures, and
that aid for the translating, printmg, or distributing
of them in foreign languages should be afforded
to such versions only as are conformed as nearly
as possible to the original text; it being understood
that no words are to be transferred which are sus-
ceptible of being literally translated," The con-
stitution adopted declared (art. ii) " that in the
distribution of the Scriptures in the English lan-
guage, the commonly received version shall be used
until otherwise directed by the society." Dis-
satisfaction with this policy led to the secession of
certain members and the formation in 1850 of the
American Bible Union, which demanded that the
principle of circulating " such versions only as are
conformed as neariy as possible to the original text "
should be applied to the English version, and
avowed as its object "to procure and circulate
the most faithful versions of the Sacred Scriptures
in all languages throughout the world." The Union
secured the services of a number of Baptist and other
Biblical scholars, especially the Rev. Drs. H. B.
Hackett, A. C. Kendrick, and T. J. Conant. The
entire New Testament and portions of the Old
were revised and published. Italian, Spanish,
Chinese (Ningpo colloquial), Siamese, and Sgau-
Karen New Testaments were also prepared. The
Union ultimately reunited with the American
and Foreign Bible Society, and in 1882 the latter
passed over its work and good-will to the American
Baptist Publication Society (Philadelphia), which
since then has performed the duties of the Bible
Society, and ii carrying on the work of revision
inaugurated by the earlier societies. The revi-
sion has now (1907) reached the Book of Ezra,
and will be completed, it is hoped, by the end of
1908.
8. The Bible Aaaooiation of Friends in Amexloa
was organized in 1830. It has been, in the main,
a distributing agency, circulating the Scriptures
printed by others, but in 1905-06 printed an edition
of 2,925 Testaments and Psalms. In 1906 it re-
ported total receipts of $3,930.59 and payments of
$2,412.06. Its distribution in that year was 6,534
volumes, of which 2,030 were Bibles. The head-
quarters are at 207 Walnut Place, Philadelphia,
Pa.
Bibuoobapht: On the general question eonsult: AhriM der
Oetdiiehte deM Urtprunaa und Wachalhunu der BibdaeMU-
BdMften, Bannen, 1870; Summary Notice eoneeming Bible
SoeieUet in General and TKoet of France in ParHeular,
from the Fr., Northampton, 1827; W. H. Wyokoff. A
Sketdi of the Origin, Hietory . . . of Bible SocietieB, New
York 1848.
On the BFBS consult: W. Canton, HieL of the BFBS,
2 vols.. London. 1904; idem. Story of the Bible Society, ib.
1904; J. Owen. Hiet of the Origin and Firet Ten Yeara of
the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1816; Papers Oceaeioned by the At-
tem-pte to Form Auxiliary Bible Sodetiet in Varioue Parte
of the Kingdom, ib. 1812; Jubilee Memorial of the BFBS,
ib. 1854; G. Browne. HieL of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1869;
La SociitS bibligiue briiannique et itrangtre, 1804-89, No-
tice au point de vue hiatorigue, philoeophigue, si rdigieux,
Nantes, 1889; H. Morris, Foundere and Preeidenta of As
Bible Society, London, 1895; Bible Houee Paper; ib. 1899
sqq. (in progress); Bdiold a Sofeer. Popular ,., Re-
port of BFBS for 1900-01, ib. 1902; T. H. Dark>w and
H. F. Moule. Catalogue of (he Printed Editione of Holy
Scripture in the Library of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1904;
T. H. Darlow. There ie a River, ib. 1906; Bible Aeeocia-
tion Reporte, By Helen Plumptre. Worksop, 1843.
The organs of the society are the MonUUy Reporter of
As BFBS, London. 1858-88, succeeded by the BibU So-
ciety Monthly Reporter, 1889 sqq. The other British
Soeiettea issue various publications, such as Annual Re-
porte. Quarterly Reoorde, and Oeoaeional Papere, in which
their history may be traced.
For the foreign societies there are also available their
reports, besides which the following may be consulted:
C. F. Hesekiel, GeethichU der Caneteineehen Bibel Anetalt,
ed. A. H. Niemeyer. Halle, 1827; O. Bertram. Geedtiehte
der Caneteineehen Bibelanetalt, ib. 1863; W. Thilo. Oe-
ediiehte der preueeieehen Haupt-Bibelgeeellediaften, 1814-
1864, Berlin, 1864; E. Breest. Die Entwickelung der preue-
eiedten Haupt^BibelgeeeUechaften, 1864-91. ib. 1891.
For the American Bible Society consult: The Amerv-
can Bible Society'e Manual, containing a Brief Sketch of
the Society, New York. 1865. revised ed.. 1887; W. P.
Strickland. HieL of the American Bible Society, ib. 1849;
American BibU Society'e Reporte, 1816-71. 4 vols., ib. n.d.
(a roprint); American Bible Society. Report of the Trane-
ference of the Library of the Society to the New York Pub-
lic Library, ib. 1897. The organ is the Bible Society Rec-
ord (a monthly).
Bible Text.
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
94
I. The Old Testament.
1. The Premaaoratio Period.
The Masoretic Text (| 1).
The Earlier Text (§ 2).
Change in Style of Writing (| 3).
Attempts to Fix the Text (§4).
The Pronunciation Fixed, but the
Text Still Unvocalixed (| 5).
Word-Diviflion (§ 6).
Division into Verses (§7).
Division into Sections (| 8).
2. The Maaoretic Period.
The Masoretes (| 1).
Their Work (J 2).
Codices (S 3).
3. The Postmasoretie Period.
The Chapter-Division (J 1).
Old Testament Manuscripts ({ 2).
The Printed Text (§ 3).
Critical Works and Commentaries
(§4).
BIBLE TEXT.
n. The New Testament.
1. History of the Written Text.
The Autographs of the New Testa-
ment Books (SI).
The Manuscripto (S 2).
Their Material and Form (§2).
The Ammonian Sections (| 4).
Early Divisions of the Text (| 5).
Divisions for Liturgical Reading
(§6).
E^ly Corruption of the Text
(§7).
Varieties of Text Produced by Early
Criticism (| 8).
The Uncial Manuscripts (| 9).
The Cursive Manuscripts, Evangel-
istaries, etc. (1 10).
2. History of the Printed Text.
Complutensian and Eraamian edi-
tions (I 1).
Editions of Stephens and Besa (§ 2)
Editions between 1657 and 1^30
(§3).
Griesbach and his Followers (M f
Lachmann (S 5).
Tischendorf (S 6).
Tregelles (§ 7).
Weatoott and Hort (| 8).
Other Critics of the Text (i 0).
More Recent Tendencies ({ 10.>.
3. Principles of Textual CriticLon.
The Basal Rule (S 1).
Other Canons (| 2).
4. Results of the Textual Giticism of
the New Testament.
III. Chapter and Verse Diviriona.
Chapter Divisions (| 1).
Verse Diviaiona, Old Testament
(S2).
Verse Diviaiona, New Teatameitt
(§3).
I. The Old Testament. — 1. The Prexxutsoretio
Period: The extant Hebrew text of the Old Testa-
ment text is commonly called the Masoretic, to dis-
tinguish it from the text of the ancient versions
as well as from the Hebrew text of former ages.
This Masoretic text does not present the original
form but a text which within a certain period was
fixed by Jewish scholars as the correct and only
authoritative one. When and how this official
Masoretic text was fixed was formerly a matter
of controversy, especially during the seventeenth
century. One party headed by the Buxtorfs
(father and son), in the interest of the view of
inspiration then prevalent, held to the absolute
completeness and infallibihty, and
1. The hence the exclusive value, of the
^ Text**° Masoretic text. They attributed it to
®* ' Ezra and the men of the Great Syna-
gogue, who, under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit, were supposed to have purified the text
from all accumulated error; added the vowel-
points, the accents, and other pimctuation-marks
(thus settling the reading and pronunciation);
fixed the canon; made the right division into verses,
paragraphs, and books; and, finally, by the provi-
dence of God and the care of the Jews, the text thus
made was believed to have been kept from all
error, and to present the veritable Word of God.
This view of the text prevailed especially when
Protestant scholasticism was at its height, and may
be designated as the orthodox Protestant posi-
tion. It was opposed by another party headed
by Jean Morin and Louis Cappel, who, in the
interest of pure historicity or in Antiprotestant
polemics, combated these opinions, maintained
the later age of the Masoretic text, and sought
to vindicate value and usefulness for the old
versions and other critical helps. They fell into
many errors in respect to the details of the history
of the text and overrated the value of Extra-
masoretic critical helps; but their general view was
supported by irresistible arguments and is now
universally adopted. This view, instead of deriving
the existing text from a gathering of inspired
men in Ezra's time, assigns it to a much later date
and quite different men, and, instead of absolute
completeness, claims for it only a relative one
with a higher value than other forms of the text.
A glance at the history of the text will show how
this agreement has been brought about.
Concerning the oldest history of the text of the
Old Testament writings there exists almost no posi-
tive information. The books were written prob-
ably upon skins, perliaps also on linen;
E U ^ paper was used from very early
Text times in Egypt, it is possible that
it was employed; parchment appean
to have been used later. The roll seems to have
been the usual form (Ps. xl, 8; Jer. xxxvi, 14 sqq.;
Ezek. ii, 9; Zech. v, 1); the pen was a pointed reed
(Jer.viii, 8; Ps. xlv, 1); the character was the Old
Hebrew, which was almost identical with the
Phenician and Moabitic (on the Moabite Stone, q.v.).
Specimens of tills writing are also preserved in
the Siloam inscription (c. 700 B.C.), on gems (of
the eighth or seventh century), on coins of the
Hasmoneans and those belonging to the time of
the Jewish-Roman war, and, in somewhat dififerent
form, in Samaritan writings. Like the Phem'cians
and Moabites, the Hebrews separated the words
by a point or stroke, but these signs do not seem
to have been used regularly, since the Septuagint
often makes word-divisions different from those
of the Masoretic text. Jewish tradition mentions
several passages in which the separation of words
was regarded as doubtful.
The difference between ancient and modern
texts consisted in this, that the former were written
without vowels and accents. The Hebrew wnting,
like Semitic writing in general, was essentially
consonantal; vowels were not written. While the
language lived, this occasioned no difficulty to the
speakers or readers. No details are at hand con-
cerning the way in which the text was multiphed
and preserved; but inasmuch as the writings did
not then have in popular estimation the character
they came later to possess, it is likely that they were
less carefully handled, and that the same amount
of pains was not taken in copying them. This
statement rests upon the fact that those parts of the
Old Testament which we possess in double fonns
vary in ways that indicate a corruption of the text
reaching back to precanonicai times when copies
were neither made nor corrected so laboriously.
05
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
A new epoch commenced after the Exile,
when the holy writings were raised to canonical
dignity and as holy writings were venerated and
handled with ever-increasing care and conscientious-
ness. This veneration was not accorded to all Bib-
lical writings at onoe, but only to that part of the
canon called the law. The epoch begins with Ezra,
and extends to the close of the Talmud, c. 500 a.d.
During this period not only were the form of writing
and the text fixed, but also the pronunciation and
division; in short, the major part of the present
Mosorah was collected in verbal form. A change of
an external kind was the development of a sacred
writing, under the influence of the Aramaic char-
acter, the so-called " square " or " Assyrian "
character. Jewish tradition Scribes the intro-
duction of the square character to Ezra, and calls
it expressly an Aramaic writing that the Jews
adopted in place of their Hebrew, which they left
to the Samaritans. A study of Assyrian, Persian,
and Cilician seab and coins, of the Aramaic monu-
ments from the third to the first century B.C., and
of the Palmyrene inscriptions from the first to the
a Ch third century a.d. has permitted the
jjjj' g^^l^^^ tracing of the development of the
Writing. P^^^^Bent Hebrew alphabet through a
thousand years, back to the eighth
century. Elzra, therefore, may have influenced
the use of the Aramaic alphabet, but the
square character was not developed in his day,
nor for centuries afterward; nor was the Aramaic
alphabet then used outside of the narrow circle
of the scribes. For not only did the Samaritans
retain the ancient script for their Pentateuch, but
among the Jews also it must have been used for
a long tune, since it is found on coins down to the
time of Bar Kokba. Matt, v, 18 proves that
the Aramaic writing had become popular by the
time that Gospel wsjb written, since in the ancient
Hebrew the letter " yodh " was by no means the
smallest. Taking all in all, it may be assumed
with certainty that the use of the new alphabet
in Bible-manuscripts of the last Prechristian
centuries was general, a result which is also con-
firmed by a careful examination of the Septuagint
with reference to the manuscripts used by the
translators (especially must this have been the case
with the Tetragrammaton retained in many copies
of the Greek translation, which was no doubt
written in the Aramaic script, since it was read
enoneousiy by the Christians). Considering this
development it may be assumed that the latest
Old Testament writings were written, not in the
ancient Hebrew but in Aramaic, by the authors
themselves. After the Aramaic writing was once in
use among the Jews, it soon took the form in which
we now have it. The descriptions which Jerome
and the Talmud give of the different letters fully
harmonize with the form which is still found in
manuscripts. The minute rules laid down by the
Talmud as to calligraphy and orthography made
further development of the square writing im-
possible, and therefore the writing of the manu-
•criptB varies scarcely at all through centuries
^excepting perhaps that the German and Polish
Jews have the so-called Tarn script, which is some-
what angular, whereas the Spanish Jews have the
Welsh or more rounded script).
The veneration shown for the canonical writings
during this period naturally led to a greater care
in treatment of them and above all to perception
of the necessity of critically fixing the text. As
soon as the ancient writings obtained canonical
authority, were used in divine service, and became
the standard of doctrine and life, the necessity of
having one standard text naturally asserted itself.
The preparation of such a text began with the law;
the other two divisions (the prophets and the
hagiographa) became authoritative only in the
course of centuries (see Canon op Scripture, I),
and naturally their text did not receive atten-
tion in the earlier period. However, criticism dur-
ing that period was of little value. There is
no doubt that faithful and correct copies ex-
isted, especially of such books as were
^^'^^^^^^■pubUcly read, but this could not
i^^^l prevent errors and mistakes from
creeping into copies which were
generally circulated. When Josephus (Contra
Apion, I, viii) and Philo (cf. Eusebius, Proeparatio
evangelicat VIII, vi, 7) speak of the great care
bestowed by the Jews upon their sacred writings,
this can not be referred to earlier centuries, and
concerns more the contents than the linguistic
minutiee of the text. In the oldest critical docu-
ments— the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Sep-
tuagint— there is evidence (about 500-100 B.C.)
to show that the manuscripts most approved and
most widely diffused contained many verbal dif-
ferences. And these variations are not to be
charged, as was formerly done, to carelessness or
wilfulness on the part of the Hellenistic Jews and
Samaritans, but are explained by the lesser im-
portance attached to exact uniformity of text and
to the existence of mistakes in the current copies.
And when the Septuagint and the Samaritan
Pentateuch agree in good readings, and still oftener
in bad ones, against the Masoretic text, it may be
concluded that these readings were spread by
many copies current among the Palestinian Jews,
and are therefore not to be regarded as offensive.
But after the destruction of Jerusalem, when
Judaism was subject to the authority of the rab-
bis, it became possible to prepare a uniform stand-
ard text, although this idea was not realized until
many generations had worked upon it. The Greek
versions of the second century had already fewer
variations from the Masoretic text. Still nearer
the latter text is the Hebrew text of Origen and
Jerome. The Talmud itself bears witness, by the
agreement of its Biblical quotations with the
Masoretic text, that the consonantal text was
practically finished before the Talmudic era closed.
It is not possible to say upon what principles the
text was treated; but the way in which the cus-
todians presented the individuality of the several
authors, books, and periods is remarkable, and
proves that intentional and arbitrary changes of
the text were not made by these critics. That
they changed passages for dogmatic, especially for
Antichristian, reasons, as has sometimes been as-
serted, has long ago been acknowledged to be a
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFP'-HERZOG
96
baseless accusation. Where they mention changes,
they make clear that they followed the testimony
of manuscripts, the number of which was probably
not very great. The fact that in the first cen-
turies after Christ the text approximates our
present Masoretic reading shows that a certain
recension became authoritative which was possible
only after a certain manuscript had been taken
as the norm. Of such a standard oodex, copies
oould easily be made, or one could correct his
own copies in accordance with it. Scholars
like Olshausen and Lagarde speak therefore
of some such archetype, which was slavishly fol-
lowed in every respect. The critical apparatus
of the time is concealed in dissociated fragments
in the later Masorah, but can not be separated from
the other matter. The Talmud and the older
midrashim allow a little insight into the critical
efforts of the time. Thus mention is made of the
" corrections of the scribes," of the " removals
of the scribes" (meaning that in five passages a
falsely introduced " and " was removed), and of the
points in the Hebrew text over certain words to
show that these words were critically suspected,
such as the inverted " nun," Num. x, 35, and the
three kinds of reading (keri ; see Keri and Kb-
thibh), via., " read but not written," " written
but not read," and " read [one way] but written
[another]." The three kinds of reading have, it is
true, for the most part only exegetical value; e.g.,
they give the usual instead of the unusual grammat-
ical forms, show where one must understand or omit
a word, or where the reader should use a euphe-
mistic expression for the coarse one in the text;
they are therefore scholia upon the text. It is
possible that these '' readings " are also fragments
of the critical apparatus. However this may be,
it is evident that at that period the text was fixed
and that the matter in question concerned only
subordinate details of the text.
The development of the pronunciation or of the
vocalization and the division of words, verses, and
sections kept pace with the settlement of the text.
That the ancient writing had no vowel-points has
already been stated; but even during this entire
period to the close of the Talmud the sacred text
was without vowels and other points. The old
versions, particularly the Greek, and Josephus
depart so widely from the Masoretic text that they
oould not possibly have used the present pointed
text. The expedient which charges the translators
with these differences is of no avail, since it is not
any one version which alone shows fluch differences;
they all differ. Origen, too, published a Hebrew
text in the Hexapla which differed from the Maso-
retic. Jerome knew nothing about vowel-points,
not even the diacritical point making
6. The the difference between " s " and " sh."
Pronun- -phg Talmud and the modem ecclesias-
Pi «d 1? tical or ritual manuscripts of the Jews
theTe^ present an impointed text. There is
Still Tin- ^^ doubt that, as Elias Levita
▼ooaliaed. stated, the Masoretic system of punc-
tuation is of later origin, and that
during this entire period the sacred text was
without points. But this does not mean that
during the same period the reading of the un-
voweled text was still unsettled among the Jews;
it must rather be assumed that with the offidai
fixing of the text there was developed also a certain
mode of understanding and reading it. Of coune
time was required to bring it into vogue; but before
the end of the period it was so firmly established
that Jerome's pronunciation differed very litUe
from the Masoretic, and he was so sure of its cor-
rectness that he appeals to it against the text of
the versions; and the Talmud gives it throughout
correctly. Before the Masoretes the pronundation
was fixed, not yet written, but handed down by
word of mouth, although some scholars may have
used signs in their books to assist their memory.
Closely connected and mutually dependent were
pronunciation and the division of words. The
latter must have been finally settled at this period.
g __ ^ The sign of division was the small
Divieion* ^P*^^ between words. The final let-
ters, being limited in number, can not
be regarded as word-separating signs. Jerome
used a text with a division of words and knew
the final letters; in the Talmud, Menahoi 30a
states how large must be the space between
the words; the synagogue-scrolls, though still with-
out vowels, have nevertheless the division by
spaces, following the custom of the ancient manu-
scripts from Talmudic time; and the fact that a
number of " readings " correct the traditional
division of words speaks again in favor of the high
antiquity of the division of words in the present
texts.
The division into verses is by no means
contemporary in origin with the vocalization,
but much earlier. The verse-divi-
7. Dlvi- gjQjj depends in poetry upon the paral-
■ton into i^iisni, in prose upon the division
*'**"* of sentences and clauses. That the lat-
ter were not marked in oldest times is certain ; in poet-
ical texts the members may have been distinguished
either by space or by breaks of the line. This mode of
writing poetical texts wafl formeriy general, and is
found in the older Hebrew manuscripts; for the
poetical texts, Ex. xv; Deut. xxxii; Judges v; and
II Sam. xxii, it is even prescribed (ShMat 103b;
Sopherim xii), and is therefore still customary.
With the introduction of the Masoretic accents,
poetry was written close, like prose. This verse-
division was taught in the schools; but no rules
are given for its writing, nor did any punctuation-
marks indicate it in this period.
Earlier than the division into verses is that into
larger or smaller sections ; these were more neoessaiy
for the imderstanding of the Scriptures and for their
reading in divine worship. Perhaps some of them
were in the original text. The sections of the law
were at least Pretahnudic; for they
.RTt}?^ are mentioned in the Mishnah and
frequently in the Gemara; in the
latter they are traced to Mosaic
origin; in Shabbat 103b, Menahot 30 care is
enjoined as to the sections in copying the law,
and therefore they occur also in synagogue-
rolls. They are indicated by spacing; the larger
sections by leaving the remainder of the line at
into Seo-
tione.
97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
their do6e unfilled, the next great section beginning
with a new line, on which account they were called
" open "; the smaller sections were separated from
each other by only a small space, and were there-
fore called " dosed " or " connected." Thus not
only the law but also the other two parts of the
canon were divided. For the division of the whole
canon, and the arrangement of the books, see
Canon op Schipture, I.
From what has been said, it follows that the
reading of the text, the vocalization, the division
into words, verses, and sections depend upon the
gradual settlement by the scribes; their reading
can claim neither infallibility nor any absolutely
binding power; and though their labor betrays a
thorough and correct understanding of the text,
the necessity may yet arise when the exegete must
deviate from tradition. Extraordinary pains were
taken to perpetuate in its purity the text thus
divided and vocalized. Signs of this care, such as
the rules for calligraphy and for writing the extraor-
dinary points, have already been mentioned. The
Posttalmudic treatises Masseket sapherim and Mas-
teket 8€pher torah contain full details for copying.
Nevertheless fluctuations are met with in the Maso-
retic period, and it must therefore be assumed that
learned labor had not yet covered all details or
made final settlement.
2. The Kaeoretio Period: The third period of the
textual history is usually reckoned as extending
from the sixth until the eleventh Christian century
(when Jewish learning was transferred from the
East to North Africa and Spain); it embraces the
age of the Masoretes proper, and has for the Bible
text in general the same importance as the Tal-
mudic period had for the law. The efforts of the
scholars to fix the reading and understanding of
the sacred text were overshadowed somewhat by
the study of the Talmud. After the close of the
Talmud the work was resumed and cultivated in
Babylonia and Palestine (at Tiberias).
tl_® In both schools the work of former
generations was continued; but the
Palestinians, who acted more inde-
pendently than the more Talmudically inclined
Babylonians, finally got the victory over the
Babylonian school. In both schools they were
DO longer satisfied with a mere oral transmission
of rules and reg^ations, but committed them to
writing. There is no continuous history of the men
of the Masorah and of the progress of their work
preserved; but the marginal notes in ancient Bible-
manuscripts and the fragments of other works
show that the oldest Afasoretes can be traced
back to the eighth century. The main effort of
this period (as the name Masorahy " tradition,"
indicates; see Masorah) was to collect and to write
down the exegetico-critical material of the former
period, and this makes sufficiently clear the one
part of their work. But the Masoretes also added
some new matter. Anxiously following the foot-
steps of the older critics in their effort to fix and
to guard the traditional text, they laid down more
minute rules of a lin:;uistic and gnunmatical char-
acter, and in this respect a great part of the con-
teniB of the Maaorah is indeed new.
II.— 7
retes.
They took the consonantal textus recephu just
as it stood, and finally settled it in the minutest
details, as is seen from the variants which became
2 Their * flatter of controversy between the
^^y]^^ East and the West, the Babylonians and
the Palestinians, which to the number
of 216 Jacob ben Hayyim published for the
first time in the second edition of the Bomberg
Rabbinic Bible; these have reference mostly to
the vowel-points. This list of variants, as is
now known, is by no means complete. They also
appended critical notes to the text, in part derived
from the Talmudic period, in part new (especially the
** granmiatical conjectures ''), showing that where,
according to the grammar and the genius of the
language, one should expect another reading,
nevertheless the text must stand. Finally the
great majority of the alternative " readings "
date from the Masoretes.
The Masoretes fixed the reading of the text by
the introduction of the vowel-signs, the accents,
and the signs which affect the reading of the con-
sonants (dagheshf mappik, raphe, and the dia-
critical point to distinguish between the letters
" sin " and *'8hin '*)• The pronundation they thus
brought about was no invention, but embodied
the current tradition. Nevertheless, one can not
accept every Masoretio reading as infallible and
unchangeable, espedally when one considers that
the tradition no doubt often fluctuated and that
with such fluctuation the less correct reading may
often have come into the text. Besides the system
found in the majority of manuscripts, there
exists another which has only recently become
known called the " superlinear " system, because
the vowel-signs are placed above the letters; this is
found in some Babylonian and South Arabian
manuscripts. The same is also the case with the
accents.
The division of the text into verses, introduced
by the Masoretes, was neither Babylonian nor
Palestinian, but one which the Masoretes them-
selves seem to have established. At the beginning
of this period the end of the verses was marked by
8oph pcutukf and, when the accents were introduced,
by sUluk besides. The old sections were retained,
though not recognized as entirely correct, and
the old traditional sign for the section, the smaller
spacing (the little D in printed texts), was respected.
The closed sections were marked in manuscripts
and prints by a D, the open ones by a & in the
empty space before the initial word. In addition
there were introduced the Babylonian division into
sections or parashiyoth (in the law) and haph-
taroth (in the prophets), for Sabbath public read-
ing. As these sections generally agree with the
beginning and the end of an open or closed sec-
tion, they were marked by a threefold D [i.e., D & &]
or D [D D D] in the empty space before the
beginning.
But even these efforts could not entirely remove
variations. Hence, before the end of this period,
the learned either attempted to find out by an
elaborate comparison the correct punctuation and
to fix it, or marked the important variations in the
punctuation, or added a caution to each apparently
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
98
strange and yet correct punctuation. The greater
mass of notes which the Masoretes added to the text
relate to these matters. Besides some
8. Oodioes. other Masoretic manuscripts of the
Bible which are quoted in the Maso-
retic notes of the codices or in the writings of the
rabbis as authoritative, such as the codex Hilleli,
the Jericho-Pentateuch, and others, two codices
were especially famous as model codices of the Old
Testament, the codex of Naphtali (Moses ben David
ben Naphtali) and the codex of Asher (Aaron
ben Moses ben Asher), both from the first half of
the tenth century. (Aaron lived at Tiberias, Moses
in Babylon; but the latter can not be regarded as
a representative of the " Babylonian " text-tra-
dition.) They were once much examined by schol-
ars; many of their variants are noted in the Maso-
retic Bible-manuscripts; a list of 864 (better 867)
variants, which refer almost exclusively to vowels
and accents, has been published after Jacob ben
Hayyim in Bomberg's and the other Rabbinic
Bibles, as well as in the sixth volume of the London
Polyglot; but these variants are neither correct
nor complete. On the codex of Asher finally rests
the whole Masoretic text of the Occidentals; of the
variant readings comparatively few were received
into it.
As the older scribes had already shown extraor-
dinary solicitude for the preservation of the text
and its correct reading by counting its sections,
verses, words, letters, and by noting where and how
often and when certain words, letters, or anomalies
occur in the Bible, which verse is the longest and
which the shortest, and like minutise, the Masoretes
of course continued this work, wrote it down, and
preserved it in manuscripts.
The punctuation of the text as developed by the
Masoretes proved itself so useful and met so well an
essential need of those later times that it soon went
over into manuscripts and, with the exception of
synagogue-manuscripts, almost none were written
which did not contain either the pointed text alone
or the pointed beside the unpointed. The other
Masoretic material was written either beside and
below the text of the Biblical books on the margins
and at the close of the same, or in separate masorah-
collections (see Masorah).
8. The PoBtmasoretio Peziod: After the com-
pletion of the Masoretic textual work and the
collection of the notes having reference to it, no
essential change was made in the text; conse-
quently this period is the time of the faithful
preservation, multiplication, and circulation of the
Masoretic text. An essential innovation was the
introduction of the now customary division into
_,^ chapters, which was invented by
ChastM'- Stephen Langton at the beginning of
Division. ^^® thirteenth century, and applied
to the Vulgate. Isaac ben Nathan
adopted it for his Hebrew concordance (1437-38,
published 1523), on which occasion the verses of
the chapters were also numbered. The chapter-
division was first applied to the Hebrew in the
second edition of Bomberg's Bible, 1521 ; the num-
bering of verses was first adopted for the Sabi-
onetta Pentateuch, 1557, and that of the whole
Bible in Athias's edition of 1661 (see below, III.
§§1-2).
Another feature of this period is that a suffident
number of manuscripts is preserved to give an
immediate knowledge of the text. The Hebrew
Bible-manuscripts may be divided into two
classes, the public or sacred and the private
or common. The first were synagogue-roUs.
and have been prepared so carefully
2. Old Tea- j^^j watched so closely that the
toment intrusion of variants and mistakes
■orists ^^ hardly possible. But they con-
tain only the Pentateuch or the Pen-
tateuch with the five Megilloth or "Rolls" (i.e.,
Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, E^xdesi-
astes, Esther), and the haphtaroth (see above, 2,
§ 1) in the text of the Masoretes without their
additions. These manuscripts are, for the most
part, of recent origin, although antique in form, be-
ing written on leather or parchment. The pri-
vate manuscripts are written on the same material,
and also upon paper in book form, with the Maso-
retic additions more or less complete. It is often
difficult, indeed impossible, to determine the date
and country of these manuscripts. But none of
those now known are really very old. The oldest
authentic date is 916 a. d. for the codex oontaining
the prophets with Babylonian punctuation, and
1009 A..D. for an entire Hebrew Bible, both of which
belong to the Firkowitsch collection in the Imperial
Library at St. Petersburg. According to the most
recent investigation the MS. orient. 4445 in the
British Museum (containing Gen. xxv, 20-Deui. i,
33) may be a little older. As a rule the oldest
manuscripts are the more accurate. The number
of errors that crept in, especially in private manu-
scripts, which were prepared without any official
oversight, awakened solicitude and led to well-
directed efforts to get a pure text by means of
collating good Masorah-manuscripts (cf. B. Ken-
nicott, LHssertatio generaliSf Oxford, 1780, 1-lvi;
J. G. Eichhom, EinUUung, Leipsic, 1803, 136bV
In this line the labors of Meir ha-Levi of Toledo
(d. 1244) in his work on the Pentateuch called
"The Masorah, the Hedge of the Law" (Florence,
1750; Berlin, 1761) are celebrated.
The art of printing opened a way of eacttpe from
copyists' errors, and it was taken very cariy. The
Pbalter was printed first, at Bologna in 1477 [on
the earlier prints, cf . B. Pick, History of the Prinied
Edituma of the Old Testament, in Hebraica, ix (1892-
1893), 47-116], the first complete Bible at Soncioo
g _- in 1488; Gerson's edition (the edition
Printed ^^^^ Luther used for his translation)
Text. followed (Brescia, 1494). Substan-
tially the same text is contained in
the first edition of Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible
(1517; see Bibles, Rabbinic), also in the editions
of Robert Stephens (1539 sqq.) and of Sebastian
MUnster. The second independent edition derived
from manuscripts is that in the Complutensian
Polyglot (1514-17; see Biblbb, Polyglot, I). The
text has vowels but no accents. The third impo>
tant recension is contained in the Biblia Rabtnnica
Bombergiana, ed, II., cura R, Jacob hen Chajim
(Venice, 1525-26); it is edited acoordiug to the
)9
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
Uasorah, which the editor first revised, and con-
tains the entire Maaoretic and Rabbinic apparatus,
[t is more or less reproduced in prints published
during the sixteenth and in the beginning of the
Kventeenth centuries. Besides these original re-
censions, editions were published having a mixed
text; the Hebrew text of the Antwerp Polyglot
(1569-72), which is followed by the small editions
of Plantin, the Paris and London Polyglots, and the
editions of Reineccius, is based upon that of the
Complutensian and Bomberg. Another recension
is represented in the editions of Elias Hutter (1587),
Buztorf, and Joseph Athias with preface by J.
Leusden (1661 sqq.), for which some very ancient
manuscripts were collated. Athias's edition be-
came also the basis of later editions like that of
Jablonski (1699), Van der Hooght (1705), Opitz
.1709), J. H. Michaelis (1720), Hahn (1832), and
Theile (1S49).
None of these editions presents the Masoretic
text in its original form. The large collections of
variants by B. Kennicott, Veiiuf Testamentum
Htbraiewn cum variia leetionibus (2 vols., Oxford,
1776-80), more especially by De Rossi, Varia
ledianea Veieris Testamenti (4 vols., Parma, 1784-
88) uidSupplementa ad varias aacri textua lectionea
(1798), are valuable for some Extramasoretic read-
ings which they offer, but they are less valuable
for critical purposes. More important for text-
critical purposes are (besides the work of Meir ha-
Levi, ut sup.) the " Light of the Law " of Mena-
hem de Lonsano (Venice, 1618) and
^Crltieal particularly the critical commentary
^^™*^on the Old Testament by Solomon
^J[^2^" Minorxi (Mantua, 1742-44; Vienna,
1813), the works of Wolf ben Samson
Heidenheim, and especially the thorough work on
the Maaorah by S. Frenisdorff {Maasora magna,
part I. Hanover, 1876, and Oldah we-Oklah, 1864).
Of great service were the publication of the works
of the oldest Jewish grammarians and lexicog-
raphers and the discovery of fragments and publi-
cation of codices like that on the prophets of the
year 916 (published by Strack, Prophetarum poa-
tmorum codex Babylonicua PetrapolUanua, St. Pe-
tersburg, 1876). The fruits of these preliminary
works are contained in the correct editions of the
Masoretic text by Baer and Ginsburg. Baer, who
vas assisted by Delitxsch, published the Old Testa-
ment with the exception of Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy [both editors died
without completing their work]. Ginsburg's edi-
tion is entitled The New Maaaaretico-CrUical Text
of ihe Hdrew BMe [2 vols., London, 1894. It
should be studied with the same author's indis-
pensable Introduction to the Maaaoretico-crUical
Edition of the H^ew BibU (London, 1897)].
Valuable as such correct editions of the Masoretic
text are, they represent only a single recension,
whose source is the textua recepiua mentioned above,
which was fixed in the first Christian centuries.
With this recension the textHritical and exegetical
treatment of the Old Testament can not be satisfied.
Before the received text was made canonical there
existed different forms of the text, which in many
uses stood nearer to the original than that
sanctioned by the Jews. The main witness here
is the Septuagint, a correct edition of which is
an absolutely necessary though extremely difficult
task. But Old Testament textual criticism can
not be satisfied with a comparison even with this
older form of the text. In many cases the cor-
ruption of the text is so old that only a criticism
both cautious and bold can approximate to the
genuine text. In modem times some very impor-
tant contributions have been made, such as J.
Olshausen, Emendationen tum Alien Testament
(Kiel, 1826); idem, Beiirdge tur Kritik des Hberlie-
ferten Textea im Buche Geneaia (1870); J. Well-
hausen. Text der Bucher Samuelia (Gdttingen,
1871); F. Baethgen, Zu den Paalmen, in JPT
(1882); 0. H. Comill,Das Buch dea Propheten Eze-
chiel (Leipsic, 1886); S. R. Driver, Notea on the
Hebrew Text of the Booka of Samud (London,
1890); A. Klostermann, Die Bucher Samuelia und
der Kdnige (Munich, 1887), idem, Deutero^eaaia
(Munich, 1893); G. Beer, Der Text dea Buchea
Hiob (part i, Marburg, 1895); and the Sacred
Booka of the Old Teatament '(the so-called Poly-
chrome or Rainbow Bible), ed. P. Haupt (Balti-
more, London, and Leipsic, 1894 sqq.).
(F. Buhl.)
Bibuoobapht: Beridee the introduetionB to the Old Testa^
ment (especially of J. Q. Eiohhom, 4th ed., Gfittingen.
1823-26: W. Bf. L. de Wette. 8th ed. by E. Sohrader. pp.
111-166. Berlin. 1809; C. H. Cornill. if 49-^63. Freiburg.
1906; F. E. KOnig. if 3-30. 92. Bonn, 1893; C. H. H.
Wright. London. 1891. and W. H. Bennett, ib. 1900) and
the worka mentioned in the text consult: J. Morinua. Ex-
crcifaljonum hibliearum de Htbrmi Oracique textua ein-
eeriiate libri duo, Paris. 1609; L. Cap^llus. Critica eacra,
Paris, 1650. new edition with notes by Vogel and Schar-
fenberg. Halle. 1776-86; H. Hody. De bibliorutn textibue
oriointdUnu, Oxford. 1705; H. Hupfeld. in TSK, 1830.
1837; A. Qeiger. Uredirift und Uebereeteunoen der BibO,
Breslau. 1857; L. Loew. BeUr&ge eur jUdiMchen AUerthume*
kunde, Leipsic. 1870 (deals with materials and products
of writing); H. L. Strack. Proleoomena criHea in Vetue
Teetamenium Hebraieum, Leipsic. 1873 (very full upon ex-
tant and lost liSS.. and on the testimony of the Talmud to
the text); A. Kuenen. Lee Orxginee du texte maeorHique
(from the Dutch), Paris, 1875; Palmooraphieal Society,
Oriental Serie§t Faceimilee of M33. and Ineeriptiane, Lon-
don, 1875-^ (deals with many important codices of the
O. T.); A. Harkavy. Neuaufoefuiidene h^dieche Bibel-
handaehriften, St. Petersburg. 1884 (characterises fifty-one
Hebrew MSS. and fragments); V. Ryssel, Unterauehun-
gen Hber die Textgeatalt und die Echtheit dea Budua MicKa,
Leipsic. 1887 (198 pages concern the text); G. C. Work-
man, The Text of Jeremiah, a Critical Inveatioation of the
Oreek and Hebrew, Edinburgh, 1889: T. K. Abbott, Eaaaya
ehiafiv on the Orioinal Texta of the Old and New Teatamente,
London. 1891 (on Masoretic and Premasoretic text); F.
Buhl, Kanon und Text dea Allen Teatamente, Leipsic, 1891,
Eng. transl.. Edinburgh, 1892 (useful for beginners); A.
Loisy, Hiatoire critique du texte et dea veraione de la Bible,
2 Tols.. Paris, 1892-95; F. G. Kenyon, Our BibU and the
Ancient MSS., Being a Hiatory of the Text and iU Trana-
lationa, London, 1896; W. A. 0>pinger. The Bible and iU
Tranemiaaion, . . . View of the Hebrew and Oreek Texta,
London, 1897; E. Kautssch. Abriee der OeadtiehU dea
altteatamientliehen Schrifttume, in appendix to his edition
of Die heUiae Sduift, Freiburg. 1896. Eng. transl. as a
separate work. New York. 1899; T. H. Weir. A Short
Hiatory of the Hebrew Text of the Old Teatament, London.
1899; R. Kittel. Ueber die NolwendiokeU und MdoUchkeU
einer neuen Auatfobe der hebrdiaehen Bibel, Leipsic. 1902;
P. Kahle. Der maaeretiadte Text dee aUen Teatamente nach
der Ueberlieferuno der babyloniecksn Juden, Leipsic. 1902;
T. K. Cheyne. Critica bibliea, parts 1-5, London. 1903-
1905; F. W. Mosley, Paalter of the Church; Septuagint Paalma
Compared with the Hebrew, ib. 1905. On the ancient He-
brew and square writing consult: D. Ton Muralt, Bei-
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
100
trlige no* h^Aisdien PalAooraphie und nor OetdtidUe der
^ Punktuation, in TSK, 1874; S. R. Driver. Notea on ths
Hebrew Text of the Book* of Samuel^ pp. xi-xzxv, London,
1890; Vollers. in ZATW, 1883. pp. 229 sqq.; L. Blau,
Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, pp. 48-80. Strasburg,
1894; R. Butin. The Ten Neqrudoth of the Torah; or the
Meaning and Purpoee of the Extraordinary Pointe of the
Pentateuch, Baltimore, 1906 (an important and Bcientifio
discussion of textual critical value). On the Masoretio
material in the Talmud and Ifidrash consult: H. L. Strack,
ProUoomena eritioa in Vetue Tettamentum^ ut sup.; L.
Blau, Maeoretieehe Untereudiunoen, Strasburg, 1891; idem,
Zur Einleituno in die heilige Schrift, 100 sqq., ut sup. On
the vowels and accents (especially on the superlincar
system) cf. Strack's edition of the Babylonian codex of
the prophets, p. vii. ut sup.; idem, Zeiteehrift far die ge-
eammte luthtrieche Thtologie und Kirche, 1877, pp. 17-52;
idem, in WieaeneehafUiche Jahretberichte iiber die mor-
gerd&ndiachen Studien, 1879. p. 124; J. Derenbourg, in Re-
vue critique, 1879, pp. 463 sqq.; W. Wickes, A Treatiee
on the Accentuation of the Three Poetical Books, 1881; A
Treatise on (he Accentuation of the twenty-one eo-caUed
Proae-Booke, pp. 142 sqq., London, 1887; G. F. Moore, in
Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888; D. S.
Margoliouth, The Superlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, 1893,
pp. 164-205; A. Btichler. Untersuchungen zur Entsiehung
und Entuyickelung der hebrAischen Accente, Vienna, 1892.
On the division into sections, chapters, etc., cf. REJ, iii,
282 sqq.. vi, 122 sqq., 250 sqq., vii, 146 sqq.; Theodor,
in Monatsschrift fUr Geschichte und Wissenschaft dee Juden-
thums, 1885, 1886, 1887; O. Schmid, Ueber verschiedene
Einteilungen der heiligen Schrift, Gras. 1891. The cata-
logues of Hebrew MSS. are mentioned in H. L. Strack,
Prolegomena, pp. 29-33, 119-121, ut sup.; idem, in Ein-
leituTigindas A. T., p. 182, Munich, 1898; and with special
fulness in Ginsburg, Introduction, ut sup.
IL The New Testament — 1. History of the Writ-
ten Text: The autographs of the New Testament
very early disappeared, owing to the constant use
of the perishable papyrus; for this appears to have
been the material (II John 12). If they were
really not in the handwriting of the apostles, but
in that of their amanuenses, as Paul's Epistles
generally were (Rom. xvi, 22; II Thees. iii, 17),
it is easier to account for the phenomenon. The
papyrus rolls preserved to the present day were
never much used; indeed, the most of them have
been found in sarcophagi, and so, of course, were
never used at all. The ink was lampblack mixed
with gum dissolved in water, copperas
1, The An- (sulphate of iron) being sometimes
t<wpaphe of added. The pen was of reed (coLa-
Teetanumt ^***)- "^^^ writing was entirely in
Booke. uncials (capitals), with no separation
of the words (except rarely to indicate
the beginning of a new paragraph), no breathings,
accents, or distinction of initial letters, and few, if
any, marks of punctuation. The evangelists may
have denominated their compositions " Gospels,"
although Justin regularly speaks of the '' Memoirs
of the Apostles "; but all addition to the name is
later, and presupposes a collection of the Gospels.
In the case of the Epistles the brief address, e.g.,
" To the Romans," was probably added by the
original sender, and other marks of genuineness
given (cf. II Thess. iii, 17). The Muratorian Canon
(second half of the second century; see Mura-
torian Canon) calls Acts and the Apocalypse by
these names, and so proves the early use of these
designations. The designation " Catholic (i.e.. Gen-
eral) Epistle " is first met with at the close of the sec-
ond century (ApoUonius, in Eusebius, HisL eccl., V,
zviii, 5, where the First Epistle of John is probably
meant). The application and limiting of the tenn
to the whole of the present collection is of Uter
date; for even in the third and fourth century it
was customary to give this term to epistles, like
that of Barnabas or those of Dionymus of Ck)niith,
which were not specially addressed.
The external history of the New Testament
text for a thousand years prior to the invention
of printing can be traced by means of manuscripts.
Before the formal close of the canon (end of fourth
century) there were probably few single manu-
scripts of the entire New Testament.
2. The Qf ^jjg three thousand known manu-
■orinte ^rip^ of the New Testament, only
about thirty include all the books.
Some of those of the fourth and fifth century now
preserved contain not only the Greek Old Testa-
ment (K, A, B, C), but also writings which, though
not canonical, were read in churches and studied
by catechumens. Thus, attached to the Coda
Sinaiticus (K) were the Epistle of Barnabas and
the Shepherd of Hermas; to the Codex Alexan-
drinus (A), two " epistles " ascribed to Clement of
Rome (q.v.) and the so-caUed PsaUerium Solo-
monis. The four Gospels were most frequently
copied, the Pauline Epistles oftener than the
Cathohc Epistles or the Acts, least often the Apoc-
alypse. The Gospels were usually arranged in the
present order, then came the Pauline Epistles, the
Acts, and the Cathohc Epistles; the Apocalypse
always last. The arrangement of the Epistles
differed; indeed, there was no model. (Cta the
various arrangements cf. C. A. Credner, Geschichte
des neiUestamerUlichen Kanons, ed. G. Volkmar,
BerUn, 1860; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, Leipsif,
1884, pp. 131 sqq.; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutesta-
mentlichen Kanons, Erlangen, 1883, ii, 343 sqq.)
After papyrus had gone out of use, parchment
or vellum came in and was used from ths fourth
to the eleventh century; then came in cotton paper,
and afterward linen paper (cf . W. Watt^nbach, Dm
Schriftwesen im MittelaUer, Leipsic, 1896, pp. l''>9
sqq.). The growing scarcity of parchment W
to the reuse of the old skins, the former writing
being erased or washed off; and imfortunately it
oftener happened that it was a Biblical manuscript
which was thus turned into a patristic one than the
reverse. Such manuscripts are termed Coduxi
palimpsesti (palimpsests) or rescript
3. Their By the use of chemicals the origi-
Material nal text has often been recovered in
and Form, modem times. The most famous
New Testament palimpsest is the
Codex Ephraemi (C), of the fifth century, rewritten
upon in the twelfth. As papyrus disappeared
from use, the book form was generally substituted
for the rolls, in manuscripts written on parchment
or paper. The books were mostly made up of
quaternions, i.e., quires of four sheets, doubled so
as to make sixteen pages, less frequently of fi^*e,
though later quires of six sheets were common.
The division of the page into columns was at first
retained, two being the usual number (e.g., Cod.
Alex.); but in many manuscripts (e.g., Cod,
Ephraemi) the lines ran across the page. [iBxcep-
tionally, K has four columns, B three.] From the
101
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
Sections.
aeventh and ei^th centuries the present accents
were more or less used, but very arbitrarily and
irregularly. The uncials gradually changed their
earlier simple round or square forms, and from the
tenth century yielded to the cursives. The earliest
punctuation was by means of a blank space and a
simple point. Euthalius, a deacon in Alexandria,
in the year 458 published an edition of the Epistles
of Paul, and soon after of the Acts and Catholic
Epistles, written stichometrically, i.e., in single
lines containing only so many words as could be
read, consistently with the sense, at a single inspira-
tion. This mode of writing was used long before
in copying the poetical books of the Old Testament.
It involved, however, a great waste of parchment,
80 that, in manuscripts of the New Testament, it
was superseded after a few centuries by punctuation-
marks.
Dirisions of the text were early made for vari-
ous purposes. In the third century Anmionius
of Alexandria (q.v.) prepared a Harmony of the
Gospels, taking the text of Matthew as the basis.
Eusebius of Caesarea, in the early
4. The Am- p^,^ ^f ^jjg fourth century, availing
himself of the work of Ammonius,
divided the text of each Gospel into
sections, the length of which, varying greatly
(in John xix, 6 there are three, and in twenty-
four other instances two, in a single verse), was
detemiined solely by their relation of parallelism
or similarity to passages in one or more of
the other Gospels, or by their having no parallel.
These sections (often erroneously ascribed to
Ammonius) were then numbered consecutively
in the margin of the Gospel in black ink; Matthew
having 355, Mark 233 (not 236), Luke 342, and
John 232. They were distributed by Eusebius
into ten tables or canons prefixed to the (jospels,
and containing the sections corresponding in —
I. Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, 71.
II. Matthew, Mark, Luke, 111.
III. Matthew, Luke, John, 22.
IV. Matthew, Mark, John, 26.
V. Matthew, Luke, 82.
VI. Matthew, Mark, 47.
VII. Matthew, John, 7.
VIII. Luke, Mark, 14.
DC. Luke, John, 21.
X. Sections peculiar to Matthew 62, Mark
21, Luke 71, John 97.
Under the number of each section in the mar-
gin of the several Gospels was written in red ink
the number of the canon or table to which it be-
longed. On turning to its place in this table, the
number of the corresponding section or sections
in the other Gospels stands with it, so that the paral-
lel passages may readily be found. For example,
the first verse of Matt, iv forms the fifteenth
Eusebian section; the number two under this
refers to the second canon or table, where it appears
that section fifteen in Matthew corresponds to six in
Hsrk, and fifteen in Luke; i.e., to Mark i, 12, and
Luke iv, 1. In some manuscripts the parallel sec-
tions are indicated at the bottom of the page. They
thus correspond to our marginal references. Cf . Euse-
bius, Epiat. ad Carpianum ; J. Burgon, The Last
Tioelve Verses of S, Mark (London, 187 1 ), pp. 295 sqq.
Wholly different in character and purpose from
the Eusebian sections, and probably older, is a
division of the Gospels into sections called tiUoi,
also kephalaia majora (in Latin manuscripts,
breves), found in most manuscripts from the Alex-
andrine and the Ephraem (A, C) of the fifth century
onward. Of these sections Matthew
T?;,^^^ contains 68, Mark 48, Luke 83, John
of the T^STt ^^' "^^^ numbers by which they are
' designated in the margin of manu-
scripts refer to the titles describing their con-
tents at the top or bottom of the page, or in
a list prefixed to each Gospel, or often in both
places. A certain portion at the beginning of
each Gospel is not numbered; for example, the
first chapter in Matthew corresponds with our
chap, ii, 1-15, and is entitled peri tdn magOny ** Con-
cerning the Magi." There is a similar division
in the Acts and Epistles, to which Euthalius (about
458 A.D.), though not its inventor, gave wide cur-
rency by his stichometric edition of these books.
The Apocalypse was divided by Andrew, bishop of
Csesarea in Cappadocia (about 500 a.d.), into
twenty-four logoi, or chapters, and each of these
chapters into three kephalaiOf or sections, the
former nimiber answering to the twenty-four elders
spoken of in the book (Rev. iv, 4); the latter
suggested by the threefold division of human nature
into body, soul, and spirit (comp. I Thess. v, 23),
as the author himself declares. In the Vatican
manuscript (B), there is a division of the Gospels
into much shorter chapters (Matt. 170, Mark 62,
Luke 152, John 80), very judiciously made. This
has been found in only one other manuscript, the
Codex Zacynthius (H). In the Acts and Epis-
tles the Vatican manuscript has a twofold divi-
sion into chapters, — one very ancient, the other
later, but both different from the Euthalian. In
the older division, the Pauline Epistles are treated
as one book. (For further details see Tischendorf,
Novum TestamerUum Vaiicanumy Leipsic, 1867, p.
xxx; Scrivener, /n^odtic^um, i, London, 1894, pp. 56
sqq.) Other ancient divisions of the New Testament
into chapters were more or less widely current,
especially in Latin and Syriac manuscripts.
The superscriptions, " Epistle of Paul," " Catho-
lic Epistles," etc., can not be earlier than the fourth
century, since they imply a canonical collection.
The subscriptions at the end of the Pauline Epistles
in many manuscripts are generally ascribed to
Euthalius. At least six of these are untrustworthy
(I Cor., Gal., I and II Thess., I Tim., Tit.). For
the modem divisions of the Bible into chapters
and verses see III below.
An ancient division of the text is the les-
sons, or lections, from the Gospels on the one
hand, and the Acts and Epistles on
6. Divi- the other, read in the public services
■ions for of ^he Church. The history of these
ttl iKai^°' is obscure, and they varied much at
^ ' different periods and in different
regions. The lessons for the Sundays
and chief festivals of the year seem to have been
the eariiest; next were added lessons for the Sat-
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
102
urdaysy and finally for every day in the week,
with special commemoration of saints and mar-
tyrs. Euthalius marked, in the Acts, 16 of these
"lessons"; in the Catholic Epistles, 10; in the
Pauline Epistles, 31; in all, 57. He was prob-
ably not, as many have supposed, their inventor.
The system of lessons which ultimately prevailed
in the Greek Churoh appears in our evangelista-
ries and lectionaries (more properly praxapostoli),
containing the lessons from the Gospels and the
Acts and Epistles respectively. The ordinary
manuscripts of the Greek Testament were often
adapted for church service by marking the begin-
ning and end of each lesson, with a note in the
margin of the time or occasion for reading it, and
by prefixing to them a Synaxarionf or table of the
lessons in their order; sometimes also a Meno-
togiorif or calendar of the inmiovable festivals and
the saints' days, with their appropriate lessons.
Turning to the internal history of the New Testa-
ment text, it is evident that its original purity
was early lost. The quotations of the latter half
of the second century contain readings which agree
with later texts, but are not apostolic. Irenseus
alludes (Hcer,, V, xxx, 1) to the difference between
the copies; and Origen, early in the third century,
expressly declares that matters were growing worse
(in Matt,, xix, 19, vol. iii, p. 671, ed. De la Rue,
Paris, 1733-59), as is proved by the quotations
of the Fathers of the third and fourth centuries.
From this time onward we have the manuscript
text of each century, the writings of the Fathers,
and the various Oriental and Occidental versions, all
testifying to varieties of reading for almost every
verse, which undoubtedly occasioned many more
or less important departures from the
7. Early sense of the original text. How came
ttoTSf" ^^^ The early Church did not know
the Text, anything of that anxious clinging
to the letter which characterizes the
scientific rigor and the piety of modem times,
and therefore was not so bent upon pre-
serving the exact words. Moreover, the first
copies were made rather for private than for pub-
lic use; copyists were careless, often wrote from
dictation, and were liable to misunderstand.
Attempted improvements of the text in grammar
and style; proposed corrections in history and
geography; efforts to harmonize the quotations
in the New Testament with the Greek of the Sep-
tuagint, but especially to harmonize the Gospels;
the writing out of abbreviations; incorporation
of marginal notes in the text; the embellishing
of the Gospel narratives with stories drawn from
non-apostolic though trustworthy sources, e.g.,
John vii, 53 to viii, 11, and Mark xvi, 9 to end, —
it is to these causes that we must attribute the very
nimierous " readings,'' or textual variations. It
is true that the copyists were sometimes learned
men; but their zeal in making corrections may
have obscured the true text as much as the igno-
rance of the imleamed. The copies, indeed, came
under the eye of an official reviser; but he may
have sometimes exceeded his functions, and done
more harm than good by his changes.
Attempts were made by learned Fathers to get
the original text; and three men of the third cen-
tury— Origen, the Egyptian Bishop Hesycfaius,
and the Presbyter Lucian of Antioch — deserve
mention for their devotion to this object. The last
two undertook a sort of recension of the New
Testament (cf. Jerome, Epist. ad Damasum); but
it is not known exactly what they did, and their
influence was small. In regard to Origen, while
he did not make a formal recension of the New
Testament text, his critical work was of the
highest importance. Notwithstanding these diver-
sities, there were, as early as the fourth and fifth
centuries, afiinities between manuscripts prepared
in the same district, which seem to betray certain
tendencies, as is proved by the Fathers, the ver-
sions, and the Greek manuscripts themselves.
Thus critics are justified in speaking of an Oriental
and Occidental, or, more correctly, an Alexandrian
or Egyptian, and a Latin, as also of an Asiatic or
Greek, and a Byzantine or Constantinopolitan
text. According to this theory, the Alexandrian
was used by those Jewish Christians of the East
who already used the Septuagint; particularly was
this text preserved and spread by the
8. Varie- learned Alexandrian school. The
ties of Latin text characterizes not only the
du^ed to nianuscripts prepared by Latins, but
Early the Greek manuscripts they used.
OritioifaiL. The Asiatic manuscripts were used
chiefly by native Greeks in Greece,
or in the Asiatic provinces having intercourse with
Greece. The Byzantine manuscripts belonged to
the Church of that empire. The latter alone had a
certain official uniformity, and were, in the latter
centuries, almost the only manuscripts circulated
in the empire. This class of manuscripts is also
the only one perfectly represented in existing
documents, and is the result of the gradual mix-
ture of older recensions under the predominance
of the Asiatic or Greek. Each of these recensions
is more or less altered and corrupted; so that it is
often more difficult to assign a particular reading to
its proper class than to find out the original . Finally,
the differences and relationships are by far most
strongly marked in the Gospels, least so in the Apoc-
alypse, and again are more distinct in the Pauline
Epistles and the Acts than in the Catholic Epistles.
(Cf. C. Tischendorf, Novum TestamerUum Grctct,
editio academica viiif Leipsic, 1875, pp. xxiv sqq.)
The number of uncial manuscripts of the New
Testament, ranging in date from the fourth to the
tenth century, is 114. This does not include eight
psalters containing the text of the
?ialli£^Sr hymns in Luke i, 46-^55, 68-79, ii,
■orlpte. ' 29-32, desiipiated by Tischendorf
O •-•», nor the lectionaries, evan-
gelistaries, and praxapostoli. About half of these
114 are mere fragments, containing but a few
verses or at most a few chapters. They may
be arranged as follows with reference to their
probable date:
Cent. IV, 2: k with the whole New Testament; B, Go*,
pels. Acts, Catholic, and Pauline Epistles (mutilated).
Cent. V. 16: A 0 1» «• I* Q, Q, T*K T""' 3, "^^ •• »*.
Cent. VI, 24: Dj D, E, H, I*.' N, N. O, O^ P, R, T''^'»'
103
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible T«zt
Gent. Vn, 17: F* O, !••• R,'P'*»"p<! w"*"" ©**• """.
Gent. Vm. 19: B, E, L, S, T<"*" W*''^ Y ©«» H ♦ n "'«••.
Cent. IX. 31: E, F, , G, G** H, K,., L^, M, ., N, O, Pa T'*
V W«^» X* r A •* A n ■«•.
Gent. X. 6: Gj Hi Si U X ^i.
Of theee only one, H, has the New Testament
entire, and only four others, ABC*, the greater
part of it. The remainder are distributed, accord-
ing to the principal divisions of the New Testa-
ment, as follows:
Gospels, 81: Complete or nearly 80. 12: DEKLMSUVF
A n O ; containing considerable portions, 14: FGHNPQll
X Z A B 2 • 3 ; containing at most a few chapters or verses.
55: F* I *••-*•' I* N* O T**'* ^'* T"** W*^ X** ©*^ i«-n^
AcU. 13: Complete or nearly so, 5: DEL PS; the rest
with laiger (H) or smaller portions (G G»» F* I*» • 3).
Catholic Epistks, 6: Complete or nearly so, 4: KLPS,
and the fragment 3.
Pftuline Epistles, 20: Complete or nearly 80,7:DEFQKL
P: containing larger or smaller fragments, 13: F* H I* M N O
0*QRSTi»i".
Apocalypee: besides MAC, Bt contains the complete text;
P has some small gaps.
In reference to the character of their text, Tisch-
endorf classifies the uncials as follows: in the Gos-
pels the oldest form of the text, predominantly
.\lexandrine in its coloring, is found, though with
many differences, in K A B C D 1 1^ L P Q R T*"* X
Z A e«« S; next to these stand ?• N O W*' Y e*»»«'.
A later form of the text, in which the Asiatic col-
oring prevails, is presented byEFGHKMSU
V r A n e^, among which E K M r A n G** incline
most toward the first class. For the Acts and
Catholic Epistles, fiC A B C give the oldest text,
to which, in the Acts, D I approach, and, less
closely, E G; also, in the CathoUc Epistles (except
I Pet.), P; while in the Acts, H L P, and, in
the Catholic Epistles, K L, come nearest to the
later form of the text. In the Pauline Epis-
tles the oldest text is represented by fiC A B C
H I O Q, with the Greoo-Latin manuscripts D F G;
M P approach this; while K L N stand nearest to
the more recent text. The text of the Apocalypse
appears in its oldest form in fiC A C, to which P
comes nearer than B (cf. Gregory, Prolegomena,
pp. 185 sqq.). Tregelles exhibits the '' genealogy
of the text" and affinities of the manuscripts in
the Gospds in the following form:
WetUm
D
Alexandrine
BfiCZ
CL5'1.33
PQTRIN
X J60
Byzantine
A
KM/7
E F G 8 U, etc.
Westoott and Hort attach a superlative value
to B, Tischendorf to fiC* The same manuscript
may differ in character in different parts of the New
Testament: thus, A is not so excellent in the Gos-
pels as elsewhere; A ia especially good in the Gos-
pel of Mark; K and D agree most closely in the
Gospel of John; the cursive 1 is remarkably val-
uable in the Gospels, but not so in the rest of the
New Testament.
The following is a complete list of the 114
uncial manuscripts:
K: Codex Sinaiticus. found by Tischendorf (1844 and
1859) in the Convent of St. Catharine at the foot of Mount
Sinai, now preserved in St. Petersburg. Forty-three leaves
of the Old Testament portion of the manuscript, known
as the Codex Friderioo-Augustanus, are in the library of
Leipsic University. Besides twenty-eiz books of the Old
Testament, of which five form the Codex Friderico-Augus-
tanus, the manuscript contains the entire New Testament
without the least break, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the
first third of the Shepherd of Hennas. The Alexandrian
copsrist has frequently shown his imperfect knowledge of
Greek, and his haste. The license in handling the text,
common in the first three centuries, is greater than in B A C,
though much less than in D. Nevertheless, the superiority of
the Codex Sinaiticus to all other New Testament manu-
scripts, with the single exception of B. is fully proved by
the numerous places in which its reading has the support
of the oldest quotations or the most ancient versions. The
text is in four columns, which is a imique arrangement. The
Pauline Epistles, among which is Hebrews after 11 Thessfr-
lonians, come directly after the Gospels; the Acts and the
Catholic Epistles, then the Apocalypse, follow. The date of
the oodex is the fourth century. It has a special value
from the fact that, owing to the corrections it received in
the sixth and seventh centuries and later, its pages repre-
sent, after a fashion, the history of the changes in the New
Testament text. The oodex was published (1862) in fao-
simile type from the Leipsic press, in four folio volumes, at
the expense of the emperor of Russia, Alexander II. The
edition was limited to three hundred copies. The New
Testament part was published separately in a critical edi-
tion by Tischendorf, Novum TeaiamerUum 8ina%Hcum cum
eputola BamabcB et fragmentU Paatoria etc., Leipsic, 1863,
and in a more popular form. Novum TeatamerUum QratcB ex
Sinaitico eodice omnium anHquisHmo, Leipsic, 1865 (ef. G.
Tischendorf, Dtr SinaibiJbel. Ihre ErUdeckunOf Herau9oabe,
und Erwerbuno, Leipsic, 1871; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena,
pp. 16-17; F. H. A. Scrivener, A FvU Collation of the Codex
SinaiHcuB, Cambridge. 1867).
A: CJodex Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, pre-
sented in 1628 by C^rril Lucar, patriarch of Constantinople,
to Charles I. The New Testament begins with Biatt. xxv,
6, and contains the whole except John vi, 50-viii, 62, and
II Cor. iv, 13-xii, 6, with the First Epistle of Clement and
part of the second. It was printed in facsimile by C. G.
Woide, London, 1786, in ordinary type by B. H. Cowper,
ib. 1860, who corrected some mistakes of Woide, and in
photographic facsimile by the trustees of the British Mu-
seimi, ed. E. M. Thompson (4 vols., London, 1879-83).
Tischendorf places it about the middle of the fifth century;
Scrivener at the end of the fourth or very little later.
B^: 0>dex Vaticanus, no. 1209, in the Vatican Library.
The manuscript contains, besides the Old Testament, the
entire New Testament, with the exception of Heb. ix, 14 to
end and II Timothy. Titus, Philemon, and Revdation.
Juan Sepulveda, writing to Erasmus about 1633, men-
tions it. The first collation of the manuscript, made in
1669, by Bartolocd, then librarian of the Vatican, exists
only in manuscript in the Paris library. Another was made
by Birch, 1788-1801. The collation made for R. Bentley
by an Italian named Mioo was published by Ford, [1790.
J. L. Hug wrote a learned CommentaHo de aniiquitate codieit
Vaticani (Freiburg. 1810). The manuscript was then in
Paris, but it was later restored to Rome, when it became
practically inaccessible. An inaccurate and critically worth-
less edition of the whole manuscript was issued by Cardinal
Mai (5 vols., Rome. 1828-38). C. Vercellone, J. Coasa, and
G. Sergio published an edition of the entire codex in 6 vols.
(New Testament is vol. v) in Rome, 1868-81, and a photo-
graphic reproduction was published by the Vatican (1889).
The age of the manuscript is about the same fis that of the
Sinaitic, and possibly corrections are by the same first hand
in both, and in the Vatican by a second hand contempo-
rary with the first.
Bt: Ckxiex Vaticanus 2066 (eighth century), formerly
Basilian (3odex 106. contains Revelation, was first imper-
fectly edited by Tischendorf in Monumenia aaera inedita
(Leipsic. 1846), and more completely in Appendix Novi
Teatamenti VaHeani (ib. 1869). By TregeUee the manu-
script was designated Q.
C: Codex Ephraemi (fifth century), now no. 9 in the Nar
tional Library at Paris; its text was altered in the sixth
century and again in the ninth. In the twelfth century the
original writing was washed oflF to make room for the Greek
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
104
text of several aaoetie works of Ephraem Synu (d. 373).
Pierre AlUx, at about the eloee of the Mventeenth century,
noticed the traces of the old writing under the later charac-
ters. WetBtein in 1716 collated the New TesUment part so
far as it was legible. In 1834 and 1835 the Ubrarian Carl
Hase revived the original writing by the application of the
Giobertine tincture (prussiate of potash). Tischendorf, after
great labor, brought out in 1843 an edition of the New Tes-
tament part of the manuscript, and in 1845, of the Old Tes-
tament fragments, representing the manuscript line for line,
in facsimile. The codex contains portions of the Old Testa-
ment on sixty-four leaves, and five-eighths of the New Tes-
tament.
Di : Codex Bess (about 550 A.D.), from the monastery of
St. Irensus in Lyons, now in the University Library at
Cambridge, a present in 1581 from Theodore Besa. It con-
tains, with few lacuzuB, the Greek and Latin text of the
Gospels and Acts and III John 11-15, stichometrioally writ-
ten, perhaps in Gaul. Edited by Kipling in 1703, but in a
far better manner by Scrivener {Beta Codex CarUabriffietuU)
in 1864. No known manuscript has so many and so remark-
able interpolations. Much study has been given to it, e.g.,
J. R. Harris, Codex Beam (Cambridge, 1891).
D,: Ck>dex Claromontanus of the Pauline Epistles, inclu-
ding Hebrews (second half of sixth century). Besa found it
in the Monastery of Clermont, hence the name; now in the
Paris Library. Contains the Greek and Latin text written
stiehometrically. It was retouched at different times, and
exhibits especially two periods of the text. The Latin text
represents the oldest version, — that of the second century.
It was collated by Tregelles in 1849 and 1850, and edited
by Tischendorf in 1852 in facsimile.
£i: Codex Basiliensis A. N. Ill, 12 (750 a.d.). in Basel,
a nearly complete manuscript of the four Gospels, collated
by Tregelles (1846), also by Tischendorf and J. C. Mailer
(1843).
E^: (3odex Laudianus (end of sixth century), in the Bod-
leian Library at Oxford, a present from Archbishop Laud
in 1636; was brought to England in 668; Bede (d. 735)
used it when writing his ExpoeUio reimctata of the Acts.
It contains an almost complete Greco-Latin text of the Acts;
edited in 1715 by Heame, and in 1870 by Tischendorf in
Monumenta eacra inedita, nova eoUecUo, vol. ix.
Et: Codex Sangermanensis, a Greco-Latin manuscript of
the Pauline Epistles (end of ninth century), now in St.
Petersburg, the Greek text being a clumsy copy of the Oxlex
Claromontanus. Of no critical value except for the Latin
text. Sabatier published it in the third part of his BUdiorum
wacrorum LoHna vereio (1740).
Fi: Codex Boreeli (ninth century), now in Utrecht Uni-
versity, contains the four Gospels, but with many lacuns.
Full description is given in J. Heringa, DieptUoHo de eodice
Boreeliano, ed. H. E. Vinke (Utrecht, 1843).
F^: Codex Augiensis (ninth century), contains Pauhne
Epistles in Greek and Latin, Hebrews only in Latin, and
the Latin is not an exact translation of the Greek. Richard
Bentley bought it at Heidelberg and his nephew presented
it to Trinity College, (Cambridge. It was collated by Tisch-
endorf (1842), Tregelles (1845), and edited by Scrivener
(1850).
F*: Designates those passages from the (Sospels, Acts,
and Pauline Epistles written on the margin of the Coislin
Octateuch in Paris early in the seventh century. It was
edited by Tischendorf in Monumenta eacra inediia (1846).
Gj: CJodex Harleianus (tenth century), contains the Gos-
pels, defective, now in the British Museum, brought by
A. Seidel from the East in the seventeenth century. It
was collated by J. C. Wolf (1723), Griesbach, Tischendorf.
and Tregelles.
Gfi A seventh century fragment of the Acts (ii, 46-iii, 7), «
brought by Tischendorf from the East in 1859 (see L^).
Gb: Six leaves of a ninth century manuscript now in the
Vatican, five leaves edited by (}oisa in Sacrorum bihUorum
vetu^ieeima fraomenUit iii (Home, 1877). The sixth leaf was
discovered by C. R. Gregory in 1886.
G(: Codex Boemerianus (ninth century), contains the
Pauline Epistles, is now in the Dresden Ro3ral Library, is
in Greek and Latin. The Greek text agrees closely with
that of F,. It was edited by Matthsi in 1 792, partly collated
by Tregelles and others (see imder A).
H,: Codex Seidelii (tenth century), contains the Gospels,
but defectively, now in the Hamburg Public Library, was
collated by Tregelles.
Ha: Codex Mutinensis (ninth century), cantains Acts
except about seven chapters, now at Modena, collated by
Tischendorf (1843) and Tregelles (1845).
Hi: Fragments of a sixth century manuscript of the
Pauline Epistles in the edition of Euthalius, of which forty-
one leaves have been found; twenty-two are in the Na-
tional Library at Paris, eight in the Laura Monsstery on
Mt. Athos, two in the Synodal Library at Moscow, one in
the Rumjansew Museum there, three in the Imperial Library
at St. Petersburg, three in the Ecclesiastical Academy, at
Kief, and two in the University Library at Turin. (Cf. H.
Omont, Notice eur un trie ancien manuecrii gree, Paris, 1889.)
V-"*: Codex Tischendorfianus II, twenty-eight palimpsest
leaves from the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries, under the
Georgian language, in a text related to that of KABC.
Seven leaves contain parts of Matthew; two, parts of Mark;
five, parts of Luke; eight, parts of John; four, of Acta;
two, of Pauline letters. They were discovered by Tischen-
dorf in the East, and by him published in the Monumenta
aacra inedita, nov. ed., vol. i (1855).
I^ (formerly N^): Four palimpsest leaves (early fifth
century), containing sixteen verses from John xiii, xvi;
now in the British Musetmi; deciphered by Tischendorf and
Tregelles, published by the former in Monumenta eaera in^
edita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857).
Ki: (>odex Cyprius of the (Sospels, complete (middle or
end of ninth century); now in the National Library in Paha.
Ck>llated by Tischendorf (1842) and Tregelles (1849 and 1850).
Kt: (3odex MosquensiB of the C!atholic and Pauline Epis-
tles (ninth century); brought from Mount Athos to Moscow.
Lacks a part of Ronums and I 0>rinthians. Collated by
Matthffii.
Li: Codex Regius of the Gospels (eighth century), now in
the National Library in Paris, almost complete. Closely
related to K and B and the text of Origen. Published by
Tischendorf in Monumenta sacra inedita (1846), in facsimile.
Lt: Ck>dex Angelicus of the Acts and Catholic Epistles
(formerly G), and of the Pauline (formerly I) (ninth century),
now in the Angelica Library of the Augustinian monks at
Rome. Contains Acts viii, 10, to Heb xiii, 10. Collated
by Tischendorf (1843) and Tregelles (1845).
Mj: Codex Campianxis of the Grospels, complete (end of
ninth century), now in the National Library in Paris.
Copied and used by Tischendorf (1849).
Mg: CkKlex Ruber of the Pauline Epistles (ninth century).
Two folio leaves at Hamburg (Heb. i. 1-iv, 3, xii, 20-xiii,
25). and two at London (I Cor. xv. 52-11 (3or. i, 15; II Cor.
X, 13-xii, 5). Written in red, hence its name. Edited by
Tischendorf in Anecdota eacra et prof ana (1855, corrected.
1861).
Ni: CJodex Purpureus (late sixth century), a manuscript
of the Gospels on purple parchment in silver letters. Forty-
five leaves were early known: thirty-three are in the Monastery
of St. John at Patmos, six in the Vatican, four in the Brit-
ish Museum, two in the Imperial Library at Vienna. One
hundred and eighty-four leaves more were discovered in a
village near Casarea in C!appadocia and bought by M. Neli-
dow, Russian ambassador at O>nstantinople (cf. C. R. Greg-
ory, in TLZ, 1896, pp. 393-394). The Vienna, London, and
Vatican leaves were edited by Tischendorf in his Monu-
menta aaera inedita (1846), who used the leaves from Pat-
mos (as collated by John Sakkelion) in his Novum Teata-
menium, ed. viii, critiea major. These last were also edited
by Duclxesne in Archivea dea miaaiona acientifiquea (3 series,
iii. 386 sqq.).
N*: Two fragments of a manuscript very much like N,.
seen by Tischendorf in the collection of Bishop Porfiri of
St. Petersburg; they contain a portion of Mark ix. and came
from the library of the Alexandrian patriarch in (3airo.
N|: Two leaves (ninth century), containing Gal. v, 12-vi.
4, and Heb. v. 8-vi, 10, brought by Tischendorf to St. Peters-
burg.
Oi: Eight leaves (ninth century) containing a part of
John i and xx, with scholia. Now in Moscow (S. Syn. 29.
formerly 120). Edited by Matthasi (1785). and. after him.
by Tregelles. with Codex Zacinthius (see below, B). Appen-
dix (1861).
Ofl: Two leaves (sixth century) containing II Cor. i. 20-
ii. 12. Brought from the East to St. Petersburg by Tischen-
dorf in 1859.
0«l>: Fragments (sixth century to ninth) containing the
hymns from Luke i. 46 sqq., 68 sqq.. ii. 29 sqq.. now (0»)
in WolfenbQttel. (Ob) Oxford, (0*=) Verona, (0«) Zurich. (()•)
St. Gall. (Of) Moscow, (Os) Turin, and (Oh) Paris. 0»
was edited by Tischendorf in Anecdota aatra el profana (1855),
105
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
and O* in Momtmenia aacra inedUa^ nov. col., vol. iv (1869),
and O^ by Bianchini (1740).
O^: Pauline Epistles, a single leaf (sixth century), con-
tains part of Eph. iv, 1-18, collated by Tiscbendorf at Mos-
cow in 1868.
P, : Codex Guelpherbytanus I (sixth century), a palimp-
sest at Wolfenbattel, contains a part of all of the (jospels,
was edited by Tiscbendorf in Monumenta aacra ineditat nov.
col., vol. vi (1869).
Pf: Codex Porphyrianus (ninth century), a palimpsest,
contains Acts, Catholic and Pauline Epistles, and Revela-
tion, but with lacuns; the text of the Apocalypse is espe-
cially good. It was brought to St. Petersburg by the'
Hu»ian bishop Porfiri, and edited by Tiscbendorf in
Monumenta taera inedita, nov. coL, vols, v-vi (1866-69).
Qi: (3odex Guelpberbytanus II (fifth century), a palimp-
Kft containing fragments of Luke and John, now at Wolfen-
buttel; was edited by Tiscbendorf in Monumenta aacra in-
ediia, vol. iii.
Qs: Papyrus fragments (fifth century) of I Ck>r. i, vi, vii,
in the collection of Bishop Porfiri, collated by Tiscbendorf
in 1862.
Ri: Codex Nitriensis (sixth century), a palimpsest con-
taining parts of Luke, came from a monastery in the Nit-
han desert, now in the British Museum, collated by Cureton,
then by Tregelles (1854) and Tiscbendorf (1855), and edited
by the last in Monumenta aacra inedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857).
R«: Oxiex Cryptoferratensis (late seventh century), a
palimpsest fragment (»ntaining II 0>r. xi, 9-19. published
by CoaatL in Saerorum bibliorum veluatUaima fragmentat ii
(Rome. 1867).
Si: Codex Vaticanus 354 (949 a.d.), containing the Gos-
pels complete, collated by Tiscbendorf for his «d. viii.
S,: Codex Athous Laurse (eighth or ninth century), con-
taining Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Rom., I Cot. i, 1-v, 8,
xiii, 8-xvi, 24, II Cor. i, 1-xi, 23, Eph. iv, 20-vi, 20, in the
Laura Monastery on Mt. Athos, examined by Gregory in 1886.
T>: Codex Borgianus I (fifth century), fragments con-
taining Luke xxii. 20-xxiii, 20, and John vi, 28-67, vii, 6-
Tiii, 31, now in the College of the Propaganda at Rome, the
first collated by H. Alford (1866), the second by Tiscben-
dorf and published by Giorgi (1789).
T'". Fragments (sixth century) of John (i, 25-42, ii, 9-
iv. 14, 34-50), now at St. Petersburg.
T«: Fragments, similar to T*. containing Biatt. ^v, 19-
27. 31-34, XV, 2-8.
T<>: Fragments (seventh century) of a Greco-Coptic
evangelistary (Matt, xvi, 13-20, Mark i. 3-8, xii, 35-37,
John xix, 23-27, xx, 30-31) discovered by Tiscbendorf in
the Borgian Library at Rome.
T': A fragment (sixth century) containing Matt, iii, 13-
16, found in Upper Egjrpt, now in the University Library
at Cambridge, England, used by Hort, and copied by Gr^-
ory in 1883.
T': Another fragment (ninth century), also from Upper
Egypt, of a Greco-Coptic evangelistary, containing Matt.
iv. 2-11, copied by Gregory in 1883, now in the Bodleian
Library at Oxford.
Tk: Two fragments (fourth to sixth century) contain-
ing I Tim. iii, 15-16, and vi. 2. now in the Egyptian Museum
of the Louvre; published by T. Zahn in Foradiungen, iii, 277
«qq. (Leipeic 1884).
T^: Tluee leaves (sixth or seventh century) containing
Matt. XX. 3-32, xxii, 4-16, found in Cairo by A. Papado-
pttkH-Kerameiis.
T>-r: Fragments (seventh to tenth century) of six Greoo-
Coptie and three Greek manuscripts, containing parts of the
(jtMpeb, found in the Schnudi Monastery near Akhmim,
Egypt, BOW in the National Library at Paris, published by
E. Amfiineau in NoUeea at eztraita, vol. xxxiv, part ii (Paris,
1895), 363 sqq. The text is related to that of T*.
T*: Two leaves (eighth to tenth century), also from the
Schnudi Monaetery, containing I Cor. i. 22-29.
T««i: Nine leaves (fifth century) with Greoo-Coptic text
of Lake xii, 15-xiii, 32, John viii, 33-42, formerly owned by
Woide, now in the library of the CSIarendon Press at Oxford,
pubtiahed by Ford, 1799.
V: Codex Nanianus (ninth or tenth century), contains
the (jospels, now in the Library of St. Mark, Venice, ool-
li^tod by Tiscbendorf and Tregelles.
V: (>odex Mosquensis (eighth or ninth century), contains
the (jospels nearly complete to John vii, 49, written at Mt.
AthQe.coUated by Matthsei (1785).
W*: Two leaves (eighth oentury) containing parts of
Luke ix'X, now in the National Library at Paris, edited by
Tiscbendorf in Monumenta aacra inedita (1846).
Wb: A paUmpsest, probably originally belonging with W*.
of fourteen leaves, containing fragments of Matt., Mark,
and Luke, found by Tiscbendorf at Naples and by him de-
ciphered in 1866.
We*. Three fragments (ninth century) of a Greco-Latin
manuscript of the Gospels from Mark ii and Luke i, now at
St. Gall, edited by Tiscbendorf in Monumenta aacra inadita,
nov. col., voL iii (1860).
Wd; Fragments of four leaves (ninth century) contain-
ing parts of Mark vii, viii. ix, now in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge, published by Scrivener, Adveraaria
critica aacra (Cambridge, 1893), pp. xi sqq.
W*: Twelve leaves (ninth oentury) containing parts of
John ii-iv, seven leaves in the monastery of St. Dionysixis
on Mt. Athos (collated by Pusey for Alford), three in the
library of Christ Church College, Oxford (examined by Tiscb-
endorf), and two in the National Library at Athens (dis-
covered by Gregory in 1886).
W: A palimpsest (ninth century) containing part of
Mark v, in the library of Christ Church 0>llege at Oxford.
Wk: Thirty-six leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) con-
taining part of the four Gospels, now in the British Museum.
Wii: Two leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) contain-
ing parts of Mark iii, discovered by Gregory in 1883.
W>: Two leaves (seventh or eighth century) with parts of
Luke iv, copied by Gregory in Paris in 1884.
Wk: Two leaves (eighth or ninth century) with parts of
Luke XX and xxiii, also copied by Gregory in Paris. 1884.
Wi: Two leaves of a palimpsest (seventh oentury) con-
taining Mark xiii, 34-xiv, 29, discovered by Gregory in the
National Library at Paris, 1885.
W™: Four leaves of a palimpsest (seventh or eighth cen-
tury) containing parts of Mark, in the National Library at
Paris, discovered by Gregory, 1885.
W": Four leaves (seventh century) containing John vi,
71-vii, 46, in Vienna.
W«: Sixteen leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) con-
taining parts of the Synoptic C^spels, in the Ambrosian
Library at Milan.
X: (?odex Monacensis (ninth or tenth oentury) contain-
ing numerous fragments of the Gospels and a commentary,
in the University Library at Munich. Collated by Scholi,
Tiscbendorf, and Tregelles.
X^: Fourteen leaves (ninth or tenth century) containing
Luke i, 1-ii, 40, incomplete, in the Court and State Library
at Munich.
Y: Codex Barberini 225 (eighth oentury), six leaves con-
taining parts of John, published by Tiscbendorf in Monu-
menta aacra inedita (1846).
Z: Codex Dublinensis rescriptus (sixth century), an im-
portant palimpsest with numerous ifragments of Matthew,
in Trinity (College, Dublin. Published in facsimile by Bar-
rett (1801). accurately deciphered by Tregelles (1853), newly
edited by T. K. Abbott (DubUn, 1880).
T: CJodex Tiscbendorfianus IV (ninth century) contains
large parts of Matthew and Mark, Luke and John are com-
plete. It was found by Tiscbendorf in the East, part of it
is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and the larger part
at St. Petersburg. It strongly resembles K}.
A: Ck>dex Sangallensis (ninth oentury), a nearly complete
copy of the (Sospels (one leaf lacking) with interlinear Latin
translation approximating the Vulgate text. It is in St.
Gall, possibly copied there, and is possibly the same (for
the Gospels) manuscript as Gt (Pauline Epistles). (Cf. J.
R. Harris, Codex SanodUanaia, Cambridge, 1891.)
%*: Codex Tiscbendorfianus I (seventh oentury), four
leaves with parts of Matt, xii-xv, found by Tiscbendorf in
the East in 1844 and 1853, now in the library of the Uni-
versity of Leipsic, edited by Tiscbendorf in Monumenta
aacra inedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857).
9ti: Six leaves (seventh century) containing fragments
of Matt, xxii-xxiii and Mark iv-v, brought by Tiscbendorf
to St. Petersburg in 1859.
ec: Two folio leaves (sixth century) containing Biatt. xxi,
19-24 and John xviii, 29-35, brought by Tischendorf and
Bishop Porfiri to St. Petersburg.
%^: A fragment (eighth century) containing Luke xi, 37-
45, brought by Tischendorf to St. Petersburg.
9«: A fragment (sixth century) containing Biatt. xxvi,
2-7, 9.
e': Four leaves (sixth oentury) containing parts of Mat-
thew and Mark.
Bible Tact
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
106
•i: A fragment (nzth eentury) oont»inizig John ri, 13-
24, limilar to O..
•k: Three fracmente (ninth eentury) of a Qreoo- Arable man-
uscript of the Gospels. ••*i> are all in the collection of Bishop
Porfiri at St. Petersburg, and were collated by Tiscfaendorf.
A: Codex Tischendorfianus III (ninth century) contain-
ing Luke and John complete, with occasional scholia in un-
dads on the margin, partly of a critical kind. Now in the
Bodleian Library, Oxford; collated by Tisohendorf (who
brought it from the East) and Tregelles.
B: CodfBx Zacynthius (eighth century), a palimpaest con-
taining Luke i, 1-xi, 33, with some gaps; brought from the
Island of Zante, and presented in 1821 to the British and
Foreign Bible Society, London; deciphered and published
by Tregelles in 1861. The text, which is very valuable, is
surrounded by a commentary.
n: Codex Petropohtanus (ninth century) of the Gospels
complete, excepting seventy-seven verses. Brought to St.
Petersburg by Tischendorf from Smym*.
2: Codex Rossanensis (sixth century), containing Matt.
i. 1-Mark xvi, 14, and belonging to the diapter of the Cathe-
dral Church at Rossano, written on very fine purple vel-
lum in silver letters, with the three first lines in both columns
at the beginning of each (3ospel in gold. It is adorned with
eighteen remarkable pictures in water-colors, representing
scenes in the (joepel history, with forty figures of the proph-
ets of the Old Testament. Its miniatures bear a striking
resemblance to those of the celebrated Vienna piuple manu-
script of Genesis. It numbers ahtmdred and eighty-eight
leaves, some of which have been much injured by dampness.
It originally contained the four (joepels. The text, as well
as the writing, resembles that of C^odex Ni of the Gospels.
It was discovered in the spring of 1879, at Rossano in (Cala-
bria (Southern Italy), by Dr. Gebhardt of Gdttingen and
Professor Hamack of Giessen, who have published a full de-
scription of it, with two facsimiles of the writing and outline
sketches of the miniatures, in an elegant quarto entitled
Evangeliorufn codex Oracua- Purpureut RoMtanentU (Leip-
do, 1880). The illuminations are reproduced in exact fac-
simile by Antonio Himos (Rome, 1007). The text seems to
hold a position about midway between that of the older
uncials and those of the ninth and tenth centuries, agreeing
most remarkably with N|, often with AAII, or with D and
the Old Latin, against the mass of later manuscripts.
•: Codex Beratinus (probably sixth century), contain-
ing Matt, vi, 3-Mark xiv, 62, with some lacuna, on purple
vellum and in possession of the (>hi]rch of St. George at
Herat, Albania, made generally known by P. Batiffol in 1885.
4": Codex Athous Launs (eighth or ninth century), con-
taining the New Testament except Matthew, Mark i, 1-ix,
4, Heb. viii, 11-ix, 19, and Revelation, is in the Laura
Monastery on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory in 1886.
O: (}odex Athous Dionysii (eighth or ninth eentury),
containing the four Gospels, is in the Monastery of St. Dio-
ttsrsius on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory in 1886.
3i: (}odex Athous Andree (ninth or tenth century), con-
taining the four (joepeb but with lacunse, is in the Monas-
tery of St. Andrew on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory
in 1886.
^9: Codex Patinensis (fifth century), twenty-one palimi>-
sest leaves containing fragments of Acts and of the (Catholic
and the Pauline Epistles, now in the Vatican Library, was de-
scribed by Bati£Fol (1891), partly read by W. Sanday (1896).
J: The sign attached by Gregory to a fragment of N,
before he knew its relationship.
•^•-it. 14: Small fragments (fifth to ninth century) of the
Synoptics and I (Corinthians in the convent of St. Catharine
on Mt. Sinai, discovered by J. R. Harris and published in
Biblietd Fragmentt from Mt, Sinai (London, 1890).
Besides the uncials, there are known for the
Gospels over 1,2(X) cursives designated by Arabic
numerals, over 950 evangelistaries of
which about 100 are in uncial wri-
10. The
CnrfliTe
Manu-
ting, varying in date from the tenth to
■oriptB *^® twelfth century. For the Acts
Svanffelis- ^^^ *^^® Catholic Epistles there are
taries, etc. over 400 cursives, for the Pauline
Epistles about 500, and for the Apoc-
alypse 180. Of lectionaries there are known over
260, only a very few of which antedate the tenth
century. The following are noteworthy, either
because of the value of their readings or for the
influence they have had on the text:
1 Gospels, Acts. Catholic and Pauline Epistles: Codex
Basiliensis (tenth or twelfth eentury), especially valuable
for the text of the Gospels, contains the apparatus of En-
thalius on'the Acts and Epistles. Kindred to it in the Gcepeb
are 209. 118, 131.
1 Apocalypse: Codex Reuehiini (twelfth eentury). used
by Erasmus (1516), in the University Library at Basel
13 (3ospeIs: Codtx Parisiensis (thirteenth century), fasi
some lacuns, was collated by Wetstein, Griesbach. and W.
H. Ferrar, and is closely reUted to 69. 124. and 346, viiile
643, 788, and 826 belong to the same group.
13 Acts and (}athoUc Epistles, 17 Pauline Epistles, s&d
33 (3ospels are all parts of the same manuscript (ninth.
tenth, or eleventh century), and the text agrees often with
that of the best uncials; collated by Griesbach. and Tre-
gelles (1860).
14 Apocalypse, 31 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 37 Pauline
Epistles and 69 Gospeb are parts of the same manuscript
(Leicester Oxiex, fourteenth or fifteenth century). ooUsted
by Tregelles, Scrivener, and Abbott (cf. 13 supra).
34 Acts and (}atholio Epistles, 40 Pauline Epistles. 61
Gospels, and 92 Apocalypse are parts of the same manu-
script (Oxiex Montfortianus. sixteenth eentury), at Trinity
College. DubUn. coUated by O. T. Dobbin (1864).
47 Pauline Epistles (eleventh or twelfth century), in the
Bodleian Library, collated by Tregelles.
95 Apocalypee (CJodex Parham. eleventh or twelfth een-
tury). belongs among the best witnesses to Revelation, col-
lated by Scrivener.
566 Gospels (ninth or tenth century) in letters of gold on
purple parchment, with especially ancient readings in Mark;
designated 81 by Westcott and Hort. now in St. Ptotersburs.
2. History of the Printed Text: For more than
half a century after the invention of printing, the
original text of the New Testament remained un-
published. The credit of first printing it belongs
to Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of
Toledo,, who made it vol. v of his Polyglot Bible
(see Bibles, Polyglot, I). The manuscripts de-
pended upon were comparatively mod-
Lnrf^^ d®™ ^^ ^^ inferior value. Though
^^^J^^^JJ^ the volimie is dated June 10, 1514, the
EditionB. ^^^ Testament was not published be-
fore 1521 or 1522, and thus was pre-
ceded by the Greco-Latin New Testament of 1516.
published by Froben of Basel, and edited by Eras-
mus, who used as the basis of his text, in the Gos-
pels, an inferior Basel manuscript of the fifteenth
century (cod. 2), and one of the thirteenth or four-
teenth century in the Acts and Epistles (cod. 2).
With these he collated more or less carefuUy one
more manuscript of the Gospels (cod. 1), two in the
Acts and Catholic Epistles (codd. 1 and 4), and
three in the Pauline Epistles (codd. 1, 4, 7). The
oldest of these (cod. 1, tenth century) has a good
text in the Gospels; but Erasmus made veiy little
use of it; the others are comparatively modem, and
poor. For the Apocalypse he had only a sin^e
manuscript of the twelfth century, wanting the
last six verses, which he translated into Greek
from the Latin Vulgate. In various other places
in the Apocalypse he followed the readings of the
Vulgate in opposition to the Greek, as he did in
a few cases elsewhere. The first edition of Eras-
mus was sped through the press with headlong
haste (pracipUatum fuit veriua quam editumi ^
Erasmus himself says) in order that the pub-
lisher, Froben, might get the start of the Gom-
plutensian. It consequently swarms with erron.
107
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
A more correct edition was issued in 1519: Mill
observed about four hundred changes in the text.
For this and later editions, one additional manu-
script (cod. 3) was used in the Gospels, Acts, and
Epistles. In the third edition (1522) the changes
were much fewer; but it is noted for the intro-
duction of I John V, 7, from the Codex Mont-
fortianus (sixteenth century). In the fourth
edition (1527) the text was altered and improved
in many places, particularly in Revelation, from
the Complutensian Polyglot. That of the fifth
(1535) and last (Erasmus died in 1536) hardly dif-
fers from the fourth.
The next editions which call for notice are those
of the great printer and scholar Robert Stephens
(Estienne, Stephanus; see Stephens), three pub-
lished at Paris (1546, 1549, and 1550; the first two,
in small 12mo, are known as the 0 mirificam edi-
tions, from the opening words of the preface, which
is the same in both; the last, a magnificent folio,
is called the edUto regia)^ and one at Geneva (16mo,
1551), in which the present division into verses was
first introduced into the Greek text (see below, III,
1 3). The edition of 1550, notwithstanding its
various readings in the margin from fifteen manu-
scripts and the Complutensian Poly-
fa^^Jr*^ HJlot, is mainly founded on the fourth or
and Be^T ^^^ edition of Erasmus. Scrivener has
noted a hundred and nineteen places
in which it differs from all of the manuscripts used.
The text of the edition of 1551 varies but slightly
from that of 1 550. The four folio editions of Theodore
Beza (Geneva, 1565, 1582, 1588 or 1589, and 1598),
as well as his five 8vo editions (1565, 1567, 1580, 1590,
1604) follow, for the most part, Stephens's editions
of 1550 or 1551, with changes here and there, many
of which are not improvements. Stephens's edition
of 1551 is commonly spoken of in England as the
texhu receptuB ; but on the Continent the first
Elzevir edition, printed at Leyden in 1624, has
generally received that designation. The expres-
sion is borrowed from the preface to the second
Elzevir edition (1633), in which occur the words,
Textum ergo habes, nunc ab omnibua receptum. The
text of the seven Elzevir editions (1624, 1633, 1641,
Leyden; 1656, 1662, 1670, 1678, Amsterdam),
among which there are a few slight differences, is
made up almost wholly from Beza's smaller edi-
tions of 1565 and 1580; its editor is unknown.
The textus recepttu, slavishly followed, with slight
diveiBities, in hundreds of editions, and substan-
tially represented in all the principal modem Prot-
estant translations prior to the nineteenth century,
thus resolves itself essentially into that of the last
edition of Erasmus, framed from a few modem
and inferior manuscripts and the Ck>mplutensian
Polyj^ot, in the infancy of Biblical criticism. In
more than twenty places its reading is supported by
the authority of no known Greek manuscript.
The editions from 1657 to 1830, with the excep-
tion of that of Griesbach (see below, { 3), are im-
portant, as regards the text, mainly for their
accumidation of critical materials. In Walton's
Poly^t (London, 1657; see Bibles, Polyglot,
IV), Stephens's Greek text of 1550 was accom-
panied by the Vulgate, Peshito-Syriac, Ethiopic,
Arabic, and, in parts of the New Testament,
other ancient versions, with a critical apparatus in-
cluding the readings of Codd. A, Di, Ds, Stephens's
margin, and eleven cursive manuscripts collated
by or for Archbishop Ussher. In Bishop Fell's
edition (Oxford, 1675), which reproduces substan-
tially the Elzevir text, other authorities, inclu-
ding readings of the Cioptic and Gothic versions,
are given in the notes, though the title page (ex
p2iis 100 MSS. codicibua), is very misleading.
The edition of John Mill (Oxford, 1707, fol.; im-
proved and enlarged by Ludolph Kuster, Amster-
dam, Leipsic, and Rotterdam, 1710), the work
of thirty years, marks an epoch in the history of
textual criticism by its vast additions to the store
of critical material through the col-
betwae ^* lation of the new manuscripts, the
1657 and <^Il6<^tion of readings from the ancient
1830. versions, and especially from the
quotations found in the writings of
the Christian Fathers, and by its very learned and
valuable prolegomena. Mill gave his judgment
on many readings in his notes and prolegomena,
but did not venture to form a text of his own,
reprinting Stephens's text of 1550 without inten-
tional variation. The projected edition of the
Greek Testament and Latin Vulgate in parallel
columns, by the illustrious critic Richard Bentley
(q.v.) deserves a brief notice. Proposals for printing
were issued in 1720, and a large amount of materials
was collected at great expense, including a collation
of cod. B (published by Ford in 1799); but the
work was never completed. It was to have been
founded on the oldest Greek and Latin manuscripts
compared with the principal ancient versions and
the quotations in the Fathers of the first five cen-
turies. (Cf. A. A. EULb, BenUeii criHca Bocra,
Cambridge, 1862; R. C. Jebb, Bentley, London,
1882.) The edition of Johann AlbrechtBengel (q.v.;
TObingen, 1734, 4to), while it had the advantage
of some new manuscripts, was specially valuable
for its discussions and illustrations of the principles
of criticism, and its classification of manuscripts;
but, except in the Apocalypse, Bengel did not
venture to introduce any reading, even though
he believed it unquestionably genuine, which had
not previously appeared in some printed edition.
His judgment of the value of different readings
was, however, given in the margin (cf. E. Nestle,
Bengel aU GeUhrkr, Tubingen, 1893, pp. 39 sqq.).
The magnificent edition of Johann Jakob Wetstein
(q.v.; 2 vols, fol., Amsterdam, 1751-52), the work
of forty years, greatly enlarged the store of
critical material by extensive collation of manu-
scripts and researches into the quotations of the
Fathers, and by his description of this material in
very valuable and copious prolegomena (reprinted,
with additions by Semler, Halle, 1764). He gives
also the readings of the chief printed editions which
preceded him, and describes them fully. He in-
troduced the present method of denoting the
uncial manuscripts by Roman capitals, and the
cursives and lectionaries by Arabic figures. Besides
the critical matter, Wetstein's edition is a the-
saurus of quotations from Greek, Latin, and
Rabbinical authors, illiistrating the phraseology of
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
108
the New Testament, or oontaining passages more
or less parallel in sentiment. His publisher insisted
on his reprinting the textua receptus (substantially
that of the Elzevirs); but he gives his critical
judgment in the margin and the notes. Other
editions to be briefly mentioned are those of F. C.
Alter (Vienna, 1786-87), giving the readings of
twenty-two Vienna manuscripts and of four manu-
scripts of the Slavonic version; of Andrew Birch
{Quatuor Evangelia Greece, Copenhagen, 1788, 4to,
and VaricB Uctiones, 1798, 1800, 1801), exhibiting
the readings of many manuscripts collated in the
libraries of Italy, Spain, and Germany, by himself
and others; and of C. F. Matthsi (Novum Testa-
merUum Greece etLaiine [the Vulgate], 12 vols., 8vo,
Riga, 1782-88; also Novum Testamentum Grace, 3
vols., 8vo, Wittenberg, etc., 1803-07), for which
over a hundred manuscripts were used, mostly from
the library of the Holy Synod at Moscow. Mat-
thffii was a careful collator, but a very poor critic;
and his manuscripts generally were of inferior
quality.
The first edition of Johann Jacob Griesbach (q.v.)
was published in 1774r-75 (the first three Gospels
in synopsis); but it was only in the second edition
(2 vols., 8vo, Halle, 1796-1806) that he first made
really good use of the materials gathered by his pred-
ecessors, and augmented by his own collections.
A manual edition was issued at Leipsic in 1805,
the text of which, differing somewhat from that
of the larger edition, expresses his
later critical judgment. Following
4. aries-
bachand
hisFol- "^ *^® tT9kC^ of Bengel and Semler,
lowers.' Griesbach sought to simplify the proc-
ess of criticism by classifying his
manuscripts and other authorities. He made
three classes or recensions — the Alexandrian, the
Western, and the Ck>nstantinopolitan or Byzantine
— to the latter of which the mass of later and in-
ferior manuscripts belongs. Though his system is
not now accepted in its details, much truth lay
at the bottom of it. His principles of criticism
were sound; and in his application of them he dis-
played rare tact and skill. In 1827 a third edition
of the first volume of his Greek Testament was
published, with important additions, under the
editorship of Dr. David Schulz. Griesbach's
Symhola crUiccB (Halle, 1785-93), and Commen-
tariue crUicua on Matthew and Mark, parts i, ii,
with Meletemata critica prefixed to part ii, Jena,
1798, 1811, are still valuable. A number of manual
editions founded on that of Griesbach, but inclining
more to the textue receptus, as those of H. A.
Schott (Leipsic, 1805, 1813, 1825, 1839), with a good
Latin translation; G. C. Knapp (Halle, 1797,
1813, 1824, 1829, 1840), with a useful Commentatio
isagogica, or introduction, and carefully punctuated
and divided; J. A. H. Tittmann (ster., Leipsic,
1820, 1828, 16mo; 1824, 1831, 8vo); A. Hahn
(Leipsic, 1840, 1841, revised ed. 1861; reprinted
at New York, 1842, by Edward Robinson);
K. G. W. Theile (ster., Leipsic, 1844, 11th
ed. 1875, by O. von Gebhardt), with the vari-
ations of the chief modem editors, parallel passages,
etc.; also S. T. Bloomfield's Greek Testament
with English Notes (London, 1832, 9th ed., 1855,
2 vols., 8vo), mark no progress in criticism beyond
Griesbach, but rather a retrograde movement
The same is true of the large edition of the Catholic
scholar J. M. A. Scholz (2 vols., 4to, Leipdc, 1830-
1836), whose extensive travels and researches in
libraries enabled him to add a very laige number
of new manuscripts (according to Scrivener, 616)
to the list of those previously known. But of these
only thirteen were collated entire; a few others in
the greater part; many in only a few chi^tera;
many more simply inspected, or only enrolled in
the list. Scholz was a poor critic, and as an editor
and collator incredibly careless. He divided his
manuscripts into two classes or recensions — the
Alexandrian and the Constantinopolitan, giving
the preference to the latter. But in ^plying his
system, he was happily inconsistent, particularly
in his second volume, and at a later period of hiii
life (1845) abandoned it. His edition met with
no favor from intelligent scholars; but in Elng-
land, where Biblical criticism was at its lowest
ebb, it was welcomed and praised by many, and
its text reprinted.
A new period in the history of textual criticism
was inaugurated by the appearance (Berlin, 1831)
of a small edition of the Greek Testament by the
distinguished classical scholar Carl Lachmann
(q.v.), followed by a larger edition, in which
the authorities for the Greek text were supplied
by Philipp Buttmann, with the Latin Vulgate in
the lower margin, critically edited from oodd.
Fuldensis, Amiatinus, and other maniiscripts
(2 vols., 8vo, Berlin, 1842-50). Lachmann's aim
in these editions was not to reproduce the original
text according to his best judgment
6. 1«aoh- (for this he deemed conjectural criti-
mann. cism to be necessary in some cases),
but to present as far as possible on
purely documentary evidence the text current
in the Eastern churches in the fourth century
as a basis for criticism. He paid no attention
to the textus receptus, and used no cursive manu-
scripts, but founded his text wholly on ancient
authorities; viz., codd. A B C D P Q T Z of the
Gospels, A B C D E m the Acts and Catholic Epistles,
A B G D G in the Pauline Epistles, and A B C in the
Apocalypse, with the Latin Vulgate, and codd.
a (Vercellensis, fourth century), b (Veronensis, fifth
century), and c (Colbertinus, eleventh century)
of the Old Latin, for the Gospels, besides the Latin
versions of the Greco-Latin manuscripts in the
above list; of the Fathers he used Irerueus, Cypriiin,
Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari, and, in the
Apocalypse, Primasius. His attempted task was
not fully accomplished, partly because the text of
some of the most important manuscripts which he
used (B C P Q, and the Latin Codex Amiatinus)
had been but very imperfectly collated or edited,
partly because the range of his authorities was
too narrow, and partly because he was sometimes,
apparently at least, inconsistent in the i^pb'cation
of his principles. But he was the first to found
a text wholly on ancient evidence (Griesbach dis-
regarded what he deemed unimportant variations
from the received text); and his editions, to which
his eminent reputation as a critic gave wide cur-
109
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
rency, espedaily in Germany, did much toward
breaking down the superstitiouB reverence for the
textus receptus which had long prevailed.
Next to be noted are the editions of Tischendorf
and Tregelles. Through their combined labors
we have a solid basis for a completely critical
edition of the Greek Testament in the accurate
knowledge, not possessed before, of all manu-
scripts of the oldest class (not including lection-
aries), comprising many newly dis-
6. Tiaohen- c6vered, among them the Sinaitic of
dorf. the fourth century. Lobegott Fried-
rich Constantin Tischendorf (q.v.)
spent about eight years of his life in travels in
search of manuscripts (for which he visited the
East three times— in 1844, 1853, and 1859), or
in collating with extreme care or transcribing
and preparing for publication the most im-
portant of those in the various libraries of
Europe which were before known, but had not
been published or thoroughly examined. The
following uncial Greek manuscripts (see the list
above) were discovered by Tischendorf: K Ga I
Ni O, T^ * r e*^ A n; first used by him: F* P N,
0^'OS P, Q, R, , T*« W^ Q-^; published: fiC B, ,
C D. E, F* I P L, M. N, O* Pi., Qi Ri W« Y e*
(of. C. R. Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's
Novum Te^amentum Greece, ed. viii, i, Leipsic,
1884, p. 31). His editions of the texts of
Biblical manuscripts (including some of the Sep-
tuagint) comprise no less than seventeen large
quarto and five folio volumes, not including the
Anecdota sacra et profana (1855, new ed. 1861),
or the NotUia edUionis Codicis Sinaiiici (1860), two
quarto volumes containing descriptions or col-
lations of many new manuscripts; and many
of his collations, or copies of manuscripts, remain
unpublished.
The titles of Tischendorf 's various writings,
most of them relating to Biblical criticism, fill
pages 7-22 of Gregory's Prolegomena. His first
edition of the Greek Testament (Leipsic, 1841) was
promising as a first essay, but of no special im-
portance except for the refutation, in the prole-
{^mena, of Scholz's theory of recensions. In the
Edttio Lipsiana seeunda (1849) the critical appa-
ratus was much enlarged, and the text settled on
the basis of ancient authority, generally with good
judgment. In 1859 appeared the Editio aeptima
critica maior (2 vols.), in which very large
additions were made to the critical apparatus, not
only from manuscripts, Greek and Latin, but
from the quotations in the writings of the
Christian Fathers, and the evidence was for the
first time fully stated, both for and against the
reading adopted. In the first volume, Tisch-
endorf, influenced perhaps by Scrivener, showed
a tendency to allow greater weight to the later
uncials and cursives than he had done in his edition
of 1849; but he soon found that he was on the wrong
track; and on the whole, if orthographical changes
are included, his edition of 1859 differs more widely
fttMn the iextu8 receptus than that of 1849. Its
publication was immediately followed by Tischen-
dorf s third journey to the E^t, and the discovery
of the great Snaitic manuscript, together with the
acquisition of much other new critical material.
After the publication of the Codex Sinaiticus in
1862, in a magnificent edition of four volumes
folio, in facsimile type, with twenty-one plates of
actual facsimiles, at the expense of the Russian
Government, the edition being limited to three
hundred copies, he issued in 1863, in 4to, his
Novum Testamentum Sinaiticum, in ordinary type,
but representing the manuscript line for line,
with full prolegomena; and his Novum Testamen-
tum Greece ex Stnaitico Codicei Vaiicana itemque
Elzeviriana lectione notata, in 1865, 8vo, with a
supplement of additions and corrections in 1870.
After some other publications, particularly the
second edition of his Synopsis evangelica in 1864,
in which the Sinaitic manuscript was first used, he
undertook his last great critical edition of the Greek
New Testament, Novum Testamentum Groece, editio
octava critica maior (issued in eleven parts, i, Leipsic,
Oct., 1864, xi, at the end of 1872; collected into two
volumes, 8vo, 1869-72). This edition far surpassed
all that had preceded it in the richness of its critical
apparatus, and, as compared with that of 1859,
rests much more on the authority of the oldest
manuscripts, particularly the Sinaitic. The prep-
aration of the prolegomena by Tischendorf himself
was prevented by his sudden illness and subse-
quent death, and was entrusted to an American
scholar residing in Leipsic, Caspar Ren^ Gregory
(q.v.), who had also the valuable assistance of Ezra
Abbot (q.v.). In the interest of the work Dr.
Gregory made special journeys through Europe and
into the Orient, and was thus enabled to give
first-hand descriptions and collations of many
manuscripts. It was published in three parts
at Leipsic, 1884-94. Besides the works mentioned,
the most important publications of Tischendorf
pertaining to the textual criticism of the New
Testament are : Codex Ephraemi Syri rescrip-
tus (1843, 4to; Old Testament part, 1845); Monu-
menta sacra inedita (1846, 4to); Evangelium
inedUum (1847, 4 to); Codex Amiatinus (Vulgate;
1850, new ed. 1854); Codex Claromontanus (1852. 4to) ;
Monumenta sacra inediUif nova coUectio, vols, i-vi,
ix (1855-70, 4to); Novum Testamentum Vaticanum
and Appendix Novi Testamenti Vaticani (1867-69,
4to) ; cf . Responsa ad calumnias Romanas (1870, 8vo),
also Appendix codicum celeberrimarumf Sinaiiici^
Vaticani, Alexandrini (1867, 4to); Die Sinaibibel,
ihre EntdeckunQf Herausgabe, und Erwerbung (1871,
large 8vo). His Novum Testamentum trigloUum,
Greece, Latine, Germanice (Leipsic, 1854, 2d ed.,
1865) is a convenient book, the three parts of which
were also issued separately, and in various com-
binations. The Greek is his own text, with the
variations of the textus receptus ; the Latin, the
Vulgate critically revised from the oldest manu-
scripts, with the variations of the Clementine
edition; the German the genuine text of Luther,
though in modem orthography. Tischendorf also
issued many manual editions of the Greek Testa-
ment, the three latest in his lifetime being pub-
lished in 1875 by Tauchnitz, Brockhaus (to match
his edition of the Septuagint), and Mendelssohn
(Editio academica septima), respectively. His large
editions of 1859 and 1869-72 were issued with the
Bible T«Kt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
110
7. Tre-
ffeUes.
critical apparatus greatly abridgedi but giving
the chief authorities for all the important various
readings, with the titles Edilio septima critica minor
(1859) and Editio octava critiea minor (1872-77).
Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (q.v.) ranks next to
Tischendorf in the importance of his critical labors,
and in single-hearted devotion to his chosen task.
In 1848 he issued a Prospectus for a critical
edition of the Greek Testament, the text of which
was to be foimded solely on the authority of the
oldest Greek manuscripts, the ancient versions
to the seventh century, and the citations of early
writers, including Eusebius. No ac-
count was made of the "received
text," or of the great mass of cursive
manuscripts. Completeness and accuracy in the ex-
hibition of the evidence of the witnesses used were
especially aimed at. Like Tischendorf, Tregelles
visited (in 1845-46, 1849-50, and 1862) the prin-
cipal libraries in Europe for the purpose of collating
manuscripts the text of which had not before been
published. These were the uncials B, D, Ej F, Gi
H,., P Kj L, M,., R, U X Z r A, the cursives
1, 13, 17, 31, 37, 47, 61, 69, and also Codex Zacyn-
thius (H). In many cases Tregelles compared
his collations with those of Tischendorf, and settled
the differences by a reexamination of the manu-
script. In 1861 he edited the Codex Zacynthius
(H), republishing in an appendix the fragments
of O. His edition of The Greek New Testament,
Edited from Ancient AuthorUiee, with their Varioue
Readings in Fvil, and the Latin Vereion of Jerome,
was issued in London in seven successive parts:
i, Matthew, Mark, 1857; ii, Luke, John, 1861;
iii, Acts and Catholic Epistles, 1865; iv, Romans to
II Thessalonians (iii, 3), 1869; v« Hebrews (with
IIThess. iii, 3-18) to Philemon, 1870; vi. Revelation,
1872. Part vii. Prolegomena and Addenda and Cor-
rt^«nda, appeared in 1879, four years after his death,
edited by Dr. Hort and A. W. Streane. Though Tre-
gelles added far less than Tischendorf to our store of
critical material, he did more to establish correct prin-
ciples of criticism, and his various writings had a
wide and most beneficial influence in England.
He also published, in 1854, An Account of the
Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, with
Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles,
and, in 1856, Introduction to the Textual Criticism
of ^ New Testament, forming part of vol. iv of
the tenth and later editions of Home's Introduc-
tion, This volume was also issued separately,
and in the eleventh edition of Home's Introduction
(1861) appeared with " Additions " and a " Post-
script."
In 1881 appeared The New Testament in the
Original Greek. The Text Revised by Brooke Foss
WestcoU . . . and Fenton John Anthony Hort
(Cambridge and London). The American edition
(New York) has a valuable introduction by Philip
Schaff, with the cooperation of Ezra Abbot. Dr.
Schaff also prepared a compact man-
tt*"d "^ ^^ ^®^ Testament criticism, A
° Hor? Companion to the Greek Testament and
' the EnglUh Version (New York, 1883),
which embodies the substance of this introduction,
thoroughly revised. The text of Westcott and
Hort is accompanied by an Introduction and
Appendix (1882) in which the authors discuss the
need of criticism for the text of the New
Testament, the methods of textual criticism, the
application of its principles to the text, the nature
and details of their edition, and add notes <m se-
lect readings and orthography, with orthographical
alternative readings, and quotations from the Old
Testament. In 1895 the text appeared in larger
form, and, in 1896, the Introduction in finally revised
form. This edition is not accompanied with any
critical i^paratus; it rather was the object of
the authors, by a careful study of the materialB
furnished by their predecessors, augmented some-
what, however, by their own researches, to
trace the history of the text as far as possible;
to distinguish its different types, and determine
their relations and their comparative value;
to investigate the special characteristics of
the most important documents and groups of
dociunents; and, finally, to apply the principles of
criticism which result from these studies to the
determination of the original text. Their view
of the genealogical relations of the chief ancient
texts excited strong opposition in certain quarters,
but their work was recognized as the most important
contribution to the scientific criticism of the New
Testament text which had yet been made. They
distinguish four principal types of text: the West-
em, characterized by a tendency to paraphrase
or to modify the form of expression, and also to
interpolate from parallel passages or from extra-
neous sources, represented especially by D and
the Old Latin versions, also in part by the Cure-
tonian Syriac; the neutral, represented by B and
largely by fiC. preserving best the original form;
the Alexandrian, much purer than the Western,
but betrajring a tendency to polish the language;
and the Syrian, the latest form, a mixed text,
borrowing from all, and aiming to be easy, smooth,
and complete. They regard B as preeminent above
all other manuscripts for the purity of its text;
the readings of fiC and B combined as generally
deserving acceptance as genuine, their ancestries
having "diverged from a point near the auto-
graphs"; and they attach great weight to every
combination of B with another primary Greek
manuscript, asLCTDHAZ33, and, in Mark, A.
Westcott and Hort (see Westoott, Brooke Foss;
Hort, Fenton John Anthony) began their work
in 1853. Their method of cooperation was fir^t
independent study, then comparison. The Intro-
duction is chiefly the work of Dr. Hort, whoe«
name is one of the greatest in the history of text-
criticism. He carried into the study of the text a
large knowledge of church history and patristic
theology, and it was this breadth of historical
knowledge which made the Introduction the great
work it is. The genealogical theory, suggested
by Bengel and elfJtK>rated by later scholars, was
here worked into a truly monumental form. A
thorough acquaintance with this book is necessary
to the student if he would have a dear insight of
the deepest tendencies in the text studies of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries or an under-
standing of the course taken by text-study in the
Ill
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
present. Conscious agreement with it or conscious
disagreement and qualification mark all work in
this field since 1881.
Of the many other* scholars whose labors have
aided in the establishment of the text of the Greek
New Testament, the Anglican scholar Frederick
Henry Ambrose Scrivener (q.v.) deserves men-
tion especially for his editions and collation of
manuscripts. His Plain Introdudion
Criti^^ to the CrUicism of the New Testament
the -tat. (Cambridge, 1861; 4th ed., by E. Mil-
ler, 2 vols., London, 1894) is a stand-
ard work. Scrivener was an able defender of
the later manuscripts as witnesses to the original
text against Teschendorf, Tregelles, and West-
cott and Hort. In this contention he had the
doughty support of John William Burgon
(q.v.) in The Revision Revised (London, 1883).
Among Americans, Ezra Abbot and Joseph
Henry Thayer; among Hollanders, W. C. Van
Uanen, J. Cramer, and J. J. Prins; among
Frenchmen, P. BatifFol, J. P. P. Martin, and E.
Am^lineau; among Italians, Angelo Mai, Carlo
Vercellone, and J. Cozsa; and among Germans, F.
Blass, E. Nestle, B. Weiss, E. Riggenbach, and
0. von Gebhardt have made important contribu-
tions to textual criticism.
When Westoott and Hort published their text
in 1881 and when, in 1882, Hort's masterpiece on
introduction followed, there was a disposition in
some quarters to believe that New Testament
scholarship had come somewhere near a critical
texiua reeeptus. The genealogical theory first
broached by Bengel seemed, after a century and a
half of toil, to have led the student into a definite
path which would surely lead to a final goal. But
significant changes, in feeling if not in opinion,
are beginning to manifest themselves. Westcott
and Hort mark a main epoch in text-
^bIJUS?'* study. More clearly than their pred-
^^U^_ eoessors, they showed that the study
eiee. of the text was inseparable from the
study of church history. But the
hypothesis which Hort so powerfully worked out
has to some extent wrought its own undoing. The
lines of study that it suggested have brought to light
>o many new facts and so many serious problems
that the tone of certitude at one time in fashion
has passed away. To Scrivener's description of
Westoott and Hort's text as a splendidum peccatum
few will assent. Yet, beyond question, the sit-
uation has materially changed. The "Western
Text " or, to call it by a safer name, the " Syro-
Wertem Text," which Westcott and Hort took
to be a fairiy well delineated fact, has become an
imperious problem. The genealogical theory has
fulfilled the chief fimction of a good working
hypothesis by introducing order into chaos and
pointing to the promising lines of attack upon the
vast body of data awaiting the student. But
genealogical certitude has declined. With its
decline has come a growing disposition to concede
to exegesis a certain right against the overweening
authority of any group of manuscripts, however
imposing. The good text-critic should also be an
accomplished exegete. In Johannes Weiss the two
qualities are in a measure blended. Hence, at a
critical point like Rom. v, 1, the exegete in him
goes against the authority of A B C D E K L,
Vulgate, Peshito, etc., and adopts ixofitv instead
of ix^H^^'
Monimiental work is not at present the order
of the day. The searching investigations of the
versions, the detailed and comprehensive study
of patristic quotations, larger and clearer knowl-
edge of the mental conditions under which an entire
group of texts are Ukely to have imdergone per-
ceptible, even if inconsiderable, changes — ^in a
word, a vast amount of labor lies ahead. The
doing of it will require a very considerable time.
Meanwhile the confidence and finality of a quarter-
century ago are to be replaced by a restrained
skepticism.
3. Principles of Teztnal Crltioism: It is im-
possible, within the limits here allowed, to state
and illustrate the principles of criticism applica-
ble to the text of the Greek Testament. A few
hints may, however, be given. The object, of
course, is to ascertain which, among two or more
variations of the text presented by our manu-
scripts or other authorities, is the original. No
kind of evidence, external or internal, is to be
neglected. The problem is to be
^^1*® solved by a process of reasoning
Bale. ^P^^ probabilities; and what has
to be considered, in every case, is
which hypothesis will best explain all the phe-
nomena. This fact is sometimes partially stated
under the form of the rule that that reading
is to he accepted as genuine which wiU best explain
the origin of the other variaiiona. This is an impor-
tant rule; but there must be taken into account
not merely the nature of the variations, but the
number, independence, and character of the wit-
nesses that support them. The process of criti-
cism is not a mechanical one. Authorities must be
weighed, not counted. One good, very early
manuscript may be worth more than a thousand
copies derived from a late and corrupted arche-
type. Again, though the presumption is in favor
of the oldest manuscripts, mere antiquity does not
prove the excellence of a copy.
One of the essential prerequisites to intelligent
criticism is a thorough study of the occasions
of error in manuscripts. This involves a knowl-
edge of paleography and of the history of pro-
nunciation. The similarity of certain letters or
abbreviations in their older forms gave occasion
to errors which can be only thus explained;
and in the corruption of the Greek language,
vowels and diphthongs originally distinct in sound
2 oth ^^^ pronounced alike (itacism). A
Canons, i^tudy of the tendencies and habits of
transcribers is also involved. Many
manuscripts, in the alterations they have re-
ceived from later hxuids, illustrate the manner
in which the text was corrupted. Among the
maxims resulting from such a study, in connection
with the consideration of external testimony, are
the*: (1) The more difficiUt reading is to be pre-
ferred (Bengel's great rule). This applies to those
variations which are to be ascribed to design.
Bible Text
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
112
Transcribers would not intentionally substitute a
harsh, ungranunaticali unusual, Hebraistic ex-
pression, one that caused a difficulty of any kind,
for an easier one. (2) The shorter reading is to be
preferred (Porson's "surest canon of criticism")-
The tendency of scribes was almost always to add,
rather than to omit. They did not like to have
their copies regarded as incomplete. It was com-
mon to insert in the margin of manuscripts, or
between the lines, glosses, or explanations of
imusual or difficult expressions, also words or
clauses which served to supplement the language
of one Gospel from the parallel or similar passages
in another, or to complete abridged quotations
of the Old Testament from the fuller text of the
Septuagint. Words accidentally omitted were also
placed in the margin, or between the lines. A tran-
scriber might thus easily mistake these glosses, or
supplements, of his predecessor for accidental
omissions and transfer them to his text. This
rule does not apply to cases where an omission can
be satisfactorily explained by homcsoteleuton; that
is, cases where two successive sentences or parts of
sentences have a like ending. The scribe copies
the first of these, then his eye glances to the like
ending of the second, and he thinks that that is
what he has just copied, and omits unconsciously
the intervening words. Another prerequisite to suc-
cessful criticism is a careful study of the principal
documents and groups or classes of docimients,
in connection with the history of the text, so far
as it can be traced, in order to determine by a
process of comparative criticism their peculiar
characteristics, their weak points and their strong
points, and the relative antiquity and value of
their texts. This process includes the ancient
versions and the quotations in the writings of
the principal Christian Fathers. It can not be
here detailed. Griesbach did good work in this
direction, and it has been the special study of
Westcott and Hort. It is thus possible to weigh
the external evidence in particular cases with some
approach to accuracy.
4. BesultB of the Textual Oritioism of the New
Testament: The host of "various readings"
which an examination of ancient manuscripts,
versions, and quotations, has brought to light,
perhaps a hundred and fifty thousand in num-
ber, alarms some simple-minded people. Anal-
ysis at once dispels the alarm. It is seen that a
very large proportion of these readings, say nine-
teen-twentieths, are of no authority, no one can
suppose them to be genuine; and nineteen-twen-
tieths of the remainder are of no importance as
affecting the sense. Of how much, or rather, of
how little, importance, for the most part, the
remainder are, can readily be seen by comparing
the Revised Version of the New Testament (with
its marginal notes) with the text of the Authorized
Version, or by an examination of the various read-
ings of the chief modem editors in Scrivener's
Novum Testamentum textua Stephanici A.D, 1660
. . . accedurU varia lediones (8th ed., Cambridge,
1877). The great number of various readings is
simply the result of the extraordinary richness of
critical resources. Westcott and Hort remark,
with entire truth, that " in the variety and fubiess
of the evidence on which it rests, the text of the
New Testament stands absolutely and unaj^roach-
ably alone among ancient prose-writings."
Bzbuoorapht: On the paleography of the N. T.: & P.
TregelleB, An Aeamnt of the Pnnted Ttxt of ttc GnA
New TftammU; ^eiih Remarka on ita Rmiaion uponCriHcal
Principles, toffether tpith a Collation of the Critieal Texta o/
Orieebach, SehoU, Lachmann, and Tieekendorf, vfiSk Aat ta
Common Uae, London, 1854; E. A. Bond and E. M. Tbomp-
•on. FaeeimileB of Ancient MSS, ib. 1873-82; W. W*t-
tenbach. Anteitung sur griechiaeken Palteooraphie, l>ip6ic
1877; idem, Sdurifttafeln eur OeaehidUe der griedaaehn
Schnft, 2 parte, Berlin, 1876-77; idem and F. A. too
Welsen, Exempla eodieum Gracorum liUeriB mtmiaciilu
acriptorum, Heidelberg. 1878; idem, Seripturm Oratt
apedmina^ Berlin, 1883; N. Gardthauaen, Grieehiadu
Palaographie, Leipmc, 1879; J. R. Hanis. ffew Ttata-
ment AtUoffrapha, in supplement to AJP, no. 12, 1882;
idem, SHchometry, New York. 1803; T. W. Allen. Nota
on Abbreviationa in Greek M8S, toith FaceimiUs, Oxford,
1889; ,F. Blaas, Palcaograpkie, in Handbw^ der kiaati-
ad^en AUerthumaipiaaenachaftt vol. i, Munich, 1892; W.
A. Copinger. The Bible and ita Tranamieaum, Londoo,
1897; F. G. Kenyon, Our BibU and Ute Ancient MSS, ib.
1897; idem, BibU ManuacripU in the Britiah Mvaeam,
Facaimilea, ib. 1901; C. F. Bitterly. Praiia in Greek MSS
of the N. T. The mechaniced and literary Prooeaaea in-
volved in their Writing and PreaervaHon, New York, 1898;
R. Proctor. The PrinHng of Greek in the Fifteenth Cettr
tury, no. 8 of lUtiatrated Monographa, issued by the Bib-
liographical Society. London, 1900; DB, iv, 944-057.
For the old printers consult — on Christopher Plantin:
M. Rooses, Chriatopher Plantin^ imprimeur Anvemoia,
Antwerp, 1884; idem, Chrietopher PlanHn, Corrttpon-
dance, Ghent, 1886; T. L. de Vinne, Chrietopher Planiin
and the PlanHnrMoretua Muaeum at Antwerp, New York.
1885; L. Degeorge, La Maiaon Plantin h. Anvera, Paris.
1886. On the Stephens: G. A. Crapelet. Robert Eattenm,
imprimeur royal, Paris, 1839; A. A. Renouard, Annala
de Vimprimerie dee Eatienne, ib. 1843; L. Feugfere, Emd
awr la vie et lea ouvragea de Henri Eatienne, ib. 1853. On
the Elseyin: C. Pieters, Annalea de Vimprimerie Elaevi-
rienne, Ghent. 1860; A Willems, Lea EUHfier: hiatoire d
annalea typographiquea, B-uasels, 1880.
Late critical editions are! C. Tischendorf, Novum Tet-
tamentum Grace, ed. 8. critica major, Leipdo, 1864-72;
Prolegomena, by C. R. Gregory, ib. 1884-M. small ed of
text of 8. ed., with selections of readings, ib. 1878; F. H.
A. Scrivener and E. Palmer, The Greek Teatament vift
the Readinga adopted by the Reviaera of the Authorized Ver-
eion, Oxford. 1882; B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort.
N. T. in the OrigiiuU Greek, Am. ed. with introduetioii by
P. SchafiF. 3d ed.. New York. 1883; W. Saaday. Lloyd't
ed. of Mill'a Text with ParaUel Refereneea, Eueebian CanonM
. . . and three Appendicea (published separately, oontaio-
ing variants of Westcott and Hort, and a selection of im-
portant readings with authorities, together with readings
from Oriental versions, Memphitic, Armenian, and Ethi-
opio), Oxford, 1889; O. von Gebhardt. Novum Tealameih
tum (with variants of Tregelles and Westcott and Hort),
6th ed., Leipsic, 1894; B. Weiss. Daa Neue Teatament,
Textkritiache Unterauchungen und TextherateUung, ib. 1894-
1900; F. Blass, Acta Apoatolorum aive Lucte ad Theojior
lum Uber aUer aeaindum formam qua videtur Romanam,
ib. 1896; idem, Evangelium aecundam Lucam eive Luce
ad TheopihiLum liber prior aeeundum formam qua videter
Romanam, ib. 1897; E. Nestle, Teatamentum Nomm
GrcBca cum apparatu critioo, Stuttgart. 1808 (the uw of
editions with the MS. variants will still be required);
Novum Teatamentum Grmcum, editio Stutgardiana, ib. 1888
(based on collation of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort,
Weymouth, and Weiss; contains for the Gospels sikI
Acts a selection of MS. readings, chiefly from Codex Bete).
Treatises on various phases of the history of N. T. tex-
tual criticism are: F. H. A. Scrivener, A Full and Eiad
CoOation of about twenty Greek MSS of the Holy GoaptU
{hitherto unexamined) . . . in the Britiah Mueerm, t^
Archiepiacopal Library at Lambeth, . . . with a critieal /«-
troduetUm, Cambridge, 1853; idem, A Plain Introdvdien
to the Criticiam of the New Teatament, 4th ed., by E Miller.
London, 1894 (conservative); O. T. Dobbin. The Coder
113
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
MantfarUanno, ib. 1854; F. W. A. B&thicen. Der ipriechi'
•dU Tat dsM Cunton^aektn Synra, Leipaic. 1885: J. R.
Harrifl, Th» Origin of the LeietBier Codex of the N. T.,
London, 1887; U. J. M. Bebb, Evidence of the Early Ver-
•ione and Paretic Quotatione on the Text of ... the N. T.,
in Studia BiUica, ii. Oxford, 1890; H. C. Hodcier, A Full
Account and CoUoHon of the Greek Curaive Codex Evang.
60^ London, 1890 (oontainB in Appendix C, A fuU and
exact cemparieon of tKe Elaevir BdiHane of 1624 and 16SS);
G. H. GwiUimm, The Material for the Criiieiem of the Peeh-
itto N. T., in Studia Bibliea, iii. 47-104. Oxford, 1891;
F. H. ChMe, The (Hd Syriac Element in tKe Text of Codex
Bexet, London, 1893; Mrs. A. S. Lewis, The Four Ooepele
yanaUtted from Ae Syriae Palimpeeet, ib. 1894; R. C.
Benaley. J. R. Harris, and F. C. Burkitt. The Four Goa-
peie in Syriae iranacribed from the Syriae Palimpaeat, Cam-
bridce, 1894; O. N. Bonwetsch and H. Aehelia, Die chriat^
htken griechiaehen SdvriftatOler vor Euaebiue, Berlin, 1897;
E. Miller. The Preaent State of the Textual Coniroveray re-
afpteUng A« Holy Ooepela, London, 1899 (oonaervative);
idem. The Textual Controverey and the Twentieth Century,
ib. 1901; G. Salmon, Some Thoughte on the Textual CrUi-
eiam of the N. T., ib. 1897; M. R. Vincent. A Hiat. of the
Textual Critieiem of the N. T., New York, 1899; K. Lake.
The Text of the N. T.. London, 1900; F. G. Kenyon,
Bamdhook to Textual Critieiam of the N. T., ib. 1901; idem.
Evidence of GreA Papyri reith Regard to Textual Critieiam,
ib. 1905. On the Revisers' text consult W. M. Sanday
in Bxpoaitar, 1881.
The prindplee of textual criticism are discussed at
length in Hort's Introduction to Weetcott and Hort's
Greek Testament, London, 1881. where also is found the
most elaborate discussion of the Sinaitic and Vatican MSS.
On the Sinaitic MS. consult also F. H. A. Scrivener. Col-
lation of theCodexSinaiticua, 3d ed.. London, 1867; C. Tisch-
sndorf. Die Anfechtungen der Sinaibibel, Leipsic, 1863;
idem. Die Sinaibibel, ihre Entdeckung, Herauagabe und
Erw^rhung, ib. 1871; idem. Waff en der Finatemiaa wider
die Sinaibibel, ib. 1863. Convenient manuals are: E.
Nestle, EinfUhrung in daa griechiache Neue Teatament,
Gettincen, 1897. A valuable collection of editions of the
Grtek Testament, moatly amassed by the late Dr. Isaac
H. Han. is in the library of Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
During the last three srears considerable discussion has
been aroused on the subject of the text, to which the
following are the moat important contributions:
For 1902: J. M. Bebb, in DB, iv. 848-855. 860-864;
F. Blass, Svangeliuim aecundum Johannem cum varia lee-
tiomia deUetu, Leipeie; F. G. Burkitt, The Date of Codex
Beta, in JTS, vol. iii; F. C. Conybeare, Three Early Doe-
MfMi ModifUsatuma of the Text of the Goapela. in Hihbert
Jmmal, i. 96-113; M. D. Gibson. Four remarkable Sinai
MSS, in Expoeitory Timea, xiii, 509-511; S. K. Gifford,
PttuU epiatolaa qua forma legerit Joannea Chryaoatomua,
Halle; E. J. Goodapeed, The HaakeU Goapela, in JBL, xxi,
100-107; C. R. Gregory, Textkritik dee N. T., vol. ii,
Ldpsie; C. E. Hammond, Outlinea of Textual Critieiam
appUed to the N. T., Oxford; J. R. Harris. A eurioua Be-
an reading vindicated, in 'Expoeitor, pp. 189-195; idem.
On a Recent Emendation in the Text of St. Peter, ib., pp.
317-32(h idem. The Hiatory of a Conjectural Emendation
(ib.,pp. 378-390); A. Hjelt, Die aliayriache EvangeHenOber'
aebemg und Tatiana Diaieaaaron, in T. Zahn's Foraehungen,
▼iii, 1, Leipsic; K. Lake, Codex 1 of the Goapela and iU
AUiea, Cambridge; idem, 7*«xfs from Mount Athoa, in
Stmdia Bibliea, vol. v, part 2. pp. 89-185. London; A. S.
Lewis, Stadia Sinaitiea XI. Apocrypha Syriaca, Lon-
don; 0. R S. Mead, The Goapele and the Goapel. Study
in Biotl rsesnl Reeulta of lower and higher Critieiam, London;
A llerx. Die vier kanoniaehen Evangelien nach ihrem tdtee^
Im hAgmUen Texte. Ueberaeteung und Erl&uterung der
avriaehen im Sinaikloeter gefundenen Palimpaeethandaehrif-
tm. part 2: Erlduterungen, let half: Matlh&ue, Berlin;
E. Nestle, The Greek Teatament, with Introduction and
Appendix on irregular Verba, by R. E. Weidner. New
York; idem, in DB, iv. 645-652. 732-741; H. von Soden,
Bit Schriften dee N. T. in ihrer HUeaten erreichbaren Text-
mlalt, vol. i, part 1, Berlin; B. Weiss. Daa Neue Teata-
■Mnl, 3 vols., Leipeie; H. J. White, in DB, iv, 873-890.
For 1903: L. Blau, Ueber den Einfluaa dee aUhtbrHiachen
BtuAioeteiM avj die Originale und auf die tUteaten Hand-
tAHften der LXX, dee N. T. und der Hexapla, Berlin;
F. C. Burkitt, On Codex Claromontanua, in JTS, iv, 587-
n.— 8
588; idem, 77^ Syriae Interpretation of John xiii, 4, in
JTS, iv, 436-438; idem, in EB, iv, 4981-5012; idem.
Further Notea on Codex k, in JTS, v. 100-107; W. £.
Crum. Coptic Oatraka from the Collection of the Egypt Ex-
ploration Fund, the Cairo Muaeum, and othera, London;
M. D. Gibson, Four Remarkable Sinai Manuaeripta, in
Expoeitory Timea, xiii, 509-511; J. E. Gilmore, Manu-
acript Portiona of three Coptic Lectionariea, in PSBA, xxiv,
186-191; G. H. Gwilliam. The Age of the Bodleian Syriac
Codex Datokina S, in JTS, iii. 452 sq.; idem. Place of the
PeahUto Veraion in the Apparatua crilieua of the GreA N.
T., in Studia Bibliea, v, 3, pp. 187-237; K. Lake. Dr.
Weiaa' Text of the GoapeU, in AJT, vii, 249-258; A.
Schmidtke, Die Evangelien einer alien Unzialcodex, Leip-
sic; W. B. Smith. The Pauline Manuaeripta F and G, in
AJT, vii, 452-185. 662-688; C Taylor. The Perieope of the
AduUereea, in JTS, iv. 129-130; B. Weiss. Die Perikope
von der EhArecherin, in ZWT, xlvi. 141-158; A. Wright,
A Synopaia of the Goapela in GreA, 2d ed., London; O.
Zdckler. The Textual Queation in Acta, transl. by A. Steimle,
New Rochelle.
For 1904: F. Blass, UAer die Textkritik im N. T., help-
sic; F. C. Burkitt, Evangelion Da-Mepharreahe. The
Cureionian Veraion of the four Goapela, xoith the Readinga
of the Sinai Palimpaeet and the early Syriae patriatie Evi"
dence, 2 vols., Cambridge; Codex Veronenaia . . . denuo
ed. J. Belaheim, Prague; R. D'Onston, The Patriatie
Goapela. An EngliA Veraion of the Holy Goapda aa they
exiated in Ae aecond Century. London; J. T. BCarshall. Re-
markable Readinga in the Epiatlea found in the Palealinian
Syriac Lectionary, in JTS, v, 437-445; J. B. Mayor,
Notee on the Text of II Peter, in Expoeitor, pp. 284-293;
idem, Notea on the Text of the Epiatle of Jude, ib., pp. 450-
460; J. O. F. Murray, Textual Critieiam, in DB, extra
vol., pp. 206-236; W. Sanday, The Preaent GreA Tea-
tamenU of the Clarendon Preaa, in JTS, v, 279-280; A
New GreA Teatament, prepared by E. Neatle. Text vrith
Critieal Apparatua, London; Novum Teatamentum . . .
Latine aecundum editionem aancH Hieronymi . . . reeen-
auit J. Wordsworth — H. J. White, part. ii. fasc. 2. Actue
Apoatolorum, Oxford; C. H. Turner, A Re-Collation of
Codex k of the Old LaHn GoapeU, in JTS, v, 88-100.
1905: R. F. Weymouth, The ReauUant GreA Text, with
readings of Stephens (1550), Lachmann, Tregelles, Light-
foot, and (for the Pauline Epistles) Ellioott, also of Al-
ford and Weiss for Matthew, the Basel ed.. Westoott and
Hort and Revisers, London, 1892, 3d ed.. 1905.
1906: F. H. A. Scrivener. Novum Teatamentum, Textua
Siaphanid, Varica Leetionee of Beaa, the Elxevira, LaAmann,
Tiachendorf, Tregdlae, WeateoU and Hort, and the Reoi-
aera, London. 1887. ed. E. Nestle. 1906; A. Deissmann,
The New Biblieal Papyri at Heidelberg, in Expoeitory Timea,
pp. 248-254.
The literature of the work which is being done may be
found year by year in the Bibliographie der tfieologiaehen
Literatur and in AJT.
UL Chapter and Verae Divisions: The purpose
of the present division into chapters and verses
was to facilitate reference. These divisions some-
times, but not generally, ignore logical and natu-
ral divisions. Ck>mmon opinion oonoeming chapter
divisions attributes them to Cardinal Hugo of Saint
Cher (q.v.) for use in his concordance to the Latin
Vulgate (c. 1240, first printed, with modification,
at Bologna, 1479). This opinion rests on the direct
testimony of Gilbert Genebrard (d. 1597), that
" the scholastics who with Cardinal
1- ^*P*®' Hugo were authors of the concord-
DlvlBlon.. ^^„ ^^^g ^j^^ division. Qu^tif
and Echard, a century and a half later than
Genebrard, ascribe to Hugo only the subdivision
of the chapters presently to be mentioned. The
better opinion is, that Stephen Langton, arch-
bishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), made the chapter
division to facilitate citation. Before the invention
of printing it had already passed from Latin manu-
scripts to those of other tongues, and after the
Bible Text
Bible Verelona
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
114
invention of printing it became general. It has
undergone slight variations from the beginning
to the present iay. Many early printed Bibles,
especially Greek Testaments, besides these chapters
retain also the old brews or HUoi noted in the mar-
gin (see above, II, 1, § 5). The chapters were at
first subdivided into seven portions (not para-
graphs), marked in the margin by the letters A, B,
C, D, E, F, G, reference being made by the chapter-
number and the letter imder which the passage
occurred. In the shorter Psalms, however, the
division did not always extend to seven. In Ps.
cxix it seems not to have been used at all. This
division (except in the Psalms) was modified by
Conrad of Halberstadt (c. 1290), who reduced the
divisions of the shorter chapters from seven to
four; so that the letters were always either A-G or
A-D. This subdivision continued long after the
introduction of the present verses, but in the
seventeenth century was much modified, some
chapters having more than four, and less than
seven, subdivisions.
The present verses differ in origin for the Old
Testament, New Testament, and Apocrypha. In
the canonical Testament they appear
2. Veree ju ^^g oldest known manuscripts
^"^d*"' (^ *^''®' ^' ^' § 7, 2, § 2), though
j^^j^ they were not used for citation by
ment. *^® ^^^^ **^ ^^® fifteenth century.
The earlier printed Hebrew Bibles
marked each fifth verse only with its Hebrew nu-
meral. Arabic numerals were first added for the
intervening verses by Joseph Athias, at Amsterdam,
1661, at the suggestion of Jan Leusden. The first
portion of the Bible printed with the Masoretic
verses numbered was the Psalterium Quincuplex
of Faber Stapulensis, printed at Paris by Henry
Stephens in 1509. In 1528 Sanctes Pagninus
published at Lyons a new Latin version of the
whole Bible with the Masoretic verses marked and
numbered. He also divided the Apocrjrpha and New
Testament into numbered verses; but these were
three or four times as long as the present ones.
The present New Testament verses were intro-
duced by Robert Stephens in his Greco-Latin
Testament of 1551 (see above, II, 2, § 2).
Stephens says in his preface that the
8. Verse division is made to follow the most
"^^'^onm, ancient Greek and Latin copies. But
T «tl '^ ^^ ^ difficult, if not impossible,
mentJ ^ ^^ ^^^ Greek or Latin manu-
scripts whose divisions coincide very
nearly with Stephens's verses. Doubtless he
made this division with reference to his concord-
ance to the Vulgate, then preparing, published in
1555. This Latin concordance, like former ones,
contains references to the letters A, B, G, D,
E, F, G, and also to the numbers of the verses
of each chapter " after the Hebrew method "
of division. This latter, the preface states, has
special reference to an operi ptdcherrimo et prce^
darissimo which he is now printing, which must
mean his splendid Bible of 1556-57, 3 vols., con-
taining the Vulgate, Pagninus, and the first edition
of Beza's Latin New Testament. Meanwhile, for
present convenience, he is issuing a more modest
Bible (Vulgate), with the verses marked and num-
bered. This latter was his Vulgate of 1555 (Ge-
neva)—the first whole Bible divided into tk
present verses, and the first in which they were
introduced into the Apocrypha. The text is con-
tinuous, not having the verses in separate para-
graphs, like the New Testament of 1551, but
separated by a 1[ and the verse-number. Tbe
verse-division differs in only a very few places from
that of 1551; and a comparison shows that the
concordance agrees rather with the diviaon of
1551 than with that of 1555. The statement so
often made that the division was made " on boRe-
back " while on a journey from Paris to Lyons must
be qualified. His son asserts that the work was done
while on the journey, but the inference most natural
and best supported is that the task was accom-
plished while resting at the inns along tbe road.
In other languages the division appeared first as
follows: French, New Testament, Geneva, 1552,
Bible, Geneva, 1553 (both R. Stephens); Italiao,
New Testament, L. Paschale (Geneva?), 1555;
Dutch, New Testament, Gellius Ctematius (Giliis
van der Erven), Embden, 1556, Bible, Nikolaus
Biestkens van Diest, Embden, 1560; English,
Genevan New Testament, 1557, Genevan Bible,
1560; German, Luther's Bible, perhaps Heidelberg.
1568, but certainly Frankfort, 1582.
In Beza's editions of the Greek Testament
(1565-1604) sundry variations were introduced,
which were followed by later editors, notably the
Elzevirs (1633, etc.); and many minor changes
have been made, quite down to the present day.
A very convenient and illuminating " table oi
ancient and modem divisions of the New Testa-
ment," giving the divisions in the Vatican manu-
script, the titloi, the Anmionian kephalaia, the
atichoi, r&nata, and the modem chapters and verses,
is given in Scrivener, Introduction, i, 68. The tabi,
kephalaiay and tables of the Eusebian canons are
available in such editions as Stephens's Greek TesUr
ment of 1550, and Mill's of 1707, 1710. The Greek
Testament by Lloyd (Oxford, 1827) and by M
(1859) give the Eusebian canons. For a synopsis
of variations in manuscripts consult J. M. A. SchoU,
Novum Testamentum Grace, i, Frankfort, 1830,
pp. xxviii-xxix.
The Stephanie verses have met with bitter criti-
cism because of the fact that they break the text
into fragments, the division often coming in tbe
middle of the sentence, instead of forming it into
convenient and logical paragraphs, an arrangf-
ment which has seldom found favor. But their
utility for reference outweighs their disadvanta^
They should never be printed in separate para-
graphs (as in the English Authorised Version),
but the text should be continuous and the num-
bers inserted in the margin (as in the Revised Ver-
sion).
Bibxjoorapht: C. R. Gregory, Proleoamena, i, 140-1S2, Uip-
Bic, 1804; the Introductuma of Tregelles and ScriTeoer,
ut sup. under II; B. F. Westoott and F. J A. Hort, M /.,
Introduction and Appendix, pp. 318 aqq.. of Am. edition.
New York, 1882; I. H. Hall, in Sunday School Timn, Apr.
2. 1881. Ckineult also W. Wright, in Kitto's Cydop^
of Biblical LUeraiurt, *' Verse," London, 1845 (the ed. of
1870 is not so good); DCA, ii. 063M>67.
115
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Text
Bible Vereione
BIBLE VERSIONS.
I. Greek Venioiuk
1. The Septuadnt.
Origin (i 1).
Printed Editions (f 2).
Eariy Corruption of the Text
(§3).
The Hexapla of Origen (f 4).
Lucian and Hesychius (| 5).
VersionB Made from the Septuagint
(§6).
Manuacripte (f 7).
2. LAter Greek Tramlations.
Aquila (I 1).
Ssrmmaehufl (f 2).
Theodotion (| 3).
n. Latin Vermons.
1. The Latin Bible before Jerome.
A. Ancient Versions.'
The Old Latin Bible. The Itala
(»1).
Manuscripts and Editions (f 2).
Quotations in Latin Writers (f 3).
2. The Bible of Jerome (the Vulgate).
Jerome's Work. The New Testa-
ment (S 1).
The Old Testament (f 2).
History to the Invention of Print-
ing (f 3).
Earlier Printed Editions (f 4).
The Sixtine-Clementine Edition
(§6).
Later Work. Problems (f 6).
3. Later Latin Translations.
III. Syriao Versions.
1. The Peshito.
Origin and Name (S 1).
The Old Testament (f 2).
The New Testament (f 3).
2. Later Versions.
IV. The Samaritan Pentateuch.
V. Aramaic Versions (the Targums).
Origin and Language (S 1).
Targum Onkelos (f 2).
Targum Jonathan (f 3).
Other Targums of the Law and
Prophete (f 4).
The Hagiographa (f 6).
VI. The Armenian Version.
VII. Egsrptian Coptic Versions.
VIII. The Ethiopic Version.
IX. The Georgian (Iberian) Version.
X. The Gothic Version of Ulfilas.
I. Arabic Versions.
II (}eltic Versions.
IIL Duteh Versions.
IV. English Versions.
The Earliest Versions (S 1).
Wyclif (i 2).
Tyndale (| 3).
Gorerdale. Other Editions (f 4).
The Douai Bible (f 5).
The Authorised Version (f 6).
The Reriaed Version (f 7).
Minor Versions (f 8).
Rare and Curious Editions (f 0).
V. Finnish and Lappish Versions.
VI. French Versions.
The Earlier Versions (f 1).
Guysrd dee Moulins (f 2).
Protestant Versions (f 3).
Roman Catholic Versions (f 4).
B. Modem Versions.
VII. German Versions.
Old German Fragmente (f 1).
Printed Bibles Before Luther
(§2).
Luther's Bible (f 3).
Revision of Luther's Version
(§4).
Other Versions (S 5).
VIII. Greek Versions. Modem.
IX. Hebrew Translations of the New
Testament.
X. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions.
The First Versions (f 1).
The Komiromi Bible (f 2).
Modem Versions (f 3).
XI. Italian Versions.
XII. Lithuanian and Lettish Ver-
sions.
XIII. Persian Versions.
XIV. Portuguese Versions.
XV. Scandinavian Versions.
Before the Reformation (f 1).
Since the Reformation (f 2).
XVI. Slavonic Versions.
The Old Church Slavonic Ver-
sion (f 1).
Russian Versions (f 2).
Bulgarian and Servian Versions
(§3).
Slovenian and Croatian Versions
(§4).
Bohemian Versions (f 6).
Wendish or Sorbic Versions
(§6).
Polish Versions (f 7).
XVII. Spanish Versions.
XVIII. Bible Versions in the Mission
Field.
Bible veraions, or translations of the original
Hebrew and Greek of the Old and New Testa-
ments, may be treated in an encyclopedia from
different points of view : (1) from the critical, as
instruments with which to reconstruct the original
text ; (2) from the exegetical, as showing how the
Bible was understood in different times and
places; (3) from the historical, as documents for
showing the extent of the Bible and of its propa-
gation among the nations of the earth; (4) from a
Ut«rary and philological standpoint, since the
Bible vernons are often the earliest monuments of
the respective languages.
Versions are either primary and direct, as the
Septuagint, or secondary and indirect, derived ver-
sions, as the Old Latin. [They now exist, either
for the entire Bible or a part, in more than five
hundred languages. During 1906 eleven new ver-
sions were added and translation or revision is in
progress in over one hundred tongues. Scriptures
for the blind are issued by the British and Foreign
Bible Society in fifteen languages.] Manifestly
only a selection of the more important versions can
be treated here.
' The fffindiple of arrangement adopted in this eeriee of
vtidca IB that of age, not aamply. however, on account of
clutMiolQipeal precedence, but because neceeaarily the earli-
est Tcnions are, generally epeaking, the most important
^ text-«ritieal pfuipoaee. Two main divisions are thus
tvued: A, Andent Versions; and B, Modem Versions.
The TCTBODs treated under A are arranged approximately
in order of text-critical value; under B. alphabetically.
Of the complete Bible in the original languages
there is as yet but one edition in existence: BiJblia
Sacra tarn Veteria qaam Novi TestamerUi cum Apocry-
phis 9ecundum forUes HebrcBoa et GrcBcoa, ed. G. B.
Michaelis (2 vols., Zullichau, 1740-41; cf. the cor-
respondence on this point in .the Sunday School
Times, Sept. and Oct., 1899, raised by a statement
in the TLZ, 1899, no. 14). E. Nestle.
Bibuooraprt: Among older works the following are indis-
pensable: J. H. Hottinger, DiMertaUonum theotogieo-
Vkilologicarum fateieuhu, Heidelberg, 1660 (deals with
Jewish and Christian translations); Richard Simon, Hi»-
toire erUique du Vieux TeMtamerU, Amsterdam, 1680, Eng.
transl., London, 1682; idem, Hutoire critique dea veniotu
du Nouveau TeMtament, Rotterdam, 1690. Eng. transl.,
London, 1602; idem, Hiaiovre ariHque du texte du Nouvmu
Teatament, Rotterdam, 1680, Eng. transl., London, 1680;
idem, NouvtlUa obaervaiuma aur la texte ei lea veraiona du
Nouveau Teatament, Paris, 1606 (on Simon consult H.
Margival, in Revue d'hiatoire et de lUtirature relioieuaea,
Jan., Feb., 1806).
Bibliographical information is to be sought in the fol*
lowing: J. Le Long, BMiotkeca Sacra, emendata . . . o6
A. G. Maaeh, 2 parts in 6 vols., HaUe, 1778-00 (part 1
deals with editions of the original texts, part 2, in 4 vols.,
deals with versions); Article Bibd in J. S. Ersch and J.
G. Gruber, AUgemeine Encuklopddie, reprinted as a sepa-
rate volume, Leipsic, 1823; The Biblea in the Caxton Ex
hibiHon, London, 1878; BriH^ Muaeum Catalogue, entry
'* Bible," 4 parts, including Appendix, London, 1802-00 (the
fullest list printed of editions of the Bible and of its parts);
T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule. Hiatorieal Catalogue of the
Printed EdiOana of Holy Scripture in the lAbrary of Oim
BriHih and Foreign BiJUe Society, vol. i, BngUah, London,
1003, vol. ii not yet issued. Of specific interest are: L»
Hain, Repertorium biJbliographicum, 6 vols.. Stuttgart^
1826-01, SuppUment by W. A. Coptnger. 3 voU., LondM^
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
116
1891-1002, iippendioM by D. Reiohlinc Munich. 1906-06;
W. T. Lowndas, BibUograpKer'9 Manual, 4 vols., Lon-
don. 1857-64; J. G. Brunet, Manud du Libraire, 7 yoU..
Paris, 1860-78. Consult also the works of Loisy, Copin-
ger, and Kenyon given under Biblb Text, I; the table
of BiibU Trantlaiioni in J. S. Dennis. CmUtnnial Survey of
Farmon Miuiona, New York, 1904; T. Hiring. Da» Fcr-
tUmdniMB dor BibA in der Entwidduno der MwntichhMt, Ta-
bingen, 1906. and DB, iv, 848-866. extra volume, 236-
271. 402-420.
A. Ancient Vereiong.
L Greek Veniong. — 1. The Beptuacint: The Bi-
ble version most important in every respect is the
Alexandrian translation of the Old Testament,
the so-called Septuagint. " Custom now holds
to the version which is called the Septuagint/'
writes Augustine (De civitate Dei, x\m, 42). The
term " Septuagint " is an abbreviation of secundum
aepluagirUa inUrprdea; the subscription of Genesis
in the Codex Vaticanus is " According
1. Origin, to the Seventy "; Ckxlex A has before
Isaiah, "the Edition of the Seventy ";
this is based on the story that King Ptolemy
Philadelphus, by the advice of his librarian Deme-
trius Phalereus, asked from the high priest Eleazar
of Jerusalem seventy-two scholars, who translated
for him in seventy-two days the law, and, after a
later form of the legend, in seventy-two (or thirty-
six) cells, the seventy-two or thirty-six copies
being found without any variation when brought
together and compared. The story is first told in
the so-called "Letter of Aristeas" (see Aribtsa8),
who pretends to be one of the officers sent by
Philadelphus to Jerusalem, and is wholly unhis-
torical.
As the date of the version ancient chronicles
mention the 2d, 7th, 17th, 18th, 19th, or 20th
year of Philadelphus, the year 1734, 35, 36, or 37
of Abraham; as its day the 8th of Tebeth, a day of
darkness like that on which the golden calf was
made (cf . Margoliouth, in the ExpoeUor, Nov., 1900,
348-^9). Philo relates, on the contraiy, that the
Jews of Alexandria kept in his time an annual
festival ** in commemoration of the time when
the interpretation first shone out, and they praised
God for his works in times new and old." He knows
that the interpreters asked God's blessing on this
undertaking; " for he answered their prayers
that more and more the whole race of men might
be assisted to correctness of life in thought and
deed." This aspiration was fulfilled when the
version became one of the chief instruments for
the preparation and propagation of Christianity
(on this aspect of the version cf. E, W. Grin field,
Apology for the Septuagint, London, 1850; W. R.
Churton, The Influence of the Septuagint on the
Progress of Christianity , London, 1861; A. Deiss-
mann, Die Hdlenieierung des semitischen Mono-
theismuSf Leipsic, 1903). It is not yet certain
whether the translation is due, as the legend pur-
ports, to the literary interest of a king who was a
bibliophile; or, as is the conunon view at present,
to the religious wants of the Jewish community
of Alexandria; or to the needs of an intended
Jewish propaganda. For the latter view the pro-
logue of Ecclesiasticus may be mentioned, which
i», at the same time, the first witness to speak
of all three parts of the Hebrew Bible as already
extant in Greek; Aristeas, Philo, and Josephus
speak only of the law. Of the several books
of the Old Testament only Esther has a state-
ment about the translation of the book, which is
referred generally to Soter II (114 bx;.), but by H.
Willrich (Judaica, GOttingen, 1000) to Ptolemy XIV
(48 B.C.). At the end of Job is the strange notice:
" This is interpreted from the Syrian book."
The first part of the Septuagint to be multiplied
by the printing-press was the Psalms in the Greek
and Latin Psalter of Bonacursius (Milan, Sept. 20,
1481; in Greek alone, Venice, 1486, and again by
Aldus Manutius about 1497). The complete ed^
tions fall into four classes according as they are de-
rived from one or another of four original editions,
fi Pri tmA ®^ ^^cb ^^6 first (designated as c) b
SditiLMMT **^® Complut€nsian Poly^ot of Car-
dinal Ximenes, printed 1514-17 but
not published until 1521 (see Bibles, Polt-
GLOT, I; cf. Frans Delitzsch, Studien zur Eni-
stekungsgeschichte der Polyglattenbibel des Cardinals
Ximenes, Leipsic, 1871, supplemented 1878-86;
T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule, Historical Catalogue
. , . of the BFBS, ii, London, 1908, 1 sqq.). Of
the manuscripts used for the Greek Old Testament
we ki|ow with certainty Vat. Gr. 330 and 346, and
Venet. 5 (^Hohnes-Parsons 108, 248, and 68).
The second (a) is the Aldine Bible published by
Andreas Asulanus, father-in-law of the elder Aldus
(Venice, 1518). Among the manuscripts used
were Hohnes-Parsons 29, 68, 121, all of Venice.
The third and most important is the Editio Siitina
(6), published by Pope Sixtus V (Rome, 1586
[1587]) on the basis of Codex Vat. Gr, 1209 ('-B,
in the article Biblb Text, II, 1, § 9). Besides c
and a, the manuscripts Holmes-Parsons 16, 19, 23,
51 seem to have been used, especially for the scholia,
which were collected chiefly by Petrus Morinus and
enlarged by Flaminius Nobilius in the Latin transla-
tion published 1588. The fourth edition (4 vols,
folio and 8 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1707-20) was be-
gun by Johannes Ernst Grabe (q.v.), who pub-
lished vols, i and iv (1707, 1709), and after his
death (1711) was completed by Francis Lee (vol
ii, 1719) and Geoige Wigan (voL iii, 1720). It is
based on the Codex Alexandrinus (A; see Bible
Text, II, 1, § 9) with use of other sources, espe-
cially Origen's Hexapla, has useful prolegomena,
and possesses a merit of its own.
These editions have been often reproduced— the
Sixtine edition most frequently — ^with more or less
of editorial labor (for list of reprints, etc.; aL<«
mention of the more important editions of single
books of the Greek Old Testament, cf. the Hauck-
Herzog RE, iii, 4-9 and Swete, Introduction, 171-
194). But no existing edition of the Septua^t
satisfies present wants, for none gives an exact re-
production of the manuscript or manuscripts which
it follows, nor does any provide a full apparatm
criOcus, The first attempt to satisfy the latter
want was made in the great work begun by Rob-
ert Holmes (q.v.) and completed after his death
(1805) by James Parsons, Vetus Testamcntum
Gracum cum variis lectionibus (5 vols., Oxford,
1798-1827; cf. Swete, Introduction, 184-187; Churth
117
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible V«raioiis
Quarterly Review, Apr., 1899, 102 sqq., and
the annual accounts published during the progress
of the work from 1789 to 1805). The text is that
of b. Not less than 164 volumes of manuscript
collations prepared for this work are still in the
Bodleian Library. All manuscripts, versions, and
quotations were put under contribution. Despite
some drawbacks in the plan and still more in the
execution, the work deserves admiration; it is still
indispensable to all who wish full information
about the Old Testament in Greek. The advance
made in the course of the nineteenth century is
due, on the one hand, to the discovery of new ma-
terials (e.g. the Codex Sinaiticus ; see Bible Text,
H» 1» S 9); on the other, to greater exactness in
handling witnesses Both these advantages are
evident in the work of C. Tischendorf, P. de La-
garde, and H. B. Swete. Tischendorf (Vetue Tes-
tamentum Greece fuxta LXX inUrpreUs, 2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1850; 7th ed., 1887) repeated the text of
b and enriched it with variants from the Codex
Aiexandrinus, Epkraemi ReacriptuSf and (after
1869) the Sinaiticus, adding rich prolegomena.
Lagarde's work, though left incomplete, was mon-
umental (for list of his publications, see Lagarde,
Paul Anton db). Swete reproduced in his
edition {The Old Testament in Greek according to
the Septuagint, 3 vols., Cambridge, 1887-94; 2d
cd., 1895-99; 3d ed., 1901-07) for the first time
not the printed text of h, but the Vatican manu-
script itself, in the first edition according to
the facsimile impression of Fabiani-Cozza (Rome,
1869-81), which for the second has been revised
(by E. Nestle) after the photographic reproduction.
Where the manuscript is deficient the text has
been taken from the oldest manuscript accessible
in a trustworthy form, while under the text variants
have been given from some of the oldest manu-
scripts, as Sinaiticus, Aiexandrinus, and Ambrosi-
anus. The merit of this edition is that it gives
the materials with greatest accuracy; its defect,
that it does not make any attempt to construct
the text according to the principles of textual
criticism, but follows the leading manuscript even
in its most glaring faults. And in some books
at least (e.g. in Elcclesiasticus), the oldest manu-
scripts are far from being the best. But this
deficiency is fully explained by the fact that the
edition is intended to be but the basis of a great
critical edition now in course of preparation, of
which the first part has already appeared, The
Old Testament in Greek, according to the Text
of Codex Vaticanus Supplemented from Other Un-
cial Manuscripts, with a Critical Apparatus Con-
taining the Variants of the Chief Ancient Authorities
for the Text of the Septuagint, ed. A. E. Brooke
and N. McLean, vol. i, The Odateuch, part i, Gen-
esis (Cambridge, 1906; cf. JTS, iii, 601-621, and
E. Nestle, Die grosse Cambridger Septuaginta, in
Verhandlungen desXIIL Intemationalen Orientalis-
tenkongresses, 1902; idem, Septriagintastudien, vol.
V. 1907).
Then are two English translations: The Septua-
gint Version of the Old Testament according to the
Vatican Text, translated into English, with the prin-
cipal various readings of the Alexandrine copy,
and a table of comparative chronology, by Sir Lan-
celot Charles Ijee Brenton (2 vols., London, 1844;
has also the Greek text); the other by Charies
Thomson (Philadelphia, 1808; new ed., The Old
Covenant, commonly called the Old Testament, by S.
F. Pells, 2 vols., London, 1904).
That there is yet not a satisfactory edition of the
Septuagint is not because of want of materials for
its preparation — there is on the contrary an em-
barras de richesse — but of its complicated history.
The history of a translation will always
8. Barly be more complicated than that of
^^cfthe ^^ original text, but in this case it
Text. IS the more so as the Septuagint is
a work of Jewish origin, taken over
into the Christian Church. Of the pre-Christian
period of its history next to nothing is known.
There are some Hellenistic writers who used the
Septuagint, as Demetrius, Eupolemus, Aristeas
(the historian), Ezekiel, and Aristobulus; but the
preserved fragments of their writings are too few
and incomplete to establish more than the mere
fact that they used the Septuagint. Philo made
extensive use of the law, but his quotations from
the rest of the Old Testament are very few, and
from Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Lam-
entations, Ezekiel, and Daniel he does not quote
at all. Besides, his writings can be traced back only
to the libraiy of Origen, and have been transmitted
to us probably exclusively through Christian copy-
ists. For Josephus we must be content to know
that for his description of the restoration he used
what is now called I Esdras; but about his relation
to the chief manuscripts there is imcertainty.
Even the quotations in the New Testament do
not justify very definite statements, except that
they prove that already in those times the copies
were not free from textual corruption (cf. Heb. iii,
9, xii, 5). A little later the situation is described
by Origen — speaking, it is true, chiefly of the
manuscripts of the New Testament, but what he
says holds good also of those of the Old Testament:
*' Now it is clear that there has come a great
difference in copies, either through the laziness of
scribes or from the audacity of those who intro-
duced corruptions as amendments, or of others
who took away from or added to their new text
such things as seemed good to them."
If the situation was already bad, since any copyist
or reader who was acquainted with the original
might change single passages on comparison with
the Hebrew, it became worse when new translations
appeared, especially those of Aquila,
Symmachus, and Theodotion (see be-
4. The Hex-
apla of
Oriffen. ^^^' ^^' ^^ ^^* * systematic com-
parison of the Septuagint with the
Hebrew and these versions was carried out by Ori-
gen in the Hexapla (see Origen), and what ap-
peared to him a safeguard against the calamity
that threatened the text turned out — ^not by his
fault, but through later ignorance and carelessness —
the worst aggravation of it. In continuation of the
passage just quoted, he goes on to say that through
the guidance of God he foimd a way to correct
the dissonance in the copies. Using the Hebrew
as a criterion, and adopting the text of the Septua-
BiMe Versions
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
118
gint which confirmed the Hebrew, he made the two
the ground text, and marked changes by diacritical
signs. It is pardonable that he took his Hebrew text
— ^whence he got it is not known — as the original text ;
but it was contrary to sound criticism to take
those readings of the Septuagint which agreed with
the Hebrew for the true ones, instead of those
which dififered from it (cf. the third axiom of La-
garde for the restoration of the Septuagint, AfiUhei-
lunfftn, i, 21). Nevertheless we should be extremely
thankful if the work of Origen had been preserved.
Until 1896 it was known only from the descrip-
tions of Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and some
later writers, and by specimens preserved in scholia
of Biblical manuscripts, a great part also by a literal
Syriac translation (see below, § 6). In 1896 Gio-
vanni Mercati discovered in a palimpsest of the
Ambrosian Library of Milan the first continuous
fragments of a copy of the Hexapla, and in 1900
another and much older piece was found by C. Taylor
among the Greek palimpsests from the Cairo geni-
zah in the Taylor and Schechter collection. These
fragments show that Origen put generally only
one Hebrew word, or at the most two, in one line;
the extent of the work, therefore, must have been
much greater than wss previously supposed.
The later fate of the original is unknown. Jerome
saw and used it in the library at Gsesarea; it may
have been destroyed there during the invasion of
the Arabs.
Origen arranged his work in six columns, the
first containing the Hebrew text in Hebrew let-
ters, the second the same in a Greek transcription,
the third the translation of Aquila, the fourth that
of Symmachus, the fifth the Septuagint, the sixth
the translation of Theodotion. For some books, es-
pecially the Psalms, Origen had a fifth, sixth, and
even a seventh translation at his disposal (see below,
2, § 3). In the Septuagint column he used the
system of diacritical marks which was in use
with the Alexandrian critics of Homer, especially
Aristarchus, marking with an obelus — under dif-
ferent forms, as -7 , called lemniscus, and -r , called
hypolemniscus — those passages of the Septuagint
which had nothing to correspond in Hebrew, and
inserting, chiefly from Theodotion under an aster-
isk (*), those which were missing in the Septua-
gint; in both cases a metobelus iy) marked
the end of the notation. This column was copied
afterward with additional excerpts from the
other versions on the margins; and, if it had
been copied with all its critical marks, it would
have been well, but later copyists neglected these
completely and produced what we may call krypto-
hexaplaric manuscripts, completely spoiling by
this carelessness the value of the Septuagint for
critical purposes. Such a copy, for instance, is,
for Kings, the Codex Alexandriniu ; and it is but
a poor defense of these copyists that the same
process has been repeated in the nineteenth century
by the Moscow and Athens reprints of Grabe's
edition of that codex.
After Origen, Eusebius and his friend Pamphilus
were careful to continue or disseminate his exegetical
labors. Copies of the Pentateuch are known
which were compared with the Samaritan text
(ef. S. Kohn, SamareUikon und Septuaginta, in
Monataachrift fUr Wiasenachaft des Judenthums,
new series, i, 1894, pp. 1-7, 49-67; ZDMG, 1893,
p. 650). Jerome mentions besides Eusebius and
B i^ i^n P^^°^P^^^» Lucian and Hesychius, the
^. text of the former being used from
Hesyohins. ^n^tantinople to Antioch, that of
' the latter in Alexandria and Egypt,
while the provinces between, especially Palestine,
kept to the copies of Origen as published bj
Eusebius and Pamphilus (PrafaHo in paralipo-
mena ; Adv. Rufinum, ii, 27). About neither the
work nor the person of Hesychius (see HBSYCHirs,
1) is there complete certainty. He may have
been the martyr bishop mentioned by Eusebius
(Hist, ecd.f viii, 13) together with Phileas of
Thmuis. The result of his labors is sought
now for the Octateuch in the manuscripts 44,
74, 76, 84, 106, 134; for the jwophete, especially
Isaiah and the Twelve, in the Codex Marehalianvx
and its supporters 26, 106, 198, 306 (cf . N. McLean,
in JTS, ii, 1901, p. 306, and A. Ceriani, De Codict
Marchaliano, Rome, 1890, pp. 48 sqq., 105 sqq.V
Lucian was a deacon of Antioch, who died a
martyr at Nicomedia 312 (see Lucian the M.\r-
ttr). He must have known a Hebrew text which
showed many peculiarities, especially in the his-
torical books, and perhaps used for his pur-
poses the Syriac version. The first part of his
work has bc«n edited by Lagarde in lAbronm
VeUris Testamenti canonieorumf para prior, grace
(GOttingen, 1883; cf. his MtUheUungen, ii, 171).
But this revision must not be confounded with
the original Septuagint any more than the Eng-
lish Revised with the Authorised Version. Since
the fourth centuiy very little has been done m
the Greek Church for its Bible. Emperors di-
rected beautiful copies of it to be written — e.g..
Constantine ordered fifty copies through Eusebius
for the new churches of his capital » and for CJon-
stans Athanasius procured ** copies of the divine
writings," one of which is perhaps preserved in
the famous Codex Vaticanus, Other royal persons
wrote them with their own hands.
Latin was probably the first language into
which the Septuagint was translated. (On the
Latin version, or rather versions, of the Sep-
tuagint see below, II, 1. It is a pity that
so little of these labors has been preserved,
and that these few remnants are so diffi-
cult of access.) After the Latin versions came
the Egyptian (see VII). Here the
Made"** difficulty of the language makes
from the ^^^^ helps for restoration of the
Ssptuafflnt. Septuagint accessible to few. Similar
is the case with the most neglected
branch of the Semitic languages, the Ethiopic
(see Vni). The Arabic versions (see B, I) are
for a great part too late to have much weight
for the critic of the Septuagint. The Gothic
version (see X) is an outcome of the Lucianic re-
cension, for which it would have great importance.
both for age and literalness, but very little of the
Old Testament is preserved in Gothic. The Luci-
anic recension is also the basis of a Slavonic venion
(see B, XVI) and through it of the Georgian (see IX)-
110
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Verslonfl
The Annenian version (see VI) is again of great im-
portance, also the so-called Syro-Hexaplar ver-
non made in the year 616-617 by Paul, bishop of
Telia (Constantine in Mesopotamia), in a cloister
near Alexandria with the utmost fidelity from
manuscripts which went back by few intervening
links to the very copies of the Hexapla and Tetrapla
of Origen. The greater is the pity, therefore, that
only fragments have been preserved, and that
especially the codex which Andr6 du Maes (Masius,
d. 1573) had in his hands, containing the historical
books (including part of Deuteronomy and Tobit),
has been lost, and that only a part of this Bible
(poetical and prophetic books) is still preserved
in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, hence called
Codex Syro-hexaplaria Ambrosianus (published in
a photolithographic facsimile edition by A. Ceriani
as vol. vii of the Monumenta sacra et profana,
Hilan, 1874). The fragments of Genesis, Exodus,
Numbeis, Joshua, Judges, and I and II Kings have
been most carefully edited in the last work of Paul
de Lagaide, Biblioiheca SyriaccB a Patdo de Lagarde
coUectce qua ad phUologiam sacram pertinent (GOt-
tingen, 1802). For earlier works on this version
cf. E. Nestle, lAtieratura Syriaca (reprinted from
his S^frische Grammatik, Berlin, 1888), 29-30; cf.
also T. S. Rordam, Libri Judicum et Ruth (Copen-
hagen, 1859-61), and F. Field, Otium Norvicenee, i
(Oxford, 1864), and his edition of the Hexapla (Ox-
ford, 1875). There are also fragments in the
speaal dialect called Syro-Palestinian, on which
cf. Swete, Introduction, 114, and F. C. Burkitt,
in JTS, ii, 174 sqq.
Up to the present day in several CHiurches these
versions based on the Septuagint have been re-
tained and even in those where they have been
replaced by translations from the original, as in
the Latin West through Jerome or in modem Europe
throu^ the Reformation, the influence of the
S^tuagint is still very marked; note, for instance,
the names of the Biblical books in the latest of
Uiese revisions, the English Revised Version.
The versions just mentioned are one of the three
aouroes which exist for the recovery of the true
text of the Septuagint, the first class being, of
7 Va» course, the Greek manuscripts still
•oript^* in existence, the third the quotations
of ancient writers. A list of the more
ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint was given in
the eighteenth century by Stroth in Eichhom's Re-
pertorium (Leipsic, 1777 sqq.), vols, v sqq.; the
most complete list was formerly that in the pref-
aces of Holmes-Parsons; then in the prolegom-
ena of Teschendorf and in Lagarde's Genesis
Grace ; but reference may now be made to Swete,
/iKrodiictum, pp. 122-170. A few remarks on some
of them may be offered.
The four great uncials, K or S, A, B, and C, are
the chief manuscripts also for the New Testament
(Bee Bible Text, II, 1, § 9). For K there is
needed a photographic reproduction or a com-
plete new collation. The notations from A in
Swete's Septxiagint need revision, at all events
in the first volume. Of B a new photographic
reproduction is in preparation; on the suggestion
of Rahlfs that B is dependent on Athanasius, cf.
E. Nestle, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of
the Greek New Testament (London, 1901), 62, 181,
where (note 1) read Constantius instead of Constans.
Concerning the famous illuminated Codex Cottonior
nus (D), which was badly injured by fire in 1731,
nothing new has come to light since Swete wrote;
it is well to mention the name of Martin Folkes
as editor, by whom were issued the facsimiles in
the Vetusta monumenta of 1747. On the pur-
ple illuminated Genesis of Vienna (L), there is
a dissertation by W. Ludtke (Greifswald, 1897),
who is inclined to ascribe this oldest Biblical
history with illuminations to the second part
of the fifth century. To the eighteen uncial
manuscripts enumerated by Swete (Introduction,
pp. 146-148) as not yet used for any edition
of the Septuagint and remaining without a sym-
bolical letter or number, may be added: fragments
of Genesis at Vienna (cf. Philologischer Anzeiger,
xiv, 1884, 415); a Hebrew-Greek palimpsest con-
taining fragments of Ps. cxliii, cxliv; and parts of
four leaves from a papyrus oodex of Genesis, of the
late second or early third century (Oxyrhynchus
papyri no. 656). On the minuscules scarcely any-
thing has been done lately, except that some will be
used in the Cambridge edition mentioned above
(§ 2). For facsimiles, cf. F. G. Kenyon, Fac^
similes of Biblical Manuscripts in the British Mu-
seum (London, 1901).
The question, in which set of manuscripts the
purest text is to be found, is not yet settled.
It is the more complicated since the Old Testar
ment is a collection of books which in one
and the some manuscript may have had a very
different pedigree; for whole Bibles (pandectes, such
as manuscripts K, A, and B) do not seem to have
been produced much before the time of Eusebius
or Origen.
2. Later Greek Translations : The rupture be-
tween Church and Synagogue led to new transla-
tions. The authors of at least three of them are
known by name, Aquila, Symmachus, and Theo-
dotion.
Of the Fathers of the Church, Irenseus is the first
who mentions Aquila of Pontus as a translator of
the Bible. Epiphanius calls him a "Greek" and
a relation of Hadrian, and tells that
1. Afinila. he was placed by Trajan in charge of
the rebuilding of Jerusalem, that he
became a Christian but returned to the Jewish
faith. Epiphanius places his translation in the
twelfth year of Hadrian, 430 years, four months, less
nine days after the Septuagint. Jewish sources
mention a proselyte Aquila, a contemporary of
Rabbis Eliezer, Joshua, and Akiba, who met Ha-
drian and is called his nephew, and is praised as
translator of the Bible in the words of Ps. xlv,
"thou art fairer than the children of men"; some
passages of his translation are quoted.
It is not clear as yet, whether or how the dates of
Epiphanius and the statements of the Pseudo-
Clementine writings about Aquila, the disciple of
Simon Magus, are to be combined. That Aquila
the translator of the Bible is the well-known hus-
band of Priscilla in the New Testament is a fancy of
HausdorfT. His translation, the use of which was
Bible T«raiona
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
120
permitted in the synagogue by Justinian, is the
most literal ever produced, and enough has been
preserved to judge of its value and character.
Up to 1897 all ^own of it went back to the
Hexapla of Origen (cf. F. Field, Origenis Hexon
plarum qucB auperaunt, 2 vols., Oxford, 1867-75,
and, on Field, J. H. Bum, Expaaitory Times,
Jan., 1897). In 1897 for the first time a contin-
uous portion of his translation came to light in
a palimpsest of the Cairo Synagogue, showing the
tetragrammaton written in Old Hebrew letters.
The statement of Jerome that Aquila made two
versions, ** a second edition, which the Hebrews
call ' the accurate one,' " seems to be correct.
Some new fragments to be added to Field are
in J. B. Pitra, Analeda sacra (Paris, 1876); E.
Klostermann, AjuUekta zur Septuaginta (Leipsic,
1895); Jerome, in Anecdota Maredsolana, iii, 1.
According to Epiphanius, Symmachus was a
Samaritan, and lived not under Severus, but under
" Verus " (i.e., Marcus Aurelius; cf. Lagarde,
Symmicta, ii, Gdttingen, 1880). Geiger identified
the translator with Symmachus ben Joseph, dis-
2 g dple of Rabbi Meir {JudUche Zeit-
^^gy^^ schrift fur Wisaenschaft und Leben, i,
1862, pp. 62-64). Origen got the
manuscript of his translation from a certain Juliana
of Csesarea, who had received it with other works
of Ssrmmachus from Symmachus himself. Whether
the Csesarea where she lived was that of Palestine
or Gappadocia is in doubt. In the sixteenth cen-
tury Symmachus's works were still in existence at
Rodosto near Constantinople (cf. R. FOrster, De
antiquitaiibtia et libris manuscriplU Constantino^
politanis, Rostock, 1877; T. Zahn, TLB, 1893, p.
43). Symmachus wrote the most elegant Greek
of all these translators. Jerome quotes in three
passages a second translation.
Theodotion, according to Irenseus, was from
Ephesus; according to Epiphanius, from Pontus;
he went over from Gnosticism to
Judaism. His work is a revision of
the Septuagint and has therefore
been placed by Origen in his Hexapla next to
the column of the Septuagint. For the same
reason Origen made use chiefly of Theodotion
to supply such passages as were missing in the
Septuagint (cf. I Sam. xvii, 12 sqq.; Jer.
xxxiii, 14-26; xxxix, 4-13). For the Book of
Daniel his version came into general use in the
Church, while the older Greek version has been
preserved only in the one codex (Chisianus) dis-
covered 1772. Readings similar to those of Theo-
dotion are found before his time (on this question
cf. E. Kdnig, Einleitung, ii, 108; TLB, 1897, 61;
St&rk, ZWT, 1895, 288). Howorth offers some
unconventional views (PSBA, 1891-92) on the ques-
tion whether Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah in our
editions of the Septuagint are from Theodotion.
That his name has the same meaning as that of
the Targumist Jonathan seems accidental.
Besides these versions, which covered the whole
Old Testament — ^note, however, that for Samuel we
have no quotations from Aquila — Origen succeeded
in finding, at least for certain parts, more translar
iions: the one which he numbered five, in Nioopo-
8. Theodo-
tion.
lis near Actium; the sixth with other Hebrew and
Greek books in a clay jar near Jericho in the
time of Antoninus, the son of Severus.
Deserving of brief mention is a Greek trans-
lation which is 1,000 years younger than the pre-
ceding, the GroBcus Venetus, which first became
known in 1740 through the catalogue of the library
of San Marco. The complete and final edition u
due to O. von Gebhardt {Griscus Venetus, Penia-
teuchi, Proverbiorum, RiUh, Cantici, Ecdesiasta,
Threnorum, Danielis graca versio, with preface by
F. Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1875). Delitzsch is inclined
to see in the translation the work of a Jew, Elisseus,
who lived at the court of Murad I in Prusa and
Adrianople; von Gebhardt, that of a proselyte.
The rendering of " Yahweh" by orUourgos, ousidU*
and the use of the Doric dialect for the Aramaic
portions of Daniel are interesting. E. Nkbtle.
Bibuoobapht: Tha following is only a aeleetton out of the
vast body of literature available. The critical Introduc-
tions and Commentaries on the Old Testament and oo
separate parts deal more or less fully with the subject
For the literature on Polyglots see Bibles, PoLTouyr.
for that on Aristeas see Arxstkab; and on printed edi-
tions of the Septxiagint of. H. B. Swete, Introduetion, pp.
171-104, London, 1902. On the Septuagint in genenl
consult besides the works mentioned in the text: J. H.
Hottinger, ExercUaiionea AntirMoriniana, Zurich, 1644;
idem, DiaBortaHonum . . . /oscicu/us, Heidelberg, 1660;
A. Galovius, Critictu aacer, Leipsic, 1646; L. Cappellui.
CriHea mora, Paris, 1650; J. Buxtorf, Anticritiea, tu
vindicicB veriiatia Hef>raiea, Basel, 1653; J. Usaber. Dt
Oraoa aeptuaointa iniarprttum varaiona ayntaoma^ Londoo.
1655; J. MorinuB, ExarcitaHonea acdeaiaaiiea ei bibiira,
Paris, 1660; H. Hody. Da bihliorwn textibua orwtnaiibw.
Oxford, 1705; J. E. Grabe, Epiatola ad J, AfiUtwn, Ox-
ford, 1705; idem. Da viHia aaptuaginia itUarpretum, ib.
1710; E. Leigh, CriHca aacra, 6th ed., London, 17D6;
A. Trommius, Concordantiat Grotcm veraumia, Amster-
dam. 1718; W. Whiston, Eaaav toward Raatorvio ^
Trua Taxi of Via Old . . . Teatamant, London. 1722.
and Suppfemenl (to the same), 1723; J. G. OarpioT.
CritLca socro. Leipsic. 1728; W. Wall, TKa Uaa of ft*
SaphuMoirU TranalaHon, in his Brief CriSiad Sota,
London. 1730; C. F. Houbigant, ProUgomena in aerip-
turam aacram, Paris, 1746; B. Kennioott, The State
of the Pnniad Habrew Taxt of the Old Taatatneni, Oxford,
1753; idem, a second Diaaertation on the same subject
1750; J. D. Michaelis, Profframtna . . . abar die 70 DoU-
miUacher, Gdttingen. 1767; H. Owen, Enquirv into Ae
PraaarU State of the Saptuoffint Veraion, London, 1769;
idem, CriHca sacra, 1774; idem, A Brief Account . . . of
the Saptuagint Veraion, 1787; J. C. Biel. Notfua theamma
j^ilolooicua. The Hague, 1770-80; J. F. Schleusner. Urwi
ininterpreteagraiei Valeria TaatamenH, Leipsic. 1784-88; C.
A. Wahl, Clavia libronim Valeria Taatamenti, Leipsic 1853;
G. Bickell, De indole ac rations veraionia Alexandrina . . .
Jobi, Marbuig. 1862; F. Delitssch. Studien . . . der am-
phUenaiaehen Polyglotte, Leipsic. 1886; A. Schols. Maaort-
thiacher Taxt und die LXX-Ueberaetaung dea . . . Jert-
miaa, Regensburg, 1875; idem. Die alexandriniaehe Ueber-
aetxung dea , , . Jeaaiaa, WOrsbuig, 1880; R Flecker.
Scripture OnomcUotogy . . . Critical Notea on the Septaa-
ginl, London, 1883; W. J. Deane. in The Expomter,
1884. pp. 130-157, 223-237; E. Nestle. Septuagvakutar
dien, vols. i-v. Ulm. 1886-1007. Maulbronn. 18O9-1903:
J. G. Garleton, The Biibla of our Lord and hia Apoa-
Ilea, London, 1888; E. Hatch. Assays in BibUeal Gruk,
London, 1880 (cf. criticism by Hort, in The Expoaitar,
Feb.. 1807); A. Schulte. De reatUuHone . . . verainma
OrctecB . . . Judicum^ Leipsic, 1880; G. C. Workmso.
Text of Jeremiah] . . . Gredk and Hthrtw, Edizibui«h.
1880; P. de Lajsarde, iSficAomsfrie, in MiWsalangii^
iv, 205. G6ttingen, 1801; F. C. Conybeare, on PMo'^
Text, in The Expoaitor, Dec., 1801. pp. 456-466; H. B
Swete, on GHUa'a Theory, in Expaaitory Timaa, June, 1891.
J. Taylor, Maaaoretic Taxt and . . . Varaiona of . . . Micak,
London, 1801; Tranaaetiona of Ae Congraaa of OrienkiHiti
121
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Veroloiui
in London, London, 1894; E. Hatch luid H. A. Redpath.
Concordanet to the Septuagint, London, 1802-1900; F. C.
Conybeare. Philonean Text, in JQR, Jan., 1893, pp. 246-
280. Oct, 1895. pp. 88-122; H. A. Redpath. in The Acad-
emy, Oct 22, 1893; G. Morin, Une revision du peauUer, in
Revue hinidieUne, 1893, part 5, pp. 193-197; H. H. Ho-
worth, in The Academy, 1893, July 22, Sept. 16, Oct. 7,
Dec. 16, 1894. Feb. 17. May 5. June 9 (cf. W. A. Wright,
ib. 1894. Nov. 3. and T. K. Cheyne, 1894, Nov. 10); V.
Nourisaon, La BildioOUque dee PtoUmSee, Alexandria,
1893; 8. Silberstein. Codex Alexandrinue und VtOieanua
dee driOen KOniotbuchee, in ZATW, 1893-94; G. A. Deiss-
mann, Bibeletudien, Marburs, 1895-96. Eng. tranal., Edin-
burgh, 1901; H. A. Kennedy, Sourcee of New Teetament
Greek, Edinburgh, 1895; £. Kloetermann, AndUcta sur
Septuaffinta, Lcipeic. 1^5; Max Lfihr, Vonxrbeiten tu
Dcniel,in ZATW, xv (1895), 75-103, 193-225; E. Nestle,
Zum Codex Alexandrinue, in ZATW, xv (1895), 261-262;
idem, Zur HexajUa dee Origenea, in ZWT, xxxviii, 231;
H. E. Ryle, Philo and Holy Scripture, London, 1895;
F. Johnson, QuotatUme of the New Teetament, London,
1896; A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Septuoffint, in The Expoeir-
tor, April. 1896, 213-257; E. Kloetermann. Die MailOn-
der Froifmenie, in ZATW, 1896, pp. 334-337; J. FQrst, in
Semitie Studiee in Memory of A. Kohul, Berlin, 1897;
E. Nestle, EinfUkruno in doe grieehieche Neue Teetament,
(jOttingen, 1897, Eng. tranal., London. 1901; J. H. Moul-
ton, A Qrammarof New TeetametU Qredc, voL i, Prolegom^
ena, pp. 1-41. Edinburgh. 1906; A. Merx, Der Werth der
Sephtoffinta fUr die TextkriHk dee A. T., in JPT, ix. 65;
A. Rahlfe, Septuaffintar-Studien, parts i-ii. Gdttingen,
1904-07.
On Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, besides the
references in Irensus, Origen, Euaebius, Jerome, and
EpiphaniuB. consult: C. A. Thieme, Pro puritate Sym-
maeki, Leipaie, 1755; R. Anger, De Onkelo Chaldaieo, ib.
1845; F. Field. Origenie Hexaplortan qua eupereunt, i, pp.
xiri sqq., Oxford, 1867; G. Mercati. L'Eth di Simmaco
interprete, Modena, 1892; L. Hausdorff. Zur Oeechiehte der
Targumim naeh talmudiechen QueUen, in Monateechrift fUr
GeedtidUe und Wieaeneehaft dee Judentume, xxxviii (1893),
5-7; L. Blau, Zur Einleitung in die heUige Schrift, Buda-
pest, 1894; M. Friedmann, Onkeloe und Akylae, Vienna,
1896; S. Kraus-Budapest, in Feetathrift zum achteigeten
Getnartetage [H. Steinachneidera, Leipsic, 1896; F. C. Bur-
kitt, Fragmenia of the Booka of Kinga .... Cambridge.
1897; DCB, i, 150-151, ii. 14-23 (valuable); DB, iv.
864-866; EB, iv, 6017-19.
IL Latin Vernons: The oiigui of the earliest
Latin versioiis is unknown. This fact is easily ex-
plained if the case was stated correctly by Augus-
tine: "Those who translated the Scriptures from
Hebrew into Greek can be enumerated; but the
Latin translators by no means. For in the early
days of the faith when any one received a Greek
manuscript into his hands and seemed to have ever
so little facility in language, he dared to translate
it" (De doctrina Christiana, ii, 11). Again (ii, 14)
he mentions " the abundance of interpreters."
Augustine is probably right in the supposition
that Latin versions did not exist in pre-Christian
times. At all events there are no traces of Jewish
undertakings in this direction. The history of the
Latin versions is divided into two unequal parts
by the work of Jerome and closes with an account
of later versions independent of Jerome, particu-
lariy those made by Ftotestants.
1. Thel«atln Bible before Jerome: The statement
of Augustine about the great variety of Latin
translations is corroborated by the docimients,
manuscripts, and quotations preserved, for the
New Testament of course much more than for the
Old. But even for the latter one may cite, e.g.
for Deut. xxxi, 17, at least eight variant readings;
and in the New Testament for Luke xxiv, 4, 5,
at least twenty-seven variant readings. In other
words, as Jerome says, " as many readings as
copies "; and these readings are not merely dif-
ferent renderings of an identical Greek
_ ' , * 4?, text, but correspond to various Greek
Latin Bible. ,. * r l« i. x j
The Itala. ^^^^g^, a fact which seems to de-
monstrate the more clearly the exist-
ence of dififerent translations. Nevertheless Je-
rome speaks frequently as if there was but one
ancient translation, which he opposes as " the com-
mon edition" and an "old translation" to his own
undertaking. Some variations at least arose in
the way sketched by Jerome — " by stupid . inter-
preters badly translated, by presimiptuous but
unskilled men perversely amended, by sleepy
copyists either added to or changed about." Never-
theless it is impossible to reduce all these variations
to consecutive stages of one original translation
and therefore scholars use the term "Old Latin
versions " (in the plural) and avoid especially the
name formerly used ; viz., " Itala." This designation
went back to a single passage of Augustine {De
dodrina Christiana, ii, 14, 15); after he had fixed
the principle " that the uncorrected texts should
give way to the corrected ones at least when they
are copies of the same translation," he goes on to
say: " Among translations themselves the Itala
is to be preferred to the others, for it keeps closer
to the words, without prejudice to clearness of
expression." There can be no doubt that he puts
here one translation, which he prefers, in opposition
to several other translations; therefore it was not
well done to comprehend all that is left of the Latin
Bibles from the time before Jerome under this name
Itala. Some have tried to change the text, but
Itala b the correct reading. Augustine must mean
a version used in or having come from Italy, prob-
ably the northern part of the peninsula. Isidore
of Seville (EtymologicB, vi, 4) in the seventh century
clearly imderstood by " Itala " the work of Jerome.
This view was restated in 1824 by C. A. Breyther,
was considered possible by E. Reuss, and well-
founded by F. C. Burkitt {The Old Latin and the
Itala, in TS, iv, 3), with the limitation that Augus-
tine had not yet in view the whole of Jerome's
labor, but only its beginning — the revision of the
Gospels. It is therefore advisable to avoid com-
pletely the name " Itala " and to use " Old Latin "
for the Bible before Jerome. The home of this
Bible is not to be sought in Rome, where Greek was
the language of the infant Church and its literature,
but most probably in Africa. It is true, many of
the linguistic peculiarities ascribed to Africa are
shared by the lingua rusUca in other parts of the
Latin world, and it has become customary to distin-
guish an African and a European branch of the
Latin Bible; nevertheless the origin of this whole
literature seems to have been in Africa. Trans-
lations of certain books which in early times
were of almost canonical standing — such as the
Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, and
the First Epistle of Clement — are closely con-
nected with these versions (cf. Hamack, LUteratur,
i, 883; O. Bardenhewer, GeschichU der aWcirchr
lichen lAtteratur, i, Freiburg, 1902).
Because the Old Latin versions have been re-
placed in the use of the Church by the version of
Bible T«raiona
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
122
Jerome, only a few manuscripte of the Old Latin
have survived and these as fragments and palimp-
sests only, but of high antiquity. It is a great pity
that they are not yet collected in such
■oxlx^a^^d * ^*^ ** ^ make their use easy, es-
Bdltlons. P^c^y ^OT the Old Testament, since
they are all important for the criticism
of the Beptuagint. This was recognised by the
Roman oonunission which prepared the Editio
Sixtina of the Septuagint. They collected with
great care the Biblical quotations from the Latin
ecclesiastical writers. Petrus Morinus, Antonius
AgeiliuB, and Lselius Malwerda were the members
of the commission to whom this part of the task
was entrusted. Their labors were used in the scholia
of the Greek edition of 1586 [1587]| but still more
freely in its Latin translation, published by
Flaminius Nobilius (Rome, 1588; reprinted with
the Greek text at Paris, 1624; without it, Venice,
1600, 1628; Antwerp, 1616). But the chief
work is Bibliorum Siurorum Lalina vertiones
antiqucB . . . opera et studio Petri Sabatier, 0. S. B.,
e amgregatiane S. Mauri (3 vols., Reims, 1739-49,
with new title, Paris, Didot, 1751). Before Saba-
tier, are to be mentioned J. M. Cams (Cardinal
Tommasi), Sacrorum Bibliorum iuxta editionem seu
LXX Interpretum seu B. Hieronifni vetert* tituli,
etc. (2 vols., Rome, 1688; 2d ed. in Thomasii Opera^
ed. Vezzosi, i, Rome, 1747); and EccUsiastes ex
versione Itala cum notis Bosauete (Paris, 1693).
For full list of manuscripts and editions, cf. the
Hauck-Hersog RE, iii, 28-^3. The manuscripts of
the New Testament are enumerated also in Scriv-
ener's Introduction, ii (London, 1894), 45-54 (re-
vised by H. J. White); in Gregory's Prolegomena
to Tischendorf's New Testament, iii, 952-971, and
Textkritik des Neuen Testaments (Leipeic, 1900),
698-613; and in the prefaces of Jerome's New
Testament edited by J. Wordaworth and H. J.
White (Novum TestamerUum Domini nostri Jesu
Christi Latins secundum editionem S. Hieron^/mi ad
codicum manuscriptorum fidem recensuit Johannes
Wordsuforih, In operis societatem adsumpto Hen-
rico Juliana White, part i, the four Gospels, Ox-
ford, 1889-98; part ii, section i, Acts, 1905). In
the critical apparatus of the New Testament they
are designated by the small letters of the Latin
alphabet.
The following additions may be made to what is con-
tained in the RE (ut sup.):
Old Testament: P. Sabatier, Bibliorum Sacrorum LatincB
vernonea arUiqucB, i (Reims. 1744), 004 (for a fragment of
Job: cf. S. Beiger. Hialoire de la Vulgate, Paris. 1893, 86);
G. M. Bianchini, VindicicB eanonicarum Kripiurarum (Rome,
1740; Psalms from the Codex Veroneneie); F. Mone, Latei-
nieehe und Oriechiache Mesaen (Frankfort. 1850). 40 (for frag-
ments of Paalms from a palimpsest in Carlsruhe); P. de
Lagarde, Probe einer neuen Auagabe der lateiniachen C/e6er-
•eUung dee AUen Teetamente (QAttingen, 1885; for Psalms);
H. Ehrensberger, Paalterium vetue (Tauberbischofsheim,
1887); Heptateuehi parHa poeteriorie vereio L0aHna anti-
quiaeima e eodice Luffdunenai (Lyons, 1890; cf. F. Vigou-
roux, in Revue dea queaHona hiatoriqueat Jan.-Apr., 1902);
P. de Lagarde, Septuaoiniaatudien^ ii (GOttingen. 1892;
for III Esdras); J. Belsheim, Libri ToHt, Judit, Eater . . .
Latina tranalcMo e eodice . . . Monachenai (Trondhjem,
1893); V. Schultie, Die Quedlinburger Itala-Miniaturen
. , . in Berlin (Munich, 1898; he refers them to the fourth
century); P. Gorssen, Ztpei netie Fragmente der Weingar-
tenet Prophetenhandachrift, nebat einer Unterauchung Hber
daa VerhAltnia der Weingartener und WOrtburger PropketeK-
handaehriften (Berlin, 1899); P. Thielmann. Berickt iiUr
daa geaammelte handachriftUdte Material gu einer kritiaekni
Auagabe der lateiniachen Utberaetaungen bibliaeker Bfick«'
dea AUen Teatamenta, in SitxungaberidUe der k&mc^idm
Bayeriachen Akademie der Wiaaenaehaften, 1899, ii, 2; G.
Hoberg. Die dUeate lateiniache Ueberaetaung dea Bwka
BarucK (Freiburg. 1902); A. M. Amelli, De libri Bar%A
vetuatiaaima Latina veraiane . . . epiatola (Montecasnoo,
1902); W. O. E. Oesterley, Old Latin Texta of tbe Miiuir
PropKeta, in JTS, ▼ (1904). 76. 242, 378. 570. vi 67. 217.
The Psalms from the Mosarabic Liturgy are in MPL, Izzxr.
New Testament: Goepels: The Fragmenta Cttrienaia (a)
are edited in OLBT, ii (London. 1888); for Coder Sare^
tianua ()), cf. G. Amelli, Un anOdUaaimo codiee bibUco iattno
purpurea (Montecassino, 1893); Acts: Codex Demidoviama
idem), probably of the thirteenth century, now lost, s
mixed text, was edited by C. F. Matthtei {Novum Teatamn-
tum, Riga. 1782); for the Codex Laudianua (e). see Buu
Text, II, 1, f 9; it was revised by White for Wordswortb-
White; on the Codex Perpinianua (p), thirteenth cen-
tury, a mixed text, collated by White, cf. 8. Beiger. l-'n
Ancien Texta latin dea Aetea dea Apdtrea, in Noticea et Ex-
traita dea manuacrita, xxxr (Paris, 1895); cf. further Libv
comieua aive lectionariua miaaa quo Toletana eedeaia ante a^
noa MCC utOtatur, ed. G. Morin {Aneodota Marodaolana, i.
Blaredsous, 1893). Pauline Epistles: for the manoschptj
d, e, f, g, cf. H. Rdnsch. in ZWT, 1882, p. 83. Apocalypm:
cf. H. linke, Studien sur Itala (Breslau, 1889). The Codex
Corbeienaia (ff,), with fragments of the GathoUc Epistles.
Acts, and the Apocalypse from the Fleury palimpsest (Paris
6400 G), have been lately edited by E. 8. Buchanan (Ox-
ford, 1907. in OLBT, v).
On the relation of the different texts, ef. for the New
Testament Hort's Introduction (London, 1881) and Words-
worth-White; for the Old Testament Kennedy in DB, iii
49 sqq. On the language, cf. H. Rdnsch, Itala und Vul-
gata (Marbuig, 1869), on which work ef. J. N. Ott, in Nau
JahrbOcher fUr Philologie, cix, 1874, pp. 778. 833.
Of the highest importance for the restoration
of the Old Latin Bible are the quotations of the
older Latin writers. Their ooimtriee are known
and thus the home of the Biblical texts is located.
Yet many questions are still unsettled;
8«Jft^ota- e.g., did Tertullian know and use a
in ^tin ^^^° translation or are his quotations
Writers, taken by him from the Greek and trans-
lated into Latin7 Heinrich Hoppe
{Syntax und StU des Tertullian, Ldpsic, 1903) de-
nies that Tertullian knew a Latin version of the
Old Testament. T. Zahn makes the same assertion
for the New Testament.
Quotations from almost all books are found in the Libtr
de divinia acripturia aive apeculum (designated as m). aa-
cribed to Augustine, published by A. Mai in Spieilegium
Romanum, ix, 2 (Rome, 1843), 1-88, and in Nova pofrvM
bibliotheoa, i, 2 (1852), 1-117; better by F. Weihrich, is
CSEL, xii (cf. Weihrich*s disserUtion, Die Bibd-ExetrpU
de divina acriptura, Vienna, 1893). Several fragments an
also in C. Vercellone, Diaaertationi acoademiehe (Rome,
1864). On the quotations in general, cf. H. Rdnsch. io
ZHT, X, 1867, 60&-634. 1869, 433^79, 1870, 91-150.
1871. 631. 1875. 86; L. J. Bebb, in Studia BibUa, ii (Loi-
don, 1890), 195 sqq.; Scrivener's Introduction (London.
1894), 167-174; Gregory's Prolegomena, iii (Leipeic, 1894),
1131-1246; and Kennedy, in DB, 52-53.
The writers that are of primary importance are: Aldmas
Avitus, archbishop of Vienne c. 450-^17; Ambrose, bishop
of Milan 374-397; Ambromaster, the name given to a moft
important commentator on the thirteen Epistles of St. Pftul
(cf. T. Zahn. in NKZ, xvi, pp. 419 sqq., and A. Souter.
7*iS, vii, 4, Cambridge, 1905); Amobius, preebyter in Africs.
fourth century; Exhartationea de p<Bnitentia, ascribed to
Cyprian; Liber de aieatoribua (according to Hamack as esrly
as Cyprian); lAber de paadui eomputua (written in Africa &
243); Li6er de promiaaionibua (ascribed to Prosper of Aqui-
taine); Liber eollationialegumMoaaicttrumetRomanarvm leu
P. KrOger and T. Mommsen in CoUectio librorum jurii «»-
tefuatiniani, iii, BerUn, 1891); Augustine, bishop of Hippo
128
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
354^430 (from this eutkor alone Legarde ooUeoted 13.276
quotetiont of the Old Testament and 29,640 of the New
Testament); Gapreolus, bishop of Carthage c. 431; Cassian,
monk at MaraeiUee (d. about 436); Commodian (perhaps
middle of third oentury); (}srprian, bishop of Carthage (d.
258: cf. Sanday, in OLBT, ii; Lagarde. Svmmicta, i, 74; Mit-
IfcsiliMVm. ii« 54; P. Corssen, Dtr cytfianuehe Text der Ada
ApoMontm, Berlin. 1802); Teaching of the Twelve Apostles;
Philastrius, bishop of Brescia (o.'380; ed. Marx, in CSBL,
xxrriii); Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (e. 468-533); Gildas
of Britain; Eueherius; Hilarius, bishop of Poitiers (d. 380;
cf . Singwle, in Kleint philoU>oi9di0 Ahhandlunffent Innsbruck,
1887); Irenaus, bishop of Lyons (e. 180, Novum Teatamen-
tum Irtnai; to be published in OLBT by Prof. Sanday);
Jorinian (in the time of Jerome); Lactantius (in Africa c.
260-340); Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari (d. 371; cf. Dombart.
in BerHner PhUoloffiMehe Wodimaeknft, 1866, no. 6); Julius
Firmicos Materaus (c. 346); Maximin (cf. TLZ, 1900, 17):
Noyatian (at Rome c. 252; cf. Hamaek, in TU, xiii. 4);
Origen (Latin translation; c 261); Optatus, bishop of Milere
in Numidia, c. 368; Primasius, bishop of Adrumetum, sixth
century (cf. Haussleiter, inZahn, For9ehufHf€n but OeBchiehU
def naUetlamentUehm Xafums,iv, Berlin, 1900. 1-224); Pe-
Isgiusof Ireland; Prisdllian, bishop of Avila in Spain, fourth
century (cf. C8EL» xriii); Salvianus of Marseilles, o. 460 (cf.
Ullrich, De Sabriani weriptunB aaera veraionibut, Neustadt,
1893): Tertullian of Carthage, e. 160-240 (cf. Rdnsch, Dos
Snu TeHomsnl TertulUana, Leipsie, 1871, and J. N. Ott. in
Nau JakrbiUAer far PhiMogia, 1874, p. 866); Tyconius, in
Africa, c 340 (cf. F. C. Burkitt,in TS, iii, 1. 1894); Verecun-
dns (cf. Lagarde, SeptuoifinUutudien, i); Victorinus. bishop
of Fettau in Pannonia, c. 3(X) (cf. Haussleiter, in ZWT, vii,
23^257); Vigilius, bishop of Thapsus, o. 484.
Some parts of the Old Latin Bible are still in
ecclesiastical use and even in the works of Luther
Denifle has shown readings from this source.
The same is the case with some of the translations
in the vernacular dialects of medieval Europe,
such as the Angjio-Saxon (cf. for instance R.
Handke, Ueber daa VerhOltnia der tDcsUdchsiachen
Evangelienuberaetgung gum lateinischen Original,
Halle, 1896; A. S. Cook, Biblical QuotaHona in
Old Englith Praae Writers, New York. 1898; Max
FOrster, in Engliache Studien, Leipsie, 1900, p. 480).
2. The Bible of Jerome (the Vallate): Toward
the end of the fourth oentury the inconve-
nience from which the Western Church suffered
because there was no single authorized Latin ver-
non of the Bible must have been seriously felt,
and Damasus, bishop of Rome (d. 384), oommis-
flioaed Jerome (q.v.) to prepare an authoritative
revision, probably in the year 382.
LJwomj^sThe letter with which Jerome dedi-
H^Terta!^*®^*^® first part (the Gospels) to
ment. the pope g;ive6 the only authentic
reooid of the work and its scope
(cf. NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 487-488). Jerome accepts
the task set him by Damasus, notes its extreme
difficulty and the resulting peril to himself, antici-
pates the harshest criticism of himself and of the
resiUts of his labor, and states that his emenda-
tions have been as conservative as possible. Not-
withstanding Jerome's modesty concerning his
work, it has had an imparalleled history, inas-
much as it became the Bible of the whole
Occident.
To estimate Jerome's work property, it would
be necessary (1) to know what were the Latin
texts which he had to revise; (2) what were the
Greek texts which he chose as standard; (3) to
have his work in its original form. The last is now
realized, at least for the first part of the New Tes-
tament, since the monumental edition of Words-
worth-White. The Greek manuscript or manu-
scripts used by Jerome must have been of the type
of the Codices Vaticanus and StnaiHcus; there
are, however, some readings not attested by any
Greek manuscript (cf ., for instance, John x, 16, tmum
ovile; xvi, 13, docebit; and on this question cf. the
letter of Wordsworth and White in The Academy,
Jan. 27, 1894; their Epilogue, 657-672; E. Mange-
not, in RSE, Jan., 1900). About Jerome's Latin
texts there is still less information. Wordsworth
and White printed under Jerome's text that of the
Codex Brixianits (/) as most nearly related to it;
but according to Burkitt and Kaufmann it is
rather a text of Jerome himself adapted to the
Gothic version. Jerome's statement in his prefa-
tory letter that he changed as little as possible is
probably true; for the language indicates that the
Gospels came from different translators. Identical
expressions in Greek are quite differently rendered
into Latin (cf. the history of the Passion in the
different Gospels, and notice for instance lagenam
aqucB baiulane = amphoram aqucB portans, or the
rendering of " high priest " in Matthew by prin-
cepe sacerdotum, in Mark by aummus eacerdos, in
John by pontifex). It is, therefore, quite wrong to
treat the Vulgate of the Gospels as a harmonious
work, and it is dear that the value of it for tex-
tual criticism is greatly enhanced, since it pre-
serves the text of the time when the (jospels were
not yet united into one collection. Whether also
in the second part of the New Testament such
differences can be detected has not yet been in-
vestigated. It is not even quite certain how far
Jerome revised the second part of the New Testa-
ment. Only the Gospels have his prefaces, and
Augustine writes to him only of the Gospel: " We
give no small thanks to God for your work in
which you have interpreted the Gospel from the
Greek." Jerome, however, answers: "If, as you
say, you suspect me of emending the New Testa-
ment "; and in 398 he wrote to Lucinius Beticus,
to whom he sent the first copy ready (EpieU, Ixxi,
5, NPNF, 2d series, vi, 154): "The New Testa-
ment I have restored to the authoritative form of
the Greek." In his De vir, ill, he says: "The
New Testament I have restored to the true Greek
form, the Old I have rendered from the Hebrew."
Jerome's work on the Old Testament was more
thorough. First he revised the Psalter [from the
Septuagint] in 383 in Rome. This revision was in-
troduced by Damasus into the liturgy and is hence
called the PadUerium Ramanum in distinction from
the PadUerium vetua or the unrevised Old Latin.
It was in use in Italy till Pius V (1566-72) , and it is
still used in St. Peter's in Rome and in Milan,
partly in the Roman Missal and in one place in the
Breviary, in the hortatory Psalm xcv (xciv). About
four years later in Palestine Jerome
revis^ the Psalms a second time,
making use of the critical marks of
Origen, the obelus and asterisk. This
revision is known as the Gallican Psalter, as it was
first used chiefly in Gaul (it seems through Gregory
of Tours), but finally it became the current version
in the Latin Church (through Pius V), of course
8. The
Old Testa-
ment.
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
124
without the critical marks. At last Jerome trans-
lated the Psalms from the Hebrew at the sugges-
tion of Sophronius about 392 (not 405, as Lagarde
has it); but this remained a private labor and is not
foimd in many manuscripts. The best edition of
this version is Lagarde's Psalterium juxta HebrcBoa
Hieronymi (Leipsic, 1874).
About the same time with his second revision of
the Psalter Jerome revised the translation of Job
(preserved in a few manuscripts, especially at Ox-
ford and St. Gall; edited by Lagarde, MtUheilungeny
ii, 189 sqq.; cf. OBspari, in AcUs du huUihne con-
grbs dea OTienialistes, i, Leyden, 1893, 37-51) and
most of the books of the Old Testament; but he lost
the work "by the deceit of somebody." There-
fore he undertook the greater labor of translating
the Old Testament afresh direct from the Hebrew.
He began in 390 with Samuel and Kings and pub-
lished them with his Prologus galeatua (q.v.); then
followed Job, the Prophets, and Psalms. About the
chronological order of the rest absolute certainty
is not reached.^ He left Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus,
Maccabees, and Baruch without revision. Accord-
ing to his own statement he translated the three
Solomonic writings in three days, Tobit in one day,
Judith in one night; for the latter two his Jewish
teacher translated to him the Aramaic into He-
brew and he dictated the Latin to a copyist (cf .
G. GrUtssmacher, HieronymtiSf i, Leipsic, 1901,
73-77. On Jerome's method, cf. G. Hoberg, De
S. Hieronymi ratione interpretandif Bonn, 1886; M.
Rahmer, Die hebr&iachen TradUionen in den Wer-
ken des Hieronymus, Breslau. 1861).
At first Jerome's work was not well received, es-
pecially because he had dared to part with the Sep-
tuagint, which even Augustine believed to be
equally inspired with the original Hebrew. An
African bishop on finding hedera
«• ™"*^ ('* ivy ") in the Book of Jonah in
vention^'f ^^® ^®^ version instead of the accus-
Printlnff. tomed cucurbita (" gourd ") raised a
tumult in his Church. Jerome's former
friend Rufinus wrote expressly against the new
work. " So great is the force of established usage,"
says Jerome, " that even acknowledged corrup-
tions [of text] please the greater part, for they
prefer to have their copies pretty rather than
correct." On the other hand he knows " that
they attack it in public and read it in secret."
At the time of his death (420) the attacks and criti-
cism of his opponents had ceased.
We are not informed where and when complete
Bibles of Jerome's version were first produced and
introduced into the use of the Church. In Spain it
seems to have been at a pretty early time. Cassiod-
orus (d. about 570) was one of the first, if not
the very first, who took care to produce correct
copies. From his copies are derived the introduc-
tory pieces in the Codex Amiatinus (cf. H. J. Whjte,
in Studia Biblical ii, Oxford, 1890, 273; P. Corssen,
Die Bibdn dee Casaiodorius, JPT, 1883, 1891).
> White gives the following table: 394 Esdras; 306 Chron-
icles; 398 Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon; 401?
Genesis, followed by Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuter-
onomy; 405 Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Esther, Tobit, Judith,
and the ai)ocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther.
Pope Gregoiy the Great wrote at the end of the
sixth century: " I indeed circulate the new trans-
lation; but when the course of argument demands
it, 1 use now the new and now the old by way of
proof; and this because the Apostolic See, over
which under God I preside, uses both and by the
study of both my toil is lightened." By that time
the name Fu/^^oto ("common," "ordinary "), which
before had meant the Septuagint and its Latin trans-
lation, had gone over to the work of Jerome. Roger
Bacon says of it "that [version] which is diffused
among the Latins is that which the Church receives
in these days." But even in the printed editions
of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries this name
is not yet as invariable as we are inclined to
suppose; and despite the warning of Walafrid
Strabo, " let none desire to amend one from the
other," mixing in all degrees of the old and the new
texts took place and survives up to the present
not only in manuscripts, but even in the printed
text, as when in II Kings i, 18, the first part is from
the Old Latin, and the second from Jerome.
Charlemagne found several recensions in use in his
dominions. In a capitulary of 789 he ordered that
there should be " in each monastery and parish good
copies of the catholic books, and the boys must not be
permitted to deface them either in reading them
or by writing on them; and if there be necessity
for writing [copying] a Gospel, Psalter, or Missal,
men of maturity are to do it, using all care." In 797
he committed to Alcuin (q.v.) the " emendation of
the Old and the New Testament "; and the copy of
the Biblical books, " bound together in the sanctity
of one most glorious body," which Alcuin offered
to him on Christmas 801, must have been the first
copy of this revision, of which the Codex VdHed-
lanua at Rome is the best representative in exist-
ence. As Alcuin was himself of Northumbria, he
probably had his text brought from there, and
fortunately just there the purest text seems to have
survived (cf. Berger's Hiatoire and Wordsworth-
White). At the same time Bishop Theodulf of Origans
(787-821) worked at a revision, but on very diflferent
lines. Being a Visigoth, he took Spanish manu-
scripts as the basis, but incorporated in the mai^gins
various readings; fortimately his work found no
large circulation. It is still represented by some
fine manuscripts (cf. Berger, 145-184, and Delisle,
in Bibliothcque de VScole dea Chartea, vol. xl, Paris,
1879). About the labors of Lanfranc of Canter-
bury (q.v.) precise information is not obtain-
able; but the normal copy produced with the help
of Jewish scholars by Stephen Harding, third abbot
of Ctteaux, for the members of his order is still pre-
served at Dijon (cf. J. P. Martin, in RSE, 1887).
Later on, critical observations on the true readings
of certain passages were collected in the so-called
Correctoria Biblica, The principal Carrederia are
(1) the Correctorium Pariaienaef prepared about
1236, also called Senonenae, sneered at by Roger Ba-
con, who in 1267 called the Parisian text, in a letter
to Pope Clement IV, "horribly corrupt"; "the
correctors," he says, are " corruptors, for any
reader whatsoever in the lower oniers oorrectB as
he pleases, in like manner also the preachers, and
similarly the students change as they like what they
125
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
do not understand"; (2) the Corredorium Sor-
bonicum, a aort of epitome of the larger Correc-
ioria; (3) the Correctarium of the Dominicans,
prepared under the auspices of Hugo of St. Cher,
which sometimes went back of the Latin text to
Greek and Hebrew manuscripts; (4) the Correc-
iorium VcUtcanum, the work of the Franciscans,
perhaps especially of Willermus de Mara. (Cf! on
the Ccrredofria, besides S. Berger, in RTP, xvi, 41,
especially Denifle, in Arckiv fUr Litteratur- und
Kirchenge9chiehte, iv, Berlin, 1883, 263, 471.) By
the influence of the University of Paris the text
used there was the one which was most current in
the Middle Ages and consequently that which
found its way into the first printed editions, and
gained thereby still more influence.
To eDumerate even the more important of the manu-
scripts of the Vulgate is here impossible. There are lists
in J. Le Long, Biblioiheea mura (i, Paris, 1723, 234 sqq.),
and in C. Veroellone, V<xrim leetianea vtdgaUB LatincB Bib-
Iwrum ediHonia (i, Rome, 1860, bocdi sqq., ii, 1864, xvii
Kiq.). Scrivener's IfUroducUon (ii, London, 1804, 67-90)
hiM a select list of 181 manuscripts, chiefly of the New
Testament, by H. J. White; Berger's Hiatoire (Paris, 1893,
S74-422) one of 253; Gregory's Prdeoomena (iii, Leipsic,
IS94. 983-1106) notes some 2.270, and his TezikriHk (2
vols., Leipsic 1900-02) 2,3M, reserving some for an ap-
pendix. H. J. White {DB, iv, 88G-889) classifies them
under the following headings: (I) Early Italian texts;
(2) Early Spanish texto; (3) Italian texts transcribed in
Britain; (4) Continental manuscripts written by Irish or
Saxon scribes and showing a mixture of the two types of
text; (5) Type of text current in Languedoc; (6) Other
French texts; (7) Swiss manuscripts, especially of St.
(jail; (8) Aleuinian xeeenaion; (9) Theodulfian recension;
(10) Medieval texts.
Naturally Bibles and parts of the Bible were
among the earliest.of printed books, and as a matter
of course the text presented was the Vulgate.
The Mazarin Bible, so called, because a copy in
the library of Cardinal Mazarin first attracted the
attention of bibliographers — i.e., the Bible in forty-
two lines, not that in thirtynsix — ^is now proved
to be the first Bible printed by Gutenberg. His
Psalter of 1457 is the first book with
pSSd'^ a printed date, while the Psalter of
Bditions. ^^^^ ^ ^^^ °' *^® moBt costly of books.
A Bible printed at Biainz 1462 is the
first dated Bible. The first Bible printed at Rome
is of 1471, by Sweinheim and Pannartz, printed in
250 copies. Of ninety-two editions of the fifteenth
century which can be localized, thirty-six belong to
Germany (to Nuremberg 13, Strasburg 8, Cologne 7,
Mainz 3, Speyer 2, Bamberg 1, and Ulm 1 , the latter
of 1480 being the first Bible with summaries);
twenty-nine belong to Italy, twenty-four of them
to Venice. In England in the whole period none
is known. The first quarto Bible is believed to
have been printed at Piacenza 1475, and the first
octavo at Basel 1491 (because of its small size
called the first " poor man's Bible ") • An undated
Bible, probably of 1478, has for the first time
the verses:
Fontibufl ex cneeie hebraeorum quoque libris
Emendata aatia et deoorata simul
Bibha eum pneaens, superoe eco testor et aetra.
Gopinger mentions 124 editions of the lAtin Bible
prior to 1500, of the sixteenth century he knows
i38 editions, of the seventeenth 262, of the eight-
eenth 192, of the nineteenth (till 1892) 133, in all
1 , 149. These figures show that, under the in fluence
of the religious and intellectual awakening, the six-
teenth century was the time of the Latin Bible.
The bad state of the text soon became evident
and attempts were made to improve it from the
original texts, as by the editors of the 0>mpluten-
sian Polyglot (see Bibles, Polyglot, I), and,
among Protestants, first by Andreas Osiander (Nu-
remberg, 1522) and at Wittenberg, in an edition of
the Pentateuch, Joshua-Kings, and the New Testa-
ment, ascribed to Luther and Melanchthon (1529),
then by Lukas Osiander at Tubingen (9 vols., 157S(-
1586), with an "exposition." Of greater impor-
tance are the attempts to correct the text from the
Latin manuscripts, to which Lorenzo della Valle had
called attention in the fifteenth century. Erasmus
published his In LcUinam Novi Teatamenti inierpre-
talionem ex coUaiione ffrcBcorum exemplariunk annotor-
tionea appnme utiles at Paris in 1505. The French
printer Robert Stephens (q.v.) in particular cor-
rected the text from manuscripts and put variant
readings on the margins (cf . Wordsworth, in OLBT,
i, 1883, 47-54). For his edition of 1528 he used
three good manuscripts, for the larger of 1540 not
less than seventeen; his impression of 1555 is the
first complete Bible with the modem verse division,
and his text became the basis of the official Roman
text through the mediation of the edition under-
taken by the theological faculty of Louvain under
the guidance of Johannes Hentenius after compari-
son of some thirty manuscripts (Louvain, 1547).
All these editions were private imdertakings.
In its fourth session (Apr. 8, 1546), the Council of
Trent decreed that " of all Latin editions the old
and vulgate (imlgata) edition be held as authorita-
tive in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and
expositions; and that no one is to
ai Sn* ^^^ ^^ presume under any pretext
Olementliie ^ reject it." The council decreed at
Bdltion. ^^^ same time that " this same old
and vulgate edition be printed in
as correct form as possible." It does not appear
that steps were taken to entrust a special person or
body with the latter task. The edition of Hentenius
was used for a long time as the best available.
At last several popes took the matter in hand, and
after various attempts of Pius IV and Pius Y, at
last Sixtus V carried the work to completion
through a committee, with Cardinal Antonio Caraffa
at its head, and published the Biblia Sacra VtU-
gata EdUionU tribus tomis distincta, Roma : ex
Typographia Apostolica Vaticana M,D.XC (on a
second title-page: Biblia Sacra Vulgatce EdiHonia
ad concilii Tridentini prcBscriptum emendata et a
Sixto V. P, M. recognita et approbata). In the
constitution JEtemue Hie (Mar. 1, 1589; not included
in the BvUarium Romanum ; printed in Thomas
James, Bellum papale, London, 1600, and L. van
Ess, GeschichU der Vtdgaia, Tubingen, 1821, 269)
Sixtus had declared the edition '* true, lawful, au-
thentic, and not to be questioned in disputations,
either public or private." No future edition was
to be published without the express permission of
the Holy See, and for the next ten years it was
forbidden to reprint it in any place except the Vati-
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
126
can; all future editions were to be carefully collated
with it, " that no smallest part be changed, added
to, or taken away/' and they were to be accom-
panied with the official attestation of the inquisitor
of the province or of the bishop of the diocese, no
variant readings, scholia, or glosses being allowed
on the margins. In August of 1590 Sixtus V died,
and was followed by several short-lived popes; in
1592 Clement VIII called in all copies of the
edition which were within reach — copies are, there-
fore, of extreme rarity — ^and replaced it imder the
direction of Cardinal Bellarmine with a new Btblia
Sacra VtJgatcB Editianis. Ramce: Ex Typographia
Apostolica VaHcana M.D^CII (on the second title-
page: Btblia Sacra Vtdgata Editionia Sixti QuinH
Pont. Max. Jumu recognita atque edita). The ac-
companjring bull decreed: " From the form of this
copy let not even the least particle be changed,
added to, or taken away, unless it happens that
some fault is unmistakably due to typographical
carelessness — let this be inviolably observed."
The reasons for this whole proceeding are not
quite clear. That the printing of the first edition
was not correct enough is not true; as a matter
of fact the Sixtine edition is typographically more
correct than the Clementine, but the text of the
Clementine is an improvement on that of the
Sixtine. Sixtus was personally interested in the
work and changed the text frequently to accord
with that of Stephens, while the editors of the
Clementine edition followed more often that of Hen-
tenius. There are some 3,000 differences between the
two editions. Nevertheless the names of both popes
were placed on the title-pages of the later reprints,
first, it seems, at Lyons, 1604, then at Mainz, 1609,
the official title being now: SixH V. et Clementis
VIII. Pontt. Maxx. jussu recognita atque edita. A
quarto edition was issued in 1593 with "marginal
references, explanations of Hebrew names, and
an index of subjects," and a small quarto edition
in 1598 with a correctorium. All four editions
(1590, 1592, 1593, 1598) are compared by Leander
van Ess in his edition of the Vulgate (3 parts,
TQbingen, 1822-24). Of editions by other editors,
those of C. Vercellono (Rome, 1861) and particu-
larly M. Hetzenauer (Innsbruck, 1906) may be men-
tioned; the latter has useful appendices.
Since the edition of 1592 scarcely any at-
tempt has been made in the Roman Church to
apply to its Bible the most necessary emendation.
D. Vallarsi printed an emended text
%^k (Verona, 1734), under the title Divina
Problems, bibliotheca, in his edition of the works
of Jerome. [A Biblical commission was
appointed late in the pontificate of Leo XIII, and
Pius X has lately conunissioned members of the
Benedictine Order to revise the Vulgate. It is
intended to restore, so far as possible, the exact
text of Jerome.] Among Protestants, Richard
Bentley contemplated a new edition of the Latin
New Testament together with the Greek (see
Bible Text, U, 2, § 3); about the same time J. A.
Bengel (q.v.) did much for it; in the nineteenth
century S. Berger in France should have the
greatest credit for clearing up the history of the
Latin Bible; at last Wordsworth-White have
issued what must be called the first critical
edition of the Latin New Testament; and in
Bavaria P. Thielmann is engaged in publishing
those books of the Old Testament which were
not translated by Jerome himself.
It is a matter of siurprise that a task so eaay and
interesting as the criticism of the Latin Bible has
recehred so little attention. Berger knew more than
8,000 manuscripts of the Latin Bible; few of them
have been properly investigated. What kind of
surprises they may offer is shown by the reoent
discovery of two different translations of the Third
Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in two manu-
scripts of the tenth and thirteenth centuries at
Milan and Laon. The order of the Biblical books
in the manuscripts; the prefaces and sununaries
(cf . on this point Les Prefaces jointes aux litres de
la Bible dans les maniucrits de la Vulgate; mtmom
posthume de M. Samuel Berger, in the Mimovren de
VAcadimie des Inscriptions et BeUes-Lettres, ser. i,
vol. xi, part 2, 1902); the capitulation and di-
visions; the illumination and nuniatures (many of
the manuscripts belong to the most beautiful pro-
ductions of Christian art); ecclesiastical or private
notes; connection with the vernacular versions,
influence upon the dialects of Europe; lists of the
passages in literature which mention manuscripts
of the Latin Bible; and many other points may
be named as those which await investigation.
8. Later Latin Translations: That the Latin Vul-
gate was not sufficient was asserted in the Middle
Ages by scholars like Nicolaus de Lsrra and Ray-
mond Martini. The English Benedictine Adam
Easton (d. 1397) is said to have been one of the
first to think of a new translation. It was Eras-
mus, however, who vindicated the right to phce
new Latin translations by the side of the Vulgate
through his translation of the New Testament
(Basel, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, and more
than 200 times since the death of Erasmus; see
BiBLB Text, II, 2, f 1; Erasmus, Debideriub).
He has had many followers who have translated
into Latin either the Old or the New Testament or
both, as well as separate books of the Bible, even
as late as the nineteenth century. But the time
has passed when Latin versions were neceasaiy or
helpful; since the Reformation translations into
the vernacular languages have taken their place.
The more important new trandatione of the whole Bible
are those of the Dominican Sanctes Pasninus (Lyons, 1528;
revised and annotated by Biiohael Servetus, Lyons, 1542).
of Arias Montanua in the Antwerp Polyglot (1572), and
one prepared under the direction of Cardinal Oajetan (1530
sqq.; see Cajbtan, Thomas).
The Old Testament was newly translated by the He-
braist Sebastian Mttnster (Basel, 1534-35 and often): by
Leo Jud and (after Jud's death) T. Bibliander, C. PteUicu,
P. Cholinus, and R. Gualthenis (Zurich, 1543); by Sebas-
tian CSastellio (complete ed., Basel, 1551, with a dedication
to Eong Edward VI of Ehigland); by Immanuel Tremei-
lius, a Jew of Ferrara, and his son-in-law, Frandscus Junius
(du Jon; 5 parts, Frankfort. 1575-70; beet ed., with full
index, by P. Tossanus, Hanau, 1624. Tremellius's work
was well received); by J. Piscator (24 parts, Herbom, 1601-
1616; really a revision of Tremellius); by Thomas MalTenda,
a Spanish Dominican (left incomplete at Malvenda's death
in 1628 and first published with his CommetUoarii, 5 ▼ok.
Lyons, 1650); by J. Cocceius (published with his commeo-
taries. Opera, vols, i-vi, Amsterdam, 1701; incompWe;
contains also most of the New Testament); by Sebastian
137
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
Schmid, a Strasbuxv Lutheran, who worked forty years on
the translation (Strasbuxv. 1696; photographic facsimile,
with manuscript notes by Swedenborg, ed. R. L. Tafel,
Stockholm, 1872); by Jean Le Clero (Clericus; Amst^r-
dam. 1603-1731); by C. F. Houbigant (4 vols.. Paris,
1753); by J. A. Dathe (Halle, 1773-89); and by H. A.
Scbott and J. F. Winaer (Leipsio, 1816).
Forty years after the first edition of the New Testament
of Erasmus, Beza's Latin New Testament appeared (Ge-
oeva. 1556, 1665, 1582, 1588, 1598, and more than 100 sub-
Mquent editmns; by the BFBS, 1896). A translation by
H. A. Schott was published at Leipsic in 1805. The latest
works of the kind are by F. A. A. Nftbe (Leipsic, 1831) and
A (joschen (Leipsic, 1832).
For other translations, including thooe of separate books
of the Bible, cf. the Hauck-Hersog RE, iii, 49-58. On
translations of the Psalms into Latin verse, cf. Hugues
Vsgsnay. Lea TradueHon* du PtauHer en vera latin au
teitihna aikde, in Compta rendu du quatriime Congria inter-
natianal dea Catholiquea (Freiburg. 1898), part vi, Seiencea
fkUolooiquaa. E. NeSTLE.
Bibuoobapbt: On the Latin Bible before Jerome consult;
H. R&nseh, Ikda und Vulgala, Marbuxg, 1875; idem,
in ZWT, 1875. pp. 76, 81. 425. 1876, pp. 397. 1881,
p. 198; Desjaoques, in £tudea, relioieuaea, j^Hoaophiqwa,
kiatoriquea si litUrairea de la eompagnie de Jiaua, 1878,
pp. 721-724; L. Ziegler, Die lateiniacKen U^beraetaungen
9or Hieronymua und die Itala dea AugiMtinua, Munich,
1879; G. Koffmane, Geaehichte dea Kirchenlateirta bia auf
Auffuatinua-Hieronymua, Breslau, 1879-81; P. Corssen,
Dia vermeiniUdie " Itala " und die Bibelliberaeizuno dea
Hieronymua, in JPT, 1881, pp. 507-519; F. Zimmer, in
TSK, 1889; F. C. Burkitt, The Old Latin and the Itala, in
TiS. iv. 3. Cambridge, 1896; E. Ehrlich, Beitriko* tur
Latinitdi der Itala, Rochlits, 1895; idem. Qua »U Itala
9u« dieitur verborum tenaeitaa, Leipsic, 1889; P. Mon-
eeaux. Lea Africaina. Stude aur la litt^ature Latine
d'Afriqua and La Bible Latine en Afrigue, in RE J, 1901;
DB, iii. 47-64; EB, iv, 5022-24.
On the Vulgate consult: B. Berger, Hiatoire de la Vvl-
gaia, Paris, 1893 (this work was crowzied by the Academy,
pp. xx-xxiv contain a full list of earlier literature); G.
Riegler. KriHaehe Geaehichte der Vulgata, Sulzbach. 1820;
L. Van Ess, PraipnaHadte Geaehichte der VtUgcUa, Tubing-
en. 1824; A. Schmitter, Kurze Geaehichte der hierony-
wuamaehen Bibeliiberaeigung, Freysing, 1842; F. Kaulen.
GeaikiehU der Vulgala, Mains, 1868; O. Rothmanner, in
HiatoriachrpoHHadu BlOUer, cxiv. 31-38. 101-108; DB,
iy. 873-890.
On tiie grammar and the language consult: W. Nowack,
Die Bedeuiung dea Hieronymua fOr die altteatamenUiehe
TextkriHk, GOttingen, 1875; J. A. Hagen, Sprachliche
Erarterungen eur Vulgata, Freiburg, 1863; J. B. Heiss,
Zur GrammatUc der Vulgata, Munich, 1864; V. Loch.
Malerialien su einer lateiniadien GrammatUc der VulgeUa,
Bsmbecg. 1870; P. Hake, Sprachliche Bemerkungen tu
dm Paalmentexte der Vulgata, Amsberg. 1872; H. G^lser,
huda . . . de la laHniU de SL JirBme, Paris, 1884; P.
Thiehnann, in Philologua, xlii, 319, 370; G. A. Saalfeld.
De biMiorum aaerorum Vulgata editionia gracitate, Qued-
linburg, 1891; W. M. C. Wilroy, 7*^ Participle in the
Vvlgata N. T„ Baltimore, 1892; L. B. Andergassen, Ua>er
dan Gtbraueh dea InfiniUva in der Vulgata, 1891; P. Thiel-
mson, BeitrOga tur Textkritik der Vulgata, Speier. 1883;
S. Berger. in Revue de thiclogie et de philoaophie, xvi (1883),
41 iqq.; idem, in Mhnoirea de la aociStS dea antiquairea
de France, Iii. 144; P. Martin, in Le Mua^n, vii (1888).
88-107, 169-196. viii (1889). 444; H. P. Smith, in Preabyte-
rian and Refonned Review, April, 1891; £ .von DobschCkts,
Studien tur Textkritik der Vulgala, Leipsic, 1894 (cf. on
it H. J. White, in Critical Review, 1896, pp. 243-246);
J. Eeker, Porta Siona, Lexikon turn lateiniachen Paalter,
▼iii. 234, 1,936 columns. Trier. 1904; F. Kaulen. Sprach-
Udiea Handbueh xur biUiaehen Vulgata, Freibuxg, 1904
(cf. on it JOlicher, in TLZ, 1905, no. 6).
On the printed text consult: W. A. 0>pinger, Incuna-
bula biUiea, ete., London, 1892; cf. L. Delisle, in Jour-
nal dea aavana, 1893, pp. 202-218, where 0>pinger's 124
sditioDs prior to 1500 are reduced to ninety-nine.
and W. MflUer. in Dsiatsko's Bibliothekawiaaenachaftliche
Arbeiten, no. 6, 1894. pp. 84-95); L. Hain, Repertorium
bihliographicum, 4 vols.. Paris, 1826-38, Index volume.
Leipsie, 1891, Supplement by W. A. 0>pinger, 3 vols.,
London. 1895-1902. Appendieaa by D. Reichling. fascic-
ulus 1, Munich, 1905 (gives ninety-seven editions prior
to 1500). On the first printed Bible consult K. Dsiatzko,
Gutehberga frUheate Drucherpraxia auf Orund einer Ver-
gleichung der 4^aeiligen und SSteUigen Bibel, Leipsic. 1891 ;
L. Delisle. in Journal dea aavana, 1894, pp. 401-413; Brit-
iah Muaeum CcOalogue, entry Bible.
UL Syriac VerBions. — 1. The Peshlto: Acoording
to some Syrians certain of the Biblical books
(enumerated by Ishodad, bishop of Haditha, c. 862)
were translated into Byriac under Solomon at the
request of Hiram, king of Tjrre. Another tradition
refers this work to a priest Asa or Ezra, who was
sent by the king of Assyria to Samaria, and the
rest of the Old Testament with the New to the
days of King Abgar V of Edessa and
Mid ^^® apostle Addai (i.e., Thaddsus; see
Name. Abgar. Cf. II Kings xvii, 24, I
Chron. xv, 18, in the editions of Lee
and Ceriani; J. P. N. Land, Anecdota Syriaca, iii,
Leyden, 1870, 11; Bar Hebrseus on Ps. x; J A,
1872, 458). Bar Hebrseus makes the strange
statement that, according to Eusebius (cf. HiaL
ecd.y VI, xvi, 4, and VI, xvii), Origen found the
Syriac version in the keeping of a widow at Jeri-
cho; and equally curious is the tradition which re-
fers the translation of the New Testament to
Mark. Some manuscripts of the Psalms state that
they were translated from Palestinian into Hebrew,
from Hebrew into Greek, from Greek into Syriac.
Theodore of Mopsuestia (commentary on Zeph.
i, 6) rightly says: '' These books were translated
into Syriac by some one, but who he was no one
knows to this day." Some scholars have thought
to discover, at least for the New Testament, the
influence of th0 Latin Vulgate; more probable is
the supposition that at least some parts of the
Old Testament are pre-Ohristian or certainly Jew-
ish; and the home of the translation is not Jeru-
salem and Palestine (/A, 1872, 458) or Antioch, but
Edessa and its neighborhood.
The name which is conmionly given to the old-
est and most important Syriac version, " Peshito "
C' Peshitto "), is first foimd with Moses bar Kepha
(d. 913) ^nd in Masoretic manuscripts of the ninth
and tenth centuries (cf. N. P. S. Wiseman, Hotcb
Syriaca, Rome, 1828, p. 223; J. P. P. Martin,
IniroducHon d la crUique textueUe du Nouveau
Testament, Paris, 1883, p. 101; ZDMG, xxxii, 589).
It means " the simple " in contradistinction to
the more elaborate versions, such as that made
from the Greek by Paul of Telia (see below, 2; on
the name, cf. K. W. M. Montijn and J. P. N.
Land, in Godgeleerde Bijdragen, 1882; F. Field,
Origenia Hexapla, i, Oxford, 1875, p. ix; ZDMG,
xlvii, 157, 316; A. Mez, Die Bibel des Joaephua,
Basel, 1895, 4; F. C. Burkitt, Early Eaaiem Chria-
tianity, London, 1904, chap. ii).
The Syriac Old Testament is practically the
same as that of the Palestinian Jews. Chronicles,
however, was missing in the Nestorian canon and,
as it seems, also in that of the Jacobites; at least
it is not treated in their Masoretic
T ^L t °^*^^*8C"P*^» b"* ^^ ^ found in very
es en . ^j^ manuscripts. Ezra-Nehemiah too
are not treated in the Masoretic manuscripts nor
Esther by the Nestorians, while in Jacobite manu-
Bi^e Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
128
Bcripta this book together with Judith, Ruth, Su-
sanna, and Thecla forms the '* Book of Women "
(cf. A. Baumstark, in Oriena ChrisUanua, iii, Leip-
sic, 1901, 353). After the Law there follows as
the second part the " Book of Sessions," i.e.. Job,
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Proverbs, Eccle-
siasticus, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Song of Solomon.
Among the prophets, Isaiah (sometimes divided at
XXV, 2) is followed by the minor prophets, then
Jeremiah (with a division at xxxii, 6) with Baruch
i-ii and the Epistle of Jeremiah, then Ezekiel and
Daniel.
Manuscripts with the Apocrypha are called
"catholic" or ''pandects"; they do not contain
I Esdras, Tobit, or the Prayer of Manasses, but
have an Apocalypse of Baruch, IV Esdraa, and
even the story of Shamuna and Josephus, War,
V, as IV and V Maccabees. Tobit, as far as chap,
vii, II, is preserved only in the translation of Paul
of Telia, but from that point on there is a still
later text. Accurate manuscripts give stichomet-
rical lists (cf. Martin, Introduction, 677; J. R. Haiv
ris. On the Origin of the Ferrar Group, London,
1893, 10, 26; DB, iv, 650).
The character of the translation is different in
various books; it is very literal in the Law, influ-
enced by the Septuagint in Isaiah and the minor
prophets, probably also in the Psalms. Ruth is
paraphrastic. Chronicles resembles a Jewish tar-
gum, while the Syriac Proverbs has been used
in the Targum. Ecclesiasticus is taken from the
Hebrew.
Up to 1858 only one old version of the New
Testament in Syriac was known in Europe; viz.,
that published for the first time by J. A. Wid-
manstadt (Vienna, 1555). Textual critics con-
sidered it "the queen of the Bible translations."
In 1858 W. Cureton published in
-' ^^J^ London, from manuscripts which had
come into the British Museum in
1842, Remains of a very Ardient Recension of
the Four Gospels in Syriac hitherto Unknoum in
Europe. The great value of this recension was
soon recognized, and was greatly enhanced
when, in 1892, a second manuscript of it was
discovered in a palimpsest on Mount Sinai by Mrs.
A. S. Lewis and her sister, Mrs. M. D. Gibson,
which was published under the title, TJie Four
Gospels in Syriac Transcribed from the Sinaitic
Palimpsest by the Late R. L. Bensly . . , J, R.
Harris , , .and F, C. Burkitt. With an Intro-
duction by Agnes Smith Lewis (Cambridge, 1894).
Mrs. Lewis published Some Pages of the Four
Gospels Retranscribed from the Syriac Palimpsest
wiOt, a Translation of the Whole Text (London, 1894).
F. C. Burkitt published Evangelum donMephar-
reshe: The Curetonian Version of the Four
Gospels, with the Readings of the Sinai Palimpsest
and the Early Syriac Patristic Evidence Edited,
Collected, and Arranged (vol. i, text and transla-
tion, vol. ii, introduction and notes, Cambridge,
1904). Burkitt's title is taken from the head-
ing or subscription of the two manuscripts and
means "the Gospel of the Separated" (i.e.,
"the Separated Gospels"), used in contradistinc-
tion to the Diatessaron of Tatian, which was called
among the Syrians " the Gospel of the Com-
bined" ("the Combined Gospels"). Herein is in-
dicated the first problem in the history of the
Syriac New Testament. It is well known that
a harmony of the Gospels was used in the Syriac
Church till the beginning of the fifth oentuiy,
when Theodoret removed the copies in his dio-
cese, and Rabbulas of Edessa ordered that the
" Gospd of the Separated " should be read in
church. The great question concerns the relsr
tionship of the Peshito, the Mepharresbe, and
Tatian. It seems certain that the three are in-
terrelated. It seems further to have been
proved by Burkitt that the Peshito is the
latest, and is in all probability the revision
which Rabbulas of Edessa (d. 435) is said to
have undertaken. The decision of the other
question, whether the Mepharresbe or Tatian is
the earlier, is made difficult by the fact th&t
Tatian's work is not preserved in its original fona,
and further by the fact that the two representatives
of the Mepharresbe, the manuscripts of Cureton and
Lewis, differ greatly. But on the whole it seems
most probable that Tatian was the first to bring
the Gospel to the Syrians in the form of his Dia-
tessaron, and that then on the basis of his harmony
the version of the separate Gospels originated.
Burkitt is inclined to believe that this was to-
ward the end of the second century, perhaps under
the influence of the Chiu'ch of Antioch, through
Paul of Edessa. The opposite view, that the Meph-
arresbe is earlier than Tatian, is taken by Hjelt,
who believed he was able to show that the Go^)eb
in the Mepharresbe were translated by different
hands, and that the first Gospel especially betrays
a Jewish character. Without the discovery of new
evidence the question will be very difficult to
decide.
No manuscript of an early Syriac version of the
Acts and the Pauline Episties is known. But
that there was an older version can be proved
from the quotations of such early writers as Aphra-
ates and Ephraem, and perhaps also from
readings in the Armenian version. In eariy times
the apocryphal correspondence with the Corin-
thians was placed with the Episties of Paul.
The Catholic Episties were at first totally un-
known, as is expressly stated by Theodore of
Mopsuestia and Theodore bar Koni (cf . A. Baum-
stark, in Oriens Christianus, i, 176, iii, 555). In
the Peshito as we have it the three greater of them
are found, in accordance with the use of the Church
of Antioch. Still later the four others were
added. It is strange that the Nestorian inscrip-
tion of Singan-fu (see Nestorianb) speaks of
twenty-seven books of the New Testament.
Revelation never formed part of the canon
among the Syrians (cf. on the Syriac canon,
T. Zahn, Grundrisa der Geschichte des neutesUh
menUichen Kanons, Leipsic, 1904, § 6; J. A. Bewer,
The History of the New Testament Canon in the
Syrian Church, Chicago, 19C0; W. Bauer, Der
Apostolos der Syrer, Giessen, 1903), and whether
the Pauline collection included PhUemon can not
be decided.
2. Later Veraioiui: The Nestorian patriarch
129
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
Mar Abba (d. 552) is said by Bar Hebrseus, Ebed
Jesu, and Amru to have translated and explained
the Old and New Testaments from the Greek; but
nothing more is known about it.
In 508 Philoxenus of Mabug with the help of his
coadjutor Polycarp translated at least some parts
of the Old Testament and imdertook a new ver-
sion of the New Testament. Parts of Isaiah pre-
sented in a manuscript of the British Museum may
belong to this version (ed. A. Ceriani, MonumerUa
sacra et profana, v, 5, Milan, 1873, 1-40). Accord-
ing to Bernstein, the Gospels are contained in
manuscript A2 of the Angelican library at Rome.
Isaac H. Hall published a Syriac Manuscript
Gospels from a pre-Harklensian Version^ Acts and
EpisUts of the Peshitto Version, Written (probably)
between 700 and 900 A.D. Presented to the Syrian
Protestant College [Beirut] (Philadelphia, 1884).
The minor epistles, first published by E. Pococke
in 1630 and since often found in editions of the
Syriac New Testament, are very likely part of this
version, and so is the version of Revelation dis-
covered by J. Gwynn and published by him (Dub-
lin, 1897).
About one himdred years later the work of trans-
lation was resumed, for the Old Testament, by
Paul of Telia (the so-called Syro-Hexaplar version;
dee above, I, 1, § 6), and, for the New Testament,
by Thomas of Heraclea (Harkel in Mesopotamia).
This version was published by J. White under the
inappropriate title, Versio PhUoxeniana (Oxford,
1778-1803). A lacuna m the Epistle to the He-
brews was filled in by R. L. Bensly (Harklean Fer-
sion of the Epistle to the Hebrevos xi, £8-xiii, ;95,
London, 1889). W. Deane began a new edition
but was prevented from finishing it. Its comple-
tion, especially for the Acts, is much to be desired.
For his maiginal notes, Thomas made use of a
manuscript closely related to the Greek codex D
(cf. A. Pott, Der abendlSndische Text der Apostelge-
sehidue, Leipsic, 1900, and Hilgenfeld, in ZWT,
xliii, 1900, p. 3). The Syriac text of Revelation
published by De Dieu (L^den, 1627) and now in
the common Syriac New Testaments belongs to
this version (cf. J. Gwynn, in HemuUhena, 1898,
227-245).
On the revision of the Old Testament undertaken
by Jacob of Eldessa in 704-705, cf. Kamphausen,
in TSK, 1869, 753, and A. Ceriani, Monumenta
tocra et profana, v, 1 (Milan, 1871).
Mention must also be made of the Palestinian
version (used by the Melchite Church in Palestine
and Egypt). Of the Old Testament, only frag-
nients remain. The New Testament has been
known from an evangeliarium at Rome since 1789
(published by F. Miniscalchi-Erizzo, Verona, 1861-
1864 , and by Lagarde, Bibliotheea Syriaca, GOttingen,
IS92). Since that time many new texts have been
brought to light, especially through Mrs. Lewis.
A full list is given in the Lexicon syropaUestinum
of F. Schulthess (Berlm, 1903), pp. vii-xvL F. C.
Burkitt (JTS, ii, 183) gives reasons for believing
that this literature may have a connection with
the attempts of Justinian in the fifth centuiy to
extirpate the Samaritans, and of Heraclius early
in the sixth century to harass the Jews. This
n.— 9
peculiar dialect is important lexically, as being
closely akin to the language spoken in Galilee.
E. Nestle.
Biblioorapht: The first parts of the Bible printed in Syriao
are in Ambrosiua Theseus, IniroducHo in Ctuildaieam lin-
ffuam, Syriaeam atque Armenieam, Pavia, 1539 (cf. ZDMQ,
Iviii, 1904, 601). The Old Testament appeared first in
the Paris Polyglot, vols, vi-ix. 1632-45. then in the
London Polyglot, vols, i-iv, 1654-57, reprinted by S.
Lee for the BFB8, London, 1823 (other copies, 1824; on
their differences — one set contains Ps. cli, the other not
—cf. ZDMQ, lix. 1905. 31), and at Urumiah (with mod-
em Syriac added), 1852. The text is very bad, resting
on a single late manuscript at Paris adapted by Gabriel
Sionita. editor of the Paris Polyglot, from which the
London Polsrglot and Lee took it with scarcely any cor-
rection, the Urumiah edition, at least in some parts, with
but few corrections (cf. W. E. Barnes. An AjfpanUu9 eriHeu9
to Chronidea in the Pethitta Version, Cambridge, 1897;
G. Diettrich, Bin Apparatus eriticoM xur PMio Mum
Propheten Jesaia, Giessen, 1905). Bernstein and Rahlfs
have published emendations, the former in ZDMO, uL
1849. 387-396, the latter in ZATW, ix. 1889. 161-210.
A. M. Oriani published a photographic reproduction of
the Codex Ambroeianua, Milan, L876-«3. The Apocry-
pha was published by Lagarde, Leipsic, 1861. The first
critical edition of the Gospels was by P. E. Pusey and
O. H. GwilUam. Oxford, 1901; for the rest of the New
Testament there are the editions of the American mis-
sion at Urumiah, 1846, New York, 1846. etc. The edi-
tion most used in textual criticism hitherto has been
that of J. Leusden and C. Schaaf, Leyden, 1709 and
1717, reprinted by Jones, Oxford, 1806 (cf. Tischendorf
on liatt. X, 8, with the note of Pusey-Owilliam). The
entire Bible was printed by the Dominicans at Mosul,
1887-91. A list of editions to 1888 is contained in Nee^
tie, LittenUura Syriaca (reprinted from Syriache Oram-
ma*%k, Berlin, 1888), 17-30. Consult further: Beck, Edi-
fumes prineipee Novi TeaiamenH Syriaci, Basel, 1771;
J. Le Long, BiUiotheoa sacra, emendaia . . , ab A. O.
Maech, i, part 4, pp. 54-102, 6 vols., Halle, 1778-90;
A. M. Ceriani, Le Ediaioni e i manoaeritti del veraione Siri-
ache da veecMo Teatamento, Milan, 1869; Printed ediiuma
of the Syriac New Teatament, in Church Quarterly Review,
July, 1888, 255-297; Syriae New Teatament iranalated
into Eng, by J. Murdoch, with a bikiioaraphical Appendix,
by I. H. Hall, 6th ed., Boston, 1893; G. H. Gwilliam, The
Ammonian Sectiona, Euadrian Canona and Harmoniaing
Tablea in the Syriac T^ra^uanoelium, in Studia Biblica et
Ecdeaiaatiea, ii, Oxford, 1890; idem, Materiala for the
CriHciam of the Peahitto, ib. iii, 1891; Scrivener, Introduc-
tion, ii, 6-40; F. C. Burkitt, EvanotHion da-Mepharreahe,
Introduction, vol. i, London, 1905. On the Old Testament
in the Peshito consult: J. Prager, De veteria teatamenti
veraione Syriaca quam Peachittho, G5ttingen, 1875; J.
Perles, Meletemata PeaAUhoniana, Breslau, 1860; J. m!
BchOnfelder, Onkeloa und Peachittho, Munich, 1869. On
parts of the Old Testament: L. Hiriel, De Peniateudii
veraione Syriaca, Leipsic, 1815; S. D. Lusiatto, Philo-
xeniu aive de Onkeloai Chaldaica Pentateuchi veraione,
Vienna, 1830; F. Tuch, De Lipaienai codice Pentateuchi
Syriaco, Leipsic, 1849; E. Schwarts, Die ayriache Ueher-
aetaung dee 1, Samudia, Berlin, 1897; J. Berliner, Die
PeathiUa auml.Buch der Kdnige, Berlin, 1897; 8. Frftnkel,
in JPT, 1879, pp. 506, 720 (on Chronicles); A. Oliver, A
Trand. of the Syriac Peachito Veraion of the Paalma, Bos-
ton, 1861; F. B&thgen,-l7n<er«uGfcttn0en Ober die Paalmen
naeh der Peachito, Kiel, 1878; idem, in JPT, viii (1882),
405, 693; F. Dietrich. CommentaHo de paalterio . . . tn
ecdsaia Syriaca, Marburg, 1862; B. Oppenheim, Die
ayriadte Ud)eraetsung . . . der Paalmen, Leipsic, 1891;
J. F. Berg, Influence of the Septuagini upon the Peahitta
Paalter, New York, 1895; Techen, Oloaaar, in ZATW,
xvii (1897), 129. 280 (on Psalms); Baumann (on Job), in
ZATW, xviii-xx (1898-1900); J. A. Dathe, De ratione
eonaenaua . . . Syriaca Proverbiorum, Leipsic, 1764; A.
S. Kamenetsky (on Ecclesiastes), in ZATW, xxiv (1904);
G. Dietrich. Die Maaaorah der OaUichen und weatlidien
Syrer, London, 1899; idem, Textkriiiadier Apparat, 1905
(Isaiah); C. H. Ck>mill. Daa Buch dea Propheten Eaechid,
pp. 137-156, Leipsic 1886); C. A. Oedner, De prophetorum
minorum veraionia Syriaca . . . indole, Gdttingen, 1827;
Bible Versiong
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
130
M. Sebok (SohOnberser), Die wyrtMchs Utbereetsung der
swOlf PropheUfn, Breslau, 1887; V. Rynel, Uniertudiuno-
tn Hber die TextgeakUt . , . dee BtuJiee Micha, Leipno
1887; J. J. Kneuoker, Dae Buck Barueh, pp. 190-198,
Leipsio, 1869; T. NOldeke, Die Texte dee Buchee Toint, in
Monateberichie der BerUtter Akademie, 1879. pp. 45-^.
On the New Testoment: The Peekito Vereione of the
Goepeie, ed. G. W. Gwilliam, London. 1901. On the Cuz«-
tonian: C. Hennanaen, De eodioe eoanoeUonun Syriaeo,
Copenhagen. 1869; Le Bit, itude eur une aneienne ver-
eion eyriaque dee evangilee, PaiiB, 1859; Q. Wildeboer, De
VKtarde der ej/riedte evang^ien, door Cureton ontdekt^ Ley-
den. 1880; Fr. B&thcen. Bvangdienfraomenie, Leipdo.
1885; H. Hannan. Cureion FragmefUe, in JBL, 1885.
June-Dec., pp. 28-48.
On the Mephaireehe, J. R. Crowfoot, Pragmenia Evan-
oeUca^ London, 1870; idem, CoUaHon in Oreek of Cure-
ton*e Svriae Fragmente, ib. 1872. On the Sinai Palimp-
seot: M. D. Gibson, How ffte Codex vxu found, Gambridge,
1893; Mrs. R. L. Bendy, Our Journey to Sinai . . . vnih
a Chapter on ffte Sinai PoHmpeeet, London, 1896; K.
HoUhey, Der neuenideckte Codex Syrue SinaiHeue, Munidi,
1896; A. Bonua. CoHatio eodide Lewieiani . . . cum eo-
dioe Curetoniano, Oxford, 1896. For further aooounts of
the Lewis oodex consult the files of the Atkencnm, Acad-
emy, Contemporary Review, Expoeitory Timee, Ouardian,
Church Quarterly Bevpew, TLZ, and similar journals for
the years 1803-96.
On the Peshito in textual criticism consult: The Ox-
ford Debate on The Textual CriUeiem of the New Teetament,
London, 1897; T. W. Etheridge, Hora Aramaiae. With
a TraneL of . , . SL Matthew and . . . Hebrewe from
Uie . . . Peahito, London, 1843; idem. The Apoetolical
Aete; TraneL from (he Peehito and a UUer Text, London,
1849; W. Norton, A Tranel. . . , of the Seventeen Lettere
,,,oftke Peehito Syriae, London. 1890; J. Gwsmn, Older
Syriae Vereion of the four Minor Catholic Bpietlee, in Her-
mathena, 1890. On Tatian: A. Hjelt, in T. Zahn, For-
eAungen, vii, 1 (1903); Mrs. Lewis, in Expoeiior, Aug.,
1897. June, 1890.
IV. ThA Samaritan Pentateuch: This must not
be confounded with the Hebrew text of the Pen-
tateuch in Samaritan characters or with the
Arabic version used by the Samaritans. All three
are contained in the famous triglot manuscript
in the Barberini Library at Rome of the year
1227 (for facsimile cf. O. M. Bianchini's Evan-
geliarium quadrwplex, Rome, 1749, or, on a reduced
scale, F. O. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient
Manuscripts, London, 1896, pi. v). The question
of the age of this targum depends on the de-
cision of the question whence the readings are
taken which are found under the rubric to Sama-
raUikon in some fifty marginal notes of Origen's
Hexi^la (to the passages collected by Field add
Lev. XV, 8; Deut. viii, 22, xxxiv, 1-3, from the
margins of Lagarde's Btblioiheca Syriaca). The
most probable view seems to be that not Origen but
Eusebius took these notes from the Hebrew Penta-
teuch as used among the Samaritans. On a
Samaritan inscription found at Amwas (Emmaus)
cf. Revue Biblique, 1896, p. 433. E. Nestlb.
The Samaritan Pentateuch is essentially the
same as the Hebrew. The variations, aside from
those of a linguistic character, are the following:
the narrative of action or declaration by Moses
is often preceded by the statement that he acted
or spoke by divine direction; Gen. ii, 2a, " seventh "
is changed to " sixth "; anthropomorphisms are
removed, and in den. xx, 13, xxxi, 53, xxxv, 7, Ex.
xxii, 8, the plural predicate after Elohim is
changed to the singular to avoid a polytheistic
implication; " Ebal " (Deut. xxvii, 4) was dis-
placed by Gerizim for national reasons. The
Samaritan Pentateuch is proved by these chsngn
to be a revision of the Jewish, but a revision made in
early times (possibly pre-Christian), thougjb the
modem tendency is to ascribe the text now
extant to the second Christian century.
Bxbuoorapht: The text was first printed in the Paris Poty-
Slot, 1648, then in Walton's Polyslot, 1657. Other edi-
tions of the whole or of parts are: A. BrOll. l>at sonov
tanieche Targum tum Pentateudi, Frankfort, 1873-75, vith
two appendices which appeared 187&-76; H. Petermaim
and C. VoUers, Pentateuehue Samaritanue . . ., i. Gcnem.
BerUn, 1872, ii, Bxodue, 1882. iii. Lsvificuc. 1883, vt,
Humeri, 1885, y, Deuteronomium, 1881; J. W. Nutt, Ftoq-
mente of a Samaritan Targum, London, 1874; F. Field,
Origenie Hexaplarum, \, p. Ixzzii-lxzxiy, Oxford. 1875:
8. Kohn, in Monateeehrift fOr Qeechickte vmd Wiuf^
eehaft dee Judentume, 1804, pp. 1-7. 40-67.
On various phases of the relation to text-criticism ood-
ault: J. Morinus, Exerdtationee in uinimg%u Samania-
norum Pentateuehum Paris, 1631; idem, in the Prefsee of
his edition of the Septuaeint, 1628; W. Gesenitu, Dt
Pentateuehi Samaritana indole, . . . Halle. 1815; & B.
Winer, De vereionie Pentaieuchi Samaritana indo^ Leip-
sie, 1817; 8. Kohn, De Pentateudto Samariiano . . . . ih.
1866; idem, Samaritanieehe Studien, Breelau, 1868; idea.
Zur Spraehe, lAteratur und Dogmatik der Samariime.
Leipsio. 1876; idem, in ZDMO, xxxix (1885). 16&-228;
A. Cowley, in JQR, viii (1806). 562 sqq.. and in J£,
X, 667; idiem, A Suppoeed Early Copy of tke SamarHen
Pentateuch, in PEF, Quarterly Statement, Oct.. 1904; P.
Kahle, Textkritiedte und lexikalieehe Bemarkungen tern
eamaritanieehen Peniateuehiargum, Leipeio. 1886; J. Skin-
ner, Notee on a newly acquired Samaritan MS, in JQR,
xiy (1801), 26-36; W. E. Barton, The Samaritan Pento-
teudi, in Biblioiheca eacra, Ix (1803); R. Gottheil, in JBL,
xxy, part 1, 1806; J. A. Montgomery, The SaxuriioM,
Philadelphia, 1807.
y. Aramaic Veraions (The Targoms) : These are
Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament {Uar-
gum a " interpretation, transition/' from targem,
" ^ explain, translate "; cf. Ezraiv, 7)
1. Or^ln prepared for use in the synagogue,
T-fi^Ti^ay*. *"^^ *^^^ *^®"^ ™® ^^°^ ^^® custom of
* repeating and explaining the Hebrev
sacred text in the Aramaic tongue, which aft«r
the exile became the vernacular of the Jews in
Palestine and elsewhere. At first the targum was a
free oral exposition; then it gradually acquired
fixed form, and at last was r^uoed to writing.
It is frequently found in manuscripts following
the Hebrew text verse by verse. When the
Law was read, the pars^hrase was given after
every verse; with the Prophets three verses
were allowed to be taken together.
The language of the Targums used to be called
Chaldee, because Jerome so named the Aramaic
portions of the Hebrew Bible, which are written
in a dialect very akin to that of the Taiigums.
In reality, these have preserved the Jewish form of
the Aramaic, the next cognate dialect being
Syriae, the form of the Aramaic used by the
Christians of Edessa, while still other cognate
dialects are those of the Pahnyrene inscriptions
and of the Samaritans (see Semitic Languages).
The grammatical and lexicographical use of the
Targums is hampered by the fact that no edition
has as yet appeared that takes account of all
the materials now available. Merder vocal-
ized the texts after the Syriae, Buxtorf after
the Biblical Aramaic; the edition printed by
Foa (Sabbionetta, 1557) seems to rest on a
131
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Varsioint
auinuacript in which the supralinear Bjrstem of
kocalization had been changed into that of TiberiaB,
but with many faults and inconsistencies. The
aio6t original system of vocalisation is that pre-
Berved in manuscripts from Yemen, on which cf .
the worics of Merx, Beiiiner, Landauer, Kautssch,
Maq^outh {The Superlinear PtufuttuUionf in PSBA ,
xxiii, 164-205), and Bamstein (The Targum of
(hikeloe to Genesis, London, 1896), and the editions
of Pr&torius (Joshua, Berlin, 1899; Judges, 1900).
For the greater part of the Old Testament there
is more than one Targum. One on the Pentateuch
]s attributed in some passages of the Talmud to
^ -. the helpers of Esra. According to the
OiSi3Sir Babylonian Tahnud (MegiUot 3a), On-
kelos delivered it orally in Pales-
tine; but this is the result of confusing Onkelos
with Aquila, who translated the Old Testament
into Greek (see above, I, 2, } 1), and "Judaic
Fentateuch-Targum" is a better name than
"Targum of Onkelos," which has been in use
since Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible of 1517. In the
tliini century its text seems to have been con-
sidered fixed, and manuscripts are mentioned
several times, but Origen and Jerome apparently
did not know a Targum, and h«ioe we may
conclude that it did not find official recognition
before the fifth oentuiy. Its language is differ-
ent from that of both Talmuds, and seems
to render the original into the language of the
place and time of its origin (Palestine) as faith-
fully as a translation which is somewhat para-
phrastic can do. The Hebrew text on which
it rests is practically our Masoretic text, and
it is of interest as representing the exegetical
tradition of the Jews. It is quite literal, gives a
messiamc interpretation of Gen. xlix, 10, and Num.
ixiv, 17, additions to Gen. xlix. Num. xxiv, Deut.
xxxii, 33, and avoids all anthropomorphisms. Like
the Hebrew text, it has been the subject of Maso-
retic studies, which have been edited by Beriiner
{Die Massorah sum Targum Onkelos, Leipsic, 1877).
The Targum of the Prophets has been ascribed
to Jonathan ben Usiiel, Hillel's greatest disciple;
others give as its redactor Joseph b^ Hiyyaof Baby-
Ion (d. about 333) ; but it did not receive
J ttS** **■ ^"^ written form before the fifth
^"^ ' century. It is more paraphrastic than
the Targum of the Law, which induced Comill to
think that it is older. Eichhom and Bertholdt
thought they recognised different hands. The
paraphrase is greatly influenced by the book of
Daniel. Isa. liii is understood of the Messiah,
whose suffering atones for Israel. Great enmity is
shown against Rome.
The two Targums just described represent the
Judaic Aramaic; of a mixed character is the
language of Targums Yerushalmi I and II on the
Law. Some verses are missing from the
tL?^*' former, and the latter is preserved only
^J*^"^ in fragments. Certain other fragments
l*w and ^^^'^^^ "* various manuscripts and edi-
Pnphsts. ^^^°^ ^^ ^^® Pentateuch are designated
' by Dahnan (OrammaHk, § 6, 3) as Yer-
ushalmi III. There are similar fragments of a Tar-
Sumonthe Prophets published by Lagarde from the
margins of Reuchlin's codex (on which cf. Bacher, in
ZZ>Af O, xxviii). Bassf round (Z>a« Fro^^mententor^m
sum Pentateuch, Breslau, 1896) and similarly Dal-
man (Grammatik, § 6, 4) see in Onkelos the oldest
Palestinian Targum and in Yerushalmi I and II
a later development. M. Ginsburger, on the
contrary (Pseudo^onaihan, Berlin, 1903, preface),
and Bacher find in them traces of a very old
Palestinian Targum, which has been worked over
by Onkelos. The comment in these pieces is
sometimes very fantastic.
The Targums of the Hagiographa are not
translations, but commentaries; the Targum of
the Song of Solomon, for instance, is a pane-
gyric of the Jewish nation with
•5L»i ^ foolish anachronisms, the Targum of
"^lll^^l^" the Psalms is in some parts literal, in
others explanatory. The Targum of
Proverbs is a working over of the Syriac translation
(cf. Pinkuss, in ZATW, xiv, 65, 161). As the
Hagiographa were not read in the Synagogue as
regularly as the Law and the Prophets (cf. Lk. iv,
16; Acts xiii, 15; xv, 21), their Targums are to
some extent private literary works of differing
character. For Ezra-Nehemiah and Daniel no
Targum is known, unless the Aramaic parts of
Daniel are fragments of a Targum. For Esther
there are two Targums. E. Nbbtlb.
Bibuoorafbt: The best grammar ia G. Dalman, Oram^
maUk des jilditdiHpal&atinUchgn AromAtedk, Leipsic, 1894,
Au»oaU mU DialdUproben, 1806, 2d ed., 1006 (sivea val-
lutble compend of titerature). The first special diction-
ary for the Targum is the Meturgeman of Elias Levita,
Isny, IMl; quite oomplete but unsatisfactory linguis-
tically is J. Levy, Chaiddiuhea WOrteHmeh Hber die Tar-
gumim, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1867-68. The whole range of
Aramaic literature is treated in Nathan bar Jeohiel,
Sepker he^antk (c 1100 a-d.), first printed without place
and date, but before 1480 ▲.d., new ed., by A. Kohut,
Vienna. 1878^2 (cf. JE, iz, 180-182). Others are: G.
F. Boderianus (1673), printed in the Antwerp Poly-
glot; J. Buxtorf, Lexicon duMldaicum, 1640, new ed., B.
Fischer, Leipsic, 1860-76; M. Jastrow. DieHonary of the
TVnyumtm, ffte Talmud BabU and Jeru^uUmi and the Mid-
raAie lAierature, 2 vols.. New York, 1003 (the most ac-
cessible); G. Dalman, AramOiechHneuhetn'aieihee WOrter-
hudi mU Lerikon der Abbreviaturen, yon G. Handler,
Frankfort, 1807-1001.
The Targum of Onkelos was first printed Bologna, 1482,
with Hebr. text and Rashi's commentary; best edition
by Foa, at Sabbionetta, 1667, republished by A. Berliner
at Berlin, 1884 (cf. Lsgarde, MittheUungen, ii. 163^182);
latest edition in the Hebrew Pentateuch Sefer keter tora
at Jerusalem, 1804-1001. Parts are in A. Merx, Chree-
iomafftia Targumioa, Berlin, 1883; in E. Kautssch, Ud)er
eine aUe Handeehrift dee Targum Onkeloe, Halle, 1803;
and G. Dalman, AranUUaehe Dialektproben, Leipsic, 1806.
Translations are that in Eng. by J. W. Etheridge, inclu-
ding Onkelos, Jonathan, and the Jerusalem fragments, 2
yols., London, 1862, and the Latin transl. by P. Fagius,
Strasburg, 1646. On the text-critical value and other
relations consult: S. Landauer. Die Maeorah sum OnkeUM,
Leipsic 1877; H. Bamstein, Targum of Onkdoe to Oeneeie,
London, 1806; G. Diettrich, Orammatieehe Beobaehtungen,
in ZATW, XX (1000). 148-160; E. Brederek, in T8K, Ixxiv
(1001), 861-377; A. Merx, Die Vokalieation der Targume,
in Verhandlung dee Sten orientaliechen Congreee, ii. part 1,
pp. 142-188. On the person of Onkelos consult: D.
Luaaatto, Philoxenue, Cracow, 1806; M. Friedmann, Onk^
loe und Akylae, Vienna, 1806; JB, ii, 86-38. ix, 406,
xii, 68-60.
The editions of the Targums of Jonathan are: For the
" Former Prophets " 1st edition, Leiria, 1404, for the
whole, in the first Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1617; by Lar
garde after Reuchlin's MS., 1872 (cf. A. Klostermann,
in TSK, zlvi, 1873, 731-767); Joshua and Judges by Pr»-
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
ISS
tonus from South Arabian M88.. Berlin, 1890-1900; Jonah
and Ificah by Merx. in his Cknttomathia, ut sup.; Nahum
by Adler. in JQR, vii (1896). 63a-«57; Jer. i-xii by Wolf-
Bohn, 1903; Esekiel. i-x by Silbermann, 1902; the Haf-
taioth in the Hebrew Pentateuoh Sefer keter torah, ut sup.
Consult also: C. W. H. PauU. The Chaldee Paraphnue on
As Prophet Imiiah, London, 1871; Z. Frankel, Zu dem
Tarovan der Propfuten, Brealau, 1872; W. Baeher. in
ZDMG, xxviu (1874), 1-72. 167, 819; H. 8. Levy,
Targtan on /sotoA, wUh Commenkuy, London, 1889.
Yerushalmi I and II were first published in Bombexv'a
Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1617. The best editions of both
are by M. Ginsburger, Paeudo-Jonathan, Berlin, 1903,
and Daa FraomentenAaroum, 1899 (of. Bamstein, in JQR,
xiii, 1899. 167; ZDMO, hriii, 1904. 874-378). On both
Targums, ef. Dalman, OrammaHk, f 6, 1-2; on an im-
portant manuscript of Yerushalmi II at Nurembem. ef.
Lacarde, MitOuUungen, iii, Gdttingen, 1889. 87.
The Tarsum of the Hagiographa: The first edition of
Job. Ps., Prov.. and the Bolls was in the Rabbinic Bible.
Venice. 1617, which books were reprinted by Lagarde in
1873; the best edition of the Tarsum on Esther is by M.
David. Berlin, 1898 (of. Posner, Daa Tarffum Riad^n tu
Bathar, Breslau. 1896); Eoelesiastes. from South Arabian
MSS., by A. Leyy. ib. 1906. (}onsttlt E. Brederek, Kon^
kordana aum Targtan OnJbsfos. Gieesen, 1906; H. L. Strack,
Einleiiung in daa A. 7*.. f 84. Munich, 1906.
VL The Armenian Version : The Armenian trans-
lation of the Old Testament rests on the Greek,
though it shows in certain passages and books traces
of revision either from the Syriac or from the
Hebrew. The Greek text used seems to have been
dependent on Origen, for in some Armenian manu-
scripts hexaplaric marks are found. In the manu-
scripts (not in the printed editions) various pseudepi-
graphic books appear. The Armenian Psalter
printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society
at Venice, 1850, was rejected in consequence of
these additions. Ecdesiasticus has been trans-
lated twice, first in the fifth centuiy, this
version being printed in the Venice Bible, 1860;
again probably in the eighth century, found in
Zohrab's edition of the Armenian Bible of 1805.
On the statements of Koriun, Lazar of Parpi.
and Moses of Chorene, that the Scriptures were
translated by Mesrob, Sahag, E^znik, and others
between 396 and 430 from manuscripts brought
from Edessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria,
cf. Conybeare, DB,i, 152 (see Armenia, II, §§
2S), A collation of the Armenian version was
made for Hohnes-Parsons (see above, I, 1, § 2),
and is being made afresh for the forthcoming
Cambridge Septuagint by McLean (cf. Swete,
Iniroductum, London, 1900, p. 118). Theodoret
states that in his time the language of the Hebrews
was translated into that of the , Armenians,
Scythians, and Sauromatians. A concordance to
the Armenian Bible has been printed in the cloister
of San Giacomo at Jerusalem (1895). The un-
canonical writings of the Old Testament found in
Armenian manuscripts in the library of San
Lazsaro were translated into English by J.
Issaverdens (Venice, 1901); on Ter Moosesjan's
Hittory of the Translation of the Bible into Arme-
nian, cf . H. Goussen, in NouveUe Revue de Thiologie,
1904, p. 9.
For the New Testament Mill used some notes on
the Armenian version by W. Guise and L. Piques.
For Tregelles C. Rieu collated Zohrab's edition
of 1805. His notes were used by Tischendorf
in the eighth edition of his New Testament; Gregory
catalogued sixty-four manuscripts in Europe (outside
of Russia) and America. At Moscow is a copy of the
Gospels dated 887, at Echmiadzin is the manu-
script 222 written in 989, but with an ivor;
binding which is much older. Conybeare dis-
covered in this manuscript, after Mark xvi, 8,
the words AritUm erUzou ("of the presbyter
Ari8t[i]on"), which probably preserve the name
of the author of the dose of the second G<»-
pel. The Gospels have invariably the so-called
Ammonian sections; the Acts and Epistles of Paul,
the Euthalian additions (see Ammoniub of Alex-
Ain>RiA; Euthaliub); at their end is found the
apocryphal correspondence of Paul with the Corin-
thians. After John follows sometimes the apooy-
phal " Rest of John." The Apocalypse is said to
be a recension made by Nerses Lambron in the
twelfth centuiy; a much older version is indicated
by H.Gou88en(cf. Gregory, r«x<*rttifc,Leipsic, 1902,
p. 568). The inclusion of the apoci3rphal com-
spondence of Paul with the Corinthians and other
characteristics of this version and the whole histoiy
of the Armenian Church confirm the view that
the Armenian version was first based on the
Syriac Bible and afterward revised from the
Greek; cf. on this question Conjrbeare and
Burkitt. £. Nestle.
Bibuoorapht: Tbe Anneniaa Bible wbs first priated,
Amflterdam, 1666^ from a single MS.; of this tbe editioB
by Meohitar, Venioe, 1733, wm in the main a repriot;
the fint critical edition was by Zohrab, Venioe, 180S.
Consult Scrivener, InirodueHon, ii. 14S-164; Gncory,
TexaariHk, i, 666-673; F. C. Conybeare. in DB, i. 151-
164, and in The ExpoaUor, 1893, pp. 242 wsq.. vA
Dec., 1896; F. C. Burkitt, in EB, rr, 6011. 5028; k.
Abeghian, Varfragen cur BntalehungageacKiAle der afkr-
meniaehen BibdOberaetgungen, Marburg, 1906: idem, Z»
EntaiehungageachidUe der ailarmeniaehen Bibelubenebua^
gen, TQbingen, 1907.
Vn. Egyptian Coptic VerBions: According to
Zosimus Panopolitanus, the Hdt>rew Bible was
translated into Egrptian at the same time as tbe
Septuagint (see above, I, 1, § 6); according to the
life of St. Anthony, he heard the Gospel read in
church in the Egsrptian language. But the latter
statement is not certain enough to justify the
supposition that the Egsrptian version of the New
Testament goes back to the middle of the third
centuiy. At that time Christianity in Egypt
seems to have been restricted to the Greek-q)esk-
ing towns. Modem scholars distinguish linguis-
tically as many as five or six Coptic dialects; for
the textual critic the Coptic versions faU into
three divisions, although a former generation
knew only one and called it the Coptic, i.e., the
Eg3rptian, version. These divisions are: (1) The
Saidic or the version of Upper E^gypt, sometinies
called the Thebaic; (2) the Fayyumic (formerly
called the Bashmuric), with which text the
fragments in the Middle-Eg3rptian dialect agree;
(3) the version now in ecclesiastical use among all
Copts or Egyptian Christians, called Bohsiric.
The Bohairah (" Lake ") is a district near Alex-
andria and Lake Mareotis, the modem Beher&h.
There is a fourth dialect called Akhmimic; but the
version of the CathoUc Epistles in this dialect, pre-
served in a very ancient manuscript, is properly
133
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versioiis
classed with the Saidic veraion. Bashmuric had
already died out in the time of Athanaaius.
The Bohairic version was for a long time the
only one known to European scholars, and is
still supposed by some to be the earliest version
in any Egyptian dialect; but with better reason
others see in it a late recension, characterized by
greater faithfulness to the Greek, the basal Greek
text being best represented by the Greek Codex
L and, among the Fathers, not by Clement and
Origen, but by Cyril. Of the Saidic manuscripts
some of the more ancient are bilingual, the
Greek occupying the page on the left hand of
the open book; the Bohairic manuscripts, on
the contrary, are often accompanied by an
Arabic translation, but there is no instance of
a Greoo-Bohairic manuscript. When written in
two oolimins the Greco-Saidic manuscripts have
both Greek columns on the left and both Saidic
on the right, and occasionally the two pages
of the codex give different readings. The text
of this version generally supports that represented
by Codex B, but it has some strange "Western"
singularities; for instance, to Luke xxiii, 53, it is
added that Joseph plae«d a stone at the door of
the sepulcher, which twenty men were scarcely
able to move, and in the parable of the rich man
and Lazarus the name of the former is given as
"Nineveh." Revelation seems to have been con-
sidered uncanonical, for it is not found with the
rest of the New Testament. E. Nestle.
Biblioorafbt: Eneh and Graber, AUifemeinB EnetfdopOdie,
Section 2, toI. xzadbc, 12-36; J. P. Martin, in PolybibUon,
i. 126, Pftris, 1886; A. Schulte. Die kopHeche UebereetMung
iUr vier gro&mn Propheten, MOnster, 1803; Scrivener,
Ininduetion, ii, 01-144; H. Hsrvemat. itude nor lea ver-
tiana Copiea de ia Bible, in Revue Biblique, y (1806). 3,
427-433. 640-500. vi (1807). 1, 48-74; Gregory, TezOaitik,
l 528-553; DB, i. 668-673; EB, iv. 5006-11. 6027; W.
E. Cram is Mcustomed to note new Biblical tcxta in the
aanoal Ar^aelogieai Report of the Kgsrpt Exploration
Fund (of. that for 1005-06. pp. 66 aqq.).
On the Bohairic version of the Old Testament, especially
the PMitoteueh. ef. A. E. Brooke, in JT8, iii. 258-278. For
the Bohairic New Testament there is now the fine edition
of the Clarendon Frees by G. Homer, The Coptic Veraion of
Ikt N. T. in tke Northern DiaUet^olh^rtoiaeeaaed the Mem-
pkiHe and Bohairict wOh Introduction, erUieal Apparaiua,
and literal Eng. finafisl.,. vols, i-ii. Gospels, 1808, vols, iii-
iT. Acts and Epistles, 1005.
The Saidic New Testament is edited by P. J. Balestri in
Seemrum biUiorum fragmenta copto-aahidioa Muaei Bor-
ffiani, voL iii, Rome, 1004; the Berlin manuscript of the
Pnlter.byA. Rahlf8,G(?A, iv, 4, 1001; cf. also J. O. Prince.
Tw Veraione of Ute Coptic Paalter, in JBL, xzi, 02-00;
E. 0. Winstedt. Sahidic BibUeal FragmenU in Ae Bodleian
Ubrory, in PSBA, zxvii, 2; and C. Wessely. jSoAidMcA-
0rietAia(he Paalmenfragmente, Vienna, 1007. For parts of
the Old Testament cf. Lagarde's PenttUeueh, Leipeic, 1867,
PaaUerU veraio Memphiiiea, Gdttingen, 1875, and (for Wis-
dom. Ecdeeiastes. and Psalms) his JBgypHaca, 1883; vols,
i and ii of the Borgian Fragments, byCiasca. 1885-80; on
the importance of the Egyptian version of Job, of. Lagarde.
Mmnbiingen, G6ttingen. 1884, i, 203.
ym The Ethiopic VeTsion: In Ethiopic there
existB a translation of the Bible which has oontinued
the only one authorised among Abyssinian Chris-
tiana, and even among the Jewish Falashas; and it
still maintains its andoit authority, although the
Ethiopic long ago ceased to be spoken. There is
00 reliable injformation as to the exact time or man-
ner of its origin; but it is certain that it was made
from the Septuagint in the eariy days of Abyssin-
ian Christianity, between the fourth and the sixth
century. It is very faithful, being, for the most
part, a verbal rendering of the Gredk, readable and
fluent, and in the Old Testament often renders
closely the ideas and the words of the Hebrew.
Dillmann projected an edition of the Ethiopic
Old Testament in five volumes, of which he lived
to publish vols, i, Gen .-Ruth (1853), ii, Sam.-Kings
(1861-71), and v, the Apocrypha (1894). He ar-
ranged the manuscripts in three groups: (1) those
which contain the original translation from the Sep-
tuagint uncorrupted; (2) those the text of which has
been revised and completed from the Greek; (3) those
which have been corrected from the Hebrew. From
the circymstanoethat the Ethiopic Church was de-
pendent on that in Egypt, it is probable that the
particular recension of the Septuagint from which
the Ethiopic translation was made was the Hes-
ychian (see above, I, 1, 5 6). But the early Aramaic-
speaking missionaries influenced the translation,
as is shown by the numerous Aramaic words
which are employed to convey Christian ideas.
Possibly the Bible was translated, at least in part,
by these missionaries or their pupils.
The division into chapters was introduced at a
later day into Abyssinia, under European influ-
ences. The Ethiopic Bible includes the Apocrypha,
except the books of Maccabees, which were either
not translated or very early lost, and several
pseudepigrapha, and puts them upon perfect
equality with the canonical writings; and in this
way the number of books is given as eighty-one,
forty-six for the Old Testament, thirty-five for
the New. (See Abtbbinia and thb Abyssinian
Church.) (F. PrAtobius.)
Bibuoorapht: For lints of Ethiopic MSS. Bvailsble con-
sult the Cotaloffue* by A. T. d'Abbadie, Paris, 1859 (b gen-
eral list), by C. F. A. Dillmann (for British Museum), Lon-
don, 1847 (for Bodleian Library). Oxford. 1848, and (for
Berlin) Berlin, 1878, by W. Wright (for British Museum),
London, 1877, and by H. Zotenberg (for Biblioth^ue
National). Paris; ZDMO, y. 164 sqq. (for those in TQ-
bingen), ZDMO, xvi (for Vienna), Btdletin acientiflqua
publiS par VAcadhnie dee Seienoea, ii, 302, iii, 146 sqq.
(for those in St. Petersburg), and a general list in C. R.
Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 000-012, Leipsic, 1804. On the
version consult: C. F. A. Dillmann. in JahrhUcher der Mfr-
liaOten Wieaenachaft, v (1863), 144-161; Reckendorf, in
ZATW, vii (1887), 61-00; P. J. Bachmann. Dodekapro-
pheton athiopum, part 1, Obadiah, Halle, 1802, part 2,
Maieachi, 1803. Die Klagdieder, 1803, Jeaaia, 1803; L.
Goldschmidt, Bihliotheca (Bthiopica, Leipsic, 1803; Hack-
spill, in ZA, xi (1807), 160-161. The subject is treated
also in G. R. Gregory. Prolegomena, iii, 804-000, ut sup.;
in the Einleitung of K6nig. 1803, p. 113, of JOlicher, 1804,
p. 388, and of Ck>mill. 1806, p. 338, and the Introduction
of Scrivener, ii, 154-166.
The best ed. of the Old Testament is that of Dillmann
(ut sup.). The New Testament was first printed at Rome
in 1548-40 by the Abyssinian TasfarSion or, as he is also
called, Peter the Ethiopian, reprinted in the London Poly-
glot. Aned.was issued by T. P. Piatt for theBFBS in
182&-30, reprinted at Leipsic, 1800.
DL The Georg;ian (Iberian) Veraioii: The earliest
translations of parts of the Bible in the language of the
Iberians belong to the fifth century, and seem to be-
tray the in fluence of the Syriac version. David and
Stephen in the eight century are the first names
known of men engaged in revision of the Iberian
Bible. ApapyrusRnilterisaflsigned to the seventh
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
134
or eighth century, and a copy of the Gospels is
dated a century later (facsimile in Tsagareli). The
edition printed at Moscow, 1743, has been retouched
from the Slavonic. S. C. Malan in 1862 used this
version for his edition of the Gospel of John. On
the Georgian manuscripts of the library at Paris
there is a recent paper by A. Khakhanov.
E. Nbstlk.
Bibuoorapht: Serivener, Ininduelion, ii, 166; A. A.
Tsacareli, '* InformAtion about the Monuments of Georgian
Literature " (Ruasian). parts i-iii, St. Petersburg, 1886-04;
C. R. Qregory, Prol^oomtna, iii, 922-023, Leipdo, 1894;
idem, TexOeritik, i, 578; J. M. Bebb, in DB, iv, 861; A.
Palmieri, Le Veraiorm Oeorgian* della Bibtia, in BeMa-
rione, 2 eer., vol. v, 269-268. 322-327. vi. 72-77. 189-
194, Rome, 1901-02. On the people oonsult: A. Leist,
Daa gwrgitchB VoUt, Dresden, 1903.
X. The Gothic Version of Ulfilas: Ulfilas (q.v.),
the Moses of the Goths, as Constantino styled him
(cf. TSK, 1893, 273), was made bishop probably in
341 at Antioch and died in 381 or 383. He gave
to his people the alphabet and the Bible, but, ac-
cording to Philostorgius {Hist, eccl., ii, 5), omitted
to translate the boolu of Kings because he thought
they contained too much about war for the good of
his fierce countrymen. Of the Old Testament very
few fragments are left; viz.. Gen. v, 3-30; Ps. Iii,
2-3; Ezra xv (i.e. Neh. v), 13-16, xvi, 14-xvii,
3, xvii, 13-45. The translation follows the recen-
sion of Lucian (see above, I, 1, § 5). The Gothic
priests Sunnias and Fretela, who were in corre-
spondence with Jerome about the true readings of
certain passages in the Psalter some twenty years
after the death of Ul filas (cf . Jerome, Epiat , cvi) , were
perhaps engaged in a revision of the Gothic Psalms.
That the Psalms were sung in Gothic at Ck)nstan-
tinople is testified by Chrysostom (cf. the disserta-
tion of J. Milhlau, Zur Frage nach der gotischen
PaalmenuberaeUung, Kiel, 1904). On the frag-
ments of Ezra (Nehemiah), cf. E. Languor, Die goti-
schen Nehemia-fragmente (Sprottau, 1903).
More of the New Testcunent is preserved, thanks
to the Codex ArgerUeua now in Upsala, also by a
palimpsest from Weissenburg discovered in Wol-
fenbQttel in 1756, and fragments at Turin discov-
ered by Angelo Mai in 1817 and by Reififerscheid
in 1866. The Codex Argenteus must have had a
very near relationship to Codex /. of the Latin Bible
(cf. M. Haupt, Die Vorrede der gotischen BibelUber-
setzung, in his Opuacula, vol. iii, Leipsic, 1876;
Burkitt, JTS, i, 129; Kauffmann, ZDP, xxxii, 305-
335; Drftseke, ZWT, 1907). It was perhaps part
of a Greek, Gothic, and Latin Testament. The
version is very faithful, following the text used by
Chrysostom. More than 100 Greek and Latin
words were retained by Ulfilas (cf. C. Elis, Ueber
die Fremdwdrter und fremden Eigennamen in der
gotischen Bibeldbersetzung, Gdttingen, 1903).
E. Nestlb.
Bzblioorapht: E. Bernhardt, KriiUche UfUernuhuno^
aber die gothiMd^t BibelUberaetntng, Meiningen, 1867; K.
Weinhold, Die gothiedte Sprache im Dientte dee Ckrieten^
thutne, Halle. 1870; A. Kisch. Der SepHuiointarCodex dee
Ulphilae, in Monataechrift fUr Oeechichte und Wieeenachaft
dee Judenihume, xxii (1873), 42-46. 86-80, 21&-210; O.
Ohrloff, Die Bruehetncke , . . der gothiechen BibelUber^
eetiunff, Halle, 1873; idem, in ZDP, vii (1876), 251-205;
A. Schaubaeh, Ud>er doe VerhdUnie der gothieehen Bibel-
abereeUung . , , gu der Lutheritchen .... Meiningen,
1870; O. Kaufmann, in ZeiteArift fOr deuUtkee Alkr-
AMm, zxvii (1883); K. Marold, Kriti»dt0 Unieretukun^
aber den Binfiuee dee Lateine on/ die gothieeke BiJbdiber^
eeitung, KOnigsbers, '1881; C. R. Qregary, PtoUoomna,
iii, 1108, Leipoio, 1804; F. Kauffmann. in ZDP. xxix
(1806). 306-337; W. Bangert, Der Einflum ialeiaudtr
Queilen auf die gothiedte Bibelllbermtzuno, Rudokudt,
1880; W. Luft and F. Vogt. in Zeiiedirift fur deutMcha
AUerVium, zlu (1808); J. MOhlau. Zw Fraoe natk der
goUedten Pealmenlibereeitung, Kiel. 1004. On the Uo-
goase oonault: G. H. Balg, CompartUive Oloeaarp of th*
Golhie Lafi4ruage, 8 i>art8. New York, 1887-00; J. WrigLt.
A Primer of the Oothie Language^ London, 1800; on the
Gothie alphabet, W. Luft, ShuHen au den difetim ^enM-
niachen AlpHabelen, GQtenloh, 1808.
The Codex Argenleua was first published by Frandwus
Junius (du Jon), Dort, 1665; with the other fngments.
glossary, etc., by H. C. de Gabelents and J. Loebe, Ldjnc
1836 and 1846; in' facsimile by A. Uppstr5m,Upeala, 18H
supplemented in 1857 by ten leaves which had been stoles
but afterward recovered. The edition most uaed in (jermsny
is by F. L. Stamm, Padeibom, 1858, 0th ad., with diction-
ary by M. Heyne and grammar by F. Wrede, 1806. An-
other ed. with apparatus is by K Bernhardt, .HaDe, 1875
(text ed., 1884). There is an American edition by G.H.
Balg. The Firai Oermanie BibU, BCilwaukee.'lSOl. Fsrtiil
eds. are J. Bosworth, The Oothie and Angto-Saxon Ootpdt
. . . with . . . Wyeliffe and Tyndale, London, 1865. new
ed.. 1007, and W. W. Skeat. Mark, London, 1882.
B. Modem Venioiii.
L Arabic Venions: "^There are more Arabic
veraionB of the Gospels than can be wdoome to
theology, with its press of work," wrote Lagsrde
in the preface of his edition of the four Gospels
in Arabic (Leipsic, 1864). There are translaticns
made from Hebrew, Samaritan, Coptic, Latin,
Syriac, and Greek. There was not, as it seems, a
translation into Arabic before Mohanmied (cf. M.
J. de Goeje and M. Schreiner, in Semitic Stvdiea in
Memory of Alexander Kohut, Beiiin, 1897, p. 405).
John of Seville is said to have produced an Arabic
Bible about 737; the chronicle of Michael Synis
mentions an Arabic translation of the Gospels made
under direction of John, patriarch of Antioch, at
the command of the emir Amru. The *' Indians"
mentioned by Chrysostom between Egyptians and
Persians as in possession of the Scriptures in tbdr
mother tongue may be South-Arabians, but there
is no additional information about this venion.
Of trandationa from the Hebrew Old Teetament, by far
the moet important is the work of Saadia ben Joerph. the
Gaon, from the Fayyum (d. 942; see Saadia). On Saftdis
and his translation, of. H. Ewald and L. Dukes, Beilrigi vk
Oeadiichie der iUteeten Auelegung und SjtrackarkUtruno da
alien Teakamenta, ii (Stuttgart. 1844); B, Munk, in La BibU,
traduction nouveUe , . , par 8. Cohan, ix (Paris, 1838). 73-
159; M. Steinschneider, Die arabiaehe Literaiur der Judtn
(Frankfort, 1902), 66 sqq.; and espeeially the edition of
his collected works by J. H. Derenbourc, voL i, the P^oto-
teuch (Plans, 1893); iii, Isaiah (1896); ir. Proverbs (1899); v.
Job (ed. Bacher. 1899). On the question of the text, d.
P. Kahle, Die arabiaehen BibelllberaeUungen . . . (Leipac,
1904), no. Tiii, and against him Bacher, in TLZ, 1905, na 8.
Saadia's translation of the Pentateuch was printed fint ia
Hebrew letters with the Hebrew text. Taii^im and a Per-
sian translation at O>nstantinople, 1646, then in the fanf
and London Polyglots (see Bibleb, Poltglot, III, IV^.
For Geneflis and Exodus, cf. Lagarde. in his MaieriaiieH rv
KriHk (Leipsic, 1867). Kahle used for his specimen a nasoo-
script of Florence and Wolfenbattel, not used by Dereo-
bourg. On Isaiah, cf. Derenbouiv. in ZATW, 1890, pp- 1'
84. Of Job there is an edition by J. Cohn (Berlin, 1SS9).
On the Pmdms, cf. the dissertations of Haneberg,ia AM A,
1841, iii, 2; J. Cohn, in Magaxin far die Wiaaenackaft ^kt
Judentuma, 1881. On Oantides, cf. A. Merx. Die Saadi«r
niadte Udteraetxung daa Hohen Liadea ina Arabiaehe (Heide^
berg, 1882). On ProTerbs, cf. a dissertation of Jooms
136
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
Boodi (HaUe. 1888). On Saadi«'a flystem of tranriating,
cf. W. Easelkemper, D* Saadia Oaonia vUot bibliorum v«r-
nofw, htrmmmUiea (MOoster, 1807).
There are other Aiabic traoBlations made bom the He-
b^w by Jews such as the ^ro6s ErpenU, a translation of
the Ptotateueh made by an African Jew in the thirteenth
century (published by Erpenius, Leyden, 1622), and a trans-
Istion of the Psalms made by the Karaite Japhet ben Eli
(ed. J. J. L. Barg^ Paris, 1871); a specimen of his com-
meotary on Genesis is in Kahle, viii; his commentary on
Deuteronomy was edited by 8. Margoliouth. in Aneodota
(honienna, Semitic series, vol. i, part 3, 1809. Hosea and
Joel fzom an Oxford manuscript were edited by Schr6ter, in
Ankiv fur viamnaekaftUehs BrforBchung dst Alien Teata-
meniM, i and ii (1801^70). A FragmerU einar arabiadtan
PtiUaiaudkabaraataung was published by J. Hirsch, Leipsio,
IMa
The first specimen of an Arabic translation of the Samar-
itsn text was published by A. C. Hwiid (Rome, 1780) from
the famous triglot in the Barberini library; then by Paulus,
1789 and 1791 ; better by de Sacy, in Mimovraa da VAcadimia
da InacripHona, xlix, 1-199; 8. Kohn. in Abhandlungan fUr
die Kunda daa Morgeniandaa, vol. ▼, part 4 (Leipsic, 1876),
1-199; J. Bloch, Die aamaritaniaehrarobiatha Pantaiauch-
tiwrarirttfia (Berlin, 1901); and Kahle, ut sup., no. vi. The
Saoiaritans seem to have used at first the translation of
Ssadia; soon after 1000 they made a translation of their
own, which was revised in the middle of the thirteenth
eentury by Abu Said; Genesis, Exodus, and Leyitious of
thia version wm edited by Kuenen, 1851-64 (cf. A. (^wley,
in JE, X. 877).
Many Ooptie manuscripts have an Arabic translation by
the nde of the Coptic text; in other manuscripts contain-
ing only an Arabic version, this is derived from the O>ptio
(cf. Ara6. S in the Greek Pentateuch of Holmee-Parsons;
ne above, I, 1, i 2); for Job such a translation has been
edited by Lacarde, PsoUsriufa, Jofr, Provarbia arabioa (Ck^t-
tingen. 1870); on Psalms, cf. PaaUerirtm CopUca, ed. M. Q.
Schwartse (Leipsic, 1843), v.
From the Ls^in, either made from it or corrected by it,
sje the Roman editions such as that of Sergius Risi (Arabic
and Latin, 3 vols., Rome, 1671), the Gospels (1591), and
Paahns and Prophet9 (1614). A new recension by Rafael
Toki contains only Genesis-Nehemiah and Tobit (2 vols.,
1752). The edition of 1671 without the Apocrsi>ha has
been frequently reprinted by the BFBS since 1822 after it
had reprinted the Arabic portion of the London Polyglot
nnder the supervision of J. D. Carlyle (Newcastle, 1811).
In 1858 the Goepels, in 1860 the New Testament, in 1865
the Old Testament appeared in the new translation begun
by the American missionary Eli Smith (q.v.) and finished
by C. V. A. Van Dyck at Beirut, with the help of native
•cholara It has been frequently reprinted in Beirut, Ox-
ford, London, and New York. In competition with this
tranelation are two from Roman Gatholics, the one un-
dertaken by the Dominicans of Mosul under the direction
of Joseph David (4 vols., 1875-78), the other by the Jesuits
in Beirut (3 vols., 1876-82; reproduced by photolithography
in 1 voL, 1897; cf. on these editions Kahle, iii sqq.; A. G.
£31ii, CalaloQua of Arabic Booka in Ota BriHah Muaaum, Lon-
don, 1894 sqq.; the Bible Catalogue of the same library;
sad Dariow-Moule. Hiatorioal Catalogua cf tha CoUaction of
(kt BFBS, ii, London, 1908). Independent translations of
the New Testament are those of Salomo Negri (London,
1727) and of Nathanad Sabat (Calcutta, 1816). There is
Abo an edition of the Psalms by Negri (London, 1725; cf .
G. A. Freylinghausen, Memaria Nagriana, Halle, 1764).
From the Syriac Bible is the text of Judges, Ruth, Sam-
oel, I Kings i-xi, II Kings ii, 17 to the end. Chronicles,
Neh. ix, 28 to end, and Job in the Paris and London Poly-
Rlota. The first fo\ir books are, according to Rddiger, by
the same author, the rest by different authors. Psalms,
Proverbs, and Job have been reissued by Lsgarde
(PaoifeKiMR, etci, ut sup.) and the whole with few al-
terations by the BFBS (1811, ut sup.). A Psalter in
Syrise and Arabic in Syriac letters (the so-called Kar-
ihunie script; i.e., Gersom's manner of writing) was
printed by Haronite monks of Mount Lebanon at Kos-
chaya, 1610 (perhaps as early as 1585), and reprinted
in Arabic type by Lagarde. Leviticus, Numbers, and
I^rateronomy in the MatariaUen of Lagarde seem to have
iMen derived from the Syriac Bible. A translation of
tbe Syriac Hexapla of the Pentateuch and Wisdom is the
vork of Hareth ben Senan ben Sabat (cf. Nestle, in ZDMG,
1878. p. 468; Hobnes-Parsons, PratfaHo ad PafOaHauthum,
and Kahle, ut sup., ix). The fragments of Job were edited
by Baudissin, 1870.
From the Greek are translated the prophets and the
poetical books (except Job) in the Polyglots, perhaps also
the Psalms as edited by Athanasius, patriarch of Antioch
(Aleppo, 1706), reprinted by Lagarde with a translation of
the tenth century by Abu al-Fath Abdallah ben Fadhl.
Gregory {.TaxOcntik, Leipsio, 1902) mentions 137 Arabic
manuscripts for the New Testament. On no. 136, cf.
Stenij, Dia aitarabiacha UdtaraaUuno dar Briefa an dia Ha-
6rder, an dia Rdnur und an dia Korinther (Helaingfors,
1901). For the manuscripts on Mount Sinai, cf. the cata-
logue of Mrs. M. D. Gibson, in Studia SinaUiea, iii (Cam-
bridge, 1894), and her publication of a part of an Arabic
translation of the Epistles of St. Paul in no. ii (1893) of
the same collection; also in no. vii (1899), an Arabic trans-
lation of Acts and of the seven Catholic Epistles from an
eighth or ninth century manuscript. On the revision of
the Arabic made about 250 at Alexandria by Hibath Allah
ibn al-Assaly with various readings from the Greek, the
Syriac, and the Ck>ptic cf. D. B. Macdonald, in the Hartford
Saminary Record, Apr., 1893. Finally, the Arabic version
of Tatian's JHtUaaaaron (ed. Ciasca, Rome, 1888) must not
be forgotten. E. Nestlb.
Bibuoorapbt: On the BCSS. the one indispensable book is
I. Guidi, La iraducioni daoH evangdii in arabo . . . ,
Rome, 1888; and valuable is also C. R. Gregory, Prol^
gomena, iii, 928-947. Leipsic, 1894. On the version and
editions consult: Walton's Polyglot, Prolegomana, chap.
14, London, 1652; C. F. Schnurrer, Bibliothaca arabiea,
da Paniateucho arabieo . . . , Tttbingen. 1780; H. E. G.
Paulus, Commentaiio criHea, Jena, 1789; R. Holmes,
Vatua Teatamentum Orctea, the Preface to the Pentateuch,
Oxford, 1798: J. Roediger. Commantatio . , , de irtier-
prefolions Arabioa . . . , Halle, 1824; idem. Da origina
. . . Arabic9 . . . interpretationia, ib. 1829; J. Gilde-
meistor, Da evangeiiia in Arabieum . . . tranalaiia, Bonn,
1865; Gregory, Taxikriiik; Scrivener, IntrodueHon, ii. 161-
164; F. C. Burkitt, in DB, i, 136-138 (a lucid presenta-
tion).
n. Celtic Venions: No version of the Bible
or of single Biblical books in any of the Celtic dia-
lects has come down from the pre-Reformation
period, though a few Biblical extracts in Old
Irish (Sth-llth centuries) are extant in homilies.
After the establishment of the English Church
in 1560 as the State Church, Bishop Nicholas
Walsh of Ossory and others made an effort
toward giving the Bible to the Irish people,
and the New Testament, translated by William
O'Donnell, archbishop of Tuam, was published
at Dublin in 1603 in Irish characters. This edition
was republished at London in 1681, and in 1685
the Old Testament, translated by Bishop Will-
iam Bedell of Kilmore and others, was issued.
This edition was often reprinted, especially in a
revised form by the British and Foreign Bible
Society in 1827. A translation of the New Testa-
ment into the modem dialect of Munster by Dr. R.
O'Kane appeared at Dublin, 1858. Of the Roman
Catholic translation prepared by Archbishop John
MacHale of Tuam from the Vulgate, the first volume
only (Genesis-Joshua) has appeared (Tuam, 1861).
Gaelic, which is spoken in the Highlands and west-
em isles of Scotland, is related to Irish; conse-
quently the Scottish minister Robert Kirke, in
order to satisfy the needs of the Protestant High-
landers, had O'Donnell's Irish translation of the
New Testament printed in Roman letters and
supplied with an Irish-Gaelic glossary (London,
1690). To provide the Gaelio-speaking Highlanders
with a Bible of their own, the Society for the Pro-
motion of Christian Knowledge published in 1767
the New Testament translated by James Stuart o!
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
186
Killin, and in 1783-1801 a translation of the Old
Testament prepared by John Stuart, Jr., and
John Smith. At the instance of the same so-
ciety, Dr. Mark Hildesley, bishop of Man, dis-
tributed different parts of the Bible among
the Blanz-speaking clergy of the Isle of Man,
with the view of having a translation prepared
into this tongue. The whole was revised by
P. Moore and his pupil John Kelly. In 1770-72
the Bible in Manx was printed for the above so-
ciety at Whitehaven under the supervision of
J. Kelly, and is the basis of all later editions.
Before the Reformation hardly any parts of the
Bible were translated into Cymric. In 1562 the
House of Commons resolved to have the Bible and
the Book of Common Prayer translated into Cymric
within four years, and made the bishops of Bangor,
St. As^h, Hereford, TJandaff, and St. Davids
responsible for its execution. The New Testament
was published in London in 1567, and in 1588 the
whole Bible (revised by Bishop Richard Pany, 1620) .
All later issues follow Party's reviwd text. The
Bible has never been translated into Cornish. A
manuscript belonging to the first half of the eight-
eenth century contains a translation of Gen. i, iii;
Matt, iv, vi, 9-13, vii; and the ten commandments.
Before the beginning of the nineteenth century
only short passages of the Bible had appeared
in the Breton. The British and Foreign Bible
Society published at Angouldme in 1827 the New
Testament translated by the Breton scholar Le
Gonidec into the dialect of L6on. The translation
was made from the Vulgate, and was for other
reasons unsuitable. A new translation by the
Baptist missionary John Jenkins was printed at
Brest in 1847. Le Gonidec's translation of the Old
Testament was revised by Troude and Milin, and
published at Saint-Brieuc in 1866. In 1883 the Trin-
itarian Bible Society published a New Testament
in the dialect of Tr^guier, prepared by the Breton
Protestant G. Ar Choat, and in 1889 the whole
Bible. A Roman Catholic translation of the New
Testament was published in Guingamp in 1853, and
an edition of the Psalms at Paris in 1873. For lin-
guistic purposes C. Terrien translated the Gospel
of Matthew into the dialect of Vannes (Lundayn,
1857) at the instance of Luden Bonaparte.
(H. ZiMMSR.)
BnuooaAPHT: J. Reid, Bibliothtea Seoto-CeUiea, OImcow.
1832; tbA SeotH^^eUic Review, Nov., 1881, pp. 160 aqq.;
T. Llewelyn, An HiaUnioal Account of (he BriUth or Welsh
Veniont and EdiHone of Uie BibU, London, 1768; W.
Rowland, Uvfryddiadh of Cymry, pp. 10-21. 41-50, 93-07.
Llandloes, 1800; Revue CtUique, vi. 382. xi, 180-100, 368;
Bible of Every Land, pp. 151-173. London, 1861; I. Bal-
linger, The Bible in Walee, London, 1006.
m. Dutch Versions: The first printed Dutch
version (Delft, 1477), was made, apparently by a
layman, probably about 1300 from the Latin. Some
parts, which the translator was unwilling to popu-
larise, as Deut. xxii, 13-21, are passed over with
a reference to the Latin text. Difficult passages
have explanations mostly from the Historia achoUu-
tiea of Peter Comestor. The printed edition omits
Psalms and the New Testament, though both are
contained in a good manuscript of this version at
Vienna. A very good translation of the Psalms is
found in several incunabula. About 1,300 traiuda-
tions of the New Testament, or at least of the
church lessons or of the life of Christ, began to
be made. A translation of the New Testament of
Erasmus appeared at Delft in 1524, and two yean
before at Antwerp a translation of Luther's version
was printed by Hans van Roemundt (repeated at
Basel, 1525 and 1526, also, a little altered, at Am-
sterdam, 1526) . The Old Testament with the Pen-
tateuch and Psalms translated from Luther, the
rest the text of the Delft edition revised, was
printed, also by Roemundt, in 1525 in four small
vols.; and the first complete Dutch Bible was
printed at Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Liesveldt.
It was reprinted and corrected several times until
1546, when Charies V prohibited the edition.
Roman Catholic editions of the New Testament fol-
lowed in 1527, 1530, and 1533, in Dutch and Latin
in 1539. The whole Bible did not appear until after
the meeting of the Council of Trent, at Cologne in
1548 by Alexander Blanckart, and at Louvain in
the same year by Nicolaus van Winghe with a sharp
preface against the Protestant editions. In 1599 it
was revised after the official Vulgate of 1592, again
in 1717 by iEgidius Wit of Ghent. After 1820 the
Roman Catholics were allowed to use editioDs
without notes, and such an edition of 1599, caUed
the Mdrentorf Bible (from its publisher), was cir-
culated by the British and Foreign Bible Society.
The division of Dutch Protestantism into various
parties, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Reformed,
caused the production of various versions. The
Lutherans received a version in 1558 after Bugen-
hagen's edition in Low (jerman; it has been several
times revised and reprinted up to 1851. The Men-
nonites used a version printed by Nicolaes BiestiEeos
at Emden in 1560, the first Dutch edition with verse
divisions. The Reformed received another in 1556,
based on the Zurich Bible of 1548-49 (see below,
VII, § 5); but in 1562 they adopted a version
based on Luther's, called the Deux Aes or Eulen-
spiegel Bible (from the marginal notes at Neh. ii,
5 and Ecdus. xix, 5). The Remonstrants used
at first the Staatenbibel (see below) but received
a New Testament of their own from Hartsoeker
in 1680.
After the beginning of the seventeenth century
the necessity of improving the Dutch versions was
felt and was shown especially by W. Baudartius of
Zutphen, who published in 1614 an emended transla-
tion. As early as 1594 the States General deter-
mined on undertaking a revision. The result is
the Staatenhibel, At first Philips van HCamix (q.v.)
was entrusted with the task of a new translation;
in 1596 Johannes Drusius (q.v.) was appointed his
assistant. The Synod of Dort discussed the ques-
tion in eight sessions in Nov., 1618, and Uaj,
1619. The work of translation was completed in
1632, the revision of the Old Testament Sept,
1634, that of the New Testament, Oct. 10, 1635.
The first edition was printed, with and without
notes, in 1636, but not published before July 29,
1637. An official list of misprints followed in
1655 and in 1711 for the first time an edition was
stereotyped. An edition of 500 copies of the New
Testamwt was printed for Peter the Great in 1717,
137
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
and of the Old Testament in five parts in 1721, in
two columns, one being left blank in order to re-
ceive in St. Petersburg the Russian text. Language
and orthography raised difficult questions in a re-
vision of 1762, and another by Henry Cats and
W. A. van Hengel in 1834. The first impression
for the British and Foreign Bible Society was made
in 1812.
About the middle of the last century members
of the theological faculty of Leyden began a new
revision; the New Testament was finished in 1866;
woiic on the Old Testament was interrupted for a
time, but was resumed in 1884 by A. Kuenen and
his pupils, H. Oort, W. H. Kosters, and J. Hooykas.
The first instalment appeared at Leyden in 1897,
the first part (Gen .-Esther) in 1900, the second part
(Job-Malachi) in 1901.
Of other translations that by J. H. van der Palm
(1825 and often) is worthy of mention. The New
Testament has been translated by 0. Viasering,
a Mennonite (1854), by S. P. Lipman, a Roman
Catholic (1861), and by 0. J. Vos of the Reformed
Cliurch (1895). E. Nestle.
Bibuoorapht: The really important work is Isaac Le Long,
Bak-Zaal der nederduitBdis BybtU, Amsterdam, 1732, 2d
ed.. 1764. Consult also BibU of Every Land, pp. 181-186,
London, 1861; H. van Druten, Oeeehiedenia der Neder-
taf»d$du BvbelvertaUng, 2 vols., Leyden. 1896-97; Q. N.
De Vooys. ThT, March. 1903; J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra
▼ol., pp. 414-415.
On the StaatenbiiM consult N. Hinlopen, Hietorie van
de NedeHandaehe OverwetHmfe dee Bybele, Leyden, 1777;
P. Meyes, Jacabue Reviue, Amsterdam, 1806; J. Hein-
sius, Klank-en Buitfinifleer van de tool dee ttatenbijbele.
Amsterdam, 1897.
IV. English VerBions: Setting aside the Biblical
poetry that is in the main wroxigly ascribed to the
Anglo-Saxon Csdmon (q.v.), and the translation
of John's Gospel which Bede finished on his death-
bed, but of which nothing further is known, the
Psalms seem to have been the first part of the
Bible to be translated into English. An Anglo-
Saxon paraphrase is extant containing
B^Tklt *^ ^"^ ^*y Psahns in prose, the
Yer^LwDa. «8t in verse (ed. B. Thorpe, Oxford,
1835), which has been incorrectly at-
tributed to Aldhelm (q.v.), bishop of Sherborne,
who died in 709, and to King Alfred; the name
of the translator is not known, but he did
his work after 778 and used the Latin, not
the Greek text, as did all the others down to and
induding Wydif . A translation of the four (xospels
was made probably in the ninth centuiy (ed. Mat-
thew Parker, 1571; T. Marshall, 1665; B. Thorpe,
Tha halffon Godapd an Englisc. The Anglo-Saxon
Vernon of the Holy OogpeU, London, 1842; Joseph
Bosworth and George Waring, The Gothic and
Anglo'Saxan Oo8pels, London, 1865; new ed.,
1907), and interlinear fosses for the Psalms and
the (jospels in the ninth and tenth centuries
iPaallerium Davidis LaUno-Saxonicum veius, Lon-
don, 1640). The so-called Vespasian Cxospels prob-
ably belong to the first half of the ninth century
(cf. J. Stevenson, Anglo-Saxon and Early English
Psalter, 2 vols., London, 1843-47; H. Sweet, The
Oldest English Texts, Early English Text Society,
vol. 83, London, 1885, pp. 183-^20; E. Wende,
UAeriieferung und Sprache der mitteUnglischen Ver-
sion des Psalters und ihr Verhdltnis zur lateinischen
Vorlage, Breslau, 1884). There are other similar
glosses to the Psalter in the libraries of Cambridge
University and Trinity Gollege. Cambridge, in the
British Museum, in the Bodleian at Oxford, in
Lambeth Palace, and Salisbury Cathedral. For other
Gospel versions, cf . G. Stevenson and G. Waring, The
Lindisfame and Rushrvorth Gospels (4 vols., Durham
and London, 1854-66); K. W. Bouterwek, Die
vier Evangelien in aUnorthumbrischer Sprache
(Gateraloh, 1857); W. W. Skeat, The Gospel according
to MaUhew, etc. (Cambridge, 1887,— AfarA;, 1871;
Luke, 1871; John, 1878); A. S. Cook, A Glossary of
the Old Northumbrian Gospels (Halle, 1894). Alfric
(q.v.) translated the Pentateuch and Joshua in
997-998. The following may also be mentioned:
homilies on the lessons by the Augustinian monk
Ormin in the twelfth or thirteenth century (the
so-called Ormulum); the translation of the
Psalms by William de Shorham, vicar of Chart-
Sutton, near Leeds in County Kent, about 1325
(the manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin, owned
by John Hyde and perhaps written by him,
may be a revision of this translation); and the
commentary with a translation of the Psalms by
Richard RoUe of Hampole near Doncaster, York-
shire, written about 1330 (cf. H. R. Bramley, The
Psalter . , . by Richard RoUe . . . Edited from
Manuscripts, Oxford, 1884; Heinrich Middendorft,
Studien Ober Richard RoUe von Hampole, Magde-
burg, 1888).
The language developed and the thoughts of
men strode onward. John Wyclif (q.v.) entered
the lists to war for the pure truth, and he deter-
mined to give the people the Bible. With the help
of his pupil Nicholas of Hereford (q.v.) he seems to
have translated the whole Bible, and when he was
charged with heresy and driven from
2. Wyolif. Oxford m 1382, he withdrew to Lutter-
worth and revised the whole very
carefully. His pupil John Purvey (q.v.) appears
also to have revised some things in the Old
Testament; he did all he could to spread the
translation abroad after Wydif's death (cf . The
New Testament in English, Translated by John
Wydiffe circa 1380, now first printed from a contem^
porary manuscript, . . . Printed at Chisunck by
Charles WhUtingham for William Pickering, Lon-
don, 1848; Josiah Forshall and Frederic Madden,
The Holy Bible . . . in the Earliest English Ver-
sions Made . . . by John Wydiffe and his Follow-
ers, 4 vols., Oxford, 1850, with a list of 170
manuscripts; J. ten Brink, Geschichte der englischen
Litteratur, vol. ii, by Alois Brandl, Strasburg,
1893, pp. 5-32, especially pp. 27; A. Richter, Das
Wydiffesche Evangdium Johannis im 500, Bde,
der Tauchnitzer Collection of British Authors, die
Wydiffesche Bibduberseteung, und das VerhOltnis
des ersteren zu der letzteren, programme of the
gymnasium at Wesel, Aug. 30, 1862). The first
English Bible, the first Bible at all in a modem
tongue, was well received by the people, but for
a century and a half was the object of attack by
priests and nobility. Even long after the dis-
covery of printing no one could think of publish-
ing this translation. It finally came out as a
Btbl« Terslons
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
138
literaxy neoearity in 1731, edited by J. Lewis
(reprinted by H. H. Baber, London, 1810,
and by Baxter, London, 1841; the edition of
1848 ia named above). For another version of
thia period oonault the work of a Swedish lady,
Anna G. Panes, A Fourteenth Century English
Biblical Version (Cambridge, 1904).
The first to translate the New Testament
in English from the original Greek was William
lyndale (q.v.). He printed Matthew and Mark
first, somewhere on the Continent, in
8. Tyndale. 1524 and 1525, and then the whole New
Testament in quarto, partly at Cologne
at Peter Quentel's before 1526, partly, it seems,
at Worms (at Peter Schdffer'sT) in 3,000 copies,
and in octavo at Cologne- at SchOffer's in
3,000 copies. Both editions were in En^and
by about March, 1526 (cf. The First Printed
English New Testament Translated by WiUiam
Tyndale, PhoUdithographed. . . . EditedbyE.Arber,
London, 1871; The First New Testament Printed
in the English Language . . , by WiUiam Tyndale.
Reproduced in facsimile , . , by F. Fry, Bristol,
1862; James Loring Clieney, The Sources of Tyn-
dale^s New Testament, Halle, 1883, especially pp.
39, 40; W. Sopp, Orthographie und AusspratAe
der ersten neuenglischen BibelQbersetzung von William
Tyndale, Marburg, 1889). The hierarchy attacked
Tyndale's work violently. The first public burning
of the volume appears to have taken place in the
autimmof 1526. William Warham (q.v.), arch-
bishop of Canterbury, thought in May, 1527, that
his agents had bought up all the copies of all
three editions. In 1528 the readers of the New
Testament had to take their turn at being burned.
Tyndale published the Pentateuch Jan. 17, 1530, at
Marburg, Joshua in 1531.
William Roye, George Joye (afterward a bitter
enemy), Miles Coverdale (q.v.), John Rogers (q.v.),
and John Frith (q.v.) were among the friends who
from time to time worked with Tyndale. Cov-
erdale completed at Antwerp, Oct. 4, 1535. the
printing of his translation of the whole Bible
" out of Douche and Latyn " (i.e. the
4. Oover- German of Luther and the Zurich Bible
^J; of 1524-29-see below, VII, § 5—
Bditions. ^^^ ^^^ Vulgate), using also Tyndale's
work. This was the first complete
Bible in English; in it the non-canonical books
of the Old Testament are in an appendix by
themselves, named " Hagiographa." In 1537
the "Matthew" Bible came out, a speculation
on the part of the king's printer, although most
of it was perhaps printed in Antwerp; it
was a combination of Tyndale and Coveidale,
made by John Rogers (alias Matthew) in
.\ntwerp. In 1539 appeared the "Tavemer"
Bible, a revision of the Matthew Bible by
Richard Tavemer (q.v.). The "Great" Bible
was brought out by Oomwell, Eari of Essex,
Thomas Cranmer (q.v.), and Thomas More (q.v.),
and a committee of prelates and scholars, and
was printed under Coverdale's supervision, partly
at Parin, till the Inquisitor-General attacked it Dec.
17, 1538, and then in London, where the volume
was finiflhcd in Apr., 1539; the second edition(" Cran-
mer's " Bible, 1540) was " apoynted to the vse of
the churches"; the Psalter from this Bible still staiufa
in the prayer4MX>k of the Knglish Church. In 1557
William Whittingham published at Geneva an Eng-
lish New Testament with Stephens's verBe-dirifflon
of 1551 (see Bulk Text, III, }§ 2-^3) and withmany
corrections of the translation. In 1558 Coverdile
began in Geneva a new Bible, but returned to
England in 1559, while Whittingham, Anthooy
Gilby, and Thomas Sampson finished the print-
ing of the handsome edition known as the
"Geneva" Bible in Apr., 1560. Ardibishop
Parker (q.v.) with eleven bishops and four minor
prelates began in 1563 a revision of the ecfition of
1539, which was completed Oct. 5, 1568, as the
" Bishops' " Bible; but it was not especially liked;
in the churches they used chiefly the Bible of 1539
and at home the Geneva Bible. See Bibles,
Annotated, and Biblb Suioiarieb, II, {( 1-2.
The Roman Catholic fugitives on the Gontineiit
now prepared an Eng^h version and published
the New Testament at Reims in 15S2; the Old
Testament followed in two volumes at Douai
(q.v.) in 160&-10 (the first edition of the "Douai ''
Bible; cf. Gregory Martin, A Z>t»-
^^^ coverie of the Manifold Corruptiont of
mSSi. ^ ^^^ Scriptures by the Herdikes of
our Daies, etc., Rekns, 1582; Will-
iam Fulke, A Defence of the Sincere and True Trans-
lations of the Holie Scriptures . . . againd . . .
Gregorie Martin, London, 1583, ed. C. H. Harts-
home for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843).
[Both works profess to be "faithfully translated
out of the authentical Latin, diligently conferred
with the Hebrew, Greek, and other editions in di-
vers languages," and are provided with argumenU
of books and chapters, annotations, and "other
helps for the better understanding of the text, and
specially for the discovery of the comiptionfi of
divers late translations, and for clearing the con-
troversies in religion of these days." The New
Testament was reprinted at Antwerp in 1600; the
two Testaments were united by Richard C^hal-
loner (q.v.) in a five volume edition published in
London, 1749-50. The version was promoted by
Cardinal William Allen (q.v.) and the translation
was by Gregory Martin, a former fellow of St.
John's College, Oxford, revised by Allen, Richard
Bristow, fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and
probably others. The annotations, tables, etc,
for the Old Testament were by Thomas Worthing-
ton, a graduate of Oxford (Brasenose College) and
president of Douai College 1599-1613. The long
interval between the publication of the two Testa-
ments was due to lack of means as the translation
of both was completed before 1582. The English
of the translation is faulty owing to too close fol-
lowing of the Vulgate, and from the critical stand-
point it possesses the advantages and defects
inherent in that Latin version. An daborate pref-
ace of more than twenty pages explains and justi-
fies the translation. The notes are characterised
by the controversial spirit of the time in which
they were produced. The Douai version became
the standani Bible of the Enghsh Roman Catho-
lics and, with extensive changes in language and
139
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
orthogn^hy introduced in Challoner's various
editions (see Cralloner, Richard), stiU remains
such. American editions were published in New
York in 1854 and 1861. Consult Henry Cotton,
Rhemes and Daway (Oxford, 1855); F. £. C. Gigot
(Roman Catholic), Oeneral Introduction to the Study
of the Scriptures (New York, 1900), pp. 345 sqq.]
Puritan dissatiiBfaction with existing versions, or
perhaps with the existence of another version than
the one used and approved by themselves, was
urged by John Reynolds (q.v.), head of Ciorpus
Christi College, Oxford, at the Hampton Court
Conference (q.v.) in Jan., 1604. The idea of a
new Bible translation, to be made ostensibly at
his instance and under his direction, was congenial
to James I. By the summer of 1604 the prelimi-
Dsries were completed. A commission of six " com-
panies," each of nine scholars (two
^t^'r^fd*" co™P*^®* ^'^^ ^ Westminster, Ox-
Ymdra. ^<*"^» ^^^ Cambridge; actually forty-
seven members took part; for names
of the translators, the division of the work, and
much other information about the Authorized Ver-
sion in convenient form, cf. Mombert's Hand Book,
chap, xiii; Schaff's Companionf chap, vii), was ap-
pointed by James and very strict rules were laid
down for the work. After years of labor (although
6ome say that the work really began only in 1607
and lasted but two years and a lulf ), during which
some passages were wrought over fourteen or even
seventeen times, the version appeared in 1611 in
two folio editions, set up and printed at the same
time so as to have a large number of copies very
quickly; in the same year a duodecimo edition
came out, of which only one copy (in the Lenox
Library, New York City) is said to be known, and
in 1613 what is called the second folio edition.
The translation was then called " The Authorised
Vereion " (although it does not appear ever to have
been " authorized ") or " King James's Version,"
and the title read " Appointed to be read in
Churches." The translation was good, clear, dig-
niBed, idiomatic, and suited to the people. Of
course, like everything new, it was at first and for
a long time sharply attacked, but little by little it
made its way, and in 1661 the Epistles and Gos-
pels in the Fngliah prayer-book were changed to
this translation. F. H. A. Scrivener published a
critical edition of this version: The Cambridge Para-
graph Bible of the Authorized English Version, etc.
(Cambridge, 1873), in which he compared many of
the reprints, as well as the revisions of Dr. Paris
in 1762, Dr. Blayney in 1769, and of the American
Bible Society in 1867; unfortunately Scrivener does
not give the exact text of 1611 or of 1613.
On Feb. 10, 1870, on motion of Samuel Wil-
bcrforce (q.v.), bishop of Winchester, the Con-
vocation of C^terbury determined upon a re-
vision of the Authorized Version (cf. Mombert,
Hand Book, chxp. xiv; Schaff, Companion, chap,
viii). About thirty-seven scholars
^^J2j were asked to take up the Old Tc»-
Tersion. tament, and about twenty-nine the
New Testament, although the number
really working at any time was less. At least
five religious bodies besides the Church of
England shared in the work. In like manner
two groups of scholars from nine different relig-
ious bodies took up the work in America and
the results of the deliberations were exchanged
across the sea. The Greek text of the New
Testament (cf . Ths Greek Testament vrith the Read-
ings Adopted hy the Revisers of the Authorized
Version, Oxford, 1881) was thoroughly worked
over and the translation made on the basis of
the result compared with the translation of 1611,
and in every detail filed and polished. The re-
vised New Testament was published in England
May 17, 1881, and in America, May 20, 1881;
the Old Testament appeared May 19, 1885. Three
million copies of the New Testament were sold
within a year. The reception, especially in
England, was at first, as was to be expected,
not very friendly. A very few indeed were dis-
satisfied because too few alterations had been
made. The great mass struggled against the
change of old familiar words and found support in
one scholar or another. Some conservative scholars
condemned the English dress while they approved
the changes made in the original text, and others
took offense at the new readings in the original
text, because they considered the common readings
sacred. America had a peculiar reason for com-
plaint, seeing that many an expression which Amer-
ican scholars had preferred was to be found only
in the appendix, and they were bound not to issue a
new edition within fourteen years. That time was
up in 1896, and the American edition, a model of
exact work, appeared in New York in 1901. As
the years pass the revision gains friends, and gains
them more rapidly than did the revision of 1611.
Caspab Ren6 Grbqobt.
The following is a list (inoomplete) of translations of the
Bible or parts of it into English or attempts at revision of
the Authorised Version hy indiyiduals previous to the re-
vision of 1881-86 (see also Bibx.bb, Annotated, and Biblb
SuMMARisB, II). Daniel Maoe, a Presbsrterian clergyman,
N. T. (2 vols., London. 1729; Ok. text with a scholarly
but eccentric transl.); Anthony Purver, a Quaker, A New
and Literal Tranal. of AU the Booke of the O. and N. T. (2
vols., London, 1764; has notes); Edward Harwood, A
Liberal TraneL of the N. T. (2 vols., London,
8. Xinor 1768; described as an attempt to transUte
Verslona. the sacred writings with the *' freedom,
spirit, and elegance " of other translations
from the Qreek; has notes and includes the First Epistle
of Clement); Henry Southwell, entire Bible (London, 1782;
the A. V. with notes. '* wherein the mistranslations are cor-
rected "); George Campbell, professor in Aberdeen, The
Four Ooepele (2 vols., London, 1789; has dissertations and
notes); Gilbert Wakefield, a Unitarian, N. T. (3 vols.,
London, 1791); James Macknight, AU the Apoetolical Ejne-
tlee (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1796; has commentary, notes, and
life of Paul); William Newcome, archbishop of Armagh,
N. T. (2 vols., Dublin, 1796; from Griesbach's text; a Uni-
tarian version based on Neweome's work was issued by
Thomas Belsham in 2 vols., London, 1808; Newcome also
published " attempts " at improved versions of the Minor
Prophets, 1785, and Esekiel, 1788; his manuscript mate-
rials for a revised O. T. are in Lambeth Palace); Nathaniel
Scarlett, successively a Methodist, Universalist, and Bap-
tist, N. T. (London, 1798; with not«s); David Macrae, A
Revieed Tranel. and Interpretation of Ote Sacred Scripharee,
€ffter the Baetem manner, from roncwrrent authoritiee of the
erxHee, interpretere, and commenlatare* eopiee and nertions,
ehowing thai Ote inepired vriHnge contain the eeede of the
valuaUe edeneee, etc. (2 parts, London, 1798-99^; Charles
Thomson, entire Bible, the O. T. from the Septuagint (4
vols.. Philadelphia, 1808); John BeUamy, O. T. through
Bibl« Teraions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
140
Bone of SoL (London, 1818 aqq.; has notM); Alexmnder
Campbell, founder of the Dteeiples of Christ, N. T. (1820;
see Camfbbli.. Ai«kzakdcb); Rodolphus Dickinson, an
American Episcopalian, N. T. (Boston, 1833; has notes);
Noah Webster, the lezicoKrapher, the Bible " with amend-
ments of the language " (New Haven. 1833; the amend-
ments were the removal of obsolete words or *' those deemed
below the dignity and solemnity of the subject, the eorree-
tion of errors in grammar, and the insertion of euphe-
misms, words, and phrasss which are not very offensive to
deUcacy "); Nathan Hale, N. T. (Boston, 1836; from
Griesbaeh's text); Granville Penn, N. T. (London. 1830);
C. WeUbeloved, a Unitarian, Pentateuch and Job-Song of
SoL (2 vols., London, 1838; " a new transl." witb notes);
Samuel Sharpe. the Egyptologist, N. T. (London, 1840;
from Griesbaeh's text) and O. T. (3 vols., 1806; there were
eight eds. of the former and four of the latter during the
author's Ufe; Sharpe's revision is commended for skilful
removal of the archaisms of the A. V.); Edgar Taylor,
N. T. (London, 1840; from Griesbaeh's text; a meritorious
verrion); Joshua V. Himes, the " liillerite," N. T. (Boston,
1849); James Murdock, N. T. from the Peshito (New York,
1851); Andrews Norton, Gospels (2 vols., Boston, 1865);
Gospel of John (London, 1857) and Pauline Epistles (1801)
by Henry Alford, George Moberly, W. G. Humphry, C. J.
Ellioott, and John Barrow; L. A. Ambrose, N. T. (Boston,
1858; with chronological arrangement and ** improved "
chapter and verse divisions); L. A. Sawyer, N. T. (Boston,
1858). entira Bible (New York, 1879 sqq.); Bobert Young,
author of the coneordanoe, entire Bible (Edinburgh, 1803;
very literal); T. S. Green, The Twofold N. T. (London.
1804; Gk. text and new transl. in parallel columns); Henry
Alford. N. T. (London, 1809); G. R. Noyes, professor in
Harvard, N. T. (Boston. 1809; from Tischendorfs text;
Prof. Noyes also published translations of Job, 1827, PMlms,
1831, the Prophets, 1833, and Proverbs, Ecdesiastes, and
Canticles, 1840); J. N. Darby. N. T. (2d ed., London,
1872); J. B. Botherham, N. T. (London. 1872; from text
of Tregelles, with introduction and notes); Samuel David-
son, N. T. (London, 1875; from Tischendorfs text, with
introduction); J. B. Mc(71el]an, (3ospels (London. 1875;
based on A. V. with a " critically revised " text); Julia E.
Smith, entire Bible (Hartford. 1870); Ths Reviami Engliah
BibU (O. T. by F. W. Goteh and Benjamin Davics, N. T.
by G. A. Jacob and S. G. Green, London, 1877; with notes,
Ubles, and maps); The Sunday Sduxd Centenary Bible, by
T. K. Cheyne. R. L. Clarke. S. R. Driver, A. Ckwdwin. and
W. Sanday (London, 1880; republished, 1882. as The Vari-
crum Teaeher'a BibU). The American Bible Union, formed
in 1850 (see Biblb Sociribs, III. 2). undertook an Eng-
lish version which should reflect Baptist views in the lan-
guage used, and published the N. T. (2d revision. New York
and London. 1809) and certain books of the O. T. Since
1882 the work has been continued by the American Bap-
tist Publication Society of Philadelphia and is now nearing
completion. Among the scholars who have collaborated
in this version are John A. Broadus, T. J. Conant, H. B.
Hackett, William R. Harper, Alvah Hovey. A. C. Kendrick,
Ira M. Price, J. R. Sampey, and B. C. Taykir. A present
day tendency is represented by The Bible in Modem Eng-
IxA, translated direct from the original languages by Ferrar
Fenton, with critical introduction and notes (St. Paul's
cqistles. London. 1894; N. T. complete. 1895; O. T., 1903).
The following are by Roman (}atbolies: John Oaryll, a
layman, secretary to the qiieen of James II and intimately
associated with the family of James, the Psalms (St. Ger-
mains, 1700; a prose version from tiie Vulgate taking Bel-
larmine as a guide); (}omeliu8 Nary, parish priest of St.
Biichan's. Dublin. The N. T. . , . neuAy Tranalaied out of
ihe LaUn Vulgate (Dublin, 1718; has annototions and notes);
Robert Witham, president at Douai, Annotatione on the
N. 7*. (2 vols.. Douai. 1730; explains the " Uteral sense."
'* examines and disproves " false interpretations, and gives
*'an account of the chief differences betwixt the text of
the ancient Latin version and the Greek "); '* Troy's
Bible" (DubUn. 1791; ed. the Rev. Bernard MacMahon.
who had already edited three annotated editions of the
Reims N. T.; this Bible is annotated and the text of the
N. T. differs considerably from Challoner; the name comes
from J. T. Troy, titular archbishop of Dublin, who ap-
proved the work); Alexander Geddes. (jenesis-II (chron-
icles and the Prayer of Manasses (2 vols., London, 1792-
1797) and Psalms i-oviii (1807; see Gbddbs, Alexandbr);
the " Newcastle N. T." (1812; differs from every other
known edition in the Gospels and Acts); John lioKard. A
New Vereian of ffte Four Oo&pde (London. 1830; for the
most part from the Greek; has notea); F. P. Keozick.
bishop of Philadelphia, later archbishop of Baltimore. N. T.
(2 vols.. New York, 1849-61; " a revision of the Rheini«h
translation with notes "); F. A. Spencer. O. P., N. T. (Nev
York, 1898 eqq.; from the Greek). The work of Biabop
Challoner has been tefeiied to above (f 6).
The following are eertain rare and curious editions of tbs
English Bible with the passage or fact which gives to each
its name. The Broeekee BibU: the Geneva Bible of I5aO;
Gen. iii. 7 reads '* They sewed fig leavea together and made
themselves breeches " (also in Wydif); the Bug Bibk: aa
edition of the Matthew Bible in 1551; Pn
9. Bare xd, 6 reads " So that thou shalt not nsda
and to be afraid for any bugges [i.e., bogies] by
Ooxioiia ni^t " (also in Coverdale and Tavenwr;;
Bdltiona. the Caxton Memorial BibU: Oxford. 1S77:
printed and bound in 100 copies in twelve
hours; the Dia<Aarge BibU: London, 1802; I Tun. t. 31,
" I discharge [for chargel thee before God"; the Eon to
Bar BOde: Oxford, 1807; Matt. xiii. 43. " Who hath esn
to ear " (also has " good works " for " dead works ' ia
Heb. ix, 14): the Gooee BibU: Doit editions of the Qeaer%
Bible, because the Dort press had a goose as its embleni;
the He and She BibUe: the first and the aeoond folio edi-
tions of the version of 1611; in Ruth iii. 16, the former
reads '* He measured six measures of barley and laid it on
her: and he went into the city "; the latter ** and she went
into the city "; both issues were used by printers as eopy
until in and after 1614 all have ** she " (cf. the Revised
Version, text and margin); the Zjeda Bible: the first Biah-
ops' Bible (1508); it used a series of initial letters prepared
for Ovid's Metamorphoeee and that for the Epistle to the
Hebrews represented Leda and the swan (also called the
Treacle Bible, see below); the Mwrderere* BibU: has " mur-
derers " for ** murmurers " in Jude 10. also other miaprist*;
the Plaeemakere' BibU: the second edition of the (jenrvs
Bible (1602); has ** plaoemakers " for *' peacemakers " in
Matt. V, 9; the RAduOi BibU: London, 1823; (Sen. xxir.
01, ** And Rebekah aroae and her camels " (for " damMla ");
the Roein BibU: the first Douai Bible (1009-10): Jer.
viU. 22. " Is there no rxMin in GileadT" (A. V. "balm"):
the Standing Fiahee BibU: London, 1800; £sek. xlvii. 10.
** The fishes [for fishers] shall stand upon it " ; (the error
was repeated in editions of 1813 and 1823); the Tkuwik
BibU: Aberdeen. 1070; it is about one inch square ssd
half an inch thick; the To Remain BibU: (Cambridge. 1805;
Gal. iv, 29. ** Persecuted him that was bom after the Spirit
to remain even so it is now " (the words '* to remain " hsd
been written on the proof in answer to a query whether or
not a conuna should be deleted; the error was retained in
an edition printed for the Bible Society in 1806-06 and in
an edition of 1819); the TreaeU BibU: the first Bishops'
Bible (1608; also called the Leda Bible, see above): Jer.
viii. 22, ** Is these no tryade in Gilead " (cf. the Rmid
Bible); the Vinegar Bible: Oxford. 1710-17; has " vine-
gar " for " vineyard " as the heading to Luke xx (it was
printed by J. Baskett. and though the most sumptuous of
the Oxford Bibles, soon came to be styled " a basketful of
printer's erron "); the Wicked Bible: London. 1631: the
negative was left out of the seventh commandment (it wv
printed by the king's printer and there were four editioiu
in the same year; all were suppressed and the printer va*
fined £300); another Wicked Bible (London. 1053) makes
Pkul ask. I (}or. vi. 9. " Know ye not that the unrighteous
shall inherit the kingdom of CSodr " the Wife-Hater BibU:
Oxford, 1810; Luke xiv, 20, *' If any man come to me and
hate not his father . . . yea, and his own wife [for bfc]
also, he can not be my disciple." The list of misprioM
might be greatly extended. A Cambridge Bible of 1629,
printed and proof-read with great care, introduced "th>'
doctrine " for " the doctrine " in I Tim. iv. 16. and the
error reappeared for many years. An Edinburgh octavo
of 1037 has, Jer. iv, 17. " because she hath been relipow*
[rebellious] against me." Perhaps the finest Bible ever
printed at Cambridge (1038) has a famous error in ActJ
vi, 3, which is said to have cost Oomwell £1.000 as a bribe
— •• whom ye [for we] may appoint." Cotton Mather re-
lates that a Bible printed before 1702 made David oomplaio
in Ps. cxix, 101, ** Printen [princes] have persecuted me
without a cause." The " wicked " Bible of 1631 does not
furnish the only instance of an infelicitous omission of a
negative; an Edinburgh Bible of 1700 reads, Heb. ii, 1^
141
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versioiis
** He took on him the nature of angels " (correct reading
" he took not "); another (Edinburgh. 1816) has, Luke
Ti. 29. " Forbid [not] to take thy coat also "; and a London
Bible of 1817 reads, John xvii, 25, " O righteous Father,
the world hath [not] known thee." On the other hand an
Edinburgh edition of 1701 makes the Psalmist's prayer
(oix. 35) " Make me not to go in the path of thy oom-
maadments." The errors of an Oxford Bible of 1804 in-
ehide. Num. zzzy, 18, ** The murderer shall surely be put
tc«ether " (for " to death "), I Kings yiii, 19, '* out of thy
lions [krios]," and. Gal, v, 17. " For the flesh lusteth after
[against] the Spirit." A Cambridge Bible of 1810 reads in
Mai. ir, 2. " shall the son [sun] of righteousneos arise . . .
and shall [for ye shall] go forth." An Oxford Bible of 1820
has, Isa. fanri, 0, '* Shall I bring to the birth and not cease
[eaose] to bring forth? " A (Cambridge Bible of 1826 has
" heart " for " hart " in Ps. xlii, 1, and the error was re-
peated in an edition of 1830. A Bible printed at Utica,
N. Y.. in 1829 begins Jas. v, 17. " Elias was a man possible
like unto us " ("subject to like passions as we are "). One
of Jesper Harding's early editions, published at Philadel-
phia, has m I Kings i, 21. ** The king shall dagger sleep
with his fathers " (the copy read ** The king shall f Bleep
with his fathers "). A Bible published at Hartford in 1837
makes II Tim. iii, 10, read, " All scripture is given by in-
ipiration of God, and is profitable ... for destruction
[instruction] in righteousness." An edition printed for the
American Bible Society in 1855 has in Mark v, 3, " Who
had his dwelling among the lambs [tombs]." The Great
Bible in 1539 introduced the mistranslation " fold " for
"flock " in John x, 10, and it was not oorrected till the
Reyised Version. Some of the renderings in the early ver-
■oos are extremely quaint. In Gen. xxxix, 2, Tyndale has,
" And the Lord was with Joseph and he was a lucky fel-
low," and in Matt, vi, 7, ** When ye pray, babble not much."
Coverdale renders Judges xr, 9, " Then God opened a gome
tooth in the eheke bone so the water went out," and I
lungs xxii, 34, " Shott the King of Israel between the
mawe and the lunges."
English-speaking Jews have used freely the Authorised
Vernon, also, since its appearance in 1885, the revised Old
Testament. Tks JmatMh SUAool and Family BibU (4 parts.
London, 1851-^1) has a new translation by A. Benisch,
and Thg Jewuk Family Bible (London, 1884) has a revi-
sion of the Authorised Version by M. FriedULnder; the
latter was sanctioned by the chief rabbi of the British
Jews. Isaac Leeser, a pioneer Jewish rabbi and founder
of the Jewish press in America, published a translation of
the complete Old Testament at Philadelphia in 1854. giv-
ing practically new versions of the Prophets, Psalms, and
Job and following the Authorised Version in other parts.
In 1898 the Jewish Publication Society of America (Phiht-
delphia) took in hand the preparation of a complete revi-
aon, with M. Jastrow, Sr., as editoi^in-chief and K. Kohler
sod F. de Sola Mendes as associate editors. In 1905 Dr.
Kohler's translation of the Psalms was issued (cf. the JB,
iii, 194-195).
BtBUOQBAPHT: The most complete view of the literature on
the subject is given in S. Q. Ayres and C. F. Sitterly, Ths
HiMory of Uie Bng. BibU, New York, 1898 (a bibUography
almost exhaustive, arranged in rubrics). The most com-
plete account up to the time of its publication is J. Eadie,
n* Sno. BibU, an BxUmal and CriHeal HixL of , , ,
Sng. 7Vsfis2a<iofis, 2 vols., London, 1876. The most re-
sent, and worthy of eonfidenee, is H. W. Hoare, Evoh^
Uonaf OiM BnolUh BibU . . . 1889-1886, London. 1902
(excsedingly handy). (}onsult further: T. J. Conaat,
PopiOar Hilary of Ike TrantikOion of As Holy Seripiurea
into As Bno. Tonoue, New York, n.d.; The Bnglieh Hex-
apfo, published by Bagster, London, n.d., has a valuable
preface; The BibU of Every Land, pp. 189-205, ib. 1861
(contains specimen paragraphs £rom several versions);
C. Anderson, AnnaU of the Eny. Bible, new ed. by H.
Anderson, ib. 1862; Anolo-Ameriean BibU Revieion, by
Mmhen of tke American Reviaion Committee, New York,
1879; J. Stoughton, Our Eng. Bible, ita TraneUUone and
Tranelaiore, London. 1879; B. Gondit. HieL of Ote Eng,
BibU, New York, 1882; W. F. Moulton. HieL of (he Eng.
BibU, London, 1882; B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort,
The New Teekament in lis Original Greek, vol. ii, inbroduo-
Hon and Appendix, London. 1881. New York, 1882; J. I.
Mombert, Handbook of the Eng. Vereione, London, 1907
(valuable); A. S. Gook. The BibU and Eng. Proee StyU,
Boston. 1892; idem, BibUeal Qyoiaiione in Old Eng. Proee
WriUre . . . introdueUon on Old Eng. Vereione, New
York, 1904 (the work of a master, minute and exact);
J. Wright, Early BibUe of America, ib. 1892 (on printed
editions); R. Lovett, Frinlsd Eng. BibUe 1625-1886, ib.
1894; T. H. Pattison, HiML of the Eng. BibU, ib. 1894;
G. MiUigan, The Eng. BibU, a Sketch of iU Hiet, Edin-
burgh, 1895; P. Schaff. Companion to the Greek Teetament
and the Eng. Vereion, 4th ed., New York, 1896 (deals with
the A. V. and R. V.); J. W. Beardslee, BibU among the
Natione; Study of the great Tranelaiore, ib. 1899; G. L.
Owen, Noiee on Ote Hiet and Text of our Early Eng. BibU,
London, 1901; £. H. Foley, The Language of the North-
umbrian Gloee to the Goepel of St, Matthew, New York,
1903; R. Demans, W. TindaU: A Biography. Being a
Contribution to (he Early Hietory of the Englieh Bible,
London, 1904; Anna C. Paues, Fourteenth Century Eng.
Vereion A. Prologue and Parte of the N. T. now firet edited
from the MSS., London, 1904; B. F. Westcott, General
View of the Hiet, of (he Eng. BibU, ib. 1906 (the Utest
ed. of Bishop Westoott's scholarly work); J. R. Slater,
The Sourcee of TyndaWe Vereion of the Pentateuch, (Chicago,
1906; S. Hemphill, HieL of the R. V, of the N. T„ Lon-
don, 1906; I. M. Price, Anceetry of our Eng. Bible, Phiht-
delphia, 1907. The OoepeU in Weet Saxon, ed. J. W.
Bright, are appearing in Boston, Matthew, 1904, Mark,
1905, Luke, 1906, cf. The GoepeU, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon,
Wydiffe, and TyndaU Vereione, London, 1907.
V. Finnish and Lappish Versions: Although Swe-
dish was formeriy the principal language of Finland,
which remained a Swedish province till the year
1809, during the period of the Reformation the land
acquired a Finnish ecclesiastical language. A young
Finn, Michael Agricola (see Finland, { 2) became
acquainted with Luther at Wittenberg. Having
returned to his native land in 1539, he began to
translate religious books into Finnish. His trans-
lation of the New Testament was published first
in 1548; the Psalms and some of the Prophetical
books in 1551-^. In 1642 the entire Bible in Fm-
nish by E. Petrous, M. Stadius, H. Hofman, and G.
Favorin was published in Stodcholm, Finland hav-
ing at that time no printing establishment. There
were new editions in 1083-^ by H. Florinus, and
in 1758 by A. Litzelius; a new translation by A. V.
Ingman appeared in 1859.
The Lappish and Finnish languages are cognates,
the former having several dialects. The Lapps
(q.v.) were nominally Christians early in the Mid-
dle Ages, but had little real knowledge of Chris-
tianity. Thomas von Westen (q.v.) did much for
Christian instruction among them during the years
1714-23. Some Christian works were published in
Lappish; parts of the Bible were translated and
sent to Copenhagen, where they were destroyed by
a fire. The Norwegian Bible Society having re-
solved in 1821 to publish a Lappish translation of
the Bible, Provost Kildahl offered his services in
1822 in conjunction with a teacher named Gunder-
sen. Kildahl died the same year, but the work was
continued by Gundersen and later by Niels Stock-
fieth. The first two Gospels were printed in 1838,
and the complete New Testament in 1840 (new
eds. 1850 and, revised, 1874). Stockfleth translated
also parts of the Pentateuch (1840), and the Psalms
(1854). A Lapp, Lars Hfttta, translated the whole
Old Testament, which, after being revised by Prof.
J. A. Friis and Seminary-Director Quigstad in
Tromsd, was printed in 1875. All these are in the
Norwegian-Lapp dialect.
In the SwecUsh-Lapp dialect a handbook contain-
ing the lessons from the (jospels and the Epistles for
Bible Varsions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
142
the church-year, the Psakns, Proverbs, and Ecde-
siasticufl was published by J. J. Tom&us at Stock-
hohn in 1648. The New Testament was translated
by Per FjelbtrOm and published in 1755; a new
edition and also the entire Bible was issued at
HemOsand in 1811. J. Beiahbim.
Bibuoobapht: BibU of Evmy Land, pp. 819-324, London,
1861.
VL French Veraions: The beginnings of a French
Bible may be traced at least to the early twelfth
century. In all probability pupils of Lanfranc (d.
1089) translated the Psalter for the first time into
the French-Norman vernacular. At
^^* that time there was scarcely any dif-
Vertions. ^^^^^^ between the Norman and the
' French (i.e. the dialect used in the
jQe-de-France, a province having Paris as its capi-
tal). The Psalter, together with the canticles used
in the Church, was offered to the French-speaking
people in a double form; vis., (1) after the PsaUe-
rtum Hdjraicum, i.e. the Plsalter translated by
Jerome directly from the Hebrew (cf . Le Litre dea
PBoumes, ed. from Cambridge and Paris manuscripts,
F. Michel, Paris, 1876); (2) after the PaaUerium
GaUicanum, i.e. according to the Psalter carefully
revised by Jerome from the Septuagint (cf. lAbri
Paaltnorum veraio anHqua OaUica, ^. F. Michel,
Oxford, 1860; see above A, II, 2, } 2). These
translations were made word for word, and are
interlinear, the Latin text standing between the
lines of the French. The translations from the
Gallican Psalter were so well received that down to
the Reformation no one ventmied on a new rendering.
The manuscripts of the French Psalter which are
still extant, more than 100 in number, without an
exception go back to the old Norman Psalter.
About fifty years later Revelation was translated
into French in the Norman provinces; also Samuel
and Kings (cf. Le9 Quatre Livrea des RoU, pvblUa
par U Roux de lAncy, Paris, 1842). In the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries numerous translations
originated (cf. Q. Paris, La LitUraJtwre frangaise
au moyen dge, Paris, 1890, § 136; J. Bonnard,
Le8 Tradttctiona de la Bible en vera franpaU, Paris,
1884). Toward 1170 Peter Waldo, the head of the
Poor Men of Lyons, better known later as the
Waldenses (q.v.), brought out translations of sev-
eral parts of the Bible into the vernacular, which
had been made by Lyonnaise priests at his ex-
pense, and Pope Innocent III did not rest till these
suspicious writings were eveiywhere suppressed by
the Inquisition. Nevertheless some remnants of
this old Waldensian literature have been saved from
the hands of the inquisitors at Mets and Li4ge.
Of the versions which have been printed, and of
which it is possible to give some account, mention
may be made of that of Guyard des Moulhis, canon
of St. Peter's at Aire in Artois, on the borders
of Flanders. Taking the HUtaria schtdaeHca
of Peter Comestor (q.v.), composed in
8. <^yard jiyo and containing a digest of the
XoiUbxs. ^^^^® history with glosses, he made
a free translation of it between 1291
and 1295; added a sketch of the history of
Job, Proverbs, and probably the other books
ascribed to Solomon; substituted for Comestor's
history of the Maccabees a translation of Macca-
bees from the Vulgate; and in general made the
whole oonfonn more closely to the text of the Vul-
gate than Comestor had done. Psalms, the
Prophets, and the Epistles and Revelation were not
in the work as first issued, and it is uncertain
whether Acts was not also omitted; they were
added, however, in later issues. These parts,
brought together, received the name Biblium
historude (Bible hietoriale; see Biblbb, Historical),
and it was printed and reprinted in great numbers.
An edition completed by different hands and ma^
king thus the first complete Bible, was issued by
order of Charles VIII about 1487, edited by the
king's confessor, Jean de Rely, and print^ by
V^nird in Paris. Twelve editions of this appeared
between 1487 and 1545. This is called La Grande
Bible to distinguish it from a work entitled La
Bible pour lea aimplea gena, a summary of the his-
tory of the Old Testament, of which five editions,
four undated, one dated 1535, have been exam-
ined. Previous to the edition of 1487, an edition of
the New Testament of the same translation as that
found in the supplemented work of Guyard, but
not by Guyard hLouself , was printed at Lyons by
Bartolom^e Buyer, edited by two Augustinian
monks, Julien Macho and Pierre Farget. It is
undated, but is referred to the year 1477, and
justly claims to be the ediHo princepa of the French
Scriptures.
In the year 1523 there appeared at Paris, from
the press of Simon de Colines, an anonjrmous
translation of the New Testament (often reprinted),
to which was added in the same year the Psalter
and, in 1528, the rest of the Old Testament, issued
at Antwerp in consequence of at-
*• 2JJ**" tempts on the part of the French
Veraions. clergy to suppress the book. There
can be no doubt that the well-known
humanist Jacques Lefftvre d'£taples (see Faber
Stapulknsib) was the author of this version.
The complete work appeared in one volume
at Antwerp, 1530. It was placed on the papal
Index in 1546; but in 1550 it was reissued at
Louvain, edited by two priests, Nicolas de Leuze
and Francois van Larben, who revised the work,
striking out all that savored of heresy. The first
Protestant version was prepared by Pieire Robert
Olivetan (q.v.) within the space of one year, and
printed in 1535 by Pierre de Wingle at Serri^res,
near NeuchAtel, in Switseriand, at the expense of
the Waldensians. It was reprinted several times,
in one case with a few emendations from the pen of
Calvin, in 1545. The Roman critics had denounced
Olivetan's work as of little value because of his
supposed ignorance of the languages. But he
really knew and used the Hebrew to advantage,
and the Old Testament was quite well done; but
either through press of time or less accurate knowl-
edge of Greek, the New Testament was inferior.
To remedy the defects of Olivetan's version, tbe
" venerable company " of pastors of Geneva
undertook a revision of the work and was assisted
by Besa, Simon Goulart, Antoine Fay, and others.
The editor was Bonaventure Conieille Bertram,
143
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Veralonc
who gives an account of Ills work in the Lwmbror
tiones FrankUUlenses (in Pearaon's Critici Sacrif
vol. viii). This revised edition appeared in 1588.
In this as well as in the following editions the divine
name Yahweh was translated by l'£temel and
this rendeiing is retained to this day in the Protes-
tant Bible of France.
During the seventeenth century this revision of
Oiivetan's version, known as the " Geneva Bible/'
was again revised by different ministers; the edi-
tions of G. Diodati (Geneva, 1644), Samuel Des
Bklarets (Amsterdam, 1669), and David Martin
(New Testamoit, Utrecht, 1696; whole Bible,
1707) are the first of such revisions. Martin's
Bible was again revised by the Basel minister Pierre
Roques (1744), and is to this day disseminated by
Bible Societies along with other editions. Twenty
years before Roques published Martin's revised
text, J. F. Osterwald (q.v.), a pastor at NeuchAtel,
published anew the Geneva Bible in 1724, and
another and revised edition in 1744, in which he
embodied the results of the exegetical science of
the time. As Osterwald's translation became the
standard version, it was adopted by the British
and Foreign Bible Society and issued from time
to time. A thoroughly revised version prepared
by M. Foasard and other French pastors was pub-
lished by the French Bible Society in 1887, and
this revised text was then adopted by the British
and Foreign Bible Society.
The foUowinc are other Proteetant Ternone: 8. Chms-
UUon (CuUUo), eomplete Bible (2 vols.. Basel, 1656); J.
Le Clere (Clericua), N. T. (Amsterdam. 1703); I. de Beau-
Bobre and J. Lenfant. N. T. (Amsterdam, 1718; often re-
printed in Germany and Bwitxerland); Charles Le C^ne,
Bible (Amsterdam, 1741); H. A. Perret-Gentil, professor at
Neochitel. O. T. (NeuchAtel. 1847 sqq.); E. Amaud, N. T.
<TouloaM, 1858); A. Rilliet, N. T. (Geneva, 1859); M. J. H.
Oltramare, N. T. (Geneva, 1872); Louis Segond, O. T.
(Geneva* 1874), N. T. (1879), whose work has been printed
by the Oxford Univernty press; E. Stopfer, N. T. (Paris,
1889).
Of versioDS by Roman Catholics, the most im-
portant are a translation of the New Testament
published anonymously (Tr6voux, 1702), but as-
cribed with correctness to Richard Simon (q.v.), and
a aeries of versions which proceeded
*C«toSlc^ from Port Royal and the Jansenists.
Teniona. ^ early as the middle of the sev-
enteenth century, Antoine Godeau
(q.v.) published a translation of the Bible, at first
in parts, then as a whole. In 1667 the New Tes-
tament followed, printed by the Elzevirs at Am-
sterdam, for a bookseller of Mons, whence it is
often called the Mons Testament. The transla-
tors were Antoine and Louis Isaac Lemaistre
de Sacy (see Lemaistrk de Sact, Louis Isaac),
aided by Antoine Amauld, Pierre Nicole, Claude
deSainte-Biarthe, and Thomas du Foss6. The Old
Testament, translated by Louis Isaac Lemaistre
deSacy, was added later (1671), and the New
Testament by Pasquier Quesnel (q.v.) appeared in
1687. These translations exercised great influence,
partly on account of the elegance of the language,
partly on account of the notes, which served de-
votional purposes. Their method is not a literal
rendering, but is paraphrastic. The translation of
the New Testament generally known as that of
De Sacy was often republished, and is still widely
used in France, being circulated by the British and
Foreign Bible Society.
Ren^ Benoist (q.v.) published a translation of the Bible
in 1566. Jacques Corbin, an advocate of Paria, presented
the Vulgate in a translation more Latin than French in
1648. The Latin New Testament of Erasmus was trans-
lated into French by Michel de Marolles, abb^ of Villeloin
(1649). who also published a version of the Psalms (1644).
Densrs Amelote, a priest of the Oratory, translated the
New Testament Vulgate into very good French (1666).
Dominique Bouhours, a Jesuit, also issued a French New
Testament (1607). In the eighteenth century C. Hur6
(1702). AugusUn Calmet (1707). N. Le Qros (1739). and
others made versions, all more or lees dependent on the
Vulgate. In more recent times the Psalms and Job have
been often translated. The entire Bible by E. CSenoude
(Paris, 1821 sqq.) had great success. The Gospels by
Lamennais (Paris, 1846) are a model of style, but because
of the notes are really a socialistic polemic. [Other names
and works which may be mentioned are: M. Orsini, La
BibU dM familUt eaiholiguet (Paris. 1851); H. F. Delaunay,
who translated the annoUted Bible of J. F. Allioli (q.v.)
into French (5 vols., Paris. 1856); J. A. Gaume. Le Nouveau
TukmerU (2 vols.. Paris. 1863); M. A. Bayle, who fur-
nished the translation for Paul Drach's annotated Bible
(Paris, 1869 sqq.); P. Giguet. who translated the Septua-
gint (4 vols.. Paris. 1872); H. Lasserre. Let Sainte Evan-
giUe (Paris, 1887); the Abb« Boisson (Paris. 1901); the
Abb^ Glaire, who furnished the French translation for the
polyglot Bible of F. Vigouroux (Paris. 1898 sqq,); and the
Ahh6 Crampon, La Sainte BibU, revised by the Jesuit fathers
with the collaboration of the professors of St. Sulpice (Paris,
1907).]
Translations of the Old Testament by Jews are
found in S. Cahen's annotated Bible (18 vols., Paris,
1831-51) [and in the Old Testament translated
under the direction of Zadoc Elahn, chief rabbi of
France (1901 sqq.)]. (S. BEROERf.)
Bibuoorapht: The most important contributions on the
subject have been produced by S. Berger, as follows:
La Bible frariQaiee au moyen Age, Paris. 1884; Lee BibUe
jfroven^alee et vaudoiaee, in Romania^ xviii (1889); Nott'
veUee recherchee tur lee biblee provengalee et eatalanee, ib.
xix (1890). ef. P. Meyer, in Romania, zvii (1888), 121. and
H. Suchier. in Zeitechrift far romanieche Philologie, iii
(1879). 412. For enumeration of French Bibles consult
BritiahMuegum Catalogue . entry " Bibles. French." 176-188.
and the Appendix, ** Bibles. French." 18; O. Douen. Cata-
logue de la eocUU bibUque de Parie, 1862; Bible of Every
Land, pp. 254-260. 281-283. London, 1861 (incomplete,
but clear so far as it goes). Consult also J. Le Long.
BtbUoiheea eaera, vol. i. Paris, 1723; E. Reuss. Fragmsnie
litthairee et ariiiquee rdatife h. Vhiatoire de la Bible fran-
gaiae, in Revtte de tMologie et philoeophie, ii, iv-vi, xiv. new
series, iii-v (1851-67, exceedingly important); idem. Oe-
echichte der heiligen Sduriflen dee Neuen Teetamente, pp.
465 sqq.. Brunswick. 1887; E. P^tavel-Olliff. La Bible en
France, ou 2<« traductione franfaieee dee eaintee ieriiuree,
Paris, i864; £. Cadiot. ^ssai eur lee condUione d*une tro"
duction populaire de la bible en langue franfaiee, Stras-
burg. 1868; G. StrOmpell. Die ereten BibelMereeisungen
der Franeoeen 1100-lSOO, Brunswick. 1872; A. Hatter,
NoU eur la rhfieion de la bible d'Oetartoald, Paris. 1882;
J. Bonnard, Lee Traductione de la bible en vere franfaie
au mouen dge, Paris. 1884; P. Quievreux. La Traduction
du N, T. de Leftvre d'£tapUe, Paris. 1894; P. Meyer.
NoHee du MS. Bibliothique NaHonale F 6447, Paris. 1897;
A. Laune. La Tradtietion de VA. T. de Lefhvre d'StapUe,
Paris. 1895; Revue de Vhietoire dee Religione, xxxii. 56;
DB, extra vol., pp. 402-406.
Vn. German Versions: After the Gothic ver-
sion of Ulfilas (see above. A, X), the oldest frag-
ment of the Bible in a Germanic tongue is probably
the Matthew of Monsee, of the year 738 (twenty-
two leaves are in Vienna, two in Hanover; on tho
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
144
left page is the Latin, on the right German), a
Bavarian working over of a Prankish or Alsacian
original. The best edition is A. Hench, The Monaee
FragmerUa newly Collated, vnih Text,
1. Old Oer- IrUrodttction, Notes, Grammatical Trea-
jg^^ tise, and Exhauelive Glossary and
mmta. Facsimile (Strasburg, 1890). The
"German Tatian," of which the chief
manuscript is at St. Gall (second half of the ninth
century, in two ooliunns, left in Latin, right in
German), originated about 830 in Fulda. The
Latin rests upon a manuscript written about 540
for Bishop Victor of Capua (q.v.)f which is
still preserved in Fulda, and the German follows
the Latin very closely (best edition by E. Sievers,
Tatianus. LateinistJi und Altdeutsch, Paderbom,
1874, 2d ed., 1892). Heccard, count of Burgundy,
in 876 gave as a present an Evangelium T^eu-
discum with other books (cf. P. Lejay, in Revue
des Bibliothkques, July-Sept., 1896). Walton, in his
Polyglot (Prolegomena, p. 34a), asserts that
" Rhenanus testifies that Waldo, bishop of Frei-
sing [884-906] about the year 800 [sicQ translated
the Gospels into German " (cf. Hauck, KD, ii, 620,
704, 712). Detached fragments of the Gospels
have been published by F. Keinz (SMA, 1869,
p. 546) and J. Haupt (Germania, xiv, 1869, p. 440),
which are in a handwriting of the twelfth century,
but show the accents used earlier in the school of
Notker Balbulus (see Notker, 1; cf. W. Walther,
Die deutsche BiMubersetzung des Mittelalters, 3
vols., Brunswick, 1889-91, 455-465). For the
Heliand and Otfrid's Liber Evangeliorum or Krist,
see Heliand, the, and the Old-Saxon Oenebib;
Otfrid of Weissenburg).
The first translator after Ulfilas known with
certainty is Notker Labeo of St. Gall (d. June 29,
1022; see Notker, 4). His Job is lost, but his
translation of the Psalms can be almost completely
reconstructed from his German and Latin commen-
tary on them (best ed. in P. Piper's Schriften Not'
kers und seiner Schule, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1883--84;
facsimile in Vogt and Koch, Deutsche Litteratur'
gescMchle, Leipsic, 1904, and Walther, ut sup.,
563). Williram, after 1048 abbot of Ebersberg in
Bavaria (see Williram), made a translation of the
Song of Solomon, which found so much favor that
nineteen manuscripts are still known, one written as
late as 1528 (cf. Walther, 523-536, with facsimile,
and J. SeemttUer, Die Handschriften und Quellen
von WiUirams Paraphrase, Strasburg, 1877, and
Willirams Paraphrase, 1878; Hauck, KD, iii, 968).
An interlinear version of the PsaJms from the
cloister of Windberg, written 1187, was published
by E. G. Graflf, Deutsche Interlinearversionen der
Psalmen (Quedlinburg, 1839; cf. Walther, 566;
also A. E. SchOnbach, Bruchstucke einer frdnkischen
Psalmenversian, in ZDAL, xxiv, 2, pp. 177-186).
Other manuscripts of this kind are mentioned by
Walther, 568. Some twenty manuscripts and two
impressions (the one probably by Knubloezer in
Htrasburg about 1477, the other by Peter Drach in
Worms 1504) have preserved the commentary of
N)<'olaus de Lyra (see Lyra, Nicolaus db), con-
iitining translations into German by Heinrich von
Mug<;ln, who was for a time with the emperor
Charles IV at Prague and seems to have left him
on account of his edict of 1469 against the German
books on Holy Scripture (cf. Helm, in Sievers's
BeUrdge tur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, sxi,
1897, p. 240, xxii, 1898, p. 135).
Especially interesting is Walther's eighth group
of translations of the Psalms (which indudb all
Latin-Oierman Psalters printed in the Middle Ages
and two or three manuscripts) on account of the
fact that the German text does not go back to the
Latin Vulgate in common use, but to Jerome's ver-
sion from the Hebrew (see above. A, II, 2, { 21
To Walther's ninth group belongs the ^lendid
Psalter of St. Florian in three languages, Latin,
Polish, and German, which was made ei^r for the
Polish queen Marguerite, daughter of the emperor
Charies IV, or for Mary, sister of the Polish queen
Hedwig of Anjou. Another translation is due to
Henry of Hesse, rector of the University of Heidel-
berg, who died 1427, a Carthusian. On the eve of
the Reformation Duke Eberhard I of WQrttemberg
was careful to have translations made for him
(cf. TLZ, iv, 473; 571).
Besides 202 (203) manuscripts, Walther enu-
merates between 1466 and 1521 eighteen impres-
sions of complete German Bible?,
8. Printed twenty-two of Psalters, and twelvt
IMblea be- of other parts. Of the eighteen com-
fore plete Bibles, fourteen are in High
I.uther. German. They differ from the com-
mon Latin Bible by containing the
Epistle to the Laodiceans and by placing Acts
after the Epistles of St. Paul The prayer of
Manasses is missing in the first two and placed
after Chronicles in the rest. Their correct chrono-
logical order is:
(1) Straabuis. Mentel. e. 1466 (Hain. Reperlorium bOh
Uognphieuwi, no. 8180). (2) Strwburs. Eteestein. e. 1470
(Hain. 3129). (3) Aufsburs. Pflansnuuin. e. 1473 (Hain,
3131). (4) Aucsbuic. G. Zainer, e. 1473. a thorousb nri-
■ion of 2 (Hain. 8133). (5) Swin, 1474 (Hain. 3132). (6 and 7)
Augsburg. G. Zainer, and A. Sorg. 1477 (Hain, 3134-^135).
(8) Augsbuig, A. Sorg. 1480, a repetition of Zuoer'a
imprenion of 1477 (Hain. 8136). (9) Nurembeig. A.
Kobuiger. 1488 (Hain, 8137). (10) Straabuig, Gritaiinser.
1486 (Hain. 3138). (11-14) AU printed in Augsburg, by H.
SohOnsperger. 1487. 1490 (Hain. 813IM0). H. Otmar. 1507,
and SilTanus Otmar. 1618L
All these editions give in the main one and the same
version, but Zainer (4 above) undertook a thorough
revision, which had much influence. Koburger
(9 above) also made changes. The version was
already more than 100 years old when first printed.
Its home is not yet ascertained, but there are traces
which indicate Bohemia. The Latin text unde^
lying this version is interesting especially in Acts,
where it has preserved many Old Latin readings.
Led by an entry in a manuscript of Nuremberg,
F. Jostes tried to prove that a certain Johannes
Rellach of ResOm (7) in the diocese of Constance,
who he thinks was a Dominican, was the author of
this version about 1460 (cf. his Meister JohoMtf
ReUach, ein Bibeliibersetzer des 15. Jahrhunderts, in
Histonsches Jahrbuch, Munich, 1897, 133-145).
Eurrehneyer (Die deutsche Bibel, TObingen, 190^
sqq.) seems to think the version older than this
Rellach, who may have undertaken a revision of it,
and he has not pronounced upon the alleged Waldeff*
145
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Veraioni
sian origin of the version; the manuscript of Tepl
may have been in Waldensian hands, but this does
not prove a Waldensian origin. There are certain
peculiar readings in which the version agrees with
the Provencal translation.
A different translation containing only the Old
Testament is represented by the ** Wenzel " Bible
at Vienna, translated from the Latin at the com-
mand of the emperor Wenceslaus by Martin Rotlev
later than 1389 (facsimile in Vogt and Koch, ut
sup.)- A " Bible for the Poor " at Maihingen of
1437 gives a German working over of the 212 hex-
ameters in which Alexander Villadeus summarized
all the chapters of the Bible (e.g. Gen. i-vii: aex,
prohibet, peccant, Abel, Enoch, archa fit, intrant)
and counts seventy-six books, fifty-^ight prologues,
1,457 chapters, and 1,606 verses in the Psalter.
To the same group belongs a nuinuscript now at
3laihingen (1472), beautifully illustrated by Furt-
meyer for Albert IV of Bavaria, which has between
Deuteronomy and Job Matt, i-v, 44, like a manu-
script in the British Museum written by the same
copyist in 1465 (cf. the Atkenceum for May 31, 1884,
and R. Priebsch, Deutsche Handschriften in England,
i, Erlangen, 1896). For other versions, cf . Walther.
The Low German Bibles include the Old Testar
ment of Delft (1477), without Psalms, and the
famous Picture Bible of Cologne (about 1478; cf.
R. Kautzsch, Die HoUachnitU der KSlner Bibel von
1479, in Stvdien tur deutachen Kunstgeachichte, vii,
1896, and G. Gerlach, in Dziatzko's Arbeiien, ii, 13,
Leipsic, 1896). The Song of Solomon in this Bible
is not translated but is given in Latin. The Bible
of LQbeck of 1494 gives, up to II Kings vii, an
original translation; from that chapter onward
text and pictures of the Cologne Bible. The edition
of Ludwig Trutebul (Halberstadt, 1522) is very
Bcarce. On the Psalters cf . Walther, 682-703, and
Kurrelmeyer, ut sup.
On the " Wensel " Bible, ef. AJP, zxi, 62-75. and F.
JeUnek, Dis Spndte der Wenulbibel, GOrs. 18Qft-9Q. On
Uw prfr-Lutheran Bibles, cf . A. E. SohOnbacfa, MimsMtn au»
Cmer Handeikriften, ii, Reihs, Deuiache UAen&lgunoefi
inhliteker SekrifUn, Gras, 1899; idem, Ueber tin miftet-
deuUdua Evanoelienwerk aua 8L Paul, Vienna, 1897, and
L. J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra vol., 411-^13.
Contemporaneously with Luther others were
engaged in translating parts of the Bible into mod-
em German, e.g., Btechenstein, Lange, Krumpach,
Amman, Nach^al, Capito, and FrOhUch; but their
works are foigotten (see also below, { 5). Not con-
templating at first the entire Bible, Luther
began with the penitential Psalms
wSir " (^*'-' ^^^'^' improved 1526) and fol-
lowed with the Lord's Prayer and
Pb. cx in 1518, the Prayer of Manasses with
Uatt. xvi, 13-20, in 1519, and other pieces. At
the end of 1521 he began with the New Testament.
He writes on Dec. 18, 1521: "Meanwhile 1 am
gathering notes, being on the point of translating
the New Testament into the vernacular; " two
dasrs later: " Now I am laboring on annotating
and translating the Bible into the common speech; "
on Jan. 13, 1522, to Amsdorff: '' Meanwhile I am
translating the Bible, though I have undertaken a
task beyond my strength. The Old Testament 1
can not touch unless you lend your aid " (cf . G. Boe-
II.— 10
sert, in TSK, 1897, pp. 324, 349, 366). The New
Testament was in type Sept., 1522; it was pub-
lished with woodcuts at Wittenberg without name
of printer or of translator (Das Newe Testament
Deutzsch) and was sold for one and one-half florins.
In December a second edition followed (cf. R.
Kuhrs, VerhdUnis der Decemberbibel zur September'
bibel. KriHscher Beitrag tur Geschichte der BibeU
sprache M, Luthers, Mit einem Anhang iiber J oh.
Lange's Matthdusubersetzung, Greifswald, 1901).
Of the Old Testament, part i (the five books of
Moses) was ready in 1523; parts ii and iii (the his-
torical and poetical books) in 1524; the prophets
did not follow until 1532; and the Apocrypha as a
whole not until the first complete Bible in 1534.
Eleven editions were published during Luther's
lifetime, besides numerous reprints. For the Old
Testament he used the edition of Brescia, 1494
(the copy is now at Berlin); for the New Testa-
ment, the second edition of Erasmus (1519), but
he consulted the Vulgate, and for the Old Testa-
ment had the assistance of his friends Melanchthon,
Bugenhagen, Aurogallus, and all available helps.
In the preface to Sirach he mentions the earlier
German translation, but he seems on the whole
independent of it. The influence of Luther's
work was great even outside of Germany. It
formed the basis of the Danish translation of 1524,
of the Swedish and Dutch of 1526, of the Icelandic
of 1540, and, through the mediation of Tyndale,
influenced the English Authorised Version of
1611.
Large parts of Luther's autograph printer's copy are
preserved, and the first part is in print in D. Martin Lutkmr'a
DmU$che Bibel, Weimar. 1906. A catalogue of the original
editions of Luther's Bible was published by H. E. Bindseil
{VerMeidinise der Orioinal^Atugaben, ete.. Halle, 1840). who
also, in collaboration with H. A. Niemeyer, issued a critical
reprint of the edition of 1545 with a collation of the
earlier impressions (7 vols., Halle, 1845-55). J. G. Hage-
mann, NachridU von denen fUmehmaten UAeraeUunoen der
heiligen Schrift (Brunswick. 1750), gives a list of editions
to 1749. In the Hauok-Heriog RE, iii. 74-75, about
ninety places are named in which Luther's Bible has been
printed, with the date of the first edition in each place.
It includes the following towns in America: Qermantown,
Penn., 1743 (the first Bible in a European language
printed in America; see Sower. CHanroPHEB) and 1763
(cf. Baaler BiJbelbote, 1899, 62); New York. 1854 (N. T.)
and 1857 (complete Bible); Philadelphia, 1846. Reading,
Penn.. 1813, and Lancaster. Penn., 1819, may be added.
A chronological list would show the influence of Pietism.
The first Berlin edition (1699), for example, was due to
Spener. The first Low German Bible, by J. Hoddersen,
was printed by L. Diets at LQbeck in 1533; the last was
that of LQneburg. 1621.
By the middle of the nineteenth century
six or seven different recensions of Luther's ver-
sion were in use in Protestant Germany (cf . C.
MOnckeberg, Tabellarischc Uebersicht der wichtigsten
VarianUn der bedeutendsten gangbaren Btbetaus-
gaben, New Testament, Halle, 18^,
♦.BevlslonoidTestament, 4 vols., 1870-71). In
^' 1863 a committee was named by
Luther's
Version.
the Eisenach Ck)nference (see Eisen-
ach Ck)NFERENCE) to Undertake a
final revision. As the result of the labors of this
committee the revised New Testament appeared
in 1867 and again in 1870, Genesis in 1873,
Bible Venioiui
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
146
the PsalmB in 1876| the whole Bible (the so-called
Ptobebibel) in 1883. At last, in Jan., 1890, the whole
work was finished and the first impression was pub-
lished at Halle in 1892. The revised edition was
adopted in most parts of Germany, though in
Mecklenburg it is still opposed. A comparison with
the English revision shows that the German was
much too timid (cf., on the one side, P. de
Lagarde, Die revidierte Luiherbibel dee HalUschen
TFaitenAouses, Gottingen, 1885, also in MiUhtH-
ungen, iii; on the other, E. V. KohlschQtter, Die
R^nsion der Luthersehen BiMUberMdzung, 1887,
and A. Kamphausen, Die beriehtigU Lutiierhibd,
Berlin, 1894; also TJB, 1886, where twelve
pamphlets for and against the revinon are named;
O. H. T. Willkomm, Wob verliert uneer Volk dutch
die BiMrevieion f Zwickau, 1901).
Luther's work wm oritidMd early, eapedally by his
Koman Catholic opponenta — e.g., by Hieronsnnus Emeer.
to whom UibanuB RhegiuB replied in 1524 (aee Em-
SBR, HxniGirrMrs; RBBOiua, Urbahub; ef. G. Kawerau's
Hieronynnu Emur, Halle, 1808; for critidam from the
modem point of view. d. P. de Lagarde, Dm revidieiig
ZttlfterMM. ut eup.). The Wittenbei« edition of 1572 in-
troduced the munmariee of Vdt Dietrich. A. Caloriue
added in 1661 a " BibUcal Calendar " by whieh it was pos-
■ible to read the Psalms four times every year. Proverbs
twice, and the rest of the Bible with Luther's prefaces once.
The Wittenberg faculty added a new preface in 1669. The
verse of the " three witnesses '' (I John v, 7) was first in-
troduced into a Frankfort edition of 1575. into a Witten-
berg impression in 1506. Dietrich's summaries were
replaced by those of Leonhard Hutter in 1624; in this edi-
tion a Roman Catholic compodtor changed " everlasting
gospel " in Rev. xiv, 6, to ** new gospel," the verse being
often applied to Luther, and subsequent editions were
printed from the sheet as copy. Several editions gave
great offense because of changes in the text or additions
— e.g.. an edition by N. Funk (Altona, 1815) was asserted
to teadi a '* new faith " because of changes in the indexes
and notes. The Bible Institute founded at Halle by Karl
Hildebrand, Baron Ganstdn (q.v.) came to have great in-
fluence; after 1717 standing type or stereotyped plates
were used and millions of copies of the Halle text were eir-
eulated (see Bxblb Socxetxsb. II, 1).
The Anabaptists Hans Denk and Ludwig H&tser (qq.v.)
translated the Prophets before the completion of Luther's
venion (published by Peter Sehdffer, Worms, 1527; many
later editions): thdr work was used by
6. Other other translatora and has been praised for
Versions, scholarship and style (d. J. J. I. DftUinger.
Die Reformation, i, Regensbuig, 1846, 199;
Heberle. in TSK, xxviii, 1855, 882; L. Kdler, Bin Apotd
der WiedertHufer, Ldpdc, 1882, 210 sqq.). The preachen
of Zurich publidied a complete Bible in dx parts (152fr-
1529), using Luther's work so far as available and adding
the Prophets (part iv) themselves and the Apocrypha
(part V, induding III and IV Esdras and III BCaccabees
but not the Prayer of Asariah, the Song of the Three Chil-
dren, the Prayer of Maiuuises, or the Additions to Esther)
by Leo Jud (q.v.). The complete Bible was printed in
1530, without prefaces and glosses, the Apocrypha at the
end. The edition of 1531 (2 vols.) has a short admonition
and introduction for ** the Christian reader of these Bib-
lical Books " probably by Zwingli; Also summaries, paral-
lel references, woodcuts, and a new translation of the poet-
ical books. The edition of 1548 (2 vob.) professes to have
been compared word for word with the Hebrew, but really
does not differ from editions of 1542 and 1546; it became
the bads of later editions. The verse dividon was first
introduced in 1589. A revidon of the Zurich New Testa-
ment was undertaken by J. J. Breitinger in 1629, by
a eolUffium btUieum in 1817, 1860, 1868, and 1882. and
a new revidon of the New Testament and Psalms appeared
in 1893 (d. E. Riggenbach, D%» $ekwmaeruehe revidierU
Uebenelmifig dss Neuen TeaiammU§ and der Pealment Basel,
1895).
Beddee the Zurich Bible three other " compodte "
BiblM (1.6., Luther's timndation so far as it had appeared
with the misdng parts supplied from other tranalationi*)
were published before 1534: (I) Worms, Peter Schdffer.
1529. the so-called *' Baptist " Bible, having HAtser and
Denk's verdon of the Prophets; it was the first Protestant
Bible to use the word Biblia in the title, retained in Luther's
Bible till the dghteenth century; (2) Strasburg, Wolff
KOpphl, 1530, Prophets by H&tser and Denk, Apocrypha
by Jud; (3) Frankfort. C. Egenolph, 1534. in which only a
part of the Apocrypha was not Luther's. The Epistle to
the Laodiceans was induded in these editions.
About one hundred yean after Luther new verdons be-
gan to appear. The first complete Bible was that of J.
Pisoator (Herbom, 1602), called the '* Straf mich CSott "
Bible because the translator added in smaller type to Mark
viii, 12, Wann dieem geedUsdU ein taichen toirdt oegeben
werden, §o etraffe mieh Oott (" If a dgn be given to this
generation, so strike me God ; " d. R. Steek, Die Pieea-
torhibel, Bern. 1897). The Berieburg Bible (8 vols., 1726-
1742) and the Wertheim Bible (1735) were prepared in the
interest of mystidsm and rationalism respectively (see
BxBLBS, Amnotatxd, akd Bible SuitMARiBa, L II 3. 4).
Later verdons are by J. D. Uichaelii (O. T., 13 vols.. Gdt-
tingen, 1769 sqq.; N. T.. 2 vols.. 1790); J. H. D. Molden-
hauer (O. T., 10 vob., Quedlinburg, 1774 sqq.; N. T.. 2
vob.. 1787-88); Simon GrynsBUS (5 vols., Basel. 1776-77;
a paraphrase in modem style, the historical books of the
O. T. abridged, the (Soepels harmonised); and G. F. Grie»-
inger (Stuttgart, 1824). Better than these is the verdon
of W. L. M. de Wette and J. C. W. Augusti (6 vola.. Hd-
delberg. 1809-14; later editions by De Wette alone). Bun-
sen's annotated Bible (9 voAs., Ldpdc, 1858-70) has a
tnmslation of the HagiogrH>ha by A. Kamphauaen, of the
Apocrypha and N. T. by H. J. Holtsmann, other portions
by Bunsen.
Translations of the New Testament alone indude: J.
Crell, J. Stegman the elder, and others, the Sodnian N. T.
(Rakow, 1630); J. Felbinger, also a Sodnian (Amnterdam,
1660); J. H. Rdts. Reformed (Offenbach. 1703); C. E.
Triller (Amsterdam, 1703); Count Zinsendorf (Elbersdorf.
1727); Timotheus Philadelphus (i.e., J. Kayser, a Stutt-
gart phyddan, 1783); C. A. Heumann'( Hanover, 1748); J. A.
Bengel (Stuttgart. 1753); C. T. Damra (3 vols., Berlin,
1765); C. F. Bahrdt (" the hitest revelations of God," 4
vob., Riga, 1773-74); J. C. F. Schuls (vol. i. the (Sospels,
1774); P. M. Hahn (Winterthur, 1777); G. W. Rullmann
(3 vols., Lemgo. 1790-91); J. A. Bolten (8 vols., Altona,
1792-1806); J. O. Thdss, Gospels and AcU (4 vols., Ham-
buig. 1794-1800); J. J. Stols (2 vols., Zurich, 1795; a see-
ond ed. of a verdon by Stols, J. L. VOgeU. and C. H&feU,
2 vols., 1781-82); G. F. Sdler (2 vob.. Erlangen. 1806);
J. C. R. Eckermann (3 vob.. Kiel, 1806-06): J. W. F.
Hetsel (Dorpat, 1809); C. F. Prdss (2 vob.. StetUn. 1811);
L. Sohuhkrafft (Stuttgart); J. Gossner (Munich, 1815);
H. A. W. Meyer (GAttingen, 1829); E. G. A. B«ckd (Al-
tona, 1832); J. K. W. Alt (4 parts. Ldpdc, 1837-39);
K. von der Heydt (Elberfeld. 1852; used by the Plymouth
Brethren); F. Rengsdorf (Hamburg, 1860); C. WeiasAcker
(Tabingen, 1875; 9th ed., '1900); C. Rdnhardt (Lahr, 1878);
E. Zittel (3 vob., Carlsruhe, 1880-85); C. Stage (Redam.
Ldpdc, 1896; " in present-day speech "); H. Wieee (Ber-
Un. 1905).
Roman Catholic verdons have been numerous. Hiero-
nymus Elmser's New Testament (Dresden, 1527; see Em-
ber, HiKBONTinTS) was merely a slight revidon of Luther
after the Vulgate. J. Dietenberger, a Dominican, pub-
Ushed the entire Bibb at Mains in 1534 (d. F. Schndder.
Johann Dietenberger'e Bibeldrudt, Mains, 1901). In the
New Testament he followed Emser chiefly, in the Apocry-
pha Leo Jud, in the Old Testament he took much from
Luther. C. Ulenberg revised this verdon in 1630. and the
clergy of Msins in 1662; thenceforth it was commonly
called the *' Catholic " Bibb. Later Roman Catholic ver^
dons are: T. A. Erhard (2 vols.. Augsburg, 1722); the
Benedictines of the doister of EttenhdmmOnster (Con-
stance, 1751); I. Wdtenauer (14 vols., Augsburg. 1777-81):
F. Ronalino (3 vob.. Vienna, 1781); K. H. Sdbt (Prsgue.
1781); H. Braun (13 vols., Augsburg. 1788-1805; worked
over by J. F. Allioli. 6 vols.. Nuremberg, 1830-32): D. von
Brentano. T. A. Dereser. and J. M. A. Schols (N. T. by
Brcntano. 3 vols.. Kempten. 1790-91; revised and O. T.
added by Dereser and Schols, 15 vob., Frankfort. 1797-
1833); K. and L. van Ess (3 vob.. Sulsbach, 1807-22); H.
J. Jack (Leipsic. 1847). Translations of the New TesU-
ment alone are: C. Fischer (Prague. 1784); B. B. M. Schnap-
pinger (3 vob., Mannhdm, 1787-W); & MtttM:helb (2
147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
ToU. Mamdi. 1780-00): B. Weyl (Maim, 1780); J. G.
Krach (2 vols.. Freiburg. 1790); C. Scbwartiel (6 vols.,
Ulm. 180a-O5); M. WitUnann (Regensburg. 1800); J. U.
Sailer (Gras. 1822); J. H. Kistemaker (Munich, 1825;
circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which
DOW alao dreulatei Allioli's translation); B. Weinhart
(Freibuig. 1900); A. Amdt. S. J. (Regensburg, 1903); B.
Grundl (Augsbuig, 1903).
Finally, mention should be made of the scholarly
translation of the canonical Old Testament, edited
by E. Kautzsch in collaboration with F. Baethgen,
H. Guthe, A. Kamphausen, R. Kittel, K. Marti,
W. Rothstein, R. Ru^tschi, V. Ryssel, K Siegfried,
and A. Socin (Freiburg, 1894; 2d ed., 1896). In
the supplementary translation of the Apocrypha
and Pseudepigrapha Prof. Kautzsch had the
assistance of G. Beer, F. Blass, C. Clemen, A. Deiss-
mann, C. Fuchs, H. Gunkel, H. Guthe, A. Kamp-
hausen, R. Kittel, E. littmann, M. Ldhr, W. Roth-
stein, V. Ryssel, F. Schnapp, K. Siegfried, and
P. Wendland. Since 1899 dieap editions called
Texibibel, both with and without Weizs&cker's New
Testament, have been circulated.
German Israelites have translations of the Old
Testament prepared under the direction of L. Zuns
(Berlin, 1837) and by S. Bemfeld (Berlin, 1902).
There are aJso versions in the Jewish-German
(Yiddish). E. Nestle.
BiauooBAnr: The oae work on early German transla-
tions is W. Walther, DU deuiaeh* BiMlibtn^iguno dsf
MiiUlaU§n, 3 vols., Brunswick, 1889-91; ef. BibU of aU
Leads, pp. 178-187, London, 1861, and DB, extra vol.,
pp. 411-414.
The subject of the printed German Bible before Luther
has been muoh elucidated by W. Kurrelmeyer of Balti-
more, who has prepared an edition from a collation of
■I! impresrions and manuscripts; vols, i and ii, the N. T.,
hare already appeared as nos. 234 and 238 of the Bibli-
ottdk dm lUUraruehgn VtninB in StuUQort, TObingen,
1904 and 1905; toIs. ili-iv of the O. T., nos. 243. 246. ib.
1907. F. Jostes (Roman Catholic) has long had a history
in preparation. Consult L. Hain, A^pereorium bibli-
offmpkiemn, vol. i. Paris, 1826; L. Keller, Dis Reforma-
tion und dii diUron RoformparUion, Leipsio, 1885; idem.
Dm Waldonatr und di$ deutecfcsn BibolliberoeUunoon, v,
189. ib. 1886; F. Jostes. Die WaUUnoer und di$ vorlu-
tkeiioeken douJiadun BibelliberMigunoen, p. 44, MOnster,
1685; idem. DU TopUr BibdHbtneiguno, MOnster. 1886;
idem, *' Dis Waldontorbiboln " und . . . Johannot Rol-
laeft. in HiOorioduo JahrbutK ZY (1894), 77 sqq.; H.
Haupt, I>%o douiochs BibaHberMUuno der miUOaUorli^
then Waldmuor .... WOrsburg, 1885; idem, in Con-
frofblatt far Bibiiothokoweoon, 1885, pp. 287-290; idem,
Dtr loaidoHoioeko Uropruno dot Codox Toplonoia ....
WQribuDB. 1886; M. Rachel, Dio Froibortfor Bibe/O&erssfs-
ung. Freiburg, 1886; S. Berger. La QuooHon du codex Top-
faiuu. in Roou€ hiotoHquo, zxz (1886), 164, zzzii (1886),
184; K. Behellhom, Ueber dat VorfUUInio dor Froiborgor
md der Toplor BibolhandoehHft, Freiberg. 1896; W. Wal-
ther. Bin anoMichor BiboHiboreetaor doo MiUdaUore, in
^«iie KrdUieks Zoiiochrift, Tiii, 3 (1896), 194-207; Schaff.
ChruHan Church, vi, 851 sqq.
On Luther's Bible consult: J. G. Palm, Hiatorio dor
rfnitodkm BiboUtboreoUurnf Dr. M. Luihori, l$17-54» ed.
i. M. (^eas, Halle, 1772; G. W. Panser. Eniwurf oinor
veOaUndigon Gesdktcftls der douttdion BiboHiborootMuno M,
LitOme, J6i7-8S, Nuremberg, 1791; J. Janssen-Pastor.
(kednehio doo douioehon Volkoo, vii, 531-575, Freiburg,
18Q3: Schaff, ChriaHan Church, Ti, 340-368; MoeUer,
ChrioHan Church, iii. 8^35.
On the language of Luther's Bible consult: R. von
Ramner, Sinvirkung doo Chriotoniumo, Stuttgart, 1845;
P. Pietsch, M. Luihor und dio hochdoutoeho Sehriftopracho,
Breslau. 1883; K. Burdach, Dio Biniffung dor nouhoeh-
dootoehen HdvrifUpracho, Halle, 1884; B. Lindmeyer. Dor
WortedtaU in Lulhore, Emaero und Echo UAorootaung doo
AT. r.'c Strasburg. 1899; F. Dauner, Die obordoutoehon
Bibdglooearo doo xvi. JahrhundorU, Darmstadt, 1898;
66hme, Zur Oooehiehto der oAt^oiochon KamloiopraAo,
Reichenbach. 1899; W. W. Florer. SubetantivfUxion boi
Martin Luther, Ann Arbor, 1899; H. Byland, Dor Wort-
aehaio doo ZUrieher A. T.'o von 1696 und 16S1 . . . , Ber-
lin, 1903.
On translations after Luther consult: J. Meager, Oo-
odUehto dor BiMUhoroetMunoon in dor echwotMorioeh-rofor'
miorton Kirehe, Basel, 1876; A. Kappler. Dio oehwoioori-
oeho BibdHborootouno, Zurich, 1898; idem, Dio nouo Ro-
vioion dor ZUtriektr BibA, in J^sue Zikrichor Zoitung, Not.
2 and 27. 1904.
On Roman Catholic verBions consult: G. W. Panser,
Goodtit^U dor rOmioeh4Mtholioehon BibolUborooiaung, Nu-
remberg, 1781; J. Janssen-Pastor, ut sup.; O. Keferstein,
Dor LauUiand in don Bibollihorooloungon von Bmoor und
Bek, Jena. 1888.
Vm. Greek VersionB, Modem : Parts of the Old
Testament were translated by Jews into modem
Greek as early as the end of the Middle Ages.
A version of the Pentateuch made in 1547 has been
edited by C. Hesseling (Leipsio, 1897). On the
whole the Greek Church has been anxious to make
the people acquainted with the Bible, a fact evinced
especially in the sixteenth century by the efforts
of Damascenus the Studite (q.v.). But when, at
the instance of Cyril Lucar, Maximos KalliupoUtes
published in 1638 an edition of the New Testament
in the original Greek with a modem Greek version,
the Church as a whole did not favor it, though
the patriarch Parthenios permitted its circulation.
This text was reprinted in London in 1703 by the
monk Seraphim, also in 1710 at Halle, and by
C. Reineccius in his polyglot Bible of 1713 (see
Bibles, Poltolot, V). In the East, Seraphim's
edition was expressly prohibited by the patriarch
Gabriel of Constantinople (1702-04).
A new period began when the British and Foreign
Bible Society took the matter in hand. As early
as 1810 it published the text of Maximos, and Eng-
lish influence induced the patriarchs Cyril VI and
Gregory V to permit its circulation. Other issues
followed in 1814, 1819, and 1824. The defi-
ciencies of the old text having been long known, it
was decided to bring out a new translation, which
should approach more nearly the ancient Greek.
For thb work the monk Hilarion was employed
under the direction of the learned Archbishop CJon-
stantius of Sinai, afterward patriarch. But when,
in consequence of a controversy over the Apocrypha
(182&--27), the society introduced bibles without
the Apocrypha, the Greek Church would not cir-
culate them. Moreover, after the war of liberation
the desire to be entirely independent of Occidental
aid greatly increased and orthodox reaction set in
anew. The version of such learned Greeks as
Typaldos, Bambas, and others found no more
favorable reception. This disposition has con-
tinued. The latest version of the New Testament
by A. Pallis (Liverpool, 1902), written in common
Greek, has not been approved. The patriarch
Joachim III has renewed the prohibition of Bible
translation. Philipp Meter.
Bibuographt: Korals. in Atakia, vol. iii (1830); J. Wenger,
BoitrAge our Kenntnio dor grioehieehen Kirehe, Berlin, 1830;
BiMo of Every Land, pp. 241-244. London. 1861; E. Le-
grand, BiJbliogravhio HelUniquo, 3 vols., Paris. 1885-1903
(for 15th and 16tb centuries); idem. Bibliographio Hel-
Uniquo, 5 vols., ib. 1894-1903 (for the 17th century); A. D.
Xyriakos. GeochiehU dor orionialioehon Kirdton, 146S-J8M,
Leipsic. 1902; Bible Soeioty Roportor, Jan. and May, 1902;
DB, extra vol., p. 420.
Bible Veralona
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
148
IX. Hebrew TraxislationB of thei New Testa-
ment: The anciently attested Hebrew original of
the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel according to
the Hebrews are not to be included in this treat-
ment (see Matthew, II; Apocrypha, B, I, 19).
Of existing Hebrew versions of the New Testament,
the more important are the following:
1. Veralona by Jews: (1) The Evangelium Mat-
then in lingua Hdiraica cum versiane Latina, by
Sebastian MOnster, appeared at Basel, 1537 (2d ed.,
Paris, 1541; 3d ed., with Hebrews in Hebrew and
Latin, Basel, 1557). (2) The Evangelium hebraice
Matihcn recens e Jvdctorwn peneiralibus enUum,
with Latin translation, edited by Jean du Tillet
and Jean Mercier (Paris, 1555) is part of a trans-
lation of the Gospels by Schemtob Schaprut (1385),
which may be preserved in a Vatican manuscript. (3)
A complete translation of the New Testament was
made by Ezekiel Rachbi (d. 1772), and an aBsist-
ant from Germany.
8. Verslona by Ohristiana: (1) Elias Hutter
made a Hebrew translation of the complete New
Testament for his polyglot editions (Nuremberg,
1599, 1602; see Biblss, Poltolot, V); a better
edition of this version was issued by B. Robertson
(London, 1661), and the first part of the same by
R. Caddick (London, 1798). (2) Johannes Baptista
Jona translated the four Gospels (Rome, 1668).
(3) A translation of Matthew by Johannes Kemper
(d. 1714), with Latin rendering by A. Borelius,
is preserved in manuscript in the library of the
University of Upsala. (4) The Epistle to the He-
brews, translated by F. A. Christiani, appeared in
Leipsic, 1676, and Luke i, 1-xxii, 14, by I. From-
man at Halle, 1735. (5) The translation of the
whole New Testament prepared for the London
Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews
appeared in 1821, and in revised form in 1840 and
1866. (6) The edition of the British and Foreign
Bible Society, begun in 1864, was made by Frani
Delitzsch (Leipsic, 1877; stereotyped ed., 1881;
revised ed., 1885; again revised by Delitzsch and
edited by G. Dabnan, 1892). (7) The translation
of the Trinitarian Bible Society, begun by Isaac
Salkinson and completed by C. Ginsburg, was
issued m London, 1885. (G. Dalman.)
BiBUOOBAFirr: On 1: A. Herbtt, DU von 8«batHan Mfln-
«ter . . . tlbwMtfunomft eUa Bvangdiumt Matthdi, Q6t-
tincen, 1879; F. Deliineh. Brief an di$ R&mer, pp. 22.
106. 103-100. Leipdo, 1870; B. Scboditer. in JQR, vi,
144-145. On 2: F. DelitBSoh. ut sup., pp. 21-88; Thao-
UvUdiBB LUaraiurUaU, 1889-1890; Q. Dalnum. in H«-
6raiea. ix. 22<»-231 and TktolooitehM lAitraiuHtlaU, 1891,
pp. 289 aqq.; J. Dunlop, Momonte cf QottpA Triumpke,
pp. 378-380. London. 1894.
Z. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions: Jdnos Er-
dasi (or Sylvester; b. 1504; died o. 1560) made
the first Hungarian translation of the New Tes-
tament. After studying in Cracow and Wit-
tenberg (1526-29), he returned to
^T^t ^ native land and worked at Sirv&r
Versions, ^^^der the patronage of the magnate
T. N&dasdi, who erected the first
Hungarian printing-press in Uj-Sziget (Neanesis).
There Erd6si's traxislation was printed in 1541.
ErdOsi was afterward professor of Hebrew in
Vienna (1542-52); driven out by the Jesuits, he
went to Debreczin and, in 1557, to LOcse (Leut-
schau) as teacher and preacher. A little later, G.
Heltai, pastor at Kolosvdr (Klausenburg), and his
three colleagues translated the New Testaoient,
with several books of the Old Testament (Kolosvdr,
1552-61). P^ter Juhisz (Melius), pastor and super-
intendent at Debreczin (1558-72), rendered into
Hungarian the books of Job and Kings (Debreczin,
1565), and the New Testament (Sz^gedin, 1567);
of the latter work no copy is known. T. F^le-
gyh^zi, professor and pastor at Debreczin, pub-
lished a translation of the New Testament at Deb-
reczin in 1586. Caspar Kdroli (d. 1591), a pupil of
Melanchthon, pastor at Gdnc (not far from Kassa),
translated the entire Bible with the Apocrypha and
published it at Visoly, 1590. This is styled the
Visoly Bible, and it has remained in use to the
present. It has passed through many editions
with some slight corrections.
During the religious wars (1604-45) against the
Austrian monarchs the Hungarian nation heroically
fought for political and religious liberty; to the
great Protestant princes of Transylvania, Bocskai,
Bethlen, and George (GyOrgy) 'RA-
8. The k6czi the Protestant Church is much
KonUCroml indebted, for without them it would
Bible, have suffered the fate of the Bohe-
mian Church. The victorious BA-
k6czi family caused 10,000 copies of the Bible to be
published at Virad in 1657. The years 1660 to
1781 were a dark period for Hungarian Protestants,
during which the Austrian government, under
Jesuitical influences, took control of the entire
kingdom, and the freedom gained in the Refor-
mation was lost. The crisis came in 1671-81, the
so-called '' decade of mourning." This grievoua
situation explains the fact that Himgarian bibles
had to be printed in foreign countries. The
learned Reformed pastor of Debreczin, Gydi^gy
Csipk^ Konu&romi, an excellent Hebrew scholar,
in order to meet the common wish and to make the
Bible keep pace with the growth of the language,
made a new translation which was approved by the
synods in 1681. The city of Debreczin at enormous
cost had an edition of 4,000 copies printed at Ley-
den in 1718. When the edition reached the frontier
it was seized by the Jesuits (who had secured from
the king an order to that effect) and carried to their
house at Kassa. The agitated citizens and council
of Debreczin used all means available to recover
the books and at length secured a royal edict from
King Charles III (June 29, 1723) granting them a
free Bible (P. Bod, Historia Hungarorum ecclesir
asHca, iii, 89). So great was the power of the
Jesuits, however, that they frustrated the royal
edict, and the bishop of Eger, Count F. Bark6czy,
carried the Komdromi bibles to his palace and
threw them all into damp cellars, where they re-
mained till 1754, when on Nov. 1 he burned them
in the court of his palace before a laige gathering
(cf. The Bible Society Monthly Reporter, Mar., 1904,
p. 69). A few copies retained in VarB6, hidden in
the Prussian ambassador's house, were brought to
Debreczin in 1789.
The Roman Catholics, on their part, had the
Bible translated by a Jesuit scholar Gydrgy Kdldi,
149
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Veraiona
and this translation appeared at Vienna, 1626 (see
Kaij>i, GrdROY). In the nineteenth century
Baron A. Bartakovics, archbishop of Eger, ordered
a new translation, which was made by his secretary,
the learned Tirkinyi (d. 1886); this '' Eger Bible "
was published at the cost of the archbishop in 1862,
and again in 1892.
Samuel IQLmori, professor in the Lutheran theo-
logical academy at Pozsony (Pressburg), attempted
a new translation of the whole Bible with the
Apocrypha (Budapest, 1870). Because of the
translator's modem style and his
8. Modem inadequate knowledge of the Magyar
Yendons. tongue, notwithstanding its fidelity to
the original, this version can not be
used by the people. A revision of the old KAroli
text was proposed as early as 1840, and the British
and Foreign Bible Society assumed the task. The
first revision of the New Testament was accom-
plished by J. MenyhiLrt, professor of exegesis in
Debrecsin College, and by W. Gydri, Lutheran
pastor of Budapest. It was issued at Budapest in
1878 and, being sharply criticized, did not gain
acceptance. The work of revision began more
seriously in 1886, when T. Duka, a native of Hun-
gaiy and a member of the committee of the Bible
society in London, secured the aid of that great
organisation. Competent men were chosen from
among the professors and pastors of both Churches.
After many years' labor, the revised Old Testament
left the press at Budapest in 1898. This noble
work needs further revision, and the Hungarian
Church awaits the moment when the second revision,
soon to appear, will be ready. Work on the revi-
sion of the New Testament is progressing.
After the great revolution of 1848 and between
1851 and 1861, the constitution of Hungary was
suspended by the Austrian government and the
circiilation of the Bible was prohibited. The Bible
depot, the property of the British Society, was
ordered to be removed, and was located at Beriin;
nnoe the coronation of Francis Joseph I all
hindrances have been removed, and under the
Hungarian state government circulation of the
Bible is free. F. Balooh.
Bibuoobapbt: BibU of Entry Land, pp. 325-327, lA>ndon,
IMl; F. Veraeshi. DiMaerlaHo de vernont Hunoariea terip'
bra aocTtf, Budapest, 1822; T. Dukm, in BibU SocUiy'a
M<mA!v, London, 1882; JCL, ii. 770-771; Hauek-Heriog,
RE, pp. 115-118 (givM the literature in Hungarian);
BD, extra ToL, p. 417.
XI. Italian Versions: Legend has it that Jacob
of Varasie (q.v.), bishop of Genoa, made an
Italian translation of the Bible. There can be no
doubt that one was prepared as early as the
thirteenth century. The eariiest printed Italian
Bible is that of Nicold di Malherbi, an abbot of
the Gunaldolites, based on the Vulgate and
published Venice, 1471. In 1530 Antonio Bruc-
doli published at Venice his translation of the New
Testament and in 1532 the entire Bible. In the
Bune year the New Testament by the Dominican
Zsocaria was published at Venice, and in 1551 that
of Domenico Gi^o. After this time Geneva be-
came the home of the Italian Bible. A congre-
gtktion of refugees settled there about the middle
of the sixteenth century, and for their benefit
Massimo Teofilo, a former Benedictine of Florence,
translated the New Testament from the Greek
(Lyons, 1551). For the Old Testament Bruccioli's
version was revised and thus in 1562 the first
Protestant Bible in the Italian language appeared
(at Geneva). It was entirely superseded in 1607
by the translation of G. Diodati (q.v.) of Lucca.
Tliis version, made directly from the original texts,
stands in high esteem for fidelity and has been
repeatedly reprinted by different Bible societies.
A version affecting great elegance, but by no
means as faithful because m^de from the Vulgate,
is that of Antonio Martini, archbishop of Florence
(Turin, 1776). This version has also been repeat-
edly reprint^ by the British and Foreign Bible So-
ciety, and in 1889 sqq. an illustrated edition was
published by the Catholic publisher Sonzogno at
Milan. [A version of the Gospels and Acts in mod-
em Italian prepared under the direction of the St.
Jerome Society of Rome by Giuseppe CSementi, a
secular priest and professor of Italian literature,
with brief notes by Giovanni Genocchi of the Mis-
sion of the Sacred Heart, and preface by Giovanni
Semeria of the Order of St. Paul (Bamabites), was
printed at the Vatican Press with the approbation
of Pope Leo XIII in 1902. The work was well
received by the public and by scholars, and was
approved and circulated by many dignitaries of
the Roman Church, although some feared its influ-
ence. The completion of the New Testament and
translation of the Old, which was contemplated by
the Society, has been postponed, as it seemed inad-
visable to Pope Pius X to give the Italian people
the epistles of St. Paul at the present time. The
volume published is sold at a nominal price, and
about 500,000 copies, it is claimed, have been dis-
tributed. See Jerome, Saint, Orders and Socie^
TIES OF.] (S. BERQERf.)
BiBUOoaAnnr: 8. Berger, La BibU Italienne au moytn Age^
in Rcmania, zzui (1894), 358 sqq. (oontaina bibliog'
raphy and liat of MSS.); BibU of Every Land, pp. 277-
270. London. 1861; J. D. Hales, Tht BibU or the BibU
Society r The CorrupHon of Qod'e Word in the Italian
Vereion of Moroni, London, 1861; J. Garini, Le Vereione
dMa BiUia in volgari iialiano, S. Pier d'Arena, 1894;
8. Minoeei, Vereione Italiennee de la BibU, in Vigouroux,
Dietionnaire de la BibU; KL, u, 741-742; i>B, extra vol.,
406-406.
Xn. Lithuanian and Lettish Versions: A fore-
runner of the Bible translation for Protestant
Lithuanians was the rendering of the Scripture
lessons from the Gospels and Epistles by B. Willent
(KOnigsberg, 1579) from Luther's text (edited by
E. Bechtel, in Bezzenberger's LUauische und leUische
Drucke de8 16, JahrhunderU, part 3, Gdttingen,
1882). The first translator of the Bible in a fuller
sense was Jan Bretkun (Bretkunas), minister at
Labiau and KOnigsberg (d. 1602 or 1603). He
translated the whole Bible, 1679-90. The manu-
script, preserved in the university library at
Kdnigsberg, is described by A. Bezzenberger,
Beitrdge rur Geachichte der litauischen Sprache
(Gdtthigen, 1877), pp. vi-vii. Only the Psalms
were published (Kdnigsberg, 1625) and the editor,
J. Rhesa, introduced many changjs.
The Reformed Lithuanians, anxious for a Bible,
Bible Veraioiui
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
150
in 1657 commissioned Samuel Boguslaw Chylinski
to go to England and have the Bible printed there
(of. H. Reinhold, in MiUheUungen der litauisch-
liUerarUchen GeseUschaft, voL iv, part 2, p. 105).
The Old Testament as far as the Psalms was pre-
sented to the synod at Wilna in print in 1663, other
parts in manuscript. Of this Bible impression
only three copies, aU imperfect, are known to exist.
Chylinski was the translator.
The New Testament, translated by Samuel Byth-
ner, was published at Kdnigsberg, 1701, for the
benefit of the Lutherans (new ed., Berlin, 1866).
A New Testament translated by different ministers
was published at Kdnigsberg in 1727. The Old
Testament was prepared in the same way and the
whole Bible was published at Kdnigsberg, 1735.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century the
need of a new edition of the Bible was felt, and the
work was undertaken, with the help of the British
and Foreign Bible Society, by a number of clergy-
men and especially by L. J. Rhesa. It was based
on Luther's version, with comparison of the He-
brew and Greek originals, and was published at
Tibit, 1824.
For the Roman Catholic Lithuanians, Joseph Ar-
nulf Giedraltis (Polish, Giedroj^), bishop of Samo-
gitia, translated the New Testament from the
Vulgate (WUna, 1816).
The oldest specimen of Lettish printing, the
Enchiridion (Kdnigsberg, 1586-^7; called in later
editions Vademecum and " Hand-Book "), con-
tains among other writings for ecclesiastical use
the Scripture lessons for Sundays and festivals for
the Evangelical Letts (in later editions enlai^ged by
parts of the Old Testament). The first Lettish
Bible, translated by E. Glttck and C. B. Witten,
was published at Riga, 1685-89. In 1877 A. Bielen-
stein published at Mitau a thoroughly revised
edition. (A. Leskien.)
BxBUOoaArHT: L. J. Rheaa, OttehichU dtr litaui9ehen BtbeX,
KfinigabeiVt 1886: H. Reinhold. D%» toomannU Chy-
linakiadi^ BtMUbeneUuno, in Mittfmlunoen der lilauiaik'
litUrariadien O—dUchafU vol. !▼, part 2, p. 105; Napierw
■ky. CkrondoQiacker CarmMd der UUied^litterariMAen
GtedUehaft, vol. iii. 1831; BihU of Every Land, pp. 310-
313, London, 1861; Bielenstein. Zum SOOiUhrioen JuM-
lAum der letUsehen Liieratur, Riga, 1886. Coniult also the
Annual Beporta of the BFBa
ZnL Perrian Verrions: Chrysostom mentions
Persians as well as Syrians, Egyptians, Ethiopians,
and other nations as being in possession of the
Qospel; but it is very doubtful whether there was
at that time a version of Scripture in the Per-
sian tongue, since Syrian influence predominated
in the Persian Empire. It is said, however, that
Chosroes II had the Scriptures brought from
Edessa (cf. TLZ, 1896, 432, and Theodoret, Hist,
9ed,, i, 5). All that was known in Europe till 1700
of Biblical and other texts is found in Lagarde,
Persische Studien (Gdttingen, 1884), 3-8.
A translation of the Pentateuch by the Persian
Jew Jacob ben Joseph Tawus, printed in Hebrew
characters, is contained in a polyglot Pentateuch of
Constantinople (1546), and was transcribed into
Persian characters with a Latin translation by T.
Hyde in vol. iv of Walton's Polyglot. The Gos-
pda, translated from the Greek, were edited by
Abraham Wheelocke and, after his death, by
Pierson (London, 1657), and another translation
from the Syriac was printed in vol. v of Walton's
Polyglot, and used by Tischendorf after the
edition of C. A. Bode (Helmstadt, 1750-51). In
Paris are parts of two different translations of
the Old Testament, the one made from the Hebrew,
the other from the Aramaic (cf. Zotenberg, Cata-
logue de$ maniueriu HAreux, etc., Paris, 1866
sqq., and Lagarde, Pertiache Studien, i, 69, and
ii, and his Symmicta, ii, Gdttingen, 1879, 14-17).
0^ Jewish reports about the Bible in the lan-
guage of Elam and Media cf. L. Blau, EinUiiung
in die heilige Schrift (Budapest, 1804), 80-04.
E. Nbbtlb.
For partial translations of the Bible, particu-
larly of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecdesiastes, Canticles, the Minor Prophets, Esther,
Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Job, and Lamentations,
preserved in manuscript, cf. JE, iii, 190, vii, 319-
319. The oldest fragments of this character are
probably those found in the Pahlavi Skikand-
gdnUknlg Vijdr, which dates from the latter part of
the ninth oentuiy (ed. Jamasp-Asana and E. W.
West, Bombay, 1887; transl. by E. W. West, SBE,
xxiv, 117 sqq.). These fragments are Gen. i, 2-^,
ii, 16-17, iii, 9, 11-16, 18-19, vi, 6; Ex. xx, 5;
Deut. xxix, 4, xxxii, 35; Ps. xcv, 10; Isa. xxx,
27-28, xliii, 19; Matt, i, 20, v, 17, vii, 17-18, xii,
34, XV, 13, xviii, 32; Luke v, 31-32, vi, 44, xv, 4;
John i, 11, 14, viii, 23, viii, 37-^38, 42-45, 47; and
Rom. vii, 19-20. They were quoted for anti-
Christian polemics, and from the forms of the proper
names seem to have been derived from a Syriac
original, though traces of the Targum of the pseudo-
Jonathan (see above. A, V, { 3) may be discovered
in the renderings of Ex. xx, 5 and especially of Gen.
iii, 14 (cf. L. H. Gray, in Actee du XIV. eangr^
international dee arientalietee, i, Paris, 1005, 182-186).
Equally interesting are the fragments of the New
Testament in Estrangelo script but in an Iranian
dialect (probably Sogdhian, thus constituting
almost the only known remains of this dialect),
discovered in Tiirfan, Eastern Turkestan, in 1903.
These citations are Mamchean in origin, and the
following passages are thus far known: Matt, x,
14 sqq.; Luke i, 63-80; John xx, 19 sqq.; Gal. iii,
25 sqq., and a number of smaller fragments which
are adaptations and compilations rather than
translations (cf. F. W. K. MQller, in appendix to
the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1904,
pp. 34-37, and Sitzungeberichte der Berliner Aka-
demie, 1907, pp. 260-270). Mention may also be
made of a Persian version of Gen. i-vi, 6, by Abhi-
chand, a Hindu converted to a mixture of Judaism
and Mohammedanism by the Judeo-Persian poet
Sarmad eariy in the seventeenth centuiy, and pre-
served in the Dabietan. This version differs ma-
terially from the translation of Jacob Tawus.
Bibuoobapht: Walton'* PUygiot, ProlefomBna, 16, and
8. CMoui in vol. ir; 8. Hunk, Une vereion permne MS.
de la BiUiotkigue RoyaU, Paris. 1838; BibU of Bvery
Land, pp. 64-71. London. 1861; A. Kobut. B^UudUung
der ptrtiMAm PentateuthiOieredMuno, Heidelberg. 1871;
T. N6ldeke. in ZDMO, U (1803). 648; Horn, iiue tlolie-
wieehen BtUiolM:en. in ZDMO, U (1803); 8criTener. /»-
trodwHon, U. 165: Gra«ory. TexAriHk, i. 676-578.
151
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
XIV. Portngoese Vendons: Portuguese venions
begin with that by Joa5 Ferreira d'Ahneida, a
former Roman Catholic priest (New Testament,
Amsterdam, 1681 ; Old Testament, revised and con-
tinued bj Danish missionaries, Tranquebar, 1719-
1751). A Roman Catholic version, with annotations,
hj Antonio Pereira de Figueiredo, was published in
Lisbon, 1778 sqq. (23 vols.; revised ed., greatly
improved, 1794-1819).
A version based on Almeida's translation was
made by the Rev. Thomas Boys, and published by
the Trinitarian Bible Society (London, 1843-47).
The British and Foreign Bible Society has often
printed revised editions of both Almeida's and
Pereira's versions. The need of a better and more
accurate translation of the Bible in the Portu-
guese language is generally recognised by Protes-
tant missionaries and laborers in Portugal and
Brazil. (S. BEROEBf.)
Biblioorafbt: Bibie of Evary Land, p. 271-276, London.
1861; 8. Befier. in Romania, xxriii (1899), 643 sqq.
igpna a full aooount of the literfttura); DB, extra vol.,
pp. 410-411.
XV. Scandinavian Versions: Of the Scandi-
navian countries, Norway and its colony, Iceland,
had at a very eariy period a national
1. Before literature in the Old Norwegian
the Bef- tongue (incorrectly called Old Norse).
ormation. Xo the eariiest period of Bible trans-
lation belongs the Stjom (" Dispen-
sation/' Bc., of God), which includes Gen.-II
Kingi. This is not a translation but a para-
phrase of these books on the basis of the Vul-
gate, with explanatory remarks from different
authors — Josephus, Augustine, Peter Comestor,
Vincent of Beauvais, and others. The preface
stales that it was prepared imder the patronage
of King Haakon V (129^1319), and from a
note in one of the manuscripts it appears that
Brand Jonson, bishop of Hole in Iceland (d. 1264),
made the translation. If this note is correct,
JoDson probably translated the middle and most
ancient part (Ex. xix-Deut. xxxiv). The Stjam
was edited by Prof. C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1862).
In the Old Norwegian literature there exist many
homilies, legends of the saints, and apociyphal Acts
of the Apostles which contain many Bible texts;
these were put together and published by J. Bels-
heim under the title Af BibeUn i Norge og paa
ItUxnd % Midddalderen (Christiania, 1884).
The eariiest traces of a translation of the Bible into
Old Swedish appear in the time of St. Bridget. In
her"Revdations" aswell as in accoimts of her
life it is said that she had a copy of the Bible
made in Swedish. This was imdoubtedly only an
exposition of the Pentateuch composed by her
father confessor Matthias in Linkdping (d. 1350;
see Bridget, Saint, of Sweden). Joshua and
Judges were translated later by Nils Ragnvaldson
(d. 1514), while Judith, Esther, Ruth, and Bfaccabees
were trandated by Jens Budde of the N&dendal
monastery. There is also extant a translation of
the Apocaljrpse, made prior to 1520. All these
Biblical works, baaed on the Vulgate, were edited by
G. E. Klemming, in Svtnaka MeddtidenB Bibdat'
&cten (2 vols., Stockholm, 1848-^).
An old Danish version based on the Vulgate,
containing the first twelve books of the Old Testa-
ment, is contained in a manuscript of the Mariager
monastery in Jutland, antedating 1480. The
first eight books were edited by Prof. C. Mol-
bech (Copenhagen, 1828). A translation of the
Psalms of the same period is extant in different
manuscripts. Some of them were edited by C. J.
Brandt, in Qande danskeLdsebog (Copenhagen, 1857).
In both Denmark and Sweden the entire
Bible was first translated in the period of the
Reformation. Norway was united with Denmark
from 1380 to 1814 and the Danish
8. Binoe language, being cognate with the Nor-
theBef- wegian, became the common literary
ormatlozi. language in the two countries. The
New Testament was first rendered
into Danish by Hans Mikkelsen, formerly bur-
gomaster of Malmd, who followed Christian II
into exile in the Netherlands in 1523. This New
Testament appeared at Leipsic in 1524. Being a
mixture of Danish and German, the language
was uncouth. A better translation was made
by Christen Pedersen (d. 1554), the first editor of
the history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus and
of other older works. P^ersen's New Testament
was printed at Antwerp 1529 and again in 1531,
and in the latter year his translation of the
Psalms appeared. Previous to this (1528) a
translation of the Psalms made by Frans Wormord-
sen, a Dutchman by birth, was published at Ros-
tock. All these followed the Vtdgate closely, but
were influenced by Luther and Erasmus. The
Danish Reformer Hans Tausen (d. 1561, as bishop
of Ribe [Ripen]) translated the Pentateuch from
Luther's version (Magdeburg, 1535). Peder Tide-
mand translated Judges (Copenhagen, 1539), and
Wisdom and Ecdesiasticus (Magdeburg, 1541).
The first complete Bible in Danish was published
at Copenhagen in 1550, following, according to the
instructions of Christian III, as much as possible
Luther's version. The greater part of the work was
done by Christen Pedersen, assisted by a number of
professors. A new edition followed, 1589, reprinted
1633. A translation from the ori^nal languages,
prepared by Hans Paulsen Resen (d. 1638), ap-
peared in 1607, and, revised by Bishop Hans
Svane or Svaning (the so-called Svam'ng Bible),
again in 1647 and was used till the middle
of the nineteenth centuiy. In 1819 Bishop
F. C. K. H. MOnter (q.v.) with others imdertook a
revision of the New Testament, and the whole
Bible, revised by C. Rothe, C. Hermansen, and C.
Kalkar under the presidency of Bishop H. L. Mar-
tensen (q.v.) was published in 1872. There are
translations made by other scholars, such as C.
Basthohn (New Testament, 1780), O. H. Guld-
berg (New Testament, 1794), the whole Bible by
J. C. Lindberg (1837-56) and C. Kalkar (1847),
the four Gospels by K. F. Viborg (1863), and
the New Testament by Bishop T. 8. R5rdam
(1886; 2d ed., 1894-95). A Roman Catholic
version of the New Testament after the Vulgate
was published by J. L. V. Hansen in 1893.
After the separation of Norway from Denmark
in 1814, three revisions of the New Testament
Bible Versioxia
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
152
were made (1819, 1830, and 1873), the most
important being by Prof. Hereleb in 1830. A new
translation of the Old Testament undertaken by
Adjunct Thistedahi and Profs. Kaurin, Holmboe,
Caspari, and Nissen was published in parts (1857-
1869; revised ed. completed 1890), and of the New
Testament by Bishops F. W. Bugge, A. C. Bang,
and others was published in 1904.
The New Testament was rendered into the Nor-
wegian vernacular, which much resembles the Old
Norwegian, by Prof. E. Blix, I. Aasen, M. Skard,
and J. BeliBheim, and published in 1889 (new ed.,
1899). A translation of parts of the Old Testa-
ment is in preparation and the Book of Psalms
was printed in 1904, Genesis in 1905. A trans-
lation of the New Testament for the use
of Roman Catholics has also been 'published.
During the Reformation period Iceland also re-
ceived the Bible in its old Norwegian-Icelandic
tongue. An Icelander, Odd Qottskalkson, of Nor-
wegian descent, translated the New Testament,
which was published at Roskilde, 1540. The
whole Bible translated after Luther's version by
Bishop Gudbrand Thorlakson appeared in 1584
(revised 1644). A new translation by Bishop Stein
Jonson was issued in 1728, but the rendering was
not smooth, so the older version of Thorlakson
was reprinted at Copenhagen in 1747, and the New
Testament again in 1750 and 1807, followed in 1813
by a reprint of the whole Bible. In 1827 a new
translation of the New Testament was published,
followed by a revised edition of the whole Bible in
1841, and by a revised edition. Oxford, 1863.
When Gustavus Vasa became king of Sweden
in 1523, wishing for a Swedish translation, he
applied to Archbishop Johannes Magni of Upsala,
requesting him with the help of the clergy to pre-
pare a translation of the New Testament. The
archbishop devised a plan which, however, was
opposed by some of the ministers. Bishop
Hans Brask of LinkOping said that "it were
better for Paul to have been burned, than to
be known by every one." The New Testament
translated by the chancellor Lorenz Andre& (q.v.)
with the assistance of Pastor Olaus Petri (q.v.) was
published at Stockhohn 1526. The whole Bible,
translated by Lars Petri, archbishop of Upsala (d.
1573), was issued 1540-41. This Bible, made
after Luther's, was for a long time the church
Bible of Sweden. A revised edition by the two
bishops Geaselius in Abo (father and son; see
Gezelius, Johannes) was highly praised. Dif-
ferent commissions for translating the Bible were
appointed; one, consisting of twenty-three mem-
bers, spent a long tune in preparing a translation
with a rationalistic tendency; but the '' specimens "
published from time to time found no favor. In
1844 the conunission was reconstituted, with Prof.
A. Knds as one of its most active members. The
New Testament prepared by the cathedral provosts
0. A. Thoren and H. M. Melin and published
in 1853-77 was not favorably received. A better
reception met the version of the New Testament
prepared by Archbishop Sundberg, Cathedral
Provost Thoren, and Bishop Johanson, published in
1882. A new translation of the Old Testament is
in preparation. The Bible version of Cathedral
Provost Melin was published in 1865-69.
J. Beubhedi.
BxBUOoaAPHT: J. Belsheim. VeiledfUno % BibtUna Hittork^
pp. 252 aqq., Christuuiia, 1880; J. A. Schiiuneier. Ge>
•cfcidUe der •ehweiithen BibeU-Uebenetsunoen und Atu-
Oaben, Leipdo, 1777; P. W. Becker. De J. P. Reaenii ter-
none Danica, Copenhagen, 1&31: C. Molbech, Bidroo til
•n hittorie of de Dandee BibdovermetteUer, tb. 1840; Bibk
of Every Land, pp. 214-226, London, 1861; C. W. Brumu
BiblioOuca Danica, Copenhegtm, 1872; J. P. Hicgmnn,
Forteeknino dfver evenaka upplaoor of BibeUi, Upaala.
1882; KL, u, 767-709; DB, extra vol.. pp. 415-^416.
ZVL Slayonic VerBions: The history of Bible
versions in the Slavonic begins with the seooDd
half of the ninth century. The oldest translation,
commonly called the Church Slavonic,
^'m^^ Old Lb closely connected with the activity
SlavJnlo ®^ ^^^ ^^ apostles to the Sla\-s,
Version. Cyril and Methodius, in Moravia. 864-
885 (see Ctril and Methodius). The
oldest manuscripts are written either in the
so-called Qyrillic or the Glagplitic character. The
former is the Greek majuscule writing of the
ninth century with the addition of new char-
acters for Slavic soimds which are not found
in the Greek of that time; the latter was a
style of the Greek minuscule with the addition of
new signs as in the Cyrillic alphabet. The oldest
manuscripts are written in the Glagolitic, which
is older than the Cyrillic. The oldest manuscriptfi
extant belong to the tenth or eleventh century,
and the first complete collection of Biblical
books in the Church Slavonic language originated
in Russia in the last decade of the fifteenth century.
It was made by Archbishop Gennadius of Nov-
gorod, and the Old Testament was translated partly
from the Vulgate, and partly from the Septuagint.
The New Testament is based upon the old Church
Slavonic translation. During the sixteenth cen-
tury a greater interest in the Bible was awakened
in South and West Russia, owing to the con-
troversies between adherents of the Orthodox
Church and the Roman Catholics and Uniates.
In the second half of the sixteenth century
the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles, and parts of the
Psalter were often printed at Lemberg and Wihia,
though the oldest edition of the Acts and Epistles was
issued at Moscow in 1564. In 1581 the first edition
of the Slavonic Bible was published at Ostrog, a
number of Greek manuscripts, besides the Genna-
dius Bible, having been used for this edition.
But neither the Gennadius nor the Ostrog Bihle
was satisfactory, and in 1663 a second somewhat
revised edition of the latter was published
at Moscow. In 1712 the czar Peter the Great
issued a ukase ordering the printed Slavonic text
to be carefiilly compared with the Greek of the
Septuagint and to be made in every respect oon-
formable to it. The revision was completed in
1724 and was ordered to be printed, but the death of
Peter (1725) prevented the execution of the order.
The manuscript of the Old Testament of this re-
vision is in the synodal library at Moscow. Under
the empress Elizabeth the work of revision was re-
sumed by a ukase issued in 1744, and in 1751 a
revised "Elizabeth" Bible, as it is called, was
163
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
published. Three other editions were published in
1756, 1757, and 1759, the second somewhat revised.
All later reprints of the Russian Church Bible are
based upon this second edition, which is the
authorized version of the Russian Church.
The Church Slavonic is not intelligible to the
Russian people. An effort to produce a version in
the vernacular was made by Frantsisk Skorina (d.
after 1535), a native of Polotsk in White Russia.
He published at Prague, 1517-19, twenty-two Old
«----i-- Testament books in the "Russian
VeniozLs. language," in the preparation of which
he was greatly influenced by the
Bohemian Bible of 1506 (see below, { 5). Other
^orts were made during the sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries, but the Church Slavonic
predominated in all these efforts. Peter the
Great felt that the mass of the Russian people
needed a Bible in the vernacular and author-
ised Pastor GlQck in 1703 to prepare such
an edition. Unhappily Glttck died in 1705 and
nothing is known of his work. It was left to
the nineteenth centuiy in connection with the
establishment of the Russian Bible Society (foimded
in 1812 at St. Petersburg, with the consent of Alex-
ander I; see Bible Societies, II, 5) to prepare a
Bible in the vernacular. The work was under-
taken by Philaret (q.v.), rector of the Theological
Academy of St. Petersburg (afterward metro-
politan of Moscow), and other members of the
faculty of the aisidemy. The Gospels were
published in 1818 and in 1822 the entire
New Testament. In 1820 the translation of
the Old Testament was imdertaken, and in
1822 Phflaret's translation of the Psalms was
published. In 1825 the Pentateuch, Joshua,
Judges, and Ruth were issued. The year 1826
saw an end to the activity of the Bible Society
in the ban put upon all kkids of private assodar
tions, even when non-political. Not before 1858
was the work of translation resumed. In 1876 the
entire Bible was published in one volume. The Old
Testament books, though based upon the Hebrew,
follow the order of the Septuagint and the Church
Slavonic Bible. The Apocryphal books also form
a part of the Russian Bible. The British and
Foreign Bible Society also issued a Russian edition,
omitting, however, the Apocrypha.
The Bulgarians too were provided during the
nineteenth century with translations of Biblical
books into the vernacular. In 1828 the New Testa-
ment was published at Bucharest (2d ed., 1833),
tiaoalated by the pastors Sapunov and Sera-
phim. For the British and Foreign Bible
Society the archimandrite Theodosius, abbot of
the Bistrica monastery, translated
^\^iU»»- the New Testament, which was printed
g^^[^ at London in 1828. The entire edition
▼ersiona. ^^ ^^nt to St. Petersburg and is said to
have been destroyed there. A new
translation of the New Testament was published at
Smyrna in 1840 (3ded., Bucharest, 1853, and often).
In 1867 the American Bible Society printed in New
York a translation of the New Testament and other
editions were issued at Constantinople in 1866 and
1872. The Old Testament "translated from the
original " was also published there in three parts
(1862-64), but without the Apocrypha. An edition
of the entire Bible '' faithfully and accurately ren-
dered from the original " was published by the
same society at Constantinople in 1868 (3d ed.,
1874). A translation of the New Testament into
Servian was made by Vuk Stefanovi6 Karajid, the
foimder of modem Servian literature, and published
at Vienna in 1847. The Old Testament was trans-
lated by Vuk's pupil Dyuro Danichitf and issued at
Belgrade in 1868. The language in both is excellent.
The Servian Bible of Atanasiie Ivanovitf Stoikovitf
(published by the Russian Bible Society at St.
Petersburg, 1824) is not written in the vernacular,
but is a mixture of Church Slavonic and Servian.
The Bible versions for the Slovenes are most closely
connected with the activity of the Reformer of Car-
niola. Primus Truber (1507-86; see
*• ®lo- Truber, Primus), and his associates
^Oroatlsm *^^ successors; they were intended for
Versions, the Evangelical Slovenes. Truber trans-
lated the Gospel of Matthew, which was
printed at Reutlingen in 1555 ; in 1557 the first
part of the New Testament was published at TQ-
bingen, the second part in 1560, and the complete
New Testament was issued in 1582; the Psalms ap-
peared in 1566. Dalmatin, who assisted Truber,
translated the Old Testament, and an edition of the
entire Scriptures in Slovenian was published under
his direction at Wittenberg in 1584. Stevan Kues-
mics published a New Testament for the Hungarian
Slovenians in their dialect at Halle in 1771. An edi-
tion published at GOns (KOszeg) in 1848 has the
Psalms added. In 1784 a part of the New Testament
for the use of Roman Catholics was printed at Lai-
bach, translated from the Vulgate by several hands.
The second part of the New Testament was issued
in 1786, and the Old Testament between 1791 and
1802. Efforts were also made to prepare a Bible
version for the Evangelical Croats or for those who
should be brought over to the Evangelical faith.
A New Testament translated by Anton Dalmata
and Stipan Consul was printed in Glagolitic char-
acters (2 parts) at Tubingen, 1562-63. In the seven-
teenth century efforts were made to give a trans-
lation to the Catholic Croats and Servians in the
so-called Blyrian dialect, but nothing was printed
till the nineteenth century, when a Bible in Latin
letters together with the parallel text of the Vulgate,
translated into " the lUyric language, Bosnian dia-
lect" by Petrus Kataucsich, was published at Buda-
pest (6 parts, 1831). It followed the Vulgate
slavishly.
The Czech literature of the Middle Ages is
very rich in translations of Biblical books, made
from the Vulgate (cf. the list of manuscripts and
prints in J. Jungmann, Historie LUeratury Cfeski,
Prague, 1849). During the fourteenth century
all parts of the Bible seem to have been trans-
lated at different times and by different hands.
The oldest translations are those
5. Bohe- of the Psalter. The New Testa-
ment must also have existed at that
time, for according to a statement
of Wyclif, Anne, daughter of Charles IV, received
in 1381 upon her marrying Richard II of England
Versiona.
Bible Versions
THE NEW SCHAFF-ESItZOG
154
a Bohemian New Testament. It is certain that
Hubs had the Bible in Bohemian before him as a
whole and he and his successors midertook a
revision of the text according to the Vulgate.
The work of Huss on the Bible antedated 1412.
During the fifteenth century the revision was con-
tinued. The first complete Bible was published at
Prague, 1488; other editions were issued at Kutten-
berg, 1489, and Venice, 1506. These prints were
the basis of other editions which were published
from time to time.
With the United Brethren a new period began
for the translation of the Bible. In 1518 the New
Testament appeared at Jungbunzlau at the instance
of Luke of Prague (q.v.). It was not satisfactory
and the same must be said of the edition of 1533.
Altogether different was the translation made by
Jan Blahoslav from the original Greek (1564,
1568). The Brethren soon undertook the trans-
lation of the Old Testament from the original and
appointed for this work a niunber of scholars,
who based their translation upon the Hebrew text
published in the Antwerp Polyglot. The work
began in 1577 and was completed in 1593, and from
the place of printing, Krialitz in Moravia, it is
known as the Kralitz Bible (6 parts, 1579-93,
containing also Blahoslav's New Testament). This
excellent translation was issued in smaller size in
1596, and again in folio in 1613 (reprinted at Halle
in 1722, 1745, 1766; Pressburg, 1787; Berlin, 1807).
After the year 1620 the publication of non-
Catholic Bibles in Bohemia and Moravia ceased, and
efforts were made to prepare Bibles for the Catholics.
After some fruitless beginnings the work was
entrusted to certain Jesuits, who took the Venice
edition of 1506 as the basis, but relied greatly,
especially for the Old Testament, on the Brethren's
Bible. Between 1677 and 1715 the so-called
St. Wenceslaus Bible was published at the expense
of a society founded in honor of the saint. A new
edition appeared at Prague 1769-71. A thoroughly
revised edition, iising the text of the Brethren's
Bible, was published in 1778-80. Still more de-
pendent on the Brethren's Bible was Prochaska's
New Testament (Prague, 1786), and his edition of
the whole Bible (1804). Editions of Prochaska's
text, slightly amended, were issued in 1851 and 1857.
The Bible edited by BesdSka (Prague, 1860) gives
the text of the Brethren's Bible with slight changes.
G. Palkovi^ translated the Bible from the Vulgate
into Slovak (2 parts. Gran, 1829).
The oldest Sorbic Bible version, that of the New
Testament of 1547, is extai}t in a manuscript in
the Royal Library at Berlin. The translator was
Miklawusch Jakubica, who employed a dialect (the
Lower Sorbic) now extinct. In the eighteenth
century Gottlieb Fabricius, a Grerman,
^ opSot^^ made a translation of the New Testa-
Ver^ons. ^^^^ which was printed in 1709. In a
revised form this version was pub-
lished by the British and Foreign Bible Society in
1860. The Old Testament, translated by J. G.
Fritz, was printed at Kottbus in 1796. An edi-
tion of the entire Bible was published by the
Prussian Bible Society in 1868.
Michael Frentzel, pastor in Postwitz (d. 1706),
translated the New Testament into the Wendish
of Upper Lusatia (Upper Sorbic), and his version was
published by his son, Abraham Frentiel (Zittau,
1706). A complete edition of the Bible, the
work of different scholars, was first published
at Bautsen, 1728. A second revised edition was
prepared by Johann Gottfried Ktlhn and issued
in 1742; a third improved edition prepared bj
Johann Jacob Petschke was published in 1797.
Passing over other editions, it is worth while to
note that the ninth edition of the complete Bible
(Bautzen, 1881) was revised by H. Inunisch and
others and contains a history of the Upper Lusa-
tian Wendish Bible translation. For the Roman
Catholic Wends of Upper Lusatia G. Luscanski
and M. Homik translated the New TestameDt
from the Vulgate, and published it at Bautxen,
1887-^2; the Ptolms were translated from the
Hebrew by J. Laras (Bautzen, 1872).
The histoiy of the Polish translation of the Bible
begins with the Psalter (cf. W. Nehring, AUpol-
niache Spraehdenkmdler, Berlin, 1886). A manu-
script of the second half of the fourteenth century,
in the abbey of St. Florian, near linz, in Latin,
Polish, and German is probably the
7. Polish oldest. A critical edition of the Fo-
Versions. lish part was published by Nehring
(PtaUerii Florianensis pars Polmiea,
Posen, 1883) with a very instructive intro-
duction. Besides the Florian Psalter there is the
Psalter of Pulawy (now in Cracow) belonging to
the end of the fifteenth century (published in
facsimile, Posen, 1880).
Polish Bibles originated after the middle of the
fifteenth century. An incomplete Bible, the so-
called Sophia Bible (named after Queen Sophia,
for whom it was intended, according to a remark
from the sixteenth century; also called the Siros-
patak Bible from the place where it is preserved),
contains Genesis, Joshua, Ruth, Kinga, Chronides,
Ezra, Nehemiah, II (III) Esdras, Tobit, and Judith
(ed. A. Maledd, Biblia KroUnoij Zojii, Lembeiis,
1871). With the Reformation period activity in
the work of translation increased as the different
confessions endeavored to supply their adherents
with texts of the Bible. An dfort to provide the
Lutherans with the Bible in Polish was made by
Duke Albert of Prussia (q.v.) in a letter directed in
his name to Melanchthon. Jan Siekludd, preacher
at KOnigsberg (d. 1578), was conmiissioned to pre-
pare a translation, and he published the New Testsr
ment at Kdnigsberg, 1551 and 1552. The Polish
Reformed (Calvinists) received the Bible through
Prince Nicholas Radziwill (1515-65). A com-
pany of Polish and foreign theologians and
scholars imdertook the task, and, after six
years' labor at Pinoow, not far from Cracow,
finished the translation of the Bible which
was published at the expense of Radziwill in
Brest-Litovsk, 1563 (hence called the Brest or
Radziwill Bible). The translators state that for
the Old Testament they consulted besides the He-
brew text the ancient versions and different modem
Latin ones. The Brest Bible was not universally
welcomed. The Reformed suspected it of Sodnian
interpretations; the Sodnians complained that it
165
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible VenionB
was not accurate enough. The Sodnian Simon
Budny especially charged against the Brest Bible
that it was not prepared according to the original
texts, but after the Vulgate and other modem
▼enioDS, and that the traioslators cared more for
elegant Polish than for a faithful rendering. He
undertook a new rendering, and his translation
('* made anew from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin
into the Polish ") was printed in 1572 at NeSviXh.
As changes were introduced in the printing
which were not improved by Budny, he disclaimed
the New Testament and published another edition
tl574). The charges which he made against the
Brest Bible were also made against his own, and
the Sodnian Adam Caechowici published a new
and improved edition of the New Testament
(Rakow, 1577). The interesting preface states
that Czechowics endeavored to znake an accurate
translation, but did not suppress his Sodnian
ideas; e.g., he used " immersion " instead of
"baptism." Another Sodnian New Testament
was published by Valentinus Smaldtis (Rakow,
1606).
The Brest Bible was superseded by the so-called
Daniig Bible, which finally became the Bible of
all Evangelical Poles. At the qrnod in Olarowiec,
1600, a new edition of the Bible was proposed and
the work was given to the Reformed minister
Martin Janidd, who had already translated the
Bible from the original texts. In 1603 the printing
of this translation was dedded upon, after the work
had been carefully revised. The work of revision
was entrusted to men of the Reformed and Lutheran
confeanons and members of the Moravian Church
(1604), especially to Danid llikolajewski (d. 1633),
superintendent of the Reformed churches in Great
Poland, and Jan Tumowski, senior of the Mora-
Tian Church in Great Poland (d. 1629). After
it had been compared with the Janidd translation,
the Brest, the Bohemian, Pagnini's, and the Vul-
gate, the new rendering was ordered printed. The
Janicki translation as such has not been printed,
and it is difficult to state how much of it is con-
tained in the new Bible. The New Testament was
first published at Dansig, 1606, and very often dur-
ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The
eomplete Bible was issued in 1632, and often since.
The Dansig Bible differs so much from that of
Brest that it may be regarded as a new translation.
It is erroneously called also the Bible of Paliurus
(a Moravian, senior of the Evangelical Churches
in Great Poland, d. 1632); but he had no part in
the work.
For the Roman CSatholics the Bible was trans-
lated from the Vulgate by John of Lemberg
{UoffolUa, hence this was called the Leopolitan
Bible) and published at Cracow, 1561, 1574, and
1577. This Bible was superseded by the new
translation of Jakub Wujek (a Jesuit, b. about 1540;
d. at Cracow 1593). Wujek critidsed the Catholic
and non-Catholic Bible vermons and spoke very
favorably of the Polish of the Brest Bible, but as-
serted that it was full of heresies and of errors in
translation. With the approbation of the Holy
See the New Testament was first published at
Craoow, 1593, and the Old Testament in 1590,
after Wujek's death. This Bible has often been
reprinted. Wujek's translation follows, in the
main, the Vulgate. (A. Leskden.)
Bibuooraprt: For the boginzungs of Slavio Yeraiona con-
sult: Vita mneU M§thodii, numh^loveniet et laHfm, ed. F.
Mikloaioh, Vienna, 1870; C. DOmmler, Die pannoni$che
Leg^nde vnm htHigmi Method, in Ardtiv fUr Kunde dtterr.
OMeMehtsquettsH, yol. xiii; idem and F. Mikloaioh, Die
Legende vom Imliatn CyriUue, in Denkeekriften der Wiener
Akademie, phU.-hietor. Claeee, ziz (1870); Jagi^, ZurSntetd^-
unif9ffe9chie>Ue der Kirehenelav-Spradu, Vienna. 1000. On
the history of verrions consult: 8. W. Ringeltaube, Nack-
rieht van polnieeh^n BiMn, Dansig. 1744: R. G. Ungar,
AUaetneine bdhmiecKe Bibliothek, part 1, Tkeologie, Prague,
1786 (a bibliography of Bohemian versions); J. Dobrow-
sky. Ueber den ereten Text der hdhnUeehen BibeUtbereet^
ttfitf. Prague. 1708; idem. OlaooliHea, ib. 1807; £. F.
Sohnurrer. Slavieche BUeKerdruek in WUrtiemberg im 16.
Jakrhundert, TQbingen, 1700; O. J. DIabacs, Nachrieht
von ein^m hieher noeh unbekannten bdhmieehen A. T.,
Prague. 1804; Bible of Every Land, pp. 201-310. London,
1861; I. Kostren^ OeeehiefUe der jfroteetantiaehen lAtte-
raiur der SUdelaven, 1SS9^6, Vienna, 1874; W. R. Morfill.
Slavome Literature, London, 1883; Ardtiv fUr Slaviedte
Phitoloffie, by V. Jagi^ especially supplement vol. by F.
Pastimek. Berlin, 1802 (contains bibliographical lists of
works on SlaTonic subjects for the years 1876-01, inclu-
ding whatever has appeared during that time on the Rus-
sian Bible); V. Vondrik. Die Spuren der aWnrehenela-
vieeKen EvanoeUenlibereetgunif, Vienna, 1803; F. Ahn, Bib-
tioffrapkiedu SeitenKeiten der Truberlitteraiur, Leipsic,
1804; L. J. M. Bebb, The Ruteian BibU, in Chwdi Qtiar^
terly Revimo, Oct., 1805. pp. 203-225; T. Else, Die elove-
nieehen proteelanHeeken Druekeekriften dee xvi. Jakrhun-
derta, Venice, 1806; Scrivener, IntrodueUon, ii, 157 sqq.;
BD, extra voL. pp. 417-420.
ZVn. Spanish Versions: It is very difficult
to decide at what time the first Spam'sh version
was made. In treating of Spanish Bibles, a dis-
tinction should be made between the Catalonian and
the Castilian speech. Of Biblical manuscripts in the
former there are many from the fifteenth century,
one (of the New Testament) from the fourteenth.
Report has it that the Dominican Romeu Sabruguera
of Mallorca (d. 1313), who translated the Psalms,
worked on a translation of the entire Bible; but
the report can not be verified. Most of the Cata-
lonian translations of parts of the Bible (Prov-
erbs, the Prophets, Pauline and Catholic Epistles)
depend on the Vulgate and early French versions;
a translation of the Psalms depends wholly on the
French; the Gospels in the oldest manuscripts are
not based on the Vulgate but on a text in southern
French. Of an alleged translation supposed to
have been printed in Valencia, 1478, no biblio-
graphical datum or exemplar is known, only a few
fragments being so attributed.
Of the Castilian translations almost as little is
known, since no efficient examination of Spanish
manuscripts has yet been made. If tradition
may be accepted, the oldest version belongs to
the thirteenth century, having been made at the
request of Alphonso of Castile and John of Leon;
but there is no confirmation of this statement.
It is a remarkable fact that the early Castilian
versions of the Old Testament were made by Jews,
and the basis was, naturally, the Hebrew text.
Luis de Guzman, grand master of the Order of
Calatrava, entrusted in 1422 to the learned rabbi
Moses Arragel of Maqueda the work of translating
and annotating the Scriptures, but with the help
and under the supervision of the Franciscan Arias
tlble VersioziB
AblM, Annotated
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
156
of RnrinftB (Endena) and others of the clergy. It
accords with this that most of the manuscripts
follow the order of the Hebrew canon.
Of printed texts the first in chronological order
is the New Testament by Francis of Rnrinas
(Antwerp, 1543); next a Bible printed in two
editions (Ferrara, 1553), one for Jews, the other
for Christians (reprinted Amsterdam, 1611, 1630;
revised ed., 1661). In 1556 Juan Peres published
(ostensibly at Venice, really at Geneva) an edition
of the New Testament, which follows the original
Greek. In 1569 a Bible was published, probably
at Basel, in the translation of Cassiodoro de Reina.
Another edition with slight changes was published
by Ricardo del Campo, 1596, and an entirely re-
vised edition by Cipriano de Valera was published
at Amsterdam, 1602. The oldest Jewish-Span-
ish printed translation of the Pentateuch is that
of Constance, 1547. The Old Testament in He-
brew and Spanish was published by Solomon
Proops at Amsterdam in 1762. It was not until
the end of the eighteenth century that a Roman
Catholic scholar undertook to give his Spanish
countrymen a new translation, with the Latin
text and a commentary. The author of this work
(10 vols., Valencia, 1790-93; 20 vols., Madrid,
1794-97) was Felipe Scio de San Miguel, bishop
of Segovia. It was often reprinted. A more re-
cent translation, having respect to the original
texts, was published by Felix Torres Amat, bishop
of Astorga (9 vols., Bfadrid, 1824-29; 6 vols.,
1832-^5; reprinted, 17 vols., Paris, 1835). A
corrected edition of Amat's version was pub-
lished under the care of Sefior Calderon, by the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
in 1853. In 1893 the American Bible Society
published a thoroughly revised edition of Valera's
Bible, which may be regarded as practically a
new version. The work was done by H. B. Pratt.
A New Testament in the Catalan, translated by
J. M. Pratt, was issued by the British and For-
eign Bible Society. (S. BERQERf.)
BiBUOoaAPRT: 8. Beiger, NouvdUa ret^archst tur Im hiblea
. . . colalafiM, in Romania, 3dx, 1890; idem. Let BibUa
caatidlane; ib. zzviii, 1899 (oontaina bibliosjaphy and
list of M8S.); J. M. d« E^nirtfn, Mwmona «U lot eodieet
noiabUa, Madrid. 1859; J. Rodrinues de CMtro, Bibli-
oieea ewpaHola, vol. i. ib. 1781; J. L. Villanueva, Dt la
UeeAon d» la iS, BtcrUura en lenguae vtUgaree, Valensia,
1791; BibU of Bvery Land, pp. 261-907. London. 1$61;
The Governor of Madriife Bible, ib. 1871; J. £. B. Xayor.
Spain, Portugal, and Via BibU, ib. 1896; G. Borrov. Tk
BibU in Spain, latest ed., ib. 1906; KL, ii, 743-744; DB,
extra vol., pp. 40^-410.
XVm. Bible Versions in the Hjssum Fidd:
Eusebius (Theophania, iii, 28) says that the writingn
of the Apostles were transUted in the whole wotH
in all languages of Greeks and baibaiiaiis; and
Chiysostom and Theodoret repeat the renuriL
with still greater emphasis. NevertheleBs from
this early time till the rise of Pietism and the
foimding of missionary and Bible societies little
was done by the official Church or Chintbei
for the translation and circulation of the BiUe.
The first Report of the British and Foreign Bible
Society has an account of what was then the most
famous collection of Bibles (at Stuttgart) and
estimates the number of languages rq>re8ented
there at forty-one. The Bibles presented to the
Society in its first year were in forty-six
languages, from Arabic and Armenian to Turk-
ish and Welsh. The catalogue of Bibles of
the BriUsh Museum includes ninety-seven lan-
guages. The hundredth Report of the Briti&h
and Foreign Bible Society, in the " Histoiical
Table of Languages and Dialects in which the
Translation, Printing, or Distribution of the
Scriptures has been at any time promoted by
the Society" (pp. 434 sqq.), gives 378 lan-
guages; versions in twenty-four languages pre-
pared by other societies have been removed from
the list. [The total number of languages into
which the Bible, or parts of it, has now been
translated is about 500.] The best conspectus is
afforded by T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, His-
torieal Catalogue of the Printed Ediiums of Holy
Scripture in the Library of the Britieh and Foreign
Bible Society (2 vols., London, 1003-08).
E. Nestle.
BnuooaAPRT: The BibU of Evenf Land, London, 1861;
R. N. Oust, Lanouaoe aa lUueiraUd by BibU TrandatiaM,
ib. 1886; idem, Beeaye on Ihe Languaoea of the Bihk ead
BibU TranaUUuma, ib. 1890; idem. Three Liata <ff Biik
TrandaHona acoompUahed ... to iiua. /, 1890, ib. 1S90;
J. S. Denma, CenUnnial Survey of Foreign Miaaimta, Nr«
York, 1901; E. Wallrotb. in AUgemeine Miaaionaeitadinft.
ziriii, 1901: T. Niool, The BibU and the Ckartk atd lb
Miaaion Field, in London Quarterly Ravieta, Jan.. 1901
The Reporia of the various Bible Sodetiee furaiah tta
BIBLES, ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SUMMARIES.
I. Gennan.
The Ernertine and TQbingen Bibles
(ID.
WOrttemberg Bibles (| 2).
The Bfarburs. Berleburg, and
Ebendorf Bibles (| 3).
The Wertheim Bible (f 4).
Later Works (f 6).
II. English.
Uatthev's and the Geneva Bible
(ID.
The Bishops' Bible (| 2).
The Authorised Version (| 3).
John Ganne's Notes. 1647 (| 4).
Other Works to 1701 (| 6).
Matthew Henry. Other Works to
1760 (I 6).
Various Works after 1760 (I 7V
Thomas Soott and Others to 1810 (S ^L
Adam Clarke, D'Oyly and Msnt, tnl
Bellamy. 1810-34 (| 9).
Other Works 1816^38 (| 10).
Republication in America (ill). |
Original Amerioan Works (| 12).
Later Works, English and Ameneta
(I 13). j
[Under this title certain works are mentioned
which give the text of the Bible with annotations
aiming to promote its proper use and understanding.
They are of the nature of commentaries, and a
distinction is not to be sharply drawn. The
annotated Bible, however, wiU alwajrs include
the text, to which the helps are strictly subor-
dinate; the oommentaiy is published for the sake
of the comments and frequently does not include
the text.]
L German: When the Reformation msde
the Bible the common property of the people^
it was not only the source of their faith and piety,
but the only literature, the whole intellectual
world, of the uneducated classes. The moit
Luther's Bible was cherished as the compendium
167
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bible Versions
Bibles, Annotated
of religious and ethical truth and became the daily
reading of the people, the more it needed explanar
tory notes. As early as 1531-33 Luther published
his ** Summaries of the Psalms/' which were incor-
porated by Bugenhagen in his North Saxon Bible
(Lubeck, 1534). In the High German Bible,
" summaries and brief contents of all the chapters "
are found first appended to the Augsburg edition
of 1535. Real annotations appeared as parts of
the book only after Luther's death, first as mar-
ginal rotes or in smaller type under the text (the
Wittenberg editions of Lufft, 1551, and Krafft,
1572, the latter containing the arguments and notes
of Veit Dietrich, the Nuremberg preacher).
It would be a mistake to imagine that the Refor-
Toation early brought the Bible into eveiy house.
There were no small cheap editions, and the Thirty
Vears* War made the earlier ones still scarcer.
Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe- Weimar (d. 1675;
fee Ernest I. the Pioub) brought about the publi-
cation of the famous Ernestine Bible, on which,
'u'ter plans laid out by him, nearly thirty prominent
theologians worked. Eveiy oonununity was to
possess a copy; if they were poor, the
1. The duke provided it wholly or in part.
'^l^rnw^jnB The actual work of preparation began
"Siuwen ^ l^^f and was completed in 1640.
Bibles. It contained, besides pictures and
maps, and a running commentary,
i:J^les of weights, coins, etc., the topography of
Jerusalem, and the creeds and Augsburg Confession.
It was originally sold at six thalers, but the price
gradually rose with later improvements and addi-
tional illustrations, imtil its general circulation was
impeded. The Tttbingen Bible (1730) is an adap-
tation of this, less firm in its dogmatic stand, by
Christoph Matth&us Pfaff (q.v.), professor at
Tubingen, and his brother-in-law, Johium Christian
Klemm.
The same spirit that actuated Duke Ernest
induced Eberhard III of WOrttemberg to publish
the " WQrttemberg Sunmiaries " in
^^^^^ 1669, the first attempt to give a clear,
SibiMif precise, and connected paraphrase
of the whole Scriptures. A revised and
enlarged edition appeared at Leipsic in 1700, followed
by others. The complete revision published in 1787 by
Magnus Friedrich Boos, Kari Heinrich Rieger, and
others of the school of Bengel was less clear, objective,
and orthodox. Another WQrttemberg edition which
deserves mention is the New Testament published
in 1701 by the court preacher Johann Reinhard
Hedioger (q.v.); it was marked by Pietistic devia-
tions from trtulitional theology, and attracted
attention by its sharp rebukes of the sins of the peo-
ple at large and especially of the clergy.
The new spirit of mystical Pietism which influ-
enced the last-named work was fully revealed in
the Marburg Bible (1712), as might be inferred from
the main title, " Mystical and Prophetic Bible."
The interpretation of type and prophecy in this
follows the federal theology of Cocoeius, that of
Canticles and Revelation Madame Guyon. It was
the forerunner of a larger work in the same spirit,
theBerieburg Bible of 1726-42 (8 vols, folio),
projected and prepared chiefly by Johann Heinrich
Haug (q.v.). The text is a revision of Luther's,
with comparison of the English and French ver-
sions; the commentary reflects the views of the Phila-
o m|^ delphian communities, and quotes
Marbu^ the mystical books current among
Berleborff, them, especially Madame Guyon's, but
*^ its teaching goes back beyond Dippel
Bibles! ^^^ Petersen to Jakob Bdhme, or even
to Origen in some points. It lacks
unity of belief and of treatment; it is the work not
of a single mystic, giving voice to his inner convic-
tions, but of a propagandist sect with practical tend-
encies. It is not without value, however, from
different points of view; it edifies by its continual
application of Scriptural words to the spiritual life,
and it prepares the way for historical criticism by an
appendix containing apooypha (Old and New Tes-
tament), pseudepigrapha, and postapostolic wri-
tings. In the same year (1726) appeared the Ebers-
dorf Bible, in the preparation of which Zinzendorf
shared. Its commentaries are altogether in his
spirit, and it was received with favor only by the
friends of the Hermhut community.
When the emotional mysticism of the Pietists
gave way to the prosaic, conmionplaoe conceptions
of the age of Enlightenment (q.v.), attempts were
made to replace the older commentaries by works con-
ceived in the new spirit. The Wertheim Bible (1735)
aroused great excitement in its day, both in Church
and State, though its interest now is purely historical.
This was only the first part of a projected whole,
and contained merely the Pentateuch. The gbt
of the long, involved preface is that
w^* the traditional ideas about the Scrip-
hiSm ^^'^ rested on prejudice and un-
Blble. scientific conceptions, and that the
attempt was now made to found an
exposition of their real meaning on adequate
grounds of reason and historical evidence. It
proposes to give a free translation, adapted to
modern comprehension, though faithful in substance,
and supplemented by the necessary explanations.
The translation is hopelessly bald and common-
place to our taste; the editor showed some orig-
inality, however, as for example in venturing to
discard the traditional division of chapters and
verses. The general philosophical principles, as
well as the critical and historicid, are those of Wolf;
in spite of many blunders, a fair knowledge of
Hebrew is displayed. The editor's name is not
given, but it was soon known. He was Johann
Lorenz Schmidt, a graduate of Jena, personally
much respected, who was then tutor to the young
Count von LOwenstein at Wertheim in Franconia.
He was arrested at the beginning of 1737 and the
book was confiscated by the imperial authorities.
After a year's close imprisonment, he was allowed
more liberty, and escaped to Holland. The literary
war which raged around the Wertheim Bible was
fierce and not uninteresting. In 1738 Schmidt
published a collection of reviews and polemical
pamphlets, with his own replies. His work found
imitators; another of a similar nature, with mod-
em deistic explanations, appeared in 1756, but hod
little success; and the excitement over the frankly
rationaUstio commentary of Nioolaus Funk (Altona»
Bibles, Annotated, and
[Bible Sommariee «
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lU
1815) waa not wide-spread (cf. J. N. Sinnhold,
Atufiihrlidie Historie der Weriheim Bibel, Erfiirt,
1739).
The eighteenth century was not destitute of
attempts to cany on the old tradition in a spirit
of orthodox edification. The first waa that of
Christoph Starke (New Testament, 3 vols., 1733
sqq.; Old Testament, 6 vols., 1741 sqq.), which
gave Luther's text with extended comments from
6 X«ater ^^^'^ expositors and ascetic writers,
Works, introductions to each book, and a
summary of each ch£^ter. Next
came the Hirschberg Bible (1756-63), an excellent
work which fell flat at the time and was res-
cued from oblivion only by a reprint in 1844
under the patronage of Frederick William IV.
The age was not favorable to the spread of Biblical
study, and but a few readers were foimd for the
commentary translated from English expositors by
R. Teller, J. A. Dietelmayer, and Brucker (19 vols.,
1749-70), or for the edition of Blichaelis (1769-92).
But the revival of religious devotion ultimately
made itself felt in this field. Friedrich von Meyer's
revised translation with short, pointed comments
and uncritical introductions appeared in 1819.
More widely read were Richter's (1834-40) and
Lisco's (1833-43). A more learned and thorough
work was that of Otto von Gerlach in 6 vols., which
is still popular in North Germany, as is the Calvoer
Handbuch der BibeUrkldrung (1849) in the South.
Other more recent editions which may be men-
tioned here are those of Bunsen (9 vols., 1858-70),
Christian MQller (CoUeginm Bttdicum, 6 vols.,
1879-84), Johann Peter Lange (36 vols., 1856-77),
E. A. D&chsel (illustrated, 7 vols., 1865-^), and
R. J. Grau (2 vols., 1877-«)). [J. F. AllioU's an-
notated Bible (6 vols., Nuremberg, 1830-^) has
been very popular among Roman Catholics.]
(H. HOlbchbr.)
n. English: As a rule, Bible societies publish
the Scriptures "without note or comment" — a
wise plan, for it secures the widest dreulation of
the Word of God. In eariy times, however, when
a person bought a Bible, he found between the
covers not only the Old and the New Testaments,
but a commentary in the notes attached, a con-
cordance at the end, and a small dictionary in
the introduction and tables. These special editions
had their day, and fell into disuse, for very evident
reasons. The numerous comments made the vol-
ume too bulky for convenience and general use;
the notes were likely to be one-sided and subjeo-
tive, so that a man's theology might be judged by
his Bible, from its being supplied with comments
by Doddridge, or those of D'Oyly and Mant; how-
ever acceptable the annotations might be for a time,
eventually they were superseded by later scholar-
ship. Moreover, in the last half-century commen-
taries, Bible dictionaries, and concordances have
grown into great volumes, and constitute a distinct
class of literature. They have found their true
places apart from the inspired words of the Bible.
Annotated Bibles date back to the time of the
Reformation. Matthew's Bible (1537) had anno-
tations, and John Rogers, who was the real trans-
lator of this Bible, showed by his notes, especially
on the subjects of faith, holy life, and repentance
that he was in f\ill touch with the most advancK
Protestantism. The Cxeneva Bible (1560) attaisec
its great popularity and fame by its prologues idc
maiginal notes. These annotations are so numer
ous and miscellaneous that it is not easy to gh^
in a brief statement a fair r^reeeci
1. Xat- tation of their general tenor. Ublj
J^Ttift *** strongjy antipi^al, and for thaj
Q^nB'^B, 'o^^^i^ ^®y were especially acoept|
Bible. able to overzealous Refonnos. A^
might be expected, the Geneva note^
are also Calvinistic. When the Geneva Bible wa^
first published, Calvin was the ruling spirit q
Geneva. All the featiu-es of his theological, eode^
siastical, political, and social system are according
reflected in the marginal annotations of the Eng^
Bible that issued from the dty of his resideooe.
The political doctrine of the book was as mudy
disliked by kings of the absolute order, as were the
ecclesiastical notes by infallible popes, and o&^
of the reasons that led King James, in 1604, td
agree readily to a new translation of the Serip^
tures, was his dislike of the politics preached on
the margins of the Geneva Bible.
The marginal notes in the Bishops' Bible (1568)
are not very numerous, and they are gaienlly
not interesting. They were designed mostly for
rraders of weak capacity. A lew,
»B^V ^^^ *"* valuable and entertain-
Blble! ^f '^'^ taken veri>atim, without A^
knowledgment, from the G^eva
Bible. Some of them, too, remind of Genera
caps and predestination in a way that would
scarcely be expected in a Bible issued by a body
of prelates. The distribution of notes in ibs
Bishops' Bible is very irregular and unequal. In
some books hard to understand, such as the prophe-
cies of Isaiah and Jeremiah, the notes are very
sparse, so that five or six consecutive pages msy
be found here and there without a single anno-
tation; while in other books, such as (jenesis,
Exodus, Job, and the Epistles of St. Paul, the notes
are very frequent.
In the original edition of the Authorised VerBkm
(1611), the number of marginal references to cor-
responding passages, including those in the Apoc-
rypha, was about 9,000. Lu-ge as this number
seems, it is but a small fraction of what the ref-
erences now amount to in some well-edited Bibles.
These references, doubtless, have their value, bat
it can not be denied that many of them obscure
the meaning of the statements to which they are
attached. It is different, however, with what are
called the marginal notes. In the original editioD
(1611) these notes were nearly as
8. The numerous as the marginal references.
Autoop- j^ ^^^ Qi^j Testament there were
Versiozi. ^i^^S references and 6,637 notes; in
the New Testament 1,517 refeienctf
and 765 notes; in the Apocrypha 885 refer-
ences and 1,017 notes. These notes are brief and
non-polemical, differing In these respects very
markedly from the annotations in both Matthew's
and the Geneva Bible. They indicate, for the toast
part, alternative or more literal renderings. In soine
1S9
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blbleo, Annotated, and
[Bible SummarleB
cases they specify variant readings in the original
text, and, in other cases, they give brief explanations
of words or expressions. Not a few of the alterna-
tive rendering they present have been adopted,
either verbatim or substantially, in the revised
version of 1881-S5. The headings of chapters
in the translation of 1611 were new. In the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible, and the Great
Bible, all the chapters were headed with a short
table of contents; but the King James translators
prepared tables of their own. And these tables,
drawn up in 1611, appear in many editions at the
present day unaltered, save in some twelve in-
itances.
Other Bibles with notes from the pen of an-
Dotators appeared and in course of time became
vezy popular. These annotators did not write
Bo much for the learned as for the conmion people,
and their Bibles became household and family
books, laying stress more or less on
4. J<^ the devotional side. John Canne, a
^5J^" Baptist minister (d. 1667?), was the
1647.' autiior of three sets of notes which
accompanied three editions of the
Bible. His great ambition was " to make the
Bible its own interpreter." His first authenticated
version appeared in 1647 at Amsterdam, under the
title, The Bible, vrith Marginal Notee, Shewing
Scripture to he the Beet Interpreter of Scrip-
ture. The work was often reprinted (9 editions,
between 1662 and 1754). Orme, in his Bibliotheca
BiUiea (Edinburgh, 1824), says of it, " The mar-
ginal references of Canne are generally very judi-
cious and apposite. They still retain a considerable
reputation, though most of the latter editions
which pass under the name of Canne's Bible are
full of errors, and crowded with references which
do not belong to the original author."
In 1657 there was published Annotations upon
Aa the Books of the Old and New Testament. . . .
Wherein the text is explained, doubts resolved, Scrip'
tyres paralleled, and various readings observed by
the labiar of certain learned divines thereunto appointed
and therein employed, as is expressed in the preface,
2 vds., London, 1657. This work is usually
ofiUed the "Assembly's Annotations," from the
circumstance of its having been
*v9*J«' composed by members of the West-
^ minster Assembly. — ^Another popular
1701. work of the same character was
Annotations upon the Holy Bible '
wherein the sacred text is inserted, and various read-
ings annexed; together with the parallel Scriptures,
The more difficult terms explained; seeming con-
tradictions reconciled; doubts resolved, and (he
^iMe text opened. By the Rev, Matthew Poole,
I/Midon, 1863, 2 vols., fo. The work was published
in many editions. Poole, an eminent non-con-
fonnist divine (1624-79), did not finish it; but
it was completed after his death. — Not less popular
was a woric entitled. The Old and New Testament,
with Annotations and parallel Scriptures, By
Samuel, Clarke, A,M,, London, 1690. Bishop
Lloyd's Bible (London, 1701) was the first to in-
corporate Archbishop Ussher's chronology.
In 1708 appeared the first volume of Matthew
Henry's well-known Exposition of the Old and New
Testament ; four other volumes (to the end of the
Gospels) were published in 1710, and a sixth volume
(the Book of Acts) from Henry's manuscript after
his death (1714); the work was completed by vari-
ous non-conformist clergymen (see Henrt, Mat-
thew). It long enjoyed a high and
6. Katthew deserved reputation, and is distin-
^^^^' guished, not for depth of learning or
Works oiginality of views, but for sound
to 1760. practical piety, and the large measure
of good sense which it discovers. — Dr.
Edward Wells edited between the years 1700
and 1728, An Help for the more Easy and Clear
Understanding of the Holy Scriptures, after the fol-
lowing method : 1. The common English translaHon
rendered more agreeable to the original, 2. A poro-
phrase wherein the text is explained, and divided
into proper sections, and lesser divisions, 3. An-
notations. 4. Preface, 8 vols. — Patrick, Lowth,
Whitby, and Arnold's Commentary on the Bible, a
work of a similar character, appeared in London,
1727-60, 7 vols., and was reprinted as late as 1821.
According to Orme, Patrick was " the most sen-
sible and useful commentator on the Old Testa-
ment. He had a competent measure of learning
for the undertaking, of which he never makes any
ostentatious display. The elder Lowth completed
the work on the Old Testament, and Whitby com-
mentated on the New Testament. Neither Patrick
nor Lowth has so much Arminianism as Whitby,
though they all belong to the same theological school.
Whitby was superior to both in acuteness and
research, but if the reader do not find in them the
same talent, he will be exposed to less injury from
specious and sophistical reasonings against some
important doctrines of Christianity." — John Gill
published An Exposition of the Old and New Testa-
ments, in which ^ sense of the sacred text is given ;
doctrinal and practical truths are set in a plain and
easy light; diffUuU passages explained; seeming
contradictions reconciled; and whatever is material
in the various readings, and the several Oriental
versions, is observed. The whole illustrated by
notes from the most antient Jewish writings. By
John Gill, D,D,, 9 vols, fo., London, 1748-63;
9 vols. 4to, London, 1809. Gill gives a simmiary
of each chapter. Orme says of him, " Had Dr.
Gill fulfilled the promise of his title page, no other
commentary on the Bible could have been required.
But he moves through his exposition like a man in
lead, and overwhelms the inspired writers with
dull lucubrations and rabbinical lumber. He is
an ultra-Calvinist in his doctrinal sentiments;
and often spiritualizes the text to absurdity. If
the reader be inclined for a trial of his strength
and patience, he may procure the burden of Dr.
Gill. He was, after all, a man of undoubted
learning, and of prodigious labour." — A very popular
work was an English translation of Jean Fr6d4ric
Osterwald's Argumens et reflexions sur Vicriture
sainie (NeuchAtel, 1709-15 and often; see Oster-
WALD, Jean FntotRic), which appeared under
the title. The Arguments of the Books and Chap-
ters of the Old and New Testaments, with practical
observations. Translated by John Chamberlayne,
Bibles, Annotated, «nd
[Bible SnmmarleB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
160
E9q,f London, 1749, 3 vols.; fifth edition, enlarged,
2 vols., London, 1779.
Chamberlayne's work was followed by A New
and Literal Translalion of all the Books of (he Old
and New Testaments, with Notes critical and ex-
planatory. By Anthony Purver (2 vols., London,
1764). Purver was a Quaker and originally a
shoemaker. He taught himself Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin, in order that he might understand the
Bible. His work is often ungrammatical, and
unintelligible; the notes are very similar to the
text and, what is worse, full of pride and ill-nature.
Notwithstanding these defects, Purver
7. Various sometimes gives a better rendering
)fS^* ^^**^ occurs in the Authorized Version.
1750. — One year later appeared The Evan-
gelical Expositor; or a Commentary
on the Holy Bible, wherein the Sacred Text is inserted
at large, the sense explained, and different passages
elucidated, with practical observations, etc. By
T. Haweis, LL.B,, MJD., London, 1765, 2 vols.;
Glasgow, 3 vols. 4to,and various editions. Haweis
(d. 1820) was rector of Aldwinkle, Northampton-
shire; his work had little value. — Next to be
mentioned is The Complete Family Bible : or a
Spiritual Exposition of the Old and New Testament ;
wherein each chapter is summed up in its context,
and the sacred text inserted at large, with Notes,
spiritual, practical, and explanatory. By ihe Rev.
Mr. Cruden, London, 1770, 2 vols. — In the same
year appeared a similar work under the title,
A Commentary on the Books of Old and New Testa-
ments, in which are inserted the Notes and Collections
of John Locke, Esq., Daniel Waterland, DJ)., and
the Right Hon. Edward, Earl of Clarendon, and
other learned persons, with practical improvements.
By W. Dodd, LLJ)., London, 1770, 3 vols. This
is mostly a compilation, the chief value of which
consists in notes furnished from the original papers
of John Locke, Dr. Waterland, Lord Clarendon,
Gilbert West, and some others. Great use is also
made of some of the printed and long-established
commentaries on Scripture, such as Calmet, Houbi-
gant, and Doddridge. Adam Clarke said, rather
hyperbolically, that it was on the whole by far
the best comment that had yet appeared in the
Ekiglish language. — ^The next work to be men-
tioned is The Self-Interpreting Bible, containing
the Old and the New Testaments, to which are annexed
an . . . introduction, marginal references and illue-
trations . . . explanatory notes . . . etc., etc. By
the late Rev. John Brown, Minister of the Gospel at
Haddington, London, 1778, 2 vols. It was
repeatedly reprinted, and proved almost as popular
south as north of the Tweed. — Henry Southwell
published a Bible, Authorised Version ; with notes
etc.; wherein the mis-translations are corrected,
London, 1782. — ^Another work of a similar character
is The Holy Bible, containing the Books of the Old
and New Testaments, carefully printed from the first
edition (compared with others) of the present trans-
lation ; with notes by Thomas Wilson, DJ)., Bishop
of Sodor and Man, and varums renderings, collected
from other translations, by ihe Rev. Clement CrutweU,
editor, I^ndon, 1785, 8 vols. Bishop Wilson's
notes are merely brief hints either for the expla-
nation or the practical improvement of particular
passages. Dr. Thomas Paris, in the Cambridge
Bible of 1762, and Dr. B. Blayn^, in the Oxford
Bible of 1769, added considerably to the numbo
of marginal notes and references.
But far more popular than any of the woib
already mentioned was the Bible wiUi oommeotajy
edited by Rev. Thomas Scott (q.v.). It had the
largest drculatioa and sustained it through many
years. It appeared under the title, The Holy BibU,
containing the Old and New Testaments; viik
original notes, practical observations, and afj/iou
marginal references. By Thomas Scott, Reetar oj
Aston Sandford (London, 1788, and
8. Thomaa often). As a commentary Dr. Soott's
*8o^t work was superior to any that had
Q^pg appeared before its time. Home.
to 1810. usually a discriminating judge, speaks
of it in high praise (cf. his Mamtd
of Biblieal Bibliography, London, 1839, p. 259).-
In 1799 appeared A Revised Translaiion and Inter-
pretation of the Sacred Scriptures, after the Eoatern
manner, from concurrent authorities of critics, itiUr-
preters, and ' commentators* copies and versions ;
shewing that the inspired writings contain the teedt
of the valuable sciences, being the source v^iena
the antient philosophers derived them, also the vunt
antient histories and greatest antiquities, and en
the most entertaining as weU as instructing to bcA
the curious and serious (by David Macrae, or
J. M. Ray, J. McRay, or D. McRae; Glas-
gow, 1799; 2d ed., 1815; 4to, also in 3 vols. 8m).
The author introduced many approved renderings,
but marred the simplicity and dignity of Uie
Authorised Version. — ^Another noteworthy anno-
tated Bible is that of John Reeves, which appeared
in ten volumes in London, 18Q2. The explana-
toiy notes are based on Wells's Paraphrase^ and the
commentaries of Patrick, Lowth, Whitby, and
others. A similar work was the so-called "Re-
formers' Bible," The Holy BibU, containing tk
Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorized
Version, with short Notes by several learned and
pioiLS Reformers, as printed by Royal Authority
at the time of the Reformation, with additional Ncta
and Dissertations, London, 1810. The notes in
the Old Testament in this edition are taken from
the (jeneva Bible, the annotations of the New
Testament from the Latin of Theodore Beaa.
Ako in 1810 there began to be published Thi
Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testamenit :
the Text carefully printed from the most eorred
copies of the present authoriged trandation, including
the marginal readings and parallel texts ; with a
Commentary, and Critical Notes, designed <u a
help to a better understanding of Ote
0- Adam Sacred Writings. By Adam CUait,
Soyiy ^^•^•' FAJ3., London, 1810-26.
and The author, a Wesleyan minister (see
Kant, CuLRKK, Adam), attained a hi^ repu-
BeUamT Nation as a student of Oriental lan-
1810-84! Stages. The scope of the commentary
is expressed in its own words: "In
this work the whole of the text has been col-
lated with the Hebrew and Greek originals, and afl
the ancient versions; the most difficult word^
161
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BlblM, Annotated. «nd
[Bible SnmmarieB
analyzed and explained; the most important
readings in the Hebrew collections of Kennicott
and De Rossi on the Old Testament, and in those
of Mill, Wetstein, and Griesbach on the New, are
noticed; the date of every transaction, as far as
it has been ascertained by the best chronol-
ogers, is marked; the peculiar customs of the
Jews and neighboring nations, so frequently
alluded to by the prophets, evangeUsts, and apostles,
are explained from the best Asiatic authorities;
the great doctrines of the Law and Gospel of God
are defined, illustrated, and defended; and the
whole is Implied to the important purposes of prac-
tical Christianity ." A considerable popularity
was achieved also by D'Oyly and Mant's com-
mentary. The Holy Bible according to the Authorized
Version, wUh Notes explanalory and practical,
taken principally from the most eminent writere of
the United Church of England and Ireland ; together
vith appropriate introductiona, tables, indexes,
maps, tatd plans, prepared and arranged by the Rev.
G, D'Oyly, B.D., and Rev. Richard Mant, DJ).,
Oxford and London, 1814, 3 vols., and various
iubaequent editions printed at Cambridge and
Oxford. " This work, which was published under
the sanction of the venerable Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, professes to conmiunicate
only the results of the critical inquiries of learned
men, without giving a detailed exposition of the
inquiries themselves. These results, however, are
selected with great judgment, so that the reader
who may consult them on difficult passages will
rarely be disappointed. Of the labour atten^g this
publication some idea may be formed, when it is
Btated that the works of upward of one hundred
and sixty authors have been consulted for it,
amounting to several hundred volumes. On the fun-
damental articles of Christian verity — the Deity
and atonement of Jesus Christ, and the personality
and offices of the Holy Spirit — this work may be
pronounced to be a library of divinity" (Home,
ut sup., pp. 261-262). — A work of a similar character
was The Holy Bible, newly translated from the orig-
inal Hebrew, with Notes critical and explanatory.
By John Bellamy, London, 1818-94. Orme con-
siders it a strange hodgepodge of error, confi-
dence, misrepresentation, and sJbuse of learned and
valuable writers in all the departments of Biblical
literature.
Rev. B. Boothroyd edited A New Family
Bible, and Improved Version, from corrected Texts
of the Originals, with Notes criticdl and expUma-
tory; and short Practical Reflections on each Chap-
ter^ Pontefract and London, 1818-23, 3 vols. The
author has very happily blended critical disqui-
sition with practical insthiction, and an invariable
regard to the spirit and design of revelation. —
In 1821 there appeared The Plain Reader's Help
w the Study of the Holy Scriptures; consisting of
Notes, explanatory and illustrative, chiefly selected
or abridged from the Family Bible, published by the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. By
the Rev. William Thomas Bree, M.A., Coventry,
W21-22. The aim was to supply brief and un-
^^chnical notes at a moderate price for readers
who could not procure or consult larger works. —
n.— a
In 1824 appeared The Holy Bible, arranged and
adapted for family reading, with notes, etc. by a
Layman of the Church of England (2
^W^k^*' vols., London). — Another popular
1818-88. ^^^I® ^^ ^^® so-called Cottage Bible
and Family Expositor; containing
the Authorized Translation of the Old and New
. Testaments, with Practical Reflections and short
Explanatory Notes, calculated to elucidate difficult
and obscure Passages. By Thomas Williams,
London, 1825-27, 3 vols., and various subsequent
editions. This unassuming but cheap and useful
commentary on the Holy Scriptures was pro-
fessedly designed for persons and families in the
humbler walks of life. — ^There is also to be men-
tioned The Comprehensive Bible; containing the
Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorised
Version, ibUh the various readings and marginal
notes ustuslly printed therewith; a general intro-
duction, containing disquisitions on the genuineness,
authenticity, and inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, —
various divisions cmd marks of distinction in the
sacred Writings, — antient versions, — coins, weights,
and measures, — varums sects among the Jews j
introductions and concluding remarks to each book ;
the parallel passages contained in the Rev. J. Scot^s
Commentary, Canne's Bible, Rev. J. Brown*s Self^
Interpreting Bible, Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary,
and the English Version of the Polyglott Bible system"
aUcaUy arranged ; philological and explanatory notes.
With chronological and other indexes (by William
Greenfield, London, 1827). — In 1828 there was
published The Holy Bible . . . principally designed
to facilitate the audible or social reading of the Sacred
Scriptures; illustrated wUh notes, historical, geo-
graphical, and otherwise explanatory, and also point-
ing out the fulfilment of various prophecies. By
Wmiam Alexander — vol. i — the Pentateuch — ^York,
1828; two other volumes were planned but did
not appear). This Bible owed its origin to efforts
of members of the Society of Friends. Passages
" unsuitable for a mixed audience " were printed
in italics below the text. — C. Girdlestone edited
The Old and New Testament, with a comment
tary, consisting of short lectures for the daily tue
of families, London, 1835-42. — ^Another Bible of
the same style was the Treasury Bible. First
division : containing the aulhorUed English Version
of the Holy Scriptures, as printed in Bagster^s Poly-
glott Bible, with the same copious and original sdeo-
tion of references to parallel and illustrative passages,
and similarly printed in a centre column. Second
division : containing the Treasury of Scripture
Knowledge, consisting of a rich and copious assem-
blage of upwards of five hundred thousand pcarallel
texts, from Canne, Brown, Blayney, Scott, and others,
with numerous illustrative notes, London, 1835. —
In 1837 there was published The Condensed Com-
mentary and Family Exposition of the Holy Bible :
containing the best criticisms of the most valuable
Biblical Writers, with practical reflections and mar-
ginal references; chronology, indexes, etc., etc. By
the Rev. Ingram Cobbin, M.A., London, 1837.
This work is literally a condensed coounentaiy,
derived from the best accessible sources. The
notes are brief, but well ehoaen, and are partly
Bibles, Annotated
Bible*; Hifltorioal
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
162
critical and explanatory, partly practical. They
are taken from nearly two hundred writers, British
and foreign. — ^Another annotated Bible was edited
by the Rev. C. Wellbdoved, The Holy Bible, a
New Translation, with introductory remarks, notes
explanatory and critical, and practical reflections, 2
vols., London, 1838. It is Unitarian and designed
principally for the use of families.
The standard Ekiglish version of the Roman
Catholics (the "Douai" Bible; see Biblb Vbb-
BiONS, B, IV, § 5), was provided with notes setting
forth and defendhig the Roman standpoint. The
later annotated English Bibles of the Catholics are
based chiefly upon these notes. Richard Challoner
(q.v.) and George Leo Haydock (The Holy Bible,
2 vols., Bfanchester, 1811-14; revised Rdms and
Douai text with extensive notes) are well-known
Roman Catholic annotators. Most of the "minor
versions" enumerated in § 8 of the article on Eng-
lish versions (Biblb Vbbsignb, B, IV) are anno-
tated.
The popular works of England were reissued in
America. The first American edition of Scott's
oonmientary was printed and published by W. Wood-
ward of Philadelphia in 1804 in 4 vols. Other
issues followed by different publishers, most
of them from the press of Woodward of Philadel-
phia, and that of Samuel T. Armstrong of Boston.
The most popular form of the book was an octavo
of six volumes. Scott's Bible had a continuous
sale for more than forty years, and as late as 1844
W. E. Dean, 2 Ann Street, New York, published
an edition in three volumes. — ^Adam Clarke's
oonunentary was published by Ezra Sargeant, 86
Broadway, New York, in 1811. — Osterwald's
Observations appeared in 1813 with this imprint:
" New York: Published by Evert Duyckinck, John
Tiebout, G. & R. Waite, and Websters & Sldnners
of Albany. George Long, Printer." — ^The first
American edition of Matthew Henry's Exposition
i^peared in Philadelphia in 1816,
11. Bepub- published by Towar and Hogan in six
lioaUon volumes. They also issued a stereo-
Amerioa *3Tt>®d edition in three volumes in 1829.
Burder and Hughes of the same city
issued a six volume edition in 1828, with
preface by Archibald Alexander. — D'Oyly and
Mant's Bible with commentary was reprinted in
New York in 181^-20 by T. and J. Swords, 160
Pearl Street. This edition has additional notes
from the pen of the Rt. Rev. John H. Hobart, D.D.,
bishop of New York, who quotes from a large num-
ber of Biblical scholars, mainly in the Anglican,
Scottish, and American Episcopal Churches, who
had not been noticed by the Ekiglish editors. —
Thomas Williams's Cottage Bible, reedited by the
Rev. William Patton, was printed in two octavo vol-
umes by Conner & Cooke, New York, in 1833. It
contains numerous engravings and several maps,
and was intended chiefly for the use of Sunday-
schools and Bible-dasses. The plates were sold
by the New York printers, and in after-years the
editions were issued at Hartford, Conn. — Green-
field's Comprehensive Bible was issued in 1839 with
the imprint of " Robinson & Franklin, successors
to Leavitt, Lord & Co., 180 Broadway." The
book is a thick quarto of 1 ,460 pages. The America
issue was also published by Lippinoott, Gambo
& Co., Philadelphia, in 1854, and by J. B. Lippin-
oott & Co. in 1857. Canne's mar]^nal notes asd
references s^peared in many editions of Americas
household and family Bibles, and John Brown'a
Self'Interpreting Bible was frequently reproduced.
The American Tract Society eariy published a
family Bible with brief notes and instructiozis and
many editions were printed. Eugene Cummiakej,
of Philadelphia, published various editions for Bo-
man Catholics, such as The Holy Bible, translatti
from the Latin Vulgate, with annotations, referencu,
etc. Isaiah Thomas, the famous author of the
History of Printing in America, published and add
the Authorised Version with notes at his press in
Worcester Mass.; various editions appeared after
1791.
One of tne earliest productions of the Phfla^
delphia press was The Christum's New and Cm-
plOe Family Bible, published by William Wood-
house in 1790. It was issued in numbers, and the
Rev. Paul Wright, D.D., vicar of Oakley, is sup-
posed to have been the editor. — The Columbian
Family and Pulpit Bible bears the imprint, ''Boston:
Published by Joseph Teal, printed by J. H. A. Frost,
opposite U. S. Bank, Congress Street, 1822." It
claims to be a " corrected and improved American
edition of the Popular English Family Bible."
supplied " with concise notes and annoUtioos,
theological, historical, chronological,
^^'Jj*'^ critical, practical, moral, and ex-
Woplw!^ planatory"; also containing " sundiy
important received various readings
from the most ancient Hebrew and Greek manu-
scripts and the most celebrated versions of Scrip-
ture. Also, simdry corrections and improvementa
of our excellent E^nglish version (g^erally admitted
by learned Christians of every name) with referenoes
to authors, versions, and manuscripts; also, an
illustrative argument prefixed to each sacred book
or epistle, from the best authorities." The volume
is a folio, embellished with thirty-six engravingi
The book was issued in numbers and had more than
three thousand subscribers. The Rev. Jonatban
Homer, D.D., of Newton, Mass., revised the ob-
servations, and condensed some of the notes and
enlarged others.— In 1826 The CoUatertd BjHi
made its appearance with the following imprint:
"Philadelphia: Printed by Samuel F. Bradford,
and by E. Bliss and E. White, New York. J. Hard-
ing, Printer, 1826." This book was edited by
William McCorkle, assisted by the Rev. Em Stiles
Ely, D.D., a Presbyterian minister, and the Bev.
Gregory T. Bedell, A.M., rector of St. Andrew's
Church, Philadelphia. "In this work the b«t
marginal references are printed at large, and in
connection with eveiy passage, by wUch means
eveiy parallel or related phrase in the sacred volume
is brought at once under the eye, so as to present
the whole scope and subject of every text at a
single view " (Home, Biblical Bibliography, p. S6).
The three volumes comprised only the Old Testa-
ment, and the New Testament part was never
attempted.— 7^ Devotional Family Bible was
edited by the Rev. Alexander Fletdier, D.D.,
163
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
iiSist^tsa^tf
" with practical and experimental reflections on
each verse of the Old and New Testaments, and
rich marginal references." An edition in quarto
with fifty-seven illustrations was published with
this imprint: ''London and New York: "Wrtue,
Emmins and Company." The title-page has no
date, though O'Callaghan assigns the publication to
the year 1835.
Of mOTe modem works of a similar character
the foUowing may be mentioned: the Lange com-
mentary, translated and edited, with additions, by
Philip Schaff and others (25 vols.,
w'ti" ^^ ^^^^' 1866-88); the work com-
^^<^K ™®°^y known as the " Speaker's Com-
^^ mentary " (because suggested by the
^^ai^ri^i^a^ Ri^t Hon. J. Eveljm Denison,
speaker of the House of Commons),
ed. F. C. Cook (10 vols., London, 1871-81);
the Cambridge Bible for SchooU and CoUegn, ed.
J. J. S. Perowne (48 vols., Cambridge, 1877 sqq.);
Bishop Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers
(8 vols., London, 1877-84); J. H. Blunt's Anno-
taUd Bible ... a Household Commentary on the
Holy Scriptures (3 vols., London, 1878); Clark's
Handbooks for Bible Classes, ed. M. Dods and A.
Wbyte (47 vols., Edinbui^gh, 1879 sqq.); the
American Commentary (Baptist; N. T. complete,
ed. Alvah Hovey, 7 vols., O. T., 4 vols. — Lev. and
Num., Job, Eecles., Prov. and Song of Songs —
published at present, 1881 sqq.); the International
Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament, ed.
PhiUp Schaff (4 vols., New York, 1889); J. G.
Butler, BibU Work (11 vols., 1892); the New Cen-
tury Bible, ed. W. F. Adeney (N. T. complete,
13 vols.; O. T., 10 vols, issued, London, 1901 sqq.);
and the Temjile BibU (31 vols., London, 1901-03;
especially useful for reading because the text is
paragraphed according to the sense, and chapter
and verse divisions are relegated to the margin).
The so-called " Teachers' Bibles," of which many
were published during the last quarter of the nine-
teenth century, may also be mentioned.
BnuoQBAPHT: O. W. Piouer, OctdbMAfa der d^utatksn Bi-
bdSbtraelguno Dr. M. Lufhtn von 1S17S1, NursmlMrv.
1791; J. A. Com. UebtHdidt iOm Lutktrt . . . Dolmtitth-
wv der keiUff^n Seknft und die , . . eeiner Zeiigenoe-
■M, Nuramberv* 1824; W. Onne. BiUiotkeea BiMica,
Ediaborsh, 1824; F. H. Home, Manual of Bibiiad Bib-
Uograpky, London. 1839; M. GObel. OeeAiehie dee ehriel-
Udien Lebane in der rkein^weelfdliediien evanaeUedt/en Kirehe,
Tola. ii. iii, Cobleni, 1852MX); A. Beck, Bmet der Fromme,
2 vote.. Womnr, 1806; A. Ritaohl. Oeet^idUe dee Pie-
IMNU. vok. i, ii, Bonn, 1880-84; W. BOhne, DiejOdaoo-
ffuehcm BteSrehunpen Heraog Bmet . . . von Gotha, Qotha,
1888; O. Fimnk, Die Weriheimer BibeiObereeleuno vor dam
BeidukatnU in Wian, In ZKQ, zii (1891), 2.
BIBLES FOR CHILDREN: Various attempts
bave been made to present the Bible in the form
of a '* child's book." The selection of parts best
adapted to inmiature minds and the omission of
the unsuitable, with simplification of language,
UB the chief aims in such attempts. Illustrations,
coarse print, and other typographical devices are
naturally used freely. Such books spring from the
ooDviction that the Bible contains spiritual truth
for all and is the greatest instrument for awakening
religious feeling and quickening moral perception,
bat that its usefulness for these ends is necessarily
conditioned upon the form of presentation and that
the latter may well be varied for different classes of
readers. The following list mentions some note-
worthy books of this sort in Eki^ish, but makes
no claim to completeness.
An Abridoemeni of tKe Holy Senpturee. By the Rev, Mr.
Sdlon, UUe MinUter of 8L Jamee*e, ClerkenweU, pubhnhed
in 1781 and many Utter eds.. at Hartford by Hale and Hoe-
mer. 1813.
The Bi62a for Children, Arranged from Ihe King Jamae
Vereion, With a Preface by the Rev. Franeie Brown, D.D.,
and an Introduction by the Right Rev. Henry C. Potter, D.D.
[compiled by Mrs. Joseph B. Gilder], New York [19021.
The BihU Story Re-told for Young People; th/e Old Teeta-
ment Story by W. H. Bennett; the New Teetament Story by
W. P. Adeney, London, 1897.
The BibU for Young People, tranelated from the Dutch
of H. Oort and I. Hooykas by P. H. Wicksteed. 6 vole.,
London, 1873-79; 2d ed., 1882.
The Children'e BibU, or an History of the Holy Seripturee,
to wkiih ie added a new manual of devotione for dvUdren; by
a divine of the Chur^ of England, London, 1759.
The Child*e BibU. With platee. By a Lady of Cinein-
nati, Philadelphia. Henry F. Anners, 1834.
A Compendium of the Religioue Doctrines, Religioue and
Moral Preeepte, Hietorical and DeecripHve Beautiee of the
Bible; with a Separate Moral Selection from the Apocrypha;
being a Tranecript of the received Text: Intended for the uee
of Fa$niliee, but more particularly ae a Reading Book for
Schoole. By Rodolphus Dickinson, Esq., . . . Greenfield,
Haas., Horace Graves, Printer. 1814.
A eurioue HieroglypMek BibU, or SOect Paeeagee in the
Old and New Teetamente, represented with emblematical
flguree, for the amueemont of youth; designed chiefly to
fomiliariwe tender age, in a pleaeing and diverting manner,
with early ideae of the Holy Seripturee — a very popular work
which appeared in many editions (12th ed., London, 1792;
Worcester, Mass., IsaiahThomas, 1788; Dublin, 1789; etc.).
It is a child's book, containinc short passages of Scripture
in which some of the words are represented by small cuts.
The Holy BibU abridged: or the Hietory of the Old and
New Testam/ent. Illuetrated with Notee, and adorned with
cute. PortheUeeof Children. To whiA ie added, A Comr
pleat Abetraet of the Old and New Teetamsnt, ioith the Apoc-
rypha, in Eaey Veres, New York, Hodfe, Allen, and Gamp-
beU. 1790.
The Sdiool and Chiliren'e BibU; prepared under the eu-
perintendonee of the Rev. William Rogere, . . . London, 1873.
It presents the Bible in a shortened form, "adapted for the
use of children, and rearranses the matter."
The BibU for Young PeopU, New York. 1902, n. e.. 1900.
Scripture Leeeone for echoole on the BritiA eyetem of mutual
inetrueUon. Adopted in Ruesia by order of the Emperor
Alexander /., London, 1820. According to the preface,
these selections were originally made in Russian at St.
Petersburg in 1818-19. and adopted in Russian schools at
the instance of Prince Alexander Galitiin. minister of in-
struction. The Committee of the British and Foreign
School Society then determined to issue them in the chief
languages of Europe. The extracts are divided into: (1)
Historical Lessons from the Old Testament; (2) Lessons on
Duty toward God and Man; (3) Lessons from the Evangel-
ists and the Acts*
BIBLES, HISTORICAL (ST0R7-BIBLBS): The
usual tenn applied to a compilation of Holy
Scripture which, confining itself chiefly to the
historical portions, adapts them to educational
purposes. This may be done either by a faithful
repetition of the Biblical narratives or by thorough-
going changes in the selection of the material^ by
the representation of facts, and by devotioncJ
application. In this article Uie term is confined to
certain medieval works which, written in the
language of the people and in popular style, con-
stituted in their time the chief literary media for
disseminating the knowledge of Bible hlstoiy.
It is an interesting fact that the historico-devo-
tional mode of considering the Bible received atten-
BiblM, Hiatorioftl
BiblM, r
> niiuitntted
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
164
tion only when the people themflelves began their
spiritual and religious emancipation. As soon as
the vernacular was allowed to become the language
of religious instruction, among the Ang^o-Saxons
and in Germany at the time of Charie-
The Earliest magne, literary phenomena appear
Story-Bibles, which at least to a certain extent fall
under the conception of Story-Bibles.
It is said that the poetical productions of CsBdmon
(q.v.) in their original form treated the whole
Bible history to the day of judgment; in the
KriU of Otfrid of Weissenburg (q.v.) and in the
Low Saxon Heliaind (q.v.) not only was sacred
history given in poetical form, but in pictureeque-
ness and minuteness of details it appealed di-
rectly to the spirit of the people. Several other
Story-Bibles in poetical form were subsequently
composed, especially in Qermany; among them
the work of Rudolf of Ems (q.v.) seems to
have become most popular. In the Biblical lit^
erature of Holland may be mentioned the " Riming
Bible" of Jacob of Maerlant. Much older are
the poetical compilations of Biblical history in the
French language, especially that of Herman of
Valenciennes and the popular Roman de S. Fanud
which piquantly interweaves evangelical histozy
with apocryphal and miraculous stories. Com-
pilations in prose were also written; it may be said,
however, that the strictly literal method of trans-
lation made slow progress and fully asserted itself
only at the time of the Reformation. It is strange
that the histoiy of the Old Testament was treated
more frequently than that of the New Testament;
probably, being the older and more unknown
record, it was better adapted for a free compilation.
The space devoted to Genesis was large in pro-
portion to that given to the other books of the Old
Testament. At times an attempt was made to
insert in chronological order the few facts known
of secular history. As to the sources, many leg-
endary elements from older times may have heai
incorporated from popular tradition.
Their But most of these works presuppose
Character a written source. The material, so far
and as it can not be traced immediately
Sources, to the Vulgate, may easily be found
in the popular collection of grosses of
Walafrid Strabo or in the historical works of
Vincent of Beauvais, of Gottfrid of Viterbo, and
others. Moreover, later Story-Bibles used earlier
works of the same nature. Thus the Hisloria
scholaaHca of Peter Comestor (q.v.) was the source
of several German and French works. Similariy,
poetical works became the sources of worics in prose.
A popular Story-Bible of Germany may be traced
to the poetical production of Rudolf of Ems, and
French literature possesses prose compilations of
older riming Bibles; even in the QuatrB Livres
des roia of the twelfth centuiy there are found
occasional rimes or even larger passages in verse,
all of which clearly show that the original form of
the Biblical story in popular literature was poetic.
It was only gradually that higher theological
education found its way back to the Bible text in
its proper form.
In Spain orig^ted the HisUnia general, under
the influence of King Alfonso the Wise (1252-84).
He entrusted to certain scholars the task of writing
a great collective woric on the basis of the Hiatcna
KhokuHca of Peter Comestor, in which the whole
history of the worid should be represented in the
framework of the Biblical stories with the additkm
of extensive portions from secular histoiy.
There is a distinction between th6 Frendi ex-
pressions bibUB hutariiea and biblea higtoriala.
HiiUnre in Old French means " picture/' becuiae
to people of no education history in the form of
pictures was most easily available. Hence btUe
hiatarUe means " illustrated Bible " (see Bibles,
Illustratbd), while bible histariaU denotes " StoT7-
Bible." Biblee hietorialee are, then, the worb
treated above. Of this sort was the translatioii of
the Hietoria echoUutiea of Peter Comestor into the
dialect of Picard by Guyard des Moulins, canon of
Aire in Artois (1295), a work which, in oonnectioa
with a literal translation of the Bible dating from
the thirteenth century, formed for hundreds d
years one of the most popular Story-Bibles (see
Bible Verbionb, B, VI, § 2).
It was reserved for tlie Reformadon to place in
th6 hands of Christian people the whole Bible
according to the original texts, without grosses and
additions, and thus with the beginning of thst
period the Story-Bible had fulfilled its nii8Bio&.
(S. BEBOSBt.)
Bzbuoobafht: M. QOdenuum, Haggmdak und MidnaA-
Haooadah, Berlin, 1884; D. H. Mflller and J. t. Scfaloiaef.
Dis Haooadak van Sanfevo, Vieiuia. 1896; T. lUndorf.
BibKothekarudis UfU9rhaUuiio»H,0\dmA9r%, 1850; E. Reui.
Dii dmUBeh€ Hittorimhibel, Jena, 1866; idem, Omckidik
der hmiio^ 8€Jtrifien dea N. T., f i 463-464. Bninnnck.
1887; Lm QimAv LCvtm dn row, ed.LeR.de Liner.
Fwia, 1841; E. Reuae, in Rmme de tkMogU cf pU0>
mMm. xvi (1867). 1 aqq.; H. Palm, £m mOkOipdt
deuHachB Hiatorwnhibd, Bredau. 1867; J. Bannari Lu
TraduOUmt de la BilfU en van franfaU, Pfene, 1884: U
Roman de 8. FawuO, ed. C. Qutbaneau. ib. 1889; L. De-
Uale, Livree d'tmaotB duUniB h VinttrueUon reiioUum da
loiffiMt, Plwia, 1890: & Beiier, Lee B4bU» CaaHaaim, is
JtomasMO, zzTiii, 1899.
BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED.
Illuetrated ManuMripta, Roman and Byfluttina (f 1).
Teutonic and Celtic Manuecripta (| 2).
Manuaoripto of the Eleventh Century (| 3).
Biblia Pauperum (f 4).
Ittuatrated Biblea of the Refonnation aad lAter (I 5).
The Nineteenth Century (| 6).
The history of illustration goes back beyond the
Christian era; the ancients adorned manuscripts
of Homer, Vei^, and Livy with drawings and ricfal/
painted designs, and illustrations were introduced
for educational purposes into the works of Vitru-
vius on architecture, Aratus on astrology, and Vege-
tius on the art of war. In like manner, from the
time of Oonstantine and probably eaiiier, illus-
tration was applied to msnuscripte
z. niustra- of the Bible. Presumably to this
tedManu- decoration may be referred whst
scripts, Jerome and Chiysostom say in repro-
Roman and bation of the luxury which people
Byzantine, allowed themselves in the omameDta-
Uon of the Scriptures. The h^
veneration paid to the Bible explains the seal with
which miniature-painting was pursued in the eulj
165
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BlblM, Historical
Blblan, niufltrated
Church. The extant illustrated manuscripts do
not apparently go further back than the fourth
century (the fragment of Genesis in the Vienna
library; Uie Vatican Joshua; the evangeliariimi of
Roasano; and a Syriac evangeliarium of 586 in the
Laurentian library at Florence). In these many
features, such as the architecture, costume, action,
the introduction of allegorical figures and personi-
fications, indicate the nature of the scene or its
locality, which are derived from ancient art and
reveal tiie prevalence of a good tradition. Among
them are small pictures executed in body-colors
with idyllic artistic feeling, after the manner of the
older mural painting. The miniatures of the Vienna
Genesis are still partly in the purely illusionist
style which had been dominant since the Flavian
p^iod, like the paintings in the Baths of Con-
Btantine; but the greater part of them are in a style
specially adapted to book illustration, more a
draftsman's than a painter's. They exhibit the
continued influence of the narrative art of the Roman
empire in the second and third centuries, as shown
in the pictures from the Odyssey on the Esquiline,
on Roman sarcophagi, and in the pictures of Philos-
tratus; this defined the specific style of all Chris-
tian compositions until the sixteenth century.
The illustrations of the Paris P&alter and other
manuscripts which may be assigned to the end of
the fourth century are characteristic of the end
of Greek and the beginning of Roman painting.
The Joshua continues the Itoman triumphal style,
with strong affinity to the reliefs of Trajan's Column.
In the Byzantine empire the influence of the ancient
civilisation was long felt; but a more ornamental
tendency came in with the iconoclastic contro-
veny. It is true there are some illustrations of
the ninth and tenth centuries, a psalter and a
commentary on Isaiah in the Vatican, another
psalter and the sermons of Gregory Nasiansen in the
Biblioth^ue Nationale at Paris, which are worthy
to stand by the side of the eariy Christian specimens ;
but as a rule the drawing grows harder and stiffer.
Omamentat-' >n, on the other hand, is richer; the
gold ground becomes more usual, the initial letters
are made prominent, and the ornamental borders
are more noteworthy. Mosaic and enamel paint-
ing set the style for the miniatures as well. The
standard of Bysantine painting is laid down in the
Mount Athos *' Guide to Painting " (1458; trans-
lated into German by G. Sch&fer, Treves, 1855).
The development of illustration in the West was
altogether different. Here, too, the influence of the
early Christian tradition was operative; but the
entrance of the Teutonic nations into the Church
brought new impulses and new problems. They
were, indeed, bart)arians, without any native
artistic style; but they brought with them a joyous
power of accomplishment, a feeling for nature,
and a bold love of truth which had fai^reaching
effects.
The Roman tradition continued among the Lom-
bards and the Franks; but art became ruder and
less refined. In the eariy Christian and Byzan-
tine manuscripts the decoration had been usually
confined to tluB addition of pictures; the Teutonic
peoples extended it to the text itself. The initials
are almost buried in bright colors and elaborate
decoration, the leaves framed in colored designs.
The scribe was often the painter.
2. Tetttonic These characteristics appear plainly
and Celtic in the Irish manuscripts — the " Book
Manuscripts, of Kells " at Trinity College, Dublin,
and those of Wftrzburg, '^ves, and
St. Gall. The influence of Gregory the Great
helped to preserve the early Chnjstian traditions
among the Anglo-Saxons and Franks until within
the Carolingian period (the Purple Gospel in the
British Museum and an evangeliarium at Cam-
bridge, seventh century). An independent con-
ception comes out first in the illustrations proper,
without any feeling for perspective, but with an
attractive effort to attain truth and naturalness
(Ashbumham Pentateuch, seventh century). Un-
der the Carolingians great schools were founded
for artistic copying of manuscripts at To\irs, Orleans,
Mets, Reichenau, St. Gall, Treves, etc. Their
work was connected with the old tradition by its
sober-minded simplicity and its careful technique
(evangeliarium of Gcxlescalc, Paris; another at
Vienna; another of St. M^aid, 826, at Soissons;
another of King Lothair, 843, and the Bible of
Charles the Bald, 850, both in Paris). In the prov-
inces the development, though less beautiful, was
more independent (Bible of Alcuin, British Mu-
seum). Here the draftsman takes precedence of the
painter, but the work is marked by originality and
poetic imagination and power (Utrecht Psalter, ninth
century; a benedictionale at Chatsworth; evangelism
riaof Otto I at Aix-la-Chapelle, of Egbert at Treves,
c. 980, of Echtemach at Gotha, c. 090, and of Otto
III at Aix-la-Chapelle). Then the decoration be-
comes gradually more elaborate, the pictorial and
ornamental parts begin to interchange their qual-
ities, the initials and borders are rich and gay.
In the eleventh centuiy the Cluniac mood of
struggle and renunciation prevails; the spiritual
excitement and vivid fancy of the tune are shown
in the Bible-illustrations; wasted forms in stiff
garments set forth the ascetic ideal of their creators;
truth to nature disappears entirely. And yet there
is great progress in eveiy domain of the intellectual
life— it is the age of Bernard. Even in the mini-
atures there are signs of the awakening
3. Manu- of the individual life; beneath all the
scripts of passion and combat there are a quiet
the melancholy and lon^g for peace.
Eleventh Henry II endowed his Bamberg
Century, foundations with beautifully painted
books, and at Hildesheim an important
scriptorium, influential throughout the north of
Europe, was founded by Bern ward, himself a pioneer
in painting. Here the forms are hard and tradi-
tional, but the content is new and full of deep
and animated feeling. After the rise of general
civilization under the Hohenstaufens, the bars of
form were to a great extent broken down. The
joy of living came back, and led the imagination
once more into the comprehension of beautiful
things, both graceful and dignified. There is a
better feeing for outline, and the study of the heri-
tage of antiquity seems to revive. The Bruchsal
evangeliarium at Oarlsruhe shows surprisingly
BlblM, Illustrated
Bibles, Polyglot
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
166
good drawing and natural movement, as does
another of about 1200 in the cathedral library at
Treves; best of all is that of Henry the Lion,
formerly in the cathedral treasury at Prague but
now in the possession of the Duke of Cumberland,
and the Merseburg Vulgate. A brilliant period for
miniature-painting was opening; but its tone was
characterized rather by breadth than by depth, and
the more popular it became, the more the profound
symbolism of the early times disappeared. Illustra-
tion was now bestowed less on Bibles than on books
used in public worship, until at the end of the Middle
Ages artistic interest once more covered the whole
Bible; but new life really came into this branch of
illustration with the invention of wood-engraving.
The transition to illustrated Bibles for the i>eople
18 seen in the Biblia pauperum of the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries — short representations of
the earthly life of Christ in simple
4. Biblia drawings, generally uncolored, ran-
Pauperum. ging in number from thirty-four to
fifty. Each event depicted is accom-
panied by two antitypes from the Old Testament
and by four prophets with appropriate citations,
and the pictures are explained in Latin or in Ger-
man. The most important examples of these
" Bibles of the Poor " are those of St. Florian in
Lower Austria, of the Lyceum library at Constance,
in the Vienna and Munich libraries [and in the
ducal library at Wolfenbttttel].
With the invention of printing and engraving,
especially wood-engraving, both the Bible and art
b^same conmion property. Reproductions of the
Biblia pauperum, wldch now first became really
accessible to the "poor," are among the most
celebrated of early block books. The German
Bibles before Luther (Augsburg 1477, Cologne c.
1480, Nuremberg 1483, Ltlbeck 1494) ha^e wood-
cuts. Finally Dtirer, with the wonderful vision
which could realise even the majestic pictures of
the Apocalypse, raised Biblical illustration to its
highest dignity. With the vernacular text, eagerly
sought after as it was, a great variety of illustra-
tions went hand in hand. Luther recognized their
importance to the Reformation cause and pro-
moted illustration zealously, and Melanchthon
drew rough sketches, which he gave to Lucas
Cranach for execution. Bible-illustration has
never had such a vogue as in the first half of the
sixteenth century. The most splendid
5. niua- edition was published by ICiafft of
trated Wittenberg in 1576 and 1584. With
Bibles of the middle of the centuiy Biblical
the Refor« illustrating took a new direction, when
mation line-engraving gradually forced wood-
and Later, engraving into the badcground. The
latter was used mainly for cheap pop-
ular editions, while artistic tendencies were mainly
displayed by the former. In 1607 the fifty-two
pictures from the logge of the Vatican, the so-called
Raffael Bible, engraved by Badalocchio and Lan-
franco, were published, followed by another impor-
tant series of line-engravings, the Icones hiblicoB^
and Historia sacra published by Merian at Frank-
fort, 1625-27, and a long list of similar works in
Germany, France, and Italy. In the eighteenth
oentuiy wood-engraving almost entirely died out,
except for cheap ephemeral productions, while line-
engraving flourished in the hands of the Dutch
school, who shared the renown of the Frendi.
German art was mainly imitative, and produced
littie that is noteworthy in Biblical iUustnitaoa.
Good editions, on the other hand, were published
during this period in Holland by Mortier, 1700;
Danckers, 1700; Luyken, 1740; Schots, 1749. In
France the best were those of Basnage, 1705, and
Martin, 1724. In England, besides the Oxford
Bible of 1717, there were the editions of Royau-
mont, 1705; Qarke, 1759; and Fleetwood, 1769.
In all these the Dutch-Flemish spirit ai^>ear8, with
its wide, free, joyous life; the fundamental princi-
ples of illustration are based on imitation of paint-
ing; Rubens, and Rembrandt for etching, are the
highest authorities. In the nineteenth century
Bible-illustration took a new impulse from Eng-
land. The modem romantic manner and strain-
ing after effect entered into it, laigdy as a result
of the great Holy BibU wUh Engromngs from Pie-
turea mid Designs by the most Eminent Artists,
published in London, 1800. (This, however, had
been anticipated by the Historical Pari of the Holy
Bible with illustrations engraved by John Cole
(London, 1730) and a volume with the same title
illustrate by John Sturt, as well as by the James
Tittier Bible (4 vols., 1794-05). It was followed
by a series of efforts, such as the Pictorial
Bible by Charles Knight, with woodcuts (London,
1828-29, New York, 1843), another of the same
name, but with steel engravings (London, 1847-49),
a numerous series of BMe Picture Books issued by
the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
and the Religious Tract Society, and Bible lUus-
irations, issued by Frowcle (London, 1896).]
The interest in the Orient which came up with
Ni^leon's Egyptian campaign, in aUianoe with
the strong realistic tendency of the oentuiy, brought
in a wholly new sort of illustrated BO>le, Uke
Brown's Family Bible (London and New York),
with views of towns and landscapes in addition
to historical pictures. Later, wood-«ngraving re-
vived ^reached once more an unexpected height
of excellence, and succeeded in getting in touch
with the great masses of the people.
6. The Notable products of this revival
Nineteenth (in Germany) were Oliver's Bible of
Centuiy. 1834 ; Overbeck's forty fine illustratioiu
to the NewTestament (1841); theCotta
edition of 1850, with 175 wood-engravings after the
first artists of (Germany; and, best of all the Gennan
editions, that published by Wigand (Leipsic, 1852-
1860), with 240 illustrations by Julius Schnorr von
Carolsfeld (Eng. ed., Leipsic, 1856-60; London,
1869). ThetechmcallybriUiantbuttootheatricalde-
signs of Dor6 won great popularity. The CiennaDB
have recently published several noteworthy editions,
such as the " Ffeilstacker Bible " in 1887, with
many explanatoiy archeological drawings, and the
" Star Bible " published by Hinrichs (Leipsic) in
1892, with reproductions of classical pictures for
the Old Testament and Hofmann's for the New.
[One of the latest attempts at Biblical illustration
is the work of the Frendi artist J. J. J. Tissot (d.
167
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, niufltratad
Biblei^ Folyerlot
1902), who, during a ten yean* reddenoe in Pale»-
tine, prepared a series of sketches based upon
study of the Biblical places and environment.
The Life of our Lord Jeeue Chnel, with 365 com-
positions in color and black and white, was pub-
lished in 4 vols, in 189»-1Q00, and The Old Testa-
menl, with 396 similar illustrations, in 1904 (2
ToIb.).] (H. H0L8CHXB.)
BnuoaEAPHT: A. d« BMtard, PHniuret 9t omtmeniB dee
M8S., copMiaJly vdL Hi, 8 vols.. Paris, 1832-(» (4th-16th
ceniuriea, a very oomplete work); idem, Peiniuree, cr^
ntmenie . , , de la Bible de CharUe le Chauve ... &
Port*, ib. 1883; H. Shaw. lUuminated OmamenJte of the
Middle Agee, London. 1833 (etb-17th eenturies, elabo-
rate and costly); idem. Handbook of &ie Art of lUumina-
HoH, ib. 1800; J. O. Weetwood, lUuminated lUuetratione
of the Bible, copied from Seleei M88. of &ie Middle Aqm,
ib. 1846 (with deeeriptiTe letterpreM); H. N. Humphreys.
lUuminated Booke of ffie Middle Agee, ib. 1849 (historical
and tlhtstratiTs): H. A. M(Uler, Dae Bvanodietarium
Heinricke III. in der Stadlbiblioihek eu Bremen, Bremen.
1862; W. R. Tymms. Art of lUuminaHng, London, 1866
(noteworthy); J. O. Weetwood, Faeeimilee of the Mini-
aiuree and Ornamenie of Anglo-Saxon and Irieh MS8.,
ib. 1868; J. H. Todd, DeeerijfHve Remarke on lUumina-
turns, ib. 1860 (deals largely with the Book of Kells);
J. E. Woeel, Die BildeHribel dee Belielae, Prague. 1871;
A. Frind, Seriptum supsr Apoealyjmin cum imaginibue,
ib. 1872; F. W. Delamotte, PHmer of ike AH of lUu^
stmolfton, London, 1874; W. de O. Birch and H. Jenner.
JBorly Drawinge and lUuminaiione; IniroduetUm to the
Study of /ttmninatef M88., ib. 1879 (**a handsome book
for specialists"); A. Springer. Pealierilluetraiionen im
fmhen MiUOalier, Leipeio. 1881; idem, Dii Oeneeiebilder
in der Kvnel dee frUhen MiUelaltere, ib. 1884; O.von (3eb-
hardt. The Miniaiuree of Oie Aahbwmham PenloteucA.
London, 1888; R. Muther, Die OUeelen deuieehen Bilder-
ftiMa, Munieh, 1883; F. X. Enus. Die Miniaturen dee
Codex Bgberti , , , eu Trier, Freiburg. 1884; idem, Oe-
•ehidUe der tArieUiehen Kunet, i. 447 sqq.. ib. 1896; Ge-
•ehiehU der deuieehtn Kunet, vol. iii. H. Janitsohek. Die
Malerei, Berlin, 1890; K. von Lfltsow. Geeehiehie dee
deuladien KupfereHehe und Holeeehnitte, vol. iv. ib. 1891;
8. Beissel, Dae . . . EvangeUenbueh im Dome eu Hildee-
JMsi. Hildesheim, 1891; J. Straygowski^ Dae EteduniadHn
BvengeUar, Vienna. 1891; C. von KobeD, Miniaturen und
Imihalen aue M8a. dee 4.-16. JahrhunderU, Munich, 1892;
J. H. Middleton, lUuminaSed M88. in Claeeieal and Mod-
cm Timee, London, 1892 (letterpraas elaborate and com-
Pfehensive); W. von Hartel and F. Wiokhoif. Die Wiener
Oeeeeie, Vienna. 1896; 8. Berger, Lee Manvele pour
nUuetation du Peautier, in Mimovree de la eocUti dee an-
tiquUie, 1888. Wii; O. E. Warner. lUuminaied M88., Lon.
don, 1900; the illustrations of the Evangeliarium of Ros-
ano are icpioduoed in the exaot liae of the originals by
A MonoB, Rome, 1907.
On the BibUa Pauperum eonsult: S. L. Sotheby, Prin-
dpie iypographiea, London. 1868; J. T. Berjeau, Biblia
Vaeperem, London, 1869; A. Camesina and Q. Heider,
DiB bUdUchen DareidlungeH der BiUia paiipsrum . , . in
BL Pierian, Vienna. 1863; E. la Roche, Dit dUeete Bil-
deibSbd, die eogenannle Biblia pauperum, Basel, 1881;
W. L. Schieiber. Manuel de Vamaleur de la gravure . . .
sv sM. eibde, 7 vols.. Leipsio, 1891-1900; F. Laib and
F. J. Sohwars. Biblia pauperum, Freiburg. 1899; E. M.
Thompson, On a M8. of the Biblia pauperum, in Biblio-
ttseo, iii, 1807; Biblia pauperum. Unieum der Heidel-
hergm^ Umv^eiiOte-Bibliothek, in 54 LidUdrucktafdn und
4 Tefeln, Berlin, 1906.
BIBLES, POLYGLOT.
L The Comphitensian Polyglot.
IL The Antwerp Polygtot.
m. The Pteis Polygk>t.
IV. The London Polygtot (Walton's Polyglot).
V. Minor Pblygk>ts.
pDlyg^t Bibles are editions of the Bible
presenting the text in several languages side by
ade. The practical needs of the Jews after Hebrew
eased to be a living tongue led to the preparation
of manuscripts giving, with the origmal Hebrew,
translations or paraphrases in Aramaic, Greek,
Arabic, Persian, and the languages of Europe. Like
conditions in the Church were met in similar manner.
Certain manuscripts of the New Testament in both
Greek and Latin are mentioned in the article
Biblb-Tbxt, II, 1, § 9. An edition in the original
and in modem Greek was printed in 1638 at the in-
stance of Cyril Lucar (see Bible Vebsions, B, Vin),
and the needs of Syria, Egypt, and Armenia are
met in like manner by editions still issued by Rome
and by Protestant Bible Societies. The so-called
glossaries (see Glosses, Biblical) and interlinear
versions giving the Vulgate and the vernacular text
of the Middle Ages may also be mentioned in this
connection. And there are numerous modem
copies of the Vulgate accompanied by an En^ish,
German, French, Spanish, or Italian translation.
The name Poly^ot, however, can not strictly
be given to editions presenting but two languages
(Gk. polys s= " many ")» and, in common usage, is
restricted to certain particular works, viz.:
L The Complutensian Polyglot, one of the most
noted and rarest of Biblical works, was undertaken
under the supervision and at the expense of Car-
dinal Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros, archbishop
of Toledo and chancellor of Castile (d. 1517), and
was prepared by the most famous scholars of Spain,
such as Demetrius Ducas of Crete, Antonio of
Lebrija, IHego Lopez de Stunica, Ferdinand Nufies
de Guzman, and Alphonso of Zamora. After years
of labor the work was printed at Alcala (Latin,
CompltUum) between 1513 and 1517, being finished
only a few months before the death of the cardinal,
and was published in 1520 with the sanction of
Pope Leo X. It consists of six folio volumes,
the first four including the Old Testament, the
fifth the New Testament, and the sixth being a
Hebrew-Chaldee lexicon with grammatical and
other notes (printed separately as Alphonsi Zamo-
rensia introducHones artie grammaticcB Hebraica,
Alcala, 1526). The languages are (1) the Hebrew
of the Old Testament; (2) the Targum of Onkelos;
(3) the Septuagint (here printed for the first time
and with remarkable alterations of the manuscriptc
to make the text fit the Hebrew or the Latin);
(4) the Vulgate; (5) the Greek New Testament.
Latin translations of the Targum and Septoagint
are appended. The title-page and last page are
given in reduced facsimile in Schaff's Companion
to the Greek TeHament (New York, 1885).
IL The Antwerp Polyglot {Biblia Regia) was
printed at the expense of Philip II of Spain by
the famous Antwerp printer Christophe Plantin (8
vols., folio, 1569-72). Benedictus Arias Montanus
(see Arias, Benedictus) had charge of the work,
with the help of Spanish, Belgian, and French
scholars, among them Andi^ Maes, Guy le F^vre de
la Boderie, and Francois Rapheleng. Volumes i-iv
contain the Old Testament, vol. v the New; be-
sides the original texts, the Vulgate, and the Septu-
agint with Latin translation, Aramaic targums of
the Old Testament (with the exception of Daniel,
Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles) are given,
with Latin translation; also the old Sjrriac
(Peshito) veiBion of the New Testament, lack-
Biblea,
Polyglot
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
168
ing II Peter, n and in John, Jude, and the
Apocalypee; it is printed with both Syriac and
Hebrew characters and has a Latin translation.
Volumes vi-vii contain the Hebrew lexicon of Sanctes
Pagninus, the Syriao-Chaldee lexicon of Le Fdvre
de la Boderie, a Syriac grammar by Ifaes, a Greek
dictionary and archeological treatises by Arias
Montanus, and many brief philological and critical
notes. The last volmne repeats the Hebrew and
Greek texts with interlinear Latin translations,
by Sanctes Pagninus of the former, and the Vulgate
for the latter; this part of the work, especially the
New Testament, has often been reprinted. The
critical preparation was defective and the manu-
scripts used were of secondary importance; in
many places there is dependence on the Complu-
tensian work.
IIL The Paris Polyglot, the most magnificent
but scientifically least important of all, was printed
at the expense of Guy Michel le Jay in seven lan-
guages (10 vols., 1629-45). Volumes i-4v are
merely reprints of the Antwerp Bible. Volumes
v-vi contain the New Testament from the same
edition, augmented by the Sjrriac Antilegomena
and an Arabic version with Latin translation.
The other volumes contain (1) the so-called Samari-
tan Pentateuch with its Samaritan translation
(see Bible Vebsionb, A, IV); (2) the Syriac;
and (3) an Arabic version of the Old Testament,
all with Latin translations. The Oratorian Jean
Morin prepared the Samaritan texts and the
Maronite Gabriel Sionita did most of the Syriac
work.
IV. The London Polygk>t (Walton's Polyglot),
the most scholarly and the oonmionest of aU, was
undertaken by Brian Walton (q.v.), afterward
bishop of Chester, and completed in 1657 (6 vols.,
London). Walton had the help of nearly all con-
temporary Ekiglish scholars, particularly the Ori-
entalists Edmund Castell, Edward Pococke,
Thomas Hyde, Dudley Loftus, Abraham Weelocke,
Thomas Greaves, and Samuel Clarke. The excel-
lence of this Polyglot over others consists in the
greater number of old Oriental versions and
the much greater and more intelligent work
of the editor. The ' first four volumes con-
tain the Old Testament in the Hebrew with
the Antwerp interlinear version, the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Septuagint from the Vatican
edition of 1587 with the variants of the Alex-
andrine codex, the fragments of the Itala col-
lected by Flaminius Nobilius, the Vulgate from
the Vatican edition with the corrections of Lucas
of BrUgge, the Peshito augmented by the trans-
lation of certain apocr3rpha, a better edition of the
Arabic version, the Targums from Buxtorf, the
Samaritan translation of the Pentateuch, and the
Ethiopic version of the Psalms and Song of Songs.
These texts (nine in all), with Latin translations
of the Greek and the Oriental, are arranged side
by mde or one under the other. Two additional
Targums, that of Pseudo-Jonathan and that of
Jerusalem, with a Persian translation are given in
vol. iv. The New Testament appears in vol. v,
the text with few changes from Robert Stephens's
folio edition of 1550; then are given Arias's version
and the variants of the Alexandrine codex, Syiiac,
Latin, Ethiopic, and Arabic versicHis, and the
(jospels in Persian, with literal Latin tranriataons.
Walton's Apparatus, a critical-historical intro-
duction in vol. i, was not superseded for more than
a century, and was several times republished.
Volimie vi contains critical collections to all the
texts published. Finally Edmund Castell's Lexicon
HeptagloUum (2 parts, Cambridge, 1669) is usually
counted as an int^;ral part of this Pol^qi^t.
V. Minor Polyglots: Less important are (1) the
Heidelberg Pdyglot {Polyglotta Sandandreana ;
Old Testament, 1586; New Testament added, ISS^\
probably edited by Bonaventure Comeille Bertnm,
professor of Hebrew at (Geneva 1566-84, afterward
preacher at Frankenthal. It contains the origins]
texts and Septuagint, with Latin transUtions, and
the Vulgate, all from the Antwerp Polyg^t. (2)
The Hamburg Pclygloi (1596) consists of six volumn
by David Wolder, giving in four columns the Greek
texts, the Vulgate, Pagninus's Latin translatioQ of
the Old Testament and Besa's of the New, with
Luther's German version, to which Elias Hutter's
Hebrew Bible of 1587 was added with new title-
page bearing the date 1596. (3) The A^urem^
P^yglot, the work of Elias Hutter (q.v.), comprises
(a) an Old Testament in six languages (1599),
carried only to the Book of Ruth; (6) a Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and German Psalter (1602); (c) s
New Testament in twelve languages (2 parts, 1599)
— Syriac, Italian, Hebrew, Spanish, Greek, French,
Vulgate, English, German, Danish, Bohemian,
and Polish; (d) a New Testament in Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and German, taken from the pie-
ceding (1602). (4) The Leipsic Polyg^ of C:fari&-
tianus Reinecdus, rector at Weissenfels, has the
New Testament in five languages (1713) and the
Old Testament in four (2 vols., 1750-51). (5) The
BieUfeld Polyglot, ed. R. Stier and C. G. W. Theik
(4 vols., ii and iii in two parts, 1846-55), contains
the Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and
German, the New Testament in the last three
languages, with variants of different German ver-
sions in the fourth column; there are also copies
with the English version in place of the German.
Lastly, mention may be made of the BiJblia Hexor
gloUa of E. R. de Levante (6 vols., London, 1874-
1876), and Bagster's BMia sacra polyglotta, with
prolegomena by S. Lee (London, 1831). Other
works including only portions of the Bible do not
fall within the scope of this article. £. Nebtlk.
Bibuoorapht: J. Le Long, Biblioikeea Saeta, emteniaki . • •
abA.G. Maach, tmrt i, ohap. 4« pp. 331-406. Halle, 1778;
idem* Diteoura hiaioriguB mr 2m prineipales idi^ont da
BihU§ polyglotUa, pp. 564 sqq., FftriB, 1713; B. Pick. Hih
tory of Priniad BdiHona . . . and P&lyglot BiblM, in Bt-
braiea, ix (1892>03). 47-110.
BIBLES, RABBINIC, called also Oreat BiUes
(Mi^ra'ot Gedolol): Hebrew Bibles containing.
besides the original text, the commentaries of sun-
dry Jewish rabbis. The first of these Bibles was
published by Daniel Bomberg, edited by Felix Pra-
tensis (4 parts, Venice, 1517-18); it oontains, beadeB
the Hebrew, the Aramaic paraphrases andoonamen-
taries of eight different writers on certain books,
Masoretic notes, and other matter. As tiie editor
169
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Bible., Polyglot
BlbUaader
waa a convert to Christianity, his work did not
prove acceptable to the Jews. Its faults induced
Bombeig to undertake another edition, for which
he employed as editor the celebrated Masoretic
scholar Jacob ben Hayyim, who in after-life also
embraced Christianity. This edition, the Hebrew
title of which means " The Holy Gate of the Lord,"
was published at Venice (4 vols., 1524-25) and,
like the first edition, contains the Hebrew text,
the Aramaic conmientaries, and the Masoretic notes.
The editor's introduction, containing a treatise on
the Maaorah, has been translated into En^^ish by
Christian I^vid Ginsburg (Jacob ben Chajim's
IfUrodtuiion to the Rabbinic Bible, London, 1865),
who based The Maeaoreiic Critical Text of the
Hebrew Bible (1894) on this edition of Hayyim.
A revised and improved edition of the second
Bomberg Bible was published (Venice, 1545-48)
under the supervision of Cornelius AdeUdoid. The
changes made in this edition were the omission of
some commentaries and the substitution of others.
Bomberg's fourth Rabbinic Bible, by J. de Gara,
was carried through the press and corrected by
Isaac ben Joseph Salam and Isaac ben Gershon
Treves (4 voU., Venice, 1568). The correctors
remark at the end of the work that they have rein-
serted in this edition the portion of the Masorah
omitted in the edition of 1546-48. Appended to
this is the so-called Jerusalem Targum on the Pen-
tateuch.
A Rabbinic Bible (4 voLb., Venice, 1617-18)
was published by Pietro and Lorenso Bragadini
and edited by the celebrated Leon of Modena.
It contains the Aramaic paraphrases, the Masorah,
and the Rabbinic commentaries of De Gara's
edition. This edition, however, is of less value to
the critical student, being censored by the Inqui-
ntion.
Buztorf s Rabbinic Bible or Biblia eacra Hebraica
d Chaldaica cum Maeora, qwe eritica Hebrceorum
uera eet, magna et paroa ac eeUctiseimis Hebraorum
tnUrpretum eomtnentariie (4 parts, 2 vols., Basel,
1618-19) has a Latin preface by Buxtorf, a table
of the number of chapters in the Bible, and a poem
of Aben Esra in the Hebrew language. Besides
the Hebrew and the Aramaic paraphrases, it con-
tains the commentaries of Rashi, Aben Ezra, and
others, and Buztorf's Tiberiae eive commentariua
maeoretkicue triplex. The whole is formed after
Jacob ben Hayyim's second edition (1546-48),
with some corrections and alterations by Buxtorf.
Buztorf s Bible is imperfect, but in spite of its
defidendes, the student must still thank the editor
for his work, which, however, was criticised by R.
Smon in his Hietoire crUijue du Vieux Teetament
(p. 513).
The next Rabbinic Bible was the Sepher KehH-
lot Moehe, or ** Book of the Congregation of Moses,"
edited by Moses Frankfurter (4 vols., Amsterdam,
1724-27). This is the most valuable of all the
Rabbinic Bibles. It is founded upon the Bomberg
editions, and gives not only their contents, but also
those of Buztorfs, with much additional matter.
The latest Rabbinic Bible is the MiJpra^ot Gedo-
lot published at Warsaw (12 voLb., 1860-68) by
LebeDson. This gigantic work contains thirty-
two commentaries, old and new, among others
the critical commentary of Norai. The Hebrew
tezt is on the whole very correct, the siae is more
convenient than that of its predecessors, and the
edition is recommended by the best Jewish, au-
thorities in Poland and Austria. B. Pick.
BiBUooaAPBT: The one book for consultation is C. D.
Ginsburs, IrUroduction to the MaeeonUeo-criHeal BdiUon
of tho Htbrow Bibte, London. 1897; ef. B. Pick, in Hobraiea,
ix (1892-03), 47-116.
BIBUA PAUPERUM ('* Bible of the Poor").
See BiBLBB, Illustrated, § 4.
BIBLIAHDBR (BUCHMANN), THEODOR: Swiss
theologian and teacher; b. at Bischofssell (11 miles
s.s.e. of Constance), Switzerland, 1504 (15007); d.
at Zurich Nov. 26, 1564. He studied Hebrew
under Jacob Ceporinus in Zurich, in 1526 under
Pellican and (Eoolampadius at Basel, and later on
under Capito. When Duke Frederick II of lieg-
uits in 1527 asked for teachers for his high school,
the Council of Zurich sent him Bibliander, who
served there two years with distinction. He then
returned home and was appointed Zwingli's suc-
cessor in the theological professorship at Zuridi
in 1531.
Bibliander's specialty was linguistics, and he used
to call himself homo grammoHcue ; he was versed in
the Semitic dialects and was master of several
modem languages. From the beginning his ren-
dering of the Prophets was successful, was indorsed
by Bullinger and Pellican, and caused J. H. Hot-
tinger to call him the father of ezegetical theology
in Switzerland. He wrote also on Hebrew Gram-
mar and on Comparative Linguistics. Perhaps
the greatest sensation he caused was that produced
by his publication of the Koran (1543, rev. ed.,
1550); the magistrates at Basel tried to prohibit
the book, but Luther interfered in defense of it and
of the translator. Bibliander issued studies on the
Gospel of Mark and the Protevangelium Jaeobi,
translating them into Latin. His works betray a
rich historical knowledge. Especially worthy of
mention in this regard are his De BaHone Tern-
porum (1551) and Temporum SuppuUOio (1558).
Most of his writings were never published, but are
preserved in manuscript at Zurich.
Nezt to Bullinger, Bibliander appears as the most
respected representative of the Church at Zurich.
He participated in all theological and ecclesiastical
discussions, preserving the heritage of Zwingli.
He assisted in the publication of ZwingU's and
CEcolampadius's letters (1536). In some trea-
tises he openly attacked the Catholic Church and
the Tridentinum (De Legitima Vindicatione Chrie-
tianiami, 1553), and antagonised the Roman
propaganda, appealing to England as the land of
Chnstian liberty. He advocated missions to the
Jews and Mohiunmedans, and went so far as to
start on mission work, being restrained only by
Bullinger's representations. He was made emeritue
aifid given a pension in 1560. (Emil Eoli.)
BiBLiobaA.PBT: A list of the writing! of Bibliander is given
in H. J. Leo. AUaomoinot Lexicon, it, 11-14. 20 vols..
Zurieh. 1747-66. For his life oonsult J. J. Christinger,
T, Bibliander, ein hiooraphia^ee Denkmal, Frsuenfeld.
1667; £. Egli, Analeeta reformaioria, voL ii, Zurieh, 1001.
Aroheoloffy
OrltioUi
IbUoal OriUoUm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
170
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. See Abchdoloot,
BiBUCAL.
BIBLICAL CAIION. See Canon of Scrxpturb.
BIBLICAL CRinCISlL
Linguistio Critidon (| 8).
Historioal Critidana (1 4).
Critidon of Style (f 6).
BeooDBtruetive Critidsm
(16).
rV. History of Critidnn.
Mtrtmim And TJw%ifAti^n«
(ID.
Hellenittio and Ffttriatio
Gritidsm (| 2).
Critidam from the Time
of the Reformation
(18).
Modern Gritidsm (i 4).
V. Biblical Critidsm in
the Boman Gatholio
ChuidL
I. Conoeption and Ftob-
lem.
The Hiatoryof the Term
(ID.
Limitations and Sphere
of the CriUe (f 2).
BibUoal Critidsm (| 8).
II. The Critical Method.
Fundamental Assump-
tions (I 1).
Clasdfication (f 2).
Function (| 3).
III. The Departments of
Criticism.
Critidsm of the Cbnon
(ID.
Textual Critidsm and
Apparatus (f 2).
L Conception and Problem: Criticinn, like in-
terpretation, ia an art; the two are related to each
other as aisters, and both are nourished by sdenoe.
Interpretation is the art of bringing to the compre-
hension what has really been handed down and of
grasping it as it really is; critidsm is the art of
rightly estimating what has been actually appre-
hended according to its real value. Interpretation
without criticism befogs and enervates; criticism
without interpretation is vague and mere intelleo-
tual play, ^ce man can not understand without
exercising the faculty of judgment, in work that
deals with spiritual verities the two are not separa-
ted, yet the point of view from which they approach
the same object is as di£Ferent as their method.
Interpretation proceeds inductively, collecting eveiy-
thing which bean upon the understanding of the
matter; criticism proceeds deductively, furnishing
the canons by which to value that understanding.
While one asks about the fact, the other asks about
the truth of it; one builds, the other classifies and
estimates the material and tests the building
process. Criticism is the inverse of interpretation,
and more. While it pronounces upon the results
of interpretation, it opens new questions about the
trustworthiness or untrustworthiness, the com-
pleteness or fragmentariness, the genealogy and the
significance of the object; and thus it affords a
starting-point for final valuation and definition.
It is skill, partly natural, paitly acquired, in dis-
tinguishing and appropriating true from false,
good from bad, beautiful from ugly, whether derived
from contemplative perception and revelation or
through chance or tradition. Its purpose is
positive, though its result may often be negative.
It knows no other authority than that of the case
before it, no other method than that demanded
by the same.
The word has been in use since Plato's time;
ha distinguished between criticism and construc-
tion, the two being employed in the
\o^ot^ science of knowledge. Aristotle intro-
^^^rm. duced a distinction between the crit-
ical and the literary arts, which was
taken up by the Alexandrian school in connection
withliteratureandparticulariy withpoetiy. Clement
of Alexandria established in his review of Greek
culture the fact that grammatikaa as a tedmical
term is later than kritikoa. Terminology, however,
was unstable in the ancient worid. PhUologos
was differentiated from pkilo9opho8, meaning not
the independent inquirer but the critic and ex-
pounder of classical productions. As the art of
valuing, criticism is the product of the eighteenth
century. The E^ncydopedists called it in particular
the restorer of andent literature, in general the art
of open-eyed examination of human productioos
and of judging them justly.
The critic stands in an opposition between
subjective and objective. The obscure, the ugly,
the disorderiy, the arrogant, the
8. Limita- artifidal-^everything which tends to
^onm distort a pure impression — arouse
uS^m ^^ critical function, which manifests
of the itself in simple aversion or blame, or
Ozltio. in a deliberate exposition of the causes
of distorticm. Limitations to under-
standing lie also in the person. Complex and diffi-
cult to grasp are the conditions and impulses which
deceive, divert, and suborn the faculty of judg-
ment. Personal taste, inexperience, dogmatic pie*
supposition, arrogance — such hindrances are as
numerous as the emotions of the soul. A valuable
inheritance sometimes suffers injury by the en-
croachments of critical ineptitude. Whoever re-
gards a thing as worthy has a sense of loss, even
if the criticism be pertinent; much more is that the
case if in the critical process insincerity and aifoi-
trariness be present. It is not surprising, therefore,
that esthetic and religious natures are filled with
aversion to criticism and distrust of it. Goethe
once said that a book which had accomplished
great results was simply above the operations of
criticism, and that criticism is generally a mere
habit of moderns. Such an attitude seems to the
critic mere obedience to blind authority. Great
events and much of literature have rested on
fictitious bases. Apocrypha and peeudepigrapha
daim genuineness. Such facts are warrant enough
for the activities of critical sdence.
The general standards of criticism, like those of
interpretation, rest on logic, philosophy, and
rhetoric. It applies those standards
8. Biblical to the particular case, and the general
Oritiolsm. rules are modified to accord with the
demands of the occasion. Snoe the
Scriptures of the Old and the New Testaments
have a special importance as a rdated whole,
Biblical criticism is a special and independent
branch. It deals with sources, history, and rdigion;
it tests the historical worth of liie documents
which set for^ the religion of the two Testaments.
It has as its object the discovery of the religious
life operative therein by reason of which this
literature has its special meaning. There is a double
outlook here; insight into the essence of religicHi
and into the essence of historic fact.
Biblical criticism is on its other side historical
criticism. Hence its function is to separate the
natural progress of events and the religious luoita-
tions of the Biblical expomtion of histoiy in order
to oompzeheod thdr rdations upon the bssia of
171
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blblioal Aroheolovy
BlbUoal Oritioim
this ■eparatum. Religious ooeunenoes it must
seek to explain upon psychological^ pathological,
and historioo-religious grounds. Lessing says that
"the dramatic poet is not a historian; historical
verity is not his purpose, only the means to it."
Is this poet then a falsifier of history? Similarly
for the Biblical writers historical truth is only
a means for offering religious truth; it is the channel
of the revelation from God. Consequently the task is
to examine case by case in order to determine how
far historical reality carries revelation. Its own
standpoint, therefore, is assured to this science.
It asks with what ri^t and under what conditions
and limitations the Scriptures exist as a religious
collection. It gives historical rating to the con-
tents. Its leading word is— discriminate, which it
uses in promoting recognition of worth or its oppo-
site, of fact or mere appearance.
n. The Critical MetluHl: To achieve real service
in Biblical criticism appreciation of the religious
factor is necessary. The critic, however, may not
walk in a rut if he is to attain a right position.
After he has through interpretation grasped the
object of investigation, he gives it rating according
to the conditions and warrant of the
1. Fund*- facts of the case. He proceeds upon
J^^~^ the immanent, not the transcendent.
And after the rig^t criterion is
found, he has to remember that a
complete and not a partial or fragmentary in-
vestigation is required, and further that fast hold
must be laid upon equipoise between critical acute-
ness and the perception of what is possible and plain.
Ecdes. vii, 20 has its application here, " God made
man upright, but he h&B sought out many inven-
tions." What is the inherent standard of Biblical
criticism? The historical narratives of the Bible
are, so far as they deal with religious life, inter-
pretations of history and testimonies to faith.
To express a right judgment the critic must deter-
mine the relation between the historical and the
reli^ous and decide which is the more prominent.
De Wette regarded the Pentateuch as poetry;
the opposite view makes the Bible historical only.
Between these extremes lies the recognition that
the Bible employs history for religious purposes.
Is this religious significance to be regarded as
expert emphasis upon the worth and force of a
real occurrence or was it used to support some
dogmatic purpose? Is it found in or read into the
case? Is it in the main possible to recognise the
fact in the religious dress?
These possibilities the critic must take into
accomit as he holds the scales of truth, testing the
composite parts of the Bible and proceeding thence
to a consideration of the Bible as a whole. Upon
this ground only can the decision be rendered how
far the historic facts which the Bible reports stand
in organic connection with their religious valua-
tion and whether they may be regarded as history
or as legend, fable, or myth. The varying ratio
of the admixture of the historical and the religious
and the degree of its significance must be observed;
and especially the interval between the Old Testa-
ment and the New in their historical relations,
original limitations, and purposes must be kept in
mind. It is one thing to appreciate the essential
qualities of Hebrew national literature, covering
a thousand years in its development, and another
to apprehend the worth and character of the New
Testament, which is the literature of a religious
propaganda covering but two generations. Yet
the critic's methods are essentially the same,
corresponding to the varied historical limitations
of the subject-matter. When the question of the
essence of Christianity arises, the bearing of the
Old Testament religion upon Christianity is to be
decided and grasped.
The fundamental axiom shows that each literary
production, as well as each body of writings which
has a common bond, requires its a{H
8. Claaal- propriate method both of interpre-
floation. tation and of criticism. Means and
end will agree when the character of the
whole presents itself in the parts; the last-named will
separate and individualise themselves where origins
and relations differ. The classifications of Biblical
criticism arise not out of logical abstractions but
out of the demands made by the individualistic
Biblical qualities. Criticism of the canon asks
how and with what right the two Testaments were
united in one book, how and by what methods the
correct text of that which has come down is to be
ascertained, what was the origin and what is the his-
torical worth and what the relation of the present
form of the books to the original form. It draws
conclusions from the data furnished by interpre-
tation. On the basis of the recognition (1) of the
suitability of means to ends and (2) of the literary
individuality, it pronounces upon the worth of a
document as a source and upon its relation to the
whole to which it belongs and which it serves.
The science divides, therefore, into criticism of the
text, of the language, of the history, of the style,
and constructive criticism.
Since subjectively criticism finds its occasion
in the limits of the understanding, its starting-point
is doubt about the trustworthiness
8. Fnno- and the arrangement of what has come
tion. down. This doubt proceeds to ask
the reason for this impression. If
the reason lies not in the spiritual being of the
doubter but in the object, then some defect is
understood to exist in expression, contents, or style.
The critic has then to discover the kind of defect
and to discern its cause. As a means to this,
Jerome directs the critic to digest, arrange, deduce,
construct. In other words, the critic first diag-
noses the case and then applies the remedy. And
in this process comparison is constantly employed,
holding in view the separate parts and the united
whole. The division of the field of the critic into
external and internal, higher and lower, does not
have any essential truth at its root, and should be
rejected for that given at the end of the last
paragraph.
in. The Departments of Criticism: That the
Old Testament existed as a holy authority for the
synagogue and that the New in connection with
the Old had the same value for the Church is
the fact the success and the right of which criti-
dsm has to investigate. It notes the process of
BlbUoal Orlttetm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
172
formation of the canon and Uie internal testimony
of the canonical writings as related to the author-
ity attributed to them. It asks whether the canon
was made or whether it g;rew, whether
1. Oriti- and how far its parts are pseudepi-
^?e S^^V^c- For the Old Testament there
Oanon. " outside testimony only from late
Judaism and the Talmud; for the New
there is a wealth of evidence arising from the cir-
cumstances under which it came into existence by
about 180 A.D. One result of criticism is to revetd
the motive of canon-formation and also the cor-
rectness of the s^aration of the literature made
authoritative by comparison of it with the non-
canonioil (see Canon of ScBiPTUBa).
A preliminaiy in this work is the collection of
the text-critical apparatus which shall present an
orderly and complete picture of the
•i JJ«^«*1 condition of the text. The documents
ud^^M- °^^"* ^ described and their charao-
ratna. teristics brought to light. The sources
of text-criticism are manuscripts in
the original languages, lectionaries of selected
parts, translations, citations; for the Old Testa-
ment the Masorah, for the Septuagint and the New
Testament also patristic commentaries and scholia.
The variant readings in this mass of materials are
to be arranged and classified, a preliminary to which
is the valuation of the text-sources on the basis of
age, genealogy, and trustworthiness. In the Old
Testament the difference of the Masoretic text from
that of the Septuagint proves the two to be indcp
pendent witnesses; but the fact that the text of the
latter is not yet settled makes difficult the task of
arbitrating between the two. On the other hand,
the New Testament writings were not, before the
time of Origen, handled with the care bestowed
by the Jews on the text of the law. The collection
of i^paratus for the New Testament text presents
not only an agitated sea of differences in orthog-
raphy and word-forms which create little or no
difference in sense, but also a series of variations
which affect the meaning and educed the wail of
Origen that they were the result not only of care-
lessness on the part of the scribes but also of wil-
fulness and design. The task is to bring order into
this mass of variations. There have be^ discerned
three principal types of text, the Alexandrian, the
Western, and the Constantinopolitan. The text
of the Synoptic Gospels shows the most serious
variations, in which purpose is manifest to make
parallel passages read in the same way and to supply
omissions. The text of Revelation and of the Lucan
writings also is in a bad condition. Great differ-
ences exist between the text of the Alexandrian
and the Greco-Latin types. The last word on
relative values has not yet been said, and the
matter is still further complicated by the fact that
the minuscules have not yet been taken fully into
consideration, and they contain very many excellent
and independent reading?. See Bible Text.
The purpose of comparison of variant texts is
i^>proximation to the original. The critic esti-
mates the age of a document. For this much help
has been received from the papjrri and parchments
recovered in Egypt, from which it has been learned
that the earliest texts were ¥nitten in oajntals and
without accents or marks of punctuation, and th^
the word or syllable was brokoi at the end of tbe
line as the demands of space required. Study of the
processes of reproduction of manuscripts has sboini
that errors are either mechanical or designed.
The former are illustrated by the doubling of a
word or a passage or the omission of the same
either by an error of the eye or of the ear, or bt
the substitution of one word or letter for another
which resembles it either in form or sound. Of
conscious or designed variations from the ori^nal,
some were brought about by attempts to smooth
a rough passage or to illumine an obscure one,
to correct real or supposed errors, to make tvo
parallel passages read in the same way, or to change
the reading so as to support some dogmatic interest.
The Old Testament was originally written without
punctuation or helps to reading and pronundatioa;
the possibility of error is, therefore, greatly increased
as compared with the Greek text, the vowda of
which were always written.
After interpretation has set forth the lexico-
graphic and grammatical character of the language,
criticism inquires into the relation of expresaioD
to thought, unity in the methods
^^J^J of expresfldon, and individual charac-
oSSoiam. teristics in writing as rdated to tbe
general character of the language,
and into the various influences which have
controlled the form. Dissimilarity in style in
parts argues dissimilarity in authorship; dis-
arrangement or disorder suggests interpolation.
Especially valuable are the testa which depend
upon uniformity in the use of certain fundamental
notions such as those of the kingdom of God, life,
faith, righteousness, spirit, fledi. Similarly use
is made of collection and comparison of idioms
which characterise a writing or a group of writing,
and in this case critical judgment is of great im-
portance. Individuality ia thus discovered, since
the idiosyncrasies of writers are in the main un-
conscious and undesigned. And rhetorical quali-
ties also come into play, the tendency to a type
of expression or fondness for certain words or kinds
of figures or turns of sentence. Recognition of
characteristic ways of using language adds to
text-critical apparatus, since it not only presents
the facts of different readings and of peculiarities,
but also notes their effects, influences, and modi-
ficatbns. So that text-criticism and criticism of
the language work together in correcting an unin-
telligible or corrupt text by employing conjecture.
By this is not meant merely subjective sagacity or
ineptly used technical skill. Conjecture is the
result of study of the causes of error in the text
which marks them as mechanical or designed, and
then seeks a reading in accordance with the bahit
and character of the document under examination,
a reading which on known principles of error in
transmission will produce the particular error.
Historical criticism is s^plied not merely to
works on history but to any literary product o(
the past which claims or really has importance
for any historical reason. The result of this proc-
ess is pronouncement upon the worth of any
178
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BibUoal OriUoUm
particular document as a source. It deals with
the genuineness, unity, integrity, and trustworthi-
ness of a writing, adcs whether it is as the au-
thor wrote it or whether it has been
^^JJ^ corrupted or falsified, whether it re-
Oritloism. ^^^^ ^^ habit of the author assumed
or of the times in which it is placed.
Since it is seldom that explicit external testimony
to a document Is available, criticiBm usually pro-
ceeds upon internal evidence. But this is not
always dedsive. Conceivably, the tradition of
Isra^'s sojourn in Egypt might have arisen out
of the story of the Babylonian exile. So of the
New Testament writings, the decision whether they
are really documents of the apostolic age depends
finally upon the judgment of their character as a
whole and upon appraisement of the distance
between them and the postapostolic and apocry-
phal literature.
The three points upon which the critic is intent
are not of equal weight. Thus, though the authen-
ticity of a writing be denied on internal grounds,
the worth of the writing as a source is not thereby
necessarily denied, for the dociunent may have
been produced anonymously, may be a genuine
witness for the times in which it was written, and
yet have had a name wrongly attached to it later.
Examples of this are the Books of Samuel, the Gos-
pd of Matthew, and the Epistle to the Hebrews,
which last is a genuine document of the apostolic
age, thou^ the authorship is undetermined. So
integrity does not of itself determine source-value.
Investigation in this direction discovers gaps or
additions and relates them to historic crediility.
The final test has reference to this quality. Inves-
tigation into a writing as a whole leads to the dis-
cussion of its composition. Criticism of sources
enters here, which on the basis of the linguistic
character of the finished work and of its parts
decides whether the work is a unit or is composite.
In the latter case the questions arise what was the
original form and how far it has been changed by
the successive hands through which it has passed;
whether the parts are in thdr original form or have
been worked over, and in the latter case whether
in some dogmatic interest. Such are the prob-
lems which arise respecting the Pentateuch and
the Gospels. Decision in favor of the trustworthi-
ness of a document in itself a unit and complete is
carried a step further toward assurance by com-
parison with the general whole to whidi it belongs.
This involves consideration of linguistic charac-
teristics, of the drde of ideas in which it moves,
the general trend of thought. Account is taken
of external testimony. In this case error has to be
guarded against, since the trustworthiness and
competence of the witness is itself a subject for
investigation. The criticism of the Epistle to the
PbilipfHans gives an illustration of the difficulties
of the process, where irreconcilably di£Ferent oon-
dufliofns have been reached by Baur, Holsten, and
P. W. Schmidt.
The most important problem affecting credi-
bility arises frc»n the specific character of the Bib-
lical narratives. What attitude shall be assumed
toward miradeeT How far are the reports legend-
ary or mythical? What is the relation of the relig-
ious idea to the question of the historicity of the
reports and of their worth as sources? The position
taken will depend upon the philosophical position
of the critic. The theist does not disavow belief
in miracles and values the divine self-consciousness
of Jesus as testimony to his living participation in
deity. But the historic spirit of the times enters
a caveat by noting the limitation placed on the
reporters by the characteristics of the times in
widch they lived. Moreover, he who accepts
Jesus as a wonder-worker is not called on as a critic
to prove the reports of miracles reliable; nor is he
who accepts Jesus as God's son required to prove
the stories of the infancy, analogies of whidi are
so abundantly available. But with the recognition
that there are obscurities in the reports of miracles
and that poetry, legend, and myth are used by the
Bible, the last word has not been spoken on the
historicity of Biblical narratives. When the Eng-
lish minister Mitchell said in relation to the wars
of Frederick the Great that the latter was fighting
for the freedom of the human race, he gave an
interpretation of history but did not alter the his-
toric fact. It is then possible that without altering
the facts the Gospds, under the impression made
by the person of Jesus, acknowledge him as Son of
God and Savior of the worid. If the theologian
speaks of salvation as a fact which has become
Imown in history, that is not a dogmatic dislocation
but a correct valuation of the historical order in
which the Christian religion and its Old Testament
precursor reveal themselves.
" Style is only the order and progress in which
thought takes form; it supposes the union and exer-
cise of all the intellectual faculties,
C^Wtl- and it is the man " (Buffon). This
^^S'^ utters the fmal decision in the reaching
Style, of which the critical and hermeneutical
faculties unite more closely than in
the processes named above. It asks the question,
what purposes did the writing have and how did
it attain them? It takes into account the total
impression made by the document, the progress
of thought and the conception of history it em-
bodies; it notes clearness and force or indefinite-
ness and unwieldiness, originality or accord with
accustomed forms. And in the background is ever
a reference to the historical setting and relation-
ships. Historical critidam may show composite-
ness in a document and answer the question whether
the elements are united by a loose idea or are worked
into each other. In the latter case criticism of
style shows the reUtion of the parts to the whole.
When historical criticism has thoroughly inves-
tigated historical conditions and order, the question
of credibility in a new sense arises. Was the pur-
pose objective or personal, did the ideal enter into
the personal, did personsd interests and passion
modify the objectivity of the writing? For docu-
ments run to Tenderu whenever they are not purely
objective narrative.
The results from the processes so far re-
viewed are now positive, now negative. They
produce decisions upon the completeness, reli-
ability, and value of what has been transmitted.
BibUoal OriUoinn
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
174
That done, the relation of the product under dis-
cuafidon to the original actuality in particular and
in general remains to be investigated. What is
historic reconstruction 7 Niebuhr's
^^J**2"*" ^wtonf ^1 Rome was the first con-
CMtioiaai. ^'^^^ example of the results of the
process. It embodied his endeavor
to pierce through the displacements and exag-
gerations of national pride which influenced the
historical form of the statements and to discover
actuality as it was and developed. His method
is and remains the method of constructive criti-
cism. The first step, then, is criticism of sources,
which not only revcds their nature and value, but
grasps also their connection with the original fact,
their original relations, their mutual dependence or
independence. In religious literature it is neces-
sary to have regard to the conceptions embodied
to see whether these are the original gift of the
religion or whether they have entered during the
course of the development. Hence the sources have
to be traced to their original form, conceptions are
abstracted, the historical course of events displayed,
and the method by which events have worked out
of the objective and essential oondftions discovered.
The dominant method of source-criticism is
literary. It deals with documentary indication,
traces backward paralld traditions and distinguishes
their relationship, genealogy, and dependence; it
shows their orig^ial or secondary character, seeks
the occasions of their deviations; in documents
it would discern the seams of joining, the numner
and form of the insertions. And then often the
question arises whether an oral or a written source
lies in the background. And besides this there is
in Biblical literature the complicating factor of the
editors; so that modem criticism is well repre-
sented gn^hically by the "Rainbow Bible." In
the foreground of interest now is the proving of
the relationship of Biblical presentations and con-
ceptions to the original form and sense and the
attempt to show their interrelationship. Are the
leading Biblical conceptions original and in their
original form? Do the terms used carry their
original meanings, or has the original sense become
detached and connected itself with some other
term? The answers to such questions will lead
back to the early forms of the religion of the Old
Testament and of Christianity, will produce a
history of religious ideas; but the work is yet in
its infancy. Even the prehistoric cult-motive,
foimd in totemism, animism, and belief in demons
will not close the inquiry; there is the background
of the self-seeking impulses which led men to placate
ghosts and employ magic and sorcery. And the
relations of these to the Old Testament and the
New are yet under discussion. They indeed point
out in which direction critidsm must direct its
researches.
The highest and most difficult task u the recon-
struction of the historic process, the monuments
of which are found in the criticised writings. It
purposes a presentation of the entire circle of ideas,
and seeks to discover from the deficient sources
the original connection, and from the reports brought
togeth^ the original development. The results
then are historical, the basis sought is the most
ultimate facts attainable, but the degree of assur-
ance necessarily varies. In Biblical science the
two objective points are the recovery of the history
of Israel and of the history of the origins of the
Christian Church. The crux of the first is the re-
lationship of the prophetic literature to the Penta-
teuch. Is the latter preprophetic or postprophetic
and postexilic? Another question still under discus-
sion is the historical value of the body of tradition
about the patriarchs and Moses; estimates of the
highest importance and bearing upon character
huig upon the decision. The reconstruction of
New Testament history depends upon the decision
as to the existence or non-existence of usable
sources of history in the New Testament. The new
Dutch school returns a negative answer on the
ground that New Testament literature is mostly
pseudepigraphic. Everything here depends upon
criticism of sources, upon the decision about the
bases of the Sjmoptic Gospels, the Johannine fat-
erature, the Christology of the Epistles. Upon
decisions rendered here hangs also the estimate
of the person and work of the founder of Chris-
tianity. For the conception of apostolic times
critical valuation of the worth of Acts as a source
is required, and a determination of its relation to
the Pauline Epistles and of the genuineness of the
latter. In this case also conclusions the most
opposite are reached with necessarily opposite
results in the construction of history. The diffi-
culties of the reconstruction of Biblical history
are thus suggested, and in the work only a beginning
has been made. Real progress is possible only
if the critic is not self-deceived in respect to the
continuity and completeness of the sources and
the objective basis of his hypotheses, and if he does
not forget that the history which he undertakes
to reconstruct neither claims to nor can supply
the religious force which is operative in history.
IV. History of Criticism: This might be made
to embrace aJl work conducted with critical insight
as well as of all branches of Biblical
in **d" *^*®^** ^^ ^^® hypotheses and con-
Umlte- ^^^^^i^- Decision must be made
tlons. between a review of the results and
of the conditions and valuations
which have given the impulse to a new series
of questions. With the latter goes a description
of the methods necessitated by the newer condi-
tions. It is also to be remarked that criticism
and interpretation, so to speak, alternate and relieve
each other. Interpretation flourishes when tra-
dition is accepted at its face value; critidsm,
when doubt has called in question that value,
though indeed criticism is never beyond call.
The Greeks were the fathers of criticism. No
other people of the ancient worid employed critical
methods; the memory, not judgment,
i«tt *d' ^^^ sway, Judaism was no exoep-
Patristio ^^^' ^^^ ^® Masorah is text-criticism
Oritloism. ^ ^ limited sense only. But among
the Greeks criticism was the hand-
maid of interpretation. Homer was their canon,
furnishing the modA of the completest expres-
sion of human relationships. Consequently, text-
175
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblioal CMtloimn
criticisin found there its task and elaborated
its methods, while interpretation was also at^work.
The questions of integrity, authenticity, and credi-
bility were raised, but of course the answers were
such as the age was qualified to give.
It has often been denied that in the patristic
age criticism existed. But patristic literature set
itself the task of suppressing the old canon and
replacing it by the new canon of the Old Testament
and the New. And in this task criticism was a
necessary agent. Alexandria and Antioch were
the two seats of the new learning, the headquarters
where the methods of the Greeks were applied
in pursuit of the new object (see Alexandria,
School of; AimocH, School of). Even the
fourfold division of the science employed by the
Greeks was adopted, though the whole work pro-
ceeded from a different standpoint. For the Greeks
the esthetic was the principal thing, for the Church
Fathers the religious; in both cases criticism served
interpretation. The great imdertaking of Origen
to bring order into the corrupt text of the Sep-
tuagint remained incomplete and only introduced
further confusion. What opinion is to be enter-
tained of the recensions of Ludan and Hesychius
is not yet certain. Jerome's efforts to obtain a
better text of the Vulgate advanced text-criti-
cism but little. In the matter of the canon of the
New Testament, the genealogy of texts, the public
use of the Scriptures, and their genuineness were
discussed. Explanations were offered of the dif-
ferences found in the writings ascribed to John.
And in the councils and synods the matter of
canonidty was raised for churchly authority to
decide.
With the Reformation criticism took a new
start upon a basis prepared by humanism, but
8. Crltl- ^^1^ ^o boimds set by patristic
cism criticism. The inspiration of the
from the Bible was assumed, for the need felt
Tlxne was for nourishment of the spirit.
of the Criticism assumed more definite forms
*•*»""•- after attempts were made to fix the
tion. t.eaching of the Evangelical Chureh.
The eariy Protestant doctrine of inspiration
attempted to exalt into law what had been till
then simple religious statement. A wall was
built upon the F^testant doctrine of Scripture
sgaiDst the Roman Catholic oonceptionB. Apolo-
Ketics and harmonistics were created. The doctrine
of verbal inspiration came into play until text-
critical apparatus began to accumulate. Then
dogmatic pronouncement upon the contents of
Scripture, upoa its deamess and suffidency, stum-
bled over fact, and the earlier dogma of inspiration
came to grief.
Under such conditions Biblical criticism developed
and became more opposed to dogmatism. Its
apostle was Spinosa, who in his Tractatua Iheologico-
poliHcug authoritativdy formulated the problem
for the future. The skepticism of the seven-
teenth and the deism and rationalism of the dght-
cenih centuries changed not the form of the prob-
lem, but only the tone of the critic. Spinosa had
given a comprehensive description of the exigency
produced by a theology benumbed by dogmatioi.
His desire was to produce an undogmatic Chris-
tianity through criticism of the documents. Chris-
tianity was to be apprehended as teaching for
practical life and not as philosophy. Religion
was not to contradict reason. Criticism attacked
the problem of the text and proceeded to discussion
of the canon and its contents. Meanwhile the view
was held that religion was something different
from theology.
The first attempts to build up a critical method
were in the region of the Roman dassics. J. Robert
tellus {De arte tive raHone corrigendi anHquorum
libroa diajnUatio, Padua, 1557) defined the sources
of error in the text as additions, eliminations,
transpositions, extensions, condensations, separa-
tions (of parts bdonging together), joinings (of parts
which should be kept apart), and variations.
Caspar Sdoppius (15d7) argued against the " rash
and audacious attempts to better the text."
Johannes Clericus (16d7) connected criticism of the
classics and of the Bible. Perhaps he was the
first to see that the canon had a history. L. Cap-
peUus (1634), A. Pfdffer (1680), and J. G. Carpsov
(1728) argued for the unassailable authority of
Scripture, but Carpiov's conjectural emendation
of the Masoretic text aroused the scorn of the
orthodox, who dedared this text inviolable, as Ball
and Erasmus had that of the Vulgate. But a new
turn was given when the Oratorian J. Morinus
(1633) exalted the text of the S^tuagint over
that of the ICasoretes because derived from purer
sources, though this valuation was discredited by
the insecure readiags of the Septuagint. Mill
(1707) and Wetstdn (1751) coUected a rich ap-
paratus for the New Testament, and Bengd
proposed to alter the Textua recephis upon tiie
basia of manuscript readings property diacrimi-
nated. The great Bentlejr's proposal to form a
new recension of the Greek text (on the basis of
MS. A and of the Vulgate) was wrecked on the
rocks of the oppodtion of the theologians.
The criticism of sources was estaolished in
Bentley's disproof of the genuineness of the Letters
of Phcdarie. That method was applied to Biblical
literature only in individual instances among the
Arminians and Sodnians, an example of which is
found in H. Grotius's work on Thessalonians.
The application of this to the Old Testament was
first made in Astruc's discussion of Genesis (1753).
The antidogmatio pomtion of critidsm became
ever more pronounced in the dghteenth century.
English deism attacked dumsUy the historidty
of the Old Testament Scriptures. Skepticism re-
joiced over the proof of variety in origin of Bibli-
cal writings. Rationalism sought to prove that
history is no pussle and all proceeds in rational
order. Lessing's discusdon with Goetse over the
'* WolfenbQttd Fragments " fathomed deep waters.
Against the reckless criticism of English deism
appeared Lardner's Ancient Jevriah and Heathen
TeeHmaniea to the TruOi of the Christian Reliffion
(1764-67), while through Michaelis and Semler
critidsm sought to find equipoise.
The modern age of critical research began with
the end of the dghteenth centuiy. Its aim is
an undogmatic method founded on fact, and its
BibUoal Oritioinii
BibUoal HUtory
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
176
task is reconstruction of history on the basis of
a grasp of original conditions and of the actual
course of development. It makes use of psychol-
ogy, linguistics, literary art, and hi»-
Critt^"™ toiy, and it attempts to guard against
tioiam. ^j^ one-sided application of any or
all of these, recognizing that subjective criticism
would produce results inconsonant with the spirit
of the times in which the literature discussed was
produced. The historical point of view as applied
to the Bible was first expressed by Herder. Schleier-
macher and Eichhom made contributions to it,
but not without error. Strauss's intellectual
method overlooked criticism of sources. Bruno
Bauer's reconstruction of the early history of
Christianity on the basis of Philo, Seneca, and
Greoo-Roman philosophy was bettered by F. G.
Baur, who sought a factual basds. Vatke'swork
on the Old Testament has been confirmed and ex-
tended by Reuss, Graf, Wellhausen, and Kuenen.
How Biblical criticism has chang^ its center of
gravity is illustrated by the dictionaries. Teller's
W&rUrbuch des AUen TestamenU (6th ed., 1805)
was ultrarationalistic. Winer's work (3d ed.,
1847) expressed the materialistio doubt of De
Wette. Schenkel's BtbeUeziam (1869-75) repre-
sented the Tubingen school. Riehm-Baethgen
(1807) shut the latter out as much as possible,
in which line the new Dictionary of the Bible of
Hastings follows, while the Enqfdopwiia Biblica
occupies the most advanced position and com-
plains that criticism of the New Testament is less
advanced than that of the Old.
(G. Heinrici.)
V. Biblical Criticism in the Roman Catholic
Church : It is a well-known fact that the subject of
Biblical criticism has never received so much atten-
tion among Roman Catholic as among Protestant
scholars. This disparity of interest in a topic so
important is doubtless largely due to the funda-
mentally different attitude of the two Churches
toward the Bible itself. While the early Reformers
claimed to set aside tradition and church authority,
and to make the Bible — and the Bible alone — ^the
foimdation-stone of their respective creeds, the
Catholic theologians and controversialiBts, on the
other hand, emphasized anew the principle of cen-
tral organic authority. For Catholics the supreme
and ultimate guide in matters of religion, faith,
and morals is the infallible authority of the living
Church — authority which in their view has been
inherited from the Apostles and the Divine Founder
of Christianity. This organised society is con-
sidered as the divinely appointed custodian of all
revelation, whether contained in the Scriptures or
in the storehouse of Christian tradition, and to this
society belongs, under divine guidance, the official
and authoritative interpretation of Holy Writ.
The great and exclusive importance given to the
Bible in the Protestant commimions naturally
called for a deep and comprehensive study of the
Scriptures, and this, in the nature of things, was
boimd to develop on critical lines; whereas Catho-
lics, resting content with the principle of church
authority, continued to look upon the Bible as
something incidental and secondary in comparison
with the living, teaching organization. Henoe less
interest on the part of the latter in the various
branches of Biblical investigation, and likewise less
alarm at the changes wrought by the so-called
destructive criticism in the traditional views con-
cerning the Bible.
But, while the general interest in the topic has
been less marked among Catholics, it is true that
scholars belonging to that faith have made valuable
contributions to the rise and growth of scientific
Biblical criticism. The first, perhaps, who de-
serves mention is the French Oratorian Richard
Simon (1638-1712) who, setting aside the abstract,
a priori methods previoiisly in vogue, began a study
at once historical and critical of the principal topics
pertaining to the origin and growth of the Bible.
The results of his investigations, which were too
far in advance of his age to receive intelligent
appreciation from his contemporaries, were em-
bodied in a series of volumes, which, however much
they may have been superseded by writings of later
scholars, are nevertheless extremely interesting as
setting forth the true critical method and applying
it with a freedom which was bound to provoke
opposition and censure on the part of orthodox
theologians such as Bossuet (see Simon, Richabo).
It was the Catholic physician Jean Astruc (q.v.)
who gave a valuable key and a startin^point to the
modem dociunentary analysis of the Pentateuch
by his essay published in 1753. Another Catholic
clergyman who figures prominently among the
pioneers in the field of scientific Biblical study is
the Scotchman Alexander Geddes (1737-1802; see
Geddes, Alexander). Foremost among modem
and contemporary Catholic scholars who have dis-
tinguished themselves in the field of Biblical crit-
icism must be placed the abb^ A. F. Loisy (q.v.),
who to a vast erudition and a remarkably keen
critical acumen has unfortxmately joined a sarcasm
of exposition and a rashness of speculation which
have brought him into serious disfavor with the
authorities of the Church. The more moderate
school of Catholic Biblical scholars includes a
relatively large and ever growing niunber of ad-
herents who, always subject to the limitations im-
posed by church authority, frankly accept the
well-authenticated results of scientific critical inves-
tigation. Obviously these scholars are not so free
and independent in their researches as their non-
Catholic brethren, but Catholic apologists claim
that while the restrictions imposed do at times
curtail unduly the freedom of investigators whose
views though correct may not harmonise with
traditionally received opinions, they serve, on the
other hand, as a salutary check on critical specu-
lations of the more radical and advanced type.
Moved by the acute controversies which within
the last quarter of a century have grown up in the
field of Bible study and caused so much alarm in
most of the orthodox communions. Pope Leo XIII
instituted a Biblical Conunission which was to be
a standing tribunal composed of Scripture special-
ists and theologians, for the settlement on scien-
tific as well as authoritative groimds of the various
knotty questions raised by higher criticism. Under
the present pope, however, while the number of
177
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
BlbUcal Oritiolsm
BibUoal History
members and consultore of this tribunal was greatly
augmented, a large majority was conceded to the
theologians as distinguished from the Biblical
Bcholars; and the decisions rendered thus far have
little or no interest for the scientific world, as they
constitute simply a reaffirmation, without specified
reasons, of the traditional positions. In the Church
at present the trend of authoritative direction as
regards the Scriptures is unfavorable to Biblical
criticism, as is plain from the Syllabus of Modem
Errors and the encyclical against Modernism issued
by Pius X in 1907 (see Syllabub).
James F. Driscgll.
Bibuoorapht: For works on textual criticism see Biblc
Tkjct; on the history of criticism consult: H. Oaye, The
BatOe of A« SiandpoinU; ihe Old Teatament and the
Higher Critieiem, London, 1892 (brief and popular);
H. S. Nash. The HUtary of the Higher CriHciem of the
Sew Testament, New York. 1900. new ed.. 1907 (an argu-
mmt for scieDtifio Bible study).
For exposition of methods consult C. A. Briggs. General
Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York,
1809 (exhaustive); A. C. Zenos. Blemenie of the Higher
Critieiam, ib. 1895 (useful); F. Ast. WieeenaehafUiehe
Dartt^ung der OramnuUikt Hermeneutik und Kritikt
Landahut, 1806; F. Hitsig. Begriff der Kritik am AUen
Teetament, Heidelberg. 1831; F. D. E. Schleiermacher.
Veber Begriff und EinteUung der phiioeophiedten Kritik,
in hij S/hmntUche Werke, III, iu. 387^404, Berlin. 1835;
A. Kuenen, Critieea et hermeneuiiea librorum Ncvi Teela-
menti lineamenta, Leyden, 1889; F. Blass. Hermeneutik
und Kritik, in Handhueh der klaeaieehen AUertumewieeen^
ukaft, I. i. 127-128. Muuieh. 1891; F. Qodet and others.
Higher Criticiem, Six Paper; New York, 1893; C. W.
Ri»heU. Higher Critieiem, Cincinnati. 1893 (needs revi-
sion); E. Bemheim. LehHnich der hiatoriedien Meihode,
Uipsic. 1894; H. Hildebrand. DU hdhere BibeUaritik, Fa-
derbom. 1902; W. Mdller. Btbiieoi Critieiem, London. 1903;
G. W. Gilmore. Bibiical Critieiem, in The Moniet, xiy
(1904). 215 sqq.
For criticism of higher-critical methods and results
consult : E. Bdhl. Zum Oeeete und turn Zeugniee, eine Ab-
whr vider die neurkritiecke Schriftforediung im AUen
Teeiament, Vienna, 1883; O. Naumann. Wellhauaen'e
Meihode, Leipsic, 1886; F. Vigouroux, Lee Livree eainie et
la critique rationaliete, 4 vols.. Paris, 1886-90; J. J. Blunt.
Undeeigned Coineidencee in the WriHnge of both the Old
and the New Teetamente, republished. New York, 1890;
R. F. Horton, Revdation and the BiUe, London. 1892;
E. Rupprecht, Die Anechauung der kritiechen Sehule
Weilhaueena, Erlangen. 1893; A. Zahn. EmeU Blidee in
dtn Wahn der modemen Kritik dee AUen Teetamente,
Gatenloh. 1893; F. R. Beattie. Radical Critieiem, an
Bxpoeition and Examination of the Radical Critical Theory,
C!hlcaco. 1694; L. Munhall, Antirhigher Critieiem, New
York. 1894 (extreme in its conservatism); 8. Leathes.
Claime of the Old Teetament, ib. 1897; W. H. Green. Gen-
eral JntrodueOon to the Old Teetament, New York, 1899
(Dr. Green waa the exponent of the most conservative
type of Biblical study, and his strictures on higher criti-
cism will be found in his Moeee and the Prophete, 1883,
The Hebrew Feaete in their Relation to Recent Critical Hy-
voikeeee, 1886. Higher Critieiem of the Pentateutk, 1895.
sod Unity of the Book of Oeneeie, 1895); W. MOller, ilre
tt« Critice Rightf ib. 1903; F. D. Storey, Higher CHtir
om Cron examined, Philadelphia, 1905; J. Orr. The
Problem of the O. T , London. 1906 (conservative).
For application and statement of critical methods
consult: G. D'Eiohthal, MHangee de critique biUique,
Pari*, 1896; Smith. OTJC, cf. R. Watts. The Nevcer
Cri^eiem and fhe Analogy of the Faith, Edinburgh. 1883
(Wstto is a reply to Smith); J. P. Smyth, The Old Docu-
ntnti and the New Bible, London. 1890; T. K. Cheyne.
Aid9 to the Depout Study of Cntieiem, ib. 1892; W. San-
day, /nsptrafum, ib. 1896 (advanced in dealing with the
0. T.. conservative as respects the N. T.) ; idem, Criti-
eiem of the Fourth Ooepel, ib. 1905; W. F. Adeney. How to
RtadtheBibU, ib. 1897 (a helpful handbook); G. A. Smith,
Modem Critieiem and the Preaching of the Old Teetament,
ib. 1901; R. Balmforth, The BibU from the Standpoint of
IL— 12
Higher Critieiem, 2 vols.. New York. 1904-05; T. W. Doane,
Bible Mythe and their ParaUele in Other Religiona, ib. 1905.
On the interrelations of criticism, the Bible, and arche-
ology consult: H. A. Harper, The Bible arui Modem Die-
coveriee, Boston. 1889; H. E. Ryle, Early Narrativee of
Oeneeie, London, 1892; T. Laurie, Aeeyrian Echoes of Ois
Word, ib. 1894: A. H. Sayoe, Higher Critidem and the
Verdict of the Monun^ents, ib. 1894 (archeological, reach-
ing the same conclusions as the critics, yet violently as-
sailing them); W. St. C. Boscawen, Bt52e and the Monu^
mente, ib. 1895; F. Hommel. Ancient Hebrew Tradition
as lUuetrated by the Monuments, ib. 1897 (the standpoint
is similar to Sayce's); D. G. Hogarth, Authority and
Archeology, ib. 1899 (in its Biblical parts sober, and a cor-
rective of Sayoe and Hommel); I. M. Price. Monuments
and the Old TentamerU, Chicago. 1900; T. G. Pinches. The
Old Testament in the Light of Hietorical Recorde and Legends
of Aseyria and Babylonia, London, 1902; Schrader, KAT.
BIBLICAL HISTORY. See Israel, Histort of, I.
BIBLICAL HISTORY, INSTRUCTION IN:
Fundamental to all Christian teaching and attain-
ment, especially according to the Protestant view,
is a knowledge of the Bible; and this knowledge
naturally begins with the characters, events, and
institutions of the Bible — a sum total of knowl-
edge which may be comprehended under the general
expression Bible history. Thence the individual
is led on to the weightier matters of Christian
doctrine and the manner of the Christian life.
The organized and premeditated efforts of the
earlier Church to impart Christian instruction
(see Catechumenate; Catechesis, Catechetics;
Catechisms; HoiiiLEncs; etc.) aimed more directly
at the latter, assuming that the former already
existed. In the New Testament, knowledge of
Old Testament history is presupposed. This
knowledge was communicated at home
Conditions (II Tim. iii, 15) or by readings at
Before the public services (I Tim. iv, 13). The
Reforma- aim of a portion of the New Testa-
tion, ment Scripture (the Gospels and
Acts) was to keep alive in the con-
gregations the knowledge of the New Testament
history. In the primitive Church, besides public
service, home training (Eusebius, Hist, ecd,, vi, 2;
Chrysostom on Eph. vi, 4) and private reading
(Cyril, Catech,, iv, 35; Apostolic Constitutions,
vii, 30) were means of imparting Biblical history
to beginners in Christianity. During the Middle
Ages no systematic school instruction in Biblical
history could be furnished for lack of common
schools, and self-instruction was not possible for
the people because the Bible was commonly in
Latin and costly, and but few of the laity could
read even the works provided for them in their
mother tongue (see Bibles, Historical). The
great mass were limited to the translations by
preachers of the texts of their sermons, or nar-
rations of Bible stories in the sermon; also,
scenes especially from the life of Jesus or dramatic
spectacles from the Biblical record helped to pre-
serve in the lay world the knowledge of Biblical
essentials (see Religious Dramas). In Refor-
mation time as well as in the following centuries,
there was no general systematic schooling in Biblical
history; the common-school system was as yet a
merely formative conception, and text-books of
Bible history (for list cf. Reu) were designed for
higher schools or for the home
BibUoal History
Biblioal Introduction
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
178
Not until Christian common schools were intro-
duced did instruction in Biblical history become
a systematized branch of public education. Among
the text-books thus used may be mentioned the
BiUische Historien of Justus Gesenius (1656),
and the Zweimal 6$ auMrUsenen hiblischen His-
torien of Johann Hflbner (1714). These books
are the prototypes of modem German manuals,
and such manuals have now generally taken the
place of the Bible, from which in
Biblical eailier times Biblical history was
Instruction taught by reading aloud. The Roman
in Schools. Catholic Church also teaches Biblical
history; a text-book widely in vogue
was that of Christoph von Schmid (d. 1856). At
present the Bible histories of the Catholics are
combined with their diocesan catechisms. Their
new catechism, which according to the desire of
Pius X is to become the Catholic standard or uni-
fonn catechism {Compendia della doUrina Chris-
tiana, 1905), contains a Breve etoria deUa religume.
It thus appears that modem Churches, in contrast
with the primitive Church, have reached the con-
viction that catechumens should gain the necessary
amount of knowledge of Bible history not imme-
diately from the Bible, but from a text-book pre-
pared for this educational object. But the fact
is still more significant that the Churches are con-
vinced of the necessity of a knowledge of Biblical
history.
This conviction rests on the knowledge that
Christian belief is the product of a history which
came to pass between God and humanity, and that
the knowledge and understanding of this salvation
on the part of individual Christians must proceed
from acquaintance with this history. The selection
of Bible stories for catechumens is
Methods adapted to this principle. The various
and manuals of Biblical history deviate
Principles, from one another in details of selection,
but are in substantial agreement in
the matter of setting forth the main events of sacred
history according to their historical succession.
An exception occurs in the case of compilations
intended for children who are not yet catechetical
scholars; for these there is need of particular
Bible narratives adapted to the years of childhood
and related to the church festivals. With reference
to the connection between instruction in Biblical
history and instruction in the catechism, a change
has come about, since in earlier times instruction
in the former had practically no independent
significance, but was designed to subserve the cate-
chism; the contrary sitiiation, however, obtains
to-day, certain modem instructors making Biblical
history the main issue, while catechetical schcdare
are confined to the fundamentally illustrative or
especially adi^ted Biblical relations. Coaceming
the method of instmction, there is a consensus
of modem conviction to the effect that the text-
book should coincide as far as possible with the
wording of the Bible as genendly in use. The
earlier method of reading the narrative from the
Bible, or having it read aloud by a pupil, has been
discarded. It is better to have a stoiy related
by the teacher; and the preferable method is that
his oral discourse should adhere altogether or with
dose approximation to the phrasing of the text-
book. In particular the decisive and atnking
utterances of the dramoHs pereona should be repto-
duced exactiy. Opportunity for explanation and
application is afforded by the subsequent db-
cussion. The use of maps and pictures, with
which modem Biblical text-books are provided,
tends to give the matter more of an objective
background, but pictures are not so necessary as
they formerly were, when pupils had fewer books.
[In the United States, religious instruction betog
necessarily excluded from the public schools, the
teaching of Bible history belongs to the Church
and the home. See Sunday Schools.]
W. Caspari.
Bxbuooraprt: C. A. O. von Zenehwiti, KatK^ik, n, X
ehaps. 2-4. Leiprio, 1872-74; K. H. Holtach. 5faMiini fifcr
den MMtMften OMc^uAteunltfirtcAi. Breslau. 1870; W. H.
G. TfaomM. M^iodM of BihU Study, New York. 1003;
L. Emery, Introduction h VHude de la OUclooU proiedank,
pp. 122-132. PariB, 1904; J. M. Reu. Qudlen sw O
Bchiekte dea biUiadim UnttrrichU, Giitenloh, 1006.
Old Testament.
Nature and Scope of the Diadplint
(ID.
Method of Treatment (f 2).
History (f 3).
To the Renaissance (f 4).
The Reformation Period (f 6).
The Seventeenth Century (f 0).
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION.
The Eighteenth Century (f 7).
The Nineteenth Century (f 8).
II. New Testament.
1. History of the Discipline.
To the Reformation (f 1).
The Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries (f 2).
Michaelis (f 3).
L Old Testament: The science of Old Testa-
ment Introduction, like that of Biblical Introduction
in general, has developed from indefinite beginnings,
and has not yet won the assured and universally
recognized form which most other theological
disciplines have assumed. The name eisagOgl
was used in the fifth century by the Syro-Greek
monk Adrian, the terms iniroductorii libri and
itUrodudores in the sixth by Cassiodorus. But
these terms carried the meaning of a general and
instructive direction how to read the Bible, a guide
to its correct understanding, an exposition of the
oorrect principles of exegesis. A complete under-
Semler, Schmidt, and Others (f 4>
Baur (f 5).
Later Work (f 6).
2. The Conception and the Tuk.
History of New Testament Scrip-
tures (f 1).
History of the Ganon (f 2).
Textual Criticism and Veraooi (f 31
standing of the Bible involves, however, a numbtf i
of auxiliary sciences — ^linguistics, ex^esis, faistotT
of literature, general history, archeology, geography*
Biblical theology, etc., all useful in |
1. Katnre obtaining a right apprehenfloo of
Soope Scripture. But so large a conception
of the ^^ ^^^ science waa not reached all at
Bisoipline. °^^- ^* ^^ J- ^^ Carpiov who fiwt
appreciated the comprehensive naturs
of the discipline and defined it aa the precise setting
forth of those matters a knowledge of which pre*
pares the approach to the reading of the sacred
books. SiniiLuly De Wette understood by Intr^
179
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblical History
Biblioal Introdnotion
duction all knowledge which contributed to the
intelligent reading of the Bible, and which set it
forth ajB a whole and in its parts in relation to his-
toTy. Keil regarded it as an exposition of those
matters the understanding of which prepares for a
fruitful reading of Scripture, by which he under-
stands only a history of the text, of the origin of
the individual writings, the story of the rise of the
canon, and of the general conception of Scripture.
A new start was made by H. Hupfeld, who held that
Introduction sought to discover what were the
writin^i embraced in the Bible and how they had
come to be what they are. In other words, what
is sought are the extent and original character of
the writings, and a knowledge of the vicissitudes
through which they have passed in attaining their
present form, unity, worth, and effectiveness. But
care is needed in following such a formulation
lest one make of Old Testament Introduction
simply a history of Hebrew literatiu«, a mistake
made by Reuss, who included in his work the letter
of Aristeas and the writings of Philo. The first
consideration of this science must be its service to
theology; its principal concern is with the books
of the canon held by the Jews of Palestine, and
only secondarily with the drde of writings derived
from Hellenistic sources. Care must also be taken
not to limit the task of Introduction so as to take
away its freedom and to bind it in effect to the
pronouncements of tradition as to authorship.
On the other hand. Introduction is not what Riehm
would make it, the literary-historical characteriza-
tion of the Bible as the authentification of a divine
revelation. It has its own functions to perform
in the service of theological science, and its use-
fulness must not be diminished by setting it at
tasks which it may not undertake. Its work is
a preparation for that of exegesis and for that of
Biblical theology. As Reuss has well expressed
the fact, the science of Introduction is not the house
itself, but is the set of calculations and estimates
necessary for the actual processes of building.
From the preceding it follows that the articu-
latbn of this discipline in the general science of
theology is fixed. In the arrangement and handling
of its subject-matter it demands and requires great
freedom; on the other hand, certain lines are laid
down along which it must operate. Thus, while
the origin of the separate writings and the story
of their transmission (history of the text) are its
concern, it is a matter of choice whether considera-
tion of the individual writings precede or follow
consideration of their collection into a canon.
Not unimportant is the question of
2. Xethod method of investigating the individual
_J^ writings. Thus, the chronological or-
j^^^^^ der certainly lies near to hand, as in
the treatment by Wildeboer and
KautsBch; yet, illuminating as this method is,
weighty considerations may be urged for another
way of proceeding. If one is disposed to empha-
siie the theological character of the discipline,
concentrating his attention upon the writings
received into the canon, the chronological, his-
torical-literary order assumes a complexion of
incompleteness, since only a small part of Hebrew
literature found place in the canon and that part
was not composed with the object of being gathered
into a collection. By a simpler grouping the
advantage is gained of awakening no expectations
which are doomed to disappointment. Then, too,
there are practical difficulties attending such a
method. Over the origin of most Old Testament
writings rests a darkness not yet dispelled and
probably never wholly to be banished. Moreover,
many of the writings, such as the historical books,
are complex in origin, and refer to preceding com-
positions of which too little is known to admit of
their being taken into a history of the literature.
These same books also bear traces of being trans-
mitted and worked over by hands the methods of
operation of which are altogether uncertain. This
historical method consequently leads frequently in-
to a cul-de-sac. It is, therefore, not without reason
that many have adopted the literary-historical
method, following the grouping of the canon so
far as to consider the historical books by them-
selves, the Prophets in another section, and so on,
while the three departments of Introduction are
history of the canon, of the separate books, and of
the text. Whether a history of exegesis is to be
included in this branch of study is debatable.
For the history of the Bible in a narrower sense it
is not important; yet in itself and its relationship
it has such value that there is some justification
for including in Introduction what properly belongs
in hermeneutics.
The history of this science shows in all its phases
the same marked trait; viz., that the Church,
which would fain remain in restful
8. History, and thankful enjoyment of the Scrip-
tures as handed down, has been
compelled by outside pressure to take up the
problems of the origins of those Scriptures and
either to modify or discard the traditions re-
garding them. In the earliest times this pressure
came partly from Jewish sources, later from lin-
guistic science and philosophy, and later still from
the Roman Catholic Chureh, which sought to
undermine the Protestant principle. Only the
salient points of the development of Introduction
can be here given.
The beginnings are found in the treatment of the
canon in the prologue to Ecclesiasticus, in Josephus
and the Talmud, and in the controversy between the
Jews and some of the Chureh Fathers respecting
the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canon. This
led up to the text-critical labors of Origen. The
next name is that of Jerome, about whose
time began work on Introduction, but with the
limits in treatment already referred to above,
by Adrian and Cassiodorus, the latter of whom
dealt briefly with the history of the
;.^*1;- text and of the canon. A slight
advance was made in the work of
Junilius Africanus (about 550) called
InatUtUa regtUaria divincB legis. This classified
the books according to their contents as history,
prophecy, proverbs, and simple teaching, and
according to their degree of authority as perfect,
medium, or of no authority; it distinguished also
between poetical and prose writings. In this
Benaia-
■anoe.
Biblloal Introdnotlon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
180
connection must be mentioned Augustine's De
doctrina Christiana, which treated of the extent of
the canon and of the use of translations. The
Church of the Middle Ages was content with the
work done by Cassiodonis, Augustine, and Junilius.
But among the Jews there were the stirrings of a
more vigorous life, exemplified in the investi-
gations of Ibn Ezra in the region of special intro-
duction.
By the revival of learning the Chrislians were
made familiar with the results of Jewish investiga-
tions which were soon to lead to the enrichment
of isagogical science. The interest in the Hebrew
language grew into a wider concern for Oriental
philology, which had a fertile fidd in the trans-
lations of the Old Testament, soon to become of
use in the department of text-criticism. The
earliest fruits ripened among the Roman Catholics
in the work of a convert from Judaism, Sixtus of
Sienna (d. 1509), the Btbliotheca sancta, which dis-
tinguished between protocanonical and deutero-
canonical writings, and which dealt also with
matters of special intnxluction. The
*r '^^ Reformers did not enter this field,
^~™*" though the exegetical works of Calvin
Period, ooi^tain materials for special intro-
duction, and Luther necessarily had
to do with the extent of the canon. Important
was the work of Carlstadt, De eanonicis 9criptuiri9
(1520), in which he showed the superiority of the
Jewish canon and made the canonicityof a Biblical
writing depend not upon the authorship but upon
its relation to that canon. The period inunediatdy
following the Reformation produced nothing notable.
A. Rivetus (d. 1062) represents the standpoint of
the age in his definition of Scripture as that which
proceeds from God as the special author, who not
only impelled (the scribe) to write and gave the
thoughts, but even suggested the order and the
words.
Out of this dogmatic quiet the theologians were
shaken by the newer criticism, which began in the
realm of the text. The Reformer Cappellus under-
took investigations which showed that the tra-
ditional text was not altogether trust-
2^^J|^* worthy, and he was followed by the
"•^•'^' Catholics Morinus and Richard Simon
(d. 1712). The latter^s Histoire cri-
taenth
Oentnry.
tique was epoch-making in that it
employed the literary-historical method, and showed
that the Pentateuch could not be wholly the work
of Moses and that other historical books had been
worked over. Simon had been preceded by Hobbes,
whose Leviathan had used the method of inter-
nal testimony, and Spinoza, whose Traetatua theo-
logico-^polUicua had advanced a number of positions
which were to be established later. Simon's book
awakened much opposition and was suppressed,
only to be reproduced in a Protestant land (Rotter-
dam, 1685). The ideas of Simon were further
established in Protestant regions by the work of
Johannes Clericus (q.v.), though the tendencies of
Protestantism were conservative, and its supporters
came later to hope that the learning of Carpsov
would establish firmly the truth of the traditional
vittws*
In the second half of the eighteenth century
new doors were opened to Biblical criticism, espe-
cially by the researehes of Semler. At that timetbe
attitude of criticism toward the Old Testament
was unfriendly; it treated the collection from the
historical standpoint only, but inosted upon under-
standing the times in which the writings originatfti.
Of religion little was discovered in the Old Testa-
ment. Herder came to the help of
^J^« the defenders of the Bible with his
^mthT <^covery of the poetry it omtained,
Century. ^^^ ^^ newer lig)it was intensified
in the work of Eichhoni, which out-
shone all the works of his predeoesson and ood-
temporaries. Special interest attaches to the
researehes of Eichhom in general introduction,
while the work of special introduction gained from
his treatment of the books as constituting a Hebrew
national literature. Yet permanent rnults were
lacking from that period, excepting only the dis-
covery by Astruc which forecast the documentaiy
analysis of the Pentateuch.
A new era was opened by De Wette, who com-
bined the literary with the historical method.
Ewald carried the process on, not indeed in a work
on Introduction, but in exegetical researches in
which he employed it, using along with it a sym-
pathetic appreciation rather than a rigid logic.
Meanwhile the Pentateuchal problem was pushing
to the front in the works of Vatke and Reus,
to receive its most advanced consid-
8« The eration from Wellhausen and Kuen^.
r~*' The side of the defense had mean-
Century ^^® oo<^ been inactive, as the works
of Hengstenberg, H&vemick, and
Keil abundantly prove, all of which contributed
something toward the solution of the problems
discussed. Between the two extremes represented
by the men named come others who i^proach one
or the other tendency, but the general characteris-
tic of their labor is to bring into accord the assured
results of criticism and the faith of the Church in
revelation. The most notable example of this kind
of work is Driver's Introduction, But the final
solution of the problenos raised by the science of
Introduction will come not from that discipline
but from the other branches of theology which
build upon it. (F. Buhl.)
n. New Testament — 1. History of the Disci-
pUne: The employment of the term "Introduc-
tion" with its present connotation in connection
with the New Testament dates in modem times
from Michaelis. But as in the case of the Old Testa-
ment, beginnings had been made long before. Be-
sides the men mentioned above (I, 1 4) as working
in this department, Tyconius and Eucherius of
Lyons attempted to supply the needed information
about the origin, occasion, purpose, and history
of the New Testament writings. The antagonism
to the apocryphal books and heretical parties such
as the Marcionites with their variant canon and
the Montanists with their new prophecy en-
hanced in the second and third centuries the
Churoh's valuation of the Christian books which
had come to it from the apostolic age. The
Muratorian Canon employed a legendary report of
181
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblloal Introdnotion
the origin of the Gospels, not to explain individual
peculiarities, but to establish the dogmatic unim-
portance of variations in the Gospel
h^^ *^ narratives. Similarly, the church prao-
^Jj™*" tise of using in service the private
letters of Paul as well as the public
letters and of excluding the spurious ones from use
was established. The vacillation of the Church
in reference to such writings as the Apocalypse
of Peter and the Sheperd of Hennas, the Mardon-
itic criticism of the canon of the Gospels and of the
Pauline epistles, the opposition of the Alogi to the
Johannine writings as being the production of
a heretic of the apostolic age, the writings of Melitus
and Hippolytus about the Fourth Goipel and the
Apocalypse — all these suggest the way in which the
need for a kind of Introduction made itself felt
in even those early times. So a beginning was
made in the writing of Dionysius on the Apocalypse,
while the sentiments and traditions of the different
Churches began to take systematic form in the
writings of Origin. Eusebius used considerable
space in his works in setting forth the varied views
and eariy testimonies concerning the New Testa-
ment books. Jerome followed in the steps of
Eusebius, but without contributing much that was
new in this particular line of investigation. The
doctrinal contests of the fourth and succeeding
centuries turned the channel of investigation away
from the history of the canon, and for a considerable
time there appeared only reproductions of the early
opinions about the New Testament books in the
prefaces to the commentaries or summaries and
synopses which came into being and which gave a
general view of the arrangement, contents, and ori-
gin of the New Testament writings.
The silence of the Middle Ages gave place during
the Reformation to the utterances of the Catholic
scholars SanctesPagninus of Lucca (d. 1541),Sixtus
of Sienna (d. 1509), and A. Rivetus, who wrote an
laagoge give iniroductio to both the Old and New
Testaments (Leyden, 1627). These works con-
tained much information in this department, along
with dogmatic discussions concerning inspiration
and the relations of Scripture and tradition. Richard
Stmon (q.v.) published (at Rotterdam) his three
works upon the critical history of the New Testa-
ment {Hittoire erUiqtse du texte, 1689, dea veniana,
1690, and dea prindpaux commentaieura, 1693, du
Souveau Teatameni), and thus won his place as the
2. The father of New Testament Introduction.
Six- By " critique " he understood the
taenth investigations for the establishment
and of the original text; and, by his his-
Bsvan- tory from the sources, he impugned
taenth not only the Protestant claim of " a
Centorie*. witness of the Spirit," but also the
scholastic treatment, which, resting upon imper-
fect acquaintance with antiquity, could not prove
that Christianity was a religion based on facts
snd that the Bible was the record of those facts.
In the effort to establish the New Testament
^t, he traversed a large part of the province of
Introduction.
The next name is Johann David Michaelis
(q.T.), who wrote the Einleitung in die gStUichen
Sckriften dea Neuen Bundea (GOttingen, 1750).
He disclaimed dependency upon Simon, and
yet his work was really, in its first
eUa "^P®* based upon Simon. With
each succeeding edition it was greatly
improved; but, even in the fourth and last edition
(1788), its standpoint was a strongly rational
supematuralism. The differences to be noted
between the editions are mainly that his attacks
on the " doubters " became milder, and that he
gave up the inspiration of the historical books,
denied also the inspiration of the non-apostolic
books (among which he reckoned apparentiy the
Epistle to the Hebrews), and dedax^ that the
'* inner witness of the Spirit " was of as little worth
as the witness of the Church in proof of the inspira-
tion of any book.
Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.) made the next
contribution of importance (in his Abhandlung
von freier UrUerattchung dea Karumaf 4 parts, Halle,
1771-75), when he distinguished between the
word of God, which contained the doctrines of
directly spiritual value, and the ^oly
^ h^id?' Scriptures, which contained them
imd ^^y sporadically. There is, how-
Q^^j^^ ever, no historical proof that any
particular passage was the word of
Qod; the inner witness for the truth was the
only source of proof. The Church had the right,
exercised by the ancient Church and by the Re-
formers, to say what books should constitute the
canon. It can not be said that Introduction was
influenced permanently by Semler; the greater
impulse was given by Michaelis, who was followed
by J. E. C. Schmidt (1804), Eichhom (1804-14),
Hug (1808), Berthold (1812), and De Wette (1826),
while in En^and Home (1818) had included in his
work the domains of Biblical geography and an-
tiquities, which were excluded by the Germans.
Schmidt applied the phrase " historico-critical " —
since so widely used — ^to his Introduction; Eich-
hom started his fraitful " original Gospel " theory;
Hug, in an unexcelled manner, investigated the
relations of the synoptists. Schleiermacher (1811)
called attention to the need of a reconstruction
of this branch of study, declaring that its object
was a history of the New Testament, so that its
present readers might be, in their knowledge of
the origin of the books and their text, on a level
with the first. Credner ( 1832 sqq.) projected a fairly
complete scheme for a treatment of the subject, em-
bracing the history of the science of Introduction,
history of the origin of the New Testament Scrip-
tures, history of the canon, of translations, of the
text, and of interpretation. This scheme he was
not permitted to carry out, though his posthumous
publications completed the history of the canon.
Reuss followed Credner's lead in the Oeachichte
der heUigen Sckriften dea Neuen TeatamerUa (Bruns-
wick, 1842), while Hupfeld made a contribution
in his Begriff und Methode der , , . bibliachen
EirUeUung (Marburg, 1844).
Ferdinand Christian Baur (q.v.; d. 1860) has had
by far the most influence upon New Testament
studies of any man of modem times. He attempted
nothing less than a reconstruction of all apostolic
Bltlical Introduotioix
BibUoal TheoloflT
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
182
and postapostoUc history and literature, from
the four Pauline epistles (Galatians, I and II
Corinthians, and Romans) which
6. Banr. alone he considered genuine. Starting
with the idea that the difference
between Paul and the rest of the apostles was
fundamental, he declared that those New Testa-
ment writings which either put the relations of the
apostles in a more favorable light or seemed to
ignore their differences altogether were either
forgeries or the products of a later time. But his
historical considerations were derived from Hegel's
philosophy, and his criticism rested upon dogmatic
convictions. New discoveries of vital importance
in the field of church history and patristics and the
recovery of the Codex Sinailicua and of parts of
Tatian*^ Diatesaaron from Ephraem's commentary
have given a new basis for a historical discussion
of the New Testament and its origin and contents.
It is the irony of history upon Baur's methods that
the modem Dutch school have used Baur's methods
to discredit the four ** genuine " epistles. These
four points may be made against Baur: (1) He
reasoned in a circle; for he examined critically,
first the sources of the history, and then the history
of the sources. The reasoning which reduced the
genuine Pauline epistles to four reduces the four
to none; so that Paul is robbed of his title to have
produced any writing which lasted. (2) Baur
certainly was extraorcynarily familiar with the old
Christian literature; but he read it with prejudice,
and not with a desire to learn anything different
from his preconceptions. (3) He was lacking in
the sense of the concrete and the value of the indi-
vidual, and therefore could not grasp complicated
relations and their results. (4) If it is self-evident
that one must understand what he criticises, and
that his criticism must rest upon thorough exegesis,
then Baur surely was unfitted for his labor; for he
was weak as an exegete and his school has done
little in exegesis.
It may, however, be added that the deficiencies
in Baur's method of work were supplied by others.
B. F. Westcott's General Survey of the History of
the Canon (London, 1855 and often), E. Heuss's
Uistoire du canon (Strasburg, 1863), A. Hil-
gcnfeld's Kanon und die Kritik dee Neuen Tes-
tamente (Halle, 1863), T. Zahn's Geachichie dee
neuteetamentlichen Kanone (2 vols.,
^w**^' Leipsic, 188^-92), and A. Loisy's Hie-
^ ioire du canon du Nouveau Testament
(Paris, 1891) are productions of this character.
Huch works as W. M. Ramsay's Church in the
lloman Empire (London, 1893) have served also
aM correctives of much of the work which has been
accomplished in Germany. The studies of F» Bleek
roth ed., 1893; Eng. transl. of 2d Germ, ed., 1869),
Hilgcnfeld (1875), Holtzmann (1892), Salmon (1894),
8, Davidson (1894), Godet (1893-99; Eng. transl.
1894-09), Zahn (1900), and JoUcher (1901; Eng.
trurml, 1904), and of the Roman Catholics Trenkle
(\W.n) and Schflfer (1898) in Introduction are
ifn(K/riant contributions to the science.
2, Th« Conception and the Task: In order to
//♦/♦/^in an adequate comprehension of the books
t^/*./Jj together make up the New Testament as
witnesses for a historical mov^nent and to secure
for them safe utilisation as historic sources, there
is required a scientific investigation of their origin.
That is, there must be inquiry into the time in
which, the circumstances under which, the purpose
for which, and the personal relations of the persoiu
by whom they were produced. In other words,
the method of research is literary-historical.
Whether this can be called a science is d^Mtable,
since criticism is the art of distinguishing the gen-
uine from the spurious. But if it be granted that an
examination from a historical standpoint of the
writings of the New Testament and an adequate
exposition of the history of their origin is really
^^ His- scientific, it is none the less a fact that
tory of ^^® process has a theological character.
New For the fact that this literature is
Teeta- Greek and sprang up in the Roman
ment worid does not do away with the other
Scrip, fact that it originated in certain
*'*'••• communities which had in certain
vital respects their existence apart from the worid
about them. The religious element marks it off
from the other productions of the time, and the
history of this literature is one aide of the history
of the Church. If Christianity depends upon the
historic reality of a revelation mediated by Christ
and authoritatively expounded by the i^Mstles,
it is no unimportant result that it can reach his-
torical foundiations for the eariy productions.
And those foundations are found in the writings
brought together in the New Testament. The
supereminent value in this respect of these writings
is sufficient justification for considering them apart.
But the investigation must not start from a dog-
matic conception of what the canon is. The ground
fact is that even from the second century thu:
collection has existed in the Church and has been
accepted as the one legitimate source for the history
of the revelation made through Christ. But if
it should appear that there are in the New Testa-
ment writings which in general character and in
origin separate themselves widdy from the rest
of the New Testament Scriptures, or if there were
outside that collection writings which affiliate
themselves with the New Testament Scriptures,
Introduction can not content itself with disregard-
ing those facts. It is hardly likely, however, that
such discoveries will be made as will compel a
radical departure from the aco^ted procedure,
that there will come to light such writings as are
referred to in Luke i, 1 sqq., or the correspondence
of Paul with the Corinthians implied in I Cor. v,
9, vii, 1. Even such discoveries as those last
mentioned would not be likely materially to change
accepted results, and the business of the discipline
would still be with the New Testament Scriptures.
Along with the history of the separate writing
which make up the New Testament goes as a
second part the history of the com-
8. Hie- bination of these into the canon in
*?^ which they have been transmitted
Canon ^ ^**® present time. It is of impor-
tance to examine and exhibit the
historical antecedents and developments which
compassed the formation of this collection, the
183
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblical Introdnotioii
BibUoal Theology
irregularity and vacillation which existed during
several centuries, and the adjustment which pro-
duced a final and uzuversally accepted result.
The examination of the origins of the individual
writin^i and that of the origin of the collection
supplement each other. The one brings to light the
common spirit which animated the individual
writers, the other reveals the influence which those
writers exercised over the churches. And it is
noteworthy that the collection was begun almost,
if not quite, before the latest writers had finished
their work, so that no i^predable interval of time
separated the two operations of writing and of
collection. And so, notwithstanding the different
areas in which these two processes work, they
belong together as sections of the one discipline
of the literary history of the New Testament.
As to the inclusion of other departments in this
branch of study, usage differs. Some liave in-
duded therein noi only the history of the text
and of translations, but also the history of the
theological handling of the same. But, strictly
i^eak^g, neither the story of the vicissitudes of
transmission nor the history of translations belongs
here. If with Credner and Reuss the history of
translations is put as a part of the
*crf«!?^**^ history of the propagation of the New
—"* Testament, its proper place is in the
Yeraiona. ^^^T ^^ missions. So far as the
versions assist in the recovery of the
original text, the treatment of them belongs in
a guide to the exercise of text-criticism or in
the prolegomena to editions of the New Testa-
ment. To be sure, the history of the earlier text
and that of the old versions have importance for
the history of the canon because of the fact that not
BO much individual books as the entire collection
or at least great parts of the collection were copied
and translated. Were greater certainty than is
yet the case attainable concerning the Syriac and
the Latin versions, great gains would be made
in the history of the canon of the New Testament.
But it must be remembered that not all branches
which contribute to results in any given line of
research are to be included in the department of
science in which they are used. (T. Zahn.)
Biblioo«apbt: On the general introduction to the whole
Bible ooneolt: C. A. Briggs, Shuiy of Holy Seriphare, New
Yoric, 1800 (the best book for a comx»rehen8iye survey);
G. T. Ledd. DoetrifM of Sacred Scripture, ib. 1883 (full
but dry); E. Rapin, Lee Livree de VAnden et du Nouoeau
TeekmetO, Moodon, 1800; A. SohUtter, BinUUung in die
BihA, Stuttgart, 1804 (conservative).
On the (}anon of the O. T. it is sufficient to mention:
A. Kuenen, HiatorieihrkrHiedi ondereoek naar het onelaan
der verettunelinQ van de bo^een dee Ouden Verbonde, 3 vols.,
Leyden, 1886-03 (the fullest discussion); F. Buhl, Kanon
««d Text dee Alien Teetamente, Leipsic, 1801, Eng. transL,
Edinburgh, 1802 (a model); H. E. Ryle, Canon and Text
«/ Ote O. T., London, 1802 (reliable, indispensable); G.
Wtldeboer, Het Onetaan van den kanon dee Ouden Ver-
bondt, Groningen, 1880, Eng. transl., London, 1885 (all
■todenU should have it); E. Kautssch, Abriee der Oe-
•e^iAle dee alUeeiamenaiehen Schrifttame, in his Heilige
Schrift dee A, T., Freiburg, 1806, Eng. transl., OtMine
of As BieL of the LUeratare of the O. T., New York, 1800
(fnsh and interesting).
On O. T. Introduction the one indispensable book is
I^river, Introduction, latest impression, London, 1807.
Consult also J. P. P. Martin. Introduction h la critique gS'
K^rab de VA. 3*.. 3 vols., Paris, 1888-80; A. F. Eirkpat-
rick. The Divine Library of the O. 7*., London, 1802 (con-
servative); 8. Davidson, Introduction to the O, 7*., 3 vols.,
ib. 1804 (the antithesis of Kirkpatrick); H. L. Strack,
EinUituno in dae A. 7*., Munich, 1808; W. H. Green,
General Introduction to the O. 7*., 2 vols.. New York,
1808-00 (the extreme in conservatism); W. R. Smith,
O. 7*. in Jetoieh Churth, Edinburgh. 1002; C. H. Comill.
Eifdeituno in dae A, 7*., Freiburg. 1005, Eng. transl..
1007; J. E. McFadyen, Introduction to the O. 7*., New
York, 1006; K. Budde, GeechidUe der aUhOr&iechen Lil-
teratur, Leipsic, 1006; C. L. Gautier, Introduction &
VA, 7*., 2 vols., Lausanne. 1006.
On the N. T. the works have been sufficiently indicated
in the text, though worthy of mention are A. Loisy. Hietoire
du Canon du N. T., Paris. 1801; Biblical Introduction;
N. r., by W. Adeney, London. 1800; B. W. Bacon. Intro-
duction to N, r.. New York. 1000; H. von Soden. Urchriet-
lidie Literatur-Oeediichte, i. Die Sdiriften deeN,T., Berlin,
1005, Eng. transL, 1005.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.
Origin and History (f 1). The Old Testament (f 3).
Study of New Testament Limitations (f 4).
Theology (f 2). Constructive Work (f 5).
The True Aim (f 6).
Biblical theology, or the orderly presentation of
the doctrinal contents of Scripture, is a compara-
tively modem branch of theological science. In
general the tenn expresses not so much the con-
struction of a theology which is Biblical in an
especial sense as a method of dealing with the Bib-
lical matter which is midway between exegesis and
dogmatics. Its object and limitation can be
shown best by tracing its history.
So long as the Church felt or admitted no dis-
cord between its tradition and the Biblical tradition,
there was no need to compare or contrast the
contents of the Bible with the teaching of the
Church. On this account the beginningis of a
Biblical theology appear in the circles of the theolo-
gians of the Reformation, who perceived in Scrip-
2aJl ''""'*^^ tradition. Since to them
History. *^® Bible was the sufficient, self-ex-
plaining basis of dogmatics, by this
juxtaposition the possibility was given of a separ
rate treatment of the doctrinal contents of the
Bible. The first timid effort confined itself to
a discussion of the customary quotations (Sebas-
tian Schmidt, Collegium BibHcum in quo dicta
Veteria et Novi Testamenti juxta aeriem locorum . . .
explicantur, 1671). Under the influence of Pietism
the close connection of dogmatics and the Bible
was relaxed, because in the latter was seen less an
infallible source of knowledge than a means of
grace (A. F. Basching, Oedanken von der Beschaffen-
heit und dem Vorzuge der bibliechen Theologie von
der scholastischen, Lemgo, 1758, and similar works).
When in the eighteenth century J. S. Sender and
his school busied themselves in discovering the
differences in date and characteristics of the dif-
ferent books of the Bible, and brought to light the
dissonance between crystallized dogma and New
Testament teaching (a dissonance greater still in
the case of the Old Testament), the desire naturally
arose to show the essential agreement of the teach-
ing of the Church and that of the Bible by an un-
prejudiced study of the latter (Q. T. ZachariA,
BiUieche Theologie oder UnUreuchung dee hibliechen
Orundes der vomehnuten kircMichen Lekren, 5 vols.,
GOttingen, 1771-86). The rationalistic school, in
BlbUoal Thaolonr
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
184
opposition to the formulated dogma of the Church,
endeavored to read its own views (those of natural
religion) into the Bible (C. F. Ammon, ErUwiddung
einer reinen hibliachen Theologie, Erlangen, 1792;
Q. P. C. Kaiser, Die bibliache Tkeoloffie oder JudaU"
mu8 tmd CkrisHaniamtLa nach einer freimiUigen
SteUung in die kriH8chr^)ergleichende Univenal-
geechichte der Religumen und in die univenale
Religion, 2 vols., Erlangen, 1813). In contradis-
tinction to this there was during the nineteenth
century an eager desire to give the purely historical
results of examination of the Bible. In this way,
the fact of differences of conception in the parts of
the Bible was fully brought to light.
Probably under the influence of Schleiermacher
(q.v.) especial attention was directed to the New
Testament, and the "sjnstems" of the different
apostles were separately treated (the Pauline by
Meyer, 1801, L. Usteri, 1824; the Johannine by
K. Fronmiann, 1839). Along with this an effort
was made to show the unity of the Ciospel in the
very variety of individual conceptions (of the many
important works, note A. Neander, OeechichU der
Pflantung , . . der chrietlichen Kirche, Hamburg,
1832; B. Weiss, lAhrbuch der IMiechen Theologie,
^ ^ Berlin, 1868; W. BeyscWag, Neutea-
f N ^ '®*"*^*^ r*arf<V*«, Halle, 1891).
TMtamfloat ^^ ^^ same time another class of
TheoloffF. theologians was eagerly engaged in
tracing the differences of the individ-
ual conceptions to their very roots. According
to Hegel's formula the crystfdlised dogma was a
synthesis of the two sharp opposites of Paulin-
ism and the primitive apostolate, and this develop-
ment was followed up in all its details from a
literary-historical point of view (F. C. Baur;
H. E. G. Paulus; F. C. A. SchwegjLer, Nachapos-
toliechee Zeilalter, Tabingen, 1846; O. Pfleiderer,
Pandiniemue, Leipsic, 1873; C. Holsten, Evange-
lium dee Patdua und Petrue, Rostock, 1868; A.
Hilgenfdd, Urchristenium, Jena, 1854). In like
manner the life of Jesus and its sources were treated,
in connection with which work there originated a
countless number of monographs on the self-
consciousness of Jesus and the titles he assumed.
The result from this point of view was the con-
viction that New Testament theology has to deal
not with a completed whole, but with a mobile and
developing Chnstianity. Hence "Biblical The-
ology " and " Introduction " together represent
simply a part of the apparatus of general church
history (cf. A. Hausrath, NeuteetamenUiche Zett-
geechichte, Heidelberg, 1868; O. Pfleiderer, C/rcfcris-
ientuM, Berlin, 1887).
Paralld to this development of New Testament
theology was that of Old Testament theology.
Students came to discern the narrowness and one-
sidedness of the Old Testament religion, upon
which Hengstenberg vainly insisted in
rwi T * ^ obliteration of the limits between
tJLentl ^^® ^^^ ^^ *^ ^®^ Testament. In
acknowledging the prindple of slow
historical genesis, others sought to understand the
development of the Old Testament religion by the
principle that no doctrine is completed in the Old
Testammt, no doctrine in the New Testament is
altogether new (G. F. Oehler, Theologie du Albai
Teetamente, TQbingen, 1873-74; similaiiy ScfaulU
and Riehm). J. Wellhausen (Prolegomena nr
Oeechichte Israde, Berlin, 1886) and A. Kueoen
produced a revolution in the treatment of the Old
Testament. Under the influence of their rdigiotts-
historical suppositions and literaiy-critical ooq-
dusions. Old Testament theology served to describe
how from the supposed original conditions, from
animism and totemism, the prophetic moDotbeiam
of the prophets and ultimately the theocratic
ceremonialism of postexilic Judaism gradually
developed (B. Duhm, Theologie der Propi^am,
Bonn, 1875; R. Smend, AlUeatamenaichB Bdigion*-
geeckichte, Freibui^, 1893; S. Kayser and Haiti).
In this way the Old Testament religion was placed
on a level with other religions, and the suiprisngty
rich discoveries concerning the ancient Onent and
the rising science of the hktory of religion grasped
hands with this method of treatment. It was a
natural consequence to show that the New Testa-
ment possesses a rich heritage of religious fancy
common to ethnic religions (cf . especially H. Gunkd,
Schdpfung und Chaoe, Gottingen, 1895; BeligioM-
geechichUiehe Ahhandlung dee Neuen Teetaments,
1904). The idea of unity and special individ-
uality of the New Testamoit thus goes by the
board.
In glancing over the devebpment of Biblical
theology, it is surprising to see how this branch
has worked out its own disintegration. In the
beginning the aim was to make the Bible the only
and sole source of Christian doctrine in the Be-
formers' understanding of the phrase, by allowing
it to speak for itself without introducing any
diluting medium. The investigator sought to
penetrate its polymorphous nature, and finally
saw that under his touch the uniting
tktiM." ^^^ *^ disappeared which fonneriy
tanon ^^^ together the disparate parts
and made it an undivided object of scientific re-
search. This self-immolation the discipline owes
to a oncHsided maintenance of the historical and
religious-historical method. Biblical theology must
indeed be a historical science; but the adjective
must not become a noun and the method must not
master the subject. For in this study there are
fundamental perceptions which can not be obtained
by literary criticism and general historical researches.
Thus the subject itself — ^namely, the whole Bible—
suggests the question whether the subject-niatter
is the remains of a religious literature or documents,
productions, and descriptions of a history which is
fixed by a revelation from God. And the answer
to this question is of the greatest import for the
investigation. How different must be the verdict
of higher criticism, provided the miracles or the
declarations of Jesus are regarded as a priori
historically possible or impossible; how mudi the
selection of the matter decides whether one shall
find only religious^thical views, or historical facts
of the " religion of Jesus," or that '' the belief in
Christ " belongs to the essence of Christianity.
For this reason there has always existed an
opposition to the development described above.
T^ history of salvation with its literary deposit
185
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BibUcal Theolo J7
ought not to be resolved into a purely human
development. The impression is gained rather
that the Bible contains a primary
5. C<m» lifg Qf faith, having the character of
Work, uncorrupted self-consistency and un-
broken independence, and that con-
sequently there is underneath a uniform and
fundamental idea. As standing for this, men-
tion must be made of K. I. Nitzsch, System der
chrisdichenLehr^ (Bonn, 1829), and H. Ewald, Lehre
der Bibel von OoU (3 vols., Leipsic, 1871), and par-
ticularly of J. C. K. von Hofmann, whose great
work (Die hetlige Schrift dee Neuen TestamenU
nteammenhdngend wUersucht, completed by Volck,
Munich, 1886) culminated in the description of the
history of the entire New Testament preaching as a
historical development of the uniform word which
is not the product of the individual authors. Her-
mann Cremer {BiblUchrtheoloqisches WCrterbuch
der neiUeeiamenUichen GrdcUdtf 8th ed., Gotha,
1895) endeavored in a new way to bring into view
the unity of the contents of Scripture by collecting
the individual notions of the Bible and following
their development from the Hebrew into the Greek.
According to him there are not only different modes
of expression at different times, but there is a Bible-
language, a linguistic body of the divine word,
ever developing itself. It is a scientific necessity
that Biblical theology regard the individuality of
the Bible as the basal principle of its entire activity.
For the religion of the Bible is not merely a part of
the historical past; it is an active factor in the pres-
ent. In like manner the Bible is not merely a
document showing the manner in which the Chris-
Uan Church originated; it is the authentic tradition
of the word of God, out of which the Church is
ever originating (M. Kaehler, Der historieche Jestu,
2d ed., Ijeipsic, 1896). On this account Biblical
theology must always proceed from the unexcep-
tionable agreement, which can only be reached at
the end of a devdopment; its way leads, therefore,
from the New to the Old Testament, through the
whole to the parts. Since, however, that result
is nowhere offered in complete form, it is the task
of this branch to educe from that which exists what
is essential — the entirety — so that the examination
of the particular is ever a means to an end, and is
always under the control of the final aim of the
work.
Accordin^y it is not the task of Biblical theology
to criticize the theology of the Bible and to judge
it by the measure of a probable understanding of
the original to be obtained scientif-
ically, but to show as a matter of fact
what the contents of the Bible are
and at the same time to bring into
view the flifferent forms and shapes in which these
contents are offered. It owes to the Church a pure
exhibition of the " word " by the preaching of which
tbe Church has lived in all ages. On this account
no help is gained by considering some ** probable
gofipel of Jesus," sought behind the sources, but the
necessity is that the Jesus Christ of primitive
tradition be described, and that in the various
fomiB in which it has been handed down. Again,
the highest aim is always to produce a theology
e. The
Tme
of the entire Bible (such an effort is K. Schlottmann,
Kompendium der biblischen Theologie, 2d ed.,
Leipsic, 1895). But the separate treatment of the
Testaments will generally recommend itself for
practical reasons, since a great deal of preliminary
work is necessary on the Old Testament, and because
the difference of degrees of revelation must be in-
dicated. But the correlation between the two must,
after all, never be overlooked. It is a matter of
course that the Biblical theology of the whole
Bible can never dispense with exegesis. But it
raises itself above the purely exegetical by its
relation to systematic theology. It is released from
the duty of exhibiting all the mazes and changes
of development which are not essential to the under-
standing of the unified whole. On the other hand,
it must not be misled into compressing Biblical
riches into a narrow, one-sided system, which will
take the form of contemporary dogmatics, for the
dogmatic interest will take charge of the process
of digesting the inmiense amount of subject-matter.
One task of Biblical theology is to open the way of
return from contemporary crystallization into
formulas in dogmatics to the source itself. In this
sense it will be of very great service to evangelical
theology, provided it directs us to disclose more
clearly and richly God's word in Holy Scripture
and thus protests in the name of the docmnent of
revelation against every claim of human infal-
libility, for " God alone is infallible " (Zwingli).
M. Kaehler.
Bibugobapht: DiBOiusions on the methoda of the disci-
pline are in: C. A. Brigga, Study of Holy Scripture, pp.
509-^06, New York. 1899 (hiBtorical and oritical, dis-
criminating); Q. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological
BneydopeKiia and Methodology, pp. 249-265, New York.
1894; A. Cave, Introdtietion to Theology, pp. 406-421,
Edinbuish. 1890; W. Wrede. Ueber Aufgabe und Me-
Ihode der eogenanrUen neuteetafnetUlichen Theologie, Gdt-
tingen, 1897; L. Emery, Introduction it I'Hude de la thSologie
proteetante, pp. 122-127, Paris, 1904 (the foregoing all
contain bibliographies). An exoellent reriew of recent
literature is furnished in the Theologiaehe Rundechau,
May, 1907 (an excellent periodical deyoted to the review
of works on theology).
Works additional to those in the text which deal with
the whole of Biblical theology or of some phase of both
the O. and the N. T. are: L. Noaok, Die biblieche Theolo-
gie, HaUe, 1863; F. Gardner, The Old and the N. T. in
their Mutual Relatione, New York. 1886; H. Schults,
Altteekunentliehe Theologie, (36ttingen, 1886. Eng. transl.,
Edinburgh, 1892; W. L. Alexander, A Syetem of Bibli-
cal Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1888; C. L. Fillion,
L'ld^ centraU de la Bible, Paris, 1888; C. Q. Cha-
rannes, La Reliffion dane la Bible, 2 vols., Paris, 1889;
C. H. Toy, Judaiem and ChrieHanity, Boston, 1890
(called by Dr. Briggs '* the best book on the subject ");
A. Duff, O. 7*. Theology, Edinburgh, 1891 (original);
R. H. (Charles. Critical Hietory of the Doctrine of a
Future Life in lerael, Judaiem and Chrietianity, Lon-
don, 1899 (the one book in the field).
Additional and worthy books on O. T. theology are:
C. H. Piepenbring, TMologie deVAncien Teetament, Paris,
1886, Eng. transl.. New York. 1893; A. Dillmann. Hand-
buck der altieetamentlichen Theologie, Leipsic, 1896 (post-
humous); W. H. Bennett, Theology of the O. T., London,
1896 (a handbook); R. Smend. Lehrbueh der altteetament-
lichen Religionegeediiehte, Freiburg. 1899; A. B. Davidson,
The Theology of the O, T., Edinburgh, 1904 (somewhat
disappointing).
Additional works on the N. T. are W. F. Adeney, The-
ology of the N. T., London, 1894 (corresponds to Bennett
on the O. T.); H. J. Holtsmann. Lehrbueh der neuieeta-
menUidien Theologie, 2 vols., Tttbingen, 1897 (one of the
best on the subject); G. B. Stevens. Theology of the
N, 7*., New York, 1899; E. P. Gould, BMical Theology of
BibUoisto
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
186
ih» N. r.. New York. 1000; D. F. Estes, An OuUifM of
N. T, Th§oloay. ib. 1901; J. Bovon, ThMoffie du N. T„
2 yols., Lauaaime, 1803-04. toI. i, 2d ad.. 1002.
BIBLICISTS, BIBUCAL DOCTORS: A name
sometimes given to those who, during the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, demonstrated religbus
truths by the Scriptures and by the authority of
the Fathers, in contrast to others, who aban-
doned Scripture and tradition in order to gjve
full rein to their fancy and philosophy. The most
of the latter were Dominican and Frandscan monks
who, since their orders held no property, had no
libraries, and, owing to their unsettled and vagrant
lives, had little opportunity for the study of books.
Some of the Biblical doctors were scholars, and pro-
duced valuable works; but the majority of them
were servile imitators of their predecessors.
BIBRAy BICHOLAS OF. See Nicholas of
BiBRA.
BICKELL, OnSTAV: German Roman Catholic
theologian and Orientalist; b. at Cassel July 7,
1838; d. at Vienna Jan. 15, 1906. In 1862 he be-
came privat-docent of Semitic and Indo-Germanic
philology at Marburg, and in the following year
went in the same capacity to Giessen. Two years
later he became a convert to Roman Catholicism,
was ordained priest in 1866, and from 1867 to 1874
taught Oriental languages in the academy of MQn-
ster, where he was appointed associate professor
in 1871. From 1874 to 1891 he was professor of
Christian archeology and Semitic languages in the
University of Innsbruck, and from the latter year
until his death was professor of Semitic philology
at the University of Vienna. He wrote: De indole ac
ratione versumia Alexandrina in interpretando W)ro
Jobi (Marbui^, 1862); SanctiEphraemiSyricarmina
Nisibena (Leipsic, 1866); Grundri88 der hebr&iachm
Orammaiik (2 vols., 1869-70; Eng. transl. by S. I.
Curtiss, 1877); GrUnde fur die UnfehOHxrkeit dee
Kirchenoberhauptee (MOnster, 1870); Conepedue
rei Surorum litercaricB (1871); Meeee und Paecha
(1872, Eng. transl. by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh,
1891); Sancti leaaci AnHocheni opera omnia (2
vols., Giessen, 1873); Kalilag und Damnag, aUe
eyrieche UebereeUung dee indiechen FUretenepiegele
(text and translation, Leipsic, 1876); Metricee
biblica regula exemplie iUuetrata (Innsbruck, 1879);
Synodi Brixineneee ecBculi quindedmi (1880);
Carmina Veterie TeetamenH metrica (1882); Dicht^
ungen der Hebrder (1882); Kohdethe Untersuchung
vber den Wert dee Daeeine (1884); and Dae Buck
Job nach ArUaee der StrophUs und der Septuaginta
auf eeine ureprUngliche Form tuhUkgefUhrt und im
Veremaeee dee Urtextee iibereeUt (Vienna, 1894).
BICKELL, JOHAHN WILHELM: Writer on
canon law; b. at Marburg Nov. 2, 1799; d. at
Cassel Jan. 23, 1848. He studied law at Marburg
and Gdttingen; was professor of jurisprudence at
Bfarburg, 1824--34; president of the supreme court
of Hesse-Cassel, 1841, and minister of state, 1846.
He wrote Ueber die Entetehung , , , dee Corpue
Jurie Canonid (Marburg, 1825); Ueber die Reform
der proteetantiechen Kirdienverfaseung ( 1 83 1 ) ; Ueber
die Verpflichiung der evangeliechen Oeietlichen auf
die eymbolischen Sckriften (Cassel, 1839; 2d ed..
1840); of his Geechichte dee Kvrchenrechte, only one
volume was completed (part i, Giessen, 1843;
part ii, Frankfort, 1849).
BICKERSTETH, EDWARD: The name of
three deigsrmen of the Church of England.
1. A leader of the Evangelicals; b. at IGrkby
Lonsdale (60 m. n. of Liverpool), Westmoreland,
Mar. 19, 1786; d. at Watton (21 m. w.s.w. of
Norwich), Hertfordshire, Feb. 28, 1850. He was
at first a lawyer and practised at Norwich, but he
was always of deeply religious temperament and in
1815 received priest's orders and was sent to Africa
by the Church Missionary Society to inspect Uie
work there. Returning in Aug., 1816, he became
one of the society's secretaries and for the rest of
his life spent much time traveling in the service
of the society; in 1830 he became rector of Watton.
He was an active opponent of the Tractarian Move-
ment, and was one of the founders of the Evangriicai
Alliance and of the Irish Church Missions Society.
His published works were numerous and many
were very popular; the more important (A Help
to the Study of the Scriptwree, 21st edition; A Treor
tiee on Prayer, 14th edition; A Treatiee on the
Lord's Supper, 13th edition; A Guide to the Propkr
eeiee, 8th edition; and others) were collected in
sixteen volumes (London, 1853). He also com-
piled Christian Psalmody (Hereford, 1833), a much-
used hymn-book, and edited the Christian's FamUy
Library (50 vols.).
Bibuoorapht: T. R. Birka, Memoir cf B, Biekenldk, 3
▼oIb., London, 1856 (by his son-in-Uw); DNB, ▼. 3-4.
8. Dean of Lichfield, nephew of the preceding;
b. at Acton (12 m. s. by e. of Bury St. Edmund's),
Suffolk, Oct. 23, 1814; d. at Leamington (80 m.
n.w. of London) Oct. 7, 1892. He studied at
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (BA., 1836;
M.A., 1830; D.D., 1864), and at Durham Univer-
sity; became curate of CJhetton, Shropshire, 1838;
at the Abbey, Shrewsbuiy, 1839; Penn Street,
Buckinghamshire, 1849; vicar of Asrlesbury and
archdeacon of Buckinghamshire, 1853; honoraiy
canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1866; dean of
Lichfield, 1875; resigned in 1892. In 1864, 1866,
1869, and 1874 he was prolocutor of the lower house
of convocation of Canterbury, and as such was a
member of the conmiitteeof New Testament revisers.
He was a High-churchman. He published Diocesan
Synods in Relation to Convocation and Parliament
(London, 1867); My Hereafter (1883); edited the
fifth edition of R. W. Evans's Bishopric of Souls
(1877), with a memoir of the author; and contrib-
uted the commentary on Mark to the PuipU Com-
mentary (1882).
3. Bishop of South Tokyo, Js^an, eldest son of
Edward Henry Bickersteth (q.v.); b. at Banning-
ham (10 m. n. of Norwich), Norfolk, June 26,
1850; d, at Chisledon (30 m. n. of SaKsbury),Wat-
shire, Aug. 5, 1897. He was educated at C^am-
bridge (B.A., 1873), and was ordained priest in 1874.
He was curate at Hampstead, London, 1873-75:
fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, from 1875
till 1877, when he headed the Cambridge Mis-
sion for Delhi, India. In this mission he so im-
paired his health that he waa obliged to return
187
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblioists
Biddle
to En^and in 1882, and he became rector of Fram-
iingham, Suffolk. In 1886 he was consecrated bish-
op of Japan. He was an extreme High-churchman
and strove to reproduce this type of church life
among the Japanese. The result was the so-called
** Catholic Church of Japan" {Nippon Sei Kokwai).
In 1887 a visit to Korea bore fruit in the establish-
ment of a mission in that coimtry. In 1892 his
visit to the Anglican mission stations in Japan
convinced him that there should be more bishops;
accordin^y his diocese was made that of South
Tokyo. Again his health gave way and he retiuned
home to die. His lectures for Japanese divinity
students were published under the title Our Heritage
in the Church (London, 1898).
Bibuogbafbt: S. Biokerateth, Life and Lettert of Edward
Bickentetk, Biahop of South Tokjfo, London, 1006 (by his
brother).
BICKERSTETH, EDWARD HENRY: Bishop of
Exeter, son of Edward Bickersteth, 1; b. at Isling-
ton, London, Jan. 25, 1825; d. in London May
16, 1906. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge (BA., 1847), and was ordered deacon in
1848, and ordained priest in the following year.
He was curate of Banningham, Norfolk (1848-51);
rector of Hinton BlarteU, Dorset (1852-55); vicar of
Christ Church, Hampstead (1855-85); rural dean of
Highgate (1878-85), and dean of Gloucester (1885).
He was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1885, but
resigned five years later on account of age. He
wrote Water from the WeU Spring (London, 1852);
The Rock of Ages (1857); Commeniary on the New
Testament (1864); Yesterday, To-day, and Forever
(poem in twelve books, 1866; prized as a devout
revelation of heaven); The Spirit of Life (1869);
Hymnal Companion to the Book of Common Prayer
(1870); The Two Brothers and Other Poems (1871);
The Reef and Other Parables (1873); The Shadowed
Home and the Light Beyond (1874); Words of
Counsel to the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of
Exeter (1888); Charge at Third VisitaOan (1895);
From Year to Year (1895); The Feast of Divine
Love (1896); and Charge at Fourth Visitation
(1898). He was the author of a number of well-
Imown hymns.
BiBLioomAPHT: F. K. Aglionby, Life of B. H, Biekeretetti,
London. 1907.
BICEERSTETHy SAMUEL: Church of Eng-
land, second son of Edward Henry Bickersteth
(q.v.); b. at Hampstead Sept. 9, 1857. He was
educated at St. John's College, Oxford (B A., 1881),
and was ordered deacon in 1881 and ordained
priest in the following year. He was successively
curate of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate (1881-84);
chaplain to the bishop of Ripon (1884-87); vicar of
Belvedere, Kent (1887-91); and vicar of Lewisham
(1891-1905). Since 1905 he has been vicar of
Leeds and rural dean. He has written Life and
Letters of Edward Bickersteth, DJ)., Bishop of
South Tokyo (his brother, London, 1899), and is
the editor of the Preachers of the Age series.
BIDDING PRATER: Originally bidding of pray-
ers, signifying " the praying (offering) of prayers,"
one of the meanings of the verb " to bid" down
to the Reformation being "to ask pressingly, to
beg, to pray." As this meaning became obsolete
the phrase was interpreted to mean "the ordering
or directing of prayers"; i.e., an authoritative
direction to the people concerning what or whom
they should pray for, such directions being not im-
common in England in the sixteenth century.
Still later "bidding" was taken as an adjective
and the phrase "bidding prayer" came to mean
the prayer before the sermon, which the preacher
introduced by directing the congregation to pray
for the Church catholic, the sovereign and the
royal family, different estates of men, etc. (Con-
stitution and Canons of the Church of England,
I 55). A collect is now usually substituted for it,
as the sermon, except on rare occasions, is preceded
by the common prayers, which include the petitions
prescribed by the canon. When, however, these
prayers are not sud before the sermon (as at univer-
sity sermons), and on occasions of more than usual
solemnity, the " bidding prayer" is used.
Bxbuoobafht: Fomu of the Bidding Prayer are to be
found in Matiuale ef Proceaaionale . . . eedeeia Ehoror
eenMie, ed. W. G. Henderson in Surteee Society Publica-
tions, no. 63, Dtirham, 1875, and in F. Procter. Hist of
Book of Common Prayer . . . revieed by W. H. Frere,
p. 304, London, 1005. Consult C. Wheatley, Bidding of
Prayere before Sermontt London, 1845; D. Rock, Churdi
of our Fathere, 3 vols., ib. 1840-53.
BIDDLE, JOHN: A founder of modem English
Unitarianism; b. at Wotton-under-Edge (15 m. a.
of Gloucester), where he was baptized Jan. 14,
1615; d. in a London jail Sept. 22, 1662. He was
educated at Oxford, and appointed head master
of the free school in the parish of St. Mary le Oypt,
Gloucester, 1641. Study of the Scriptures led him
to disbelieve the doctrine of the Trinity, and, his
unsoundness being reported to the city magistrates,
he was summoned before them. Fearing imprison-
ment, he made a confession of faith (May 2, 1644)
which was not satisfactory, and so he made a second
in which he used more conventional language
and was allowed to go free. He then committed
to paper Twelve Arguments Drawn out of Scripture :
wherein the commonly received opinion touching
the Deity of the Holy Spirit is clearly and fully
refuted, and to these views he was faithful the rest
of his life. A friend informed the magistrates of
the existence of this p^>er and so he was cited before
the oonmiittee of Parliament then at Gloucester,
and put in the common jail Dec. 2, 1645. Happily
a prominent citizen bailed him out. In 1646 he
was summoned to appear before Parliament at
Westminster to explain his position, and boldly
avowed his belief. He was committed to the cus-
tody of one of the officers of the House of Commons
and so continued for five years. Meanwhile a
committee of the Assembly of Divines sitting at
Westminster considered his case and to them he
gave a copy of his Twelve Arguments, They made
answer to it, but did not move him. So in 1647 he
published his paper, which makes a tract of thirty-
eight small pages. It stirred up great indignation
and was suppressed and burned by the common
hangman. Next he published A Confession of
Faith Touching the Holy Trinity, according to the
Scripture (1648), a tract of seventy-five small
pages, in which in six articles, accompanied by
Biedermana
BiUioan
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
188
expontionB, he plainly states his views, making
GkKl the Father the first person of the Holy Trinity;
one chief Son of the most high God, with only a hu-
man nature, though our Qod by reason of his divine
sovereignty over us, yet subordinate to the most
high God, the second person; and one principal
minister of God and Christ the third. Next
came another tract (eighty-six pages) containing
alleged testimonies in favor of fads views from the
Fathers. In 1648 Parliament, at the instigation of
the Westminster divines, made denial of the Trinity
a capital offense, yet Biddle was not only not
put to death, but in 1649 was released on bail. He
became a chaplain and preacher in Staffordshire,
but was shortly recalled and remained in prison
till Feb., 1651. On his release he publicly advo-
cated his views and continued his publications
with A Two-fold Catechiam ; the one simply called
a Scrvpture Catechiam; the other a brief ScripUire
Catechiem for Children (1654, the first of 141 small
pages, the second of thirty-four, both with a pref-
ace). The answers, being entirely in quoted Scrip-
ture, could not be gainsaid, but the questions were
open to serious criticism. Consequently he was
examined by the House of Commons and com-
mitted to prison on Dec. 3, 1654, and was not re-
leased till May 28, 1655. The Catechism was burned
by the common hangman Dec. 14, 1654. Again pub-
licly advocating his beliefs on July 3, 1655, he was
thrown into prison and a little later was tried for his
life on the ordinance above mentioned. Crom-
well, unwilling to put him to death, banished him
to the Scilly Islands (Oct. 5, 1655), and allowed him
100 crowns a year for maintenance. In 1658
he was released, and resumed preaching. In the
latter part of Aug., 1662, he was again imprisoned
and after five weeks died.
Biblioorapht: The principal souroe of information resp«oi-
ing Biddle is the Life by Joshua Touhnin, London, 1780,
which analyses all his writings, including several transla-
tions not mentioned above. There are earlier accounts,
such as /. BideUi Vita, by J. Farrington, ib. 1682, and
A Short AeeoufU of the Life of John Biddle, ib. 1001. Con-
sult also A. k Wood, AAenm OxonionaeB, ed. P. P. Bliss,
iii, 503-603, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; J. H. Allen, Hietorioal
Sketch of the UnUarian Movement, pp. 131-135. New York,
1804; DNB, v, 13-16. Some additional information is
in Walter Lloyd's Bioenienary of Barton Street Dieeenting
Meeting Houee, Qlouceeter, pp. 40-50, Gloucester, 1800.
BIEDERMAinr, btMer^mdn, ALOIS EMAITUSL:
Swiss Protestant; b. near Bendlikon, on the west
shore of the Lake of Zurich (4 m. from the city).
Mar. 2, 1819; d. at Zurich Jan. 25, 1885. He
studied at Basel 1837^9, and then at Berlin;
became pastor at M6nchenstein (3 m. s. of Basel)
1843; professor extraordinary at Zurich 1850,
ordinary 1860, where he lectured at first upon
theological encyclopedia and New Testament in-
troduction, later chiefly upon dogmatic theology.
He was the leading theologian of the neo-Hegelians,
and was deeply influenced by the TQbingen school,
especially by Strauss. He was a prolific writer
for the religious press, but obtained his greatest
repute by his Christlidie Dogmaiik (Zurich, 1869;
2d ed., Berlin, 1884-85, vol. ii edited by Rehmke),
in which he denies the historicity of the Gospels,
yet holds to the eternal ideas which the supposed
facts of the Gospels embody; denies Christian
doctrine, but advocates Christian practise; denies
personality to God and personal immortality to
man, yet holds that love to God and man consti-
tutes the essence of religion. He took a deep
interest in education and public affairs, preached
often and by preference to small and weak congre-
gations, and was tactful and courteous in his asso-
ciations with men of all classes; he was a lover of
athletics and a robust mountain-climber. Many
of his briefer publications were collected under the
title AttsgewMie Vortrdge vmd Aufsdtte, with a
biogn^hical introduction by J. Kradolfer (Beriin,
1885).
Bibuoobapht: For further notes on Biedennann's life con-
sult J. J. Oeri, Peredniiehe Erinnerungen an Biedormanm,
in KirtkenUaU fUr die reformierle Schufoit, 1886. noa. 7-
18. On his theology and philosophy oonsult O. Pfldderer.
ReligionephHoeophie, i, 504, Berlin, 18H3; idem, in Preajt-
tieehe JahrblUher, Jan.. 1886, pp. 63-76; T. Moosberr.
ii. B. Biedermann naeh eeineraUgemeinenphiloeophiaehn
SieUung, Jena, 1893.
BIEL, btl, GABRIEL: One of the most remark-
able theologians of the late Middle Ages; b. at
Speyer; d. at Tabingen 1495. He studied at
Heidelberg, became preacher at St. Martin's Church
at Mains, provost of Urach in WQrttemberg, and
after 1484 professor of theology and philosophy
in the newly founded Uniyersity of Tdbingen.
In his old age he joined the Brethren of the Com-
mon Life (see Common Lifb, Brethben of the).
In theology Biel followed the nominalism of Occam
(q.v.), whose system he reproduced in his EpUom
et ooUeetorium ex Oocamo super quattuor libros
sententiarum (TQbingen, 1495). In anthropology
and soteriology he was a Semi-Pelagian, teaching
that " merit depends on man's free will and God's
grace" (sermo xiv, 7); the sacraments operate
not only ex opere operantiSf but also ex opere op^
rata " (Sent., IV, i, 3). The Church, therefore, was
for him a mechanically operating sacramental
institution; in its priests he glorifies a " mighty
dignity." In questions affecting the constitution
of the Church, Biel took the position assumed by
the councils of Constance and Basel. As a preacher
he surpassed his predecessors in the practicality
of his views; his knowledge of political economy
also deserves recognition . Besides the work already
noticed, he wrote Lectura super canonem missa
(Heutlingen, 1488); Expositio cananis misscB (Tu-
bingen, 1499); Sermones (1499); and other works.
Paul Tschaciosrt.
BiBUOORAPirr: F. X. Linaenmann, Oabriel Bid der lebie
SeholaeHker und der Nominaliemue, in TObinger thuith
giedte QuarlaUckrifU 1865, pp. 440 sqq.; idem, in KL. il
804-^806; K.ViA\Mih\,DiechiriMieheL«hrewnder ReAifert^
. gung und Veredhnung, U 102 sqq., Bonn, 1889; H. Plitt,
Gabriel Biel ale Prediger, Erlangen. 1870; Schults, Drr
eitUiche Begriff dee Verdienatee, in TSK, 1894. pp. 304 tqq.
BIERLmO, br&r-ling, ERlfST RUDOLF: Ger-
man Protestant jurist; b. at Zittau (49 m. 8.e. of
Dresden) Jan. 7, 1841. He was educated at the
imiversities of Leipsic (1859-63) and Gdttingen
(1864-65), and after being a lawyer in his native
city in 1868-71 was privat-docent at Gdttingen for
two years. Since 1873 he has been professor of
canon and criminal law at Greifswald. In addition
to being a member of the Pomeranian provincial
synod in 1878-99 and of the general synod in 1875
180
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BiedeirmAim
BUUoan
and 1884-1902, he was a member of the House of
Deputies in 1881-85 and of the Upper House after
1889. His publications include GeseUgdnmgsrecht
evangeliscker Kirchen im GMete der Kirchenlekre
(Leipsic, 1869); Zur KrUik der juristiachen Grund-
hegriffe (2 vols., Gotha, 1877-82); Die konfea-
noneUe Sehule in Preussen und ihr Recht (1885);
and Jwiatiaehe Pringipienlekre (3 vols., Tubingen,
1894-1905).
BIGELMAIER, bf'gel-mal'er, ANDREAS: Ger-
man Roman Catholic; b. at Oberhausen (a suburb
of Augsburg) Oct. 21, 1873. He was educated at
the University of Munich (Th.D., 1899) and was
ordained to the priesthood in 1897. From October
to November, 1897, he was chaplain at Hdrzhausen,
and in 1904 became privatr-docent for church his-
tory at the University of Munich. Since 1905
be has also been university preacher, and, in ad-
dition to nimieTous contributions to literary and
theological periodicab, has written Die BeteUi-
gungen der Christen am dffenUicken Lehen in vorkcnr
ttantiniacher Zeit (Munich, 1902) and Zeno von
Verona (1904).
BIGG, CHARLES: Church of England; b. at
Manchester Sept. 12, 1840; d. Oxford July 15, 1908.
He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1862),
where he became tutor. He was master in Chelten-
ham College (1866-71), head master of Brighton Col-
lege (1871-81), and rector of Fenny Compton, Leam-
ington, 1887-1901, and honorary canon of Worcester
from 1889 to 1901, when he was appointed regius
professor of ecclesiastical history in Oxford Univer-
sity. He was examining chaplain to the bishops
of Worcester (1889-91), Peterborough (1891-96),
London (1897-1901), and Man (1903), Hampton
lecturer in 1886, and has been canon of Christ Church,
Oxford, since 1901. He has edited a number of
Greek classics and the ** Confessions " of St. Augus-
tine (London, 1896); the Didache (1898); the De
lmiUUi4me CkrisH of Thomas k Kempis (1898);
and Law's Serious Coil (1899); and has written
The Christian PlaUmiete of Alexandria (London,
1886); NeoplaUmiem (1895); Unity in Diversity
(1899); Commentary on the Epietlea of Peter and
Jude (Edinburgh, 1901); and The Churches Task
under the Roman Empire (London, 1905).
BIGRE, btfi, MARGUERIN, mOr^'ge^'rah, DELA:
French theologian; b. at Bemidres-le-Patiy, in Nor-
mandy, 1546 or 1547; d. at Paris 1589. He came of
noble Norman parentage; studied at Caen and be-
came rector of the university there; went to Paris,
where he studied theology at the Sorbonne and
received the doctorate. To refute the authors of
the Magdeburg Centuries in June, 1576, he under-
took to give a fuller edition of the writings of the
Fathers of the Church than had been yet made. For
this work he was appointed canon of the chiu*ch of
Bayeux, and some time after professor of the
chapter-school; resigned to succeed his uncle,
Francois du Pare, who had died, as dean of the
church of Mans. In 1576 he was sent as deputy
from the clergy of Normandy to the States Gen-
eral of Blois. In 1581 he went as canon of Ba-
yeux to the provincial council there, and defended
vigorously his chapter against the usurpation of
Bemardin de St. Francois, bishop of Bayeux.
The death of the bishop (July 14, 1582) appeared
to end the conflict; but the bishop's successor,
Mathurin de Savonnidres, eventually forced Bigne
to resign. He returned to Paris, where he died the
same year. He was a great patristic scholar and
an eloquent preacher. G. Bonet-Maurt.
BuuoaKAPKT: His works were: Vetenmi pairum tt antiquo-
rum 9eripUjirum ecdenaatieorum eoUeeiio (Paris. 1676-70);
Stahda Bynodalia Pariaienaium eptuoporum, Oaionit car-
difuUia, OdonU et WiXMmi; item Petri et Oalteri Senonen'
Hum arekitpUeopdrumdecreta primum edita (1678); 3. lai-
dori HiapaUnaia Opera (1680). Consult: J. Hermant, L'Hia-
ioire du dioctae de Bayeux, Cmii. 1706; P. D. Huet.
Lea Orioinea de la villa de Caen, Rouen, 1706; Nio^ron,
MSmoirea, xxx, 270; J. G. de Chauffepie, Nouveau die-
Honnaira kiaU)lriq^e at eriHqua, vol. i, Amsterdam, 1750.
BILUCAK, THEOBALD (Diepold Gemolt or
Gerlacher): German theologian; b. at Billigheim
(4 m. S.S.W. of Landau), Bavaria, toward the end
of the fifteenth century; d. at Marburg Aug. 8,
1554. He took his surname from his birthplace;
studied at Heidelberg, where Melanchthon was his
fellow student; lectured at Heidelberg; became
provost of the college of arts (1520) and had among
others Johann Brenz (q.v.) as his pupil. When,
in 1518, Luther came to Heidelberg, Billican,
Brenz, Schnepff, and Martin Butzer (q.v.) were
among his admirers. Billican left Heidelberg in
1522 and went to Weil as preacher. But his ser-
mons against the mediatorship of the Virgin Mary
and against purgatory brought about his deposition
and he went to NOrdlingen (1523), where he re-
mained till 1535. Billican opened there a way for
the Reformation and published Von der Mess
Gemein Schtussred (1524), in which he sharply
rebuked the " fraud " of the mass as a sacrifice
for the living and the dead. Billican, who corre-
sponded with Luther, Melanchthon, Rhegius, Brenz,
(Ecolampadius, and Zwingli, was regarded as a
leader of the Evangelical cause in South Germany.
But future events showed the instability of his
character. In his controversy with Carlstadt,
who had come to NOrdlingen, he sided with Luther
against Carlstadt in the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper and stated in his RenovaOo ecdesia (1525)
that '' in the Lord's Supper the flesh and blood of
the Lord are present." Induced by Urbanus
Rhegius (q.v.) openly to defend the Lutheran
doctrine, Billican sent a statement to Rhegius,
which the latter published (in mutilated form, as
Billican complained) together with his answer
Dec. 18, 1525, under the title De verbis ecmm
dominiecB et opinionum varietate Theobaldi BiUir
caniad Urbanum Regium (1526). But while they of
Wittenberg were rejoicing over this new ally, Billican
changed his views in a letter addressed to GSco-
lampadius Jan. 16, 1526; and two months later,
in letters addressed to Schleupner at Nuremberg
and to Pirkheimer, he expressed still other views.
While Billican did not fully agree with Zwingli,
he stated that he learned more from the Zwinglians
than from the Lutherans, and, adopting in part
the views of Carlstadt and (Ecolampadius, he pre-
tended to teach the only correct doctrine because
he stood between the two parties. His vacillating
^t*'-
lintdrlm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
190
position is best illuBtrated in a booklet entitled
Epistola Theobaldi Billicani ad Joannem Hubelium
qua Hlo de eucharUtia cogiiandi materiatn ecmscripsU
(1528) which remained imnotioed.
BilUcan, of whom ao much had been expected,
waB now avoided by both parties. In 1529 he ap-
plied to Heidelberg University for the doctorate,
presenting at the same time a confession in which he
acrimoniously rejected Lutheran, Zwin^^ian, and
Anabaptist doctrine, and expressed his firm belief
in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.
Being refused by the faculty, he married a woman
of wealth, and, regardless of what had taken place,
he had the boldness to ask Melanchthon to procure
him the doctorate at Wittenberg. The latter
replied, " [The authorities] advance no one before
he has set forth his doctrinal views " (CR, i, 1112).
Since he was repelled by the Reformers and not
fully trusted by the Roman Catholics, Billican's
position became untenable, and so in 1535 he left
NOrdlingen and went to Heidelberg, where he com-
menced the study of jurisprudence. He was made
licentiate in jurisprudence and for a time took the
place of a professor who was disabled on account
of sickness. When in 1543 that professor died
and Billican sought the position, the entire faculty
opposed his nomination, but through the influence
of liargaret von der Layen, whose '' chancellor "
h& was considered, he was permitted to give inde-
pendent lectures on law. On account of his rela-
tions with Margaret, the elector Frederick II deposed
Billican from his office July 26, 1544, and ordered
him to leave Heidelberg. He went to Biarburg
and was made professor of rhetoric, a position which
he held till his death. (T. Koldb.)
Bibuoobapbt: O. BMsenmeyer, Kleins BeUrdge rar Ot-
aehiehie dee Reuh^ags su AvoAurg^ tSSO, pp. 69 sqq.,
NurembeiK, 1830; A. Steichele, Da» Bitium AugAurg,
iii, 047 sqq., Augsburg, 1872; T. Klein, Die SteUung der
eekiodbiadien Kirdien aur awingiiadi^Mtheriedien SpaUung,
in TJB, idr, 1804; C. Geyer, Die NSrdUnger evange-
liedien Kirehenordnungen dee 16. Jakrhunderte, Munioh,
1806.
BILNET (BTLHEY), THOlftAS: Early Eng-
lish Protestant; b. of a Norfolk family about 1495;
burned at the stake at Norwich Aug. 19, 1531.
He studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and gave up
law for theology and was ordained priest in 1519.
He adopted the belief in justification by faith alone
and was a leader in a company of Cambridge men
who were inclined to the views of the Reformation;
Hugh Latimer was added to the number by Bilney's
influence and became his lifelong friend. Con-
cerning the mass, transubstantiation, and the pow-
ers of the pope and the Church, Bilney remained
orthodox; but he preached unromittingly in Cam-
bridge, London, and neighboring counties, denoun-
cing the invocation of saints and relic-worship,
pilgrimages and fastings, at the same time leading
a most austere life and devoted to deeds of charity.
He was arrested and confined in the Tower Nov.
25, 1527; brought to trial, he denied having
wittingly taught the doctrines of Luther, but was
finally persuaded to abjure his alleged heresies
and as penance was kept imprisoned for more than a
year. Released in 1529, he went back to Cambridge,
suffered much from remorse for his abjuration, and
in 1531 resumed preaching, but was immediatdy
arrested, and was executed as a relapsed heretic
Bibuoosapht: The aouroes for a life mxe in leUen and
Papere . . . of the Reign of Henry VIII., yoL v. ed James
Gairdner. in Record PubUeatione, London, 1863-60. Oon-
Bult alBO C. H. Cooper, AAenm CantaMgienea, i. 42, ib.
1858; DNB, y. 40-43.
BILSON, THOlftAS: Bishop of Winchester;
b. at Winchester 1546 or 1547; d. there June 1^
1616. He studied at New College, Oxford (BA^
1566; MA., 1570; B.D., 1579; D.D., 1581); was
made prebend of Winchester 1576, and became
warden of the college there; was consecrated bishop
of Worcester 1596, translated to Winchester 1597.
He was a noted preacher, a man of much learning,
and defended the Church of Eng^d against both
Roman Catholics and Puritans. At the command
of Queen Elisabeth he wrote The Trite Difffrerux
between ChrieHan Subjection and Unchristian RAd-
lion (Oxford, 1585), in answer to Cardinal William
Allen's Defence of the English CcOholics (Ingoldstadt,
1584), and The Survey of Chrises Sufferings for
Man's Redemption and of his Descent to Hades or
HeU for our Deliverance (London, 1604), a reply to
the Brownist Henry Jacob; in The Perpetual
Oovemment of Chrises Church (1593; new ed.,
with memoir, Oxford, 1842) he defended episco-
pacy. With Dr. Miles Smith he revised the King
James translation of the Bible before its publication,
and he added the summaries of contents at the head
of each chapter.
Bibuoobapht: A. k Wood. Athena Oxonieneee, ed. P. Blia^
ii, 169-171, 4 vols., London. 1813-20; DNB, ▼. 49-44.
BINDING AND LOOSING, POWER OF. See
Kbtb, Power of the.
BINDLEY, THOlftAS HERBERT: Church of
England; b. at Smethwick (3 m. n.w. of Biiming-
ham), 8ta£Fordshire, Oct. 21, 1861. He was edu-
cated at Brownsgrove College, Worcestershire,
and Merton College, Oxford (BA., 1884), and iras
ordered deacon in 1889 and ordained priest in the
following year. He was assistant curate of Ix-
worth, Suffolk, in 1889, and since 1890 has been
principal of Codrington College, Barbados, and
examining chaplain to the bishop of Barbados.
He became canon of Barbados in 1893 and arch-
deacon in 1904, while in the following year he was
made vicar-general of the diocese. In theology
he is a liberal High-churchman. In addition to
numerous contributions to theological periodicals,
he has translated St. Athanasius de ineamatione
Verbi Dei (London, 1887); TertuUian's Apology
(London, 1889); EfksOe of the GaUican Chwthi^
(1900); and St. Cyprian on the LanTs Prayer {190A)-
He has also edited TertuUiani Apologeticus (Ox-
ford, 1889); TertuUiani De Prctscriptiane (1893);
and (Ecumenical Documents of the Faith (LondoOr
1900); and has written The Creeds (1896) and Ei
incamahis est (New York, 1896).
BINGHAM, HIRAM: Congregational missiooaiy;
b. at Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 16, 1831; d. at Balti-
more Oct. 25, 1908. He was educated at Yale
College (B.A., 1853) and Andover Theological Sem-
inary (1854-55), and, after acting as principal of the
Northampton High School in 1853-54, entered the
191
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bilney
Blnterlm
service of the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions in 1856. He began his missionary
activity in the Gilbert Islands in 1857, and from 1866
to 1868 was in command of the missionary brig
Morning Star. He was corresponding secretary of
the board of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association
from 1877 to 1880. From 1880-^2 he was Hawaiian
government protector of South Sea immigrants. In
theology he was a conservative. He has written
Slaryqfthe Morning Star (Boston, 1866); 0tlber*e8e
Bible (New York, 1893); Gilbertese Bible Dictionary
(Honolulu, 1895); Gilbertese Hymn and Tune Book
(New York, 1897); GUberteu Commentary on
Matthew (1904); and Gilberteae Commentary on the
Four GoepeU (1905).
BINGHAIC, JOSEPH: Church of England;
b. at Wakefield (9 m. s. of Leeds), Yorkshire,
Sept., 1668; d. at Havant (6 m. s.e. of Pprtsmouth),
Hampshire, Aug. 17, 1723. He studied at Oxford
and was fellow of University College 1689-95,
when he resigned and withdrew from the university
because his controversial sermon on the Trinity
preached before the university had led to the
charge, wholly unmerited, of heresy. He was
immediately appointed rector of Headboum-
Worthy (2 m. n. of Winchester), which made the
rich cathedral library accessible to him. In 1712
he was transferred to the better living of Havant.
His fame rests upon his Origines EcdeeiaaticcB,
or the AnHquities of the Christian Church (8 vols.,
London, 170^22). This is exhaustive for the field
it covers and can never be superseded, as it is derived
from the sources and interestingly written. It has
been a quarry for many books and itself several
times reprinted; the best edition is by the great-
great-grandson of the author. Rev. Richard Bing-
ham (vols, i-viii of Bingham's Works, 10 vols.,
Oxford, 1855). There is a separate edition of the
AnHquUiee in the Bohn Library (2 vols.), a Latin
trandation by Johann Heinrich Grischow (Grischo-
vius; 11 vols., Halle, 1724r38), and an abridged
German translation by an anonymous Roman
Catholic author (4 vols., Augsburg, 1788-96).
Unfortunately Bingham invested his savings in
the South Sea Bubble and so lost them in 1720.
Bibuoobapbt: Binsham's biography by his great-grand-
son ifl giTwi in the Oxford ed. of his works. Consult also:
J. Darling. Cydopadia BiUiographica, pp. 312-315, Ion-
don, 1854; 8. 8. AlUbone, Critical DicHonary of Eng,
Lifarofur*, i, 189-190. Philadelphia. 1891; DNB, y, 48-60.
BIHIIEY, THOlftAS: English Congregationalist;
b. at Newcastle-upon-Tyne Apr. 30, 1798; d. at
Clapton, London, Feb. 24, 1874. He was for seven
years a bookseller's clerk at Newcastle, during which
time he learned Greek and Latin and accomplished
considerable reading. He studied at the theological
seminary at Wymondley, Hertfordshire, and was
minister for a year at Bedford; became minister
at Newport, Isle of Wight, 1824, of the King's
Weig^-House Chapel, E^eistcheap, London, 1829,
and remained there forty years. After retiring
from his pastorate he was professor of homiletics
and pastoral theology at New College, London.
He was chairman of the Congregational Union in
1848. He was strongly opposed to an established
Church, and in 1833 at the laying of the corner-
stone of a new chapel for the Weigh-House congre-
gation expressed hhnself on the subject in language
which led to a long and bitter controversy. He
felt that the sermon occupied too large a place in
the service of the non-ritualistic Churches and
favored the introduction of responsive readings
and similar changes in the form of worship; his
Service of Song in the House of the Lord (London,
1848) exercised much influence in the development
of a richer and better musical service, and he en-
riched the hymnals by the hymn " Eternal light,
eternal light." He edited Charies W. Baird's
Chapter on Liturgies, adding a preface and an appen-
dix, '' Are Dissenters to Have a Liturgy 7 " (1856).
His other publications include a Memoir of Stephen
MoreU (1826); Disseni Not Schism (1835); a life
of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton (1849); le it Possible
to Make the Best of Both Worlds? (1853); LighU
and Shadows, or Church Life in Australia, obser-
vations made during a visit in 1857-59 (1860);
Money, a Popular Exposition in Rough Notes (1804);
St. Paul, his Life and Ministry (1866); Micah
the Priest Maker, a handbook on ritualism (1867);
From Seventeen to Thirty, a book for young men
(1868). Two series of his Sermons Preached in
the King's Weigh-House Chapel, 18£9~e9, were pub-
lished, the second with biographical sketch by
the Rev. H. Allon (1869-75).
Bibuoobapbt: Berides the sketch in the volume of hie
eermona. the following may be consulted: A Memorial of
^ th* late Rev, Thomae Biftney, ed. J. Stoughton, London,
1874; E. P. Hood, Thomae Binney, hie Mind, Life and
Ojnnione, ib. 1874; DNB, y. 67-fi9.
BINTERIMy ANTON JOSEF: German Catholic
theologian; b. at DOsseldorf Sept. 19, 1779; d. at
Bilk (s. suburb of DOsseldorf) May 17, 1855. After
receiving his first education in fads native city, he
entered the Franciscan order in 1796 and studied
philosophy and theology at Ddren and Aachen
for five years and a half. Returning to DOsseldorf,
he was ordained priest at Cologne (Sept. 19, 1802).
The suppression of the monasteries on- the right
bank of the Rhine in the following year, however,
obliged him to become a secular priest, and in 1805,
after passing the required examination, he was
appointed to the ancient and extensive parish of
Bilk, where he remained until his death. Binterim
was an enthusiastio propagandist of ultramonta
nism, and to this cause he devoted the greater part
of his prolific literary activity. He also defended
the Jesuits and upheld the authenticity of the Holy
Coat of Treves, while with equal consistency he
opposed the followers of Georg Hermes (q.v.)
and Catholic '* rationalism." In 1837, with his
elder brother, he had founded and endowed the
vicarage of St. Anthony of Padua at Bilk, and in
honor of his jubilee the first impulse toward the
establishment of the Historischer Verein ftlr den
Niederrhein was given in 1852. In his devotion
to the Church he was imprisoned for six months
in 1838 for opposing mixed marriages.
(VlCTOB ScHui;rKB.)
Bibuoobafht: Among the numerous publioations of Bin«
t«rim epedAl mention may be made of the foUowing:
Ueber Ehe und Eheedmduno «kmA OoUeewort und dem
Oeiete der katholiedien Kirche (DOeeeldorf, 1819); Catetk-
darium eedeeia Oermamem ColoMeneie eaadi noM (Go-
Biroh
Bishop
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
198
logne, 1824); Die v&nOgliehtten DenkuHtrdioheUen der
chriaaieMMlholiwehen Kirehe (7 yoIb., Mainji. 1825-41);
Die koAoliMd^e Kirdte, ein QegenaaU dee Raiionaliamue
uni Aftermy9tieiMmu9 (DflBseldorf, 1827); DieaUe und
neue Endidceae Kdln (4 vols.. 1828-30); Ueber die tweJc-
mdeeige EinridUung dee vralien kaiholieehen Ootteedienelee
und den keUeamen Oetraudi der laieinieehen Spradie bei
demeOhen (1832); UAer dm, Oebraueh dee Chrietenbltaee
bei den Juden (1834)\ PraamoHeche OeeehidUe der deuUeh-
en ConcUien (7 yoIb., 183&-40); Der kiUholieehe Bruder-
und Schweelerbund eu einer rein katholiechen Ehe (1838);
De proepieeojne eive euflraganeie CoUmienaibue extroar^
dinaeriie (Mains, 1843); Zmi^UM /flr die EcktheU dee
heiliiien Roekee tu Trier (3 partB. Dtlsieldorf. 1846-46);
Die 0eMtiieA«n GeridUe vam 19.-t9, Jahrhundert (2 parts,
1849); Der heUi4fe Hilariue (Leipsic, 1861); Hermann II.,
Enebieehaf von Kdln (Dttsseldorf. 1861); Ueber den Hoe-
Henhanda in Deuteddand und Frankreidi (2d ed.. 1862);
and Die oekeimen Voreduriften der JeeuHen (MonOa Se-
creta\ ein aUee LUgenwerk (1863).
For his life consult: ADB» vol. ii; K. Werner, OeeehidUe
der katkoliedten Theotoffie eeii dem Trienier KonsU bie sur
Oegenwart, pp. 391-303; KL, ii, 848-864 (in considerable
detaU).
BIRCH, THOlftAS: Church of England clergy-
man and author; b. in London Nov. 23, 1705;
d. there Jan. 0, 1766. He was ordained priest
in 1731, although of Quaker parentage and with-
out a university education; was an ardent Whig
and, having influential patrons, received many
good preferments, holding at the time of his death
the rectories of St. Margaret Pattens, London, and
Depden, Suffolk. He was an indefatigable writer,
and his works have been critidxed as showing
more industry than judgment; they include a
number of volumes relating to Eng^h history;
lives of Robert Boyle (London, 1744), Archbishop
Tillotson (1752), and others, as well as most of the
English biographies in the General Dictionary
(10 vols., 1734-41); editions of Milton's prose
(1738), Sir Walter Raleigh's works (1751), and the
works and letters of Lord Bacon (1765); Hietory
of the Royal Society of London (4 vols., 1756-67);
numerous communications in the ''Philosophical
Transactions" and other periodical publications.
Bibuoobapht: J. Nichols, Literary Aneodoiee of the Eight-
eenth CentuT]/, i. 686-637, ii. 607, iu. 258. Y, 40-43, 63.
282-200, London, 1812-16; DNB, ▼, 68-70.
BIRD, FREDERIC HATER: Protestant Epis-
copalian; b. at Philadelphia June 28, 1838; d. in
South Bethlehem, Pa., Apr. 3, 1908. He was
educated at the University of Pennsylvania (B.A.,
1857) and Union Theological Seminary (I860). He
was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in 1860, and
after serving as an army-chaplain in 1862-63, held
several pastorates. In 1870 he became Protestant
Episcopal rector of Spotswood, N. J., from 1870 to
1 874 . Seven years later he was appointed professor
of psychology. Christian ethics, and rhetoric in
Lehigh University, remaining there in this capacity,
as well as in that of chaplain, until 1886. He was
also acting chaplain there in 1896-98, and from
1893 to 1898 was editor of Ldppincotfa Magagine,
In the latter year be became associate editor of
Chandler's Encyclopedia. In addition to numerous
contributions to periodicals and encyclopedias,
including most of the American matter in Julian's
Dictionary of Hymnology (London, 1892), he has
edited Charlea Wesley Seen in his Finer and Less
Familiar Poems (New York, 1867) ; the Hymns of the
Lutheran Pennsylvania ministerium (Philadelphia,
1865; in collaboration with S. M. Schmucker);
and Songs of the Spirit (New York, 1871; in col-
laboration with Bishop W. H. Odenheimer). He
made a noteworthy collection of hymnology, oow
in Union Theological Seminaiy, New York City.
BIRETTA. See Vsbtmenib and Insignia, £c-
CLEBIASTTGAL.
BIR6ITTA9 ST., AHD THE BIRGITTniE OR-
DER. See Bridget, Saint, of Swsdsn.
BmnrUSy saint : First bishop of the West
Saxons; d. Dec. 3, 650. He was a Benedietioe
monk at Rome and was given a missionary com-
mission by Pope Honorius I. After being ood-
seerated bishop at Genoa by Astehus, archbishop
of Bfilan, he landed in Wessex about 634. He
baptised its king, Cynegils, in 635, Oswald of
Northumbria standing as sponsor. He fixed hia
see at Dorchester (now a small village, 8 m. B.e. of
Oxford), and gained influence in Wessex and Mer-
cia. Cwichelm, the son of Cynegils, was baptised
in 636; Cuthred, Cwichelm's son, in 639; Cenwalh,
the brother and successor of Cynegils, in 646.
BiBUOomAPHT: Bede, HieL eed., iii, 7.
BISHOP: A spiritual overseer in the CSuistian
Church. The origin of the office, its historic devel-
opment, and theories of its relative dignity will
be found discussed in the article Politt; for views
of different communions concerning the office, see
Epibcopact; this article will deal mainly with the
selection of bishops and their duties.
In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop holds
the first place in the hierarehy, not as belong-
ing to a separate order, but as having the ful-
ness of the priesthood. Conditions for consecra-
tion are the following: legitimate birth, the age of
thirty years, eminent learning, and moral probity.
In the ordinary case the candidate is supposed also
to be a native of the country and acceptable to
the government. The choice of the person belongs,
on the curialist. theory, to the pope; but in practise
it is generally left to the chapter, either by dection,
or when there are canonical impediments to be
removed, as when translation from another see is
required, by Postulation (q.v.); or
Election it may occur through nomination
and by the government. The candidate
Consecra- must then receive the papal oon-
tion. firmation, after examination as to
his fitness. This is made first by a
papal delegate in the place of the election (pro-
cessus informativus in partHms electi), after which
a second investigation takes place at Rome, by
the committee of cardinals appointed for the pur-
pose (congregatio examinis episcoporum) ; this second
examination is called processus electionis dejinitivut
in curia. If both prove favorable to the candidate,
he is confirmed, preconized, and put in possession
of his powers of jurisdiction, though not, of course,
of those pertaining to orders until his consecration,
which is supposed to occur within three months.
It is administered by a bishop designated by the
pope, with the assistance of two other bishops or
prelates, in the cathedral of the new bisbopV
diocese. The candidate takes the andent oath
198
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biroh
BUhop
of fidelity to the pope (substantially the same as
that prescribed by Gregory VII in 1079), si^ns the
profession of faith, and then, after he has been duly
consecrated according to the form laid down in the
Roman Pontifical, is solemnly enthroned. An
oath of allegiance to the government of the country
is also usually administered before consecration.
The rights or powers of a bishop may be con-
sidered under three heads — aa pertaining to his or-
ders, to his jurisdiction, and to his dignity. As
to the first, he has all the jura ordinia of the fulness
of the priesthood, including, besides those powers
which every priest shares with him, the special
episcopal prerogatives of administering ordination
and confirmation, of consecrating the holy oils,
churches, and sacred objects in general, of bene-
diction of abbots and abbesses, and of anointing
sovereigns. The rights of jurisdiction, in the broad
sense, embrace the bishop's whole power of ruling
his diocese as its chief paator. Sometimes, how-
ever, the term lex jurMictionis is applied specially
to his legislative and executive func-
Rights tions (for the fmrisdictio corUentioaa and
and coereUiva — ^i.e., the power of hearing
Duties, cases and pronouncing and enforcing
judgment — see Audientia Episco-
paleb; JnRi8DicnoN,£cciiBBiASTicAL), while the ex-
pression lex diaceeana refers to his right to the vari-
ous church taxes. These rights belong to the bishop
as bishop, and in regard to them he is judex ordino'
Hus, " the ordinary "; but he often holds other
powers specially delegated to him as represent-
ative of the pope (see Faculties). Finally, in
regard to his dignity, he takes ecclesiastical rank,
in virtue of his exalted office, immediately after
the cardinals, and bears various customary titles
of honor, being addressed as " Right Reverend,"
'' My Lord," etc. In many places he also enjoys
secular precedence; and he has his special insignia
and vestments (see Vestments and Insignia,
Ecclesiastical). To these prerogatives corre-
sponding duties are attached, including not only
the cure of souls, but residence in his diocese, and
a visit to Rome to report upon its condition at
fixed intervals, varying with the distance. Since
the bishop is naturally unable to exercise all the
rights and duties above described in person through-
out his entire diocese, he has always had special
assistants — in early times the archdeacons and
archpriests, later his chapter and variously desig-
nated functionaries, vicars-general and the like,
as well as, for those things which pertain to the
power of orders, coadjutor or assistant bishops.
See the articles under these titles.
In the Plrotestant Churches the episcopate in
the Roman Catholic sense has not be«a preserved.
In the early days of the Reformation in Germany,
the assaults of the Reformers were directed not so
much against the episcopal power in itself as
against abuses in its exercise; until 1545 the ques-
tion was debated on what conditions the adherents
of the evangelical doctrine could agree to submit
to the existing bishops of the old Church. The
Lutheran confessions of faith recognise as of divine
right only the pastoral function in the bishop's
oflBce; all else is of merely human institution, and
IL— 13
may be abolished by the same power that created
it. Since, however, they laid down no definite
form of ecclesiastical polity as ordained by God,
they could and did declare themselves willing to
recognize these powers still, so long as the bishops
would allow freedom to teach the pure doctrine
and tolerate the priests who preached it. Some
bishops fulfilled the condition and accepted the
evangelical doctrine; but this semblance of episco-
pal government had clearly nothing in common
with the pre-Reformation episcopate except the
name and certain forms. Elsewhere, as in Schwerin
and later at OsnabrQck and Lttbeck, the name
bishop was definitely used for an official appointed
by the ruling power, in no sense ecclesiastical.
The attempt to prove that the German Reformation
deliberately intended to retain episcopal govern-
ment is quite useless, though the tendency which it
represents has had adherents, among whom were
Frederick William IV and Bunsen. Where the
title has been employed in the modem evangelical
Church of Crermany, it represents nothing more
than a general superintendent. The bishops of Eng-
land, Sweden, and Denmark are also not bishops
in the strict sense understood by the Roman
Catholics; their institutions rest on special historical
grounds which are beyond the scope of this article.
(E. Friedberg.)
In the Church of England there are three claraes
of bishops: the diocesan bishops, taking their titles
(with a few exceptions of recently founded sees)
from the old pre-Reformation dioceses; suffragan
bishops, bearing likewise territorial titles; and
assistant bishops. The diocesan bishops are nom-
inally elected by the chapters of their cathedrals,
but practically are appointed by the Oown, which
sends a nomination to the chapter with the congi
d'dire. Sufifragan bishops are also nominated by
the Oown, while assistant bishops are appointed
by the prelate under whom they are to serve.
Their appointment is revocable at his pleasure;
that of suffragans is for life. None of these classes
has any jurisdiction independent of its superior.
With the first extension of the Anglican colonial
episcopate, the English government attempted to
claim the same right of nomination as at home;
but this claim was abandoned, and the colonial
bishops are now elected either by the cleigy or by
the deliberative assemblies of their dioceses. In the
Episcopal Church of the United States, bishops are
elected by the diocesan conventions: their election
must then be confirmed by two-thirds of the other
bishops and ** standing committees." Assistant
bishops in this Church are now known as bishops-
coadjutor, and have the right of succession on the
death of the diocesan bishop. In England bishops
are frequently "translated" from one see to an-
other; in the United States, bishops of missionary
jurisdictions may be elected to a diocesan see, but
this is all. Throughout the Anglican communion
consecration by three other bishops is required.
Every English bishop at his consecration takes the
oaths of allegiance to the sovereign and canonical
obedience to his metropolitan; in the United States
each bishop is independent, subject only to the
general law of the Church as formulated by the
BUhop
Blackwood
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
194
General Convention, the office of presiding bishop
being almost purely honorary. Throughout the
Anglican communion the administration of certain
quasisacramental rites (confirmation, ordination,
consecration of churches, etc.) is strictly reserved to
the bishop, who also has a power of ordinary juris-
diction in some measure resembling that exercised
by the Roman Catholic prelates. The two Eng-
lish archbishops, the bishops of London, Winchester,
and Durham, and most of the other bishops (the
number corresponding to that of the more ancient
sees), as " spiritual lords," have seats in the upper
house of parliament. The American Methodist
Episcopal Church also has its bishops, who are
elected in any munber required by the General Con-
ference. They have joint jurisdiction throughout
the Church, being confined to no diocese or districts,
though for practical reasons the General Conference
designates episcopal residences at its quadrennial
sessions. Their functions are purely executive —
they preside at conferences, arrange districts for
presiding elders, fix appointments of preachers, and,
especially, travel throughout the Church to pro-
mote its spiritual and temporal interests. No dis^
tinction of order is recognized between them and
other ministers.
Bibuoobapht: Conault Binsham, OriginBt, books iv, y, be,
xvi, xvii, for the election of bishope and the exercise of
discipline; P. Hergenrdther, Lehrfnidi dea katholUd^tn
KirehenredtU, Freibuis, 1905. On the general subject
consult works cited in Gbubch Qovsrnmbnt.
BISHOP, NATHAN: Baptist layman; b. of
New England stock at Vernon, Oneida County,
N. Y., Aug. 12, 1808; d. at Saratoga Aug. 7, 1880.
He was graduated at Brown 1837, and elected tutor;
was superintendent of schools in Providence 1838-61,
in Boston 1851-57. Removing to New York, he
became an active member of the Sabbath Commit-
tee, manager of the American Bible Society, a
member of the Christian Commission during the
Civil War, and of the Indian Commission appointed
by President Grant in 1869; he was also a member
of the New York State Board of Charities, a dele-
gate of the Evangelical Alliance to the Czar of
Russia in behalf of religious liberty in the Baltic
provinces in 1871, a trustee of Brown University
from 1842, and one of the original board of trustees
of Vassar College. For two years he served gra-
tuitously as secretary of the American Baptist
Home Mission Society, and he was chairman of the
finance conmiittee of the American Bible Revision
Committee till his death.
(P. SCHATFt) D. S. SCHAPP.
BISHOP (EPISCOPUS) IN PARTIBUS INFIDE-
LIUM. See Bishop, Titular.
BISHOP, HTULAR: According to the old law
of the Church, only one bishop was consecrated
for a diocese; and none was consecrated at large
or without a definite diocese (First Council of
Nicsea, canon viii). If, therefore, occasion arose
for the designation of a representative to perform
episcopal fimctions in the place of an incapacitated
bishop, it was necessary to call upon some neigh-
boring bishop or one who happened to be in those
parts (see Cgadjtttor). In the ninth and tenth
oentiuries, certain Spanish bishops who had been
driven from their sees by the Saracens, and in the
tenth some from Prussia and Livonia who were in
a similar position, served in this capacity. The
same service was rendered in the fourteenth cen-
tury by the bishops of sees foimded in the East
during the crusades and afterward occupied by the
Mohammedans. So, even after all hope of the
recovery of these territories had been abandoned,
bishops continued to be consecrated for these
dioceses, called epitcapi in partibus infiddium
(" bishops in the regions of the unbelieving ")
until 1882, when Leo XIII ordered the use of the
designation epiacopi HhUares, Their functions are
various. In the first place, they serve as ausdli^
or coadjutor bishops in dioceses where the need
exists, when the diocesan makes a request to the
pope for such an assignment, naming a suitable
person, and giving assurance for his support.
The coadjutor of course possesses all the /vni
ordinia like any other bishop, but exercises them
only at the direction of his superior, and he has not,
ex officio, the other prerogatives of a diocesan bishop
(see Bishop). Apostolic vicars, who administer
missionary districts not formed into dioceses, are
usually consecrated bishops, and so are certain
Roman functionaries who are members of the great
congregations, and papal nuncios and other diplo-
matic representatives. Titular bishops are also
consecrated for certain special purposes, such as
the administration of holy orders to the Uniat
Greeks of Italy, and the spiritual oversight of the
military and naval forces of certain countries (see
Exemption). (P. HiNscHiust.)
Biblioorapht: L. Thomaasin, Vttu «l nova eednia diti-
pUna, part I. book i, ohap«. 27-28» Luoca, 1728; A. H.
Andnucoi, Tractatut de epiaoopo Hbdari, Rome, 1732;
J. C. Mdller. GeadiidaB der WeihbUch^fe wm Otnabr^
Liniien, 1887.
BISHOPRIC, or DIOCESE: The territory over
which the jurisdiction of a bishop extends. The
origin of such divisions goes back to the foundatioo
and growth of the very early Christian oommunities.
When the apostles founded a church in a dty, the
faithful living there (Gk. paroikoi, parepidimoi;
cf. Eph. ii, 19; I Pet. ii, 11) formed a community
Iparoikia) which gradually took more definite
shape under the leadership of the presbyters or
bishops, and gained adherents outside the town.
At first these latter attended divine service in the
dty, until their numbers increased sufficiently to
form a separate dependent community, the Una
paroikia being applied to the larger territory
equally. In the West the name parochia retained
tUs sense imtil the ninth century, when it became
restricted to single parishes in the modem sense,
the bishop's jurisdiction being known as diffcesis
(already in use to designate a civil governor's juris-
diction) . The latter word in the East, following ^
analogy of civil divisions, was applied to the district
ruled by a patriarch. In Gaul the ecclesiastical unit
was constituted out of the chief town of a district
and its annexed territory (conveniuSf Gk. dioikisii),
which in the Prankish period corresponded to the
jurisdiction of a count. In Germany the original
diocese was larger, and the Oau was ooterauDOUS
196
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bishop
Blaokwood
with iU subdivision of archdeaconry or deanery.
The erection or redistribution of dioceses was from
the fourth century a function of the metropolitan
and the provincial synod; in Germany from the
eighth century it was carried out under papal
supervision. From the eleventh century it has
been reserved to the pope; but in Germany the
joint action of the state has been required, the
matter being considered a causa mixta.
(E. Friedbbro.)
Bibuoobapht: L. ThomAsmn, F«(u« et nova eedmia ditei-
plina, part I. book iii. Luoca. 1728; R. Hooker, EccUHa*-
Heal Polity, book yiii. chap. 8. b«8t ed., by Keble, 3 vols.,
Oxford. 1845; H. Milman, Hiatory of Chrittianiiy, book
iv. London, 1867; W. T. Arnold. Roman SyHem of Pro-
vincial Administration, London, 1870; Bingham. OrigineSt
Books iv-T, ix; KL, il, 878-888.
BISHOPS' BOOK, THE: A work published
at London in 1537, compiled by a commission of
En^ish bishops and clergymen, of which the full
title is The InstihUion of a ChritHan Man, am-
taintTig the expogitum or interpretation of the common
creedf of the seven eacramentSf of the x command-
ments wnd of the pater noeter, and of the ave maria,
justification, and purgatory. It reflects the con-
ditions of the time in maintaining that the authority
of the pope is a human institution, while not denying
that the Church of Rome is a part of the Church
rniversal. It is reprinted in Formularies of Faith
Put Forth by Authority during the Reign of Henry
VIII, edited by C. Lloyd, bishop of Oxford (Oxford,
1825). Consult C. Hardwick, A History of the Chris-
tian Church during the Reformation (6th ed., London,
1877).
BISSELLy EDWm CONE: American Congre-
gatlonalist; b. at Schoharie, N. Y., Mar. 2, 1832;
d. at Chicago Apr. 10, 1894. He was graduated
at Amherst 1855, and at Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York, 1859; was pastor of Congregational
churches at Westhampton, Mass., 1859-64, San
FrandsGO, 1864-69, Winchester, Blass., 1871-73;
missionary of the American Board in Austria
1874-79; became Nettleton professor of Hebrew
and Old Testament exegesis in the Hartford Theo-
logical Semmary 1881, and of Old Testament
exegesis and literature in McCormick Theological
Seminary, Chicago, 1892. During his pastorate
at Westhampton he raised a company of the fifty-
seoond regiment, Massachusetts volunteers, and
served as its captain under Gen. Banks at Port
Hudson 1862-63. In 1869-70 he supplied the
pulpit of the Congregational Church at Honolulu,
Sandwich Islands. He published The Historic
Origin of the BibU (New York, 1873); The Apoc-
rypha of the Old Testament (a revised translation,
introduction, and notes, vol. xv of the American
Lange series, 1880); The Pentateuch, its origin
and structure (1885); Biblical Antiquities (PhiU-
delphia, 1888); A Practical Introductory Hebrew
Grammar (Hartford, 1891); Genesis Printed in
Colors, showing the original sources from u^ich it
is supposed to have been compiled, with introducHon
(1892).
BITHYlflA. See Asia Minob nr thx Afostouc
Time, VI.
BIZOCHL See Fraticklu.
BJORLING, bixn/ling, CARL OLOF: Swedish
theologian; b. at Wester&s (60 m. w.n.w. of Stock-
hohn), Sweden, Sept. 16, 1804; d. there Jan. 20,
1884. He studied at the University of Upsala;
became bishop of Wester&s, 1866, having long been
connected as teacher and rector with the Gefle
gymnasium. He was the author of several learned
works, including a treatise on Christian dogmatics
(2 parts, 1847-75), which attracted considerable at-
tention in Germany, and shows his firm adherence
to the Augsburg Confession.
BLACK FATHERS. See Holt Ghobt, Orders
AND CONaREGATIONB OF THE, II, 6.
BLACK FRIARS: A name given in England
to Dominican monks because of the color of their
dress.
BLACK, HUGH: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at
Rothesay (40 m. w. of Glasgow), Buteshire, Mar.
26, 1868. He was graduated from Glasgow Uni-
versity in 1887 and the Free Church College, Glas-
gow, in 1891, and was ordained to the Presbyterian
ministry in the latter year. He was pastor of
Sherwood Church, Paisley, 1891-96, and became
associate pastor of St. Geoi^'s Free Church, Edin-
burgh, 1896. He lectured on homiletics at Union
Theological Seminary, New York, in 1905, and in
1906 became professor of practical theology in that
institution. He has written The Dream of Youth
(London, 1894); Friendship (1897); CuUure and
Restraint (1901); Work (1903); The Practice of
Self-Culture (1904); and Comfort (1906).
BLACK JEWS. See C^hurch of Gk)D, 2.
BLACK RUBRIC: The popular name for the
declaration enjoining kneeling at the end of the
order for the administration of the Lord's Supper in
the prayeivbook of the Church of England, so called
bebause it was printed in black letter in the prayeiv
book as revised by William Sancroft (q.v.) in 1661.
It is not, strictly speaking, a rubric at aU as it is
intended for the direction of the people and not for
the ofiiciating clergy. Nor did Sancroft originate
it, as it dates back to the second prayer-book of
Edward VI (1552), whose council ordered that the
conmiunicants should receive the elements kneeling,
and explained in the " rubric " that this attitude
was not used to express belief in transubstantiation.
The " rubric " was omitted in the Elizabethan
prayer-book of 1559, and this omission was one of
the cherished grievances of the Puritans. In the
Savoy Conference of 1661 the Presbyterians de-
manded its restoration, but the bishops were not at
the time inclined to grant it; at the last moment,
however, it was replaced and so it appears in the
revised prayer-book of Charles II and is still re->
tained in the English prayeivbook. It was removed
from the prayer-book as revised for the American
Episcopal Church in 1789.
BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM: Presbyterian; b. at
Dromara, Coimty Down, Ireland, June 1, 1804;
d. in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 13, 1893. He was
graduated at the Royal College, Belfast, 1832;
became pastor successively of the Presbyterian
churches of Holywoodi near Belfast; 1835; o!
BlaUde
Blasphemy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
196
Trinity Church, Newcaatle-on-Tyne, 1843; and
of the Ninth Church, Philadelphia, Penn., 1850.
He was secretary to the Education Committee of
the Irish Presbyterian Church, 1834-40; mathe-
matical examiner of students under care of the
Synod of Ulster, 1839-43; and was moderator of
the Presbyterian Church in En^and, 1846. He
published, with other works, essays on Missions
to the Heathen (Belfast, 1830); Atonement, Faith,
and Assurance (Philadelphia, 1856); BeUarmine's
Notes of the Church (1858); and edited the papers
of the late Rev. Richard Webster, with intro-
duction and indexes, and published them under
the title Webster's History of the Presbyterian Church
(Philadelphia, 1857); also the BiUical, Theological,
Biographical, and lAterary EncydopcBdia (2 vols.,
1873-76).
BLAIKIB, WILLIAM GARDEN: Free Church
of Scotland; b. at Aberdeen Feb. 5, 1820; d. at
North Berwick June 11, 1899. He studied at
Marischal College and at Edinburgh (M.A., Aber-
deen, 1837); was ordained minister of the Estab-
lished Church at Drumblade, Aberdeenshire, 1842;
joined the Free Church of Scotland, 1843; was
minister of Pilrig, Edinburgh, 1844-68; professor
of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College,
Edinburgh, 1868-97. With the Rev. WiUiam Ar-
not he was delegate from the Free Church of Scot-
land to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church of the United States at Philadelphia in
1870 to convey congratulations on union; he took
a leading part in the Alliance of the Reformed
Churches; was deeply interested in measures to
improve the condition of the poor and the working
classes; and active in behalf of home missions,
temperance, church extension, and all the work
of the Free Church. In 1892 he was moderator of
the Creneral Assembly. He edited The Free Church
Magazine 1849-53, The North British Review 1860-
1863, The Sunday Magazine 1873-74, and The
Catholic Presbyterian 1879-83.
Biblioobapht: The more importent of his many books
were Bibls HiHory in ConnMiion toUh tks Oenaral Hiatory
at tks World, London, 1850; Better Day for tke Workino
People, 1803 (originally published as Six Leduree Ad-
dreeeed to Vte Woiinno Ctaeeee on A« Improvement of their
Temporal Condition, Edinbuzsh. 1840); Heade and Hand*
in the World of Labor, 1865; For the Work of the Minie-
try, a Manual of HomUeHeal and Paatoral Theolooy, 1873;
Glimpeee of A« Inner Life of our Lord, 1876; The Per-
eonal Life of David Livingetone, 1880; The Public Minie-
try and Paeioral Methode of our Lord, 1883; Leadere in
Modem PhUanthropy, 1884; Robert RoUoek, firtt PHnei^
pal of the Univereiiy of Edinburgh, 1884; The Preaehere
of Scotland from the Sixth to Vte Nineteenth Century (Cun-
ningham Leoturas for 1888); Thomae Chalmere, Edin-
buigh, 1806; David Brown, a Memoir, London. 1808. He
also edited Memoriale of the Late Andrew Crichton, 1868.
and James Walker's Theology and Theologiane of Scot-
land, 1872; wrote five of the Preeent Day TraeU, 1883-
1885; contributed the ** Escpositions and Homiletios" for
the Epistle to the Ephesians in the PulpU Commen-
tary, and prepared the Books of Joshua and Samuel for
the Bxpoeitor*e BiUe, For his life consult his AutMog-
raphy, edited with introduction by N. L. Walker, Lon-
don. 1001. and DNB, supplement yoI. i, 212-213.
BLAIR, HUGH: Church of Scotland; b. in
Edinburgh Apr. 7, 1718; d. there Dec. 27, 1800.
He studied in the local university; became minister
of Colessie, Fifeshire, 1742; second minister of
the Canongate Church, Edinburgh, 1743; minister
of Lady Tester's 1754; was transferred to the High
Church 1758. From 1759 he lectured in the Uni-
versity so acceptably on rhetoric and belles-lettres,
that in 1760 he was appointed the town council
professor in that department, and from 1762 to
1783 was the royal professor; when on resigning be
published his lectures (2 vols.) he became one of the
most famous authors of woriss on rhetoric in the
English language and retained the position for a
oentuiy. In 1780 he received a pension of £200
a year. To his own generation he was a most
acceptable preacher and his sermons continued to
be read and to be translated far into the nine-
teenth oentuiy. Their simplicity, excdlent style,
and high morality account for their vogue, but
their lack of depth in thought and spirituality
have caused them to lose popularity.
Bibuoobapht: Sketohee of Blair's life were appended to
vol. y of his sermons by J. Finlayson, London, ISOl; oon-
sult also John Hill, An Aeeou$U of the Life and WriAitfi
of H, Blair, £dinbui«h, 1807; DNB, y. 160-161.
BLAIR, JAMES: Virginia colonial Episcopal
clergyman; b. in Scotland in 1656; d. at Williams-
burg, Va., Apr. 18, 1743. He was graduated MA.
at Edinburgh in 1673; became a dergyman of the
Episcopal Church of Scotland and was rector of
Cranston in the diocese of Edinburi^. In the Utter
part of the reign of Charies II he went to England
and was persuaded by Dr. Compton, bishc^ of
London, to emigrate to Viiginia, where he arrived
in 1685; he was minister of Henrico parish till
1694, at Jamestown till 1710, and at Williamsburg
the rest of his life. In 1689 he was i^pointed by
the bishop of London conunissaiy for Virgima,
the highest church office in the colony, the duties
of which were practically those of a bishop ex-
clusive of ordination. After 1793 he was meniber
of the colonial Council and for nuiny yean its
president. He was a man of sterling character
and great ability, and worked with persistent seal
and energy to promote the religious and material
welfare of Virginia. He did much to devate tbe
character of the colonial clergy. With several of
the governors he had bitter disputes and was |
influential in securing their removal. He was
founder and first president of William and Mary j
College, for which he procured a charter in England
in 1693, and which he made a success in spite of j
great difficulties and discouragements. He pub-
lished four volumes containing 117 sermons on |
Our Savior's Divine Sermon on Sie Mount (London,
1722) and with Heniy Hartwell and Edward
Chilton prepared The Present StaU of Vvpnia
and the College (London, 1727).
BiBuooaAPHT: D. E. Motley, 7^ Life of Commnimary JeM»
Blair, in Johne Hopkine Univereiiy Studiee in Hukrieal
and Political Science, aeriet six, no. 10, Baltimore, 1901:
DNB, v. 161-1«2.
BLAIR, SAMUEL: American Presbyterian; b.
in Ireland June 14, 1712; d. at Londonderry, P^f
July 5, 1751. He came early to America; studied
at Tennent's " Log College " at Neshaminy; was
ordained pastor of Hfiddletown and Shrewsbury,
N. J., 1734; in 1739 removed to Londonderry or
Fagg's Manor (40 m. wjb.w. of Phfladelphu)>
197
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blaikle
Blasphemy
Chester County, Penn., and established there a
school after the model of the " Log College.'' He
was an adherent of Gilbert Tennent in the contro-
versies of his time. His principal writings were
collected by his brother, Rev. John Blair (Phila-
delphia, 1754); they include sermons, a treatise
on predestination and reprobation, and an account
of a revival in his congregation at Londonderry.
Bxbuoobapht: Conault the biographioal sketch in A. Alex-
ander. The Founder and Principal Alumni of tke Log Col-
leoe, pp. 1M>196, PhilMlelphia. 1851.
BLAIR, WILLIAM: United Free Church of
Scotland; b. at Climy (23 m. s.w. of St. Andrews),
Fifeshire, Jan. 13, 1830. He studied at the Univer-
sity of St. Andrews (M.A., 1850), and in 1856 was
ordained to the United Presbyterian ministry at
Dunblane, Perthshire. He was clerk to the Stirling
Presbytery for twenty-five years, and to the United
Presbyterian Synod 1894-1900; since 1900 he has
been clerk to the United Free Church Creneral As-
sembly, and was moderator of the United Pres-
byterian Synod in 1898-99. He has been chaplain
to the famous Black Watch since 1892, a member
of the University C!ourt of St. Andrews University
since 1903. In theology he adheres strictly to the
Westminster Confession. He has written Chrontclea
of Aberbrolhoc (Arbroath, 1853); Rambling RecoUec-
tions: or, Scenes worth Seeing (Edinburgh, 1857);
Archbishop LeigkUm, Life with Selections (London,
1883); Jubilee Memorial Volume (Edinburgh, 1887);
History and Principles of the United Presbyterian
Church (1888); and RobeH Leighton, Extracts and
Introduction (London, 1907).
BLAISE, SAIBT. See Helpebb in Need.
BLAKESLEEy ERASTUS: Congregatfonalist; b.
at Plymouth, Conn., Sept. 2, 1838; d. at Brookline,
UasB., July 12, 1908. While a sophomore at Yale
in 1861 he enlisted as a cavalryman. He was mus-
tered out in 1865 as brevet brt^ier^neral of vol-
unteers. After a business career he studied in
Andover Theological Seminary from 1876 to 1879,
and entered the Congregational ministry. He had
three efaaiges, at Greenfield » Mass., Faiiiu&ven,
Conn., and at Spencer, Mass. (1887-92), and re-
signed the last that he might give his whole time
to the preparation and publication of the " Bible
Study Union Lessons/' which are not only wide^
used in this country, but translated into several
missionary languages. With the teachers' aids,
issued separately, more than 160 volumes of lessons
were published. Frank Samdbbs.
BLARCKMEISTBR, FRANZ THEODOR: Qep-
man Lutheran; b. at Plauen (21 m. s.w. of Zwickau)
Feb. 4, 1858. After studying at Leipsic from 1877
to 1880 and teaching for a year, he entered the
ministry, and has been, smoe 1897, pastor of Trinity
(Jhurch in Dresden. In theology he is extremely
Protestant and an adverse critic of the Roman
Catholic Church. Of his numerous publications may
be mentioned AUe Oeschichte aus dem Sachsenlande
(3 vols., Barmen, 1886-89); Saehsenepiegd (Dres-
den, 1897; 2d ed., 1902); and SOn^ieiechs Kirdienge-
•chiehte (1899; 2d ed., 1906).
BLAIfDINA, SAUfT: A martyr who was among
the victims of the persecution in Lyons imder
Marcus Aurelius. In the acootmt of that persecu-
tion given by the Christian community there, and
preserved by Eusebius (Hist, ecd,, v, 1), the courage
of the young slave girl is specially extolled; and she
is singled out for mention by name, an honor which
she shares with only seven of the other martyrs,
including the bishop Pothinus. (A. EUncK.)
BLAlfDRATA, GEORGIUS: Italian Unitarian;
b. about 1515 at Saluzzo (17 miles n.w. of Coni),
Piedmont; d. after 1585. He migrated to Poland,
where he became physician to Sigismtmd I, then
went to Transylvania and served the widow of
Jan Zapolya in a like capacity. Having returned
to Italy, he went to Pavia, and became an object
of suspicion on account of his radical utterances on
theology, but escaped the Inquisition by going to
Geneva. There he debated with Martinenghi,
the preacher of the Italian congregation, also with
Calvin, especially concerning the doctrine of the
Trinity, which he regarded as endangering the
doctrine of the unity of God. He regarded specu-
lation on the relation of the three persons as un-
necessary (F. Trechsel, ProteslanHsche AntUrini-
tarier, 4 parts, Bern, 1841-42, ii, 467; CR, xvii,
2871). Calvin replied in his Responsum ad quoBs-
Hones 0, Blandrata (Geneva, 1559). As some mem-
bers of the congregation sided with Blandrata,
Calvin had a confession signed which condemned
the antitrinitarian doctrine. Blandrata went to
Zurich, then again to Poland, where he was received
by Prince Radsiwill and took part in several
synods (cf. H. Dalton, Lascianct, BerUn, 1898, iv),
but Calvin's repeated warnings against him, stig-
matizing him as " a foul pest," prevented any
lasting activity. In 1563 Blandrata went again
to Transylvania and openly professed Unitarianism,
being assisted by Pnnoe Stephen Bathori, after-
ward king of Poland. Faustus Socinus accused
Blandrata of having separated from his coreligion-
ists out of avarice; at any rate, tired of the con-
flict, he ceased to take part in public affairs.
K. Benrath.
Bibuographt: Many of the letters of Blandrata are printed
in CR^ vols, xyii-xjd. Sources for a biography are: C.
SandiuB, Bibliotheea anHtrinOariorutn, Freistadt, 1684;
8. Lubienski. Hiatoria reformoHonie Polonica, ib. 1686.
Consult V. Malaoame, Commentario delle opere e delia
vicendi di G. Biandraia, Padua, 1814; O. Fook, Der So-
cinianiemua, Kiel. 1847; and J. H. Allen, Hi»torical
Skelbh of the UnUarian Movement, New York, 1804.
BLASPHEHY (Gk. hlasphimia, ''a speech or
word of evil omen "): Properly any species of
calumny and detraction, but technically limited
to evil-«peaking of God or things held sacred. The
conception that such an act is a crime may be traced
back to Judaism, whose code imposed death by
stoning as a punishment (Lev. xziv, 15-16; Matt,
xxvi, 65; John x, 33). The later Roman law also
attached the death penalty (Nov, Ju«ftn.,LXXVII,
i, 1-2). In the earlier church law, blasphemy is not
mentioned as a punishable offense. Pope Gregory
IX (1227-41) prescribed penance for public blas-
phemy against (}od, the saints, or the Virgin;
the guilty person must stand for seven Sundays
Blass
Bledsoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
198
at the church porch during the maaa, on the last
of the seven without doak or shoes; he must fast
the Fridays preceding on bread and water, and give
ahns according to his means. The civil authorities
were also admonished to impose a fine. By the
end of the century the offense came to be more
definitely defined as any depreciatory or oppro-
brious expression concerning God, Christ, or the
Holy Spirit, such as the denial of a divine attribute,
or the ascription of something unseemly (as false-
hood or revenge), or wishing ill to or in any way
dishonoring God, the saints, or the Virgin. Leo
X (1513-21) imposed fines according to the ability
of the offender and bodily punishments which
included flogging, boring the tongue, and condem-
nation to the galleys in extreme cases. Later a
tendency to substitute admonition and exhortation
for severe penalties becomes apparent. By the
common law of England, and in many of the United
States by statute law, blasphemy is an indictable
offense; prosecutions, however, have become infre-
quent. (P. HmscHiust.)
The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost which
is pronounced unpardonable (Matt, xii, 31; Mark
iii, 29; Luke xii, 10) is best understood to be wilful
and persistent resistance to the influences and
warnings of God, which renders the subject in-
capable of repentance and pardon. See Holt
Spirit, IL
Biblioorapht: J. D. Miehaelis, MotikUchM Reeht, part y,
i 261. Frankfort. 1770-76. Eng. tranal., London. 1810;
P. Hinschius, Daa Kirehttnrecht in DeuUchland, iy, p. 703,
n. 3, ▼, 184. 318-319, 326. 690, vi. 188. Berlin, 1860-08;
Blackstone, Commentaries IV. 4, iv; Sir J. F. Stephen,
Hiatory of the Criminal Law of England, ii. 460-476, Lon-
don. 1883: Bishop. CommeniariM, X, z; DB, i. 306-306;
EB, i. 680-600.
BLASS, FRIEDRICH WILHELM: German Prot-
estant classical scholar; b. at Osnabrack (30
m. n.e. of Manster) Jan. 22, 1843; d. at Halle
Mar. 5, 1907. He studied in Gdttmgen (1860-61)
and Bonn (1861-^; Ph.D., 1863), and after being
a teacher in gymnasia at Bielefeld (1864r-66),
Naumburg-an-der-Saale (1866-70), Magdeburg
(1870-73), and Stettin (1873-74), became privat-
docent at Kdnigsberg in 1874. Two years later
he was appointed associate professor at Kiel, where
he was promoted to the rank of full professor in
1881. From 1892 he was professor of classical
philology at Halle. Besides editions of Greek
authors and inscriptions, and several works on
strictly classical themes, he published Philology of
the Gospels (London, 1898) and Grammatik dea
neiUestamenUichen Griechisck (Gdttingen, 1896;
Eng. transl. by H. St. J. Thackeray, London, 1898),
and edited Acta Apostolorum (Gdttingen, 1895;
minor edition, Leipsic, 1896); Evangelium secun-
dum Lucam (Leipsic, 1897); Evangelium secundum
MaUkceum (1901); Evangelium secundum Johan-
nem (1902); and {Barnabas) Brief an die H^nHer
(HaUe, 1903).
BLASTARES, HATTHiEIJS: At first a secular
priest and later a monk of the order of St. Basil,
who made about 1335 a collection of laws, both civil
and ecclesiastical, known as "Alphabetical Col-
lection," Syntagma alphabeticum rerum omnium
qua in sacris canonilms camprehenduntur. The
dvil part ("political laws") is based upon the
Novella of Justinian, the ecclesiastical (" canons ")
upon the collection of Photius, with the commen-
taries of Zonaras and Balsamon. Such a diction-
ary of law filled a practical want, and so was uni-
versally used by the Eastern clergy, and even
translated into Slavic. A complete reprint is found
in Beveridge's Synodicon, ii, 2, and in vol. vi of the
Syntagma tOn thei&n kai hierSn kanon&n (Athens,
1859). (E. Friedbeso.)
BLAURER (BLARER, BLAARER), AMBRO-
SUSS: German Reformer; b. at Constance Apr.
12, 1492; d. at Winterthur (12 miles n.e. of Zurich),
Switierland, Dec. 6, 1 564. He studied at Tubingen,
where he became acquainted with Melanchtbon;
about 1510 he entered the monastery at Alpirsbach,
and continued his studies at TObingen till 1513.
Through study of the Bible and of Luther's writings,
to the reading of which he was led by his brother
Thomas, who while studying at Wittenberg had
become intimate with Luther and Melanchtbon,
he embraced the principles of the Reformation,
which he tried to introduce into the monasteiy.
Being opposed by the abbot, he went to Con-
stance Jidy 5, 1522, and at the instance of the
cotmcil of the dty began to preach in 1525. He
became the leader of the Reformation there.
From 1528, Blaurer labored for the Reformation
outside of his native dty. He was present at the
colloquy in Bern (Jan. 6, 1528), was at Memmingen
Nov., 1528-Feb., 1 529, and presided over the conven-
tion of the friends of the Reformation in Upper
Gennany which met in Memmingen F^. 27-Mar.
1, 1531. From May to July, 1531, he was at Ulm
with (Eoolampadius and Butaer, afterward at Ges-
lingen, and (Sept. 1531-July, 1532) at Esslingeo.
He ever3rwhere displayed ability in organiiation.
In July, 1532, his native dty recalled him, and in
1533 he married a former nun.
In 1534 he was called by Duke Ulrich, together
with the Lutheran Erhard Schnepf , to further the
cause of the Reformation in the duchy of Wurttem-
berg. The two men came to an agreement, Aug. 2,
1534, concerning the doctrine of the Lord's Supper
paving thereby the way for the coming union of
the German Evangelical Church. To Blaurer
was assigned the south of Wtlrttembeig with resi-
dence at TObingen. He encountered there certain
difficulties: (1) the agreement with Schwenckfeld.
1535; (2) the reformation at the University of
Tabingen, which Brena had undertaken; (3) the
image-question, which Blaurer solved by re-
moving all of them from the chuitshes, but the
" idol-diet " at Urach left the dedsion to the duke.
At Schmalkald Blaurer refused in Feb., 1537, to
sign the artides of Luther, but approved those
of Melanchtbon. Court intrigues brought about
Blaurer's dismissal in Jime, 1538. Not till 1556
did Duke Christopher compensate him for his
four years' services. He was at Augsburg June ,
27-Dec. 6, 1530, where he earnestly labored against
the luxury of the rich, pleaded for benevolence to
the poor, and for the cause of morality. He went to j
Kempten and labored there (Dec., 1539, to the end
of Jan., 1540) for the peace of the Churdi, and also
at Isny, 1544-55.
199
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BlaM
Bledsoe
By the Interim, Constance lost its independence.
The Spaniards took the city Aug. 6, 1548, and
made it an Austrian town, speedily crushing the
Reformation. Blaurer left there Aug. 28, and
preached in Biel (1551-59), Leutmerken, and
finally at Winterthur, where he died. He declined
calls to Bern, Augsburg, Memmingen, and the
Palatinate, and influenced large circles by his
correspondence. His twenty-two hymns give evi-
dence of poetical power and fervor.
G. BOSSBBT.
Bibuoorarht: D. C. Pfister, DenkwOrdigkeiitn der wOrUetn-
btrffi^ehen und 9dnff0bi9dten B€formaiUm9oe9chielUB, port
1. Tabiofeh. 1817; T. Keim, Ambr. BUtrmr dtr mAidA-
hiatht lUtcrmatar, Stuttcart, 1860; T. Prenel. Ambro9iua
Blminr*9 LtUn und Schriften, ib. 1861; Ltben und au9-
oeuOklU Sckriften der ViUer der reformierten Kirehe, vol.
xhr. Elberfeld. 1861; E. Schneider, WUrUemberoiedie Refor-
wmtianegeeckidUe, Stuttgart. 1887; E. Inel, Die Reforma-
Hon in Konetane, Freiburg, 1888; F. Roth. Auotburge
ReformaHonegeeehiehie, yols. i, ii, Munich, 1901, 1904;
Zwin4fUana, 1900. no. 2, p. 163, 1902. no. 2, p. 317.
BLAURER, MARGARETHA: Sister of Am-
brosiua Blaurer (q.v.), one of the most intelligent
and deeply religious women of the Reformation
time; d. in Constance 1542. She became deeply
interested in the person and work of Pilgram Mai^
beck (q.v.) during his residence in Strasburg (1528-
1532) and, whether she sympathised with his anti-
pedobaptist teaching or not, reproached Butzer for
his intolerant proceedings against Marbeck and
refused to be convinced by Butser^s arguments that
Marbeck was a heretic or a hypocrite. She died
while mimstering to the plague-stricken poor of
(instance, and has the honor of being one of the
first Protestant women to engage in diaconal
service. A. H. Newican.
Biblioobapbt: J. W. Baum, Cajfilo und BiOmt, paosim,
Elberfeld, 1860; C. Gerbert, Geeehiehie der atraaeburger
SeeUfAewegumg gur Zeiider ReformaHon, 1694-1634, pp. 97
aqq., StrMburg, 1889; and literature under Blaurxb, Am-
BLAVATSK7, HELENA PETROVNA: Theoso-
phist; b. at Ekaterinoslav (250 m. n.e. of Odessa),
Russia, July 31 (O. S.), 1831; d. in London May 8,
189 1. Supposed to have been the child of a Russian
officer named Peter Hahn, she married, at the age of
seventeen, a Russian official, Nicephore Blavatsky,
from whom she separated after a very few months.
For the next twenty years her life was a wandering
one, mixed with spiritualism and similar cults.
During this time she visited Paris, Cairo, New Or-
leans, Tokyo, and Calcutta, and she claimed to have
resided for seven years in Tibet, whence she pre-
tended to draw the mysteries of theosophy (q.v.).
In 1858 she started a spiritualistic movement in Rus-
sia, and in 1873 was again in the United States. In
1875 she founded at New York, in collaboration with
Col. Henry Steel Olcott, the Theosophical Society.
Her chief works, which have run through repeated
editions and have been translated into many lan-
guages, both in Europe and India, are Isis Unveiled :
The Master Key to Ancient and Modem Mysteries,
the standard text-book of the Theosophists (2 vols..
New York, 1877); Secret Doctrine : The Synthesis
of Science, Reliffion, and Philosophy (2 vols., 1888);
Voice of the Silence (1889); Key to Theosophy, in
the Form of Question and Anstper (1889); and the
posthumous From the Caves and Jungles of Hin"
dostan (1892; originally contributed to the Russian
Russky Vye^ik); Nightmare Tales (London, 1892)
Theosophical Glossary (1892); and Modem Panarion
Collection of Fugitive Fragments (1899).
Bibuoorapbt: E. Coulomb, Sotne Aeecuntof my Intercourse
viSh Madame Blavoteky fnmCJ&/B to 1884, London, 1886; A.
P. Sinnett, Ineidente in the Life cf Madame Blavateky, ib.
1886; C. WaohtmeiBter, Reminiecencce of H, P. Blavataky
and **the Secret Doctrine/' ib. 1893; A. Ullie. Madame
BkmaUkvand her " Theoeophy": A Study, ib. 1895; V.
8. SolovyoflF, Modem Prieeteee of leie, from the Runrian. by
W. Leaf, ib. 1896 (an expoei)\ H. Freimark, ' Heltfna
Peiroviia Blavatsky, Leipeic, 1907.
BLAYNE7, BENJAMIN: Church of En^and
Hebrew scholar; b. 1728; d. at Poulshot (22 m.
n.w. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Sept. 20, 1801. He
studied at Worcester and Hertford Colleges, Ox-
ford (B.A., 1750; M.A., 1763; B.D., 1768; D.D.,
1787); was appointed regius professor of Hebrew
in 1787 and was made canon of Christ Church.
He revised the text of the Authorized Version of the
Bible to secure typographical accuracy and added
to the marginal references; the edition appeared
in 1769 and is the standard for the Oxford press.
He also published A Dissertation by Way of Inquiry
into the True Import and Application of the Vision
Called Daniel's Prophecy of Seventy Weeks (Oxford,
1775); two sermons, on The Sign Given to Ahaz
(1786) and Christ the Greater Glory of the Temple
(1788); translations of Jeremiah and Lamentations
(1784) and Zechariah (1797); and an edition of
the Samaritan Pentateuch (1790).
BLEDSOE, ALBERT TAYLOR: American
Southern Methodist; b. at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9,
1809; d. at Alexandria, Va., Dec. 8, 1877. He
was graduated at West Point, 1830, became lieu-
tenant of infantxy, and resigned 1832; he became
assistant professor of mathematics at Kenyon
College, Gambler, O., 1834; entered the ministry
of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was rector at
Hamilton, O., and professor of mathematics at
Miami University, Oxford, O., 1835-36; practised
law in Springfield, 111., and in the United States
Supreme Court at WasMngton, 1840-48; was profes-
sor of mathematics in the University of Mississippi,
1848-54, and in the University of Virginia, 1854-
1861 ; he entered the Confederate service as a colonel,
but was soon made assistant secretary of war;
lived in England 1863-66; after 1867 published
The Southern Review at Baltimore, which un-
der his management became one of the leading
periodicab of the Methodist Church, South. He
was ordained a Methodist minister in 1871, but
never took charge of a church. He was a strenuous
advocate of the doctrine of free will and a stem
opponent of atheism and skepticism; the doctrine
of predestination he consideied a reflection upon
the divine glory, and a cause of unbelief; his views
are set forth in his Examination of Edwards on the
Will (Philadelphia, 1845) and his Theodicy, or
Vindication of the Divine Glory (New York, 1853).
He also published Liberty and Slavery (Philadelphia,
1857); The Philosophy of Mathematics (1868);
Is Davis a Traitor f or was secession a constitu-
tional right previous to the war of 1861 f (Baltimore,
1866).
Bleek
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
200
BLEEK, FRIEDRICH: Protestant theologian and
exegete; b. at AhrensbOk, Holstein, July 4, 1793;
d. at Bonn Feb. 27, 1859. He studied theology and
philology at Kiel and Berlin, 1812-17, and began to
lecture aa repetent in theology in the latter place
in 1818. Hjs lectures on the Old and the New
Testaments attracted attention, and in 1821 he
was made extraordinary professor; he succeeded
LUcke as professor at Bonn, 1829, receiving the
same year his doctorate from Breslau. For thirty
years Bleek lectured at the university in Bonn.
He was extremely painstaking in the preparation
of his lectures, which were so carefidly written
that after his death they could easily be used for
publication, and continue in much larger circles
the influence they had already exerted. His works
printed during Ms lifetime include: Ueber die Ent"
sUhung und Zuaammeruetgung der SibyUinischen
Orakd, Ueber VerfasMr und ZweckdeaBuchee Daniel,
and Beitrag twr Kritik vnd Deutung der Offenbarttng
Jokannis, three valuable essays published in the
theological review edited by Schleiermacher, De
Wette, and LOcke (Berlin, 1819-22); Versuch einer
voUetdndigen Einleihmg in den Brief an die Hebrder
(Berlin, 1828), followed in 1836 and 1840 by a
translation of Hebrews and commentary on the
book; BeUrOge xur Evan^ienkrOik (Berlin, 1846).
Of his posthumous works mention may be made of
EinleUung in doe AUe Testament (edited by his son J.
F. Bleek and A. Kamphausen, Beriin, 1860; 3d ed.,
by Kamphausen, 1870; 4th, 5th, and 6th ed., by J.
Wellhausen, 1878, 1886, 1893; Eng. transl. by G. H.
Venables, 2 vols., London, 1869; on the last three
editions cf . H. L. Strack, Einleitung in daa AUe Tea-
lament, Munich, 1895, 11); Einleitung in doe Neue
Testament (1st and 2d editions by his son, J. F.
Bleek, 1862, 1866; 3d and 4th editions by W.
Mangold, Berlin, 1875, 1886; Eng. transl. by W.
Urwick, London, 1870); Synoptieche Erkldrung der
drei ersten Evangelien (ed. H. Holtzmann, 2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1862); VorUeungen mber die Apokalypee
(ed. T. Hossbach, Beriin, 1862; Eng^. trand., Lon-
don, 1874); VorUeungen Ober die Brief e an die
Koloaaer, den Philemon und die Epheeer (ed. F.
Nitssch, Berlin, 1865); Vorlesungen vber den He-
hrderbrief (ed. A. Windrath, Elberfeld, 1868). Bleek's
writings are especially distinguished for thorough-
ness in investigation and clearness of expression.
His standpoint in criticism was conservative.
A. Kamphausen.
BLEMM7DES, NIKEPHOROS: Greek monk;
b. at Constantinople about 1197; d. (near Ephesus?)
1272. He founded a monastery near Ephesus, and
became its archimandrite. His many writings were
philosophical treatises, discourses on the procession
of the Holy Spirit, on the Trinity, on Christology,
on the duties of the king, and an exposition of the
Faalms. [He is principally noted for his defense
of the Roman doctrine of the procession of the
Spirit from Father and Son before the emperor John
III Vatatzes at Nicsea.] Blemmydes was honest
and incorruptible, but harsh in character. Out of
devotion to the ascetic life, he declined the patri-
archate. Philipp Meyer.
BmuooBAPHT: The works of Blemmydes are in MPO,
exUi, And also in A. Heisenberg's N. Bkmmyda, eurri-
culum viiag et earmina, Letpsac, 1896, which eomtsioB the
newly disoovered autotnography. Consult Kmmbscher,
Gesc^foUe, pp. 445 sqq., et ]
Biblical Basis (I 1).
Foundation in Ethies (I 2).
In Gommunion with (Sod (1 3).
Degrees of Blessednen ({ 4).
The term " blessedness " is the usual rendering in
the En^h Bible for the idea of the Hebrew a«^ and
Greek makarioa. The German iSe/if/A^eif represents be-
sides the content of those words also
X. Biblical the idea of the Greek adtetn, "to
Basifl. save." The Latin equivalent of nuka-
rioa is heatue, which has, however, passed
in usage to designate the state of Christians who have
fallen asleep (cf. Rev. xiv, 13); while beaiUudo
in scholastic usage designates the aim and the
highest good of the Christian. The union of two
Biblical conceptions in one expression gives to the
latter its unique Christian content, as is realized
when the two ideas are traced to their junction.
Illuminative of this point is Paul's use (Roti.
iv, 7-8) of Ps. xxxii, 1-2. The Old Testament
passage bases " blessedness " on forgiveness of sin,
and goes to the root of human felicity or its oppo-
site. The Reformed theology traced the idea of
blessedness to the salvation implied in that forgive-
ness, and the fact is evinced in Luther's use of
SeligkeU to express the state consequent upon
forgiveness. Thus the union of the ideas of blessed-
ness and salvation is manifest.
The term suggests also the idea of a condition of
abiding satisfaction fully realized in oonsdousness.
This is attributed to God in I Tim. vi, 15-16 (cf.
i, 11), with which dogmatics agrees on the ground
of his absoluteness and completeness. In this
respect, to man may be attributed only a relative
blessedness. By reason of his constitution man
may pursue and attain a sort of arbitrary satis-
faction; and in consequence of his being a creature
he can attain full satisfaction only in a way in
accord with his inner nature. A purpose which for
him reaches beyond the present life involves a
blessedness not to be reached here, where only a
conditioned form is for him attainable. This is the
point of view of the Biblical presentation. Man
holds, on the one hand, relations with God, and on
this depends his blessedness; he is also, as a mem-
ber of the race of Adam, a sinner and so under the
impress of evil, and his blessedness is contingent
upon salvation from this condition.
On the foregoing basis is built Christian usage,
in which " eternal life," " eternal blessedness/' and
"blessed eternity" are variant expressions for
the same concept. Life in its fulness is the idea.
The Bible and philosophy agree in the ethical as
the source of blessedness (Jaa. i, 25; Acts xz, 35),
but the former annexes also a religioug
2. Founda- relationship (Jas. i, 27). If the most
tionin significant limitation in life, that
Ethics, which distinguishes man from God,
viz., guilt, be removed, on this line
of thought blessedness may be attributed to man.
Out of this comes the emphasis constantly Uid
in the language of the Gospels upon the identity
of salvation and blessedness, the latter resting upon
freedom from guilt and from the proscription ari-
201
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bleek
Blesslff
dng from sin. Thus blessedness and life, in this way
reaching its fulness, are regarded as equivalents.
A special dogmatic terminology has developed
from this usage, as when Schleiermacher {CkrUt-
licht Glaube, Beriin, 1821, §§ 100, 101, 108, 110)
describes the activity of Christ in that he receives
believers up into his own God-consciousness and
into participation in his serene blessedness, into
the "peace" of the New Testament. Similarly
J. C. K. von Hofmann (Theoloffigche Ethik, NOrd-
lingen, 1878, p. 80) asserts that '' faith as obedience
is freedom, faith as certainty is blessedness." So
the tenn designates the religious side of the Chris-
tian's condition as distinct from the ethical. The
eudemonistic side is expressed by J. Kaftan
(Wesen der ehrisUichm Religionf Bielefeld, 1881, pp.
67, 292) in the form " blessedness is enjo3rment of
the highest good." Into Christian usage there has
come a transcendent element, implying the satis-
faction of all needs which present themselves
to the people of God. If among these needs is
classed complete communion with God in the com-
pletely realised kingdom of God, or intercom-
munion of mankind made one in God, the satis-
faction of this need goes on to God as the source,
and to communion with him as the means of attain-
ing such satisfaction. Hence in Bib-
3. In Com- li^ representations intimate com-
munion munion with him is the highest
with God. privilege of which man may think
in his Godward relations. Compan-
ionship with God appears therefore as an implicit
ground of blessedness, and the Old Testament
conception comes out in the manifestation of
theophanies and in the intimate intercourse had
by Moses with God (Ex. xxxiii, 11; Num. xii, 8;
Deut. xxxiv, 10). The idea is still further carried
out in later books, as in Ps. xvii, 15, cxl, 14 (" I
shall be satisfied "), and is expressed by Job as
a desire (xix, 26). The opposite effect is the result
of separation from God (Isa. xxxviii, 11). Ps.
Ixxxiv exuberantly sets forth the blessedness
arising from this companionship with God. In
the New Testament the same notion of the con-
sciousness of God's presence and of faith in him is
in evidence (John xiv, 9; II Cor. iv, 6; I Pet. i, 8).
Yet in this life knowledge of Grod and communion
with him is but partial (I Cor. xiii, 12, cf. II Cor
V, 7 ; Matt, xi, 27). It is the sons who see the father,
and so the sons of the Heavenly Father are called
blessed (Matt, v, 9). This intimacy, which is condi-
tioned upon ethi(»l oneness with God, is the source
throughout the development of the man of God from
which he draws the completion of his happiness.
A difficulty has been encountered in the question
whether there are steps or grades of blessedness or
glory. To this an affirmative answer is given on the
basis of such passages as Matt, x, 41, xiv, 28-29,
XXV, 14-15. Such a conclusion is fortified by the
consideration that blessedness indudes
4. Degrees wfthin itself a kingdom whose subjects
of Blessed- are men of God, and that such a ooncep-
ness. tion involves (^vermtyin which differ-
ences must exist in relation to blessed-
ness. Such differences imply variety in order of fo-
lidty to accord with persoiud gifts and individuality.
The figurative language of Heb. iv, 10 makes
mention of a final Sabbath rest. The question has
been raised whether by this is meant a state of
inactivity or of continued activity. It will be
noted that the passage refers to the rest following
upon creation; therefore, not the stagnation of
absence of life b represented, but the quietude of
the achievement of an end. And in the Christian
imagery of Rev. xxi, 3-4, what is implied is the
absence of evil, grief, and toil with the imrest which
they entail. Similarly the conception of the res-
toration of all things {apokcUastasU pantSn), in
which there is stated an eternity of punishment
as well as of satisfaction or peace, raises the ques-
tion whether the latter will not be marred because
of pity on acooimt of the misery of the condemned.
Relief is afforded by the consideration that the region
is one in which ethical measures apply, not those
of emotion. Dante has the blessed look into the
mirror of God's heart, which last is the source
from which the ethical world diraws its being and
order. In ancient times Tertullian (De apectaculis,
xxx), in modem times Jonathan Edwards held that
among the causes of the blessedness of the redeemed
will be the sight of the misery of the wicked. Ed-
wards declared that the "sight of hell torments
will exalt the happiness of the saints forever"
(Works, vol. vi, pp. 120, 426).
Biblxoobapht: H. L. Marteoaen. Doffmatik, || 283-284,
Berlin, 1856, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1865; E. Riehm,
Lehrbeoriff det HebrOerbriefa, BaaeU 1867; B. Weias, The-
otoffie dM N, T., H 144, 149, 157. Berlin, 1880, Eng.
tranal., Edinburgh, 1882-83; I. A. Domer, Sywiem der
diriMtUehen GlaubenaUhre, ii, 864, Berlin, 1887; H. Schults.
AlttetlanterMiche Ttieologie, pp. 370-^371, G6ttingen, 1896,
Eng. tranal., London, 1892.
BLESSI6, JOHAHH LORENZ: German Prot-
estant; b. at Strasburg Apr. 15, 1747; d. there
Feb. 17, 1816. He studied at the university of his
native dty; traveled extensively in Italy, Himgary,
and Crermany ; began to preach, and was continually
promoted till he was in charge of the principal
Protestant church of Strasburg; became professor
in the philosophical faculty in 1778, and in the
theological, 1787. He was three times rector; his
lectures covered Greek literature, history of phi-
losophy. Old Testament exegesis, dogmatics, and
homiletics, and in them all he made the practical
dominate. His activities carried him into the
field of politics also, and he was elected to the city
council. The French Revolution brought upon
him exile, a fine, and imprisonment for eleven
months. Robespierre's downfall restored his lib-
erty and he returned to his labors. Church and
school were reorganised, Blessig's influence being
felt everywhere. He left no great work, but not less
than forty minor writings, including several memo-
rial addresses, which were highly esteemed in their
time. Worthy of special mention are: Ueber Un-
^uben, Aberglaubentmd Olauben (Strasburg, 1786);
De cenau Davidieo pesteque hunc censum secuia
(1788) ; and De evangeliie eecundum Ebraoe, JEgypiios
atque Juetini MartyprU (1807). (A. ERiCHSONf.)
BxBUOoaAPBT: C. M. Frits, LAtn Dr. J. L. BUuia; 2 vols.,
Strasburg, 1819; A. Froelich. Dr. J. L. BUfio, Ein Vor-
kltmpfer de» rdigidten Liberalinnua im Blaa99, in Sehriften
det proteHaniuehien UberaUn VtrtifU in Elaaa^-Lothringent
no. 36, ib. 1891.
BleMdnff
Bliss
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
202
BLESSING AND CURSINO.
Ethnic ConoeptionB (| 1). In the Old Testament (| 2).
Higher and Lower View (| 3).
The conception of blessing and cursing has a large
part in every religion. It refers to the supeiv
natural or divine promotion or hindrance to human
action and welfare. Sometimes it is predicated of
man himself as possessing through his
z. Ethnic connection with deity the ability to
Concep- exercise over another the power orig-
tions. inally possessed only by deity (cf.
Gen. xii, 3; Num. vi, 24, 27). In this
latter case, the power is often exercised by means
of verbal expression, though it is not confined to
that means. It is apparent that in the religion
of the peoples who were neighbors of the Hebrews
as well as elsewhere the conception of blessing
and cursing belonged in the sphere of magic.
Wizards commanded the blessing and furthering
force of deity, which they could exercise at a given
point for good and still more often the power
resident in a host of evil spirits, to damage or to
cause damage at the desired place and time.
While often power to bless comes not from an
equipment gained for a special occasion and then
lost, continuance of power and conditions for evil are
especially frequent. The curse lurks in the back-
ground of earthly existence, enshrined in the
form of hannful and malicious demons, into
whose power a careless word or heedless step may
instantly cast the unfortunate. According to
ethnic belief, only the most painstaking care, the
most punctilious caution, observance of a host of
rules and practises can enable one to escape danger.
Frequently without any overt act, by merely men-
tioning these spirits or by entering their domain
without adequate protection, the spirits are sum-
moned and their power let loose on man, animal, and
possessions.
Within the Old Testament there are many traces
of the contact of Israel with such conceptions.
The prophetic religion was especially emphatic
in its opposition to witchcraft, necromancyi and
the like, and, especially in the Babylonian age,
was not successful in combating them.
2. In the Earlier examples are found in Saul's
Old Tea- resort to the witch of Endor and the
tament cases su^sested by Deut. xviii, 10-14,
and Isa. ii, 6. It is, then, not surprising
that the conceptions of blessing and cursing are
foimd together among the Hebrews, though they
come to have a more spiritual content. It is notice-
able that the tendency of the development was
toward a narrowing of the region in which the idea
was operative, and it was thrust more and more
into the backgroimd.
In examining the cases presented in the Old
Testament, it becomes evident that use was made
both of the word of power and of an instrument.
The staff was used frequently, its use being attrib-
uted to Moses and Aaron and to the Egyptian
ma^cians (Ex. iv, 2, vii, 8 sqq.), while in Hos. iv,
12, it seems to have been used to obtain oracles,
and possibly it was a magical staff which Balaam
carried (Nimi. xxii, 27). It is possible that the
origin of the staff is to be connected with the idea
of the tree as the seat of deity (cf . the Asherah and
the stake customary at the grave). A branch from
a tree was either the seat of deity or the symbol
of his power. A farther means of operating, espe-
cially for evil, was the glance of the eye (cf. the
common notion of the " evil eye ")• Cases of this
in the Old Testament are suggested by Prov. xxiii,
6, xxviii, 22 (cf. Ecdus. xiv, 3; Pir*c Abot v, 13).
The laying on of hands seems to have had dose
connection with the operation of bleaaing (Gen.
xxvii, xlviii, 14 sqq.), the idea being that in this
way the person bestowing the blessing caused to
pass to the redpient some of the power which was
his, especially if he were a man of (}od.
Blessing and cursing were often connected with
things holy, particularly with sacrifice. By means
of these a blessing or a curse were often bespoken.
So in Judges ix, 27 the cursing of Abimelech was
evidently dosely bound up with the feast in the
temple of the deity. The episode of Balaam also
makes evident the connection between sacrifice
and curse (or blessing, Num. xxiii, 1 sqq.), and
the same fact has been noted among Arabs of
ancient and modem times. A special case Is that
of the ordeal by water, narrated in Num. v, 11 sqq.
Blessing and curse operate also through the spoken
word, which may take either the phase of a magical
formula or of a prayer of which the content is
spiritually pure. The latter 1b of very frequent
occurrence in the Old Testament, where the blessing,
or eqiially the curse, is besought of God.
This practise of seeking blessing or curae had
continuing vogue in the conmion religious ideas of
Israel, remaining in evidence down to prophetic
times. As elsewhere, so among the Hebrews,
superstition and the practise of noagic never com-
pletely died out, and not only deity but the spirits
of the dead (I Sam. xxviii) and of ancestors were in-
voked to give effect to the invocation or the impre-
cation. The ddty is in mind in Samuel's blessing
of the meal (I Sam. ix, 13), in Eli's blessing of
Hannah (I Sam. i, 17), in the blessing of Rebecca
by her brothers (Gen. xxiv, 60), and in Solomon's
blessing (I Kings viii, 15 sqq.). There is every
reason to assume that on occasions of gathering
such as sacrifices and feasts the priests besought a
blessing for the people. While such invocations
did not always take a fixed form, there must have
been a tendency in that direction, as is proved by
the priestly blessing in Num. vi, 24-26. And there
is a suggestion of a fixed formula for the curse in
I Kings viii and in the alternate words of blessing
and cursing in Deut. xxviii.
If it be asked who are the persons who may
bless or curse, it is always found that they are those
in especially dose relation to deity, dther seer or
priest or man of (}od. Of these Moses, Balaam,
Joshua (Josh, vi, 26), Elisha (II Kings ii, 24-25)
are examples. And like persons are among the
Arabs concdved as possessing the power. Spedai
power in this matter is also ascribed to the dying.
who are already on the border between the human
and the divine. Thus Moses when dying blesses
his people (Deut. xxxui), and the dying patriarchs
Isaac and Jacob distribute both blesdng and its
oppodte when on the eve of dissolution (Gen.
203
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blesslnff
BUM
xxvii, 10 sqq., xlviil, 8 sqq., xlix, 2 sqq.). Under
special stresB the power to bless or curse, especially
the latter, is attributed to almost any one, as when
the Arabs assert that one influenced by anger may
effectively pronounce a curse. Such a case is pre-
sented in II Sam. xvi, 5 (cf. verse 10), and another
in the narrative of II Sam. xxi, 1 sqq. Prov. xzvii,
14 presents a peculiar case, in which the early and
loud call may be thought of as arousing the spirits
of malice and letting them loose on the object of
the call. A similar conception is involved in
Amos vi, 10. The name of Yahweh, who lingers
near occupied in the work of the plague, is not to
be spoken lest by the mere utterance he be sum-
moned to the spot and slay the only surviving
member of the household.
Investigation into the way in which blessing and
cursing operate in the Old Testament shows a
lower and a higher view. Not infrequently the mere
vocal expression of the wish works out the fulfil-
ment in a kind of blind compulsion such as takes
place in ethnic magic (cf. Gen. xxvii, 33 sqq. —
the blessing has been uttered over Jacob and can
not be recalled — and Num. xxii sqq., especially
xzii, 6, " I know that he whom thou blessest is
blessed, and he whom thou ciu^est
3. ffiglier is ctuved," the words of Balak to
and Balaam). An illuminating case is
Lower given in the connection of Josh, vi,
View. 26 with I Kings xvi, 34, in which the
ancient curse pronounced upon him
who should rebuild Jericho works itself out in the
death of the youngest and the eldest sons of Hiel
the Bethelite. And a similar instance is Saul's
breach of the treaty with the Gibeonites in which
the curse operates after his death until reparation
is made with blood (II Sam. xxi). David's charge
to Solomon (I Kings ii, 5 sqq.; cf. II Sam. xvi, 13)
furnishes other examples. Solomon is to take venge-
ance on Shimd and on Joab. The fonner had pro-
nounced a heavy curse on David. Since it was yet
operative but had not fallen on David himself, it
must work itself out on his house. But it can be so
diverted as to fall on the head of its foraiulator and
become changed into a blessing for David's family.
On the other hand, Joab's deeds of blood laid David,
Joab's lord, under a curse which could be relieved
only by expiation exacted from the perpetrator of
the deeds [cf. on this EB, i, 1034, note 1].
While this inevitability is to be recognised in the
Old Testament as inherent by the mere formulation of
blessing and cursing or curse, the act takes on more
and more the character of the expression of a wish
to be fulfilled by Yahweh, and so it becomes dis-
tinguished in form and character from magic and
witchcraft. And while the method of operation
is thus transferred, the character of the blessing
sought changes from the material to the spiritual.
Thus in the priestly blessing of Num. vi, 24-26
there b doubtless in mind the highest good of
God's grace and peace, and in this light is to be
construed verse 27. A similar content is to be
recognised in Gen. xii, 3 and parallel passages:
" In thee shall all families of the earth bless them-
selves," i.e., shall wish for themselves the very
blessing which Abraham had obtained.
As oracles were quoted among the heathen, so
sayings attributed to Yahweh or spoken in his name
were dted among the Hebrews, and blessings and
curses appear almost in profusion in the Old Testa^
ment, derived from prophetic or ancestral authority.
These take on often a cryptic character and antici-
pate the more extended apocalyptic writings of
later times (cf. the sayings ascribed to Moses and
to Jacob in Gen. xlix and Deut. xxxiii).
The uncertainty of the original significance of
the practise is disclosed by an examination of the
et3rmology of the words used. The technical
Hebrew term for cursing is araVf the meaning of
which was evidently to press heavily upon one.
Alongside this was used for the curse a word derived
from alah, connected with the word el, " God."
This last implies a calling upon deity or a reference to
him as agent, a meaning which recalls the idea
in the German segnen, " to (make the) sign (of the
cross over one)." But another root also used,
Ipalalf had no inherent reference to the deity, mean-
ing simply " to vilify." So the original sense of the
word Jkababhf meaning " to curse," is uncertain. Not
less obscure b the original meaning of the word for
blessing, berakhah. It has been referred to berekh,
** knee," suggesting the meaning " to bow the
knee." But that the idea of worship was originally
connected with the word or that it meant ** to
pray" does not appear probable. It b possible
to relate it to berikhah, meaning an accumulation of
the growth and fruitfulness attributed to water
and then the attainment of prosperity.
A noteworthy expression is that which appears
quite frequently (e.g.. Gen. ix, 26), " Blessed be
Yahweh." Is thb only a manner of speech equiv-
alent to " Yahweh be praised "? While thb may
be the sense in later ages, it was hardly so in early
times. It has doubtless come down as a survival
of the conception that even deity might be blessed
by the utterance of some highly endowed individual.
(R. KiTTBL.)
Bdugobapbt: P. SohoU, OOttendienH und Zauberweaen
bei den HtbrHern, Resensburv. 1877; C. F. Keil» Biblical
Arehmoioov, ii, 457, Edinburgh, 1888; R. Smend, AlUe9-
kmentHehe Rdioiont0e9chiehU, § 334, Fxeiburv, 1893;
DB, U 307, 634-636; BB, i, 691-i592; JB, iu. 242-247.
For ethnie fMumllels consult: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Cul-
ture, pp. 112-132, New York, 1877; I. Goldsiher, Mu-
hammidaniMche Sttidien, 2 yoIs.. Halls. 1889-00; Wellhau-
aen, HeideiUum; F. T. Elworthy, The BvU Bye, London,
1895; F. B. Jeyons, Introduction to HiaL of R^igion,
ohapa. iii-iT, ib. 1896; G. B. Fraier, Oolden BougK i, 97,
ib. 1900; 8. I. CurtiM, PriimUive SemitU Reliifion, New
York, 1902.
BUSS, DAIHEL: Congregational missionary;
b. at Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823. He was gradu-
ated at Amherst College in 1852 and Andover
Theological Seminary in 1855. He was ordained to
the Congregational minbtry in 1855, and imme-
diately went to Syria as a missionary of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions,
remaining there in thb capacity until 1862. Four
years later he was appointed president of the
Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, and retained thb
position until 1902, when he resigned and became
president emeritus. He is the author of a number
of works in Arabic, particularly a text-book of menr
tal philosophy and another of natural philosophy.
BUM
Blood
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
204
BUSS, EDWIN MJHSELL: Gongregationalisi;
b. at Enenim, Turkey, Sept. 12, 1848. He was
educated at Robert College, Constantinople, High
School, Springfield, Mass., Amherst College (B Jl.,
1871), and Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1877). He
was assistant agent of the American Bible Society
for the Levant in 1872-88 (excepting 1875-77,
when he was completing his theological studies in
America), and after his return to America in 1888
edited The Enq^dapedia of MUsiona (New York,
1880-91) and was associate editor of The Inde-
pendent in 1801-1001. He was an editorial writer
on Harper^ 8 Weekly and The New York Timee in
1001-02, and was field secretary of the American
Tract Society for New Eng^d in lOOa-04. He
was then pastor of the Congregational church at
Sanford, Fla., in 1004r^, and general secretary
of the Foreign Missions Industrial Association
in 1005-06. In 1007 he became connected with the
United States Census Bureau in Washington. In
theology he is liberal-orthodox. He has written
Turkey and the Armenian AtrociHes (Philadelphia,
1806); The Ttwk in Armenia, Crete, and Greece
(1806); and Coneiee History of Miseione (Chicago,
1807).
BUSS, FREDERICK JOHES: American arche-
ologist; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Jan. 22,
1850. He was educated at Axnherst College
(B.A., 1880), and was for three years principal
of the preparatory department of the Ssrrian Prot-
estant CoUege, Beirut, Syria. He then studied at
Union Theological Seminiary, where he was grad-
uated in 1887. Returning to Syria, he was an
independent explorer until his i^pointment, in
1800, as explorer to the Palestine Exploration
Fund (London). During the ten years in which he
held this position, he excavated the mound of
Tell-el-Hesy (Lachish) in 1801-03, and from 1804
to 1807 was engaged in excavations at Jerusalem.
In 1808-1000 he excavated four Palestinian cities.
In addition to numerous brief er contributions, he
has written A Mound of Many Citiee ; or Tell-
eirHeey Excavated (London, 1804); Excavations at
Jerusalem, 1894r-i897 (1808); Excavations in Pal-
estine during 189S-1900 (1002; in collaboration
with R. A. S. Macalister); and The Development of
Palestine Exploration, the Ely lectures at Union
Seminary for 1003 (New York, 1006).
BUSS, HOWARD SWEETSER: Congregational
missionaiy; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Dec.
6, 1860. He was educated at Amherst College
(B.A., 1882), Union Theological Seminary (1884-
1887), and the universities of Oxford (1887-88),
Gdttingen, and Berlin (1888-80). He taught at
Washburn College, Topeka, Kan., in 1883-84, and
after his return from Europe to the United States
was successively assistant pastor of Plymouth
Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1880-04), and pastor of
the Christian Union Congregational Church, Up-
per Montclair, N. J. (1804^1002). Since 1002 he
has been president of the Syrian Protestant College,
Beirut, Syria.
BLISS, ISAAC GROUT: Congregational foreign
missionary; b. at Springfield, Metss., July 5, 1822;
d. at Assiut, Egypt, Feb. 16, 1880. Educated at
Amherst College (B.A., 1844) and at Yale and
Andover (1847) theological seminaries, he served
as missionaiy of the American Board at Enerom,
Eastern Turkey, 1847-^2, when the failure of his
health compelled his return to the United States.
In 1857 he returned to the foreign field as agent
for the Levant of the American Bible Society, with
residence in Constantinople.
BLISS, WILLIAM DWI6HT PORTER: Ameri-
can Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Constantinople
Aug. 20, 1856. He was educated at Robeit Col-
lege, Constantinople, Phillips Academy, Andover,
Mass., Amherst College (B.A., 1878), and Hartford
Theological Seminary (1882). He was ordained
to the Congregational ministry, but after holding
pastorates in Denver, Col., and South Natick,
Mass., he entered the Protestant Episcopal Church
in 1885, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and or-
dained priest in the following year. He was min-
ister at Lee, Mass., in 188&-^, and was then suc-
cessively rector of Grace Church, South Boston
(1887-90), Linden, Mass. (1890), Church of the
Carpenter, Boston, Mass. (1890-94), Church of Our
Savior, San Gabriel, Cal. (1898-1902), and Amity-
ville, L. I. (since 1902). He has taken an active
interest in social reform, and in 1889 organised the
firat Christian Socialist Society in the United States,
and has since been its secretary, while he has been
president of the National Social Reform League
since 1899, and was the Labor candidate for lieuten-
ant-governor of Massachusetts in 1887. He has also
been secretary of the Christian Social Union since
1891, and in 1905 was a member of the United
States Labor Department on the Unemployed.
In theology he is a radical Broad-churchman. He
edited The Dawn (1889-96), The American Fabian
(1895-96), The Civic Councillor (1900), and the
Encydopedia of Social Reform (New York, 1898;
1908); and has written Hand-Book of Socialism
(London, 1895).
BLODOET, HEKRT: Congregational foreign
missionary; b. at Bucksport, Me., July 13, 1825;
d. at Bridgeport, Conn., May 23, 1903. Educated
at Yale College (B.A., 1848) and at Yale Divinity
School, he was a missionary in China of the Amer-
ican Bioard from 1854 to 1894, living in Peking
from 1864 on. He shared in the translation of the
New Testament into the Mandarin colloquial of
Peking, and independently translated much in prose
and verse.
BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES: Bishop of
London; b. at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, May 29,
1786; d. at Fulham Palace Aug. 5, 1857. He
was educated at Trinity CoUege, Cambridge (B.A..
1808); was ordained 1810; became chaplain to
Bishop Howley of London 1819; archdeacon of
Colchester 1822; bishop of Chester 1824; bishop of
London 182a He retired from office in 1856 after
a vigorous and efifective administration. He was
a noted Greek scholar, edited a Greek grammar
(Cambridge, 1818), and a number of Greek
texts (the dramas of .£schylus, 1810-24; Calli-
machus, 1815; Euripides, 1821; fragments of Sap-
pho, Alcseus, and Stesichorus for Gaisford's Poetit
minores Graci, 1823), and wrote much for the
205
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BUM
Blood
reviews on classical subjects. His theological
works comprise Five Lectures on John's Gospel
(1823); Twelve Lectures on the Ads (1828); several
collections of sermons; and A Manual of Private
and Family Prayers (1824).
Bibuoorapht: A. Blomfield, A Memoir of C. 7. Blomfidd,
. . . wth Sdeetuma from hia ComopondencB, 2 vols.,
London, 1863 (by his ton); G. E. Biber, Biahop BlomfUld
and kU Timet, London, 1857; DNB, ▼. 22^-230. The
BritUh Mumum Caiaioguo devotes five pages to a list of
Blomfield't works.
BLOMFEBLD, WILLIAM ERNEST: English
Baptist; b. at Rayleigh (24 m. s.w. of Colchester),
Essex, Oct. 23, 1862. He was educated at Regent's
Park College, London (B.A., University of Lon-
don, 1883), and after being assistant (1884-^5)
and sole minister (1885-86) of Elm Road Baptist
Church, Beckenham, was pastor of Turret Green
Church, Ipswich, 1886-95 and of Queen's Road
Church, Coventry, 1895-1904. Since 1904 he has
been president of the Baptist College, Rawdon,
Leeds.
BLOMMAERDINE, blem''m&r-di'ne, HADEWICH
or HADEWI JCH : A heretical mystic whose religious
activity and writings caused great excitement in
Brussels early in the 14th century. Her adherents
venerated her as a saint and her writings as divine
revelations; her opponents charged her with heretical
teaching on the freedom of the spirit, and with
mingUng religious devotion and sensual passion.
During his stay in Brussels (1317-43), Ruysbroeck
conducted a strong polemical campaign against
ber, which, however, did not prevent people from
coming after her death to seek the cure of diseases
by touching her shroud. The scanty notices which
Ruysbroeck's biographer gives of her life and
writings have be^ recently filled out by the
scholarly investigations of K. Ruelens and P.
Fredericq. They have shown it to be extremely
probable that the mystic was identical with the
important Flemish poetess Hadewijch (erroneously
called " Sister Hadewijch ")f whose remains in
prose and verse, known only in part heretofore,
have been published in full by J. Verooullie (Ghent,
1877). The principal theme of all these writings
is love (Minne) for God. The specimens given by
Fredericq display the tempestuous, sometimes
actually sensual, passion with which she longs for
mystical union with him. In describing her nu-
merous visions the poetess boasts of very intimate
relations with Christ and the saints, and claims the
ph of prophecy and the power of working miracles.
6he expresses herself bitteriy in regard to the perse-
cutions set on foot by her enemies, the vremden,
against herself and her adherents, whom she calls
vriende, the nuwen or volmaalUen der Minne (per-
feeti). In one place she gives the number of her
then living followers (principally nuns or Beguines)
as ninety-seven, of whom twenty-nine were out-
side the Netherlands. Apparently the domioella
HeUwiffis dicta BUmunardine, the daughter of
William Blommaert, a rich and noble citizen of
Brussels, who died about 1336, is the same as the
mystic and the poetess. It appears that as late as
the b^;inning of the fifteenth century the Inqui-
dti(m in Bruuels was still obliged to proceed against
adherents of the heresies promulgated by her, which
were not far removed from the views of the Brethren
of the Free Spirit (q.v.). (Herman Hauft.)
Biblioorapht: Henricus Pomerius, De orioine monatUrii
ViridiavaUia, in Analecta BoUandiana, iv. 286, Parit,
1886; H. C. Les. Uiatory of tho InquiatHon, u. 877, Phila-
delphia, 1888; P. Fredericq, Corpua documerUorum in-
quiaiUonia . . . Neerlandieta, I, 186 tqq., 266 tqq., The
Hacue, 1889; idem, De geheimxinniae keUerin Blamar-
dinna en da eaete der '* Nuwe " ta Bruaaal, in VereUn/en en
MededeeUngen der koninkl. Akademie tfon Wetenaehap-
pen to Amaterdam, tenet 3, xii (1896), 77 tqq.; W. A.
JonckbloBt. Oeaehiedenia der Nederlandaeha leUerkunde, ii,
270 tqq., 1889; A. Auger, Atude eur lea myaUqnea dee
Paya-Baa au mot/en dge^ in Mimoirea oouronnia . . . par
Vaeadhnie royalo de Belgique, xlvi (1892), 149 tqq., 164.
BLOIVDEL, DAVID: French Protestant theo-
logian; b. at ChAlons-sur-Mame 1590; d. at
Amsterdam 1655. He belonged to a noble family
of Champagne; studied classics at the College of
S^dan and theology at the Academy of Geneva;
was called as pastor to Houdan (lie de France),
then to Roucy on the estate of La Rochefoucauld.
Because of his great knowledge of the Scriptures
and of ecclesiastical history, he was chosen more
than twenty times secretary of the provincial
synod of tie de France. His writings in defense of
the Protestants against their Roman Catholic op-
ponents won for him a great reputation for scholar-
ship. In 1631 he was appointed professor of divin-
ity at Saumur, but his parish of Roucy declined
to give him up. For his contributions to the his-
tory of the Reformation, the National Council of
(^arenton allowed him an annuity of 1,000 livres,
enabling him to devote himself to his studies
without fear of want. After the death of Vossius
in 1650, he was appointed professor of history at
the Scale lUustre at Amsterdam. Pierre Bayle said
of him: " He was a man who had an unbounded
knowledge of religious and profane history." He
was accused by the orthodox party of Arminian-
ism and of indifference to his church; he also en-
dured much from political opponents on account of
an article against Cromwell written during the war
between Great Britain and Holland. His works
were in part: Modeste didaratian de la sinciriU et
viriU des Eglises riformies de France (S^dan, 1619);
Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus vapulantes (Geneva,
1628); Eclaircissements familiers de la controverse
de VEucharistie (Quevilly, 1641); De la primauti
en Viglise (Geneva, 1641); Des SiJbyUes, cOOries
tant par VanHquUi payenne que par les Saints-
Pbres (Charenton, 1649); Actes authentiques des
£glises rifomUes de France, Oermanie, Orande-
Bretagne (Amsterdam, 1655).
G. Bonxt-Maurt.
BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD. See Coicparahyb
Relioion, VI, 1, b, 1 6.
BLOOD-REVENGE: A custom neariy imiver-
sal in the tribal or clan stage of society, often sur-
viving later, binding the kin of a murdered man to
secure satisfaction for the murder by the death of
the slayer or of one of his clan, llie custom de-
pends upon two fundamentals of that stage of
civilization: (1) the sacredness of life and the
solidarity of the clan; (2) the lex talionis. Its
essence is execution of the slayer or some of his
Blood
Boohairt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
d06
kin by the representatives of the slain, not by public
authorities; it belongs therefore to private as
opposed to public justice. In nomadic society the
perpetuation of the clan depends upon its fighting
strength and its sense of unity. Hence assault
upon a member of the clan, if attended with even
unintended fatal results, involves the tribe, clan,
or family of the slain in what is felt to be a sacred
duty, the avenging of the shedding of blood. The
custom is important from the standpoint of utili-
tarian ethics, since the knowledge that reparation
will be demanded by the clan of the assailed re-
strains a potential assailant from wanton attack
and makes men more careful in ordinary inters
course. The duty set by the institution is binding,
and so close is the relationship in the clan (see
CoMPARATivB RsLioiON, VI, 1, b, { 1) that all its
members may become involved, the result being a
blood-feud between the clans of the assailant and
the victim. Usually, however, the duty devolves
upon the next of kin. Refusal on his part to exer^
else his right and perform his duty subjects him
to utter contempt and even to outlawry.
In the advance of civilisation the State assumes
exclusively the function of Capital Punishment
(q.v.) and the custom becomes obsolete. The
Hebrew legislation furnishes an example of an
intermediate condition, by which the right of the
family of a man deliberately (not wantonly) mur-
dered to execute justice was recognized and the
murderer, when captured, was delivered by the
authorities to the avenger of blood {go'el haddam,
Lev. xix, 11-13; Num. xxxv, 19, 21, 27; for the
general law of murder among the Hebrews consult
Gen. ix, 6; Ex. xxi, 12; Lev. xxiv, 17; Josh. xx).
Even in the case of accidental killing, the avenger
of blood might kill the slayer if before the death of
the high priest he found him outside the city of
refuge in which he had taken sanctuary. See Law,
Hebrew, Civil and Criminal, III.
Geo. W. Gilmorb.
Bxbliookapht: A. H. Post, Studien but BtUwiekluno^o^'
9chieht8 d€9 FamiUmreehU, pp. 113-137, Oldenbuxv. 1889;
Smith, Kinahip (invaluable for the Semitic peoplee, of.
also hia Rti. of 8em.)\ and for modem savage practise,
Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribet of Cwlral Ata-
iraUa, London, 1899; idem, Northtm TVibet of CtfUral
Avatrdia, ib. 1904; DB. ii, 222-224; EB, ii, 1746-47.
BLOUirr, CHARLES. See Deibm, I, { 3.
BLUHHARDT, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB: Geiv
man Protestant; b. in Stuttgart Apr. 20, 1779;
d. in Basel Dec. 19, 1838. He studied at Tubingen;
in 1803 became secretary of the Deutsche Ckris-
teniumaffeseUschaft in Basel; minister at Bdrg,
WQrttemberg, 1807; returned in 1816 to Basel
as director of the missionary school. From 1816
he edited the Mieeionemagazin, and from 1828
also the Heidenbote; he published Verauch einer
aUgemeinen Mieeionegeschichte der Kirche Christi
(5 vols., Basel, 1828-37), reaching down to the
time of the Reformation.
BLUMHARDT, JOHAHN CHRISTOPH: Ger-
man Lutheran; b. at Stuttgart July 16, 1805; d. at
Boll (5 miles s.w. of GOppingen) Feb. 25, 1880. He
studied at Tubingen; became teacher at the mis-
isionary institution at Basel 1830; succeeded Pastor
Barth at MottUngen, near Calw, 1838. By the
reported cure by prayer of a girl named GotUiebin
Dittus, supposed to be a demoniac, which cure was
effected after a two years' struggle, Blumhardt
gained great fame. A revival followed, attended
by so many people from so large an area that on
Good Friday, 1845, no less than 176 localities
were represented at the service. At his services,
so it is reported, healing of physical infirmities
resulted from Blumhardt's laying on of hands in
token of absolution. Blumhardt received caUs
to other places, but felt that his gifts and time
belonged to the " distressed "; in order to be able
to devote himself entirely to them, he bought in 1853
the royal watering-place Boll, which became an
asylum for sufferers of all kinds, and from all ranks
of society. The girl he had cured went with him
as an assistant, accompanied by a brother and a
sister whom Blimihardt had also cured. In 1869
and 1872 his sons joined him in the work. From
all countries the afflicted flocked to his asylum,
where his unique treatment seemed to give them
new vital eneigy. At last sickness attacked him,
and he ordained his son to the work with the words,
** 1 consecrate thee to victory." In 1899 this son
withdrew from the clergy, but continued to main-
tain the establishment at Boll. (J. Hebbe.)
Bibuoorapbt: F. ZOndel, Pfarrer J. C. BUtmKardt, Zurich,
1887; T. H. Mandel, Dsr 8iao von HHmlinoen im Lichle da
Olaubong und der Wi$§en9chaft, Leipeio, 1895; C. Blum-
kardt, Oedanken aut dem IUich» Oottet im Anaehlusa an
die OeetMchie von MdMinoon und Bad BoU und unaere
heuHoe Stmuno, Bad BoU. 1895.
BLUirr, JOHN HENRT: C3iurch of Eng^d
scholar; b. in Chelsea, London, Aug. 25, 1823;
d. in London Apr. 11, 1884. He gave up a busi-
ness career for the ministry, studied at University
College, Durham (M.A., 1855), and was ordained
priest in 1855; after filling a number of curacies,
he became in 1868 vicar of Kennington, near
Oxford, and in 1873 rector of Beverston, Glouces-
tershire. He was a pronounced High-churchman,
and an indefatigable writer both of articles for
the periodicals and of books; among his works are
a nimiber of useful theological and Biblical com-
pends, such as The Anruiated Book of Common
Prayer (2 vols., London, 1866; new ed., 1895);
Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology
(1870); The Book of Churdi Law (1872; 9th ed.,
revised by W. G. F. Phillimore and G. E. Jones,
1901); Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecdesiastical
Parties, and Schools of Religious Thmght (1874);
The Annotated Bible : being a household commen-
tary upon the Holy Scriptures, comprehending the
restdts of modem discovery and criticism (3 vols.,
1879-82); A Companion to the New Testament
(1881); A Companion to the Old Testament (1883);
also an importemt history of The Reformation of
the Church of England (2 vols., 1869-82). At the
time of lus death he was working upon a Cydo-
podia of Religion (1884).
BLUirr, JOHN JAMES: English theologian;
b. at Newcastle-under-Lyme (15 m. njn.w. of
Stafford), Staffordshire, 1794; d. at Cambridge
June 18, 1855. He studied at St. John's College,
Cambridge (BA., and feUow, 1816; MA., 1819;
207
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Blood
Boohart
B.D., 1826); traveled in Italy and Sicily; became
curate to Reginald Heber at Hodnet, Shropshire,
in 1821; rector of Great Oakley, Essex, 1834;
Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge
1839. He wrote many books and contributed
much to the periodical press; some of his works
have passed through many editions. They include
A Sketch of the Reformation in England (London,
1832); Undesigned Coincidences in Oie Writings both
of the Old Testament and New Testament an Argument
for their Veracity (1847); A History of the Christian
Church during the First Three Centuries (1866);
The Duties of the Parish Priest (1856); Two Intro-
ductory Lectures on the Study of the Early Fathers
(with memoir, Cambridge, 1856).
BLTTH, GEORGE FRANCIS POPHAM: AngU-
can bishop in Jerusalem and the East; b. at Bever-
ley (9 m. n.n.w. of Hull), Yorkshire, in 1832. He
was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford (B.A.,
1854), and was ordered deacon in 1855, and or-
dained priest in the following year. He was suc-
cessively curate of Westport St. Mary's, Wiltshire
(1855-61), and Siggjesthome, Yorkshire (1861-63),
and chaplain to the earl of Kimberley (1863-66).
He then went to India, was chaplain of the eccle-
siastical establishment at Allahabad (1866-67),
and was attached to the cathedral of Calcutta
and chaplain to the bishop of Calcutta (1867-68).
He was then stationed successively at Barrackpur,
Bengal (1868-74), Naini-Tal, North-West Prov-
inces (1874-77), and Fort William, Bengal (1877-
1878), after which he was archdeacon of the pro-
cathedral at Rangoon from 1879 to 1887. In
the latter year he was consecrated bishop in Jeru-
salem and the East. He has written The Holy
Week and Forty Days (2 vols., London, 1879).
BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA: 1. Baptist for-
eign missionary; b. at Livermore, Me., Feb. 8,
1801; d. at Tavoy, Burma, Feb. 11, 1831. In
1824 he was a resident licentiate in Andover Theo-
logical Seminary. In 1825 he went out to Burma
under the Baptist Board of Missions, which had
accepted his services in 1823, but owing to the
Burmese war he could not reach that country till
1827. After a year at Maulmain he opened the new
station at Tavoy, 150 miles north, and there he
immersed the first Karen convert — Ko Tha Byu.
From this center he prosecuted a very successful
missionary work, but pulmonary disease caused his
death after less than three years.
Bibuoobapht: A. Sans. Oood Fight, or G. D, Boardman
and th$ Bvrman Miuion, Boston, 1875.
2. American Baptist, son of the preceding ; b.
at Tavoy, Burma, Aug. 18, 1828; d. at Atlantic
City, N. J., Apr. 28, 1903. He was graduated at
Brown in 1852 and at the Newton Theological In-
stitution 1855; was pastor in South Cfarolina 1855-
1856; in Rochester, N. Y., 1856-64; of the First
Baptist Church, Philadelphia, 1864-94. He was
president of the American Baptist Missionary Union
(1880-84), and of the Christian Arbitration and
Peace Society of America. His publications were
for the most part studies of Biblical texts of an exe-
getical character and include Studies in the Creative
Week (New York, 1877), in the Model Prayer (1879),
and in the Mountain Instruction (1881); Epipha-
nies of the Risen Lord (1879); The Divine Man
from the Nativity to the Temptation (1887); Uni-
versity Lectures on the Ten Commandments (1889);
The Kingdom (1899); The Church (1901); Our
Risen King's FoHy Days (Philadelphia, 1902).
Bzbuoqrapht: Life and LiohL ThoughU from the TTri-
tino» of Owrge Dana Boardman, toith MemorabiUa, Phila-
delphia, 1906.
BOARDMAN, GEORGE NYE: American Con-
gregationalist; b. at Pittsford, Vt., Dec. 23,
1825. He was graduated at Middlebury College,
Vt. (B.A., 1847), and Andover Theological Semi-
nary (1852). He was tutor at Middlebury College,
in 1847-49, and after the completion of his theo-
logical studies was appointed professor of rhetoric
and English literature in Middlebury College, also
acting as temporary professor of intellectual phi-
losophy. Six years later (1859), he accepted a
call to the pastorate of the First Presbyterian
Church at Binghamton, N. Y., where he remained
until 1871, when he was chosen professor of system-
atic theology in Chicago Theological Seminary.
He resigned from this position in 1893, with the
title of professor emeritus. He was the first mod-
erator of the new s3mod after the reunion of the Old
School and New School Presbyterian Churches, being
also chairman of the committee for the formation of
new presbyteries. He was also moderator of the
Congregational General Association of Illinois in
1881, and has been a corporate member of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions since 1869. He prepared the section on
systematic theology in the seven volumes of Cur-
rent Discussion, issued by the faculty of the
Chicago Theological Seminary (Chicago, 1883-89),
and has also written Lectures on Natural Theol-
ogy (1881); Congregationalism (1889); Regeneration
(1891); and History of New England Theology
(New York, 1899).
BOOHART, bd^'shOr', SAMUEL: French Protes-
tant; b. at Rouen 1599; d.at Caen 1667. His father
was the learned Ren6 Bochart, pastor at Rouen, and
his mother Esther du Moulin. At the age of four-
teen he made Greek verses in honor of his masters.
He studied philosophy at S^dan, theology at Sau-
mur under Cameron, whom he accompanied to
London in 1621. He did not stay long, but soon
returned to Leyden, where he took up theology
and the study of the Arabic language under Erpe-
nius. He was appointed Protestant minister at
Caen, but gave private lessons in a Roman Catholic
family. His controversy with the Jesuit V^ron,
in 1628, gave him a great name, and he edited an
accoimt of it (2 vols., Saumur, 1630) to refute
V^ron's teachings. In 1652 Queen Christina of
Sweden wished his presence and he followed her
call, accompanied by his pupil Huet, later bishop
of Avranches. He remained in Stockholm one year,
studying Arabic texts in the queen's library. Re-
turning to Caen, he became the representative of
Normandy at the National Calvinist Synod of
Loudun. He died suddenly during a session of
the academy at Caen. His works include Theses
theologiGCB ds verbo Dei (Saumur, 1620); Actes d$
Bookhold
Boehme
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
208
la confirence tenue d Caen erUre Samuel Bochart
et Jean BaiUehache, ministres de la parole de Dieu
en V6gl%8e rifamUe , . . et Francois Viron (2 vols.,
1630); R&ponse h la leUre du p^e de la Bane,
Jisuite, sur la prisence rielle (1661); Hierozotcon
sive hiatarta animalium 8. Scripturce (London,
1663); Opera omnia, hoc est, Phaleg, Canaan, et
Hierozoicon, quibus accessere varice dissertationes
(Leyden, 1675). G. Bonbt-Maury.
Bibuoobapht: P. D. Huet, Let Orioinea de la viUe de Caen,
Rouen, 1706; Niotfron« Mhnovree; W. R. Whittingham,
The Life and WriHnae of 8, Bochart, in Eeeaye on BibliaU
Literature, London, 1829; Smith, Samuel Bothart, Caen,
1833; E. and £. Haa«, La France proteetante, ed. H. L.
Bordier, vol. ii, Paris. 1879; KL, u, 96(M>62.
BOCKHOLD, J0HA5N (JAK BEUKELS-
ZOON). See Musnbteb, ANASAPTiBre in.
BOD, bed, PETER : Hungarian theologian and ec-
clesiastical historian; b. atFelsO-Gsemdton (a village
of Transylvania) Feb. 12, 1712; d. at Magyar-Igen
(40 m. 8.W. of Klausenburg) Mar. 3, 1769. He
was educated at the Reformed college of Nagy-
Enyed and the University of Leyden, and in 1743
became pastor at H6viz, whence he was called, six
years later, to Magyar-Igen. He was the author
of fifty-six works, of which twenty-three were
printed, but by a decree of Maria Theresa restricting
the liberty of the press cert^ of his books of a
patriotic and Protestant tendency were confiscated.
Among his works in Hungarian special mention
may be made of the following, the titles being
translated into English: ** History of the Holy
Bible" (Hermannstadt, 1748); ''History of the
Church of Qod" (Basel, 1760); ''History of the
Reformed Bishops of Transylvania " (Enyed, 1766);
"The Magyar Athens" (Hermannstadt, 1767);
biographies of 485 Hungarian authors, and "The
Hungarian Phenix " (Ekiyed, 1767); biography of
the printer Kiss; while his Latin works include:
Hiatoria Unitariorum in Transylvania (Leyden,
1776), a vivid description of the struggles of the
Socinians in Hungary; Historia Hungarorum ecde-
siastica (ed. Rauwenhoff and Prins, 3 vols., 1888-
1890, from a manuscript recently discovered in the
library of the university); and two treatises on
the promoters and defenders of the Hungarian
Reformation (in Gerdes, Scrinium Antiquarium,
ii, Groningen, 1763). F. Balooh.
Biblioorapht: O. D. Teutaoh, Korreapondentblatt dee
Vereine fUr eiebenb. Landeekunde, no. xi, 1888, nos. ▼,
vi, 1891; Preebyterian and Reformed Review, vols, i-ii,
1891-92.
BODELSCHWnfGH, bO'del-shving, FRIEDRICH
VON: German Lutheran; b. near Tecklenburg (20
m. n.n.e. of Mttnster), Westphalia, Mar. 6, 1831, son
of Ernst von Bodelschwlngh-Velmede, a distin-
guished Prussian statesman. After gaining prac-
tical experience of mining and agriculture, he
studied theology (from 1854) in Basel, Erlangen,
and Berlin, and in 1858 became pastor of the Ger-
man congregation in Paris, at Dellwig in West-
phalia 1864. During the wars of 1866 and 1870-
1871 he served as army chaplain. Since 1872 he has
devoted himself to the work of the Innere Mission
(q.v.) at Bielefeld, and the following institutions
have been founded by his exertions: the Bethel
house for epileptics with 1,800 inmates; the Sarepta
deaconesses' house with 980 sisters located in 326
stations, of which eleven are in foreign countries;
the Nazareth house for training male nurses with
350 deacons in 120 stations, six not in Europe and
six more outside Germany; the " workingmen's
colony " Wilhelmsdorf (a practical attempt to deal
with the tramp problem), the first of its kind in
Germany, having at present five branches and 400
inmates; a " workingmen's home " with 164
houses and 400 dwellings; a missionary seminary
for candidates in theology.
Bibuoobapht: M. Siebold, Kurte OeechUhte und Beaehrn-
buno der AnstaUen Bethd ... 6m BiOefeld, Betfasl pub-
lishing house, 1898, and the annual reports.
BODEirSTEm, AllDREAS RUDOLF VOH.
See Cablbtadt.
BODY, CHARLES WILLIAM EDMUHD: Prot-
estant Episcopalian ; b. at Cli^ham (a [suburb
of London) Oct. 4, 1851. He was educated at St.
John's College, Cambridge (BA., 1875), where
he was fellow from 1877 to 1881. In the latter
year he was chosen provost and vice-chancellor
of Trinity University, Toronto, where he remained
until 1894, when he was appointed professor of
Old Testament literature and interpretation in
the General Theological Seminary, New York City.
He has written The Permanent Value of Genesis
(the Paddock Lectures for 1894; New York, 1894).
BODY, GEORGE: Church of England; b. at
Cheriton Fitzpaine (9 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devon-
shire, Jan. 7, 1840. He was educated at St. John's
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1862), and was curate of
St. James's, Wednesbury, Staffordshire (1863-6d),
Sedgley, Staffordshire (1865-67), and Christ Church,
Wolverhampton (1867-70). From 1870 to 1884 he
was rector of Kirby-Misperton, Yorkshire; and since
1883 he has been canon of EHirham. He was proc-
tor in convocation of York for Cleveland in 1880-85
and was select preacher to the University of Cam-
bridge in 1892, 1894, 1896, 1900, and 1904, as well
as lecturer on pastoral theology in the same uni-
versity in 1897. He was warden of the Community
of the Epiphany, diocese of Truro, in 1891, and
is also chaplain to the bishop of St. Andrews and
vice-president of the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel. He has written: Life of Justificar
tion (London, 1884); Life of TempiaHon (1884);
The Appearances of the Risen Lord (1890); The
School of Calvary (1891); AcHvUies of the Ascended
Lord (1891); The Life of Lave (1893); The Guided
Life (1894); and The Work of Grace in Paradise
(1896).
BOECKENHOFF, bOk^en-hef, WILHELM BER-
NARD ALOYSIUS KARL: Gennan Roman Catho-
lic; b. at Schermbeck (37 m. s.w. of Mtlnster) July
10, 1870. He was educated at MOnster (1890-93),
the Gregorian University, Rome (1897-1900;
Doctor Juris Canonid, 1899), and the University
of Berlm (1900-01; D.D., MOnster, 1901). He
was ordained to the priesthood in 1894 and was a
vicar in Dolberg from that year until 1897, when
he resumed his studies. He became a privat-
docent at Mtlnster in 1902, but three yean later
went in a similar capacity to Strasburg, where he
209
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bookhold
Boehxne
was appointed afisociate professor of canon law
in the following month. In addition to oontribu-
tioDs to theological periodicals, he has written
De individuitate matrimonii (Berlin, 1901) and
Das apoatoliache SpeiaegeaeU in den ersten fUnf
Jahrhunderten (Paderbom, 1903).
BOEGRER, btrg'ner, ALFRED EDOUARD:
French Protestant; b. at Strasburg Aug. 2, 1851.
He was educated at the university of his native city
and at the theological faculty at Montauban, after
which he studied at the German universities of Leip-
sic, Eriangen, and TObingen in 1873-74. From 1876
to 1879 he was pastor of the Protestant church at
Fresnoy-lfr^xrand, and in the latter year became
subdirector of the Paris Society of Evangelical
Missions, of which he has been director since 1882.
In this capacity he made tours of inspection of
South Africa in 1883, Senegal and the West Coast in
1890-91, and Madagascar, the Transvaal, Orange
Free State, and Cape Colony in 1898-99. He is also
director of the Paris House of Evangelical Missions,
and in addition to editing the Journal des miseUms
^vangtiiquea de Paris since 1879 and publishing
or editing a number of minor . contributions, has
written Patterson, le missionnaire de la M&anisie
(Paris, 1881); LeMiesi4nmaxredeMeihlakaila{\9S2)\
Lee Bassoutos, atUrefois et aujowrd'hui (1885);
Quelques riflexions sur Vautoriii en motive de foi
(1892); and Rapport sur la d^Ugation d Madagas-
car (in collaboration with P. Germond; 1900).
BOEHL, bol, EDUARD: German theologian; b.
at Hamburg Nov. 18, 1836; d. at Vienna Jan. 24,
1903. He was educated at Berlin (1855), Halle
(1856-58), and Erlangen (1858-60), and became
licentiate and privat-docent at Basel in 1860,
whence he was called to Vienna four years later
as professor of Befonned dognuiUcs and symbolics,
and also of pedagogics, philosophy of religion, and
apologetics, in the Protestant faculty of theology.
In 1864 he also became a permanent member of
the Synod of the Befonned Church of Austria,
and was in 1883 president of its fourth General
Sjmod. He edited the Evangelische Sonntagsboten
fur Oesterreieh, and published De Aramaismis libri
KoheUth (Eriangen, 1860); Vaticinium Jesajas c.
t^r-S7 commentario illu^ratum (Leipsic, 1861);
Zw6lf messianisehe Psalmen erkldrt; n^>st einer
gntndlegenden ehristologischen EinleUung (Basel,
1862); Confessio Helvetiea posterior (Vienna, 1866);
AUgemeine Pddagogik (1870); Forschungen nach
einer Volksbibel zur Zeit Jesu und deren Zusam-
menhang mil der SeptuagintorUeberseUung (1873);
Die aUtestamenUiehen Citate im Neuen Testament
(1878); Christologie des Alien Testaments, oder
AusU^/ung der urichtigsten messianischen Weissa-
gungen (1882); Zum Oesets und zum Zeugniss;
tine Abwekr wider die neukritischen Schriftfarschun- ^
gen im Alien Testament (1883); Von der Incar-'
nation des gdtUichen Wortes (1884); Christliche
GlavbensUhre (Amsterdam, 1886); Dogmatik; Dor-
tteUung der ckristlichen Glaubendehre auf reformirt-
kirehhcher Orundlage (1887); Zur Abwekr : etliche
Bemerkungen gegen Prof, Dr, A, Kuyper's Einr
leilung gu seiner Sckrift "Die Incarnation des
Wortes " (1888); Von der Reehtfertigung durch den
II.— 14
Glauben (Leipsic, 1890); Beitrdge eur Oeschichte der
Reformation in Oesterreich (Jena, 1902).
BOEHM, HANS: A popular preacher of the
fifteenth century, known as the Drummer of Nik-
lashausen; executed July 19, 1476. He was
originally a shepherd at Helmstadt, between WUrz-
burg and Wertheim. Up to the beginning of 1476,
he had been used to play the drmn and fife for
rustic dances, but what he heard of the preaching
of the Franciscan Capistrano (see Capibtrano,
Giovanni di) worked a great change in him. He
alleged that the Virgin Mary had appeared to him
and called him to be a prophet and preacher of
repentance. In the village of Niklashausen* near
his home there was a picture of her already reputed
miraculous and visited by pilgrims. Here, at
the end of March, he began to preach, having burnt
his drum in token of conversion. Lacking not
only secular education but even elementary religious
knowledge, he yet made a deep impression on his
hearers by the innocence and purity of his nature.
He did not stop with calling the peasants to repent-
ance, but showed increasing bitterness against the
clergy and nobles, who, he said, would find no place
in the kingdom announced to him by the Virgin;
taxes were to be abolished, no one was to liAve
more than another, and all men were to live as
brothers. His fame soon spread throughout cen-
tral and southern Germany, and crowds of pilgrims,
put as high as 40,000, thronged to hear hun. He
seems to have intended to lead them in an armed
rising; but Bishop Budolf of WQrsburg had him
arrested on July 12, and warded off the danger of
a great peasants' war. Two days later, 16,000 of
his followers appeared to rescue him, but were
dispersed; and on the 19th, a recantation having
be^ extorted from him, he perished on the scaf-
fold as a heretic and enchanter.
(Herman Haitpt.)
Bibuoorafht: C. A. Bamek, Hans Behn und die WaU-
fakn naeh Nikkuhauaen im Jahr§ 1476, WOriburs. 1868;
C. Ullmaim, Reformen before Ae Reformation, i. 377-392,
Edinburgh, 1877 (a Tsry detailad aooount); E. Gothein,
PoliHecke und xelioiaeB Volkebeweffunoen vor der Reforma-
Hon, pp. 10 aqq., Breslau. 1878; H. Haupt, Die rait^dMn
Sekien in Frdnken vor der Reformation, pp. 67 Miq., WOri-
buiv, 1882.
BOEHME, bO'me, JAKOB.
Early Tendanoy Toward Myo- Finds Sympathy in Dreiden
tidam (f 1). (f 4).
MyBtio VisionB (f 2). Death of BOhme (f 6).
Opposition to his First His Writings (f 6).
Book (f 3). His Transcendentalism (f 7).
His Essential Orthodoxy (f 8).
The famous Gennan mystic Jakob Bdhme (often
written Behmen or Boehme in English), bom at
Alt-Seidenberg, near Gdrliti, Nov., 1575; d. at GOr-
litz Nov. 17, 1624. His parents were peasants,
from whom he inherited, it seems, a
X. Early strain of visionary mysticism. Unable
Tendency to bear the rough outdoor life of the
Toward farm, he was put to shoemaking in the
Mysticism, little town of Seidenberg, where he
had a hard apprenticeship with a
family that had no Christian principles, and got an
early insight into the controversies of the age.
With diligent reading of the Bible and prayer for
Boehrlngvr
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
210
the illumination of the Holy Spirit he combined
eager study of the works of fanatical visionaries,
such as Paracelsus, Weigel, and Schwenckfeld, by
means of which he felt himself elevated above the
strife of tongues around him into the light and joy
of the contemplation of God. He settled, as master
of his trade, at Gdrliti in 1599. He had his shop
there until 1613, and must have prospered to a
certain extent, since he bought a house in 1610
and had fully paid for it in 1618. He married
a master butcher's daughter in 1599, and had four
sons and two daughters, passing as a model hus-
band and father among his neighbors. All these
things go to show that he had a practical hold on
life, and was far from being a mere crazy visionaiy.
A visionary, however, he remained. He tells the
story of a stranger coming into his shop and calling
him by name, taldng him aside to tell him he should
be so great that the world should wonder at him,
and warning him to reouiin true to the Word of
God and to a life of virtue. Other visions followed.
One day the reflection of the sim from
3. Mystic a bright metal vessel in his shop seemed
Visions, to infuse such spiritual light into his
soul that the inner mysteries of things
were laid open to his sight. He went out into the
fields to seek the revelation of God's will in earnest
prayer, and found his peace and joy only grow the
deeper. None the less, ten years passed before he
ventured to put down in writing what he had seen,
and then he did so only on the encouragement of a
new vision and as a memorandum for himself.
The incomplete manuscript, written in great haste,
which he called Aurora oder die MorgenroU im Auf-
ganQf began to circulate among his acquaintances
at the instance of Kari von Ender, a friendly noble-
man who was an adherent of Schwenckfeld's. In
this way it came under the notice of Gregorius
Richter, the pastor of Gdrlitz, who at once began
a fanatical war upon the presumptuous shoemaker,
and urged the local magistrate to suppress him,
lest the wrath of God should fall upon the town.
Bdhme was minutely examined be-
3. Oppo- fore the council, and only dismissed
sition to his on promising to write no more books.
First Book. The observance of this promise,
however, was not only made diffi-
cult by the insistence of his friends, but by
his own inner feeling that the fear of men had
driven him to deny the grace of God that was in
him. The bitter abuse of Richter, too, still con-
tinued, and after five years of silence, during which
he had learned a good deal and developed more,
BOhme could bear it no longer, and, encouraged
by a fresh vision, again took up his pen. His new
writings were at first circulated only in manuscript
copies. Richter, who thought himself the i^pointed
guardian of orthodoxy, thundered against him from
the pulpit and attacked him in a vulgar lampoon,
which Bdhme answered in a tone naturally excited,
but still showing a nobler spirit than the absurdly
haughty and unchristian contempt of the attack.
Far from having broken with the word of God and
the sacraments, he was trying to live as an upright
Christian, in strict self-discipline; and although
among his twen^-eight works there are some which
directly attack the visible Church as Babel, the dty
of collusion, and set forth Christ in ub as the
mjrstical ideal, his general attitude by no meaDs
justifies the scornful " Shoemaker, stick to thy
last" of his opponent. In 1624 he was obliged
to leave Gdrlits, and went to Dresden, where he
found shelter in the house of the director of the
Elector's chemical laboratory "nd enjoyed the
society of many of the most intellec-
4. Finds tual people of the court and the capital.
Sympathy In May he had a hearing before several
in distinguished clerics and professors,
Dresden, who fully recognized his mental endow-
ments, and encouraged him to go home,
especially as his family, deprived of its head, had
been exposed to no little sufifering in the confusion
of the Thirty Years' War. He returned to GdrliU,
but his end was near. When he asked for com-
munion upon his death-bed, the successor of Richter,
a man like-minded, vrould only give it to him after
a searching examination, of which the report is still
extant. Full of confidence, however, and with
heavenly voices ringing in his ears,
5. Death Bdhme took leave of his wife and
of Bohme. children and died with the joyful ay
"I go to Paradise!" In spite of
clerical opposition, a befitting funeral was pro-
vided by the town authorities; a cross was put up
over the grave by his friends, to be defiled and
thrown down by the populace.
Thus despised and rejected in his own day,
Bdhme has been honored by some of the greatest
minds of Germany in a later age; such men as
Friedrich von Hardenberg, Jung-Stilling, Fried-
rich Schlegel andLudwig Tieck, Hegd and Sehelling
received valuable intellectual impulses from his
vrorks, which also attracted much attention in
England, where a complete translation appeared
between 1644 and 1662. Besides those already
named, the most important are Von den drei Prin-
cipien gdUlichen Weeens ; Vom dreifachen Leben des
Menechen ; Viertig Fragen von der Sede ; Yon
wahrer Buaee ; Dae Oeeprdch einer unerleuchteieti
Stele; and Der Weg gu Christo; including two
against predestinarianism and two
6. His against pantheism. BOhme's infiu-
Writings. ence has never been a popular one, be-
cause his train of thought is fre-
quently difficult and sometimes almost impossible
to follow. This is due partly to his lack of education,
which prevented him from expressing himself
clearly, but partly also to the depth and intensity
of his thought, which has to strug^e for adequate
representation in words. With sincere longing,
with real hunger of the soul he plunges into the
depths of God's being. The traditional theology
of the schools, with its strife about the letter,
could not content him. " As the many kinds of
flowers grow in the earth near each other, and none
contends with the other about color,
7. His smell, or taste, but they let the earth
Transcen- and the sun, rain and wind, heat and
dentalism. cold, do what they will with them.
while they grow each according to
its own nature, so is it with the children of God."
And he was simply a child of God, that longed to
211
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boehxinffwr
grow and approach more closely to God. In thiB
effort he studied the Bible and clung to it, but
nature and life, to say nothing of the writings
of earlier enthusiasts, contributed their part.
He held fast to the fundamental doctrines of
his Church, the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atone-
ment. "That which is said of God, that he is
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is truly said; but it
must be explained, or the imenlightened can not
comprehend it." " Thou must not think the Son
is another God from the Father, or that he is out-
side the Father, as when two men stand side by
side. The Father is the source of all forces,
and all forces are in each other as one force; and
thus he is called one God. The Son is the
Father's heart, the heart or center of all the powers
of the Father. From the Son rises the eternal
heavenly joy, having its source in all the powers
of the Father, a joy that no eye has
& His S»- seen, and no ear heard." Christ, the
tential Father's heart, descended into the
Orthodoiy. midst of the conflagration which had
broken out in the world, extinguished
it by his death, and by his resurrection, the resurrec-
tion of the God-Man, raised man to participation
in the Godhead. The Scripture is the receptacle
of the truth; he holds to it, and its sense alone (cf.
Col. i, 15-20) teaches a cosmic, universal conception
of Christianity; baptism and the Lord's supper are
means of grace to him. He remains, in spite of all
obscurities, a man of inspiration who raised Protes-
tant mysticism to a great height, and not only
endowed it with the riches of hiiB own meditations
but, through his " theosophic Pentecostal school, in
which the soul is taught by God," has shown many
others the way to a deep and abiding happiness.
(F. W. DiBBLIUS.)
fixBuooRArar: The works of BOhma were ooUeeted in
Gennany by J. Q. Qiehtel. 1682, and an edition in 7 vols.
WBfl edited by Sohiebler. Leipdc, 1831-47. The Eng.
ed. is mentioned in the text. Early aooounts in Eng. of
his life were by D. Hotham, London, 1654, and by F.
Okeley, Northampton. 1780; in Germ, by J. A. Calo,
WittenberXi 1707. For later aooounts consult: J.
Claasen, /. Bdhmt. Snn Ltben und 9gine tfksotopAiscAs
Wm-ke, 3 vols.. Stuttcart. 1886; H. L. liartensen, /.
BMme. Copenhagen, 1882, Eng. transl., London, 1886;
R. A. Vaughan. Hourg vfUh the MytHcB, vol. ii, ib. 1888;
Bchdnw&lder, LeUrubMehreibung J, BdhmM, Qdrlits.
1806. More nearly ooncemed with his philosophy are:
J. HamberK«r, Die Lehre dee deutteken PhUoeoph J.
Bdhme, Munich, 1844; C. F. Baur, Zur OeachidUB der
jmteatatUiMthen Myetik, in T*hsoloifi»dis JahrbQchm, Tii-
Tiii, 1848-49; A. Peip. /. Behma , , , dtr VorlAufer
ekruOiehtr WUaenBehaft, Leipsic, 1860; idem. /. Bdhme
. . . in eeiner SteUung Mur Kircke, Hamburg, 1862;
J. Tulloch. RaUanal Thsoloffy and Chrietian PhiUfophy
in Ote Seventeenth Century, Edinburgh, 1874; F. von
Baader, Verleeumfen aber J. Bdhme, in S&mnUliche Werke,
voL xiii. Leipeic. 1865; F. Hartmann. Life and Doetrinee
of Behme, the Ood^uoht Philoeopher, London. 1893; J.
F. Hurst. Hietory of Rationaliem, chap. i. New York,
1902. McClintock and Strong. Cydopadia, ii. 842. gives
in Enc. complete list of his works.
BOEHMER, bO'mer, EDUARD: German the-
ologian and Romance scholar ; b. at Stettin May 24,
1827. He was educated at the universities of Halle
and Berlin, and in 1854 became privat-dooent for
theology in the former university. He later turned
his attention to Romance, however, and in 1866 was
^pointed associate professor in that subject in
Halle, becoming full professor two years later.
In 1872 he was called to Strasburg in the same
capacity, but retired with the title of professor
emeritus in 1879. Among his numerous works
those of theological importance are Ueber Ver-
faseer und Ahfassungszeit der johanneischen Apo-
kalypae (Halle, 1855); Das erste Buck des Thora
(1862); Framisca Hernandez und Frai Framisco
Ortiz (Leipsic, 1866); Bibliotheca Wiffeniana :
Spanish Reformers of two Centuries from 15£0 (2
vols., Straaburg, 1874-83); and Des Apostels Paulus
Brief an die R&mer (Bonn, 1886).
BOEHMER, JUSTUS HENNING: A jurist who
made important contributions to the study of
Roman and still more of canon law; b. at Han-
over Jan. 29, 1674; d. at Halle Aug. 23 or 29,
1749, as chancellor of the duchy of Magdeburg
and head of the faculty of law at Halle. He
rendered a great service to the continuity of Prot-
estant church law in that he was the first to show
the adaptability of the older canonical principles
to post-Reformation conditions. This was made
possible by his profoimd knowledge of church
history and his extensive theoretical and prac-
tical acquaintance with both the common and
the statute law. In the question of the relation
of Church and State he declared for the territorial
system. Out of the large nimiber of his writings
may be mentioned the Duodecim dissertationes
juris ecdesiastici ad Plinium Secundum et Tertul'
lianum (2d ed., Halle, 1729); Enlwurf des Kirchen-
staats der drei ersten Jahrhunderten (1733); In-
stitutiones juris canonici (5th ed., 1770); Jus
ecdesiasticum Protestantium (6 vols., 1714); and an
edition of the Corpus juris canonici (2 vols., 1747),
valuable for its notes, index, and appendices.
He also made some contributions to church hym-
nody. He was the founder of a family of jurists,
two of whom deserve mention for their contribu-
tions to the study of canon law. These are his son,
Georg Ludwig, b. 1715; d. 1797,* as head of the law
faculty at GOttingen; author of Principia juris
canonici (Gdttingen, 1762), which was used in the
revision of the Prussian laws; and Georg Ludwig's
son, Georg Wilhehn (1761-1839), who published
Grundriss des protestantischen Kirchenrechts (GOt-
tingen, 1786) and other cognate works.
(E. Friedbero.)
Bibuoobapht: Nie^ron, Mhnoiree; C. G. Haubold, Ineti-
tutionee jurie Romani lUeraria, p. 153. Leipsic, 1819;
ADB, iii. 79 sqq.. 1876; J. F. Schulte. OeechiehU der
QueUen und Litteratur dee eanoniedken Reehte, vol. iii, part
2. pp. 92 sqq., Stuttgart. 1880; W. Schrader. Geeehiehte
der Friedriehe-UnivereiUU gu HaUe, i, 146 sqq.. Berlin,
1894.
BOEHRINGER, bO-ring'er, GEORG FRIED-
RICH: Swiss Protestant (Tubingen school); b.
at Maulbronn, WUrttemberg, Dec. 28, 1812; d. at
Basel, blind and crippled, Sept. 16, 1879. He stud-
ied at Tubingen, took part in the insurrectionary
movements in 1833, and was in consequence com-
pelled to flee to Switzerland; became pastor at
Glattfelden, Canton Zurich, 1842; resigned, 1853;
removed to Zurich, and then to Basel. He wrote,
from the sources and in a scholariy manner, a
of biogn^hies which constituted a church
Boethiufl
Bohemian
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
8151
hifltoiy down to pre-Refonnation times, under the
general title Die Kirche Chruti und ihre Zeugen
(24 voU., Zurich, 1842^68; 2d ed., 1860-79).
BOETHIUS, b6-nhi.U8, ANICIUS MAlfUUS
SEVERIHTJS: Statesman and philosopher; b. at
Rome, of wealthy and influential family, c. 480;
executed at Pavia 626. He received as good an
education as the time could give, and acquired a
dose acquaintance with Greek philosophy. In
610 he was consul, and for several years occupied
a prominent position in the Roman worid, equally
revered by the people and esteemed by the Ostro-
gothic king, Theodoric, the ruler of Italy (480-
626). After the decree of the Emperor Justin I
(618-627) against the Arians, Theodoric became
suspicious of all Romans and Catholics; he im-
prisoned Boethius at Pavia on a charge of desiring
to restore the old Roman freedom, and finally
put hun to death. By his translations and com-
mentaries (including the entire six books of the
Organan of Aristotle and the Isagoge of Porphyry)
and by his independent works (Jntrodvctio ad
categorieoB ajflogimos, De syUogismo eategorico,
De tyllogismo hypothetico, De divieione, De defi-
nitiane, De mneica, De arUhmetica, etc.), Bofithius
became the connecting link between the logical
and metaphysical science of antiquity and the
scientific attempts of the Bliddle A^. His influ-
ence on medieval thought was still greater through
his De coneoUUione philoaophice (written while in
prison at Pavia) and the theological writings
attributed to him. Whether Bofithius was a
Cliristian has been doubted; and it is certain that
the Coneolatio makes no mention of Christ, and
all the comfort it contains it owes to the optimism
of the Neoplatonic school and to the stoicism of
Seneca. Nevertheless, for a long time the book
was read with the greatest reverence by all Chris-
tendom, and its author- was regarded as a martyr
for the true faith. . Having advanced from a mere
logician to a moralist, he next came to be regarded
as a theologian; but it is not probable that he wrote
any of the theological works attributed to him.
The tradition is very old, however; he is mentioned
by Alcuin as the author of De eanda iriniiaU, and
by qinwrnftT of Rdms as author of a treatise,
Utrum pater et filiua et epirUua aanetue de divinitaU
substcmHalUer proedicentur.
Biblioobafht: The complete work* of Bogthius first ap-
peared at Venioe, 1402; a«ain at BaMl, 1646 and 1670;
they are leproduoed in MPL, Uiii-bdv. The ContolaUo
phiUMophia waa first printed at Nuremberg. 1473; a
good edition ia by Peiper. Leipaio, 1871; there have been
many Englieh iranalationB, beginning with King Alfred's
Anglo-Saxon version* and including one by Chaucer and
one ascribed to Queen Elisabeth; a late translation is by
H. R. James, London, 1897. The translations from
Aristotle were published by C. Meiser. 2 vols.. Leipeio.
1877-80; the De arWmeiiea, De mueiea, and De geome-
trim by Q. Friedlein, ib. 1867. The theological writings
appeared at Louvain in 1633 and are in Peiper 's edition
of the ConeolaUo (ut sup.). Consult: F. Nitsseh* Dae
Syetem dee Boelhiue, Berlin, 1860; Jourdain, De Voriffine
dee tndiHane eur U durieHanieme de Bohe, Paris, 1861;
A. Hildebrand, Boelhiue und eeine Stdluno turn Ckrielen^-
tkum, Regensbuig, 1886; H. F. Stewart, Boetkiue: an
Beeay, Edinburgh, 1891 (valuable; an analysis of the
ConeoUMon and other theological tracts, discusses the
question of BoSthius's Christianity, gives literature at
hewl of eMh ehM>t«r); E. K. Rand, Joh, Beoltut. I. Dsr
KammmOar dee Johcmmee SeoUue, 11. Dee ^emi^ ^
Auxerre eu dm opueeuia eaera dee BoeQ^xue, Mumeh,l«0«.
B06ATZET, KARL HEIHRICH VOH: German
Pietist; b. at Jankowe (a village of Lower Sfleaia)
Sept. 7, 1600; d. at Halle June 15, 1774. When
fourteen years of age, he entered the ducal court
of Saxe-Weissenfels as a page, but at the instance
of the pious count Henry XXIV of Beuss-KSstnta,
he began to complete his education in his twentieth
year. From 1713 to 1716 he studied law at Jeoa
and then devoted himself to theology at Halle,
where Francke, Anton, Freylinghausen, and other
Pietists greatly influenced him. After completing
his theological studies in 1718, he lived for several
yean among the nobility of Silesia, and exerdaed
much influence as a spiritual leader. He also
resided for a number of years at the Silesian village
of Glaucha, where he aided in building an or-
phan-asylum, and from 1740 to 1746 he Uved at
the ducal court of Saalfeld, and finally at Halle,
engaged in literary work of a devotional character
and in the practical furtherance of Pietistic life.
The most popular of his many works was his Gul-
ctenss 5cfc<itefc<totfctn der Kinder Gottes, whic^
posed for his own edification while at the univerrity
(Breslau, 1718; 65th ed., HaUe, 1904; Eng. transl.,
London, 1745, and many subsequent editions);
while among his other books special mention may
be made of his Td^Zicto Hautbuch der Kind£r
Oottes (2 vols., HaUe, 1748-49) and of his Betrach-
tungen und G^beU aber doe Neue TeetamerU (7 parts,
1755-61). Several of his h3rmns obtained a place
in the popular hymnals of the German people, and
were collected in his Uebung der GoUediqkeU in
aUeriei geMichen Liedem (Halle, 1749), while a se-
lection of 160 was published by Johannes aaasaen,
(Stuttgart, 1888), together with a biography of
Bogatiky. (GBORa MOllbr.)
Bibuooeafht: Bo«atiky'i autobiography wae pnbliohed
by Knapp. Halle. 1801. Eng. tranal.by 8. Jackson. Lon-
don. 18M. Coneult: O. Frank. (TmcAmMs der pro-
ieetanUedien Theologie, iii. 201-202. Leipeic. 1875; ADB,
iii. 37-89, Leipeic, 1876; A. F. W. Fiaoher. iC««*«»-£/i«lw^
Lexikon, ii. 430-431. Qotha, 1879; Julian, Hymnoiogtf. i>.
162.
BOGERMAN, W^ger-man, JAN: Dutch theo-
logian; b. at Oplewert, East Friesland, 1576; d.
at Franeker Sept. 11, 1637. He was professor of
divinity at Franeker after 1033. He took an active
part in the Arminian controversy and presided at
the Synod of Dort (q.v.). He was one of the
workers on the Old Testament of the SUuOenbibel
(see BiBLB Vbbsionb, B, III). He wrote a polemic
against Grotius, AnnotaHones contra H. Orotiwn^ and
translated Besa's De la puniiian dee hiriiiquee, under
the title Van het keUer etraffen (Franeker, 1601).
BOOOIOLES. See New Manichk.\iib, I.
BOOUE, DAVID: English Oongreg^onalist;
b. at Hallydown, near Coldingham (10 m. n.w. of
Berwick), Berwickshire, Feb. 18, 1750; d. at
Brighton Oct. 26, 1825. He studied at Edinburgh
(MJ^., 1771), waa licensed to preach, and taught
school in England; in 1780, while minister of a
Congregational chapel at Gosport (opposite Ports-
mouth), he undertook the instruction of young
men for the ministry, and from this be^nning
S13
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BoHthiiui
Bohemian
developed the London Missionary Society. He
was also active in founding the British and Foreign
Bible Society and the Religious Tract Society.
In 1796 with two other ministers and Robert
Ilaldane he offered to go to India as a missionary,
but the plan was not approved by the East India
Company. Besides sermons and tracts he pub-
lished An Eaaay on the Divine Authority of the New
Testament (London, 1801), and with James Bennett
wrote the History of Dieeenters from the Revobdion
to 1808 (4 vols., 1808-12; 2d ed., 2 vols., )833).
Bxblioobapht: Jamae Bennett, Memoira of tke Life of Rev.
David Bogue, London, 1827; DNB, v, 302-303.
BOHEMIA. See Aubtbia.
I. Origin and History to 1490.
Orisin of the Sect (f 1).
Early Orguiiiation (f 2).
First Priesta of the Brethren (f 3).
Relationfl with the WftldenBiana
(§4).
L Origin and History to 1496: The Gompactata
of Prague, which marked the political end of the
HuBBite Wars in 1433 (see Huss, John, HussrrEs),
proved unsatisfactory to the religious and ecclesias-
tical demands of the majority of the Bohemians.
Many scattered communities accordingly arose
throughout the country, seeking to carry out the
Reformation in life and doctrine, independent
of the Waldensians who had long been settled in
Bohemia. In 1453-54, moreover, the preaching
of tke Utraquistic archbishop Rokycana (pastor
of the Teinkirehe at Prague after 1448) resulted in
the formation of a oonununity at Prague, headed
by his nephew Gregory. The conviction that the
validity of the sacraments, sermons, prayer, and
the like depended on the moral and religious char-
acter of the priest caused them to seek for " good "
pastors, and this congregation, together with others
and at the suggestion of Rokycana, became closely
allied with the Cheldic Brethren, the followers
of a layman named Peter of Chel6ic, who first ap-
peared at Prague in 1419 and seems to have died
before 1457. He had refused to join any of the
Hussite parties, since he rejected all
^'of2e *®™P^"^ defense of the Gospel, and
g^^ recorded his peculiar views in his wri-
tings, of which the most important
were his Netz dee wahren Glavbena (1455) and
his PoeHUa (1434-36). His ideal of Christian life,
the fulfiknent of the "law of Christ" (Matt,
xxii, 37-39; Gal. vi, 2) in public and in private
life without regard to consequences, and his re-
jection of all that could not be reconciled with this
law, such as temporal power, wealth, war, and
trade, made a profound impression on Gregory
and his followers, and inspiz^ them to attempt
to realise this ideal. At their request their friend
and counselor Rokycana secured permission from
King George PodSbrad for them to settle in the
village of Ktmwald in the district of Lititi, which
belonged to him, and they accordingly established
their colony there in 1457 or 1458, Michael, the
pastor of the neighboring town of Senftenberg,
becoming their spiritual head. How large it was,
whether including only individuals or entire fam-
ilies, is not known, although the latter seems to
have been the case. At all events, families were
soon attracted to Kunwald, for the oldest docu-
ment of the Brethren, a synodical resolution of
1464, presupposes the existence of households
with civil occupations, as well as of widows and
ozphans.
BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.
II. The Brethren under Lukaa.
OppreeeiTe Meaaures of Yladielav
(ID.
Overtures to the Proteetante
(§2).
Later Organiiation (f 8).
III. Development from 1528 to 1621.
Johann Auffueta (f 1).
Cewation of Persecution (f 2).
The Brethren Merged in the Utra-
quists (f 3).
IV. The Brethren in Prussia and PoUnd.
This sketch of the origin of the Bohemian Breth-
ren renders it dear that the current view which
represents them as remnants of the Taborites is
incorrect. In 1471 they designated themselves
as disciples of Rokycana and his colleagues, and
declared that they had been developed from the
older communities mentioned above. The main
outlines of the organization are contained in cer-
tain synodical resolutions of 1464r-67. The com-
munity was divided into three groups: beginners
or penitents, comprising children under the age
of twelve and all who sought to enter the com-
munity from the time they made profession of their
desire until they were received; the advanced,
forming the majority of the community and devo-
ting themselves to various civil callings, with mas-
ters and matrons appointed to supervise and
counsel them; and the perfected (also (»lled priests,
although the community then had no specially
appointed priesthood), who had re-
8. Barly nounced private property and given
Orffaa- their possessions to the poor, par-
Isation. ticulariy to those who "journey for
the sake of the word of God." It
was the duty of the perfected to proclaim the word
and to hear confessions; they were required to
travel in pairs, instead of alone, to earn a Uvelihood
by the work of their hands, and to collect alms
regularly, which were destined partly for the poor
and partly for themselves, in case their work was
insufficient to support them. Those of the laity,
either male or female, who had voluntarily chosen
poverty, also belonged to this dass. At the head
of the communities stood one or more elders, al-
thou^ no details of their duties are known, and infor-
mation is equally scan^ regarding the composition
of their frequent synods. The Brethren at Kun-
wald gained an increasing nmnber of adherents in
Bohemia and Moravia, while their opposition to the
dominant Church became stronger and stronger,
espedally as a result of the persecution instituted
against them by King George in 1460. They
accordingly felt themselves obliged, seven years
later, to break entirely with the Church by the
creation of an independent priesthood, the his-
torical course of events being as follows, according
to GoU's proposed combination of the sources,
which are not always in entire agreement.
By a meeting with the Waldensians and their
'' bishop " Stephen, with whom they had become ac-
quainted through Rokycana, the Bohemian Brethren
had entered into relations with the Waldensians
Bohemiaa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
214
previous to 1467. These negotiations proved
fruitless, however, since the Waldensians as a
body would not countenance an open break with
the Roman Catholic Church. Some of them, on
the other hand, joined the Brethren, and among
this nimiber was an old Waldensian priest, who was
present, together with certain representatives of
the German Waldensians, at a conference of about
sixty Brethren from various parts of Bohemia and
Moravia which was held, according to a later tra-
dition, at Lhotka, a village near Eeichenau, in
1467 to choose and ordain priests of their own.
Fully aware of the momentous nature of their
proceeding, they wished God himself to decide by
lot whether the time had come for them to venture
the step, and which persons should be the first
priests. Nine candidates were proposed, each of
whom was required to draw one of twelve slips,
nine blank and three containing the word jest
(" he is ''). In case all the candidates drew blanks,
the synod was to be adjourned for a year. Thomas,
Matthias, and Elias, however, drew the three
written slips, whereupon they were '' confirmed "
by the laying on of hands by the old
8. First Waldensian priest, apparently assisted
Priests by the priest Michael (?), in the name
of the and authority of the synod. By a
Brethren, more restricted lot Matthias was chosen
from the three to have " the first
place in authority," or as "bishop," as Michael
called himself in a conference with the Utra-
quistic consistory in 1478. It was not until May
of the following year (1468) that the Brethren
informed Rokycana of what had occurred, and they
then seem to have broken definitely with him.
They themselves, however, were soon divided as
to " whether it should so remain," and the result
wafl the decision that Matthias should be consecra-
ted bishop by the Waldensian bishop Stephen.
Strangely enough, the priest Michael was sent, in-
stead of Matthias himself. Michael met Stephen in
southern Moravia, received consecration from him,
and gave it, when he returned, to Matthias, where-
upon he resigned both the authority of bishop,
which he had received only for this purpose, and also
his Catholic priesthood, having himself reordained
by Matthias as a priest of the Brethren, while the
new bishop likewise ordained Thomas and Elias.
This is the account of Michael and other eye-wit-
nesses, while later sources, even of the early six-
teenth century, present many deviations, partly
in an endeavor to conceal the cooperation of the
Waldensians so far as possible.
The members of this newly constituted com-
munity called themselves " Brethren," and were
known in different portions of the country by the
names of their chief centers, such as Kunwalders,
Bimzlau Brethren, and the like. As a whole they
termed themselves Jednota Bratrskdy which they
later rendered into Latin as Unitas Fratrwn,
Their characteristic designation was Brethren,
which had already been current in various older
Bohemian communities. The name Fratres legis
ChrisH first arose in the second half of the sixteenth
century, but never became general. Their oppo-
nents usually termed them Waldensians or Pick-
ards (a corruption of Beghards), and this desig-
nation, found even in the royal decrees, became
so general that they themselves employed it in
the titles of many of their writings, terming them-
selves ** the Brethren who for envy and hatred are
called Waldensians or Pickards." The first result
of the events of 1467 was a renewal of the perse-
cutions, which lasted until the death of George and
Rokycana in 1471, and which also involvnl the
Waldensians, Stephen being burned at
4. Bela- ^^o stake in >^enna during this perioi
tionfl This persecution may also have been
with the the cause of the renewed attacks on
Walden- them in Brandenburg, and about
■ians. 1473 ^^q Waldensians accordingly
went from that country to the Breth-
ren, thus inaugurating an intercommunication be-
tween the two sects which resulted in a number of
Waldensians joining the Brethren after 1480 and
settling at Landskron in Bohemia and at Fulneck
in Moravia. In the latter coimtry both sects were
tolerated under King Matthias, imtil the end of his
reign, when a decree of expulsion was issued in
1488, although it was soon revoked at the petition
of some patrons of high rank. A portion of the
Brethren had already emigrated to Moldavia, but
apparently returned within a few years.
Internal strife, centered about the ideal of Peter
mentioned above, was more perilous to the main-
tenance of imity than external oppression. A
*' small " party clung to this ideal, and accordingly
rejected temporal power, law, service in war, the
oath, and the like as unchristian, while a " great "
party regarded all these as dangerous, yet not
to be rejected unconditionally. The controversies
ended in 1494 with the victory of the "great"
party, the " small " party, who called themselves
Amosites After their leader Amos, separating as
an independent community and preserving an
existence for several decades. Dunng these dis-
sensions two leaders of the " great " party, Lukas
and Thomas, journeyed to North Italy to visit the
Lombard Waldensians in their own homes, possibly
seeking, in view of their disagreement with the
" small " party, to make a final effort to induce
the Waldensians to break openly with Rome.
A correspondence between the Brethren and the
Waldensians was associated with this journey,
the three Waldensian treatises, preserved either
entire or in fragments, La epistola al serenissimo
Bey Lancdau; Aycxo es la cauea del nostre departi'
merU de la gleysa Romana ; and De VArUichrid,
as well as the catechism La>8 interrogaUona menors,
being apparently translations or revisions of Bohe-
mian writings composed by the Brethren, although
the mutual relations are not yet altogether dear.
XL The Brethren imder Lukas: The period
between 1496 and 1528 is marked by the activity
of LukajB. Although he was not appointed presiding
bishop until 1517, his influence was potent during
the administration of his predecessors in office,
Procopius (1507) and Thomas of Pifelou5 (1517).
His special task was the restoration of the Unity
which had become necessary in consequence of
the secession of the "small" party. Amass of
ordin:ances, touching on all the relations of life,
210
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bobsmiui
wajB prepared to build up the Christian oommunity
cm the principles newly won. The doctrines, which
had thus far been formulated but feebly, were now
systematiied on other foundations, and from these
various points of view Lukas developed a note-
worthy literary activity. The external existence
of the Unity was seriously threatened at the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century, when Vladislav,
who had tolerated them hitherto, was induced to
proceed against them by Bohuslav of Lobkowitz,
the foremost representative of Bohemian human-
ism, who saw the roots of manifold evils in religious
disunion. At the same time Alexander VI sent the
Dominican Heinrich Institoris to OlmUti as censor
of books for Bohemia and Moravia (bull of Feb. 4,
1500), and he, after a fruitless disputation with
certain representatives of the Brethren, preached
against them with extreme severity. Tlie over-
tures toward a reconciliation between Rome and
the Utraquists (1501) led the latter to make com-
mon cause in opposition to the Brethren, and a
decree of the king, dated July 5, 1503, forbade all
further toleration of the sect in Prague and the
royal cities, while the Roman Catholic estates
voluntarily enforced this prohibition in their dis-
tricts. A conference held at Prague between the
Utraquistic clergy and some of the Brethren failed
to convince the latter of their " errors," nor did a
Latin creed given them by the king in 1503 meet
with their approval. He was still more incensed at
them by two venomous letters of the OlmUts canon
Augustine Kftsebrot, so that he issued a sharp decree
against them in 1507. These decrees, however,
could not become valid until accepted by the diet,
and Vladislav accordingly proposed a law against the
Brethren at the diet convoked on July 25, 1508.
This was accepted by the estates and placed on the
code, as in force throughout the country. It
forbade all public and private gatherings of the
" Pickards," and ordereid the destruction of all
their books and writings, while they were com-
manded to attend Roman Catholic
1. Op- OT Utraquistic chiux^hes, their clergy
pressive and teachers being prisoners of the
XeunrM king unless they should consent,
of after receiving instruction, to join
VladlslaT. one of these religious bodies. The
law is said to have been obeyed by all
estates until Christmas, and those who still tolerated
" Pickards " were mulcted. This measure condi-
tioned the position of the Brethren in Bohemia for
almost the entire period of their existence, but the
Moravian diet refused to accept it. In 1541 the
code was destroyed by a fire at Prague, so that it be-
came necessary to dntf t the laws anew at following
diets. Thereupon the Brethren endeavored to se-
cure the abolition of the law, but in vain; nor was
it repealed until an imperial letter of Rudolf II
in 1600. It is strikingly suggestive of the political
conditions of Bohemia in the sixteenth century,
however, that a oonununity which was legally
prohibited, like the Brethren, could attain such
wide extension and importance. This was possible
only because the nobles obeyed the laws as they
pleased, for the king was generally too much occu-
pied with foreign affairs to be able to insist rigidly
on compliance with his statutes, and in case he did
attempt to execute them, he was resisted by a
coalition of the estates, who sought to check all
growth of the royal power. At first the law was
strictly observed, and the Brethren were severely
oppressed, their meeting-places being closed,
their priests expelled, and imprisonment and even
occasional execution serving as deterrent meas-
ures. Lukas himself was imprisoned, and was
freed only by the death of Vladislav on Mar. 13,
1516. Tlus event lessened the severity of a perse-
cution which had been opposed by some estates
from the very beginning. During the reign of
Vladislav's son Louis, which marked a further
decay of the royal power, the persecution of the
Brethren ceased altogether, and the governmental
center of the Unity, which had been transferred to
Prerau in Moravia during the period of oppression,
was again removed to Bohemia, and located at
Jungbunzlau, the residence of Lukas. While he
was presiding bishop, the Brethren first came into
contact with the German Reformation, when Luther
learned of their short catechism, of which he seems
to have received a German translation in 1521.
Although Luther at first declared himself at least
in sympathy with their doctrine of the Lord's Supper,
he became estranged from the Brethren after 1524,
while their tendency to remain aloof, so far as
possible, from the Lutheran movement was
strengthened by the vagaries of Gallus Cahera in
Plague (1523-29), especially since it
2. Over- resulted in the enforcement by the
tares to diet of the decree of Vladislav (1525).
the Prot- The Brethren also sent a fruitless
estants. deputation to Erasmus, apparently in
1520. In the closing years of his
life Lukas found himself obliged to break with
the Habrovanites or Lultish Brethren in Moravia,
who were closely associated with the " small "
party, and rejected celibacy, spiritual and temporal
authority, and the taking of oaths, in addition to
following Carlstadt in the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper, and wishing to substitute baptism of the
spirit for baptism by water. After a fruitless
conference, letters were exchanged with consider-
able frequency for a number of years, while an effort
made by the Anabaptists who had emigrated from
the Tyrol to Moravia to unite with the Brethren
ended in 1528 in a complete schism. Lukas died
at Jungbimzlau on Dec. 11, 1528, and was buried
in the local house of the Brethren, which had for-
merly been a monastery. The organization, how-
ever, which he had given the Unity remained un-
changed until its end.
In principle the supreme judicial power was
lodged with the s3mod, which consisted of all the
clergy, although it contained no delegates chosen
from the communities. It was, at the same time,
the supreme court of appeal, although the chief ad-
ministrative body, the "Close Council" {Hxkd rada),
which was composed of some ten members chosen
by the synod for life, apparently constituted the
real government. The le^ relation of the " Close
Council " to the synod seems never to have been
accurately defined. At the Sjrnod of 1497 the
" dose Council " was treated with all submission
Bohemian
Boifl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
216
and obedience, and was empowered to make
whatever changes and ordinances it deemed best
without awaiting a decision of the synod. Accord-
ing to tradition, it never abused its privileges, and
held a general council yearly whenever this was
possible, while other synods also existed in individ-
ual districts. The presiding officer of the " dose
Council" was called a "judge" (audi), and this
office was originally imited with that of bishop in
the person of Matthias, although he proved himself
unequal to the position in the strife with the
" small " party, so that Procopius was appointed
tudi, Katthias retaining only the episcopal power
of ordination. Authorised by the " Close Council,"
he associated Thomas and Ellas,
8. lAter whom he had already ordained priests,
Orvaaiaa- and after the death of Matthias and
tion. the resignation of Procopius in 1500,
t^he power of direction and ordination
was again united, and given to four newly chosen
Brethren, Thomas, Ellas, Lukas, and Ambrose,
the first two already possessing the episcopal ordi-
nation and the last two now receiving it. Each of
them was placed over a diocese which he controlled
and in which he ordained the priests. The priest
next in age to these four was called the judge, and
had spedal functions. Jafet, writing in 1605,
sought to show that this organization existed from
the first and that four bishops had ruled simul-
taneously since 1467, and this erroneous view was
so widely disseminated by Wengierski (Regen-
volsdus) that it is still found sporadically. At
the head of each commimity stood the priest or
director (sprdvce), who lived in the " house of the
Brethren " and supported himself as an artisan or
farmer. He might possess property, although he
was bound by oert^ restrictions, so that when, for
example, he received a legacy, he was required
to deposit it with the "Close Council," which
deprived him of it in case of need or inability to
discharge his office. While there was no insistence
on the celibacy of the clergy, it was regarded as
desirable, in view of the unsettled position of the
community, and was the rule until the second half
of the sixteenth century. With the priest lived
his assistant or deacon, who aided him both in his
daily toil and in teaching school, and especially in
the instruction of the acolytes (young men in train-
ing for the priesthood), who resided in the " house
of the Brethren." The deacon accompanied the
priest in all his pastoral journeys, and was per-
mitted to preach, to baptise in case of need, and to
aid in the Lord's Supper, although he could neither
consecrate the elements nor pronounce the bene-
diction at the close of the service of the community.
A council of the community aided, and in part
supervised, the priest in controlling the property
of the congregation and in distributing alms. The
income consisted, in addition to gifts and founda-
tions, of two coUections, taken at Christmas and
St. John's Day. Three persons were deputed to
oversee the giving of alms, while the council of the
community was required to reconcile antagonistic
members of the congregation with each other or with
the priest, to control morals, and to maintain the
discipline of the church. The bodies next in rank
were the " Close Council " and the synods. The
council of the community foimd its counterpart in
a committee of aged widows and spinsters appointed
to supervise the morals and the conduct of the sisters.
This organisation, the genesis of which is known
chiefly from the Dekirety, remained unchanged
after Lukas. It was first described in full detail
by Laaidus in the eighth book of his history of the
Brethren, and was officially formulated by them
at the General Sjrnod of Smivic in Moravia, held
in 1616.
nL Development from 1528 to 1621: The in-
dependent development of the UnUas Fratntm
closed with the death of Lukas. The Lutheran
party among the Brethren, headed by such men as
Johann Horn (Roh), Michael Weisse, Johann
Augusta, and Biach Sionsky, now became more
prominent and assumed the leadership. After the
brief administration of the insignificant Martin
Skoda, Horn became judge in 1532, but was sur-
passed in importance by his colleague Johann
Augusta, a man characterised by meager educa-
1 J han ^^^' ^* ^' ^'^^^^ firmness, energy,
Aoffusta? a^d eloqu®J^<5e> *^d deeply impressed
with a sense of the peculiar advan-
tages of the community. He sought to associate
the Brethren with the foreign Evangelicals, and
found a favorable opportunity shortly after 1530,
when the margrave George of Brandenburg re-
quested Conrad of Krajek to instruct him in the
doctrines of his sect. A confession was prepared,
and Luther was induced to have it printed at Witten-
berg with a eulogistic preface. At the same time,
however, Augusta made overtures to the Strasburg
theologians, and Matthias Cervenka, his envoy
to Butaer, unexpectedly met Calvin. On the other
hand, his relations with the Utraquistic Church of
Bohemia were strained, especially during the
administration of Mistopol. Another trait which
characterises the history of the Brethren after
Lukas (1528-17) is the prominence of their nobility.
The country estates were required to take part in
the country diets just as the estates of the kingdom
shared in the royid diets, and it thus became neces-
sary for the estates of the Brethren to enter the
former to defend the existence of their ecclesias-
tical union. In 1535, therefore, they gave King
Ferdinand the creed of the Brethren, signed by
all members of the nobility among them, twdve
lords and thirty-five knights. Since ten of the
twenty-six nobles tried by Ferdinand after the sup-
pression of the so-called Bohemian revolt in 1547
were members of the Unity, he found a long-desired
pretext to crush the community so far as possible.
The decree of Vladislav was reenforced, certain es-
tates which had been the centers of the brotherhood
were confiscated by the king, and the former pro-
tectors of the Brethren were no longer able to evade
the execution of the decree under the exusting dr-
cmnstances. The community was practically des-
troyed in Bohemia. Its seat of government was
transferred to Moravia, but the majority of the Breth-
ren were banished from the entire Idngdom. Au-
gusta himself was betrayed to Ferdinand, and re-
gained his freedom only after repeated tortures and
an imprisonment of sixteen years.
817
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bohemian
Bolfl
The sixth decade of the centuiy ushered in a period
of comparative peace for the Brethren, and they now
sought, under the leadership of Johann Blahoslav,
to gain state recognition of their Church, their
chances seeming especially favorable in view of
the supposed Protestant tendency of Maximilian.
In 1355 and the following years they accordingly
endeavored to win the favor of the archduke through
repeated conferences between Blahoslav and Maxi-
milian's court preacher, Pfauser of Vienna, but
their efforts to secure definite promises for the
future bore little fruit. The same object was pur-
sued by Utraquism, which had no^f
2. Oeasa- become essentiallyLutheran, and which
tlon of had prepared a new creed for the Lu-
Penecn- theran Church in Bohemia in 1575, after
tion. the compacts had been annulled by the
diet of deputies in 1567 as antiquated.
Through their representatives the Brethren sought
to have their independence dearly expressed in the
preface of the new creed, but their chance of recog-
nition by the side of the " Neo-Utraquists " steadily
decreased, while their essential commimi^ of
interest with the new body became more and more
dear. In 1600, when the estates forced Rudolf
to issue his charter, the Brethren shared the relig-
ious liberty which it granted by joining in the Bo-
hemian Confession of 1576, after having already
given a full explanation of its acceptance in the
previous year.
All special names were now to cease, and the
members of the united Bohemian Evangelical
Church were henceforth to be called " Utraquistic
Christians." The Brethren were represented in
the oonmion consistory, but despite the abolition
of a separate name, this was, strictly
8. The speaking, not a union, but rather
Brethren a confederation between the UnUaa
K«rvad in Fratrum and the Bohemian Church.
the XTtra- xhe Brethren, therefore, retained their
^^°^*^ own organisation and regulations,
and even their independent creed
(1564), while the Bohemian Lutherans, in like
manner, held to the Augsburg Confession, although
both creeds arededared to be in fuU harmony with
the Bohemian Confession of 1575. Definitive
form was accordin^y given the dhurch disdpline
of the Brethren at the Synod of Zeravic in 1616
under the title RaHo diaciplina ordiniaque eccUh
tiastici in unitaie fratrum Bohemorum, but the plan
of making this valid for the whole Bohemian Church
was not realised. This organisation, however,
had but a brief period of prosperity, for the battle
at the White Hill (Nov. 8, 1620) destroyed Protes-
tantism in Bohemia and Moravia for more than a
century and a half.
IV. The Brethren in Pmnia and Poland: The
Brethren expelled from Bohemia in 1547 in conse-
quence of the Schmalkald War emigrated partly
to Moravia and partly to Prussia, where they were
received by Duke. Albert. After his death in 1568
they retimied to Moravia and Poland, exercising an
important influence on the introduction of the
Reformation in the latter country, and attempting
to establish friendly relations between the various
Evangelical bodies at a synod held at Sendomir in
1570. Their scanty remnants still exist in the
five so-called communities of Unity in the Prussian
province of Posen: Posen, Lissa, Lasswiti, Waschke,
and Orseszkowo. Jobef Mueller.
Bibuoorapht: For full bibliography of the mibject con-
sult W. G. Ifalin. Catalooue of BookBrdaHno to or iUuatro'
Una the HiHory of the Unitaa Fratrum or United Breth-
ren now generaUy known as the Moravian Church, Philadel-
phia, 1881.
For general history consult: J. Gamerarius, Hiatoriea
narraiio de fratrum orthodoxorum ecdeaiie in Bohemia,
Morana, et Polonia, Heidelberg. 1605; J. Lasioius, D«
crigint et inUituHe Fratrum Ubri viii (only tba eighth
book waa published, ed. J. A. Comenius, 1649); Hiaioria
fMTMcutionvm eeeieeim Bohamiem, Amsterdam, ld48, Eng.
transl., London, 1060; J. A. Comenius, Eedetim Sla-
voniem hietoriota, Amsterdam, 1660; idem, Hiataria fra-
trum Bohemorum, ed. Buddeus, Halle, 1702; Martyrolo-
gium Bohemieum, oder die bUhmiatAe Verfokrunoegeeehichte,
894r-ie$9, Berlin, 1766; D. Crans. Alte und neue BrUder
Hietorie, Barby. 1771, Eng. transl., London. 1780; The
ReformoHon and Anti-Reformation in Bohemia, ib. 1845;
V. Krasinski, Retigioue Hiatory of the Slavonic Nationa,
Edinburgh, 1861; A. Gindely, Oeat^ichte der behmiachen
BrUder, 2 vols.. Prague, 1857; A. Bost. HiaL of the Bo-
hemian and Moravian Brethren, London, 1863; E. W.
CrOger, OeatAichte der alien BrUderkircha, Onadau. 1865;
D. Benham, Notea on the Ori4fin and BpiaeoptUe of the Bo-
hemian Brethren, London, 1867; B. Cserwenka, Geechithte
der evangeliachan Kirche in Bdhm^en, 2 vols., Bielefeld,
1870; E. Jane Whately, Sketdiea of Bohemian Religioua
Hiatory, London, 1876; E. de Schweinits. HiaL of the
Chur^ known aa the Unitaa Fratrum, Bethlehem, 1885.
For the church order consult: RtMtio diaeiplina ordi-
niaque eedeaiaatiei in unitate fratrum Bohemorum, Less-
no, 1632, Amsterdam, 1660, and Halle, 1732; B. Beifferth,
Church Conatitution of the Bohemian and Moravian Br«0^
ran. The Ori4final Latin with a Tranal., London, 1866.
The original text of the Confeeeion is reproduced in A.
Gindely, Quetten ewr Geechichte der buhmiadten BrUder,
p. 854 sqq., Vienna, 1861, and in de Schweinits, Hiatory,
ut sup., pp. 648 sqq. Consult also J. C. Koecher, Die
drey Isfsten und vornehmaten Olaubenabekenntniaae der
6MfNteAm BrOder, Leipdo. 1741; H. A. Niemeyer, Col-
lectio eonfeaaionum, pp. 771 sqq., ib. 1840.
For oatechisms oonsult: J. Q. Ehwalt. Die alte und neue
Lehre der bdhmiachen BrUder, Dansig. 1766; C. A. G. von
Zeiaohwits, Die Katadiiamen der Waldenaer und bdhmi-
at^en BrQder, Erlangen, 1863; J. MOller. Die deutaehen
Kaieehiemen der bdhmiaehen BrUder, Berlin, 1887.
On the Hymnology eonsult: P. Wackemagel, Dot
deutaeha Kirehenliad, iii, 229-368. iv, 346-485. Berlin,
1870-75; J. Zahn. Die ffeiattiehen Lieder der BrUder in
Bdhmen, Mdhren und Polen, Nuremberg* 1875; Julian,
Hymneitogy, pp. 153-160.
BOIS (BOTS), JOHN: Church of England
scholar; b. at Nettlestead, near Hadleigh (35 m.
e.s.e. of Cambridge), Suffolk, Jan. 3, 1561; d. at
Ely Jan. 14, 1644. He studied at St. John's and
Magdalen Colleges, Cambridge, was elected fellow
of the former in IsSbO, and was Greek lecturer 1684-
1595; became rector of Boxworth (5 m. n.w. of
Cambridge) 1596, and prebendary of Ely 1615. He
was one of the translators of the Authorized Vei^
sion, belonging to the Apocrypha company, and
when his own part was done is said to have assisted
the other Cambridge company on the section from
Chronicles to Canticles; he was one of the delegates
engaged in the final revision. He assisted Sir
Henry Savile (who calls him " most ingenious and
most learned ") in his edition of Ch^rsostom (8
vols., Eton, 1612 [1610-13]), and left many manu-
scripts, but his only published work was VeterU inr
terpretis cum Beza oLiitque receniioribuB coUaJtio in
quattuor evanffeliia et apogtolarum adia (London,
1655).
Bolinffbroke
Bolzano
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
218
Bzbuoorapht: The life of Bois. founded i^rtly on his diary
and written by Anthony Walker, is printed in Francis
Peek's Dtnderaia eurioaa, ii. 325-342. London, 1779, and
additions to it by T. Baker are appended to Peek's Mem-
otrs of . , , OUv0r CromtoeU. London, 1740. Consult
alsoDi^B.T. 311^13.
BOLINGBROKE, HEHRT SAINT-JOHlf, VIS-
COUNT. See Deism, I, { 8.
BOLIVIA : A republic of western South America,
bounded on the north and east by Brazil; on the
south by Paraguay and Argentina; and on the
west by Chile and Peru. The area is estimated at
from 520,000 to 600,000 square miles, the popula-
tion from 1,900,000 to 2,600,000, of whom 1,250,000
are Indians and over 500,000 half-breeds. The
constitution adopted in 1826 after independence had
been attained recognized Roman Catholicism as
the state religion and prohibited the public exercise
of any other form of faith, toleration existing only
in new colonies. Nevertheless, the properties of
the Church were confiscated and sold, only the
bishops being allowed a moderate annual sum.
Complete religious liberty was granted by the gov-
ernment in 1905.
In its hierarchical organization, Bolivia forms
the province of La Plata, under the archbishop of
La Plata (Chuquisaca de la Plata) or Sucre (diocese
since 1551; archdiocese since 1609 with 135 par-
ishes). The suffragan bishoprics are those of
Cochabamba, La Paz, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
Cochabamba, founded in 1847, has fifty-six parishes;
La Paz, founded 1608, haa thirty-eight; and Santa
Cruz, founded 1605, fifty-four. In addition to the
secular clergy, members of orders, including the
Jesuits, are actively engaged in missionary labors
among the Indians, of whom some 200,000 still
cling to their pagan faith. The schools among the
converted Indians are under religious control.
There are four seminaries for the clergy, six " uni-
versities," and sixteen higher schools.
The inaccessibility of Bolivia renders inmiigra-
tion, especially from Europe and North America,
scanty. The number of Protestants in the country
is accordingly smalL There is a Presbyterian
chapel in Sucre. Canadian Baptists have been
engaged in missionary work in the country since
1898 and have organized churches at Onuro, La
Paz, and Cochabamba. More recently the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church of the United States has
entered the field with headquarters at La Paz. An
interdenominational mission is being conducted at
Cochabamba by Australians. The educational sys-
tem is being reorganized under the direction of
an American missionaiy.
Biblioorapht: Bolivia^ issued by Bureau of American
Republics, Washington, 1891, cf. the Annual Reporta of
the Bureau since then; A. Bellessont, La Jeune Amirique.
Chili et Bolivie, Paris, 1807; C. Matsenauer, Bolivia in
hiatorischer, geographiacher und culiwreUer HinMUt Vienna,
1897; J. S. Dennis. Centennial Siarvey of Foreign Mia-
aiona. New York, 1902; T. C. Dawson, The South Ameri-
can Republica, vol. ii. New York, 1904; J. Lee, Religioua
Liberty in South America; with apeeial Reference to recent
Legislation in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, Cincinnati, 1907.
BOLLAND, JAN, ABB THE BOLLANDISTS:
The founder of the monumental hagiographical
work known as the Acta Sanctorum BoUandU-
tarum (see Acta Marttrum, Acta Sanctorum), and
his associates. Bolland was bom at Julemont, near
Li^, Aug. 13, 1596; d. at Antwerp Sept. 12, 1665.
He enter^ the Jesuit order in 1612, was ordained
priest before 1625, and in 1630 was sent to Ant-
werp, where he began what was to prove his life-
work, making use of the mass of accumulated mate-
rial left by Hubert Rosweyde (q.v.), the originator
of the idea, but largely extending the space con-
templated by him. After working for thirteen
years on the two volumes of January, he called to
his aid two other Jesuits, Gottfried Hensdien and
Daniel Papebroch (qq.v.), who visited numerous
libraries of Germany, Spain, and Italy in quest of
material, and laid the foundation of the magnifi-
cent collection of 120,000 volumes which the
Bollandists now possess. The first volume ap-
peared at Antwerp in 1643, and the work went on
without interruption until the suppression of the
Jesuits in 1773. Their house at Antwerp was to
be turned into a military school, and there seemed
little prospect of continuing their task until in
1776 the empress Maria Theresa made arrange-
ments to help them, and two years later assigned
them the Caudenbcrg monastery in Brussels as a
home. Here they labored on as a company of
secular priests until Joseph II interfered arbi-
trarily with their plans and finally, in 1788, for-
bade them to continue the publication, as a mere
collection of old documents which could have but lit-
tle interest for educated men. In the following year
the Premonstratensians of the abbey of Tangerlo
in Brabant offered to buy their library and con-
tinue the work. The sixth volume of October
appeared there in 1794; but in 1796 the French
Republic took possession of Belgium and dissolved
the abbey; the manuscripts, however, were pre-
served in the Royal Library at Brussels. Though
both Napoleon and the French Academy desired
the continuation of the work, it was not found
possible until 1837, when, under the inspiration
of De Ram, rector of the University of Louvain,
the Belgian Jesuits once more took it up, with the
promise of an annual subsidy of 6,000 francs from
the government. The editors are now at work on
the month of November, and at the present rate of
progress, it is hoped that the end of the twentieth
century may see the completion of the gigantic
work. The present Bollandists are also publishing
(since 1882) an annual volume of Analecta BoUan-
diana, containing additional Latin, Greek, and
Syriac texts, new dissertations, and corrections
to the earlier part of the work; and since 1890
they have also published a BvUetin de pMica^
turns hagiographiqueSf a review of all new books
bearing on the subject. They have published, in
addition, two complete bibliographies (Greek, 1 vol.,
Latin, 2 vols.) of all the printed texts and other
works on hagiography.
Bzblzoobapht: A memoir of Bolland is prefixed to vol i
for March of the ASB. Consult further J. M. Neale. Ea-
aaya on Liiurgiology, pp. 89-97, London, 1863; C. De-
haisnes, Lea Originea dea Acta Sanctorum, Douai, 18S9;
G. T. Stokes, The Bollandiata, in CotUemporary Revkv,
xliu (1883), 69-84; B. Aub^. Lea Demiera Travaux dea
Bottandiatea, in Bwue dea deux mondea, Izviii (1885), 16^
199.
219
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bolinffbroke
Bolamo
BOLSECy JERdME HERMES: French contro-
versialist and physician; b. at Paris in the early
part of the sixteenth century; d. probably at Lyons
15^. He entered the Carmelite order, but was
driven from Paris for the boldness of his sermons
and fled to Ferrara. In 1550 he was physician
to M. de Falais, a nobleman residing near Geneva,
who was a friend of Calvin. Bolsec was fond of
dabbling in dogmatics, but was repeatedly admon-
ished by the compagnie dea pasteura that his objec-
tions to the doctrine of predestination were con-
trary to the Bible. He seemed to submit, but on
Oct. 16, 1551, he provoked a new discussion at
Geneva on the same subject and was imprisoned,
whereupon he charged Calvin with ignorance of
the Bible and of teaching contrary to it, and the
council, in their perplexity, accepted the propo-
sition of the clergy to ask the advice of the Swiss
churches. Their condenmation of Bolsec was
mild, but the clergy of Basel declared thai Bolsec
was heretical in many respects, while the pastors
of Neuch&tel declared that he was an instrument
of Satan. On Dec. 22 he was sentenced to per-
petual banishment for publishing offensive doc-
trines, as well as for slandering the clergy and
charging them with preaching false dogmas. He
was expelled from Thonon (Chablais) by Calvin,
and from Lausanne by Beza, after having again
accused the former of ** making God the author
of sin." He then retiuned to France and abjured
Protestantism. He was the author of three works:
Le MiroiTy envoys de Viriti au Roi Charlea new-
fihne (1562), addressed to the king to bring about
a reformation; Histoire de la vie, mcmra, actes,
doctrine, Constance et mart de Jean Calvin, jadis
ministre de Genbve (Lyons, 1577), which made
the author infamous; and Histoire de la vie, mcmra,
doctrine et diportemena de Th. de Bhse, dU le Spec-
table, grand ministre de Qenhve (Paris, 1582), written
in a tone of moderation. The entire life of Bolsec
8bow8 him to have been a restless, vain spirit, not
overscrupulous in getting revenge or in winning
patrons. EuoftNE Choibt.
Bolsec may easily be represented in a more fa-
vorable light as an honest opponent of Calvinistic
dogma, and an advocate of liberty of conscience
and freedom of speech. Persecution (defamation,
repeated imprisonment, banishment from Geneva
and from other places where he attempted to settle
by the persistent efforts of Calvin, Beza, and
others) embittered his spirit and no doubt led to
exaggerated representations of the tyranny and
cruelty of his opponents, and at last drove him
hack to the Roman Catholic Chiuxsh. A. H. N.
Bibuoobarht: CR^ Optra CalvirU^ yiii, 141; E. and £.
Hasc, Ia France proteetanU, ad. H. L. Bordier, vol. ii.
Pkris, 1879; E. Choisy, La TMocraUe h Oenhw au tempt
de Calvin, Genera, 1897; J. A. Gautier, Hietoire de Gentve,
iii. 432 aqq., ib. 1899.
BOLSENA, MIRACLE OF: A miracle which,
according to an account strongly affirmed in local
tradition, occurred in 1264 in the town of Bolsena
the ancient Vulsinius; 7 m. s.w. of Orvieto) in
Tmbria, Italy. The details of the story vary in
<liTerent accounts, but the substance of the occur-
rence is as follows: A priest, who had been long
troubled with doubts as to the real presence of
Christ in the Eucharist, accidentally let fall upon
the linen corporal, while sajring mass, some drops
from the consecrated chalice. While endeavoring
to conceal this mishap, he was amazed to perceive
that the stain was no longer as of wine but resembled
fresh blood, and had not the irregular trace of a
few spilled drops, but the form and contour of the
consecrated host or wafer. The miracle produced
a great sensation throughout the surrounding
country. Pope Urban IV, at that time staying
in Orvieto with the pontifical court, caused the
stained corporal to be brought to the city, where it
has ever since been carefully preserved. This miracle
was the determining reason which caused Urban to
make general the celebration of the feast of Corpus
Christi (q.v.). .The composition of the liturgical
office of the feast was entnusted to Thomas Aquinas,
but in it there is no allusion to the miracle.
The miracle of Bolsena has been immortalized
by the genius of Raffael, who made it the subject
of one of his frescoes in the second sala of the Vati-
can. The painting idealizes the scene and intro-
duces, not Urban IV but Julius II, under whose
pontificate the fresco was executed, as present at
the nuiss. The present cathedral church of Or-
vieto was built on the site of an earlier structure
to conunemorate the miracle, and much of the elab-
orate decoration refers to it. The corporal is
preserved in a silver shrine enriched with many
figures in relief and subjects in translucent colored
enamels. The shrine was begun by Ugolino Veri
of Sienna in 1338 and is one of the most important
specimens of medieval silversmith work in Italy.
The feast of Corpus Christi is celebrated with
extraordinary solemnity each year in Orvieto and
the corporal is carried in procession through the
town together with the Blessed Sacrament.
James F. Dbibcoll.
Bibuoorapht: Dietionnavre dm proplhMiee et dee miradee^
vol. i, in Milne's EneudopSdie IhSologique, vol. xxiv, Paris,
1862.
BOLZANO, bel-tsd^nO, BEIUfHARD : German Ro-
man Catholic theologian, and noted mathematician;
b. at Prague Oct. 5, 1781; d. there Dec. 18, 1848.
He took orders and was made professor of the
philosophy of religion in Prague 1805. He was soon
suspected of heterodoxy, was accused at Rome
by the Jesuits, and in 1820, on a charge of connection
with certain student societies, was compelled to
resign his professorship; he was also suspended
from his priestly functions. Thenceforth he de-
voted hiniself to study and literary work. He
sought to reconcile the teachings of the Church
with reason and, it was said, considered thfe reason-
ableness of a doctrine of more importance than
its traditional belief. In philosophy he was influ-
enced by Leibnitz and Kant. His contributions
to mathematical science were original and im-
portant. His works were numerous; the most
noteworthy are Lehrhuch der Reliffianavnasenachaft
(4 vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic presentation
of the dogmas of Roman Catholic theology; Wiaaen-
achaftalehre ; Versuch einer neuen Daratellung der
Logik (4 vols., 1837).
BoniflM6
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
S20
BiBUOomArHT: LAtnAmekniamiHi dm Dr, Bolaano, new
•d.. Viemia, 1876 (an autobiognphy); Dr, Bdaano uni
MifM O^gntr, Bin BeUrag nr nmtuUn LttanalurvitdktdUt,
ib. 1839; A. WiMhaupt, Skisatn au9 dtm Ubmi B, Bel-
' ' ' , 186a
B0MBER6BR, JOHN HERRT AUGUSTUS:
Reformed (Gennan); b. at Lancaster, Penn.,
Jan. 13, 1817; d. at Collegeville, Penn., Aug. 19,
1890. He was graduated at Marshall College,
1837, and at the Theological Seminary, Meroers-
burg, Penn., 1838; served as pastor of German
Reformed Churches in Pemuylvania till 1870,
when he became president of Ursinus College at
Collegeville. He began a condensed translation
of the first edition of Hersog's Reaienq^klopddie
of which two volumes were published (Philadel-
phia, 1856-60), embracing vols, i-vi of the orig-
inal; he issued a revised translation of Kurtz's
Texirbook of Church History (Philadelphia, 1860),
and edited The Reformed Church Monthly (in
opposition to the "Mercersburg theology"),
1868-77. He also published Infant Salvation in
its Relation to Infant Depravity, Infant Regeneration,
and Infant BapUem (1859); Five Years at the Race
Street Church [Philadelpfaia], with an ecclesiastical
appendix (1860); The Revised Liturgy, a history
and criticism of the ritualistic movement in the
German Reformed Church (1867); Reformed, not
Ritualistic : a reply to Dr, Nevin's " Vindication *'
(1867).
BONA, GIOVAHNI: Roman Catholic theolog-
ical writer; b. at Mondovi (55 m. w. of Genoa),
Piedmont, Oct. 19, 1609; d. in Rome Oct. 28,
1674. He came of an old French family, and in
his fifteenth year entered the Italian congregation
of reformed Cistercians, becoming later prior,
abbot, and general. Clement IX made him a
cardinal in 1669, and he acquired a great reputation
for both piety and learning. His most important
writings are ascetical and liturgical. To the latter
class belong his Psallentis eccUsue harmonia (Rome,
1653), a historical, symbolic, and ascetic treatise
on the psalmody of the Church, and the still better
known Rerum liturgiearum libri ii (Rome, 1671),
a sober and learned investigation of liturgical
antiquities. The first complete edition of his
works i^peared at Antwerp, 1677, followed by
several others.
BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, VI-
COHTE DE: French political and philosophical
writer; b. at Monna, near Millau (130 m. w.n.w.
of Marseilles), Aveyron, Oct. 2, 1754; d. there
Nov. 23, 1840. He emigrated in 1791 and settled
at Heidelberg; returned to France in 1797, lived
in concealment for a time, and then was allowed
to proceed to his estates; in 1808 he was appointed
councilor of the Imperial University, and, after
the Restoration, member of the Council of Public
Instruction; from 1815 to 1822 he was member
of the chamber of deputies, in 1822 minister of
state, and in 1823 was made a peer of France;
after 1830 he retired to private life. He was one
of the leaders of the reactionary school to which
belonged De Maistre, D'Eckstein, Ballanche, Lamen-
nais, and others, which started with the principle
that revelation and not observation is the true
ground of philosophy; absolutism in politics and
ecclesiastical despotism in religion were in his
view the natural and desirable order of things.
The most noteworthy of his many writings were
Thioris du pouvoir politique et religieux (3 vols.,
Constance, 1796); La Legislation primitive (3 vols.,
Paris, 1802); Recherches phihsophiqites sur la
premiers objets des connaiesanees morales (2 vok,
1818). His collected works were published in
twelve volumes in 1817-19 and again in three
volumes in 1859. His second son, Louis Jaopies
Maurice, b. at Millau Oct. 30, 1787, d. at Lyons
Feb. 25, 1870, became bishop of Puy in 1823, arch-
bishop of Lyons in 1839, cardinal in 1841; he
was a strong Ultramontane.
Biblioobapht: Vietor de Bonald, De la vi» el des Saib d*
vioomli d$ B&naU, Avignon. 1863 (by hia son); J. Blu-
ebon, Le Cardinal de BonaUL . . , , ea vie ei eee suvtb*,
Lyons, 1870.
BONAR, AlffDREW ALEXAITDER : Free Church
of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 29, 1810.
youngest brother of Horatius Bonar (q.v.); d. in
Glasgow Dec. 30, 1892. He studied at Edinburgh;
was minister at CoUaoe, Perthshire, 1838-56, of
the Finnieston Church, Glasgow, 1856 till his death.
He joined the Free Chiuxsh in 1843, and was its
moderator in 1878. He was identified with evan-
gelical and revival movements and adhered to
the doctrine of premillenialism. With the Rev.
R. M. McCheyne he visited Palestine in 1839 to
inquire into the condition of the Jews there, and
published A Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to
the Jews from the Church of Scotland in 1839 (Edin-
burgh, 1842); he also published a Memoir of Mr.
McChejme (1845); a Commentary on Lemticus
(1846); Redemption Drawing Nigh, a defence of
Premillenialism (1847); Christ and his Chwrck
in the Book of Psalms (1859); edited Samuel
Rutherford's Letters (1863); and wrote many tracts,
pamphlets, and minor biographies.
Bibuooraprt: A. A. Bonar, Diary and LeUere, edited by
hiB dAuchter, Marjory Bonar, London, 1805. who pab-
liahed also a volume of Reminieoeneee, ib. 1895.
BONAR, HORATIUS: Free Church of Scotland;
b. in Edinburgh Dec. 19, 1808; d. there July 31,
1889. He studied at Edinburgh; became minister
at Kelso 1837, at the Chalmers Memorial Church.
Edinburgh, 1866; with his congregation he joined
the Free Church in 1843. He was a premillenanan
and expressed his views in books, such as Prvphd-
ical Landmarks (London, 1847), and in the Quar-
terly Journal of Prophecy, which he founded in 1849.
He is best known for his poems and hymns which
include " What a friend we have in Jesus," " I heard
the voice of Jesus say," and others equally familiar.
The best known collections of his verse are Hymns
of Faith and Hope (3 vols., 1857-66); The Song
of the New Creation and other pieces (1872); Hymns
of the Nativity (1878); Songs of Love and Joy (1888);
Until the Daxfbreak and other hymns left behind
(1890). His prose publications, besides sermons,
tracts, etc., include The Night of Weeping, or tBords
for (he suffering family of God (1846); God's Way
of Peace (1862); The White Fields of France:
or the story of Mr. McAU's mission to the workwg-
2di
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
»niliMe
men of Paria and Lyons (1879); Life and Work
of G. T. Dodds (1884).
Bibuoosapht: Hcratitu Bonar, a Manorial, London,
1880; S. W. Duffield. Eni/li*h HymnM, pp. 168-160 and
paasim. New York, 1886; Julian, Hymtujiofni* PP- 161-162;
DNB, supplement vol. i, 231-232.
BONAVENTURA (Giovanni di Fidanza, called
Doctor Seraphicus): Theologian; b. at Bagnorea
(50 m. n.n.w. of Rome) 1221; d. at Lyons July
15, 1274. He entered the order of St. Francis
probably in 1238; went to Paris, 1242 or 1243,
and studied under Alexander of Hales; lectured
there on the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard and
on the Holy Scriptures till the university suspended
lectures in 1255; was chosen general of his order,
1257; cardinal bishop of Albano, 1273. His last
public act was an impressive i^eech delivered
before the Council of Lyons in May, 1274, for the
union of the Eastern and Western churches. He
was canonised by Sixtus IV in 1482. In defense
of his order, before he became its general, during
the contest between the Sorbonne and the men-
dicant monks, he wrote his De paupertate Christij
in reply to William of St. Amour's De periculis
novisninorum temporum (1256); by a somewhat
forced and sophistical argumentation he represents
voluntary poverty as an element of moral perfection.
Of his general views on monastic life he has given
an exposition in his DeterminaHonea qtuBStionym
circa regulam Francisci. In his administration
he was mild yet firm. As a teacher and author
he occupies one of the most prominent places in
the history of medieval theology; not so much,
however, on account of any strongly pronounced
originality as on account of the comprehensiveness
of his views, the ease and clearness of his reasoning,
and a style in which still linger some traces of the
great charm of his personality. His mystical and
devotional writings — as, for instance, De eeptem
Uineribua aetemitatie — are almost imitations of
Hugo of St. Victor. His dialectical writings are
more independent. His BrevUoquium (ed. Da
Vicenza, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1881) is one of the best
expositions of Christian dogmatics produced during
the Middle Ages.
Bibuoorapht: Bonaventm's worka have been pub-
lished in many editiona, of which the best are that by
Peltier, 16 vols., Paris, 1863-71, and that prepared by
the Franciscans, 10 vols., Clairao, 188^-03. Of his real
or supposititious works accessible in English translation,
the followinc may be mentioned: Ths Mirror of th€ Bleued
Viroin Mary, DubUn, 1840; P9alter of th€ Bleued Virgin,
London, 1852; Ths lAfB of Chriat, ib. 1881; Ths Monih
of JmuM Chriat, ib. 1882; Ths Life of SL FrandU of Aa-
•ist, 4tl& ed., ib. 1808; St. Bonmoniura'a Inairueiiona for
A« ^Saostm of Lant, ib. 1884; Ths 8oul*a Prograaa in God
(transL of the IHnerorium msnHa in daum) is in the Jowr-
Ml of SvadaHoa PhUoaophy, vol. xad (1887).
For his life consult: A8B, July 14. vol. iu. pp. 838-860;
Hiatoira liUiraira da la Franoa, six, 266-201; A. M.
da Vicensa, Dor haUiga Bonavaniura . . , in aainam
Laban und Wirkan, Germ, transl. from the Italian, Pader«
bom, 1874; La Cardinal 8. Bonavantura , . , ac via, aa
wnori at aon euiia & Lyon, Lyons, 1876; L. C. Skey, Lifa of
St Bonavaniura, London, 1880.
On his works consult: A. de Margerie, Eaaai aur la
phUoaopkis da 8. Bonavantura, Paris, 1866; W. A. HoUen-
berg. Btudian au Bonavantura, Berlin, 1862; J. Richard,
6htda aur la myaHeiama apieuiaHf da 8. Bofnavantwra, Puis,
1873; Fidelia a Fauna, Ratio nova eoUactionia oparum om-
miftflt . . . Bonavantura, Paris, 1874; A. liaria a Vioetia
et Johannes a Rubino, Laiioon Bonavanturianum phi-
loaophieo-lhaolooicum, Venice, 1880; J. Krause, Dia Lehra
daa haUi4fan Bonavantura Hbar dia Natur dor kOrperlichen
und gaiatioan Weaan, Paderbom, 1888.
BOUD, WILLIAM BENNETT: Anglican arch-
bishop of Montreal and primate of all Canada;
b. at Truro (8 m. n.n.e. of Falmouth), Cornwall,
England, Sept. 10, 1815; d. at Montreal Oct. 9,
1006. He came to Newfoundland while in early
youth and was educated at Bishop's College, Len-
nox ville, P. Q., being otdered deacon in 1840 and
ordained priest in the following year. After being
successively a traveling missionary in 1840-42
and a missionary at Lachine. P. Q., in 1842-48,
he was curate of St. George's, Montreal, from 1848
to 1860 and rector of the same church from 1860
to 1878. He was h'kewise archdeacon of Mon-
treal in 1870-72 and dean in 1872-78. In the latter
year he was consecrated archbishop of Montreal,
and in 1001 was elected metropolitan of Canada,
while in 1004 he became primate of all Canada.
He was also president of the theological college of
the diocese of Montreal.
B0NET-MAUR7, AMY GASTON CHARLES AU-
GUSTE: French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 2, 1842.
He was educated at the Lyc^ Napolten (now College
Henri IV), the Sorbonne (baccalaur^t ds lettres,
1860) and the universities of Geneva and Stras-
burg (1868). He was successively pastor of the
Walloon Reformed Church at Dort in 1868-72
and of the French Reformed Church at Beauvais
(Oise) in 1872-70. In 1870 he became professor
of church history in the faculty of Protestant the-
ology of the University of Paris, and now holds
the same position in the Independent Divinity
School of Paris. From 1885 to 1880 he was librarian
of the Mus6e P^dagogique. In theology he is a liberal
evangelical. He wrote: Les Origines de la riforme
h Beauvais (Paris, 1874); Oerard de Oroote, un pri-
cuneur de la riforme au quatortihne eihde (1878);
E quibus fontHms Nederlandicie haueerit ecriptar
libri cui tUvlue eat De Imitatione Christ (1878);
Des Originee du christianieme unitaire ehez lea
Anglaia (1881; Eng. transl., London, 1883); Ar-
natdd de Breacia, un rlformalewr au dountme aikie
(Paris, 1881); De opera acholaaUca frairum vita
communia in Nederlandia (1880); 0, A. BUrger et
lea originea anglaiaea de la haUade liUiraire en AUe-
magne (1800); Ignace DaUinger, 1799-1890 (1802);
LeUrea et 'didoToiiona de J. J. I. DceUinger au aujet
deadicreta du Vatican, traduitea de VAUemand (1803);
Le Congrka dea religiona 6 Chicago en 189$ (1805);
Hiatoire de la liberU de conacienoe depuia VMdit de
Nantea juaqu'h juittet 1870 (1000); Lea Pricur-
aeura de la riforme et de la UberU de eonacience dana
lea paya latina du douxihne au quinzihne aiMe
(1004); Edgar Quinetf aon cmvre reliqieuae et aon
charadire moral (1003); and L*Ialamiame et le
chriatianiame en Afrique (1006).
BONIFACE: The name of nine popes.
Boniface I: Pope 418-422. After the death of
Zosimus, a part of the clergy and people chose the
archdeacon Eulalius to succeed him (iSec. 27, 418);
he was recognised by tbe prefect Symmachus and
consecrated in the Lateran two daya later. But
another faction held an election on the 28th, and
BoniilMe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
222
chose Boniface, the son of the priest Jocundus,
consecrating him on the following day. In ac-
cordance with the report of Symmachus, the em-
peror Honorius recognized Eulalius, and Boniface
had to leave Rome. His supporters appealed to
the emperor, representing him as the choice of the
majority. Honorius called a council to meet at
Ravenna, Feb. 8, 419, to decide the matter, but
it reached no conclusion, and another was sum-
moned for May 1, both candidates being forbidden
to enter Rome in the mean time. Eulalius, how-
ever, entered the city on Mar. 18, and had to be
removed forcibly; and Honorius now recognized
Boniface, who took up his duties on Apr. 10. This
contest caused Honorius to decree that in any
subsequent case of a contested election, both can-
didates should be set aside and a new choice made.
When Boniface I intervened in any ecclesias-
tical disputes, he showed great justice and modera-
tion. "Die clergy of Valence accused their bishop
Maximus of grievous crimes; Boniface referred the
matter to a Gallic synod, reserving to himself the
right to review its decision. Considering the priv-
ilege granted by Pope Zosimus (417) to Bishop
Patrodus of Aries, to consecrate bishops for the
provinces known as Viennensis, Narbonerma prima,
and Narbonenaia aecundaf to be an infringement of
earlier canonical provisions, he did not hesitate to
withdraw it so far as to allow the bishop of Narbonne
this metropolitan privilege for the Provincia Nor-
boTierms prima. He was involved in long-drawn-
out negotiations with the patriarch of Constanti-
nople. Certain Illyrian bishops, wishing to bring
charges against Bishop Perigenes of Patras, who
had been chosen metropolitan of Corinth, get-
ting satisfaction neither from the papal delegate
for Ill3rria, Bishop Rufus of Thessalonica, nor from
the pope himself, turned to Atticus of Constanti-
nople for redress. The latter procured an edict
from the emperor Theodosius II (421), placing
lUyria under the jurisdiction of Constantinople.
Boniface made strong representations to the By-
zantine court (Mar., 422), but would probably not
have been successful had not the influence of the
Western emperor Honorius prevailed with Theo-
dosius, who withdrew the edict. Finally, Boniface
had inherited from his predecessor a difficult oon-
troverey with the African church (see Zosimus):
he had no better success than Zosimus in securing
the recognition in Africa of the right of appeal to
Rome. On the contrary, the Synod of Carthage
in 419 confirmed the seventeenth canon of the
synod of 418, which positively forbade to priests
and lower clergy any such appeals, and tolerated
them for bishops only on condition that the pre-
scription appealed to could be shown to be Nicene;
as a matter of fact, it came from the Council of
Sardica. Boniface died Sept. 4, 422, and is reck-
oned among the saints of the Roman Catholic
Church. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoorapbt: Liber ponli/kolw, ed. Duchesne, i, 227.
Paris. 1886; ASB, Oct.. xi. 605-610; F. Gregorovius, Ge-
•ehidUe der Stadt Rom, i. 170 sqq., Stuttgart. 1875. Eng.
transl.. London, 1900; J. Langen, OeechichU der r&mi-
eehen Kirdie hU Leo /.. pp. 763 sqq.. Bonn. 1881; J»ff^,
Regeela, i. 52; Hefele. ConeUiefigeeatuiUe, ii. 122. Eng.
transl.. ii. 466; Bower, Popes, i, 162-166; Neander.
ChriMHan Chvn^ ii. 206, 235, 652.
Boniface II: Pope 530-532. After the death of
Felix IV (middle of Sept., 530), a contested electioQ
followed. The minority, in obedience to the djing
charge of Felix, chose the archdeacon Boniface,
a Goth; the majority elected Dioscunis, a Greek,
and both were consecrated on the same day (Sq>t.
22). The Roman senate took cognizance of the
matter, forbidding under heavy penalties any
proceedings in the lifetime of a pope looking to-
ward the elevation of a successor. The schisn
was soon ended by the death of Dioscurus, Oct. U.
The LibeT pantificalis asserts that Boniface pro-
ceeded with great violence against his adheraits;
and we have evidence that five yeais later the
bitterness caused by this was not extinct among
the Roman clergy. The dose of the Semi-Pdagian
controverey falls in the pontificate of Boniface II.
In a letter to Gesarius of Aries he pronounced
against the opinion that man could attain faith in
Christ by his own resources, without the help of
divine grace; and at the same time, in accordance
with the wishes of Geesarius, he confirmed the
decisions of the Synod of Orange. He was always
zealous in maintaining, if it was not possible to
extend, the papal claims to jurisdiction. When
Bishop Stephen of Larissa in Thessaly appealed
to him from a sentence of deposition pronounced
by the patriarch of Constantinople, Boniface
endeavored to reassert the old rights of the Roman
See over lUyria, which had b^ obsolete for a
hundred years. The proceedings of a synod held
in Rome for this purpose (Dec., 531) seem to have
been fruitless, for soon afterward the see of Larissa
was filled by a nominee of Constantinople. After
attempting in vain to designate the deacon Vigilius
as his successor, Boniface died in Oct., 532.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Liber pontifiadia, ed. Duchmne, i, 281.
Paris, 1886; F. GrasoroTius, Oeaehu^U der Siadi Rom, I
829, Stuttsart, 1875. £ii«. transl., London. 1900; L
Duehesne, La SueoeeeUm du pape FSUx /F., Rome, 1SS4:
J. Lancen. Oe9AUhiederrOmiedt0n Kirehe von Leo I. bit
Nikolaut /., p. 306, Bonn, 1886; R. Baxmann. Die PoUtik
der PUpete von Gregor I. bie auf Oregor VII., i. 20 wiq..
Elberfeld, 1868; Jaff«, Reoeeta, i. Ill; Schaff. Cftritfo*
Churtk, iU. 326. 869; Neander. ChrieUan Ckunh, ii. 711;
Hefele, ConeUienoeeehickle, ii. 737-742. Eng. tranal., it,
166. 167. 171 sqq.; Bower, Popea, i, 331-333.
Boniface ni: Pope 607. He was a Roman by
birth, previously a deacon and apocrisiarius at the
court of Constantinople, to which he had been sent
by Gregory the Great in 603. Apparently he was
still there when the election took place, as nearly
a year elapsed between the death of his predecessor
and his consecration (Feb. 19, 607). As (in modem
language) nuncio at Constantinople, he had appar-
ently maintained friendly relations with the usurper
Phocas, which would account for the favorahle
decision made by the latter on a point of great
importance to the papal claims. One of the com-
missions given to him by Gregory was the settle-
ment of the strife over the title of "universal
bishop " claimed by the patriarch of Constanti-
nople, John the Faster; Gregory did not daim it
for himself, but he was unwilling that it should be
borne by another. The Liber pontificalis, Paulus
Diaconus, and Bede all assert that Phocas recog-
nised Borne 8S captd oinnittm ecclesiarum. Though
228
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BonifkMe
the fact IB not denied, it is to be regarded rather
as a triumph of papal politics, which did not dis-
dain the aUianoe of a base and criminal ruler, than
as a historical justification of the claims of Rome.
Boniface died Nov. 12, W7. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoorapbt: lAbtr fNmli/IcaZit, ed. Duehesne, i, 816,
Paris, 1886; Paoliu Diaoonus, H%aL Laiwobardorum, iv,
36. in MOH, ScripL rer. Lanoob., ad. G. Waiti, Han-
over. 1878, £ng. tranal.. p. 177, Philadelphia. 1007; F.
Gregorovius, O^^ehiehie der Stadt Rom^ ii, 102, Btuttgart,
1876. Eng. tranal., London, 1000; J. Langen, Qfchiehle
dmr rAiNMAm KirdiM . . . 6t« Nxkolaua /., p. 500, Bonn,
1885: Bower. Popet, i, 426-43:! \ Mann, Popet, I, i.
260-262.
Boniface IV: Pope 608-615. He was the suc-
cessor of Boniface III after an interregnum of ten
months. He kept up the same friendly relations
with Phocas, from whom he acquired the Pantheon
in Rome, built as a heathen temple, and transformed
it into a church. When Heraclius, who overthrew
Phocas in 610, was endeavoring to find a way to
reconciliation with the Monophysites, Boniface
seems to have approved of his plans; which prob-
ably accounts for a letter of Golumban (q.v.)
written from Bobbio (c. 613), informing him that
people call him a receiver and protector of heretics
who deny the double natinre of Christ, and warning
him that his power will remain only so long as he
muntains the true faith. Boniface died May 25,
615. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapbt: lAber ponl»/l43atM, ed. Duchesne, i. 817, Paris,
1886; Jaff^ Reoetta, i. 220; Paulus Diaoonus, HUtoria
Langobardorum, iv, 36, in MOH, Script rer. Langob.,
ed. G. Waits, Hanover. 1878, Eng. transl., p. 178, Philsr
delphia, 1007; Bede, HitL ecd., ii, 4, ed. Plummer, vol.
i. p. 88. Oxford, 1896; R. Baxmann, Dis Poliiik der
P&pate, i. 150, Elberfeld, 1868; F. Gregorovius, OeaehichiB
der Stadt Rom, U. 102, Stuttgart. 1876. Eng. transl.,
London, 1000; J. Langen, OeaehidUe der rdmiechen
Kirdie . . . hie Nikolaua /.. p. 501, Bonn, 1885; Neander,
Chriettan Ckurth, iii. 32, 34, 134; Bower, Popes, i, 428-129;
Mann. Popes. I. i, 268.
Boniface V: Pope 619-625. The Li^ pon/i^-
ealis tells that he was a Neapolitan, that he dis-
tinguished himself as pope by his love of peace
and kindness, and that he issued a number of
decrees affecting the functions of the different
orders of the clergy. Bede and William of Malmes-
buiy mention several letters addressed to English
personages; the most important is that preserved
by the latter, a letter to Justus, archbishop of
Canterbury (625), confirming for all time the posi-
tion of his diocese as the metropolitan see of Britain,
and extending his powers. Boniface died Oct.
25, 625. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Liber ponUfiealia, ed. Duchesne, i, 321,
Paris, 1886; Jaff4, Reoeeta, i, 222; Bede, HieU eccL, ii,
7, ed. Plununer, vol. i, pp. 03-05, Oxford, 1896; F. Gre-
gorovins, Qethiehie der Siadt Rom, ii, 122, Stuttgart,
1876, Eng. trans]., London, 1002; Mann, Popes, I, i,
204; Bower, Popee, i. 430-132.
Boniface VI: Pope 806. He was the son of
Hadrian, a Roman, and was elevated to the papal
throne in April or May, 896, by a popular move-
ment, on the death of Formos\is, although he had
twice been deposed from his spiritual functions
by John VIII on charges affecting his moral char-
acter, and apparently was never canonically re-
stored. He maintained his position only for
fifteen days, aa the party hostile to Formosus
carried through the election of Stephen VI, who
drove him out. Others say that he died fifteen
days after his election. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuooraphy: Jafftf, Regeata, i, 430; Annalee Fuldenaee,
ad. Q. H. Ports, in MOH, ScripL, i. 412, Hanover, 1826;
R. Baxmann, Die Politik der PUptU, ii. 70. Elberfeld,
1860; J. Langen, OeechidUe der rOmieehen Kirche . . .
bie Qregor VI I „ p. 803, Bonn, 1802; Bower, Popee, ii, 220.
Boniface VII: Pope 974, 984-985. After the
downfall of Benedict VI, Cresoentius, the leader
of the nobles, caused the election of the deacon
Boniface, called Franco (June, 974). One of his
first acts was to order his predecessor to be put
to death. But he was able to hold his own only for
six weeks, after which he fled to Constantinople.
Here he remained for more than nine years — or
as long as Otto II lived to protect the popes set
up by him, Benedict VII and John XIV. Otto
died Dec. 7, 983, and the fugitive Boniface imme-
diately asserted his claims. He reappeared in
Rome, and in the following April defeated John
XIV, imprisoned him in the castle of Sant'Angelo,
and had him either poisoned or starved to death
there. Eleven months later, this " horrible mon-
ster" (as a contemporary calls him) met a like
fate, dying, it seems probable, by assassination
in the summer of 985; his body was mutilated and
insulted by the infuriated populace. GfrOrer's
hypothesis that his murder was caused by the
empress Theophano has no support in the original
authorities. (A. Hauck.)
Biblxoorapht: Jaff^, Regeeta, i, 485; Hemuumus Augien-
na. Ckronieon, ad. Q. H. Perti, in MOH, ScripL, v, 116
■qq., Hanover, 1844; Qerbert, Acta eoneilii Remenaie,
ad. G. H. Parts, MGH, ScnpL, iU. 672, ib. 1830; L. C.
Faruod, Inve»tio<uioni . . . «u 2a pereona ed il ponUfiaUo
di Bonif. VII., Lugo, 1856 (attampts to daar Boniface
of the charges); J. M. Wattarich, PonHfieum Romanorum
vito, i, 66, Laipeio, 1862; J. Langen, Geechiehie der rOmi-
acKen Kirche ... 6m Oreoor VII., Bonn, 1802.
Boniface Vm (Benedetto Gaetani): Pope 1294-
1303. He was bom at Anagni [c. 1235], and prob-
ably studied dvil and canon law at Paris. He
began his ecclesiastical career as canon of Todi,
held benefices in Lyons and Rome, and became
notary of the Curia. Martin IV made him a
cardinal in 1281, and under Nicholas IV and
Gelestine V he was one of the most prominent
members of the sacred college, being employed
in the most varied missions. He encouraged
Gelestine V in his project of retirement to ascetic
seclusion, and even drew up the formula of abdica-
tion, by which he was to profit; for, less than a
fortnight after Gelestine had laid down the papal
dignity, it was bestowed upon his adviser (Dec. 24,
1294). Even before his consecration, the new
pope asserted his prerogatives by revoking many
appointments of his two predecessors, deposing
archbishops and bishops appointed by Gelestine
without the consent of the cardinals, and leaving
Naples for Rome with all his court, in
Policy spite of the efforts of Gharles II to
and detain him there. He was consecrated
Successes and crowned in St. Peter's, Jan. 23,
in Italy. 1295, and soon took an active part in
the conflicts of the time, offering to
mediate between Genoa and Venice in February.
Sicily occupied him next; it had freed itself from
BohIAmm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
884
Freaeh domination in 1282, chosen Peter III of
Aragon as king, and thus dissolved the feudal
connection with Rome. Peter's son and heir,
James II, showed himself ready to abandon Sicily
after Aragon had fallen to him by the death of
his elder brother. Another brother, however —
Frederick — stepped in and assumed the Sicilian
crown, and neither repeated papal anathemas
nor an armed league against him could make him
renounce it; in 1302 he obtained favorable terms
of peace, and in 1303 papal recognition. Boniface
also intervened in the strife between the Blacks
and Whites of Florence, in favor of the former,
and sent a legate to Tuscany. From the sojourn
of Dante in Rome as the ambassador of the Bianchi
dates the bitter hatred which he displays for
Boniface VIII. In agreement with the Neri,
Boniface brought Charles of Valois to Tuscany in
1301 as governor; but his five months' rule accom-
plished nothing but the alienation of the last
sympathisers of the pope there. Boniface had
real power only in the south of Italy and some
central cities. Charles II of Naples became the
obedient servant of the Curia, while Pisa, Velletri,
Orvieto, and Terradna chose Boniface as their
ruler. But a hostile party was forming in Rome,
led by the two Colonna cardinals, who disapproved
of the close alliance with Charles II and secretly
supported the pretensions of the house of Aragon
in Sicily. In 1297 the pope stripped them of all
their ecclesiastical dignities; and on the same day
they formally renounced their allegiance to him,
declaring Celestine's abdication to have been in-
valid and appealing to a general council. Boniface
deprived the whole family of their possessions, one
after another, and soon Palestrina alone held out
against the papal anny. The Colonna submitted
in 1298; but when, the next year, Boniface des-
troyed Palestrina, contrary, they asserted, to a
promise of ultimate restitution, they took up arms
once more against him. Again they were defeated,
and their estates divided between their enemies,
the Orsini and the Gaetani.
Soon after his accession, Boniface became in-
volved in complications beyond the boundaries of
Italy. Eric VIII of Denmark had imprisoned
the arehbishop of Lund in 1294,
Denmark, really to extort money from him, but
Hungary, nominally on the ground of con-
and spiracy. In 1295 Boniface sent a
Poland, legate to demand his release on pain
of excommunication and interdict.
These penalties were imposed in 1296, but Eric held
out until 1302, though even then the pope did not
succeed in restoring the deposed ardibishop. In
the contest for the throne of Hungary, on the ground
that he had been " set over princes and kingdoms,
to put down iniquity," and that Hungary belonged
on special grounds to the Apostolic See, he claimed
the deciding voice; in 1300 he sent Chaxles Robert,
grandson of Mary of Sicily, to the Hungarians as
their king; but they first dimg to Andrew III,
and after his death elected the son of Wenoeslaus II
of Bohemia as Ladislaus V. At the moment of
Boniface's death, Wenceslaus was preparing to
unite with Philip the Fair against him, and his
interests clashed with the pope's in another place
as well — ^in Poland, which had elected Wenonlaus
in 1300, to take the place of the deposed King
Ladislaus. Again Boniface claimed suzerain ri^ts,
supported the exiled king, who had sought his aid,
and forbade Wenoeslaus to assume the crown with-
out the papal sanction ; but, as in Hungaiy , his words
were not heeded.
He met with somewhat greater success in Ger-
many. The undertaking given by Adolf of Nassau,
in the Treaty of Nuremberg (Aug. 21, 1294), to
support Edward I of Eng^d against Philip
IV, displeased the pope, who wished
Germany, to see peace between fSrance and Eng-
land. He wrote to Adolf forbidding him
to take up arms, and reproaching him for not hav-
ing announced fads election to him. Adolf returned
a submissive answer, and received some privileges
in return, but the papal legates were bidden stiU
to insist on peace. He even went so far as to impose
a year's truce on all three kings (1295), which, at
its expiration, he renewed for another two yean.
In 1296 he commanded them to submit their dif-
ferences to his decision; but only Adolf sent hia
representatives to Rome. On June 27, 1298, Boni-
face decided that neither Philip nor Adolf must
overstep his boundaries, and that these must be
restored where they faiad been violated. Adolf
never heard of this decision; four days before it
was rendered, he had been deposed by the electoral
princes, and on July 2 he fell in battle agunst his
rival Albert of Austria. Boniface took a lofty tone
with Albert, summoning him to appear within six
months and submit his claims to the throne, since it
belonged to the pope to examine the person chosen
king of the Romans, and reject him if unsuitable.
Albert delayed until he made his position secure in
Germany, and then sent his ambassadors (Mar.,
1302) with liberal promises and the required evi-
dence. Boniface needed his help against France too
badly to raise any objection, and recognised him as
king of the Romans and future emperor. Albert,
in return, renounced his alliance with Philip, and
made all possible theoretical and practical con-
cessions.
But a more stubborn obstacle was found in the
king and parliament of Eng^d. When Edward I
had conquered Scotland for the second time in
1298, Boniface claimed that country
England, also as a fief of the Holy See, and
summoned Edward before his tri-
bunal for having ventured to lay hands upon it.
Edward laid the bull before Parliament in 1301;
the reply of the Engjish people was that Scotland
had never been a papal fief, that their king should
not answer the summons, and that, even if he wished
to, they would not permit it. On May 7 Edward
informed the pope that he would not give up Soot-
land; and Boniface waa obliged to be cont^t with
the answer, because in the mean time the mem-
orable conflict with France had broken out.
Philip the Fair waa a ruler after the very pattern
of Macchiavelli's later description, knowing no
law but self-interest, and sticking at nothing to
accomplish his ends. His relations with Boniface
had at first been friendly, but he was probably
32ff
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BoniftM>e
offended by the pope's above-mentioned interfer-
ence with his designs against En^and. When in
1296 the clergy of both France and
France. Eng^d complained to Boniface of the
taxes laid upon them by their sover-
eigns for warlike purposes, he answered by the bull
Clericis laicos (Feb. 25, 1296). It opened with the
offensive assertion that the laity had always been
and still were hostile to the clergy, and proceeded to
forbid all princes to tax the clergy of their domin-
ions without papal sanction, under pain of excom-
mimication. Edward, though at first protesting,
declared in 1297 that no further tax should be
laid upon the clergy without their consent; but
Philip responded by forbidding all exportation of
gold and silver, coined or uncoined, from France
(Aug., 1296). This cut off so large a portion of
the papal revenue that Boniface modified his
attitude in the bull IneffabUis amoris (Sept. 25),
and yidded more completely in three briefs (Feb.
and July, 1297) extremely conciliatory in tone;
in the same spirit he completed the canonization
of Louis IX in August, and the discord seemed in
a fair way to be removed. But it was not long in
breaking out again. Philip had welcomed to his
court some of the exiled Colonna family, and had
lent a willing ear to their unmeasured abuse of the
pope, which did not spare his moral character.
The king's misuse of the droit de tigale (see Regale),
on the other hand, had been giving increasing
provocation to the pope since 1299. An open
rupture came in 1301; and by that time both con-
testants had increased their pretensions and were
ready to wage a more bitter war than ever. Boni-
face chose to send as legate to Paris a Frenchman,
Bernard de Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who was for
several reasons pertona rum grata at the French
court, and his haughty tone at this time made him
no better liked. Philip refused to see him; and,
then, when he had returned to Pamiers, brought
him back to Paris, and had him tried and condenmed
on a charge of treason and lese-majesty. On Dec.
5, 1301, Boniface demanded that his ambassador
should inunediately be set free to come to Rome;
and at the same time he sununoned the principal
French churchmen and jurists to assemble in
Rome Nov. 1, 1302, to take counsel with him in
the difficulties of the French question. Notifying
Philip of this, amid the most passionate reproaches,
in the bull AuscuUa fili, he conunanded him also
to appear in person or by proxy at this assembly;
the assertions were repeated that God had set the
Vicar of Christ over princes and kingdoms, thus
giving him charge to ordain what might be needed
for the removal of scandals and for the welfare of
the kingdom of France. To meet this, Philip sum-
moned his estates to Paris for Apr. 10, 1302, and
laid before them not the bull AuacuUa fiii, but a
docim:ient purporting to be the pope's utterance,
which far surpassed even the real one in matter
of offense. The estates, stirred up by this, voted
to stand by the king. Toward the end of the year,
Philip notified the pope that he would have none
of his arbitration in the struggle with England;
and Boniface now urged Edward to war instead
of peace. Peace, however, was made in 1303.
XL— 16
Meantime, as a result of the synod which the pope
opened on Oct. 30, 1302, at which not a few French
prelates were present in spite of Philip, the bull
Unam aanctam was drawn up, asserting in the most
definite terms the theory of '' the two swords,"
and the necessity to salvation of submission to the
pope. Some futile attempts at conciliation took
place in the early part of 1303, but Philip was
declared on Apr. 13 to have rendered himself liable
to exconmiunication. Two months later, the king
assembled his nobles, prelates, and jurists, and his
answer came in the form of a definite accusation
against Boniface under twenty-four separate heads
of the most appalling nature. Impr^sed by this,
the assembly resolved to appeal to a general coxmcil
against him; but since he would have to be forced
to attend it, the collection of funds for this purpose
was begun. William of Nogaret, the king's vice-
chancellor, went to Italy and struck up an alliance
with Sciarra Colonna, who had the wrongs of his
family to avenge. They enlisted a number of the
nobles of the Campagna, and used money freely,
winning adherents even among Boniface's fellow
townsmen of Anagni, where he was then holding
his court. He had resolved to make formal publi-
cation of the anathema against Philip on Sept. 8;
but eariy on the morning of the 7th, William and
his adherents, a few hundred strong, gained an
entrance into the town, penetrated even into the
sleeping apartments of Boniface, and when he
refused all concessions made him a prisoner in his
own palace. On the 9th the citizens rose and
liberated him; Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna were
forced to flee, while Boniface returned to Rome
Sept. 25. But, worn out by the long strife, he
died Oct. 11.
His defeat is to be seen not in the drcumstanoes
of hiB captivity and his death, but in the fact that the
spiritual weapons he wielded proved utteriy unequal
to the conquest of the aroused national
Character feeling of France. The national spirit
and showed itself more powerful than the
Achieve- ecclesiastical. This defeat inflicted
ments of a staggering blow upon the authority
Boniface, of the papacy. Yet Boniface was no
ordinary man. Though he was be-
tween seventy and eighty when he became pope,
he showed no trace of the weakness of age; his
will was unbending, his mind clear and logical.
But his whole heart was set on power. In some
ways he reminds of Gregory VII, and he could
no more hope to escape conflicts than could the
unflinching Hildebrand. But he did not in the con-
flict show the moral loftiness of Hildebrand —
to say nothing of that of such men as Nicholas I
and Innocent III. Nor is his personality without
moral flaws. He had no scruple in using the funds
he had raised for the recovery of the Holy Land
in his own wars; nor is the reproach unfounded that
he used the privileges of his position to surround
his own family with princely splendor. When he
strove for peace, as between England and France,
his determining motive was plainly the desire to
show himself the supreme arbiter of nations; when
he had nothing to gain, he was ready enough to
set them against eadi other, as he set Albert I and
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
826
Edward I agunst Philip. Fair critidmn must,
however, reject the accuBations of debauchery
entirely, since they rest on no trustworthy testi-
mony; and quite as groundless is the charge of
heresy brought against him by his foes. Clement
V had good foundation for the doubtful praise
which he bestows upon Boniface when he calls
him a destroyer of heretics; for he not only con-
firmed, but even strengthened the laws passed
against heresy by Frederick II. He had a great
influence on the development of the canon law
by the issue in 1298 of his so-called lAber Mxtua,
— a continuation of the five books which Gregory
IX had put together in 1234; it contains his own
decrees as well as those of his predecessors since
Gregory's time. It must be mentioned to his
credit that he erected higher schools at Avignon
and at Fermo in the March of Ancona, modeled
after the University of Bologna, for the study of
theology, civil and canon law, medicine, and the
liberal arts; and he has a special title to the grati-
tude of Rome for the refoimding of the Roman
University, originally established by Charles of
Anjou in 1265. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapbt: Walter d« Heminchburgh. Chroniam ds
gtM^M rtoum Anglim, ed. H. C. Hamilton, pp. 39 Bqq.,
London, 1848; Riahanser, Chronica, ed. H. T. Riley, pp.
146 eqq., 483 eqq., ib. 1806; AnnalM Pwrmtnf majorM,
in MOH, Saripi., xviii (1803), 716 aqq.; Chromcon Col-
mar, ib. xvii (1861). 263; ChiilelmuB de Nangiaoo. Ckroni-
eon, ib. xxri (1882), 647 eqq. The bulla CUrieU laieoa
and Unam aanetam are translated in Thatober and Mo-
Neal, Sourer Book, pp. 311-313, 314-^17. and otber rele-
vant doeumente on pp. 276, 313; tbe bulb are also in
Henderson, DocunMiitt, pp. 43^^-437; Unam aanetam is in
Robinson, European Hiatory, i, 346-348; the CUrieU
ZoicM is also in Qee and Hardy, DoewmtenU, pp. 87-88;
the Lat. text is in Reich, DoeummU, pp. 191-106. Val-
uable for Bouroes is also G. Digard, M. Fauoon, and A.
Thomas, Let RigiMlrf d$ Bonifaea VIII, Reeueil de*
huXUe de ee pape . . . d*aprke lee M88. orifKnaux dss
ardiivee du VaHcan, 6 vols., Paris, 1884-00; T. H. Finke,
Aue den Tagen Bonifaa VIIL, MOnster, 1002.
For Boniface's life and activities consult: L. Tosti,
Storia di Bonifagio VIII., 2 vols., Monte (Saasino, 1846;
Jorry, Hietoire du pape Boniface VIII., Plancy, 1860;
W. Drumann, Geet^idUe Bonifadue VIII., 2 vols., K6nigs-
beig, 1852 (critical); A. von Reumont, Oeeehiehie der
Stadi Rom, ii, 618. Berlin, 1868; A. Potthast, Reoeeta
ponHfieum Romanorum, ii, 1023-2024, 2133, Berlin, 1875;
F. Grsgorovius, Oeet^iekle der Stadi Rom, v. 502, Stutt-
sart, 1878, Eng. transl., London, 1808; W. Wattenbaoh,
Oeeckidiie dee rOmietKen Papettume, 216 sqq., Berlin,
1876; Balan, II Proeeeeo di Bonifaeio VIII., Rome. 1881;
F. Rocquain, La PapautS aumotfen do*. . . . Boniface
VIII., Paris, 1881; idem, PhUippe U Bel et la huUe Aue-
cuUa fUi, in Bibliothique de VicoU dee duirtee, 1883. pp.
303-304; B. Jungmann, />issertalumef eelecta, vol. vi,
Regensbfurg, 1886; J. Berchtold, Die BuUe Unam eanc-
tami, Munich, 1887; W. Martens. Dae Vaiieanum und
Bonifam VIII., Freiburg, 1888; Neander, ChrieOan Church,
iv, 67, 682, V, 1-13 and passim; Hefele. Coneilienoeechi^te,
vi. 281 sqq.; Bower, Popee, iii, 43-55. 64; R. Schols,
Die Publieietik eur ZeU . . . Bonifae VIII., Leiprio.
1003.
On his relations to the various European states con-
sult: F. C. Dahlmann, Oeedtiehte von DOnemark, i, 425
sqq., Hamburg, 1840; R. Pauli. Oeeehichte von BniUind,
vol. iv, Gotha. 1855; E. Boutaric. La France eoue Phin
lippe U Bel, pp. 88 sqq.. Paris, 1861; A. Baillet, Hietoire
dee dSmfUe du pape Boniface VIII. avee Philippe le Bel,
Paris. 1818; E. Engelmann. Der Anepntt^ der P&peU auf
Konfbrmation bei den deutet^en KOnigewahlen, Breslau.
1886; Fessler. Oeeehichte von Uni/am, i, 451 sqq.. ii. 3
sqq., Leipsic, 1867-60; J. B. SagmQller, Die ThiUiokeit
und Stelluno der CardimOe hie Bonifaa VIII., Fxeibuig.
1806; J. Oaro, GeaehichU PoUna, Gotha. 1863.
Boniface IX (Pietro Tomaodli): Pope 1389-
1404. He came of a noble Neapolitan family,
and was made a cardinal by Uiban VI, whcmi be
succeeded Nov. 2, 1389. He ia said to have beeo
judidoujB, affable, and pious, but without leazning
or knowledge of affairs. His principal um was
the restoration of the papal authority in Rome aod
the States of the Church, for which he labored not
unsuccessfully. The Romans, it is true, ezpeUed
him from the dty in 1392, but fearful that he mi^t
fix his residence permanently elsewhere, they
recalled him in the following year. He returned
on condition of the surrender of a great part of the
dvio liberties; and another rising in 1398 gave
him the opportunity to limit them still further.
He was fortunate also in regard to Naples, where
things were in a condition very unfavorable to tbe
piracy, owing to the confused policy of Urban VI.
Clement VII and Louis II of Anjou thought tbe
time had come to make a thorough conquest of
the kingdom, but Boniface made a dose alliance
with King Ladislaus and finally gained a complete
victory over the French, holding Naples in tbe
Roman obedience. By the aid of his political
influence, Boniface hoped to succeed in ending
the great schism, at first depending on the Gemian
king Wenceslaus, whom he invit^ to Rome for
coronation as emperor; but matters were in too
critical a state in Germany for him to leave. An
appeal to Charles VI of f^rance in 1392 to abandon
his allegiance to Clement had no good result; nor
had a similar attempt in Castile. The hope of
accommodation raised by the death of Qenaent
VII (Sept. 16, 1394) was destroyed by the action
of the Avignon cardinals, who dected Benedict
XIII. In the contests resulting in the deposition
of Wenceslaus and the attempt to put tl^ count
palatine Rupert in his place, Boziiface wavered
from side to side, and only expressed his willing-
ness to recognise Rupert in 1403 from a fear that
he would be thrown into the arms of the king of
France. Boniface acquired an unenviable reputa-
tion for avarice, nepotism, and simoniacal trans-
actions. He died Oct. 1, 1404. (A. Hauck.)
BnuooRAPHT: Some of the ■ouroes for a history of Booi-
tmoa IX are the foUowing: The bulb are in O. Baynakliifl.
Annalee eedeeiaetid, ed. BeroniuB, continued by A.
Theiner, Paris, 1864 eqq.; the Diptomata are in Menar
m*nta vaHeana hietoriam Hunoarieg iUuetrantia, toL iii,
Budapest. 1888; Dietrioh von Nieheim, \De Sckieauk,
book ii, ehap. 0 sqq., ed. G. Erler, pp. 129 aqq., Leipae,
1880; Qobelinus Persona, Coamodromium, in H. Meibom,
Rerum Oermani^arum, i, 316 sqq., Helmstadt, 1688; sod
a Vita in L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum aeripL, III. ii,
830. 25 vols.. Milan. 1723-38. Consult further: M. Jsnaen.
Papet BonifaHue IX., Freiburs, 1004; Huftoria . . . de
Bonifaaio none, Venice, 1613; N. Valois. La France H U
grand adiiame, ii, 157, Paris, 1806; Gtaichton, Papacy, i
111-183; Festor, Popes, i. passim; Neander. ChruHn
Churdi, Tol. V. passim; Bower. Popea, iii, 143-152; Hefde,
ConcUiengeethidUe, ri, 812.
BOHIFACE, SAIHT: The apostle of the Ge^
mans; b. at (>editon (8 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devon-
shire, between 675 and 683; d. a martyr on the
banks of the Borne near Dokkum (13 m. n.e. of
Leeuwarden), in Friesland, June 5, 755. He was
an Englishman of a distinguished family of Wessez,
and was originally named Winfrid or Wynfrith.
His studies were begun at the monastety of Ade»-
227
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
BonihLoe
cancastre (Exeter?), and continued at Nutshalling
or Nursling, near Winchester. Here he won dis-
tinction for learning and practical wisdom, and
at an early age waa made master of the monastic
school.
Disregarding brilliant prospects at home, from
717 Boniface gave himself to missionary work on
the Continent. After a brief effort in Friesland —
the field of his countryman Willibrord (q.v.) —
he went to Rome and received a conmiission from
the pope (Gregory II) as missionary to Central
Germany. He began his labor in Thuringia and
Hessia, the easternmost of the lands of the Franks,
where he found not only heathen but Christians
and priests who knew nothing and
Early wanted to know nothing of Roman
MisBionaxy discipline and order. They were prob-
Work. ably converts and disciples of Iro-
Scottish and British monks, who had
long been laboring among the tribes from the
Rhine to the Saale and southward to the Alps (see
Celtic Chubch in Britain and Irsland, II, 2,
S 3, III, 2, § 2). For two or three years Boniface's
activity was diverted to Friesland, but then he
returned to the Franks, and, with the help of two
landed proprietors, founded a central settlement
for himself and companions at Amdneburg on the
Ohm in Hessia. His success was great and led to
a Bummoiks to Rome from Gregory II. There he
was consecrated bishop and swore fidelity to the
canons of the Church; he was charged to be on his
guard against heretical priests and anti-Roman
bishops. About 724 he returned to Germany,
provided with letters of recommendation to the
major domus, Charles Ifartel, to the clergy, chief-
tains, and people. Charles Ifartel granted him
protection, and, after confirming recent converts
in Hessia, and felling the sacred oak of Thor near
Geismar, Boniface went eastward into Thuringia,
and established its first monastery at Ohrdruf.
He founded many churches, converted the heathen,
expelled the anti-Roman priests, and in ten years
had won a new province for the Church and the
pope.
Being promoted to the dignity of archbishop,
Boniface organised his Church by founding the
sees of Wdrsburg, Buraburg, and Erfurt, and by
building monasteries and nunneries, which he
filled with monks and nuns from Eng^d and
endowed and improved with the help of English
money. Bavaria next claimed his attention.
Anti-Roman influence was strong there and among
the neighboring Alemanni (q.v.), but, with the
authorisation of Gregory III, in a few years, Boni-
face placed men in sympathy with Rome in the
Bees of Regensburg, Passau, Sabburg, and Freising,
aud substituted the Benedictine rules for those
of Columban in the monasteries. On
Organiza- the death of Charles Martel (741),
tion. his sons Karlman and Pepin, who had
been brought up under monkish in-
fluence, succeeded to his power. In 742 Karlman
called upon the papal legate to regulate the affairs
of the Church for the East Franks. Under the
guiding influence of Boniface two synods were
held and measures were adopted oonoeming the
moiULstic and scholastic discipline, the restoration
of church estates which had been lost, the intro-
duction of Roman marriage laws, celibacy of the
clergy, the expulsion of the old British itinerant
priests and bishops, the extirpation of remnants
of heathenism, the establishment of the hierarchical
order, and the like. There was some opposition
from the nobles, certain of the bishops, and the
people, who were attached to their old customs,
but at court and in the Council the adversaries
of the " reformation of the Church " lost all author-
ity.
In 744 Pepin followed the example of his brother.
A synod was held at Soissons, and Boniface was
given a free hand, notwithstanding resistance
horn the Frankish clergy. For a long time, how-
ever, he was unable to alienate the people from
their old priests and bishops, such as Adalbert
and Clement (qq.v.). A general Frankish synod
in 745 published new agenda for both divisions of
the country and promised Boniface the metro-
politan see at Cologne. In 747 the Frankish
bishops with Boniface at the head signed in due
form a bill of submission in which they acknowl-
edged the papal rights, laws, and power,
Arch- and promised obedience and faith-
bishop, fulness. By this action the bond
between the Frankish empire and
Rome was sealed; the " Prince of the Apostles "
was to be head and master in the countries north
of the Alps. Pope Zacharias had every reason to
be grateful to his legate. Instead of Cologne,
Boniface received Mains as his see. Here he was
near his old mission field in Hessia and Thuringia,
and from Mains he could direct the building of his
favorite foundation, the abbey of Fulda (q.v.).
Worldly affairs now occupied him little. After
the death of Willibrord he desired strongly to
continue the Friesian mission. In 754 he spent
some time in Friesland. The next year he again
descended the Rhine with a large following and
pitched his camp on the little river Borne, expecting
the newly baptised would come thither for con-
firmation. But the camp was attacked by night
by a band of heathen and Boniface and his entire
company were massacred. He is buried at Fulda.
An English synod shortly after his death proclaimed
him patron of the EngUsh Church by the side of
Gregory the Great and Augustine. Pi\is IX in
1875 ordered to invoke his name because of troubles
in Germany and England. Many churches in
Germany are dedicate to him. [A number of
writings have been attributed to Boniface. Those
most conmionly regarded as genuine are letters,
a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, a Latin poem
called jSnigmcOa de virtutHnUf and several shorter
poems.] A. Werneb.
Bibuoobapbt: S, Bonifadi op$ra qua «xfafil omnia, ed.
J. A. Giles, 2 vola.. London, 1844, oontaina, beaides the
genuine and Buiypoeed works of Boniface, his life, written
within ten yean of his death by WilUbald, a presbyter
of ICains. The works, WilUbald's Ufe. and a life by
Othlo. a monk of St. Emmeram's at Regensburg. writ-
ten at Fulda between 1062 and 1066, are in Af PL, Ixzzix.
Better editions are: Of the letters, WilUbald's life, the
so-called PasHo S. BonifaHi (11th century), and extracts
from Othlo and a life by an unknown writer of Utrecht
in MommnUa MogunUna, ed. P. Jaffd, BMiothmsa nr.
Bosiiflittius-Vervin
Bonnet
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
228
(Term., yol. iii, 1860; th« biographical matter aim ifwued
separately with title. Vita 8. BonifaHi, BerUn, 1866; cf.
also Vila S. BanifaHi, ed. W. Leviaon. Hanover, 1906; of
the letters, ed. E. Dammler, in MOH. Epi»t., iii (1892).
EpiBtola Menwinffici e< Carolini avi, i; of the poems, ed.
idem, in MOH, Poet, Lot avi Car., i (1881), pp.
1-23; of Willibald's life, ed. A. NQmberKer, Breslau,
1895, and, with Othlo's prologue, in MGU, Script., ii
(1829). For the letters consult F. Loofs, Zur Chrono-
logit dtr auf di$ fi^knkiMehen Synoden dss h^Uio^n Bon^
fatiu9 bnUifliehen Brief e der ftofHTasMcAen Britfmimmluno,
Leipeie. 1881; O. Pfahler. Die hornSoHamedf Bntf-
mimmlung dironologiaeh geordnti, Heilbronn, 1882.
For modem aooounte in (Serman from the Roman
GathoUe standpoint, oonsult: J. C. A. Seiters, Bonifadua,
. . . noih esifiem LAen und Wirkan gnthUderU Mains,
1846; O. Pfahler. 8U Banifaeiue und mins Zeit, Regens-
burg, 1880; F. J. von Buss, Winfred Bonifaciua, ed. R.
▼on Scherer, Ghtks, 1880. From the Protestant stand-
point: J. P. Mailer, Bom/ociiM. Bene kerkhialori»dts
Studit, 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1860-70; A. Werner, Boni-
faeiua . . . und die RomaniHrung von Mittdeuropa,
Leipsio. 1875; O. Fischer, BonifatiuB dtr Apo$tel dtr
DtuUehen, ib. 1881; J. H. A. Ebrard, BonitaHut, der
Zoratitrer dea eolumbaniaehen Kirehanlhimu auf dem
FeaOande, Oatersloh, 1882, of. his Iro$dwtH9cha Mia-
aionakuxha daa etanr^tan Jakrhundarta, ib. 1873; Q.
Traub, BomfaHua. Bin Labanabild, Leipsio, 1884. For
life in Eng. consult: Q. W. CJox, Lifa of Boniface, London,
1853; Birs. Hope, Boniface and the Converaion of Oarmany,
ib. 1872; Q. F. Maclear, Apoatlae of Mediaval Europe, pp.
1 10-128, London, 1888; I. Q. Smith. Boniface, in Falhara for
EniH^i^ Raadara, ib. 1896; J. M. WUliamson. Ufa and Timaa
of St Boniface, ib. 1904. (Consult also: H. Hahn. Boni-
foM und Lvl, Leipsio, 1883; G. Woelbing, Die miUdaUar-
Utkan LthanthaackraHbungan daa BonifaUua uniaraudU, ib.
1883; Moeller, Ckriatian Churdi, ii. 74-83; Schaff. Ckria-
tian Church, iv, 92-100; DCB, i, 324-327; DNB, ▼.
346-350; Neander, CkriaHan Church, iii, 46-06 et pas-
sim.
BOHIFATinS-VERSni C'Bonifaoe Society"):
A Roman Catholic society of Geimany, having as
its object '' to promote the spiritual interests of
Catholics living in Protestant parts of Gennany,
and the maintenance of sch(x>Is" (by-laws, § 1).
The tendency toward freer relations between dif-
ferent confessions and shifting of confessional
connections in Germany in the earlier years of the
nineteenth century aroused the anxiety of the
Church of Rome. According to a statement in
the Ultramontane MUnchener hUtoriscK-poliiiachs
EUUUt (Ixviii, 45) the Roman Church lost between
1802 and 1870 more than 500,000 souls in South
Germany, whereas the loss in North Germany
between 1802 and 1850 was estimated at one
million. The " Francis Xavier Society/' which
had its headquarters at Lyons in France, and prop-
erly speaking was a missionary society, took care
of the " missions " in Germany as far as possible;
but until 1848 no Roman Catholic church or school
could be established in Germany without the consent
of the government. These restrictions were done
away with in 1848, and when the third convention
of Roman Catholics met at Regensburg, Oct. 4,
1849, at the suggestion of DOllinger, at that time
an ardent champion of Rome, and of Count Josef
von Stolberg, son of the famous convert Frederick
Leopold von Stolberg, the Bonifatius-Verein was
founded. Paderbom was chosen as the center of
operation. Pius IX approved the society, Apr. 21,
1852, and Leo XIII favored the priests belonging
to it with indulgences. Mar. 15, 1901. In Bavaria
the society was not favorably received at first
on account of similar societies already existing,
and in North Germany it seemed to be a failure
by 1853. But after 1857, owing to the ezertioiis
of Bishop Martin of Paderbom and of Alban Stolz,
it progressed rapidly and in 1899 celebrated the
golden jubilee of its successful activity.
The society obtains the means necessary for
carrying on its work in various ways: (1) from
collections in the churches; (2) from private per-
sons who obligate themselves to pay for a number
of years the minister's salary in a certain oongre-
£ation; (3) from donations to a permanent endow-
ment fund; (4) from societies which collect seem-
ingly worthless objects, as cigar ends, corks, and
the like; the income from these societies, used
particularly for orphan asylums and like institu-
tions, amounted from 1885 to 1891 to 1,490,539
marks; (5) from the profits of the Bonif&tius
printing-house and the Bonifatius second-hand
book-stall at Paderbom; (6) from periodicals and
pamphlets; (7) from academical Bonifatius ao-
deties, which built the Catholic church at Gretfa-
wald; (8) from societies of a like character, as
the " Boniface Society of the Catholic Noblemen
of Silesia," the "Boniface Society of Catholic
Ladies for Chureh Vestments and Furniture "
and others. The aggregate receipts from all tiiese
sources between 1849 and 1899 were 36,000,000
marks; and between 1849 and 1901 more than 29,-
000,000 marks were expended for 2,240 stations.
In 1902 the revenues aggregated 442,000 marks,
and expenditures 310,000 marks.
The territory of the Bonifatius-Verein comprises
Germany, Austria with Bosnia and Hersegovina,
Switserland, Denmark, and Luxembouig. In
Germany special attention is paid to the Protestant
parts of Prussia, above all Berlin; Saxony, Bruns-
wick, and Mecklenburg are also regarded as mis-
sionary fields. In Bavaria, Nurembeig, formerly
wholly Protestant, is especially an object of the
propaganda in order to connect the northern and
southern parts of Bavaria. C. Fbt.
Bibuoorapbt: A. J. Kleffner and F. W. Woker, Dar Said-
fadua-Varain. Seine OeadiiAla, eeine ArheU und mw At-
hailafM, 1849-1890, 2 parte. Paderbom. 1890; £ont/a-
duMaU, ib. 1853 aqq.; Schleaiaekaa Bomfadua-Vereiae'
BUM, Brealau, 1800 aqq.
BOlfl HOMXHES: A name borne by several
monastic brotherhoods, particularly by the Gnun-
montensians (see Grammont, Order of), the
Fratres saccaH, or Sack Brethren (q.v.), and an
order of canons regular founded in Portugal by
John Vicensa (d. 1463), physician and professor at
Lisbon, afterward bishop of Lamego, and later
bishop of Viseu. In 1425 Vicensa and his followers,
who had made pilgrimages throughout Portugal,
received the Benedictine cloister of San Salvador
in Villar de Frades. They adopted the dress and
statutes of the canons regular of San Gioigio in
Alga, at Venice, and received papal confirmation
under this title. In another house near Lisbon
they received the name Canons Regular of the Con'
gregation of St. John the Evangelist. The Boni
homines of San Salvador were later included under
this title. They gradually attained a strength d
fourteen houses in Portugal, and also maintained
missions in India and Ethiopia.
229
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BoniftttluB-Ver«lxi
Bonnet
After the Minims (q.v.) had come into poesession
of the hoiue of the GrammontensianB at Vincennes
they, too, came to be called bona hommes. Even
at an earlier date it seema that the Minims in Paris
had been contemptuously called bona hommea.
The same name was also appropriated by certain
heretical sects, for instance, by the Cathari (see
New Manicheans) and by the Brethren of the
Free Spirit. In Florence, in the thirteenth century,
the twelve men elected to restore order after the
withdrawal of the Ghibellines were called hiumi
uominif likewise the overseers of the thirteen city
districts in Rome in the fourteenth century.
BOHIZO (BOnXTHO): Bishop of Sutri; b. at
Cremona c. 1045; d. at Piaoenza July 14, probably
1090. As a young cleric he joined the Patarene
movement (see Patarenes) ia Cremona and Pia-
oensa. He came to Rome in 1074, possibly in con-
sequence of his conflict with Bishop Dionysius of
Piacensa, and was himself made bishop of Sutri
in 1075 or 1076. In the spring of 1078 he was in
Lombardy as legate, and back in Rome by No-
vember, when he took part in the synod that dis-
cussed Berengar's teachings. A sealous partisan of
Gregory VII, he was imprisoned by Henry IV m
1082 and entrusted for sale-keeping to the antipope
Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III). He contrived
to escape, but never returned to his see. In 1085
he found shelter with Countess Matilda, and in the
summer of 1086 was chosen bishop of Piaoenza by
the Patarene party. His election being uncanonical,
Anselm of Milan, the metropolitan, refused to
install him; but he succeeded in gaining the ap-
proval of Pope Urban II in 1088 or 1089. He
did not long enjoy his triumph, meeting a violent
death in a rising of the imperialist party. The
most important of his writiags, the Liber ad amicum
(ed. E. DQmmler, MGH, LibeUi de lUe, i, 1891),
composed between the death of Gregory VII and
the accession of Victor III (1085-86), besides dis-
cussing the question whether a Christian may bear
arms in the defense of the Church (which he answers
in the affirmative), shows by an extended historical
sketch that the Church grows under persecution.
The chief value of the work is due to its presen-
tation of the ideas of Gregory and his adherents;
it informs us how the papal camp judged of the
numerous theological and ecdesiastioo-political
controversies of the time, and as a whole is one of
the most noteworthy productions of the Gregorian
party. Often as it has been appealed to as a con-
temporary source, it has to be used with caution,
owing not only to carelessness and errors of detail,
but to demonstrable perversions of history, as in
the account of the Canossa episode. In fact, it is
colored throughout by the author's subjective
standpoint. The Liber in Hugonem achiamatieuin
(presumably Cardinal Hugo Candidus) has un-
fortimately been lost. As a canonist Boniso left
a large Dtcretum in ten books, from which Mai
published extracts ia 1854. Carl Mirbt.
Bxbuoobapbt: H. Saur, Studien Hber Bonito, in Foradiun-
gen tur dMrftefc«n OttihithU, viii, 397^464, Qdttingen,
1868; E. Steiiidorff, JakiblUhtr dea deuUeken Reicht
unitr Heinridk III., I 467-462, ii, 473-482, Leipne.
1874, 1887; W. Martens, UMter dU Getehieht§diftibuno
BoniMot, in T€ibino€r AMlooUth* QuartaUchrift, 1883, pp.
457-483: idem, Oregor VIL, 2 voIb.. Leiprio, 1804; H.
LehmgrObner, U«ber de$Lebendea BonitQ .... inBemo
von Alba, pp. 129-151, Berlin, 1887; G. Meyer von
Knonau, JahrbUcher dea deuttdun ReidiB unier Heinrich
IV., vols. i. ii, Leipnc. 1890-94; C. Bfirbt, Die PtMuiMlik
im ZeiiaUer Qreoon VIL, ib. 1894; idem. Die WaM Ore-
gon VIL, BCarburg, 1892.
BONNER, EDMUND: Bishop of London; b.,
probably at Hanley, Worcestershire, about 1500;
d. in the Marshalsea prison, at Southwark, near
London, Sept. 5, 1569. He studied at Pembroke
College (then called Broadgate Hall), Oxford
(B.C.L., 1519; D.C.L., 1525), and was ordained
about 1519. He received his first preferment
from Cardinal Wolsey; after the death of Wolsey
(1530) he served the king, received a number of
benefices, and was employed at different times as
ambassador to the pope, to the king of France, and
to the emperor; he was made bishop of London in
1539. He fell out with the privy council, which
undertook to govern under Edward VI (1547),
and in 1549 was reprimanded for not enforcing the
use of the new prayer-book, deprived of his bishop-
ric, and imprisoned. The accession of Mary (1553)
brought his release and reinstated him in his see.
He is remembered chiefly by his connection with
the religious persecutions of the reign of Mary and
it is said that in three years he condemned more
than two hundred persons to the stake. In 1559,
after the accession of Elizabeth, he refused to take
the oath of supremacy and was imprisoned and
kept ia confinement till his death. It has been
usual to represent Bishop Bonner as unprincipled
and cruel; yet his firmness in following the unpop-
ular course and the suffering undergone in conse-
quence do not iadicate a lack of principle; to judge
and condemn heretics was one of the duties of his
position, and it is not clear that he took delight
in undue severity; there \a documentary evidence
that he acted under pressure from the queen and
her husband (Philip II of Spain). He was un-
popular in London apart from the persecutions.
He wrote a preface for the second edition of Gar-
diner's De vera obedierUia (Hamburg, 1536) and
published a collection of HamUiee for his diocese
(London, 1555, and many later editions).
Bibuoobafht: The aouroes for » life are in the 8UU» Papan
of Hawry VIII, in the RotU Serif, 15 vols., ed. by various
hande, London, 189-. Coneult also: S. R. Bfaitland,
SvbjedM Conneded mih ffu Reformation in England, Lon-
don, 1849; DNB, vi, 356-300.
BOimET, beu'^nd', ALFRED MAXIMTTiTEN;
French classical scholar; b. at Frankfort 1841.
He was educated at the University of Bonn, and,
after being a professor at the academy of Lausanne
in 1866-74 and at the £cole Monge and the £cole
Alsacieime at Paris in 1874-^1, was successively
lecturer and instructor in the faculty of letters
at Montpellier. Since 1800 he has been professor
of Latin in the same institution. In 1898 he was
elected a corresponding member of the Academy
of Inscriptions, and has written, among other
works, NarraHo de miracuh a Michaele archangelo
Chania patrato, adjedo Symeonia MetapkrastcB de.
eadem re HbeOo (Paris, 1890) and Le Latin de
Grigovre de Tow$ (1890); and has prepared editions
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
230
of the Liber de miraculia beati Andrea apostoU, in
MGH, Scnpt. rer, Merov,, i (1885), 821-^6, the
Acts of Thomas (Leipsic, 1883) and of Andrew
(1895), and the Acta apoetolorum apocrypha (1891
sqq.; in collaboration with R. A. Lipsius).
BONNET, JULES: French Protestant layman;
b. at Ntmes (40 m. n.e. of Montpellier) June 30,
1820; d. at Paris Apr. 15, 1892. He was educated
as a lawyer, but became a professor in the Uniyersity
of France and gained recognition by his works
on the history of the Reformation. He was also
secretary of the Sod^t^ d'Histoire du Protestantisme
Fran^ais and editor of its publications. Among
his works special mention may be made of the
following: Olympia Moraia, Episode de la renaie-
eance en Italie (Paris, 1850; Eng. transl., Edin-
bur^, 1852); Lettree fran^iees de Calvin (2
vols., 1854; Eng. transl., 4 vols., Edinburgh,
1855-57); Calvin au vol d^AasU (1861); Aonio
Paleario, Hude aur la riforme en Italie (1863;
Eng. transl., London, 1864); RSdta du eevnhne
eiicle (1864); Nouvcaux ricite du eeizihne aikde
(1869); La Riforme au chdteau de Saint Frivol
(1873); Notice sur la vie et lee icriis de M. Merle
d'Aubigni (1874); Demiere ricite du eeieikme tikcU
(1875); Quelquee eouvenire eur Augustin Thierry
(1877); FamUle de Curione, rfynt du eemhne eikde
(Basel, 1878) ; Hietoire dee eouffranoee du bienheureux
martyr Louie de MaroUee (Paris, 1882); Souvenire de
r^gliee rifomUe de la Calmette (1884); and lUcite
du eeizikme aikie, troisihne eirie (1885). He also
edited the M&moiree delaviede Jean de Parthenay-
Larchevique, eieur de Soubiee (Paris, 1879), while
his own letters from 1851 to 1863 have been edited
by E. de Bude (Geneva, 1898).
BONNIVARD, ben^'nl'VOr', FRANCOIS DE: The
"Prisoner of Chillon"; b. at Seyssel on the Rhone
(21 m. B.w. of Geneva) c. 1493; d. at Geneva 1570.
As a younger son he entered the Church and became
prior of St. Victor near Geneva; certain other bene-
fices to which he thought he was entitled he failed
to receive through the intrigues of Charles III,
duke of Savoy; in consequence he joined the party
of the young Genevan patriots who were resisting
the duke's attempts to gain control of the city.
When the duke entered Geneva in 1519, Bonnivard
fled, but fell into the hands of the duke, and was
imprisoned for twenty months. On May 26, 1530
he was arrested near Lausanne, taken to the castle
of Chillon at the east end of Lake Geneva, and kept
there for six years. It is this imprisonment which
Byron has immortalized in verse more musical
than truthful. The first two years were tolerable;
but after a visit from the duke in 1532 he was put
in the dungeon now shown to visitors. It is only
a local tradition that he was chained to a pillar.
In the spring of 1536 the Bernese took the castle
and freed Bonnivard. During his incarceration
the priory and church of St, Victor had been razed
and the income of the estates applied to the city
hospital. As indemnification he was pensioned
and given a hberal simi to pay his debts. He
adopted the Reformation and married four times,
but no time happily. He made the city of Geneva
his heir on condition that it should pay his debts;
but his estate consisted only of certain books winch
formed the beginning of the dty Ubraiy. Bonni-
vard's literary activity was the diief reason for the
forbearance which his contemporaries showed him;
his career was somewhat wavering, time-serving,
and dishonorable. In 1517 he was entitled ** poet-
laureate," and after his liberation he was com-
missioned by the magistracy to write a history of
the republic of Geneva. This work, Lee Ckroniquet
de Qmkve (published at Geneva, 2 vols., 1S31),
ends with 1551, is full of anecdotes and interesting,
but unreliable. Other works which have been
published are: Advie et devie dee languee (Geneva,
1849); Advie et devie de la eource de Vidolatne et
tyrannie papale (1856); De Vandenne et mnadk
police de Oenh>e (1805).
Bibuoobapht: J. J. Chaponnifere, Mimown mar Bourn-
vard, Qenera, 1846; F. Qribble, Lake Oenmn and tto
Literwy Landmarka, London, 1901.
BONNUS, HERlIAHlffUS (Hermann Glide?):
German Reformer; b. at QuackenbrQck, in Osns-
brQck, 1504; d. at LQbeck Feb. 12, 1548. He
was educated s^parently first at Manster, then in
Bugenhagen's school at Treptow, but certainly
entered the Univernty of Wittenbeig in 1523,
coming under the influence of Luther and Melanch-
thon. In 1525, probably, he migrated to Greifs-
wald, and about two years later went to Gottorp
to act as tutor to the si^c-jrear-old son of Frederick I
of Denmark. Thence he was called to Ldbeck
in 1530, and (on Bugenhagen's oganisation of the
Evangelical Church there) made superintendent in
the following February. Here he remained until
his death, in spite of calls to Hamburg in 1532 and
to LQneburg in 1534. He represented his town
in the conference of the six free cities of Ldbedi,
Bremen, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, and Ltine-
burg, hdd at Hamburg in 1535 to concert measures
for dealing with Papists, Anabaptists, and Sacra-
mentarians. In 1543 he visited OsnabrQck to
take part in the establishment of a Reformed
system and liturgy which received the approval
of the bishop, Franz von Waldeck, and was later
extended to the whole diocese. The attempt to
carry it into that of MOnster was forcibly resisted by
the chapter, but met with partial suoooas in the
country districts. His influence was extended by
his Low German catechism (1539) and by his
services to the hymnody of tlds dialect. He cer-
tainly edited and revised several collections of both
German and Latin hynms, and probably contributed
some of his own. He took a courageous part
against the democratic revolution in Labeck under
Wullenweber, and in his Chronika der kaieerlichen
Stadt Labeck (1539) pointed out the dangers of
innovating tendencies. After the fonnal adoption
of the Augsburg Confession in 1535, he contended
successfully against the efforts of the Roman
Catholic party to regsun control and against the
propaganda of the Anabaptists. His office re-
quired him to exp>ound the Scriptures, and his
discourses on the Acts and on the liturgical epistles
for the Sundays were published. In accordance
with the Hambuii; decisions, which had required
preachers to dwell upon the examples of the saints,
he published in 1539 a compilation of ha^ographical
881
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bonnet
Bonosus
extracts. The king of Denmark tried to secure
him for an important office (probably the bishopric
of Sleswick), but he refused to leave Ltkbeck, where
his body was deposited amid universal mourning
in St. Mary's church. (G. Kawerau.)
Biblioobafht: H. Spiegel, ^ennann Bonnta, Qdttingen,
1802; G. Bowert. in TLZ, 1892, pp. 260 aqq.
BONOSUS AlffD THB BONOSIABS.
H«i««y snd Buapenaion of Bo&osos (i 1).
Final Condemnation of Bonomu (i 2).
Bononana in Spain and Southam Qaul (i 3).
Sympathy between Bononana and Ariana (i 4).
Relation betifeen Bonoeua and the Bonoeiana (i 6).
From a letter written to Anysius of Thessalonica
and the other Illyrian bishops, soon after the Synod
of Capua (winter of 391-392), by either Pope Siridus
or an unlmown Italian bishop, we learn certain
facts about a bishop Bonoeus, whose see is not given.
He had been accused, apparently by neighboring
bishops, but of what does not clearly appear in the
letter, except that he had asserted that Maiy bore
other children to Joseph, after the birth of Jesus.
The case came before this synod at Capua, called
by the emperor Theododus to put an end to the
schism at Antioch (see IfELEnua of Antioch);
but the synod referred it to the bishops whose
dioceses bordered on those of both parties, espe-
cially the Macedonian prelates. The decision was
in favor of suspension, a temporary provision being
made for the administration of Bono-
z. Hereqr bus's diocese. He wrote to St. Am-
and Sua- brose to know whether he was bound
pension of to heed this sentence, and Ambrose
Bonoaos. counseled patience. Meantime the
bishops hesitated to make the sen-
tence absolute, and would have been glad of the
opinion of the writer of the letter. He, however,
whether Siridus or some one else, declared that
it did not belong to him " to dedde as if by au-
thority of a synod"; the respondbility, he told
them, rested on them of forming such a deddon
that ndther the accused nor the accusers should be
able to evade it. So much condderation was not
usually shown to " heretics "; there may have
been circumstances connected with the case which
we do not know. But to deny the perpetual vir-
ginity of Mary was a serious offense from the stand-
point of the time (see HELvmnrs). Ambrose
speaks {De inatU. virg,, v, 35) of a bishop being
accused of this "sacrilege" — ^probably meaning
Bonosus. It is, therefore, evident that at this time
Bonoeus was accused of no worse or further here-
sies.
Some twenty yean later we hear more of Bono-
sus in two letters of Innocent I— one to Mardan of
Naissus, northwest of Sardica, and a later one to
the bishops of Illyria. From them it appears that
Bonoeus had been definitdy condemned
2. Final l^ his fellow bishops, and had then
Condemna- founded a separate eccledastical organ-
tion of ization of his own. For the avoiding
Bonoans. of scandal, those who had been or-
dained by him were, if they wished it,
recdved back into the Church as clerics. Innocent
allows this only in the case of those ordained by
Bonoeus before his condemnation; but here again
his heresy is not spedfied. Twenty years later
still (431), Marius Mercator names Marcdlus,
Photinus, "and lately the Sardican bishop, Bo-
nosus, who was condemned by Pope Damasus,
among the followers of Ebion." There is prac-
tically no doubt that this is the same Bonosus; in
this case, and accepting [the statement of Marius,
we have learned that Bonosus was bishop of Sar-
dica, and that his errors had grown, after 392, into
dynamistic Monarchianism. We have no further
information as to the fate of his following in the
Balkan peninsula. The mention of him in the
so-called Decretum Odaaii, even if it was written
by Geladus, and the anathemas pronounced against
him by A^gilius in 552 and 553 prove nothing on
this point. If Gregory I in his Epistola ad Quiricum
really named the Bomsiaci with the Cataphrygians
as heretics who needed rebaptism because they
did not believe in Christ the Lord, this is not very
strong evidence for the continued existence of the
body, and tells nothing of its locality.
The case is different with the repeated mentions of
Bonoaiaci or Bonoaiani by the writers of Spain and
southern Gaul. Gennadius quotes the Spanish
bishop Audentius (end of fourth century) as having
specially written against them, which proves at
least that Gennadius knew them; he speaks in
another place of " Photinians, who now are called
Bonodans." A little later Avitus of Vienne men-
tions them in two well-known passages; in one
he expresses himself in relation to
3. Bono- King Gundobad (see Burqundianb)
aians in as willing to accept their baptism.
Spain and The 17th canon of the so-called Second
Southern Synod of Aries (generally placed 443-
OauL 452) shows the same conciliatory
attitude; but the Third Synod of
Oritens (538) tells us that the Bonosians rebap-
tised thdr converts, which may be taken to show
that their baptism was not then recognised by
the other dde. About the same time, according
to Iddore of Seville, Justinian of Valencia was
writing against them his lost lAber reaponaionum
contra Bonaaianoa, qui Chriatum adoptivum fUium
et rum proprium dicurU. While for Gaul the latest
reference is given by the Synod of Clichy in 626
or 627, showing thus their gradual extinction there,
in Spain they were attracting attention fifty jrears
later; the Synod of Toledo in 675, declaring that
Christ was the Son of God by nature, not by adop-
tion, was plainly directed against them. On the
other hand, the mention of Bonosus — ^not of the
Bonodans — ^in the Adoptionist controverey (see
Aooptionibm) does not prove that they lasted to
the eighth century in Spain, nor is the medieval
view that Adoptionism was a revival of the heresy
of Bonosus worth conddering. They really dis-
appear with the end of the seventh centuiy.
That these mentions of Bonodans from the fifth to
the seventh centuries are not merely the survival of
an old term of opprobrium, but that they really
existed in Spain and southern Gaul at that period
has long been justly accepted. It is still further
confirmed by a passage of Avitus, whose true read-
ing {Bonoaiixcorum for h&norum) has only lately
been established. Writing to Sigismund, his con-
BoaoBua
Bora
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
282
vert, son of the Arian king Gundobad, he gives
the information that the latter had fonnally prom-
ised to set up a Bonosian community in his kingdom
by the establishment of a bishop of
4. Sympathy their faith, and that this body was
between recruited from the Axians. This would
BonosianB explain the attitude of Gennadius
and Aiiana. toward their baptism. Avitus took
an opposite view, either to conciliate
the king, who at that time gave hopes of
his convendon, or from motives of general policy.
The Bonosians began to be absorbed into the Arian
body; toward the end of Gundobad's reign Avitus
had hopes that they would entirely disappear,
if the king could be induced to let his promises
to them lapse into oblivion. The later history
shows that this hope proved false, because the sect
was not confined to Burgundian territory; and
it is not surprising that sharp meajsures were taken
against those who remained obdurate in their
heresy under Catholic rule. Only one thing can be
urged against the correctness of the account here
given — the recognition of the validity of Bonosian
baptism by the synod said to have been held at
Aries about 450; but this really tells the other way,
for general support is now accorded to the theory
put forth in the eighteenth century that this second
synod of Aries never had any existence, the canons
attributed to it being nothing but a collection of
various older synodical decisions made toward the
end of the fifth century, and canon xvii having then
first been heard of. Accordingly it is safe to say
that the Bonosians in the generally Arian terri-
tories of the Burgundian^ and the West-Goths
were the followers of Boi)osus of Sardica, though
the name Bonoeus was not an uncommon one.
Isidore of Seville says expressly that they had
sprung " from a certain bishop Bonosus," and the
" plague of the Bonosians " did not b^in in the
Burgundian kingdom, since Avitus
5. Relation speidks of it as 06 infemalOnu latebrU
between excUaia, The district in which Bono-
Bonosus sus of Sardica labored bordered on
and the territories held in his time by the
Bonosians. West-Goths, and relations may well
have remained close between that
region and the West-Goths of the south of Gaul;
BO that the passage of his teaching from the Balkan
peninsula into the Burgundian kingdom, which was
in close contact with the West-Goths, is perfectly
possible, and we may safely conclude to accept the
statement of Marius Mercator. (F. Loofb.)
The wide-spread acceptance of the Adoptionist
view of the person of Christ from the apostolic time
throughout the Middle Ages and beyond (Ebionites,
Shepherd of Hennas, Theodotas of Rome, Paul of
Samosata, the Paulicians, most medieval sects,
many Anabaptists, and others) makes it easy to
account for this aspect of the teaching of the
Bonosians as well as for the Spanish Adoptionism
of the eighth century without the supposition of
its independent origin in either case. For much
valuable information on the early origin and the
persecution of Adoptionist Christology cf. F. C.
Conybeare, The Key of Truth; A Manual of the
Paulician Church of Armeni4i, The Armenian Text
edited and translated with illuatratioe DoctmenU
and Introduction (Oxford, 1898). A. H. N.
Bibuoobapbt: OeiUi«r, Avtmtn mtari9, ▼. 706-711; C. W.
F. Waloh, HialorU dtr Ketaenien, iii. 508-4i2S. Ldpae.
1766; A. Helfferioh, Dm- wmtgothiBdie Ariawmmwi, Berbn.
1860; C. Bindixic, Da§ bvrgundiackrivmami9tke KOmgrtidi.
vol. i, LeiiMie, 1868; H«fale, ConeOimioaaehidUt, Tob. ii.
iii; DCB, i. 880-881.
BONWETSCHy ben'Vetch^ GOTTLIEB If ATHA-
NABL: German Protestant theologian; b. at
Nortla, Russia, Feb. 17, 1848. He was educated
at the univereities of Dorpat (1866-70), GOtUngeD
(1874-75), an(f Bonn (1877-78), the time between
his residence at these universities being spent in
practical pastoral work. He became privatrdocent
at Dorpat in 1878 and associate professor of church
history four years later, while from 1883 to 1891
he was full professor in the same university. Since
1891 he has been professor of church history at
GiOttingen. In addition to numerous contributions
to theological journals and religious encydopedias, he
edited Thomasius's Doffmenffeechtehte der aUen Kirekt
(Eriangen, 1886) and the Studim zwr OeediidUe dtr
Theologie und Kirche in collaboration with R. Seeberg
(Leipsic, 1897 sqq.), and has written Die Sckriften
TertuUiane untersucht (Bonn, 1878); Die GeeehichU
dee Mantaniamue (Eriangen, 1881); Unaer Refer-
motor Martin Luther (Dorpat, 1883); KyriU. wnd
Methodius f die Lehrer der Sloven (Eriangen, 1885);
Methodius von Olympus, i, Sckriften (Leipsie,1891);
Studien tu den Kommentoren Hippolytus gum Buche
Daniel und Hohenliede (1897); ffippolytus Werke
(Berlin, 1897; in collaboration with H. Achelis);
and Die Apokalypse Abrahams, das Testament der
vierzig Mdrtyrer (1898). He also edited, in collabo-
ration with P. Tschackert, the thirteenth and four-
teenth editions of J. H. Kurtz's Lehrbuch der Kvr-
chengeschichte (2 vols., Leipsic, 1899, 1906).
BOOS, MARTni: Roman GathoUc priest; b. at
Huttenried near Schongau, Bavaria, Dec. 25, 1762;
d. at Sayn, near Coblena, Aug. 29, 1825. He
studied at Dilhngen under Sailer, Zimmer, and
Weber. He followed the extreme practises of sb-
ceticiam aa a penance for sin, all to no avail, as he
believed, and then developed a doctrine of salva-
tion by faith which came very near to pure Luther-
anism. This he preached with great effect. He
was driven from Bavaria by the opposition of the
ecclesiastical authorities and other priests and lived
in Austria from 1799 to 1816, when he was com-
pelled to leave that country. His last years were
spent at Dttsseldorf and Sayn.
Bibuoobapht: His autobiognphy wms edited by J. Goa»<
ner, Leipsic, 1831, Eng. tranal., London, 1836. who also
inued two volumes of hie eermonB, Berlin, 1830. Coo*
suit also F. W. Bodemann. (Tssasimwlte BrM/s von, oa vmA
liber Martin Bom, Frankfort, 1854.
BOOTH, BALLnCGTON: G^eral-in-chief and
president of the Volunteers of America; b. at Brig-
house (4 m. e.s.e.of Halifax), Yorkshire, England,
July 28, 1859. He was educated at a private
school in Bristol and subsequently at Trenton Col-
legiate Institute and Nottingham Seminary, Not-
tingham, England. He was commander of the
Salvation Army in Australia from 1885 to 1S87,
and held the same office in the United States from
233
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bonosos
Bora
1887 to 1896. In the latter year his connection
with the Salvation Army ceased, however, and he
established a similar though not identical organiza-
tion known as the Volunteers of America (q.v.), of
which he has since been the head. He was ordained
at Chicago in August, 1896, a presbyter in the
Christian Church.
BOOTH, CATHinUNE (MUMFORD): "Mother
of ^the Salvation Army"; b. at Ashbourne (13
m. n.w. of Derby), Derbyshire, En^and, Jan.
17, 1829; d. at Qacton-on-Sea (13 m. s.e. of Col-
chester), Essex, Oct. 4, 1890. She was educated
chiefly at home, and in 1844 removed with her
parents to London. In the same yeai she joined
the Wesleyan congregation at Brixton, but four
years later was debaned from that organization,
together with others. These " Reformers," as they
called themselves, then formed a separate congre-
gation, and in 1851 she became acquainted with her
future husband, William Booth (q.v.), likewise an
excommunicated "Refonner." Four years later
they were married, and in 1858 she first took pub-
lic part in her husband's pastoral work at Gates-
head, Durham, where he was then located. Two
years later, after the publication of a pamphlet de-
fending the right of women to preach, she delivered
her first sermon in her husband's pulpit, and with-
in the next three years began to conduct independ-
ent religious meetings, leading successful missions
at Margate in 1867 and at Portsmouth in 1873.
Meanwhile the plan which resulted in the forma-
tion of the Salvation Army (q.v.) was maturing,
and the new organization was definitely formu-
lated in 1877. Mrs. Booth herself took an active
part in the work, especially among women and chil-
dren. Her greatest work as a revivalist was done
in 1886-87, but in the following year she was
stricken with cancer, which ultimately caused her
death. She wrote Papers on Practical Religion
(London, 1879); Papers on Aggressive Christianity
(1881); Papers on Godliness (1882); lAfe and Death
(1883); The Salvation Army in Relation to the Church
and State (1883); and Popidar Christianity (1887).
BnuooRAnrr: F. St. Q. de L. Booth Tucker, The Life of CatK-
€rin0 Booth, 2 vob., London and Chicaco. 1802; J. Chap-
snU4 J^our NMs Women ani Omr Work, ib. 1808.
BOOTH, WILLIAM: Commander-in-chief of
the Salvation Army; b. at Nottingham, England,
Apr. 10, 1829. He was educated by a private theo-
logical tutor of the Methodist New Connexion
Church, and began his career as an open air preacher
at the age of fifteen. He entered the ministiy of
the Methodist New Connexion Church in 1852,
and was successively a traveling evangelist and a
circuit preacher until 1861, when he left the de-
nomination to devote himself entirely to evangel-
istic work. In 1865 he founded at London the
Christian Mission for the amelioration of the con-
dition of the destitute and vicious population of
the eastern portion of London, and this developed,
in 1878, into the Salvation Army (q.v.). He has
traveled extensively in the interests of his Army,
and has written Salvation Soldiery (1890); In Dark-
est England and the Way Out (1890); and Religion
far Every Day (1902).
Bibuoobaphy: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, Life of Oen-
end WiUiam Booth, Chicago. 1808; T. F. G. Coates, The
Prophet of the Poor; the Life Story of General Booth, Lon-
don, 1006.
BOOTH TUCKER, EMMA MOSS: Salvation
Army worker; b. at Gateshead, Durham, Jan. 8,
1860; d. near Dean Lake, Mo., Oct. 28, 1903. She
was the daughter of William Booth (q.v.), the
founder of the Salvation Army, and from 1880 to
1888 was in charge of the international training
homes of that organization. In the latter year she
married Frederick St. George de Lautour Tucker
(see the following article), and went with him suc-
cessively to India and London, whence she came
to the United States in 1896. She held the rank of
consul in the Salvation Army, and had equal powers
with her husband in its control. She died from in-
juries received in a railroad accident. A volume of
selections from her writings has been published under
the title The Cross and Our Comfort (London, 1907).
BOOTH TUCKER, FREDERICK ST. GEORGE
DE LAUTOUR: Secretaiy for Foreign Affairs
of the Salvation Army; b. at Monghyr (80 m.
e. of Patna), Bengal, Mar. 21, 1853. He was edu-
cated at Cheltenham College, Eki^and, and passed
the examinations for the India Civil Service in
1874. After two years of additional study, he was
appointed to the Punjab, where he was successively
assistant commissioner and treasury officer. He
resigned from the service, however, in 1881 to join
the Salvation Army, which he established in India
in the following year. He remained in oonunand
of the Army there until 1891, when he was trans-
ferred to London as secretary for international work.
He held this office for five years, and from 1896 to
1904 was commander of the Army in the United
States. Since the latter year he has been Secretary
for Foreign A£Fairs of the Salvation Army, with
headquarters in London, and is thus responsible to
General William Booth (q.v.) for all work of the
organization outside of the British Isles. In 1888
he married the daughter of Gen. William Booth
(see the preceding article) and subsequently as-
sumed the name of Booth Tucker. He has written
In Darkest India and the Way Out (Bombay. 1891);
The Life of Catherine Booth (2 vols., Chicago, 1892);
Lt/e of General William Booth (1898); and Favorite
Songs of the Salvation Army (1899).
BOOTHS, FEAST OF.
FSABT OF.
See Tabebnaclbs,
BORA, KATHARINA VON: Luther's wife; b.
of an old family of Klein-Laussig, near Bitterfeld in
Meissen, Jan. 29, 1499; d. at Torgau Dec. 20, 1552.
She was placed in the Cistercian convent of Nimpsch
at Grimma (17 m. s.e. of Leipsic) when a child
and became a nun in 1515; with the cognizance of
Luther she and eight other nuns fled from the con-
vent Apr. 4, 1523, and repaired to Wittenberg.
She is said to have refused an offer of marriage from
Dr. Kaspar Glatz, vicar at OrlamCnde, and at the
same time to have expressed a preference for Ams-
dorf or Luther. She was married to the latter
June 13, 1525, and bore him six children. She
proved a true wife, was a good housekeeper, and
the marriage was a hi^py one. After Luther's
IS!
trborites
irowskl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
234
death (Feb. 18, 1546) she remained at Wittenberg,
much of the time in poverty. Her death was due
to an accident which occurred as she was on the
way, with her children, to Torgau to escape the
plague at Wittenberg.
BiBUOomAPmr: W. Beata, Die O^eekidUt KtOhanwu von
Bon, H»Ue, 1843; F. G. HofmAim. Kalhanna von Bora
Oder Luihor aU Oatto und Voter, Leipno, 1845; A. Stein,
Kathwrina von Bora, Luther§ Ehegemahl, Halle, 1807;
A. Thorn*. Katharina von Bora, Berlin, 1900. Ckmtult
alflo the various biographies of Luther. The ehief of the
many libels eonoeming Luther's marriage is Eusebius
Engelhard's (Michael Kuan) Lucifer WiUenbergeneU, 2
vols., Landsberg, 1747-49.
BORBORITBSy BARBEUTES. See Gnobticibic.
BORDELUMIAES: A separatistio sect formed
at Bordelum, a village of Sleswick, about 1739,
under the leadership of a pietistic Saxon theological
student named David B&hr. They originally
consisted of fifteen or twenty persons, and claimed
to be saints who had advanced further than Paul
according to Rom. vii, 24. Since they believed that
they had received special gifts from God, they
decried the Church as the house of the devil, and
despised the sacramants. As being pure, to whom
all things were pure, they rejected marriage in
favor of free love, and institutkl a communism of
property for their financial support. An edict of
Chnstian VI, issued June 11, 1739, condemned the
leaders to imprisonment; those who had led an
immoral life were punished according to the laws,
and the remainder were admonished. The leaders
managed to escape the pimishment, however, B&hr,
who had seduced a married woman, fleeing to Jena.
Expelled from that city, he returned to Holstein,
and was imprisoned at GlQckstadt. Having become
a cripple in consequence of the rough treatment to
which he had been subjected in prison, he was re-
leased, and died wretchedly, still unconverted, at
Bredst&dt in 1743. His adherents caused much
trouble to the pastor of Bordelum.
Paul Tbchackkrt.
Bibleooeapht: Ada kiMlorieo-oodeeiaeHea, vol. v, part 29,
p. ess sqq., and Supplement, pp. 1014 sqq., 20 vols.,
Weimar, 1734-88, eontinued in 18 vols., tiU 1790.
BORDIER, h^r^'dy^, HBURI LEONARD: Re-
formed Church of France; b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1817;
d. there Aug. 31, 1888. He was educated at the
£cole de Droit and the £cole des Chartes in Paris,
and licensed in law and as paleographic archivist
in 1840; thereafter he devoted himself to his-
torical studies. He was successively assistant
to the historian AugusUn Thierry; assistant in the
Academy of Inscriptions; secretary par irUerim
of the £cole des Chartes; a member of the com-
mission on the departmental archives of the minis-
ter of the interior (1846); archivist of the national
archives (1850), and dismissed on the establish-
ment of the Empire. He was, during the siege of
Paris, on the commission upon the papers of the
Tuileries; and in 1872 was nominated honorary
librarian in the department of manuscripts in the
Bibliothdque Nationale. He was for many years on
the committee of the Soci^t^ d'Histoire du Prote»-
tantisme Fran9ais, and prepared numerous works,
noted for their accuracy. Among them may be
mentioned; various notices in the BtUujihbque
de v£c6U det Chartes (Paris, 1841-86); HiaUnre
ghUrale de tone lee dipSte d'archtves extatanl en
France (1856); Lee £gliees et monaaUree de Parie
(1856); an edition of the Ltbrt miraculoTum aliaque
opera minora of Gregory of Tours, Latin text with
French translation (4 vols., 1857-64); a French
translation of the Hietaria Franeorum of Gregory
of Tours (2 vols., 1859-61); Lee Inveniairee dee
archives de VEmpire (1867); Une Fabnque de faux
auioffraphes (1869); Chansannier kuguenot du eei-
tihne siide (1869); UAUemagne aux TuOeriee, de
1860 d, 1870 f coUectian de documents Hria du tsabinet
de PEmpereur (1872); La SauU^BarOUiemy ef la
critique modeme (Geneva, 1879); L*6coU hiaiorique
de JMme BoUec (Paris, 1880); Nicolas Caetdlin
de Toumay, rifugif A Genh>e, 1564-1676 (1881);
Description des peintures et autres omementa eon-
tenus dans les manuscrits grece de la BOHotkhque
Nationale (1885). With E. Charton he published
in 1860: Histoire de France d^aprhs les documents
originaux et les monuments de Vart de chaque &poque.
At the time of his death he was engaged upon a
new and enlarged edition of the brothers Gug^ne
and £mile Hai^s La France prolestante (originally
12 vols., Paris, 1845-59), and had brought out the
first five volumes (1877-^).
BOREEL, bo''r«l', ADAM: Preacher and sectary ;
b. at Middelburg, in Zealand, 1603; d. in Amsterdam
1666. He was pastor of a Reformed congregation,
but resigned his office, and became the leader of a
separatistic party, which acknowledged no other
religious authority than the Scripture. Hia work.
Ad legem et testimonium (1645), attracted great
attention. Here he developed that the written
word of God, without any human conmientary,
was the sole means of awakening faith; that the
Church had fallen completely away from the Lord;
that the Christian ou^t to shun all connection
with the Established Church, and confine him-
self to his private devotion, etc. His minor wri>
tings, fifteen in number, were collected at Amster-
dam, 1683. His followers, known as Boreelista,
never attained to much importance.
BORKElCAlfN, bdr'neHndn, FRIEDRICH WIL-
•HELM BERKHARD: (German Lutheran theo-
logian; b. at Ltlneburg (68 m. nji.e. of Hanover)
Mar. 2, 1858. He was educated at the universitieB
of G6ttingen (Ph.D., 1879) and Leipsic, and was
successivdfy tutor at Bremen (1879) and Medinget&
(1880). Two years later he became inspector of
the seminary at G6ttingen, and in 1884 was privat-
docent for church history in the same university.
In 1886 he was appointed inspector of the seminary
for theological candidates at Magdeburg, where
he became professor in the following year. From
1898 to 1902 he was professor of theology at Basel,
and since the latter year has been pastor of the
Luther Church at Frankfort. His works indude In
investiganda monachatus origins quibus de cauaia
ratio habenda sit Origenis (GOttingen, 1886); Die
UnxuldnglichkeU des theologischen Studiums (Leip-
sic, 1886; anonymous); Kirchenideale und KinJien-
reformen (1887); Schulandachten (Berlin, 1889);
Bittere Wakrheiten (5th ed., GOttingen, 1891);
Unterricht im ChHstentum (1891); Die Thessaloni-
285
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Borboritos
BorowBkl
cherbriefe (1894; in KriHschrexegeHseher Kommentar
uber daa Neue Testament); Historisehe und praktische
Theoloffie (Bafld, 1808); Die AUeg&rie in Kurut,
Wtsseneehaft und Kirche (Freiburg, 1809); EinfUhr
rung in die evangeliache Miseionakunde (Tdbingen,
1902); and BeU und Arbeite ! (Leipsic, 1004; a
collection of Bermons). He likewise tranislaied the
" GonfeesionB " of St. Augustine (Gotha, 1880).
BORHHAEUSER, bOm-hoi'zer, KARL BERN-
HARD: Gennan Lutheran; b. at Mannheim (43
m. B.w. of Frankfort) May 10, 1868. He was
educated at the universities of Halle and Greifs-
wald, and was pastor successively at Sinsheim
(1800-04) and Carlsnihe (1804-1002). In 1002
he was appointed associate professor of system-
atic and practical theology at Greifswald, and in
1905-06 was also assistant to the professor of prac-
tical theology at Halle, conducting the seminar
and delivering lectures. He has written Vergo^
tungslehre dee Athanaeiue und Johannes Damas-
cenus (Gatersloh, 1003); and WolUe Jesus die
Heidenmission f (1003).
BORHHOLMERS: Danish sect of the nine-
teenth century. During the first part of the cen-
tury different parts of Sweden were penneated
with sects which emphasiBed the gospel of the free
and unmerited grace of God in Christ. About
1805 the Nua LOsare ("New Readers") origi-
nated in the congregation at Pite& in Norrbotten,
deviating from the old LOsare, who adhered to the
Lutheran doctrines, by asserting that saving faith
may be found in those whose hearts are still attached
to sin and the worid, and by regarding the impor-
tance attributed to the law as a temptation to
Pharisaical self-righteousness. In the course of
time this party, headed by a soldier named Erik
St&lberg, broke with the State Church, and finally
the "New Readers" declared that the ministers
of the latter preached the doctrine of the devil.
In the fifth decade of the century, the Finnish
preacher Frederik Gabriel Hedberg, afterward
provost and preacher at Kimito in the archbishop-
ric of Abo, evolved similar views in a work on
" Pietism and C!hristianity," in which he accused
Spener and his followers of teaching that man
must be holy and pure before he can rely on the
immerited grace in Christ, whereas Hedberg seems
to have regarded man as a soul hungering for grace,
but utteriy unable to aid himself in the attainment
of salvation. In 1846 a party of Hedbergians was
formed at Stockholm and Helsingland which
rejected all preaching of repentance. A like tend-
ency was manifested by the sect headed by Kari
Olof Rosenius (b. 1816; d. 1868), who had been
greatly influenced by the Methodist George Scott,
who labored in the Swedish capital. Rosenius,
who sought to remain a true Lutheran throughout
his life, emphasised the grace of God in Christ.
His sermons and his magazine, which he entitled
Pietisten, although he was opposed to the legalism
of the Pietists, exercised an important influence
on the relifpous life of Sweden. Hedbergianism
and the writings of Rosenius gave rise between
1850 and 1870 to a new evangelical party in many
parts of Sweden, whose sole dogma was the for-
giveness of sins without merit of the sinner, and
whose watchword, " the worid is justified in Christ,"
won them many proselytes not only in Sweden and
Norway, but also in the American Synod of Missouri.
The new evangelism found a fertile soil in the
Danish island of Bomholm (in the Baltic Sea, 00
m. e. of Zealand), which became the center of
propaganda for a part of Denmark. The move-
ment was inaugurated by P. C. Trandberg, a
powerful preacher of repentance, who had broken
with the State Church, and by 1863 had gathered
about him almost a thousand followers. Trand-
berg sent out lay preachers, and the " Bomholmers,"
as they were called, were soon found in North
Zealand, Copenhagen, LoUand, Falster, and West
Jutland. His adherents gradually lost confidence
in him, however, and in 1877 he resigned. Later
he became professor in the Dano-Norwegian de-
partment of Chicago Theological Seminary and died
in 1806. As a rule, the Bomholmers are pious and
earnest, and their antinomistic theory usually be-
comes nomistic, and even quasipietistic in practise,
thus forming a bond of union between them and
the " Inner Mission " in Denmark, and making them
one of the means to awaken spiritual life in many
of the Danish people. F. NxELBENf.
BOROWSKI, bo-rev'skt, LUDWIO ERKST VON:
A prominent Prussian evangelical preacher; b. at
KOnigsberg June 17, 1740, of a well-to-do Polish
family which had emigrated on account of its
religion; d. in Berlin Nov. 10, 1831. In his four-
teenth year he went to the University of KOnigs-
berg, where he was one of Kant's earliest pupils,
practised oratory, and showed an inclination toward
literature. His theological convictions were not
influenced by Kant, despite a lasting personal
devotion, but rather by the supematuralist school.
In 1758 Kant recommended him to General von
Knobloch as a tutor in his family; but before long
Field-marshal von Kunheim, impressed by Bo-
rowski's oratorical gifts, urged him to become a
military chaplain. This career he finally took up
in 1762, being ordained by Stlssmilch, and joining
his regiment in the camp at Sorau soon afterward.
He remained with the army until 1770, when
Sdssmilch had him appointed superintendent of
the district of Schaaken in East Prussia. Here he
labored diligently for twelve years, until he was
called to a pastoral charge in his native town.
The development of his preaching powers and theo-
logical knowledge won him increasing prominence;
in 1703 the king appointed him a member of the
special commission on churches and schools, and
he received the title of consistorial councilor in
1804. When the storms of war burst over Ger-
many, he rose to the height of the occasion, and his
eloquent exhortations had a deep effect on Frederick
William III and his queen, who resided in KOnigs-
berg from 1807 to 1800. The king's warm affection
and respect continued to be shown through the
years that followed. In 1812 he made Borowski
general superintendent, in 1815 first court preacher,
in 1816 a bishop, and in 1820 archbishop of the
Prussian Evangelical Church. These last years of
his life, old as hd was, were full of incessant activity;
Borrhj
Bosae
'haiu
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
he was prerident of the Bible Society and of the
Ifimionaiy Union founded in 1822. Outside of
his preaching, however, he gave more thought to the
training of his candidates for ordination than to
anything else, and even in the wanderings of his
last illness his mind was occupied with them.
(Hkbmamn Herino.)
BnuooKAnrr: Seloeted ■ermons and tootures, with aketebe*
of his MtiTities by von Kahle and E. 0«tterr«ieh, were
pabllflbed by his grandson, K. L. Volkmann, K6nigabetg,
1838. Oonnilt also ADB, iii, 177.
BORRHAUS, MARTIH (generally known as
CELLARIUS): German theologian; b. at Stuttgart
1499; d. at Basel Oct. 11, 1564. Being educated
and adopted by his kinsman Simon Gellarius, he
called himself Cellarius until about forty years of
age, although the name of his parents seems to
have been Burress or Borriius. In 1515 he was
made magitter arHum at TQbingen, where he became
intimately acquainted with Melanchthon, two
years his senior. He was made bachelor of theology
under Reuchlin at Ingolstadt in 1521, and became
a friend of Marcus Stabner at Wittenberg. The
eight sermons delivered by Luther after his return
from the Wartburg impressed Cellarius deeply,
but his seal in defense of StQbner was such that he
left Wittenberg, where he had treated Luther with
rudeness, and went to Switseriand, whence he
traveled by way of Austria and Poland to Prussia,
which had just embraced the Evangelical faith.
There he was tried, and required to sign a bond
in which he promised to return at once to Witten-
berg. His interview with Luther in 1526 filled
the latter with respect for Gellarius, who now
settled in southern Germany, winning the hearts of
Capito and Butzer in Strasburg. In 1527 he pub-
lished his first work, De apenbua Dei, and in 1544
he was iq)pointed professor of the Old Testament
at Basel, where, in collaboration with Gastello
and Curio, he composed a polemical treatise under
the name of Martin Bellius, directed against Galvin
in the Servetus controversy. He rejected infant
biq>tism, but was a firm beUever in predestination.
Cabl Albrbcht Bbrnoulu.
BnuooBAnrr: ADB, iii (1876), 881; E. Esli. Zwiiy^iana,
i. 80-81, Zurieh, 1904; C. Qerbert, OMcKidU^ d«r 8tr<u»-
hurotr Stkimbtweffuiio gur Zeit d«r Reformation, 16Mjh94,
Strasbuiv, 1888. Referanoes will be found in the lives
of the Eeformera Luther, Melanchthon, Buteer, Zwingli.
BORROMBO, CARLO: Italian prelate and re-
former; b. at Arona (on the s.w. shore of Lago
Maggiore, 37 m. n.w. of Blilan) Oct. 2, 1538; d.
at Blilan Nov. 3, 1584. He was the nephew of
Giovanni Angelo Medici (afterward Pope Pius IV),
and even in his boyhood showed an inclination for
the priesthood, receiving his first benefice at the
age of twelve through the resignation of an uncle.
Four years later he went to Pavia, where he studied
law, and had just taken his degree in 1559, when
the newly elected Pius IV invited him to Rome.
His rise was extraordinary, and at the age of twenty-
two he was a cardinal and the archbishop of Milan.
When the Goundl of Trent was reopened on Jan. 18,
1562, Borromeo used his influence in securing
the sharp fonnulation of questions relating to dis-
cipline and faith. He also governed the Eomagna
and the March, both of which had been added to
the papal dominions in the course of the fifteenth
century. In foreign politics nothing took place
without him and he was also an active member of
the Gongregation of the Inquisition, besides being
the protector of the Franciscans, the Knights of
Malta, and the Gannelites. He could maintain sudi
an activity, however, only while he lived at Rome;
confonning to the decision of the Gouncil which
required all bishops to reside in their own diooeseB,
he removed to Milan, where he had already pre-
pared a house for the Jesuits, who acted as his
instruments in reorganising his diocese of Milan.
Borromeo's activity here had scarcely begun when
Pius IV died, but his successor Pius V asssted the
archbishop in the reorganisation of the largest of
the Italian dioceses, which was to be a mc^el for
all. Borromeo founded seminaries for the better
education of the clergy in the strictest ecclesiastical
spirit, and also introduced rigid church discipline,
b^inning with the clergy; his efforts to popularise
synodical work and to improve the existing orders,
as well as his introduction of others, such as the
Theatines, into Italy were all designed to further the
same object. In revenge, some degenerate monks
who had been affected by his reform, plazmed his
murder, but by a miracle, as it was claimed, he
escaped the bullet of his would-be assassins. Hand
in hand with the reform within the Ghurch went a
merciless severity against every form of " heresy "
in Lombardy, the Valtellina, and the Engadine,
as well as against " witches " in Valcainonica.
During the plague of 1576 he heroically cared for
the sick and buried the dead, while the officials
fled in terror from the city. His statue near Aiona
still recalls the memory of Borromeo, who became,
by his canonisation in 1610, the saint of the Gounte^
reformation. K. Bknrath.
BiBUOOBAnnr: The Op§ra omma appeared in Milaa.
1747. The earlier biographies are antiquated by tlw
works of A. Sala: DocumenH drea la vita • U open di San
C. Borromoo, 8 vols., Milan, 1857-61, and Biognfia di
C. Borromaa, ib. 1868; TThs Li/s of 8L ChaHeo Bommto,
ed. E. H. Thompeon, London, 1868, new ed.. 1883; SL
Chariot and hit Fellow Labowron, ib. 1860; C. SylTain.
Hiakriro do 8, ChaHoo BommM, 3 Tola., ib. 1884; C
Cameniiwh, Cario Borromeo und die Oeoenreformaiion im
VeliUn, Ghur. 1001; E. Wymann. Der heilioe Kari Borro-
ws, Stans, 1003.
BORROW, GEORGE (HEURT) : En|^ adven-
turer and writer; b. at Blast Dereham (15 m. wji.w.
of Norwich), Norfolk, July 5, 1803; d. at Oulton
(15 m. s.e. of Norwich), Suffolk, July 26, 1881.
His boyhood was unsettled, his father, a soldier.
moving about the country with his regiment. In
1819 he was articled to a solidtor at Norwich, but
abandoned the work, went to London, and lived
as a hack writer for the publishers. Then he took
to wandering about England, and visited France,
Spain, and Italy. In 1833 he was sent by the
British and Foreign Bible Society to St. Petersburg
to superintend the publication of a Manchu trans-
lation of the New Testament (published in dgiit
volumes, 1835); he continued in the service of the
Society, most of the time in Spain, till 1840. Then
he married and adopted a more settled life in
England. He had much aptitude for languages
237
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Borrhavs
Bo«M
and acquired a knowledge, though not scientific,
of many tongues, being particularly noted for his
acquaintance with the Romany, the dialect of the
Gipsies, with whom he associated much both on
his wanderings and after his return to England.
He published a Romany word-book (London, 1874),
translations, and romances which tell the story of
his life with more or less fiction interwoven. He
edited a translation of the New Testament into
Spanish (Madrid, 1837) and translated the Gospel
of Luke into the dialect of the Gitanos (Spanish
Gipsies; 1837) and into Basque (1838). Com-
plete editions of his works were published in five
volumes in London and New York. The best
known of them are The Zincali; or an Account
of the Gipnee in Spain (2 vols., London, 1841) and
The Bible in Spain (3 vols., 1843).
Bibuogbaprt: W. I. Knftpp, Tht Lif€, WriHngB, and Cor-
rmpomintcB of Charge Borrow, 2 Tob., London, 1890; W.
A. Datt, (Twrffv Borrow in Boat iin^Uo, ib. 1896; DNB,
y. 407-4Q6.
BOSCm, besOd, GIULIO : Cardinal; b. at Perugia,
Italy, liar. 2, 1838. He was educated in his native
city and completed his studies at Rome, where he
became the secretary of Cardinal Peed (afterward
Pope Leo XIII) in 1861. In 1888 he was conse-
crated bishop of Todi, and seven years later was
translated to the see of Sinigaglia. In 1900 he
was elevated to the archbishopric of Ferrara, and
in the following year was created cardinal priest of
S. Lorenao in Panispema.
BOSlfIA AND HERZEGOVmA: Two provinces
of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Previous to
the Treaty of Berlin (1878) they formed the extreme
northwestern part of Turkey in Europe, but since
1908 they have been part of Austria. Bosnia
has the Hungarian and Austrian provinces of
Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia on the north and
west, Servia to the east, and to the south Herze-
govina, which is bounded on the east by Monte-
negro and on the south and west by Dalmatia. The
ci4>ital is Sarajevo in Bosnia, the chief town and
former ci^ital of Herzegovina, Mostar. The area
is about 16,200 and 3,500 miles respectively; the
populatkm (1896) 1,591,036, of whom 219,511 are
credited to Henegovina. The natives are nearly
all Slavs of the Servian branch. The number of
foreigners living in the land is estimated at 71,000,
most of them having entered the country since the
Austrian occupation.
The religious statistics for 1895 were as follows:
Greek-Orientals, 673,246 (43 per cent.); Moham-
medans, 548,632 (35 per cent.); Roman Catholics,
334,142 (21 per cent.); Jews, 8,213; other religions
(mostly Protestants), 3,859. The Mohanunedans,
in the main converts from Christianity since the
Turkish conquest in the fifteenth century, are not
of the most rigid kind, although they made a brave
stand against the Austrian government. They
are the landed proprietors of the country and mer-
chants in the towns. They are under the Sheik ul
Islam in Constantinople and a Rais al Ulama in
Sarajevo. They have a large endowment fund for
mosques, schools, hospitals, and the like, which is
now administered imder government supervision.
The free exercise of their religion is guaranteed to
them. The Roman Catholics are descendants of the
older population and constitute the larger number
of the artisans in the cities and the fanners. They
are most numerous in the districts of Travnik and
Mostar. The Franciscans have been active among
them since the thirteenth century and have done
much for them. Their condition has much im-
proved since the Austrian occupation. There is
an archbishop of Bosnia, who since 1881 has resided
at Sarajevo, and there are suffragan bishops of
Banjaluka, Mostar and Duvno, and Marcana and
Trebinje. The provincial seminary is at Banjaluka,
where there are also four schools for boys and four
for girls and an orphan asylum under the charge of
Trappist monks. The adherents of the Greek
Church are under the patriarch of Constantinople
and the metropolitans of Sarajevo, Dolnja Tusla,
and Mostar. They are most numerous in the north,
are farmers and traders, and are inferior to both
the Latins and Mohammedans in education. Less
than ten per cent, of the entire population can read
or write, and the church schools are poor. Publio
schools are being established and there are three
higher schools (two gymnasia and a Realechvie), ten
trade schools, and a normal school.
Biblioobapht: The church statiatics are included in thow
for Austria (q.v.)- Consult: V. Klais, OeaehiehU Bo»-
niMM Ms turn ZorfaU tUa Kdntgreieka, Leipsic, 1886; Bom-
ntsns Oeoenwart und tUlduU Zukunft, Leipsic 1886; Die
Logo der Mohamimedaner in Boenien, Vienna, 1900 (an«
swered by KdUay und Boenien-Ueruoovinot Budapest,
1900).
BOSO: Third English cardinal; d. after 1178.
His name was Boso Breakspear and he was a
nephew of Pope Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear).
He belonged to the Benedictine monastery of 8t.
Albans, but went to Rome probably under Eugenius
III. From Nov. 6, 1149, to May 3, 1162, he calls
himself Romanes ecclesicB acriptor, Adrian IV
made him his chamberlain early in his pontificate,
probably therefore in 1154, and later made him
cardinal deacon of Sts. 0>smab and Damian; under
Alexander III he became cardinal priest of St.
Pudentiana. With the latter title his signature
appears to a number of papal bulls from Mareh 18,
1166, to July 10, 1178, soon after which he appears
to have died. He was a strong supporter of the
policy of Adrian and Alexander. He wrote nine
poetical lives of female saints, which are still in
manuscript and was a poet of considerable merit.
For the papal biographies composed by him see
Liber Pomtificalis.
Biblioobapht: The souroes for a life are in Thietniar of
MeiMbuxs. Chroniam, MGH, Script., iii (1839^. 760.
Consult Migne, Bneydopidie thMoffique, vol. xxxi. Die-
tionnaire dee Cardinaux, ■.v.; T. Greenwood, Cathedra
PeiH, London. 1866; DNB, y. 421; KL, ii. 1129-90.
Consult also the biographies of Adrian IV and Alexander
III.
B06SE, FRIEDRICH: Grerman Lutheran; b. at
RossU (38 m. w. of Halle) Aug. 23, 1864. He was
educated at the tiniversities of TQbingen, Berlin
(Ph.D., 1886), Marburg, Heidelberg, and Qreifswald,
completing his studies in 1890. In the following
year he became privat-docent at the University of
Greifswald, and from 1892 to 1894 was provisional
BoQaii«t
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
838
profesaor in K6nigBberg. In the latter year he
was appointed associate professor of church history
at Kiel, and five years later returned in a similar
capacity to Greifsveald, where he still remains.
He has written PraUgomena zu einer OeachicfUe dea
Begriffea " Nachfolge ChrUH " (Berlin, 1896).
B0SSUBT,be8''sQ''d', JACQUES BraiGNB: Bish-
op of Meaux (about 27 m. e.n.e. of Paris); b. at Dijon
Sept. 27, 1627; d. in Paris Apr. 12, 1704. He
b^;an his studies in Uie Jesuit school of Dijon,
and finished at the Ooll^ de Navarre, Paris. He
became priest and doctor of theology, 1652; after
some time spent in retirement at St. Lasaie, he
went to Mets, where he was canon and archdeacon,
acquired great fame as a preacher, and engaged in
controveny with representatives of the Refoimed
Churches. At the request of his bishop he pub-
tished his first work (1655), a RifutaHon of the
catechism of Paul Ferry (q.v.). In 1660 he was
made bishop of Condom, Gascony, but resigned
this office after he was appointed tutor to the
dauphin (1670). When the education of his pupil
was finished, in 1681, he was made bishop of
Meaux. Bossuet adopted the Cartesian philosophy,
to which he added the Thomist theology and a great
admiration for Augustine. He is generally con-
sidered the foremost of French preachers; and,
in so far as the art of eloquence is concerned, his
six Oraiaons funHbrea (best collected eds., by
Lequeux, Paris, 1762, and, with notes, etc., by
A. Gast^, 1883) must be nmked among the finest
specimens of Christian oratory, though they reflect
the splendor and greatness of Louis Quatorse
more vividly than the power and humility of the
Gospel. As tutor to the dauphin he wrote De la
connaiuance de Dieu et de aotHmime (1722; better ed.,
1741) and Dieeoun aur Vhidoire univereeUe depute le
eommmoemerU du monde juequ'd, V empire de Charle-
magne (leSl; 5th ed., enlarged, 1703; the continua-
tion to 1661, published 1806, was printed from his
notes), the latter of which is a strildng^y original at-
tempt to construct a Christian philosophy of histoiy
on the principle that the destinies of nations are con-
trolled by providence in the interest of the Roman
Catholic Church. Among his controversial writings
against the Protestants, the two most remarkable
are ExpoeiHon de la doctrine de I'igliae cathotique
8ur lee matUree de controveree (1671) and HieUnre
dee variaHone dee ^glieee praieetanUe (2 vols., 1688;
best ed., 4 vols., 1680). The latter was sharply
criticised by Jurieu and Basnage, and involved its
author in a long and vehement controversy. He
characterised the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685) as " le plus bel usage de I'autorit^," but he
was no ultramontanist. He presided in 1682 over
the assembly of the French dergy which the king
had convened to defend the royal prerogatives
and the liberties of the Gallican Church against the
claims of the pope. Nor was he in the least tainted
by mysticism. His attacks on Ftoelon and the
Quietists approached very near to persecution.
He wss one of the greatest of the many distin-
guished men who lent brilliancy to the century of
Louis XIV, but he was a representative of his time,
and his ideas of church polity ooiiesponded to.
if they were not dictated by, the king's "I'^tat,
c'est moi.''
Bibuoobapbt: There haye been many editions of his vorb;
the baais of most of them is that prepared by the Abb^
P^rau, at goTemment expense, 20 vols^. Paris, 1743-
1760; three yolumes of (Euvtm poathumn, ed. by C. F.
Leroy were published in 1753; the best edition is tbe
(BuwM eomplHf, by F. Leehat and others, 31 voU,
1862-06; with appendix of (Ewttm iiUditm, 2 vols.. 1881-
1888. Besides many single sermons aoeeasible in Engludi
translation, the following works may be nwntiooed: &-
Ud Sermona and Funeral OratUma, 1801; A Survey «f
Univenal Hiatary, 1819; A C^m/srenos [between Bossuet
and J. Claude, Mar. 1. 1679] <m like iinAorily of lU CJkureA.
London, 1841; An ExpoaiHon of Me Doebina of tt« CcAo-
lie FatHk, 1841; BUwUiim* to Gcd, 1850; Tha Hiatary cf
tha Variaiiona af tha Frotaatant Churtkaa, 2 yob.. Dahlia.
1836; MadUaHona, London. 1901.
For a bibliography oonsult H. M. Bourseand, Hittm
ai daaeripHon daa M8S, at daa SdiiUma originalaa dat om-
vraaaa da Boaauat, Paris 1888 (ineludes translatioDB).
For his life and writings and his relations to F^neloii,
Jansenism, Quietism, eto., oonsult: L. F. de Bansset.
Hiatoira da Jaequaa BMona Boaauat, 4 vols., Paris, 1814.
Besangon. 1846; H. M. Tabaraud, SuppUmani aua kiatoim
da Boaauat . . . eompoai par . . . da Bauaaal, Fsria.
1822; F. le Dieu (his secretary), Mimoiraa at joanui ma
laviaatlaa ouvragaa da Boaauat, 4 vols., ib. 1856-67; A.
E^aume, Hiatoira da J.-B, Boaauat at da aaa flmmt. S
vols., ib. 1869; Mrs. H. L. (Farrer) Lear, Boaauat and hit
Coniamponriaa, London, 1874; C. A. Sainte-Beuve, £»-
•aya an Man and Woman, ib. 1890; R. de la Broise, Bo»-
auatatia BtUs, Paris, 1891; O. Laneon, Boaauat, ib. 1891
(a study of the writings); A. B6belliau« Boaauat, kiaktriea
du protaataniiama, ib. 1891; Sir J. F. Stephen. Bora Sah-
baticm, vol. li, London. 1892; C. E. Freppel. Boaavel d
Vaioquanca aaerM cu xvU, aiicU, Paris, 1803; J. Denii,
QuaraUa da Boaauat at da Finalon, ib. 1894; L. CrousK,
Finaion at BoaauaL ttudaa moraiaa at littirauraa, 2toI8l.
ib. 1894-95; A. M. P. Ingod, Bossuet at ianaMdama, ih
1897.
B08T, PAUL AMI ISAAC DAVID: Swiss evan-
gelist; b. at Geneva June 10, 1790; d. at La Force
(6 m. w. of Bergerac), France, Dec. 14, 1874. He
devoted four years to theology at the Univenrity of
Geneva, but gained little spiritual profit fnxn his
studies, and was ordained in 1814 in a ^irit of
empty formalism. In 1816 he accepted a call as
assistant pastor at Moutiers-Granval in the Canton
of Bern, where he remained two years, ascribing
to this period his firm belief in the doctrines d
grace and justification. A parish proved too
small for his energies, however, and in 1818, under
the auspices of the " London Continental Society,"
he began the missionary journeys which were to
occupy almost thirty-five srears of his life. After
the first of these trips, he withdrew from the Church
of Geneva, and in the following year was in Colmar.
He was expelled from France, however, and began
a roving lijfe, oppressed by poverty and burdened
with a large family, yet preaching in Offenbach,
Frankfort, Hanau, Friedrichsdorf, and Carianihe.
In 1825-26 Bost was in Geneva as the pastor of
the free church of Bourg-de-Four. In answer to
the attacks of the State Church, he published his
Difenee de eeux dee fidklee de Oenine qui ee stmt
eonetUuie en iglieee indipendantee (Geneva, 1825),
charging the national Church with abandoning the
Gospel and adopting Arianism. He was accord-
ing^y tried for slander, but was acquitted, although
he was fined 500 francs for his libelous statements
regarding the " Compagnie dea pasteurs." Despite
the fact that this trial marked a union of the diver-
gent elements of the Free Church, Bost resigned
830
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
his pastorate at Bourg-de-Four and founded a new
congregation at Carouge near Geneva, which he
dissolved after two years in favor of a more di-
versified activity, establishing the religious and
political maganne VEsp^ance in 1838. Two years
later he successfully sought readmission to the
clergy of Geneva, without retracting any of his
views. After a brief pastorate at Asnidies and
Bourges in France, he was appointed chaplain of
the prison of the Maison Centrale at Melun, where
he remained until 1848, then living successively
at Geneva, Ntmes, NeuchAtel, Jersey, and Paris, and
spending his last years at La Force. The chief works
of Bost, who also gained a certain amount of reputa-
tion as a writer of hymns, are as follows: Oenkve
rdigieuM (Geneva, 1819); Histoire dea frtrta moravea
(2 vols., 1831; abridged Eng. transl., London, 1834);
Sur la primauU de Pierre et son Apiscopat (3 pam-
phlets, 1832); Histoire g&nirale de VitMiuemerU du
ChriaHanisme (a revised translation of Blumhardt's
Vertuch einer aUgemeinen MiesianageschidUe der
Kirche ChrisH, 4 vols.. Valence, 1838); Lea prophHea
proieatanta (Melun, 1847); and Mimoirea pauvarU
aervir d rhiatoire du riveU religieux (Paris, 1854-55).
(E. BABDBf.)
BnuooaAPBT: E. Qmn, Prtmigr rivml h Oen^M. Parifl,
1871; Lichtonberier. ESR;^ 878-374.
BOSTON, THOKAS: Church of Scotland; b.
at Dunse (13 m. w. of Berwick-upon-Tweed),
Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1677; d. at Ettrick (40
m. 8. of Edinburgh), Selkirkshire, May 20, 1732.
He studied at the University of Edinburgh; be-
came minister at Simprin, Berwickshire, 1699;
at Ettrick, 1707. By circuUting the Marrow of
Modem DivinUy among his friends he started the
Marrow Controversy (q.v.). He wrote much and
has exercised great influence in the Presbyterian
Churches both of Scotland and England. The
works by which he is now best known are Human
Nature in ita Fourfold State of Primitive Integrity,
Entire Depravation, Begun Recovery, and Con-
iummate Happineaa or Miaery (Edinburgh, 1720),
commonly called " Boston's Fourfold State "; The
Sovereignty and Wiadom of Ood Diaplayed in the
Ajflietiona of Men (1737; reprinted as The Crook in
the Lot, with memoir, Glasgow, 1863). He left an
autobiography published as Memoira (Edinburgh,
1776; ed. G. H. Morrison, 1899), and printed
from Boston's manuscript, with inUoduction, notes,
and bibliography by G. L. Low, under the title
Qeneral Account of my Life (Edinburgh, 1907).
Hia Whole Worka edited by S. McBfillan wore pub-
lished in twelve volumes at Aberdeen in 1848-52.
Bibuooeapht: Bewdea the autobiocrapliy mentioned above,
eoDsult: A. k Wood, Ath»na Oxonitnae; ed. P. Bliat,
iii. 407-400. 4 vols., Oxford, London, 1819-20; Jean L.
Wataon. lAfa and TimM of Thomaa Botton, Edinbursh,
1883; A. ThomMMi. Tkemaa Boakm, London, 1805; DNB,
T, 424-428.
BOTTOMB, MAROARBT (McDONAID): Foun-
der of the King's. Daughters; b. in New York City
Dec. 29, 1827; d. there Nov. 14, 1906. She was
educated at a private school in Brooklyn, and
in 1850 married the Rev. Frank Bottome. She
had already become interested in religious and
philanthropic woric, and in 1876 began to give
Bible talks in the homes of prominent New York
women, continuing them for twenty-five years.
In 1886 she organiMd the order of King's Daughters,
basing her system on Edward Everett Hale's
Ten Timea One ia Ten, In the following year the
society was enlarged to include men, and the name
was changed to the present International Order
of the King's Daughters and Sons. In liB96 she
was elected president of the women's branch of
the International Medical Mission. She was also
an associate editor of the The Ladiea' Home Jour'
nal, and in addition to a few pamphlets and a
large number of contributions to religious maga-
sines wrote The Queat Chamber (New York, 1893);
Crumba from the Ktng'a Table (1894); and A Sun-
ahine Tnp to the Orient (1897).
BOUDINOT, hf3L"dr'n6', EUAS: American man
of affairs and philanthropist; b. at Philadelphia
May 2, 1740; d. at Burlington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821.
He was a lawyer and eminent in his profession;
represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress
1778-79 and 1781-84, was chosen president in 1782,
and, as such, signed the treaty of peace with Great
Britain; he was member of the first three national
congresses, and director of the United States mint
1795-1805. He was a member of the American
Board of CommissionerB for Foreign Missions
(1812*21), and first president of the American
Bible Society (1816-21). He was wealthy and
gave liberally for philanthropic purposes during
his life and in his wUl. He wrote The Age of Reve-
lation ; or the age of reaaon ahown to be an age of
infidelity (Philadelphia, 1801), in reply to Thomas
Paine; The Second Advent or Coming of the Meaaiah
in Olory ahovm to be a aeriptural doctrine and taught
by divine revelation (Trenton, N. J., 1815); and A
Star in the West ; ora humUe attempt to diacover the
long lost tribea of larael (1816), in which he advocated
the view that the American Indians are the ten
lost tribes. He also published anonymously in
the Evangelieal Intelligencer for 1806 a memoir
of William Tennent (reprinted New York, 1847).
His Journal or Hiatorical Recollectiona of American
Eventa during the Revolutionary War was printed
at Philadelphia in 1894.
Bibuoobafht: The Life, Pvblie Servieaa, AddrMMt, and
Lttttn of Eliaa Boudinot, edited by Jane J. Boudinot, 2
vole.. Boeton, 1806.
BOUHOURS, bQ^'hOr^, DOMnnQUE: Jesuit;
b. in Paris May 15, 1628; d. there May 27, 1702.
He entered the Society of Jesus at sixteen, and
acquired such renown as a teacher that the young
Longueville princes and the son of Colbert were put
under his care. Besides a number of biographical
and other works, he made (with two other Jesuits,
Tellier and Bemier) a translation of the New Testa-
ment from the Vulgate into French (Paris, 1697-
1703).
BOUQUET, bO'^kd", MARTIH: Benedictine of
St. Maur; b. at Amiens Aug. 6, 1685, d. in Paris
Apr. 6, 1754. He entered the Benedictine order
at St. Faron, Meaux, in 1706, and was ordained
priest. His knowledge of Hebrew and Greek
secured his appointment as special assistant to
Montfauoon in bis editorial Ubors. When the
Bcraanin
Bouwwt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
240
great edition of the Scriptores rerum GaUicarum
a Francicarum came to be made (it had been pro-
jected by Colbert as early as 1676, and was entrusted
to the Benedictines of St. Maur in 1723), he was
placed in charge of it. Difficulties were encountered
owing to his opposition to the bull UnigenUus,
which caused the king to banish him from Paris;
but he succeeded in preparing the first eight vol-
umes for publication (1738-62). Other members
of the congregation brought out five more after
his death (1757-86). Interrupted by the Revo-
lution, the work was taken up again by the Institute,
and later by the Academy of Inscriptions, by whom
ten more volumes were published in the nineteenth
century.
BOUQUnr, hH'^sah', PIERRE (PETRUS BOQUI-
NUS): French Galvinist; b. either in the province
of Saintonge or in that of Quienne; d. at TJausanne
1582. The first certain date in his life is his taking
the degree of doctor of theology at the university
of Bourges Apr. 23, 1539. He was a Carmelite
monk at Bourges and rose to be prior; but, em-
bracing the Reformation, he left his monastery
in 1541 and went first to Basel, then to Leipsic
and Wittenberg, where he had letters to Luther
and Melanchthon. The latter recommended him
to Butser when a theologian was required to con-
tinue the lectures which Calvin had delivered in
Strasburg. Here he began to lecture on Galatians
in September, 1542. Later he returned to Bourges,
where he lectured on Hebrew and the Scriptures,
gMwifig protection and a pension from Biaigaret
of Navarre, and being allowed by the archbishop
to preach in the cathedral. The Protestant leaders,
Calvin, Farel, and Besa, seem to have suspected
him of intending to desert the Reformation; but
his teaching brought him again into conflict with
the Roman authorities, and he left Bourges once
more for Strasburg in 1555. Here he remained
until the elector Otto Henry appointed him
in 1557 to a provisional professorship in the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg, which was made permanent
the next year. In the internal dissensions of
Protestantism he took an increasingly decided
Calvinistic stand, and in the reign of Frederick III
was thus the only Heidelberg theologian to retain
his position, and was made head of the faculty
and a member of the new Reformed church council
(1560). This period of prosperity ended, however,
with the death of Frederick III, after which he
was deprived of his position (1577), and became,
a year later, professor and preacher at Lausanne.
His numerous works are mainly polemical treatises
against the Lutherans and Roman Catholics.
(E. F. Karl MOller.)
Bibuoobapht: Biocraphieal material is found in hia Br»-
vu notaUo . , . ds coma dominie pp. 140-179, Heidel-
bers, 1682. Consult further: H. Adam, Fito 9n»d%IUiinim^
ii, 72 eqq., Heidelberg. 1706; E. and E. Haag, La France
prolMtonte, ed. H. L. Bordier. Ii. 875 eqq.. Paris. 1879.
BOURDALOUE, bOr^'da'ao', LOUIS: Jesuit
preacher; b. at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632; d. in
Paris May 13, 1704. He was for some time a teacher
in literature and philosophy; in 1665 he was sent
to preach in the provinces, in 1669 was recalled to
Paris; after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
he was sent to Languedoc to preach to the Protes-
tants; his last 3rear8 he devoted to the service of
the poor and unfortunate in Paris. As a man
he was justly esteemed and loved; as a preacber
his strength is in the clearness of his argument,
its readiness and its cogency. The first edidoa
of his works was edited by Bretonneau (16 vols.,
Paris, 1707-34); a good recent edition is that of
Lille,1882(6vols.).
Bibuoobapht: L. Fkutbe, BourddUm$, d'aprH lot doev-
menu nowteaux^ Farie, 1900; A. Feug^re, BowddmM^ as
VrMieaHon et «m fmi|M, ib. 1874; M. lAuraa. Bourdakmt,
m vit §i wea mum, 2 vob., ib. 1881; E. de M6iorvil
BoMTtfaioMe. Paris, 1897; F. Oastets, La Via §t la pHdia^
Hon d*un rrit^ietix au xtii. uiicU^ vol. i, liontpeUier, 1901.
BOURIGNON, ba"r!"hyon', DE LA PORTE,
ANTOINETTE: Fanatical enthusiast; b. at Rys-
sel (Lille), then in the Spanish Netherlands, Jan.
13, 1616; d. at Franeker, Fiiesland, Oct. 30,
1680. She grew up neglected and solitary on
account of a facial deformity, afterward removed
by an operation, and came to love isolation and
communion with God. For a time her older sister
drew her into the world; but she shrank from
marriage, and once thought she heard the voice of
God asking her, " Canst thou find a lover more
perfect than I 7 " She thought of beooming a
Carmelite, but concluded that the true ChristianB
were not to be found in the doisters, and sought
another way to leave the worid. Her father tried
to force a marriage upon her yi 1636; she fled in
a male disguise, and after many romantic adven-
tures was brought home, but took refuge at Mons
under the protection of the archbishop. When
her plans for founding an ascetic community
on a primitive model were hindered, she went to
Li^ge and made another unsuccessful attempt.
On her father's death she brought suit against
her stepmother for his entire property and won it.
Now she fell under the influence of a doubtful
friend of mysticism, Jean de St. Saulieu, who
induced her to take charge of a home for orphan
girls (1653), which she put under the Augusdnian
rule and made cloistered (1658). Her rule there
came to an untoward end in 1662, when she took
flight under serious accusations of cruelty. She
went first to Ghent and then to Mechlin, where ahe
found an adherent in the superior of the Oratoiians,
Christian de Cort. Soon she developed a fantas-
tical system, based on alleged revelatioDS. As
the " woman clothed with the sun *' of the Apoca-
lypse, she was to revive the teachings of the Gospel
and gather her spiritual children around her into
a communistic, priestless brotherhood; she was
the second revelation of the Son of Man on eartL
The books which Antoinette now began to publish
contain the bitterest condemnation of the Roman
Catholic Church, reject infant biq>tism, and the
Trinity was exchanged for a sacred triad of truth,
mercy, and justice. She had dealings with the Jan-
senists, but rejected their teaching on predestination.
In 1667, with De Cort, she went to Amsterdam and
lived for a while in the happy exchange of views
with the most various heretics and fanatics. The
following years are occupied with the history of
the attempt to find a home for her elect on the
d4i
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bonauim
Bousset
island of Nordatrand in the North Sea, which De
Cort had diaoovered as the destined place. His finan-
cial troubles, which make up a large part of the
stoiy, ended only with his imprisonment at Amster-
dam and his death in 1669. Antoinette, as his heir,
was for several years more much occupied with
courts of justice, not without danger of imprison-
ment, and went from Amsterdam to Haarlem,
thence to Sleswick, and finally to Husum to be as
near as possible to Nordstrand. Here she might
have been left in peace if she would have given up
her claims. But she set up a printing-press and
carried on the liveliest literary controversy, until
her press was confiscated by the government.
So her stoiy proceeds, amid quaint and vivid
details too numerous to give here, untO she is
found at Hamburg in 1670 formally charged with
sorcery by a former adherent, an eccentric colonel
of artillery named La Coste. She fled to escape
arrest, and remained in hiding until her death the
next year. The points of her quietistic mysticism
need no discussion; for herself the important one
was her own position as bride of the Holy Ghost
and channd of revelation. Though she was prob-
ably more of an adventuress than even an enthusiast
or an insane woman, the solemn prophetic tone of
her visions and divine messages continued for some
time to attract readers who believed in her inspira-
tion; but her community seems to have been
entirely scattered at her death. (G. Kawerau.)
Antoinette had many followers in Scotland, more,
it is said, than in any other country. Prominent
among them were the Rev. James Garden (1647-
1726), who rose to be professor of divinity at King's
College, Aberdeen, and was deprived in 1606 be-
cause he had refused to sign the Westminster Con-
fession of Faith, and his younger brother. Rev.
George Garden (1640-1733), who after being one of
the ministers of St. Nicholas, the town parish of
Aberdeen, was " laid aside " by the privy council in
1602 because he refused to pray for William and
Mary and in 17Q1 was deposed from the mitiistry be-
cause he had aavocated Bourignonianism in his book.
An Apology for M. AnUmia Bovrignon (1600), a reply
to books by his brother-in-law, the Rev. John Cock-
bum (1652-1720), entitled Bourignianism Detected ;
or^ the DduBume and Errors of A. Bourignon and
h^r Growing Sect. Narrative i. (London, 1608),
Sarrative iu (1608), and A Letter to hie Friend
giving an account why ths other Narratitfee about
Bourignianiem are not yet jmbliehed, and answering
wme ReflecHone passed upon the first (1608).
The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
in 1701, 1700, and 1710 passed deliverances against
Bourignonians in which their views are thus de-
scribed: L They denied (1) the divine permission
of sin and that divine vengeance and eternal damna-
tion were inflicted upon it; (2) the decrees of elec-
tion and reprobation; and (3) the doctrine of the
divine foreknowledge. II. They asserted (1) that
(Christ had a twofold human nature, one produced
of Adam before the woman was formed, and the
other bom of the Virgin Mary; (2) that in each
soul before birth are a good and an evil spirit;
(3) that the will is absolutely free, and there is in
m^n some infinite quality which makes it possible
n.— 16
for him to unite himself to (jod; (4) that Christ's
nature was sinfully cormpt, so that by nature he
was rebellious to the will of God; (5) that perfec-
tion may be attained in this life; and (6) that
children are bom in heaven.
Notwithstanding these deliverances, the views
of Antoinette Bourignon continued to exist in
Scotland and in 1711 Bourignonianism was put
among the heresies which candidates for the minis-
try were required formally to disown when applying
for ordination.
Bxbuoobapht: An edition of the works of Antoinette
Bouriffnon was published in 19 vols., at Amaterdam.
1680-86. She wrote two accounts of her life: La ParoU
dm Dieu, ou sa vis inUrieun (1634-63), Mechlin, 1663;
and La Vm exUriewrt (1616-61). Amsterdam. 1668.
Theae were continued by her diBcipIe, Pierre Poiret, in
8a Vie eontinuStt rtprim depuia ta nautance si suivw
}iisgu'& sa mart, appended to a later edition of the pre-
oediing. Her autobiography in Eng. transl. under the title
The Lioht of Ms Worid; a Mo$t True Relation of a PU-
ffrimeee TraoeUing Totporde Eternity, 3 parts, London, 1696,
reprinted, ib. 1863; abridged, ib. 1786. Consult especially
A. van der Linde, Antoinette Bourignon^ Dae lAdU der
Welt, Leyden. 1895 (of. on this G. Kawerau, in GGA, 1895,
pp. 428 sqq.).
BOURNE, FRANCIS: Roman Catholic arch-
bishop of Westminster; b. at Clapham (a suburb
of London) Mar. 23, 1861. He was educated at
St. Cuthbert's CoUege, Ushaw (186&-75), St.
Edmund's, Ware (1875-SO), St. Thomas's Seminary,
Hammersmith (1880-^1), St. Sulpice, Paris (1881-
1883), and the University of Louvain (1883-84).
He was ordained to the priesthood in 1884, and
after serving as assistant at Blackheath, Mortlake,
and West Grinstead for five years, was appointed
rector of Southwark Diocesan Seminary, holding
this position until 1898, also acting for several
years as professor of moral theology and Holy
Scripture. He was named domestic prelate to the
pope in 1895, and in the following year was con-
secrated titular bishop of Epiphania and coadjutor
to the bishop of Southwark. He was bishop of
Southwark from 1897 to 1903, and since the latter
year has been archbishop of Westminster. He
practically refounded St. John's Seminary at
Wonersh, and has been most active in movements
for social reform in the diocese of Southwark,
particularly in the development of the Southwark
Rescue Society and the Catholic Boys' Brigade.
He is also president of the Catholic Canadian Emi-
gration Society, and represented the Roman Catho-
lics of England at the St. Augustine celebrations
at Aries in 1897, as well as the English Roman
Catholic bishops at Autun in 1899, and led the
English pilgrims to Lourdes in 1902.
BOUSSET, ba^'set', JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM:
German Protestant; b. at LObeck Sept. 3, 1865.
He was educated at Erlangen, Leipsic, and G6ttin-
gen (Th.Lic, 1890) and became privat-docent at
the latter university in 1890, being made associate
professor of New Testament exegesis six yetan
later. Theologically he belongs to the liberal
historical school. In addition to minor contribu-
tions, he has written Evangeliencitate Jw^tins des
AfArtyrers (GOttingen, 1891); Jesu Predigt im
Gegensatz turn Judentum (1892); Textkritische Stti-
dien (Leipsic, 1894); Antichrist (GOttmgen, 1895;
BouthlUler
Boyd
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
242
Eng. transl. by A. H. Keane, London, 1896);
KommerUar eur Offenbarung de8 Johannes (in the
KrUi8chr€xegeti8cher Kommentar zum Newen Testa-
ment ^ 1896); Religion deaJtuUntuma tm neutestament-
lichen ZeUaUer (BerUn, 1903; 2d ed., 1906); Daa
Weunder Religion (Halle, 1903); Waewiseenwirvon
Jesuef (1904); Jeaiu (Halle, 1904; Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1906); and ErkldrungdeaOalater'Und ersten und
zweiUn Koriniherbriefes, in J. Weifis's Schri/ten dee
Neuen Testaments neu vbersettt (G6ttingen, 1905).
Since 1897 he has edited the Theologische Rund-
s(^u in collaboration with W. HeitmQiIer, and the
Forschungen tut Religion und Literatvr des Alien
und Neuen Testaments in collaboration with H.
Gunkel since 1903.
BoxrrmLLiER, ha^tsn'iy^, de range, ar-
MAND JEAN LE. See Trappistb.
BOWEN, OEOROE: Methodist Episcopal for-
eign missionaiy; b. at Middlebuiy, Vt., April 30,
1816; d. in Bombay, India, Feb. 5, 1888. He
was graduated at Union Theological Seminary,
New York City, in 1847; was ordained by the pres-
bytery of New York, and the same year went to
Bombay under the American Board. He spent the
rest of his life in that city, but severed his connection
with the American Board in 1855 and was an inde-
pendent missionary till 1872 when he connected
himself with the Methodist Episcopal missionaiy
society. He edited the Bombay Guardian from
1854 on; and was also the secretary of the ReUgious
Tract Society of Bombay. By the volumes which
have been made up from his writings he has
helped many spiritually. They are: Daily Medi-
tations (Philadelphia, 1865); Discussions by the Sea-
side (Bombay, 1857); Love revealed. Meditations on
the parting words of Jesus vnth his disciples in John
xiii. to xvii. (Philadelphia, 1872); Verity , Verily.
The Amens of Christ (1879).
BOWENy JOHN WESLEY EDWARD: Methodist
Episcopalian; b. at New Orleans, La., Dec. 3,
1855. He was educated at the University of New
Orleans (B.A., 1878) and Boston University (Ph.D.,
1887). After acting as professor of ancient lan-
guages at Central Tennessee College, Nashville,
Tenn., from 1878 to 1882, he held successive pas-
torates at Boston (1882-85), Newark, N. J. (1885-
1888), and Baltimore and Washington (1888-92),
while during the latter incumbency he was likewise
professor of church history and systematic theology
in Morgan College, Baltimore, and also professor
of Hebrew in Howard University, Washington,
in 1891-92. Since 1893 he has been president and
professor of historical theology in Gammon Theo-
logical Seminary, Atlanta, Ga. He was a member
and examiner of the American Institute of Sacred
Literature in 1889-93, as well as secretary and
librarian of the Stewart Missionary Foundation
for Africa. He was likewise a member of the gen-
eral conferences of 1896, 1900, and 1904, and from
1892 to 1900 was a member of the board of control
of the Epworth League. He is the editor of The
VoicSf The Negro, and the Stewart Missionary
Magazine, and has written National Sermons,
Africa and the American Negro (Philadelphia, 1891);
University Addresses (Atlanta, 1895); Discussions
in Philosophy and Theology (1895); and The
United Negro (IW2).
BOWER, ARCHIBALD : Professed convert from
Roman Catholicism to Protestantism; b. at Dundee
Jan. 17, 1686; d. in London Sept. 3, 1766. He vis
educated at Douai, went to Italy, became a Jesuit
1706, and in 1723 was made a counselor of the
Inquisition at Macerata, Italy. In 1726 he fled
secretly to England, and, after scnne years, joined
the Established Church; he gained influential
patrons, who procured him employment in litenuy
work and teaching. In 1745 he was readmitted
into the Society of Jesus, but, after two yean,
again professed to leave the Church of Rome.
His principal publication was the History of the
Popes (7 vols., London, 1748-66; reprinted with
a continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philaddiphia,
1844-45), which was attacked by Alban Butler
and Jolm Douglas as a mere translation of Tille-
mont and earlier writers without proper acknowl-
edgment. Bower's character for virtue as wdl aa
veracity is not above suspicion.
Biblxoobapht: The DNB, vi. 48-51, fumiahM a soodsct
account of hia lif e and the efaatgcs acainst him, .with a list
of literature upon him.
BOWMAN, THOMAS: The name of two oontem-
poraiy American bishops.
1. Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Berwick,
Pa., July 15, 1817. He was educated at Dick-
inson College (B.A., 1837), and two yean Uter
entered the Baltimore conference of the Method-
ist ministry. He taught in the granunar-school
of Dickinson College in 1840-43, and five years
later founded Dickinson Seminary, Williamsport,
Pa., of which he was the president until 1858,
when he was chosen president of Asbuiy (now
De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Ind. In 1861-
1865 he was also chaplain of the United States
Senate. He resigned the presidency of Asbuiy
University in 1872, when he was elected bishop,
and since that time has officially visited all the
conferences of his denomination in the United
States, Europe, India, China, J^an, and Mexico.
2. Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. in
Lehigh township, Northampton County, Pa., May
28, 1836. He studied at the Vanderveers Seminary,
Easton, Pa., and entered the ministry of the Evan-
gelical Association. He was pastor in the eastern
Pexmsylvania conference 1859-75, and was presi-
ding elder of the same conference 1870-75. He
has been a bishop since 1875, and since 1^
principal of the Union Biblical Institute at Nfr-
persville, 111., which is the theological seminary
of the Evangelical Association. He characterises
his theological position as " Arminian-evangelical."
He has published a revision of the catechism of his
Church, also an account of the disturbance in the
Evangc^cal Association.
BOWlf£, BORDEH PARKER: American edu-
cator; b. at Leonardville, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847.
He was educated at the University of New York
(BA., 1871), and later studied for two years at the
universities of Halle, GCttingen, and Paris. Since
1876 he has been professor of philosophy at Bos-
248
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BouthlUler
Boyd
ton Univereity. He was chainnan of the Philo-
sophical Department at the St. Louis World's Fair
in 1904 and is an honorary member of the Imperial
Education Society of Japan. He has written The
Philosophy of Herbert Spencer (New York, 1874);
Studies in Theism (1879); Metaphysics (1882);
Philosophy of Theism (1887); IrUroductum to
Psychological Theory (1887); Principles of Ethics
(1892); Theory of Thought and Knowledge (1897);
The Christian Revelation (Cincinnati, 1898); The
Christian Life (1899); The Atonement (1900);
Theism (Deems lectures for 1902; New York, 1902);
an<l The Immanence of Qod (Boston, 1905).
BOWRING, SIR JOHN: English Unitarian; b.
at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792; d. there Nov. 23, 1872.
He served his country as member of Pariiament
(1835-37 and 1841-49), in the public service in
China and the Far East (1849-59), and as member
of various governmental commissions; he was an
ardent Utilitarian and first editor of the West-
minster Review (1825). He was a remarkable
linguist and an enthusiastic student of literature.
His writing? relate to public affairs, give the results
of his travels, and include numerous translations,
particularly of the popular poetry of Eastern Europe;
he edited the works of Jeremy Bentham with
biography (11 vols., London, 1838-43). He is
mentioned here for fais hynms, many of which are
in general use, as " God is love/ his mercy bright-
ens," " From the recesses of a lowly spirit," "In
the cross of Christ I glory," "Watchman, tell
us of the night," " We can not always trace the
way," and others.
Bibuogkapht: AuMnoffraphieatl lUeoUeetioru, wUh Metnoir
by [his son] Lewin Bowrinc. London, 1877; DNB, vi,
76^80; 8. W. Duffield, BnolUh Hymna, pp. 260-203. New
York, 1886; J. Julian, DieHonary of Hymnology, pp. 166-
167. London, 1907.
BOT-BISHOP: A popular custom of the Middle
Ages to provide a diversion for the boys of a church
or cathedral choir or school, and to reward the most
deserving. One of the number was chosen " bish-
op," most commonly on St. Nicholas's day (Dec. 6),
and in episcopal dress and attended by his fellows
as priests, he went through the streets bestowing
his blessing. Often he entered into the church
and conducted some part of the service, at times
delivering a sermon, prepared for the purpose by
an older head (cf . the Concio de puero Jesu of Eras-
mus, edited by S. Bentley, London, 1816, which
was spoken by a boy of St. Paul's School, London,
on such an occasion). The boys occupied the seats
of the clergy while the latter sat in the lowest
places. In some localities the game lasted from
St. Nicholas's day until Holy Innocents' day
(Dec. 28). It was very popular in En^and, where
it was observed not only in the churches and
schools, but at the court and in the castles of the
nobility; the boys were called ** St. Nicholas's
clerks." The custom was forbidden in 1542 but
was restored under liary. It was also common
in France, although repeatedly forbidden there
(by the papal legate, 1198; the synods of Paris
1212, Cognac 1260, Nantes 1431; the chapter of
Troyes 1445). In some places, as Reims and
Mainz, it lasted till the eighteenth century. See
Fools, Feast of, and consult the works men-
tioned in the bibliography of that article.
BOYCE, JAMES PETIGRU: American Baptist;
b. at Charleston, S. C, Jan. 11, 1827; d. at Pau,
France, Dec. 28, 1888. He was graduated at
Brown University 1847; studied theology at Prince-
ton Theological Seminary, 184&-51; became pastor
of the Baptist church at Columbia, S. C, 1851;
professor of theology in Furman University, Green-
ville, S. C, 1855; chairman of the faculty, and
professor of systematic theology in the Southern
Baptist Theological Seminary, opened at the same
place in 1859. He was opposed to secession, but
went with his State into the Civil War; was chaplain
of the Sixteenth South Carolina volunteers 1861-62;
member of the legislature 1862-^5; of the State
ooimdl and on the staff of Gov. A. G. Magrath
1864-65; member of the State convention for
reconstruction 1865. At the close of the war
he returned to his duties in the seminary, re-
opened it and reestablished it with much labor,
and made considerable contributions to its support
from his own means. In 1872 he was transferred
to the chair of church government and pastoral
duties, but was absent much of the time for the
next few years arrangiag for the removal of the
seminary to Louisville, Ky., which was accom-
plished in 1877. In 1887 he returned to his old
department of systematic theology. He was
president of the Southern Baptist Convention
1872-79 and in 1888. Besides sermons, speeches,
and articles he published Three Changes in Theo-
logical EdiuMtion (Greenville, 1856); A Brief
Catechism of Bible Doctrine (Memphis, 1872); An
Abstract of Theology (Louisville, 1882; rev. and
enlarged ed., Baltimore, 1887; rev. and annotated
by F. H. Kerfoot, Philadelphia, 1898).
BxBUoaRAPHT: J. A. Broadus, Memoir of James Peti§ru
Boifoe, New York. 1893.
BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON :
Established Church of Scotland; b. at Auchinleck
(28 m. s. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Nov. 3, 1825;
d. at Bournemouth, Hampshire, England, Mar. 1,
1899. He studied at King's College and the Middle
Temple, London, and at the University of Glasgow
(B.A., Glasgow, 1846); was ordained minister of
Newton-on-Ayr 1851; minister of Kirkpatrick-
Irongray, near Dumfries, 1854-59; of St. Bernard's,
Edinburgh, 1859-65; first minister of the city of
St. Andrews from 1865. He won distinction both
as a clergyman and a writer (over the signature
A. K. H. B., and the sobriquet " The Country Par-
son "), and was perhaps the most widely known
minister of the Scottish Church. In 1866 he was
made chairman of a committee to prepare a new
collection of hymns and filled the place with much
judgment and tact. He was moderator of the
General Assembly in 1890. The most notable
of his many books were Recreations of a Country
Parson (3 series, London, 1859-78); Leisure Hours
in Town (1862); Graver ThoughU of a Country
Parson (3 series, 1862-75); The Commonplace
Philosopher in Town and Country (1862-64);
Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a City Pulpit
(1863); The Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson
Boyle
MridXmy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
244
(1864); CriHoal Esaaya of a Country Parmm (1865) ;
Sunday Afternoons in the Parish Church of a Uni-
versity City (1866); Lessons of Middle Age (1867);
Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths (1869);
Present Day Thoughts (1870); SeaMe Musings
(1872); A Scotch Communion Sunday (1873);
Landsca'peSf Churches, and Moralities (1874); From
a Quiet Place (1879); Our Little Life (2 series,
1881^84); Towards the Sunset, Teachings after
Thirty Years (1882); What Set him Right, with
other chapters to help (1885); Our Homely Comedy
and Tragedy (1887); The Best Last, unth other
papers (1888); To Meet the Day through the Chris-
tian Year (1889); East Coast Days and Memories
(1889); Twenty-five Years of St. Andrews (2 vols.,
1892), autobiographical leminiscences, continued
in St. Andrews and Elsewhere (1894), and Last
Years of St. Andrews (1896).
BiBUOoBAnrr: Gonmilt, bendes the ftatobiotnphieal
aketofaM mentioned aboye: A. Lens* in Longman's MoifO'
•iiM. Max. 1899: DNB, rapplement vol. i, 244-246.
BOYLE, ROBERT, AND THE BOYLE LEC-
TURES: Robert Boyle was bom at Liamore Gastle
(30 m. n.e. of Cork), Waterford, Ireland, Jan. 25,
1627, son of Richard Boyle, eari of Goric; d. in Lon-
don Dec. 30, 1691. HestudiedatEtonand (1638-44)
at Geneva and elsewhere on the Continent; on his
return to England he lived at first on his estate,
Stalbridge, Dorsetshire, after 1654 in Oxford, and
after 1668 in London. As a scientist he holds
a high rank and has been considered the heir to
both the methods and abilities of Francis Baoon.
He was one of the founders of the Royal Society
(1662), and was constantly engaged in investiga-
tions which resulted in numerous publications. He
wrote many theological, moral, and religious essays,
gave freely for the translation of the Bible into
various languages, and was liberal in private charity.
He was governor of the Corporation for the Spread
of the Gospel in New England (see Euor, John).
In his will he left an endowment of £50 annually
for the Boyle Lectures, a series of 8 sermons,
to be delivered each year in some church, against
unbelievers. For the lectures St. Paul's was used
in 1699 and 1701, the parish church of St. Mary
le Bow 1711-1805, Westminster Abbey 1852-53, the
Chi^l Royal, Whitehall, 1864-85, while the lectures
of 19ai-05 were delivered in the Chureh of St.
Edmund, Lombard St. The first course was given
by Richard Bentley (1692); his successors have in-
cluded some of England's most prominent theo-
logians. A selection from the sennons was pub-
lished by Gilbert Burnet, vicar of Coggeshall, in 4
vols., London, 1737. A partial list of the published
Boyle Lectm^s down to 1892-93 is given in J. F.
Hurst, Literature of Theology (New York, 1896).
Since then there have been published the lectures
for 1895, W. C. E. Newbolt, The Oospel of Expe-
rience (London, 1896), and for 1903-05 by R. J.
Knowling, The Testimony of St. Paul to Christ (Lon-
don, 1905).
Boyle's complete works with life were published
by Tliomas Birch (5 vols., London, 1744; 2d ed.,
6 voU., 1772).
Biblioobapht: Adde from the life by Bireh there are avail-
able: A. k Wood. Athena Oxamnms, ed. P. Blin, ii, 286,
4 vole.. London. 1813-20; A. C. Brown, DmodaprnmU ^
fkt IdM, of Chmnieal CompoaiiUm, VP. 9-14. Ediabuish,
1800; DNB, vi, 11»-123.
BRACE, CHARLES L0RIK6: American philan-
thropist; b. at Litchfield, Conn., June 19, 1826;
d. at Campfer in the Engadine, SwitKrland,
Aug. 11, 1890. He was graduated at Yale 1846;
studied at the Yale Divinity School 1847-48 and
at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 184S-
1849; traveled and studied in Europe for two years;
in 1853 he became first secretary and execu-
tive agent of the Children's Aid Society of New
York, and remained such till his (kath. He
planned and developed the work and supported
it in the earlier days with much self-sacrifidng
labor; industrial and night schools were established,
lodging-houses provided for newsboys and for
girls, reading-rooms opened, summer charities
instituted, and nearly 100,000 boys and girls
were assisted to new homes and occupations with
healthful and moral surroundings. By thus re-
moving incipient criminals a marked diminution
in juv^iile crime was shown in the police reports
of New York. The history of the work was g;iven
by Bfr. Brace in his aimual reports and in his two
books. Short Sermons to Neweboys, with a Hilary
of the formation of the Newsboys' Lodging House
(New York, 1866); and The Dangerous Classes of
New York, and twenty years' work among them
(1872; enlarged ed., 1880). He published several
works of travel of a popular character such as
Home Life in Germany (1853); The New West
(1869); and as results of considerable thiwlring
and study, Gesta Christi, a history of humane prog-
ress under Christianity (1882; 4th ed., 1884); and
The Unknown God, or inspiratum among prm-
Christian races (IS90).
BiBUOosArar: C. L. BracB, HU Life, tshUfty tM in him oupm.
LtUers, edited by hie daujihtar, Emma Braee, New York.
1804.
'BRACKHAHir, ALBERT: German Protestant
historian; b. at Hanover June 24, 1871. He was
educated at the universities of Tubingen, Leipsic,
and QOttingen, and occupies the position of associate
professor of history at the Universi^ of Marburjg.
He is a collaborator of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at (j6ttingen for the publication of early
papal documents, and in addition to a number
of contributions to historical periodicals has writ-
ten: Urkundliche Geschichte dee Ualberstadier Dam-
kapUals im MittelaUcr (Wemigerode, 1898).
BRADFORD, AMORY HOWE: American Con-
gregationalist; b. at Granby, N. Y., Apr. 14,
1846. He was educated at G^esee Cc^ege, Hamil-
ton College (B.A., 1867), Andover Theological
Seminary (1870), and Oxford University. Since
1870 he has been pastor of the First Congregationai
Chureh, Montclair, N.J. He was associate editor
of The Outlook from 1894 to 1901, member of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis-
sions deputation to J^an in 1895, and moderator
of the National Council of Congregational Churches
in 1901-04. He is also first secretary and sec-
ond president of the American Institute of Chris-
tian Philosophy, and was elected president of the
American Missionary Association in 1904. He
245
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boyle
BnOl&y
-was Southworth Lecturer at Andover Theological
Seminary in 1902-03 and George Sheppard Lec-
turer at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1906.
In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He has
written SjnrU and Life (New York, 1888); Old
Wine, New BotOee (1892); The Piignm in Old
England (1893); Heredity and CkrisHan Probleme
(1895); The Growing Revelation (1897); The Sie-
Hne Madonna (1897); The Holy FamUy (1899);
The Art of Living Alone (1899); The Return to
Christ (1900); The Age of Faith (Boston, 1900);
Spiritual Leeaons from the Browninge (New York,
1900); Meeeagee of the Masters (1902); The Ascent
of <Ae Soul (1905); and The Inward Light (1905).
BRADFORD, JOHN : Church of England Protee-
tant martyr; b. at Manchester about 1510; burned
at Smithfield July 1, 1555. He was in the service
of Sir John Harrington, the king's pajrmaster in
France; began to study law in the Temple 1547, but
the next year turned to divinity and entered St.
Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (MA., by special grace,
1549); was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall 1549;
became prebendary of Kentish Town in the church
of St. Paul, 1551; was chaplain to Bishop Ridley,
in 1552 one of the king's six chaplains in ordinary,
and preached in many localities with great fervor
and earnestness. In August, 1553 (six weeks after
the accession of Mary), he was arrested on the
charge of preaching seditious sermons and com-
mitted to the Tower; he was examined before
Bishops Gardiner, Bonner, and others in January,
1555, and condemned as a heretic. His writings
(chiefly sermons, letters, and devotional pieces) were
edited for the Parker Society by Aubrey Townsend
(2 vds., Cambridge, 1848-53).
Bibuoobapht: W. Stepheno, Memoin of John Bradford,
London, 1882; The Life of John Bradford, toL iii of Li-
brary of Chriatian Biooraphy, London, 1866; DNB, vi.
157-160.
BRADLAUGH, CHARLES: English freethought
advocate and politician; b. at Hoxton (a subuib of
London) Sept. 26, 1833; d. at London Jan. 30, 1891.
He was educated in local schools until the age of
twelve, when his business life began. A few years
later he became an advocate of freethought, and
rapidly achieved notoriety for his propaganda.
His attitude seriously affected his career, and at
the age of seventeen he enlisted as a private soldier,
remaining in the army three years. He then en-
tered a solicitor's office, and soon rose to a position
of re8ponsi)>ility. Meantime he had resumed his
campaign for freethought, and in 1858 began a
platform tour of the provinces, advocating not
only radicalism in religion, but also in politics.
From 1862 untU his death, excepting in 1863-66,
he was the proprietor of the repubUcan National
Reformer, and in his advocacy of radical politics
was secretary of the fund raised in 1858 to defend
E. Truelove for publishing a vindication of Orsini's
attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. He was
likewise a member of the parliamentary reform
league of 1866, and drew up the first draft of the
Fenian proclamation issued in the following year,
while three yean later he was the envoy of the Eng-
lish republicans to the Spanish republican leader
CMtelar, and was likewise nominated as candidate
for a division of Paris on the foundation of the
French republic in the same year. He then at-
tempted to go to Paris on the outbreak of the
Commune to be an intermediary between Thiers
and the insurrectionists, but was arrested at Calais
and forced to return to En^and.
In 1868 Bradlaugh's attempts to gain a seat in
the House of Commons began, but his avowed
principles caused his defeat both in that year and
in 1874. Six years later, however, he was returned,
and by his refusal to take the required oath on the
Bible initiated a struggle which involved him in
repeated scenes in the House of Commons and in
eight legal actions. He was again and again
excluded from the House, his willingness to take
the oath as a mere matter of form, or to affirm,
being overruled by the plea that he was an avowed
freethinker. Nevertheless, he was reelected for
Northampton by special elections after his expul-
sion in 1881 and 1882, and at the general election
in 1886 was once more returned, being permitted
this time to take his seat, which he retained until
his death. During this troubled period of his life
he was also involved in a contest for the abolition
of all restrictions on the press, beginning with his
refusal, in 1868, to give security to the government
against the publication of blasphemy and sedition
in his National Reformer, In the following year
another legal contest resulted in the passage of the
Evidence Amendment Act, by which the evidence
of freethinkers was declared admissible, a judge
having refused to take his testimony on the ground
that he was a freethinker. A few years later, in
1874, he became associated with Annie Besant
(q.v.), who was assistant editor of the National
Reformer until 1885, when she resigned on account
of his opposition to socialism. In 1876 they were
sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine
of £200 for the publication of the Fruits of Philoa-
ophy, which advocated the artificial restraint of
the increase of population. The sentence was sus-
pended, however, and the contest resulted in the
passage of an act removing the remaining restric-
tions on the press.
In Parliament Bradlaugh was active in securing
the passage of a number of measures, of which the
chief was one permitting the substitution of an
affirmation for the oath both in the House of Com-
mons and in the courts. In 1880 he visited India,
and during his final illness the resolutions of his
expulsion from the House of Conmions were unani-
mously expunged. The writings of Bradlaugh
were chiefly brief controversial pamphlets and
contributions to the press. Among them the most
important are The Impeachment of the House of
Brunswick (London, 1872); Autobiography (1873);
Land for the People (1877); The New Life of David
(1877); Genesis, its Authorship and Authenticity
(1882); and The True Story of my Parliamentary
Struggle (1882).
Bibuogbapht: A. 8. Headingley, Biography of CharUo
Bradlauoh, London, 1880; C. R. Maokay. Ufe of Charln
Bradlauih ib. 1888; H. Bonner (hi« daughter), CharUa
Bradlav^: A Record of hU lAfe and Work, 2 vols., ib.
1804.
BRADLET, GEORGE GRANVILLE: Dean of
Westminster; b. at High Wycombe (30 m. wji.w.
Bradshaw
Brahman lam
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
246
of London), Buckinghamshire, Dec. 11, 1821;
d. in London Mar. 12, 1903. He studied at Rugby
under Arnold (1837-40), and at Univenity College,
Oxford (BA., 1844; MA., 1847); was feUow of
University College 1844-50; became assistant mas-
ter at Rugby 1846; head master of Bfariborough
College, Wiltshire, 1858; master of University
College, Chrford, 1870; dean of Westminster, Lon-
don, succeeding Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, 1881;
resigned his deanery 1902. He edited and revised
Arnold's Latin Prose Compontion (London, 1881),
and published Aids to Writing Latin Prose (1884);
RecoUectums of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1883);
Lectures on Ecdesiastes (Oxford, 1885; new ed.,
1898); Lectures on the Book of Job (1887); and
assisted R. £. Prothero in preparing the Life and
Correspondence of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (2 vols.,
London, 1894).
BRADSHAW, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. at Market
Bosworth (12 m. w. of Leicester), Leicestershire,
1571; d. at Chelsea 1618. He studied at Emmanuel
College, Cambridge, and became fellow of Sidney
Sussex College in 1599; took orders but never
received a living owing to bis Puritan principles,
and spent much of his time in retirement in Derby-
shire, whence he made many journeys in behalf of
the cause to which he was devoted. His chief
work was English Puritanism : containing the main
opinions of Ote rigid sort of those that are called
Puritans in the Realm of England (London, 1605;
Latin transl., by William Ames, Frankfort, 1610;
an abstract is given in Neal's History of ihe Puritans,
part ii, chap. i). The main point of his system
was that he would subject no congregation to any
ecclesiastical jurisdiction "save that which is
within itself." He would have the members
delegate their powers to pastors and elders, retain-
ing that of exoonununication. No clergyman
should hold civil office. He was strongly opposed
to " ceremonies." He was not a separatist and
held that the king as "the archbishop and
general overseer of all the churches within his
dominions" had the right to rule and must
not be resisted except passively. He published
many other works and tracts, most of thrai anony-
mously.
BiBuoaEAPHT: A fair biography and nferenoeB to the
Bomewhat abundant liteiatura may be found in DNB,
Yi, 182-186.
BRADWASDIHE, THOKAS: Archbishop of
Cantert>ury; b. probably at Chichester, Sussex,
1290; d. in London Aug. 26, 1349. His name is
variously spelled (Bragwardin, Brandnardin, Bred-
wardyn, etc.), in public docimients he is usually
called Thomas de Bradwardina, and a title often
given him is Doctor profundus. He studied theology,
philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy at Mer-
ton College, Oxford; lectured there; became chan-
cellor of St. Paul's Church at London; in 1339
accompanied Edward III as his confessor in his
campaigns in France; in 1349 was chosen arch-
bishop of Canteri>ury, was consecrated at Avignon,
and died a few weeks afterward. He was highly
esteemed by Wyclif, Jean Gerson, and Flacius. He
was the author of a large work entitled De causa
Dei contra Pelagium [ed. Sir Henry Savile, London,
1618], In which he attempted to show that the
theology as well as the Church of his time were
Pelagian. He gave the name Cainites to those who
gave up hope in God and depended upon their own
merits; his personal experience gave him a differ-
ent conception: " In the schools of the philosopherB
I rarely heard a word concerning grace, . . . but
I continually heard that we are the masters of
our own free actions." Rom. ix, 16 had seemed
to him to be wrong; " but afterward ... I
came to see that the grace of God far preceded all
gcxxl works both in time and in nature — by grace
I mean the will of God." Bradwardine wished to
support this position on theoretical grounds. He
a<Jmowledged Augustine as his master. The sum
of his teaching is as follows: God is complete
perfection and goodness, is good action itself,
free from the potentiality of imperfection. He is
not limited by mentality. He is the first cause,
the absolute principle of being and motion. There-
fore, no one can act nor can anything " happen ";
God works or orders events. Divine foreknowl-
edge is will exercised long before, or predestinatioo
of [man's] will. God's will, moreover, is unchan-
ging. Everything takes place by virtue of the
immutable ante^ent necessity caused by the
divine volition. Hence man can say nothing " more
useful or efficacious . . . than 'thy will be done.' "
The effects of predestination are the gift of grace
in the present, justification from sin, a^wd of merit,
perseverance to the end, and unending bliss in the
worid to come. The result of this line of thought is,
of course, determinism of a Thomistic type. In
spite of this theory, Bradwardine, like Augustine,
asserted the reality of freewill. His historical
importance consists in the fact that he was one of
the most powerful champions of the Augustiniao
movement which took place toward the end of
the Middle Ages. This movement contributed to
the dissolution of scholasticism and to a new
understanding of Christian doctrine from the point
of view of personal faith. R. Seeberq.
BiBUOOBAnrr: Tbe aeanty notiow of his life are collected
by Sir Henry SaTile in the preface to hu edition of the
CauM DeL For hie mathematical works ooneult If. Gan-
tor, Ot9daehtM der Malhematik, ii. 102 aqq., Leipsic. 1882.
Consult further G. V. Lechler, De Thoma Brodwardiste,
Leipsio, 1862; idem. Johann wm Wielif und dit Vor^e-
•c^vAte der ReformatUm, i, 229 sqq., Leipsic. 1873;
Eng. transl., pp. 88-96, London, 1878: K. Werner. Da-
^uffusfiriMiiMM in der SdtoUutUt dee epSkren MiUelaUen,
pp 337 eqq., Vienna, 1883; R. Seebers. Dootnerngf
ediidUe, ii, 192. Leipsic, 1888; DNB, vi, 188-190.
BRADT, HICHOLAS: Church of England dergy-
man and poet; b. at Bandon (20 m. s.w. of
Cork), Comity Coric, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1659; d.
at Richmond, Surrey, May 20, 1726. He studied
at Christ Church, Oxford (BA., 1682), and Trinity
College, Dublin (BA., 1685; M.A., 1686; B.D.
and D.D., 1699); took orders in Ireland and received
two livings in the diocese of Coik. He was a sealous
promoter of the Revolution of 1688 and soon there-
after removed to En^and; became lecturer at
St. Michael's, Wood Street, London; minister at
St. Catherine Cree, 1691; rector of Richmond,
1696, and of Clapham, 1706. He was also rector
of Stratford-on-Avon, 1702-05, and conducted a
school at Richmond. He was chaplain to William
947
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bradahaw
Brahmanism
III, to Mary, and to Queen Anne. He published
a tragedy. The Rape, or the Innocent Impostere
(London, 1692), a translation of the iEneid of
Vergil (4 vols., 1726; now extremely rare), and
two volumes of sermons (1704-06); but is remem-
bered chiefly for his share in the New Vereion of the
Psalme of David, produced jointly by himself and
Nahum Tate (q.v.)«
I. Vedism, tha Age of the Vedas and
their AndUary Literature.
The People of the Vedas and their H.
Code (I 1).
The Ric-Veda (| 2).
Brahmanism is the orthodox religion of India,
the moat ancient of all Indo-Germanio faiths of
which there is record. In itself the most catholic
and elastic of cults, its test is the recognition of
the divine authority of the Vedas; its outward
sign is reverence for the gods, some of whom are
comparatively late and foreign in origin; and,
for the Brahmans, its end is emancipation from
the sorrow of existence and the misery of reincar-
nation through reabsorption into the divine essence
of the All-Soul.
Brahmanism may be divided into three periods:
I. The Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Litera-
ture; II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the
Upanishads; III. The Age during which the
Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies Prevailed. The
two phases which are included in the Brahmanistic
counterreformation and rise of the Hindu sects,
and modem Hinduism and the tmitarian move-
ments are treated under Hinduism (q.v.).
I. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their An-
dllaiy Literature (the Brahmanas and Sutras — the
former a sort of Hindu Talmud; the latter brief
verses in technical language, a favorite form of
expressing rules) : At a period of remote antiquity,
possibly between 2000 and 1500 B.c., a section of
the Indo-Germanic peoples known by various
names, of which the most common are Indians and
Aryans, broke off from the kindred Iranian stock
and wandered southward and eastward through
Afghanistan into the Punjab or the '* Five Waters,"
in the extreme northwest of the Indian peninsula.
Like the Iranians of Persia, they were
z . The divided into the three classes of priests,
People of warriors, and husbandmen, whence
the Vedas were to be formed later the three
and their higher castes, and were a nomadic and
Gods. agricultiural people, filled with the joy
of living, valiant in war, daring free-
booters, hot in love and reveling in wine, almost
everything, in short, that the later Hindus were not.
Their gods were like themselves, concrete and strong:
Surya, the bright deity of the sun; Indra, the
blinding lightning which ushers in the rainy season;
Agni, the god of fire; and Soma, the deified in-
spiration of strong drink and of the divine courage
which it gives. Few are the deities which show
the softer side of the early Aryan mind, such as
Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, or Varuna, the
god of the sky-ocean, who watches over all and
even later in this period receives praises which
almost savor of monotheism.
The beliefs of the Aryans of this period are con-
tained in the Rig- Veda, a book of hynms, the earliest
literary records of the Indo-Germanic race, to
BRAHMANISM.
The Baman and Yajur-Vedas (1 3).
The Atharva-Veda (§ 4).
Brahmanism and the Pantheism of
the Upanishads.
The Upanishads (| 1).
The Six Orthodox Systems of Phi-
losophy (§ 2).
III. The Age of the Buddhistic and
Jainistio Heresies.
which the most probable date assigned is 1500*
500 B.C. This Veda is divided into ten books
containing 1,022 hymns. Books ii-
2. The vii form the " family books," oom-
Rig-Veda. posed by successive generations of
families of bards. Book ix is restricted
to the Soma hymns, while i and viii, and especially
X, the latest of all, are more diverse in contents
and authorship. Within this range of space and
time are represented many phases of religious
thought, ranging from crass polytheism through
intricate henotheism or syncretism to a quasi-
monotheism, or rather pantheism; varying from
earnest faith to incipient skepticism; touching,
too, on daily life as well as on worship and sacrifice.
It must not be supposed, however, that the faith
of the Veda is naive or childlike. It is, on the
contrary, quite developed and occasionally even
corrupt. Many of the hynms were undoubtedly
composed for the ritual, although it is scarcely
possible to regard the entire collection as sub-
servient to the liturgy. Untenable also is the
theory of the French school which reduces the
entire Big- Veda to a mass of all^^ry, nor are the
conclusions of the realistic school, which regards
this Veda as entirely Indie and interprets it rational-
istically, altogether free from criticism. To the
ehicidation of a collection so extended both in
space and time no single method of interpretation
is adequate. Naivete and mature thought, liturgy
and hynmology, allegory and realism must each
be recognized as occasion demands, must even
be combined at times to give a true representation
of the Vedic Hinduism. ^
The basis of the Vedic religion is nature-worship^
Each element is deified, the fire as Agni, the dawn I
as Ushas, the sky as Varuna, and the lightning of*
the storm as Indra. A single object in nature may
be represented by many gods, as when the sun is
venerated under the names of Surya, " the glowing
one "; Savitar, " the enlivener '*; Bhaga, " the
bestower of boons "; Pushan, " he who causeth to
flourish "; and Vishnu, "the mighty one." While
these names may represent the deity in different
aspects, as do the Egyptian Ra and Tum, the
gods of the rising and the setting sun, it must not
be forgotten that variance in name and even in
concept of the same divinity may have been in its
origin mere local divergence in expression for one
and the same god, for the Rig- Veda was composed
by many minds, at many places, in many periods.
Behind nature-worship doubtless lay the earlier
phase of animism, although its traces are obscured
in the Vedic texts. Still more scanty are the
evidences of ancestor-worship, or the cult of ghosts.
^r%^^ wi i^n i mn^
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
248
though thiB phase wm perhaps rather officially
ignored than popularly absent. The eschatology
of the Rig- Veda is comparatively simple, and
resembles in its meagemess the poverty of early
Semitism as represented by the Assyro-Babylonian
religion. Allusions to the future state of the
dead are practically confined to the late tenth book.
Yama, the first of men to die, is the king of the
dead; and apparently the ble«ed, i.e., the brave
and generous, go when they die to the sun, where
they engage in revelry like that of the None heroes
of Asgard. The unblessed dead merely disappear,
for hell is, in Indian thought, a late theological
invention, devised to counterbalance the joys of
heaven. In the latest portion of the Rig- Veda,
moreover, appear the chief hymns later rubridsed
in the ritual, if indeed they were not, at least in
part, designedly composed for an already existing
liturgy.
Beside the Rig- Veda exist two other canonical
Vedas, and a fourth which is uncanonical. The
8ama or ** Song " Veda is composed of verses
taken chiefly from the eighth and ninth books of
the Rig- Veda and arranged for the liturgy. Far
more important is the Yajur or " Sacrificial "
Veda, which exists in several recen-
3. The sions, the chief being the Vajasaneyi
Sama- and or " White " Yajur- Veda, so called
Yajur- from being composed only in verse,
Vedai. and the Taittirya and Maitrayani,
which are termed '* black," since the
verse of the text is intermingled with a quasi-
commentary and amplification in prose.
The arena impUed is no longer the Pxmjab but
the "middle district/' around the modem Delhi,
which the Aryans had reached in their slow migra-
tion eastward. The change of locality, however,
is dwarfed into insignificance by the alteration in
religious tone. The frank delight in life which
chsjracterizes the Rig- Veda is chainged to mysticism
and an ever-increasing ritualism. Religion has
given place to magic. The principle of henotheism
which is so marked a feature of the Rig- Veda,
through which poetic enthusiasm comes to attribute
to one divinity the names and attributes of another,
thus elevating him for the nonce into the supreme
and only object of adoration, becomes in the
Yajur- Veda symbolism carried to its limit. A
thing is no longer like something else, it is some-
thing else. The Brahman is no longer merely a
priest, he is a god with ail the attributes of divinity,
while prayer and sacrifice are now means of com-
pelling the deity to perform the will of his wor-
shipers, instead of being modes of propitiation or
bargaining. The religion of India now centers
in the sacrifice, and a ritual is developed which
is perhaps the most elaborate that the world has
ever seen. Wliile the power of the Brahmans
was thereby increased until they were apotheosized,
the view is antiquated which regards the develop-
ment of the liturgy as the ecclesiastical device of
a cunning and self-interested priesthood, despite
the enormous fees which were £^ven for the per-
formance of sacrifice.
The pantheon of this period sufifetp little dimi-
nution as compared with the epoch of ttie Klg-Veda,
but the gods have declined in power, although some
have been greatly magnified, such as Kala (Time),
who played no part in the earliest Veda. The
epithets and the functions of the gods become
separate divinities in many cases, and an All-God
now gains the full recognition which is only sug-
gested even in the latest portions of the Rig- Veda.
The legends of the deities, on the other hand, are
richly developed, though their quantity is more
admirable than their quality. This, however, is a re-
crudescence of popular beliefs previously not offi-
cially recognized, rather than new speculations of the
Brahmans, though this faith of the people finds its
application in the explanation and proof of the
sacrifice. The rules for the Brahmanic ritual are
contained not only in the various recensions of the
Yajur- Veda, but in the still more important Brah-
manas, of which each school of each of the Vedas
has at least one, while the Tandin recension of the
SamarVeda has three. Additional details are con-
tained in the Srautasutras, and the ritual for daily
life may be found in the various Grihyasutras.
Beside the three canonical Vedas and their
ancillary literature, representing the official religion
of the Vedic and Brahmanic periods, stood a Veda of
magic — the uncanonical Atharva-Veda. The pan-
theon of the Rig- Veda is here a jumbled confusion
of divinities, at their head a supreme
4. The god of all, while eschatology has so
Atharva- far developed as to recognize a place
Veda. of torment for the malignant dead.
The predominant note of the Atharvar
Veda is magic. It is filled with all maimer of
charms and incantations for wealth and for chil-
dren, for long life and good health, for love and for
revenge, charms for plants, animals, and diseases,
curses and maledictions for the destruction of
enemies and for counteracting the enemy's black
magic. Linguistically and chronologically far later
than the Rig- Veda, the material of the Atharva-
Veda is in all probability as old in some of its parts
as the most ancient portions of the Rig. It is
an invaluable document for early Hindu religion
as the oldest monument of its popular faith.
IL Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the
Upanishads: The enormous structure of ritualism
erected by the Yajiur-Veda, the Brahmanas, and
the Sutras gradually became a burden too heavy
to be borne; htiurgy was then imdermined by
philosophical speculation. Traces of this are
already evident in the later portions of the Rig-
Veda, as in the famous hymn (x, 121} whose refrain
runs: '' To whom (as) god shall we offer sacrifice? "
thus affording a basis for the Brahmanas to create
a god ** Who." By this time, moreover, an All-
God was definitely recognized in Prajapati, " the
lord of creatures," but it was reserved for the close of
the Brahmanic period to ignore the gods and arrive
at God.
The Upanishads, the literary records of this
phase of thought, represent a perfection of pan-
theism which has never been equaled, and their
influence is a mighty factor in Hindu thought of
the present day. Salvation b no longer to be
attsdned by works, but by knowledge, and the
entire teaching of the Upanishads may be com-
249
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brahxnanimi
priflcxl in the one famous phrase found in the
Chandogya Upanishad: Tai tvam an, " That art
thou," or, in other words, '' Thou
I. The art the Infinite." Though the sum-
Upani- mum honum of the Upanishads is this
shads. saving knowledge and the reunion with
the All-Soul which it brings, such a
eoDsummation is not requisite for all, since there
are many who do not desire it, and for them minor
blessing are reserved in a future life. The exist-
ence of the gods is not denied, though they be but
phases of the AU-Soul, nor is the advantage of
sacrifice denied, for such offeringis are still im-
perative. Herein lies, perhaps, the secret of the
origin of the Upanishads.
The concluding portion of each Brahmana is an
Aranyaka, or " forest-book," designed for the use
of those forest hermits who had passed beyond the
need of sacrifice, and in each Aranyaka is an
Upanishad. Primarily, therefore, the Upanishads
represented the text-books of those who had passed
through the sacrificial stage of their religious life
and were henceforth free to meditate on sacred
things as seemed best in their own eyes. Later,
however, the Upanishads became a special form
of the sacred writings of the Hindus; and served
as the basis of the most lofty of all their six orthodox
systems of philosophy. To see in them a religious
revolt of the second, or warrior, caste against
Brahman control, as certain scholars have sought
to do, seems, on the whole, scarcely warranted.
Somewhat subsequent to the Upanishads were
developed the six orthodox systems of Indian phi-
losophy, the Samkhya and Yoga, the Vaiseshika
and Nyaya, and the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta.
Of these the Vaiseshika and Nyaya
a. The Six are systems of logic rather thaii of
Orthodox philosophy; the Ssunkhya and Yoga,
Systems which supplement each other, are
of Phi- essentially dualistic; while the Pur-
losophy. vamimamsa and Vedanta, of which
the former is the least important of
all the systems, represent the spiritual aftermath
of the Upanishads, and are, aocordin^y, rigidly
panth^stic.
nL The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic
Heresies: Beneath the excessive ritual of the
Brahmanistic period and the pantheistic specu-
lations of a chosen few still lay the popular faith
of the Aryan invaders of India. Meanwhile, how-
ever, the course of immigration had moved still
further to the east and become centered about the
holy city of Benares. The doctrine of the misery of
all earthly existenoe was by this time accepted by
all, and the teachings of metempsychosis were
fully established. The worship of Siva, originally
a local godlingof some aboriginal western tribe,
was attaining such popularity that he was opposed
as the Destroyer to the Vedic sun-god Vishnu, who
was worshiped as the Preserver (of the universe).
For the sake of symmetry, hrahma, denoting in the
Rig- Veda '* prayer," was developed by the priestly
theologians into Brahma, the Creator, who, though
on the whole a pale abstract deity, respected rather
than worshiped, formed the third member of the
trimurti, or triad.
The religious texts of this period are compara-
tively few, though from them may be gleaned data
of the greatest importance for a Imowledge of
India's faith. The principal sources are the law
books, especially the famous code of Manu, and
the Mahabharata, the great epic of India and the
longest poem of all literature. From the point of
view of orthodox Hinduism, however, the epoch,
possibly because of the comparative scantiness
of material, presents less of interest than any of the
others. It was, on the other hand, essentially
the age of heresy, this term denoting in India simply
a formal denial of the divine authority of the tlu^ee
canonical Vedas. There had, of course, been here-
tics and infidels long before this period; traces
of them occur as early as the tenth book of the
Rig- Veda, but it was not until the period under
consideration that heresies of lasting importance
were able to develop. In the sixth century B.C.
arose two independent teachers, both from the
Kshatriya, or warrior, class and both accordingly
more or less antagonistic to the Brahmans. Fore-
bodings of such a strug^e between the two uppei
castes are not lacking in the Upanishads, where,
in more than one instance, a warrior rose superioi
to a Brahman in theological learning.
Rebelling against Brahman supremacy, ignor-
ing salvation by sacrifice, rejecting the authority
of ^the Vedas, teaching emancipation from the
pain of life and the misery of rebirth by per-
sonal service to all living creatures however
lowly, and choosing, moreover, with pointed
significance, as their linguistic medimn the
despised popular dialects instead of the hallowed
Saniskrit of the Brahmans, Sakya Muni (Buddha)
and Mahavira founded the religions which still
exist as Buddhism and Jainism (qq.v.). When,
^fter the lapse of nearly a millennium, those two
religions lost their hold upon India, a new form of
Brahmanism arose in what is known as Hinduism
(q.v.), the basis of which was a compromise be-
tween the orthodox and philosophical Brahmanism
of pre-Buddhistic times and the religions of the
Dravidian and other non-Aryan peoples of southern
India. See India.
Bibuoohapht: The literature of India itself is enormous,
and that upon it lb almost as great. A bibliography of
India is mueh needed. The moet accessible and conve-
nient body of sources for ttuB English reader is the SBB^
more than half of which is devoted to translations from
the various departments of Indian literature. Outside
of this collection, the following texts and translations are
important: SaniJcrit TexU, Sacred Hymm, 6 vols., Lon-
don, 1840-74, new ed., 1800-02; H. H. Wilson, Rio-
Veda SanhUa, 6 vols., ib. 1850 sqq. (a translation); Rig
Veda, a transl. by P. Peterson, ib. 1888; H. Grassmann,
Ri4iveda <l6erss<sC 4 vols.. Leipsic, 1876-77; Rio-Veda, by
A. Ludwig. in 6 vols.. Prague, 1876-88 (Germ, transl., in-
troduction and commentary); Sama-Veda, T. BeniFey,
Leipeio, 1848 (text and Germ, transl.); R. T. Griffith,
Hymnt of the Rigveda, Tranel. wiO^ Commentary, 4 vols.,
Benares, 1880-02; idem, Hymna of the Samaveda, Tranel.
with Commentary, ib. 1803; idem, Hymne of the Atharva-
Veda, ib., 2 vols.. 1805-06; Atharvaveda, by A. Ludwig,
2 vols., Prague, 1876 (Germ, transl.); Atharva^Veda, litre
vU (mi. xiii) iraduit . . . par V. Henry, Paris, 1801-
1802; The Aitareya-Brahmana, transl. by M. Haug, 2 vols..
Bombay, 1863; the Brahmanae of the Sama Veda have
been edited by A. G. Bumell, 6 vols.. London, TrObner,
n.d.; Atharvor-Veda Samhita, Tranelation and . . . Com-
mentary by W. D. Whitney, ed. C. R. Lanman. 2 vols..
Bimbmo Bommj
BramhfcH
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
250
Boston. 1006; THm V^daniamm, A Manval of Hindu Pan^
theimn, transl. by G. A. Jacob, ib. 1881. Parta of aome
of the Upaniahad$ have been edited and translated by
E. Roer, 10 parts, Caleutto, n.d., and by E. B. Cowell, 2
parts, ib. 1861. Important is J. Muir, Orioinal Sanakrit
Texia, 5 vols., London. 1868-73. The Suirat are repre-
sented in the Oerm. transl. by A. F. Stensler, Leipsic,
1876, in the Eng. transl. of W. D. Whitney. New Haven,
1871, and of G. Thibaut. London, TVabner, n.d.
On the history of Indian literature consult: A. Weber,
The White Yai%ar Veda, BerUn, 1840; idem, A HiU, of
Indian Literature, London, 1882 (critical and brief); F.
Max Mailer. HieL of Ancient Saneknt Literature, ib. 1860
(now out of print): A. Kaegi, Der Rigveda, Leipsic, 1881,
Ens. transl., London, 1886; F. N6ve, L«s Apoquee hUA-
rairee de VInde, Paris, 1887; J. C. Oman, The Oreat Indian
Epiee, London, 1884 (a condensation of the stories, with
notes); A. A. Macdonell, HieL of Sanekrit Literature, ib.
1000; E. W. Hopkins, The Oreat Bjric of India, New
Haven, 1001.
On the philosophy the best single book is F. Max M<Uler,
Six Sveieme of Indian Philoeophy, London, 1800, cf. his
Three Lecturee on ihe Vedanta Philoeophy, ib. 1804. Other
works are J. Davies, The Sankhya Karika of lewara
Kriehna. A n ExpoeiHon of the Syetem of Kapilh, ib. 1881 ;
A. E. Gough, Philoeophy of the Upaniehade, ib. 1882;
Bam (Chandra Bose, Hindu Philoeophy popularly Explained,
Calcutta, 1888; M. Williams, Indian Wiedom, London,
1803; R. Garbe, Philoeophy of Ancient India, Chicago,
1807 (an excellent " first book "); J. Kreyher, Die Weie-
heit der Brahmanen und dee Chrietentume, Gfltersloh, 1001;
P. Deussen, Philoeophy of Ifcs Upaniehade, Edinburgh,
1006; idem. Die Geheimlehre dee Veda, Leipsic, 1007; idem,
Outlinee of Indian Philoeophy, Berlin. 1007; L. D. Bar-
nett. Some Sayinge of the Upaniehade, London, 1006; S.
A. Desai, A Study of the Indian Philoeophy, ib. 1007.
On the religion of India the best single book is R. W.
Fraser, Literary HieL of India, New York, 1808. H. T.
Colebrooke, Eaeaye on the Relioion and Philoeophy of the
Hindue, 2d ed. by his son, 3 vols., London, 1873, is a
classic, with which should be put C. Lassen, Indieehe
Alterthumekunde, 4 vols., Bonn, 1847-61. Of high value
is J. H. Wilson, Eaeaye on the Religion of the Hindue, 2
vols.. London, 1861-62. Other treatises are: 8. John-
son, Oriental Religione, India, Boston, 1872; F. Max
Mailer, Lecturee on . . , Religione of India, London,
1870; A. Barth, Religione of India, ib. 1882; W. J. Wil-
kins, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, ib. 1882; A.
W. WalUs, Coentology of the Rig Veda, ib. 1887; M. Will-
iams, IMigioue Life and Thought in India, ib. 1887; G.
A. Jacob, Hindu Pantheiem, ib. 1880; J. Dowson, Clae-
eUxU Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, ib.
1801; Religioue Syeteme of the World, ib. 1803; H. Olden-
berg, Die Rdigion dee Veda, Berlin, 1804; idem. Ancient
India, ite Language and Religione, London, 1806; E. W.
Hopkins, Religione of India, Boston, 1805 (very useful,
systematic and clear, gives Ust of works); idem, India,
Old and New, New York, 1002; M. PhilUps, The Tead^
ing of the Vedae, London, 1805; Z. A. Ragosin. Vedie
India, ib. 1805; A. Weber, Vedieehe BeitrOge, BerUn,
1805; A. Hillebrandt, Vediedu Mythologie, 3 vols., Bres-
lau, 1002; J. C. Oman, Myetiee, Aeeetice and SainU of
India, London, 1003; J. M. Mitchell, Oreat Religione of
India, New York, 1006; E. B. Havell. Benaree the Sacred
City. Sketehee of Hindu Life and Religion, London, 1006.
BRAHMO SOICAJ: A Hindu theistic society.
Ita aim is the monotheistic reform of the Hindu
poijrtheistio religion. The founder, Rammohan
Roy (b. 1774), of Brahman descent, through the
study of the Koran and the Bible became estranged
from his ancestral belief, and was attracted by
Christianity, without, however, getting beyond
a rationalistic pantheism. He endeavored to
formulate a universal monotheism based upon
various ancient scriptures. He denounced ethnic
impurities, but maintained the institution of caste.
In 1816 he gathered a small community at Calcutta,
the Atmiya Sdbha, of which he was the leader
till his death, Sept. 26, 1833, at Bristol, En^and,
where he acted as political agent.
The weakened reform party was strengthened
in 1839 by the founding of the Tatwabodhini Sabha,
whose leader was Babu Devendranath Tagoie.
He held aloof from Christian influences in the
patriotic effort to restore (what he regarded as)
the pure religion of the Vedas, but finally oon-
ceived a deistic system on the basis of reason,
rejecting all scriptures. In 1862 the religious oom-
munity was reorganised as the Adi Somaj, Hean-
while a follower named Dayanand Saraswati had
turned again to the Vedas, which he regard&i
as teaching a purely theistic religion, and as an-
ticipating also the results of modem culture. He
founded the Arya Somaj, the adherents of which
came afterward under spiritualistic influences.
The two societies last named found a competitor
in the adherents of Babu Keshav Chandra Sen
(b. Nov. 19, 1838, at Calcutta), who, through
European culture had become dissatisfied with the
religion of his ancestors, and attempted to find rest
in philoeophy. But this brought no satisfaction
to his religiously disposed mind. After much
study of the Bible he came to a decision, and in
1858 joined the Adi Somaj. For a time he co-
operated with Devendranath Tagore, but finally
found himself at variance with this conservatively
disposed leader, who did not approve his bold
denunciation of the shameful practises of heathen-
ism, and even of caste. After the rupture which
naturally resulted, in 1863 he founded the Brahmo
Somaj of India, which soon developed an acti>nty
that almost rivaled the Christian propaganda.
He went to England in 1870, where he was much
honored. Many Christian ideas tending to promote
his cause were brought back by him to India, and
the Brahmo Somaj found many adherents. But
he grew more conservative and gradually drew
away from Occidental influences. The represent-
atives of progress separated and founded the
Sadharan Brahmo Somaj. Only the less important
members of the former community adhered to
Chandra Sen, who lost himself more and more
in a dark mysticism. Finally he appeared as the
founder of a world-religion C'The New Dispen-
sation "), as he claimed by divine command. For
the new Church he prepared a ritual and teaching.
Nevertheless, his success was not striking, though
by his small circle of adherents he was almost
worshiped. He died January 8, 1884. His
successor, Babu Proti^ Chandra Mosumdar, had
great difficulty in preventing the further dis-
ruption of the community, and little progress was
made. In 1891 it numbered 3,051 members, mostly
in Bengal.
The Arya Somaj had a larger success, devel-
oping especially in the United Provinces and the
Punjab, numbering some 40,000 members. But
few of the Brahmo Somaj have accepted Chris-
tianity. See India, III, 1. R. Grumdemann.
Bxbuoorapht: Soutom: Indian Mirror, Calcutta, 1861-
1880; Sunday Mirror, ib. 1880-B2; The Liberal and the Sev
Diepeneation, ib. 1881 sqq.; Theietie AnnuaL ib. 1872
Bqq.; Theietie Quarterly Retfiew, ib. 1879. Conmilt also:
Mary Carpenter, Laet Daye in England of Ramohun Ro»,
London, 1886; K. Chunder Sen, Brahmo Sotnaj, ib. 1870;
J. Hesse, Der Brahmo Soma) .... in Baeler Miniont
Magaein, 1876, pp. 886 sqq.; Kesavachandra, Brahmo
Somai, Galotttta» 1883; F. Max MOUer, in Biographical E*-
261
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brahmo SomiJ
BramhaU
•ay«, London, 1884 (gives accounts of recent religious
movements); T. E. Slater, Keahab Chundra Sen and Ihs
Brahma Samaj, Madras, 1884; P. C. Mosoomdar, Life and
Teackinoe of Chunder Sen, Calcutta, 1887; H. Baynes,
Evolulion of Reliowve Thouoht in India, London, 1880 (a
full aooount); L. J. Frohmeyer, Neuere Reformbeatretmnoen
in Hinduiamua, in Baeler Miaeione Magann, 1888, pp. 129
aqq.; The Offering of Devendranaih Tagore, transl. by
M. M. Chatterji. Calcutta, 1880; Rammohun Roy, Eng-
lish Works, 2 vols. , London, 1888; Navakanta Chattopa-
dhyaya. Life and Character of Ram Mohun Roy, Dacca,
1890; C. N. Aitchison, The Brahmo Somaj, in ChurA
Mieeionary Inielligeneer, 1893. pp. 161 sqq.
BRAI6, KARL VON BORROMAEO: German
Roman Catholic; b. at Kanzach (a village near
Buchan, 30 m. b.w. of Ulm) Feb. 10, 1853. He
was educated at the University of Tubingen (Ph.D.,
1877), where he was instructor in dogmatic theology
in 1879-^, and was parish priest at Wildbad and
district inspector of schools, except for tours of
Austria, Germany, France, Italy, and England,
from 1883 to 1893. In the latter year he was
appointed associate professor of apologetics and
dogmatics at the University of Freiburg, and four
years later was promoted to his present position
of full professor of the same subjects. He is also
director of the dogmatic seminar in the univer-
sity, and has written Zukunftareligian dee Unbe-
wussten (Freiburg, 1882); Kunst dee GedankenUsena
(Frankfort, 1886); Encyklopddie der theoretischen
PhUosophU (Stuttgart, 1886); OoUeebeweia oder
GoUesbeioeisef (1888); Apologie dee Christentume
(Freiburg, 1889); La MaHh-e (Paris, 1891); Dis
FreiheU der phUosaphiachen Forschung (Freiburg,
1894); Vom Denken (1896); Vom Sein (1896); Vam
Erkennen (1897); Leibniz, aein Leben und die
Bedeuiung seiner Lekre (Frankfort, 1901); Zur
Erinnerung an Franz Xavier Krauee (Freiburg,
1902); Weaen dee Chrietentume (1903); and Der
Papk und die FreiheU (1903).
BRAIRERD, DAVID: Missionary to the Amer-
ican Indians; b. at Haddam, Conn., Apr. 20,
1718; d. at the home of Jonathan £dw£u-ds (to
whose daughter Jemima he was engaged), North-
ampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. He entered Yale
College in 1739 and was expelled in his jimior year;
it was the time of the Great Awakening and Brain-
erd, who was " sober and inclined to melancholy "
from childhood, sympathized with the '* New
Lights " (Whitefield, Tennent, and their followers);
he attended their meetings when forbidden to do
so, and criticized one of the tutors aB having " no
more grace than a chair"; as a consequence he was
expelled. He was licensed at Danbury, Conn.,
July 29, 1742; was approved aa a missionary by
the New York correspondents of the Society in
Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge,
Nov. 25, 1742, and labored among the Indians at
Kaunaumeek (Brainerd, Rensselaer County, N. Y.,
18 m. s.e. of Albany) Apr., 1743-Mar., 1744; was
ordained as a missionary at Newark, N. J., June
12, 1744; ten days later began work at what was
intended to be his permanent station, at the forks
of the Delaware, near Easton, Penn.; in October
he visited the Indians on the Susquehanna, and
June 19, 1745, began to preach at Crossweeksung
(Crosswick, 9 m. s.e. of Trenton), the scene of his
greatest success. His life among the Indians was
one of hardship and suffering borne with heroic
fortitude and self-devotion; his health gave way
imder the strain and he relinquished the work,
Mar. 20, 1747, dying from consumption. The
portions of his diary dealing with his work at Cross-
weeksung (Jime 19-Nov. 4, 1745, and Nov. 24,
1745-June 19, 1746) were published before his
death by the conmiissioners of the Society (Af tro*
hilia dei inter Indicoe : or the rise and progreee of a
remarkable work of grace among a number of the
Indiane in the provincee of New Jereey and Penn-
sylvania ; and Divine Grace Displayed : or the
continuance and progress of a remarkable work of
grace, etc., both published at Philadelphia, 1746,
and commonly known as " Brainerd's Journal ").
All of his papers, including an account of his eariy
life and the original copy of his diary, were left
with Jonathan Edwards, who prepared An Account
of the Life of the Late Rev, David Brainerd (Boston,
1749), omitting the parts of the diary already
published. The life and diary entire, with his
letters and other writings, were edited by S. E.
Dwight (New Haven, 1822) and by J. M. Sherwood
(New York, 1884). His place aa missionary waa
taken, at his request, by his brother John (b. at
Haddam, Ck>nn., Feb. 28, 1720; d. at Deerfield,
N. J., Mar. 18, 1781). He was graduated at Yale,
1746. His work was hindered by disputes about
title to Indian lands, war, and opposition from
the Quakers; he was dismissed by the Society in
Scotland in 1755, reengaged in 1756, again dis-
missed in 1757, and again asked to return in 1759;
the funds provided by the Society and by the Synod
of New York and New Jersey were insufficient,
and he gave freely from his own scanty means;
he served the whites no less faithfully than the
Indians and was at the same time both foreign and
home missionary; after 1777 he had charge of a
church at Deerfield. Consult his life by Thomaa
Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865).
BRAINERD, THOMAS: American Presbyterian;
b. at Leyden, Lewis County, N. Y., June 17, 1804;
d. at Scranton, Penn., Aug. 22, 1866. He gave up
the study of law for theology, and was graduated
at Andover in 1831; was pastor of the Fourth
Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, 1831-33; of the
Pine Street (Third) Presbyterian Church, Philar
delphia, 1837 till his death. He was a leader of
the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church,
a personal friend of Lyman Beecher and Albert
Barnes; waa distinguished for patriotic ardor and
services during the Civil War. He wrote much
for religious periodicals, edited the Cincinnati
Journal, a Presbyterian religious paper (1833-^36),
and a young people's paper, and wrote the Life
of John Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865). His great-
great-grandfather was an unde of David and John
Brainerd, the missionaries.
Bxbuoorapht: Mary Brainerd, Life of Rev. Thomae Brain-
erd, Philadelphia, 1870.
BRAMHALL, JOHN: Protestant arohbishop of
Armagh; b. at or near Pontefract (22 m. sjs.w.
of York), Yorkshire, 1594; d. at Omagh (30 m. s.
of Londonderry), Cioimty Tyrone, Ireland, June
25, 1663. He studied at Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge (BA., 1612; M.A., 1616; B.D., 1623;
Brandenbuxv
Brastow
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
252
D.D., 1630); took orders about 1616 and diatin-
guished himaelf in Yorkshire, where he reoeived
several appointments. In 1633 he went to Ire-
land as chaplain to Wentworth (afterward Earl of
Strafford); became archdeacon of Meath, and, in
1634, bishop of Deny. He did much to increase
the revenues of the Irish Church, and tried to
establish episcopacy more firmly. Most of the
time from the Irish insurrection of 1641 till the
Restoration he spent on the Continent, waB made
archbishop of Armagh in 1661, and as such dis-
played a commendable moderation in striving to
secure conformity. His works were collected by
John Vesey, archbishop of Tuam, and published
at Dublin in 1677; they include five treatises against
Romamsts, three against sectaries, three against
Hobbes, and seven miscellaneous, in defense of
royalist and Anglican views. The works are
reprinted in the Library of Angto-CcUholic Theology
(5 vols., Oxford, 1842-^5) with life.
BRAHDEKBURO, bishopric OF: a diocese
established by Otto the Great in 948, including
the territory between the Elbe on the west, the
Oder on the east, and the Black Elster on the south,
and taking in the Uckermark to the north. It
was originally under the archiepisoopal jurisdiction
of Mains, but in 968 waB transferred to that of
Magdeburg. The disturbances of 983 practically
annihilated it; bishops continued to be named,
but they were merely titular, imtil the downfall
of the Wends in the twelfth century and the Ger^
man settlement of that region revived the bishopric.
Bishop Wigers (1138-60) was the first of a series of
bishops of the Premonstratensian order, which
chose the occupants of the see until 1447; in that
year a bull of Nicholas V gave the right of nomina-
tion to the elector of Brandenburg, with whom the
bishops stood in a close feudal relation. The last
actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544),
who took the side of the Reformation, married, and
in every way furthered the undertakings of Elector
Joachim II (q.v.). There were two more ncnninai
bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these,
the electoral prince John George, the secularization
of the bishopric waB undertsJcen and finally ac-
complished, in spite of legal proceedings to have
the bishopric declared inunecUately dependent on
the empire and so to preserve it, which dragged on
into the seventeenth century.
BRAKDEIIBURG, CONFESSIOIIS or CONFES-
SIONS OF THE MARK (Confessioneamarchica, i.e.,
BrennoburgenBea): The coniessions of the mark
Brandenburg during the Reformation. They are
three in number: (1) the Confession prepared by
order of Johann Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg,
1614, which was intended to reconcile the views
of Luther with those of Calvin (see Sioisicund,
Johann); (2) the Leipsic Colloquy, 1631, i.e., the
declarations of the theologians who took part in the
Colloquy of Leipsic (q.v.), 1631; (3) the Declaration
of Thorn, 1645 (see Thorn, Conference of).
Bibuoorapbt: The text of the three oonfearions is in J. C.
W. Augueti, Carpu* Ubrarum aymholiooTum, pp. 300 eqq.,
Elberfeld, 1827. and in H. A. Niemeyer. ColUctio eonfe»-
rionum in eceUHa reformaia pvbUeatarum, pp. 642 aqq.,
Leipaio. 184a Ck>Dsult Sohaff, Creedt, u, 664-663.
BRAIVDBS, brdn'des, FRIEDRICH HEmRICH:
German Reformed; b. at Salsuflen (48 m. s.w. of
Hanover) Apr. 25, 1825. Educated at the Univer^
sity of Berlin, he wsb successively second preacher
and rector at SaLniflen from 1853 to 1856, and
pastor at Gdttingen from 1856 to 1901. Since the
latter year he has been court-preacher at Backe-
burg. Among his numerous writings those of
theological interest are: Wir werden Uben, Ge-
sprOehe aber UtuterbliehkeU (Gdttingen, 1858);
John Knox, der BefomuUor SchotUands (Elberfeld,
1862); Katechismu8 der ehrisaiehim Lehre (GOt>
tingen, 1865); Verfauung der Kirche nach evange-
liachen OrundMzen (2 vols., Elberfeld, 1867);
Zttr Wiedervereinigung der heiden evangeliBchen
Kirehen (Gdttingen, 1868); Des Apoetd Paulus
Sendtehreiben an die Galater (Wiesbaden, 1869);
Geschichte der kirchlichen Polixei dee Houses Bran-
denburg (2 vols., Gotha, 1872-73); Blicke in das
Seelenleben dee Herm (GQtersloh, 1888); Unser
Herr Christue. t, Seine Person (1901); and Eini-
gungen der evangelischen Kirehen ein Befehl des
Herm (Berlin, 1902).
BRAHDT, WILHELM: Dutch Protestant; b.
at Amsterdam July 22, 1855. He was educated
for the ministry of the Dutch Refonned Church
and was a pastor until 1891, when he went to BerUn,
where he resided for two years. Since 1893 he
has been professor of New Testament ex^esis
and the history of religions at the University of
Amsterdam. In theology he belongs to tbe
historico-critical school, and has written Die
manddische Religion (Leipsic, 1889); Manddische
Schriften (G6ttingen, 1893); and Die evan^ische
Oesehichte und der Urspnmg des Chrisienthums
(Leipsic, 1893).
BRANN, HERRT ATHANASIU5: Roman Cath-
olic; b. at Parkstown (27 m. s.w. of Drogheda),
Goimty Meath, Ireland, Aug. 15, 1837. He came
to the United States at the age of ten, and was
educated at St. Mary's College, Wilmington, Del.,
St. Francis Xavier's CJoUege, New York Qty (B.A.,
1857), St. Sulpice, Paris (1857-60), and the Amer-
ican College, Rome (D.D., 1862). He was ordained
to the priesthood at Rome in 1862, being the first
priest of the American College, and from 1862 to
1864 was vice-president of Seton Hall OoUege,
South Orange, N. J., where he also taught theology.
Four years later he became director of an ecclesias-
tical seminary at Wheeling, W. Va., where he
remained untU 1870, when he was appointed rector
of St. Elisabeth's Church, Fort Washin^^n,
N. Y. Twenty years later he became rector of
St. Agnes's Church, New York City, where he still
remains. He is archdiocesan censor of books and
has written Curious Questions (Newark, N. J., 1867) ;
Truth and Error (New York, 1871); Essay on the
Popes (1875); The Age of Unreason (1881); The Im^
mortality of the Soul (1882); and Life of Archbishop
Hughes (1892).
BRANN, KARCUS: German Jewish historian; b.
at Rawitsch (64 m. s. of Posen) July 9, 1849. He
was educated at the University of Brekau (Ph.D.,
1873) and the rabbinical seminary in the same city,
from which he waa graduated in 1875. He was
S53
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brandenburff
Brastow
then a rabbi in various cities of Germany until
1891, when he was appointed to succeed H. Graetz
as professor of history and Biblical exegesis in the
Jewish theological seminary at Breslau, where he
still remains. He has written: De Herodia Magni
filiis pairem in imperio aeeuHs (Breslau, 1873);
Die Sohne des Herodea ( 1873); Geachichte der GeaeO-
achafi der Bhider in Brealau (1880); OeachichU der
Juden und ihrer Literatur (2 vols., 1893-94);
(Jeachichle dea Rabbinata in SchnMemUhl (1894);
GeschichU der Juden in Schleaien (3 parts, 1895-
1901); Ein kurter Gang durch die judiache Ge-
achickte (1895); Ein kurzer Gang dtwch die Ge-
achichie der jiidiaehen Literatur (1896); Lekrbuch
der jiidiaehen Geachiehte (4 vols., 1900-03); and
Geachichte dea jiidiaehen iheologiachen Seminara
(1904). He has likewise edited the Jahrbuch
zur Belehrung und UnterhaUung since 1890, and
from 1892 to 1899, in collaboration with D. Kauf-
mann, edited the Monataachrift far Geachichte und
Wisaenachaft dea Judentuma, becoming its sole
editor on Kaufmann's death in the latter year.
He likewise collaborated with F. Rosenthal in
editing the Gedenkbuch twr Erinnerung an David
Kttufmann (Breslau, 1900).
BRAUT, brdnt, SEBASnAN: German satirist; b.
at Strasburg 1457; d. there May 10, 1521. He was
but ten years old when his father died, and, after
being educated privately, entered the University
of Basel in 1475, where the strife between realism
and nominalism had been revived as a struggle
between humanism and scholasticism. There Brant
devoted himself half-heartedly to the study of law,
but his preference for phUoeophy and poetry
proved too unremunerative to yield him a liveli-
hood, so he was obliged to take up the study of
jurisprudence in earnest, and finally received the
degree of doctor of civil and canon law in 1489.
Meanwhile he had developed a literaiy activity
which led him, in addition to the lectures which he
delivered after 1484, to write book upon book,
partly on jurisprudence, both in Latin and the ver-
nacular, and partly in verse, chiefly in German.
Filled with longing for his native city, he applied
for the vacant position of syndic, and secured it
in the eariy part of 1501, both through his own
reputation and through the reconmiendation of
Johann Geiler. Two years afterward he was
appointed secretary of the municipality, and later
was made imperial councilor to the emperor Maxi-
milian.
Though Brant was either the author or the editor
of a long series of books, there is but one which
has preserved his fame to the present day, the
Xarrenachiff (Basel, 1494). The end of the Middle
Ages, which marked the wreck and ruin of all the
ancient conditions in Church and State, as well as
in moral and social life, was felt most keenly in
Germany, where it evoked a spirit of
His satire which spared neither life nor
"Ship of death. The most striking represent-
FjoU." ative of this tendency, next to the
Dance of Death, is the Narrenachiff of
Brant. Wherever the poet looked, he saw only
'oily, regardless of sex, age, or estate, and as at
carnival the mununers ran through the streets in
the guise of fools, often with ships on wheels, he
regarded life as a great carnival, where fool on fool
took his seat in the ship of fools to voyage to Narra^
gonia, the land of fools. Brant was, therefore, in
this sense the spokesman of his time, and his work
has become inunortal in that it is a mirror of the
period. He remained true, moreover, to the genius
of the German people, despite his attraction toward
humanism and his numerous sentiments and paral-
lels drawn from the classics. His views and his
habits of thought were taken from the life around
him, and his German, though evidently based on
his Latinity, is neither as awkward nor as unin-
telligible as that of Niclas of Wyle inunediately
preceding him or that of his successor Hutten.
He was so far from intending to restrict his work
to the learned that he even considered those who
did not know how to read, and accordingly adorned
his book with pictures as a substitute fpr the letters.
The Narrenachiff, therefore, alternates between
picture and text, thus giving a double representation
of folly, an arrangement which divides the poem
into disjointed fragments succeeding each other
by chance rather than by design, althouj^ the
diversity of the material would scarcely have per-
mitted the author to mold it into a homogeneous
whole. Yet Brant was swayed by two opposing
tendencies, and while, on the one hand, he did not
hesitate to expose the faults in the external life of
the Church with its lack of faith, and its lack
of morality, he feared to touch its inner and higher
teachings, and lamented the wavering bark of St.
Peter, upbraiding the heretics and regarding the
printer as an unmixed evil. (E. Steinmeteb.)
Bibuoorapht: The Narrenachtif was reprinted many
times and was as frequently revamped, especially in the
Latin translation of Jakob Locher Philomusus (1497).
In 1497 it was translated into Frenoh, four yean later
into Latin verse by Jodocus Badius Asoensius, in 1619
into Low German, and in 1636 into Dutch, while in 1609
it was rendered into English by Alexander Buclay (q.y.)
under the title of the Ship of FooU, The best German
edition is by F. Zamoke. Leipsie, 1864, next to it b that
by K. Goedeke. ib. 1872. In 1496 a series of sermons
was based upon the Narrtnadtiff by Geiler of Kaisera-
berg, and it was repeatedly imitated, as in the Von 8,
UrmdenSehiflUin^ by the Brotherhood of St. Ursula
(Strasburg, 1497), and by Brant's compatriot. Thomas
Mumer, in his NamnbeuKwCruno (1612). Bibliogra-
phies are given by G. Schmidt. HiaUnra liUirairt dt
I'AUaea, i, 189-333, u, 340-373, Paris. 1879, and K.
Goedeke, Orundri$§ tvr OsscAicMs dsr deutaehan Dichtung,
i, .383-392, Dresden, 1884. The best accounts of the
life of Brant are to be found in the introductions to the
editions of the Narrenaehiff by Zamoke and Goedeke, ut
sup. Consult also C. Schmidt, Notiea aur SAaatian
Brant, in the Revus d*AUaoa, new series, vol. iii. 1874.
BRASTBER6£R,IM]CA]IUELG0TTL0B: Pop-
ular German preacher; b. at Sula (40 m. s.w. of
Stuttgart), WOrttemberg, 1716; d. July 13, 1764,
aa Spezialauperintendent at Ntlrtingen. His ser-
mons on the Gospels, Evangeliache Zeugniaae der
Wahrheit tur Aufmunterung im toahren Chriaten-
(hum (Stuttgart, 1758) are still read, the eighty-
fifth edition having appeared at Reutlingen in
1883, and a translation into Polish in 1005.
BRASTOW, LEWIS ORSMOND: O)ngregatioii-
alist; b. at Brewer, Me., Mar. 23, 1834. He waa
educated at Bowdoin Ck>llege (BA., 1857) and
BnwU
Bread
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
256
resented, especially in the maritime towns, where
there are English churches, which, however, do
not always have permanent rectors. The Pres-
byterians, particularly from North America, have
settled in considerable numbers in Sfto Paulo,
where they have established a college, and the Amer-
ican Seaman's Friend Society has an agent in the
capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1899 the Protestant
Episcopal Church made the Rev. Lucien Lee Kin-
solving (q.v.) bishop of southern Braiil, with resi-
dence at Rio Grande do Sul (Sfto Pedro) . In 1907
his diocese was made an integral part of the Ameri-
can Episcopal Church.
German Protestantism is represented over an
extensive territory and has numerous centers, as
is shown by the existence of two great ecclesias-
tical bodies, the ** Evangelical German Synod,"
subject to the jurisdiction of the higher church
council of Berlin since 1869, and the ** Evangelical
Synodical Union" of 1884. The latter receives
its clergy not only from Beriin, but also through
the missiooary societies of Barmen and Basel,
especially in view of the number of Swiss immi-
grants to Brazil. Many German evangelical com-
munities, as well as scattered members of the
Evangelical Church are foimd both in Rio de Ja-
neiro itself and the state of the same name (inclu-
ding Petropolis) and the state of Espirito Santo (in-
cluding Leopoldina), and espiecially in the four
iouthem states of Sfto Paulo, Parand, Santa Catha-
rina, and Rio Grande do Sul. In the latter state
there are forty congregations, while in Santa
Catharina 7,500 Protestants live in the German
city of Blumenau alone, and of the 100,000 Ger-
mans in the state about two-thirds are evangelical.
All the districts with a German population are
richly provided with schools, even though all
branches of instruction are not as thorough as
might be desired. Evangelical schools, however,
are not infrequently replaced by interdenomi-
national religious schools. In the Roman Catholic
German communities careful provision is made for
schools, and in a number of colonies the educar-
tional activity of the clergy is such that they
receive salaries from the State.
The Roman Catholic Church has two archdioceses
in Brazil: (1) Bahia or Sfto Salvador (founded as a
bishopric in 1555, made an archbishopric .in 1676),
with the suffragan bishoprics of Alagoas (founded
1900; residence at Macei6), Amazon (1893; residence
Maniios), Belem or Pari (1719), Fortalesa orCearA
(1854), Goyaz (1826; residence Uberava), Sfto Luiz
(1677; residence Maranhfto) Olinda (1676), Parar
hyba (1893), and Piauhy (1902; residence There-
zina);and(2) SfloSebastiftoorRio de Janeiro (1676;
made an archbishopric 1893), with the suffragan
bishoprics of Curitiba (1893), CuyabA (1745), Dia-
mantina(1854), Marianna (1745), Sfto Paulo (1745),
Petropolis (1893), Sfto Pedro (1848; residence
Porto Alegre), Pouso Alegre (1900), and Espirito
Santo (1896; residence Vitoria). There is also the
exempt prelature of Santarem (1903).
While secular priests are chiefly employed in
the service of the Church, they are lacking in many
districts and their training is defective. Despite
the suppression of the orders, therefore, many of
the larger ones have nimierous representatives. Al-
though they have few stations, they are actively
engaged in the conversion of the Indians, among
whom the Jesuits worked with great success in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the ranges
of the Cordilleras and along the Upper Amazon.
In 1767 the Portuguese expelled the Jesuits from
Brazil. The aborigines in the interior of Brazil
still remain uninfluenced by any missionary activity.
WiLHELM Gosn.
BiBUOoaAPHT: On the ooontry and people conralt: J. C.
and D. P. Kidder. BraJtU and the BragUia$u, New York.
ISOe; [Mifls M. R. Wright]. Ths Nww BnuO, iU Rt»imne$
and AttraduMM, London, 1001; Santa-Anna N67. T^
Land of tfis AmoMonB, New York. 1901; Uniied Stak$cf
BrasU: a Oeographicai Skeiek, viA epeeial Refema to
Beonomic CondiHona and ProMpecU of Fuivn DetAf-
ment. Bureau of Am. Republioe, Waahington, 1001; T.
G. Dawaon, The Soulh Ammioan RtpublicB, toI. i. New
York. 1003 On reUgioue matters consult: F. Badero.
Ut CowmUa au BrUil, Florence. 1807; H. P. Bndi.
iVofnCanI M%Mum» in South America, New York, 1900;
J. S. DennJB. ContennUd Survey of Foreiffn MieeUmt, ih
1002; H. C. Tucker. BihU in Braeil, ib. 1002. An ex-
haustive work of reference ii A. L. Garraux, BihUognr
phie hrMUenne, Paris, 1808.
BREAD AUD BASING: Bread was for the
Hebrews the chief article of diet, aa it is for modem
Palestinian peasants. In early times it was made
from barley, which was later displaced by wheat,
except aa it remained the staple for the poorer
classes, though now it is not regarded as altogeth^
wholesome. Primitive usage was to roast the can
of grain, which were so eaten especially at harvest
time (Ruth ii, 14), and, thus prepared, still fomi a
convenient food for travelers. In primitive prepa-
ration of grain for food, a sort of mortar was used to
crush it into the coarser meal, a handmill for the
flour. The latter, of primitive form, is still used
in the East and consists of two stones, the lower
one the harder, the middle surfaces not flat, but
respectively concave and convex, the upper with
a hole in the center in which the post of the lower
is set and into which the grain is poured for grind-
ing. The work of grinding fell to the women or
to slaves, though the later and larger mills were
turned by beasts. The preparation of meal or
flour was a daily tadc, done as there was need for
the product. The dough was mixed in a wooden
kneading-trough, and in early times was unleavened,
as is the case generally with the modem Bedouin.
The dough was made up roimd, flat or disk-shaped,
and baked on a layer of heated stones from which
the coals were removed when the dough was placed
upon the stones to bake and then replaced. Men-
tion is made (Lev. ii, 5) of an iron plate or pan for
baking. There came to be finally two forms of
oven, both in common use among the modem
peasantry, one of which is heated from the outside,
the other from the inside. The art of baking was
developed with the other arts till it became a
handicraft or trade, and gave its name to a street
in Jerusalem (Jer. xxxvii, 21; cf. Hos. vii, 4).
Bread was used in sacred offerings at first either
leavened ' or unleavened; later the former was
excluded (Ex. xxiii, 18; Lev. ii, 11).
(I. BXNZINaXR.)
Bibuoorapht: An excellent account, nerhape the best, h
to be found m DB, i. 315-810. Consult also: E. Robin-
257
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnudl
Bread
son, Biblieal ReMeardiM, ii. 416-417. New York. 1856;
C. M. Doughty. Arabia DeBerta, i, 131 and paraim. Lon-
don, 1888; Benxinger. ArcKOologie, pp. 62-66. 2d ed.; H.
VoseUtein. Die Landwirtuhaft in PaJUUHna, Berlin, 1804;
EB, i, 604-«06.
BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN: American Presby-
terian; b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky.,
July 4, 1797; d. there Aug. 4, 1841. He studied
at Princeton and was tutor there 1820-21; was
chaplain of Congress 1822-23; was ordained Sept.
10, 1823, and was pastor of the Second Presby-
terian Church, Lexington, Ky., 1823-26; of the
Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1826-31;
corresponding secretary of the Board of Education
of the Presbyterian Church at Philadelphia 1831-36;
professor of pastoral theology in Princeton Seminary
1836-38; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of
Foreign Missions 1838-40. He was president of
the American Colonization Society, and at the time
of his death was president-elect of Oglethorp Uni-
versity, Georgia. He was a leader of the Old
School party and an ardent controversialist. He
published a discussion with Archbishop Hughes
of New York imder the title Roman Catholic Con-
troversy (Philadelphia, 1836) and some minor
controversial essays.
BRECKINRIDGE, ROBERT JEFFERSON: Pres-
byterian minister, brother of John Breckinridge
(q.v.); b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky.,
Mar. 8, 1800; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. He
was graduated at Union College, 1819; practised
law in Kentucky, 1823-31, and was a member of
the State legislature, 1825-29; studied theology
at Princeton, 1831-32, was ordained Nov. 26, 1832,
and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church,
Baltimore, 1832-45; president of Jefferson College,
Pennsylvania, 1845-47; pastor of the First Pres-
byterian Church, Lexington, Ky., and at the same
time State superintendent of public instruction,
1847-53; professor of theology at Danville Semi-
nary, 1853-69. He was a stanch Old School Pres-
byterian and the author of the '' Act and Testi-
mony" (1834), complaining of the prevalence of
doctrinal errors, the relaxation of discipline, and
the violation of church order, which played an
important part in the disruption of the Presby-
terian Church; he opposed the reunion in 1869.
He was a bitter opponent of the Roman Catholic
Church. During the Civil War he defended the
Union cause and was president of the national
Republican convention at Baltimore in 1864 which
renominated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency.
During his residence in Baltimore he edited The
Literary and Religious Magazine (1835-43), and
The Danville Review at Danville (1861-65);
hia principal literary work is two volumes. The
Kncwledge of Ood, objectively and subjectively
considered (New York, 1857-59).
BRECKLIN6, FRIEDRICH: A forerunner of
the Pietistic school; b. at Hanved near Flens-
burg, Sleswick, 1629; died at The Hague Mar. 16,
1711. He studied at Rostock, where he imbibed
the theology of Amdt; then at Kdnigsberg, where
syncretism was dominant, at Helmst&dt, where his
relation Calixtus then was, at Wittenberg, Leipsic,
Jena, and Giessen. Here his thesis for the master's
II.— 17
degree (1653) was criticized as savoring of Weigel-
ianism, but he refused to alter it, and published it
at Amsterdam under the title Mysterium magnum,
Christus in nobis (1662). He became closely
allied with Tackius, and went deeper into theosophy
by the aid of Hermes Trismegistus, Paracelsus, and
Bdhme. Going to JIamburg, he read Betke's
Aniichristentum, and was much influenced by its
conception of priestless Christianity. After some
years of wandering in search of knowledge, he was
ordained to be his father's assistant and ultimate
successor; but violent attacks on the local clergy
caused his deposition and imprisonment in 1660.
Escaping, he went to Amsterdam and got a charge at
ZwoUe, where he spent eight years of comparative
quiet, but was again deprived of his office, and lived
in retirement at Zwolle (1668-72), Amsterdam
(1672-90), and The Hague (1690-171 1). He main-
tained a correspondence with Spener and with
Gottfried Arnold, whom he helped in his church
history, and was busily engaged as a writer. In
spite of his weaknesses, he deserves remembrance
as a link in the chain of mystical natures who pre-
pared the way for Spener and the Pietistic move-
ment. (F. NlELfiENf.)
BiBUoaRAPRT: G. Arnold, Kirdien und KetMergeachichte,
iii. 148-149. iv, 1103-04, Frankfort, 1729; A. Ritschlp
OtBchichte de9 PieHnnua, u. 1. 128, 146, Bonn, 1884; L.
J. Moltesen, F. Breckling, et Bidrag HI PietimnenM Udvih-
lingthiMtorie, Copenhagen, 1893.
BREDENKAMP, KONRAD JUSTUS: German
Lutheran; b. at Basbeck (a village near Stade,
22 m. w.n.w. of Hamburg) June 26, 1847; d. at
Verden (21 m. s.e. of Bremen) Mar. 25, 1904.
He was educated at the universities of Erlangen,
Bonn, and Gdttingen, and was pastor at Kuppentin,
Mecklenburg, from 1872 to 1878. He then resided
at Gdttingen for a year, and from 1880 to 1883
was privat-docent at Erlangen. In the latter year
he accepted a call to Greifswald aa professor of
theology, and remained there until 1889, after which
he was honorary professor of Old Testament exe-
gesis at Kiel until his death. He wrote Der Prophet
Sacharja erld&rt (Erlangen, 1879); Vatidnium quod
de Immanuele edidU Jesaias (vii, l-tx, 6) (1880);
Gesetz und Propheten (1881); and Der Prophet
Jesaia erUutert (1887).
BREECHES BIBLE. See Bible Versionb, B,
IV, §9.
BREED, DAVID RIDDLE: Presbyterian; b.
at Pittsburg, Pa., June 10, 1848. He was educated
at the Western University of Pennsylvania, Ham-
ilton College (BA., 1867), and Auburn Theological
Seminary (1870), and was pastor of the House of
Hope Presbyterian Church at St. Paul, Biinn., from
1870 until 1885, when he organized the Church of the
Covenant, Chicago, of which he was pastor imtil
1894. In the latter year he accepted a call to the
First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburg, and
since 1898 has been professor of practical theology
in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny,
Pa. In theology he is conservative. In addition
to numerous pamphlets, he has written Ahror
ham, the Typkal Life of Faith (Chicago, 1886);
History of the Preparation of the World for Christ
Braithaupt
Brendan
THE NEW dCHAFF-HERZOG
358
(1891); Heresy and Hereey (1891); and The Hie-
tory and Use of Hymna and Hymn Tunee (1903).
BRETTHAUPT, brait'haupt, JOACHIM JUSTUS;
Pint profesaor of theology at Halle; b. at Nord-
heim (12 m. n. of Gdttingen), Hanover, Feb.
1058; d. at the monastery of Berge (Kloeter
Bergen, a. of Magdeburg; the dte is now a public
park) Mar. 16, 1732. He studied at Helmst&dt,
became corector in WolfenbQttel in 1680, and
went thence to Kiel, where he continued theo-
logical studies imder Christian Kortholt (q.v.)
and became privat-dooent. Then he lived for
some time in Frankfort and came completely
under Spener's influence. He returned to Kid
as professor of homiletics, became court preacher
at Meiningen in 1685, went to Erfurt in 1687 as
preacher at the Dominican Church and became
professor of theology in the imiversity. His Piet-
istie tendencies aroused much opposition, and in
1691 he removed to Halle, where with August
Hermann Francke and Paul Anton (qq.v.) he gave
the theological study of the new university its
peculiar character and direction. In 1705 he
added to his other duties those of superintendent
of the duchy of Magdeburg and in 1709 was made
abbot at the monastery of Berge (then transfonned
into a school). He was a man of much faith,
prayerful, and took a deep interest in poor students.
Besides minor writings, he published InstUutionee
theologica (2 vols., Halle, 1694; 2d enlarged ed.,
1723; vol. iii, InstUiUionea theclogim moralis, 1732);
Theses credendorum et agendorum fundamentales
(1700). He was not without poetic talent and
published a collection of Poemata miaceUanea
(Magdeburg, 1720). Some of his hymns are still
found in the (Serman hymn-books.
(Georo MOlusr.)
Bibuoorapht: The Kemorial, ed. G. A. Francke, Halle,
1736, contaios the Leben^be^ckreibuno by C. P. Leporin
and Baumgartena Memoria ineomparabilis theolooi J. J.
Breithaupi. Consult also A. Ritaohl, Ottchichta de9
Pi£tumu9, iii, 385 et paasim, Bonn, 1884; Julian, Hym^
noiogy, pp. 100-170; W. Schrader, OmcAmsUb dtr Fried-
ruM-UnivenilM su HdUe, vol. i, pasaim, Halle. 1894;
ADB, iii, 201.
BRETTINGER, brd'tin-ger, JOHANN JAKOB:
Swiss theologian; b. at Zurich Apr. 19, 1575; d.
there Apr. 1, 1645. Not until his seventeenth year
did his spiritual gifts begin to manifest themselves,
but from 1593 to 1596 he studied at Reformed
seminaries in Germany and Holland, and in 1597
became a member of the clergy of his native city.
His prominence during the pestilence of 1611
proved him worthy of the appointment of deacon
to the church of St. Peter. Two years later he
was made pastor of the GrossmUnster, thus becom-
ing the most important clergyman in Zurich, and
in 1614 he was appointed school-rector. His im-
portance was not due, however, to his religious
or theological originality, but rather to his political
intelligence and practical skill in organisation and
execution, combining shrewd circumspection and
patience with a versatile initiative. His sermons,
though not deep, were characterised by warmth
of feeling, clearness, pithiness, and charm. The
most import.ant of his works are his synodical
addresses, in which he sought to exalt the position
of the clergy. These sermons, delivered at tlie
semiannual sessions of the synod and collected
by him in the latter years of his life, are models of
pastoral wisdom, and received practical applica-
tion in Breitinger's own activity. The status of
the preachers was revolutionised on the baas of
two of his speeches before the council in 162S,
and he secured the general adoption of muaie in
the churches, which Zurich had lacked altogether
until 1598. He likewise enriched the liturgy with
sections which are still in use, as with the prayer
for the dead and the morning prayer after the ser-
mon of 1638. Breittnger also successfully urged
the need of religious instruction of the young, as is
shown by repeated ordinances of 1613, 1628, 1637-
1638, and 1643. He was, likewise, the ultimate author
of the custom by which the Swiss Confederations
celebrate the days of thanksgiving, repentance,
and prayer at the same time, and it was he who
introduced the rule of making a public announce-
ment of marriage. In 1634 he introduced into
the churches of Zurich and eastern Switserland
the use of parochial registers, which were to be
returned every three years to the head of the dergjr
and thus served as a sort of census-report. Four
years later he instituted parochial visitations, and
finally established the ecclesiastical archives of
Zurich.
Breitinger was deeply interested in education,
and was also active in the establishment of scholar-
ships for poor students. He was no less enthu-
siastic in his patronageof charity, and prepared sta-
tistics of the poor as early as 1621, while in 1623,
at the request of the mayor, he published Gviackien
der BetUer und Armen haJber, Three years later.
on the basis of further studies, Breitinger made
noteworthy proposals for houses of correction for
neglected youth, and was also active in the im-
provement of prisons and hospitals. Ever watch-
ful over the morals of the people, he opposed lack
of refinement and excess, and sought to obviate
the evil influences of the war in the neighboring
kingdom, in addition to restricting lavish expen-
diture in clothing (1616, 1628), and in wedc^gs
and funerals (1621, 1628, 1640), as well as the
drinking of toasts (1632), and occasionally even
the stage and the cultivation of art. A watchful
opponent of the hopes and propaganda of Cathol-
icism and Anabaptism, he refrained from excessiTe
hostility, contenting himself with remaining a
constant protector of the Reformed. His p^^nal
preeminence and his interest in his church fre-
quently involved him in political problems, and
during the Thirty Years' War he was the leader
of a Swedish party in Zurich. The fortification
of the city was due, strictly speaking, to him, and
had he had his way, Switserland would have been
involved in the struggle. (Emil Egu.)
Bibuoorapht: The chief work ia by J. C. MArikofer, /. J.
Breiiinger und ZUridi, Leipaio, 1874. Consult also G. R-
Zimmennaan, Di» Zitrdter Kirtha^ pp. 143-184. Zurioh,
1877-78.
BREMEN: A free city and state of the German
Empire. The city is situated on the Weeer, about
forty-«ix miles from its mouth and 215 miles by rail
wji.w. of Berlin. The state includes also the
d60
REUGI0U8 ENCYCLOPEDIA
Breithaupt
Bnmdan -
harbor-cities of Vegesack and Bremerhaven and
about ninety-nine square miles of contiguous
territory. The total population in 1900 was 224,-
697, of whom 163,292 belonged to the city of
Bremen. Ninety-four per cent, are reported as
Evangelical Protestants, 4.9 per cent, as Roman
Catholics; the number of Jews is about 1,000. Of
the Protestants neariy on(»-third are Reformed.
The Protestants have no ecclesiastical organisation,
the government standing at the head of the Church
and Tnftnnging its affairs through a commission,
whicJi is also the school board. The various con-
gregations are mdependent one of the other, but,
individually, take a warm interest in missionary
and benevolent work.
BxBuooaAPHT: W. Ton BippenfGMcAicAte der Stadt Bremen,
2 vols., Bremen, 1892-08; Jahrhuck fUr bremUckB Statu-
iik, ib. 1005.
BREMEH, BISHOPRIC OF: A former diocese
of Germany, whose foundation belongs to the
period of the missionary activity of Willehad (q.v.)
on the lower Weser. He was consecrated July 15,
787, at Worms, on Charlemagne's initiative, his
jurisdiction being assigned to cover the Saxon
territory on both sides of the Weser from the mouth
of the Aller, northward to the Elbe and westward
to the Hunte, and the Frisian territory for a certain
distance from the mouth of the Weser. Willehad
fixed his headquarters at Bremen, though the
formal constitution of the bishopric took place
only after the subjugation of the Saxons in 804 or
805, when Willehad's disciple, Willerich, was con-
secrated bishop of Bremen, with the same territory.
The diocese was probably at that time ecclesias-
tically subject to Cologne. When, after the death
of Bishop Leuderich (838-^845), it was given to
Ansgar, it lost its independence (see Ansoar),
and from that time was permanently united with
Hamburg. The new combined see was regarded
as the headquarters for missionary work in the
north, and new sees to be erected were to be sub-
ject to its jurisdiction. Ansgar's successor, Rim-
bert, the ** second apostle of the north," was
troubled by onslaughts first of the Normans and
then of the Wends, and by renewed claims on
the part of Cologne. The see of Bremen attained
its greatest prosperity and later had its deepest
troubles under Adalbert (see Adalbert op Ham-
burg-Bremen). The next two archbishops, Liemar
and Humbert, were determined opponents of Greg-
ory VII. Under the latter the archbishopric of Lund
(q.v.) was erected, and Bremen had suffragan sees
only in name, the Wendish bishoprics having been
destroyed. Schisms in Church and State marked
the next two centuries, and in spite of tho labors
of the Windesheim and Bursfelde congregations
(qq.v.), the way was prepared for the Reformation,
which made rapid headway, partly owing to the
fact that the last Roman Catholic archbishop,
Christopher of Brunswick, was also bishop of Verden
and resided there. By the time he died (1558),
nothing was left of the old religion outside of a few
monasteries and the districts served by them. The
title of archbishop, with the secular jurisdiction,
was borne for a time by Protestant princes. The
Peace of Westphalia (1648) secularised it and made
it (with Verden) a duchy and an appanage of the
crown of Sweden. In 1712 it passed into the
possession of Denmark, and three years later was
sold to Hanover, to which it was restored in 1813
after the Napoleonic disturbances. Its former
territory was distributed ecclesiastically at this
time among the neighboring dioceses of Hildes-
heim, OsnabrQck, and Mttnster, the imperial city
of Bremen and the surrounding district being
administered by the vicar-apostolic of the northern
missions.
BREHDAN, SAIRT, of CLONFERT (called
"the Navigator"): Irish saint; b. at Tralee (on
Tralee Bay, west coast of Ireland, County Kerry)
484; d. at the monastery of his sister, Brigh, at
Annadown (on the east shore of Lough O^rrib,
County Galway), 577. After studying with the
most distinguished Irish masters, he was ordained
presbyter, and then undertook the expedition or
expeditions which form the basis of " The Naviga-
tion of St. Brendan," one of the most popular
legends of the Middle Ages. In 552 or 553 (accord-
ing to others in 556 or 557) he founded the monas-
tery of Clonfert (in the barony of Longford, Coimty
Longford) and ruled it for twenty years, during
which time it was the most famous school in West
Ireland. He is said also to have founded a monas-
tery in Brittany. A visit to Columba on Hinba
Island, near lona, is recorded, which must have
been after 563, and he is last heard of in 570, when
he acted as bard at the inauguration of the first
Christian king of Cashel.
According to an Irish life of St. Brendan, when
he was ordained he pondered on the words in
Luke xviii, 20-30, and determined to forsake
country and brethren and seek a mysterious un-
known land which he saw in visions. Under
angelic guidance he set forth in a coracle of wicker
work and hides, but after seven years was directed
to return, as work was waiting for him at home.
Some years later the impulse to travel again sent
him forth, this time in a fine ship, fully equipped,
and with a crew of sixty. " The whole story of
the saint's adventures bears neither repetition nor
criticism: but in the midst of much crude fiction
we find occasional touches which have evidently
been derived from the reports of genuine voyagers.
In the course of their seven years' adventures they
visit the Isle of Sheep, a full fair island full of
green pasture: another fair island, full of flowers,
herbs, and trees, where they thank God of his good
grace: a little island wherein were many vines full
of grapes; they meet with great tempests, in
which they are greatly troubled long time and
sore foriaboured; at other times calm airs and
water so clear that they might see all the fishes
that were about them, whereof they are full sore
aghast: again they behold an hill all of fire and
a foul smoke and stink coming from thence: and
finally reach an attemperate land, ne too hot ne
too cold, the fairest country that any man might
see, in which the trees are charged with ripe fruit
and flowers. Here they walk forty days, but
find no end thereof, and at length lade their ships
with its fruits and return home" (E. J. Payne^
Brent
Brens
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
260
History of the New World, i, Oxford, 1892, 106-107).
The story was known in France, Spain, and Holland
in the eleventh oentiuy, and was very popular
with all daases. It exists in translation into eight
languages. Some of its incidents are derived frcMn
classical sources; others resemble the Arabian
Nights. An expedition to the Hebrides and northern
islands may have furnished the basis of fact.
Bibuoorapbt: Lanigan, Eccl. IlUt., ii, 2&-38: SL Brandan, a
metrical and a prose life, in Knglish, ed. T. Wright, in Percy
Society Publications, vol. xiy, London, 1844; W. J. Reea,
Livea of the Cambro-BriUah SainU, pp. 251-254, 575-579,
Llandovery, 1853; W. Reeves's Adamnan't Life of St. Colum^
ba, p. 221. Dublin. 1857; C. Schr6der, Sand Brandan, ein la-
teiniMcher und drei deutache Texte, Erlangen, 1871; A. P.
Forbra, KaUndan of Seottiah Sainte, pp. 284-287, Edin-
burgh, 1872; F. Michel, Lee voyagee merveiUexuc de 8. Bran-
dan^ Paris, 1878; J. Healy, Jneula eanctarum et doctorum, pp.
209 sqq., Dublin, 1890; D. O'Donoghue. Brendaniana, Dub-
lin, 1893: T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, pp. 63-64, Lon-
don, 1895; C. Plummer, Some New Light on the Brandan
Legend, in Zeiteehrift fOr eeltieehe Philologie, Y (1904),
124-141; J. O'Hanlon, Livee of the Irieh Sainie, v, 389-
472, Dublin, n.d.
BRENT, CHARLES HENRT: Protestant Epis-
copal missionaiy bishop of the Philippines; b. at
Newcastle, Ont., Apr. 9, 1862. He was graduated
at Trinity College, Toronto, in 1884, and was or-
dered deacon in 1886 and priested in 1887. He
was then curate of St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo,
N. Y., 1887-88, and of St. John the Evangelist, Bos-
ton, 1888-91, and associate rector of St. Stephen's,
in the same city, 1897-1901, being also a member of
the editorial staff of The Churchman from 1897 to
1900. In 1901 he was consecrated first bishop of
the missionary district of the Philippine Islands.
On May 6, 1908, he was elected bishop of the diocese
of Washington. He has written With God in the
World (New York, 1899); The Consolations of the
Cross (1902); The Splendor of the Human Body
(1904); and Liberty and Other Sermons (1906).
BRENZ, JOHANN.
Early AdvoeaeyoftheRefor- Opposed by the Emperor
mation (f 1). (| 3).
Activity in behalf of the New Activity, 1550-53 (| 4).
Movement (i 2). Controveraiea (i 5).
Later Years (16).
Jobann Brenz, the German theologian and
Swabian Reformer, was bom at Weil (8 m. s.
of Stuttgart) June 24, 1499; d. at Stuttgart Sept.
11, 1570. He received his education at Heidel-
berg, where, shortly after becoming magister and
regent of the Realistenbttrsa in 1518, he delivered
philological and philosophical lectures. He also
lectured on the Gospel of Matthew, only to be pro-
hibited on account of his popularity and his novel
exegesis, especially as he had already been won
over to the side of Luther, not only through his
ninety-five theses, but still more by personal
acquaintance with him at the disputa-
z. Early tion at Heidelberg in Apr., 1518. In
Advocacy 1522 Brenx was threatened with a
of the Rdf- trial for heresy, but escaped through
ormation. a call to the pastorate of Hall. In
the spring of 1524 he received a strong
ally in his activity as a Reformer in Johann Isenmann
(q.v.), who became pastor of the parish-church at
Hall. The feast of Corpus Ghristi was the first to
be discarded, and in 1524 the monastery of the
Discalced Friars was transformed into a sdiool.
In the Peasants' War, on the other hand, Brenx
deprecated the abuse of evangelical lib^ty by
the peasants, pleading for mercy to the con-
quered and warning the magistracy of their duties.
At Christmas the Lord's Supper was administered
in both kinds, and at Easter of the following year
the first regulations were framed for the church
and the school. Brenz himself prepared in 1528
a larger and a smaller catechism for the young,
both characterized by simplicity, warmth, and a
childlike spirit.
He first attained wider recognition, however,
when he published his Synqramma Suevicum on
Oct. 21, 1525, attacking (Eoolampadius, and finding
the explanation of the creative power of the word
of Christ in the theory that the body and blood
of Christ are actually present in the sacrament.
Henceforth Brenz took part in all the important
conferences on the religious situation. In Oct.,
1529, he attended the Colloquy of Marburg, and in
the following year, at the request of the Margrave
George of Brandenburg, he was present at the
diet in Augsburg, where he seconded Melanchthon
in his efforts to reach an agreement with the adher-
ents of the ancient faith, but refused
2. Activity all assodation with the followers of
in behalf Zwingli. In 1532 he collaborated in
of the New the church-regulations of Branden-
Movement burg and Nuremberg, and furthered
the Reformation in the margravate
of Brandenburg-Ansbach, DinkelsbQhl, and Heil-
bronn, while three years later Duke Ulrich of Wurt-
temberg called him as an adviser in the framing
of regiidations for the church, visitations, and
marriage. In Feb., 1537, he was at Schmalkald,
and two months later undertook the difficult but
successful task of the reformation of the Univer^ty
of Tubingen. He likewise attended the conference
on the use of images held at Urach, Sept., 1537,
where he urged their abolition. Brenz returned
to Hall in April of the following year, in June,
1540, attended the conference at Hagenau, wbs
at Worms in the latter part of the same year, and
in Jan., 1546, was at Regensburg, where he was
obliged to deal with Ck)chlsus, although, as he had
foreseen, he was unsuccessful. He devoted himself
with great zeal to his pastoral duties, and side by
side with his sermons was evolved a valuable series
of expositions of Biblical writings.
After the last remnants of the ancient regulations
of the church of Hall had been aboUshed, his new
rules appeared in 1543. Calls to Leipsic in 1542,
to Tubingen in 1543, and to Strasburg in 154$
were declined in favor of his position at Hall.
Brenz had long opposed the adherence of Hall
and the margrave to the Schmalkald League, since
he regarded resistance to the temporal authorities
as inadmissible. Gradually, however,
3. Opposed his views changed, through the hostile
by the attitude of the emperor. In 1538
Emperor. Hall entered the League, and after its
defeat Charles V came to the city (Dec
16, 1546), and obtained possession of papers,
letters, and sermons of Brenz, who, despite the
bitter cold, was obliged to flee, although he re-
261
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brent
Brens
turned Jan. 4, 1547. The new Interim of the em-
peror (see Interim), which Brenz called interitua
C* ruin ")» recalled him to the scene of action, and
he earnestly opposed its adoption. The imperial
chancellor, Granvelia, demanded his surrender, and
Brenz, warned by a note reading: " Flee, Brenz,
quickly, more qiuckly, most quickly!" escaped
on the evening of his forty-ninth birthday, June
24, 1548. He hastened to Duke Ulrich, who con-
cealed him in the castle of Hohenwittlingen near
Urach, where, under the pseudonym of Joannes
Witlingius, he prepared an exposition of Ps. xciii
and cxxx. As the emperor was everywhere search-
ing for him, Ulrich sent him by way of Strasburg
to Baj9el, where he was kindly received and found
time to write an exposition of the prophecy of
Isaiah. Duke Christopher called him to M5m-
pelgard, where, in Jan., 1549, Brenz was notified
of the death of his wife. The condition of his
children induced him to go to Swabia, but owing
to the pursuit of the emperor, he was often in great
danger, and the duke sheltered him in the castle
of Homberg near Gutach. There he spent eighteen
months imder the name of Huldrich Engster (En-
caustius), always active for the welfare of the Church,
both by his advice to the duke and his theological
labors. He declined calls to Magdeburg, KOnigs-
berg, and England. In Aug., 1549, he ventured
to go to Urach, where his friend Isenmann was now
minister, in order to take counsel with the duke,
his advisers, and Matthsus Alber (q.v.) regarding
the restoration of the evangelical divine service.
In the autumn of 1550 he married for his second
wife Catharine, the oldest daughter of Isenmann.
After Ulrich's death Brenz was asked to prepare
the con/e88to Wirtembergica for the Coimcil of Trent,
and with three other Wittenberg theologians and
Johann Marbach of Strasburg, he went to Trent,
Mar., 1552, to defend his creed (see
4. Activity, Beurlin, Jakob). Great was the
1 550^53* surprise of the fathers of the council,
but they refused to be instructed
by those who were to obey them. The Interim
was abolished. Brenz who had thus far lived at
Stuttgart, Tubingen, Ehningen, and Sindelfingen
as counselor of the duke, was made provost of the
Cathedral of Stuttgart, Sept. 24, 1554, and ap-
pointed ducal coimselor for life. He was now the
right hand of the duke in the reorganization of
ecclesiastical and educational affairs in WUrttem-
berg. The great church order of 1553-59, con-
taining also the canfessio Wirtembergica f in spite of
its dogmatism, is distinguished by clearness, mild-
ness, and consideration. In like manner, liis
CaUschiemiu pia et utiU explicaiione illustrattu
(Frankfort, 1551) became a rich source of instruction
for many generations and countries. The propo-
sition made by Kaspar Leyser and Jakob Andre& in
1554 to introduce a form of discipline after a Cal-
vinistic model was opposed by Brenz, since he held
that the minister should have charge of the preach-
ing, the exhortation to repentance, and dissuasion
from the Lord's Supper, whereas excommunication
belonged to the whole church. At the instance of
the duke, Brenz moved in 1553 to Neubiu-g, to
arrange the church affairs of the Palatinate.
The Osiandric controversy about the doctrine of
justification in 1551 and the following years, which
caused a scandalous schism in Prussia, was a cause
of much annoyance and defamation
5. Contro- to Brenz, who saw in this controversy
versies. nothing but a war of words. In 1554-
1555 the question of the Religious
Peace of Augsburg occupied his mind; in 1556 the
conference with Johannes a Lasco, in 1557 the
Frankenthal conference with the Anabaptists
and the Worms Colloquy; in 1558 the edict against
Schwenckfeld and the Anabaptists, and the Frankfort
Recess; in 1559 the plan for a synod of those who
were related to the Augsburg Confession and the
Stuttgart Synod, to protect Brenz's doctrine of the
Lord's Supper against Calvinistio tendencies; in
1563 and 1569 the struggle against Calvinism in the
Palatinate (Maulbronn Colloquy) and the crypto-
Calvinistic controversies. The attack of the
Dominican Peter a Soto upon the Wilrttemberg
Confession in his Asaertio fidei (Cologne, 1562) led
Brenjs to reply with his Apologia confesnonia
(Frankfort, 1555). In 1558 he was engaged in a
controversy with Bishop Hosius of Ermland.
The development of the Reformation in the Palati-
nate led the aged man to a vehement renewal of
his negotiation with Bullinger, with whom he had
been forced into close relation through the Interim.
The question concerned the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper and also involved a peculiar development
of Christology, which was opposed by the Lutheran
theologians outside of Wilrttemberg, since Brenz
carried to its logical conclusion the concept of
" personal imion," thus favoring an absolute
omnipresence (ubiquity) of the bod/ of Christ,
which did not begin with the ascension but with
the incarnation.
Brenz took a lively interest in the Waldensians
and the French Protestants. But all efforts in be-
half of the latter, the journey of the Wilrttemberg
theologians to Paris to advise King
6. Later Antony of Navarre in 1561 (see Beur-
Years. un, Jakob), the meeting of the duke
and Brenz with Cardinal Guise of Lor-
raine at Zabem, the correspondence and the sending
of writings, all ended in bitter disappointment.
The Protestants of Bavaria, who had to suffer under
Albert, also had his full sympathy. To the citizens
of Strasburg Brenz expressed his doubts as to the
advisability of following the procession with the
monstrance and advised them not to attend mass.
He was also deeply interested in the Protestants
in Austria, for whom the first Slavic books were
then printed at Urach. His last Reformatory
activity was the correspondence with Duke Will-
iam of Jtilich and Julius of Brunswick-Wolf en-
bilttel (1568-69). In addition to this he continued
his exposition of the Psalms and other Biblical
books, which he had commenced at Stuttgart.
In 1569 he was paralyzed, and his strength was
broken. He was buried beneath the pulpit of
the cathedral; but the Jesuits demolished his grave.
G. BOSSERT.
Bibuoorapbt: An index of the works, printed and in MS.,
of Brens, and of works about him is furnished in W.
Kdhler. Bibliographia Bmtiana, Berlin. 1904. There is
Bxte
Br«Tiary
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
no complete ed. of Brens'a prodttctiona, thouch eelected
works, in 8 vola., were publiabed, TObugen, 1676HK>.
The letters are given in T. PresseU Antedola BrenHana,
ib. 1868, and in Btiirdg* gur baymitehtn JCircAen^ssdkidUt.
ed. T. Kolde, i, 278, ii. 34. The earliest sketch of his
life is by J. Heerbrand, Oraiio fum^bn§, TQbingen. 1670.
For later accounts consult: J. Hartmann and C. Jiger,
Johann Brmu, 2 vols., Hamburg. 1840-42 (stiU the best
account); J. Hartmann, Johann BrenM, Elberfeld. 1862;
G. Boesert, Dm InUrim in WUrUemberg, Halle. 1806;
E. Schneider. WlirUembergi9cke Oe§ehichte, Stuttgart. 1896.
On the theology of Brens consult: H. Schmid. Der
Kampf dtr hUKerUthen Kinhe um Lulker'w Ldm vam
Abmdmahl im RefcrmaHoTUgnkUier, Leipeic, 1868; A.
Hegler, J. Brent und die Reformation im Hertogtum Wiriem-
berg, Freiburg. 1800; C. W. KQgelgen, Die BeehtferUffung^
Ukn de§ J. Brmu, Leipsic, 1899; G. Traub, Beitn$ siir
Getdiichte dM Rmktferti4funoab«griff9, in TSK, bodii,
1900.
BRte, br6, GUY DE (Guido da Bray): Reformer
in the Netherlands; b. at Mons 1522; executed at
Valenciennes May 31, 1567. He was brought up
strictly by his Roman Catholic mother, but before
his twenty-fifth year had become a thorough
Protestant. When persecution broke out in 1548,
he fled to England, where he spent four years.
Then he came back and settled at Ryssel (Lidge),
where he won great popularity as a preacher.
In 1556 his congregation was dispersed by a fresh
persecution, and he was obliged to flee, going
apparently for a while to Ghent, then to Frankfort,
and probably to Switzerland. Early in 1559 he
returned to the southern Netheriands, with Toumai
for his headquarters, but serving also Ryssel and
Valenciennes, and visiting Antwerp and Mons in
the cause of his religion, often in disguise for safety's
sake. The public singing of Marot's psalms
in Sept., 1561, gave rise to a judicial investigation,
which exposed Brte to fresh danger. Undaunted,
he undertook to secure justice for his comrades by
laying before the authorities his confession of faith
(Imown as the Belgic Confession, q.v.) in thirty-
seven articles, on the model of that adopted by the
French Reformed churches in 1550. This modest,
sober, positive statement, which he hoped would
show the authorities that his friends were not
revolutionary Anabaptists, failed to stop the perse-
cution; but the frequent editions of it show that
it met with popular approval; it won thousands
to the cause of the Reformation, and was soon
recognised as a standard formula. Once known,
however, as its author, the Reformer was obliged
to escape from Toumai to Amiens, and thence
possibly to Antwerp. In 1564 he was in Brussels
for a conference with William of Orange, and took
part in the negotiations at Metz for a union of the
Lutherans and Calvinists. Then he found a refuge
at S^an with Henri Robert de la Marck, Sieur de
Bouillon, but was called back to a post of danger
in the summer of 1566 by the consistoiy of Ant-
werp. In August he settled at Valenciennes,
where by this time more than two-thirds of the
inhabitants were in sympathy with the Reforma-
tion. At first he preached in the open air, but after
the iconoclastic outbreak of Aug. 24 took possession
of St. John's church. The governor's attempts
to suppress the movement led to the siege of the
dty in December, and its surrender in the following
Murch. Once more Brte was forced to flee, but
he and his fellow preachers were captured a few
hours later at Saint-Amand, and sent as prisoDers
to Toumai and then back to Valenciennes. The
letters which he wrote to comfort his wife and his
aged mother give an insight into his faith and the
nobility of his character. He was sentenced to be
hanged in front of the town hall, and thus ended
a life full of toil and peril, which is one of the glories
of the Reformation in the southern Netheriands.
(L. A. VAN Lakgeraad.)
Bibuoobapht: L. A. van Langeraad. Ouido de Bray; tjfu
leven en Uferken, Bydrage tot de geediiedenie van ket twid-
Nederlandeehe FroteetanHeme, Ziesikaee, 1884; W. C. tab
Hanen. Guy de Bray; opetdler van de Belydeniaat dee
geloofe der tfereformeerde Kercken in Nederiand, Antfter^
dam. 1886.
BRESLAU, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese which
is shown to be already in existence at the date of
the foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen
(1000). Probably it was established not long
before that date, presumably not by Otto III, but
by Duke Boleslav Chrobry of Poland. The original
extent of the diocese (ian not be determined, but
in later times it was nearly coextensive with the
present province of Silesia, including also the Meis-
sen district on the western side of the Queis.
(A. Hauck.)
A line of unusually excellent bishops adminis-
tered the see with success until the sixteenth ceu-
tury; but Jacob von Salsa (1520-39) was too weak
to stand against the rising tide of the Reformationp
and his successor, Balthasar von Promnitz, was even
inclined to Lutheran doctrines. From 1608 to
1664 the see was occupied by three archdukes of
Austria and a prince of Poland, who had little care
for religion, and when Silesia came under Fredei^
ick II of Prussia Protestantism was still more en-
couraged. In 1821 the diocese, which is now partly
in Germany and partly in Austria and nimibers
about two million souls, was made an exempt
bishopric.
BRETHRElf, BOHEIOAN; BRETHREN OF
THE COMMON LIFE, and similar titles. See
Bohemian Brethren; Common Life, Brethrek
OF the, etc.
BRETSCHNEIDER,bret'shnai''der,KARL GOTT-
LIEB: German theologian; b. at Gersdori (40
m. e. of Dresden), Saxony, Feb. 11, 1776; d. at
Gotha Jan. 22, 1848; studied at Leipsic; appointed
minister at Schneeberg, 1807, superintendent at An-
naberg, 1808, and superintendent-general at Gotha,
1816. He was a prolific writer and took an active
part in controversies. Among his principal works
may be mentioned: Lexicon manuale Grceco-Lati-
num in libros Novi Testamenti (Leipsic, 1824; 3d
ed., 1840); Systenuxtische Entxvickelung aUer in der
Dogmatik vorkammenden Begriffe (1805; 4th ed.,
1841); Handbuch der Dogmatik (1814; 4th ed..
1838). He founded the series of reprints called the
Corpus reformatorum (Halle, 1834 sqq.), in which
the works of Melanchthon and Calvin have ap-
peared, to which Zwingli will be added. His
standpoint was that of the so-called rational
supematuralism — ^a rather untenable ground be-
tween rationalism and supematuralism.
Bibliooraprt: K. G. Bretschneider, Aue meinem Lfbtn:
Selbetbiographie, ed. H. Bretachneider (hia boo), Gothft.
1862.
263
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Breviary
BREVIARY: The name of the Roman Catholic
aervioe-book containing what is called the ** divine
office " or the services for the canonical hours,
as distinguished from the missal, which contains
the altar-service, and the ritual, which has the
rites for the administration of the sacraments, etc.
It is a practically arranged, well-divided collection
of prayers with numerous brief extracts from
Scripture, and the Fathers and ancient hymns.
From the subdeacon upward every Roman cleric
is bound to recite the whole office daily.
The breviary is based on the idea of realizing,
in the spirit of the Church, at least symbolically,
the apostolic oonunand to "pray without ceas-
ing"; the whole life of the Christian is to appear
as a continuous prayer, not only in heart and works,
but also in words; at all hours and places of the
earth the prayer of the Church is to ascend to God.
The custom of the synagogue (Dan. vi, 10, 13;
Ps. iv, 18) in regard to morning and evening hours
(I Chron. xxiv, 30) as well as other
The times of prayer (Ps. cxix, 62, 64)
Canonical was taken aa a standard. At first
Hours, there were the three hours, the third,
sixth, and ninth, or 9 a.m., noon, and
3 P.M. (cf. Acts ii, 15, 46; iii, 1; x, 9). To these
were added midnight, the hour when Paul and
Silas prayed in the prison (Acts xvi, 25), and the
beginning of the day and the night. This arrange-
ment of prayer is mentioned in Tertullian, Cyprian,
Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and the
ApoetoUc Constitutions. In the fourth centuiy,
Athanasius (De virginitate, xii-xx) knows of seven
hours; Gregory Nazianzen speaks with approval
of the nightly vigils and the antiphonal singing.
All these hours were adopted in the monasteries
especially, as Jerome {Epist., vii, cviii, cxxx), Basil,
and Augustine attest. From the monasteries
these hours of prayer (called canonical ajs a part
of canonical life) spread to the cathedral and
collegiate chapters. Benedict added the seventh
(compline, compleiorium), and since the sixth
century the order and nimiber of hours have not
varied. The day-hours are prime (normally at
6 A.M.), terce (9 a.m.), sext (noon), none (3 p.m.),
and vespers (6 p.m.); nowadays compline and lauds
are usually reckoned with them. (See the articles
under these titles.)
Matins, answering to the three Roman vigils,
is divided into three noctiunes, and was originally
followed by the present lauds.
The bulk of the prayers for all these hours was
taken from the Psalms, to which antiphons were
added, giving the psalms a special meaning appro-
priate to the occasion. Afterward collects were
added, which were intended to pre-
Sources vent distraction and excite devotion,
and Reri- and are accordingly brief. The pos-
rions of the ture varied between standing, sitting,
Breviary, and kneeling. The whole structure
was enriched and completed by the
addition of other prayers, responsories, versicles,
etc. The musical element was provided for by
official books known as antiphonarics, especially
that composed xmder Gregory I, and the so-called
Mierologtut (twelfth century). Cassian attests
that each three psalms at matins were followed
by three lessons, taken from Scriptiu^, on Sunday
only from the New Testament; later on the lives
of the saints and exegetical passages from the
most prominent teachers of the Church were in-
serted. The introduction of metrical hymns was
long opposed (Council of Braga, 553), especially
in Rome. So many arbitrary additions made the
offices too long, and Gregory VII reduced them;
other revisions were made under Gregory IX,
Clement VII. who had the assistance of the Fran-
ciscan general. Cardinal Quignonez (1536), Clement
VIII (1602), and Urban VIII (1631). The late
Vatican Coimcil also introduced some changes.
At present the Roman breviary, which has at
last succeeded in supplanting the many local or
diocesan uses, consists of four parts, corresponding
to the four seasons of the year. Each
Contents part again has four divisions: (1) The
of the psalter, or ordinary week-day service
Roman for each day and hour; (2) the '' proper
Breviary, of the season," the service for the fes-
tivals of Christ and the Sundays of
the various seasons; (3) the "proper of saints," the
special service for the festivals of particular saints;
and (4) the " common of saints," providing, under
separate classes, services for those saints who have
no special one. Appendices contain the office for
the dead, the gradual and penitential psalms,
prayers for the dying and for travelers, and grace
before and after meals.
The analogous service-book in the Greek Chiu-ch
is called Horologium. In the Evangelical Church
a similar service was often retained in cathedral
and collegiate chapters, for which Luther's sug-
gestions of 1523 and 1526 furnished a basis. The
matins and vespers were especially retained.
Attempts have lately been made, with varying
success, to restore the other hours; but the prob-
lem can not be considered as solved. The Anglican
Church, in its Book of Common Prayer, has made
skilful use of important portions from the ancient
order. M. Herold.
The calendar of the Roman breviary is a com-
plicated affair, especially since the multiplication
of festivals in the last two or three centuries. These
are classed as double or simple. The simple form
the lowest class, and have no second vespers.
The double (so called from the antiphons being
doubled, or recited entire both before and after
the psalms and canticles at lauds and vespers)
are classed in order of importance as doubles of
the first class (with or without an octave), second
class, greater, and lesser. Where two feasts occur,
i.e., fall on the same day, or concur, i.e., the first
vespers of one conffict with the second vespers of
the other, the difficulty is met, according to detailed
rules based on the rank of the feasts, either by
" transferring " the less important to the first
unoccupied day, or by " commemorating " it
with the recitation of its chief antiphon, versicle
and response, and collect, after the collect for the
day at lauds and vespers.
Bibuoorapht: A complete Eng. transl. of the Roman
Breviary was made by John Marqueee of Bute. 2 vob..
London, 1879. Consult also: C. H. Collette. The Roman
Brewer
Bridget
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
264
Broviory, London, 1880; G. Sohober, EzplanaHo criUca
. . breviarii R<man%t RegenBhurg, 1891; S. B&umer,
Oeadiiehte de% Brevierw, Freiburg, 1895, Fr. transl., Paris,
1906; P. Batiffol. HiMtovn du brMaire Romain, Paris, 1893,
Eng. transl., London, 1898; Bingham, Oriointt, book ziii,
chap. 9; J. Baudot, Le BrMaire romain, aea originM, ton
hiatoire, Paris, 1906.
On the Scripture reading consult E. Ranke, Dos ktreh-
liehe Perikopenayatem aua den (Uteaien Urkunden dar r&ml-
aehen Liiurgie, Berlin, 1847.
On the hymns consult: F. Probst, Bravier und Breviar-
gabei, TQbingen. 1868; J. Kayser, Beiir&ge aw OaacMchte
und ErklArung dar dUen Kirdienhvmnan, 2 vols., Pader-
bom, 1881-86; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 170-181. A rich
bibliography of Breviaries is to be found in the Briiiah
Muaeum CakUoffue, s.v. Liturgies.
BREWER, LEIGH RICHMOUD: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Montana; b. at Berkshire, Vt.,
Jan. 20, 1839. He was educated at Hobart College
(B.A., 1863) and the General Theological Seminary
(1866), and was ordered deacon in 1866 and or-
dained priest in the following year. He was suc-
cessively rector of Grace Church, Carthage, N. Y.
(1866-72), and Trinity Church, Watertown, N. Y.
(1872-80), and in 1880 was consecrated missionary
bishop of Montana.
BREWSTER, CHAUNCEY BUNCE: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Connecticut; b. at Wind-
ham, Conn., Sept. 5, 1848. He was educated at
Yale CJollege (B.A., 1868) and Berkeley Divinity
School, Middletown, Conn. (1872). He was a tu-
tor at Yale in 1870-71, was ordered deacon in
1872, and was advanced to the priesthood in the
following year. He was curate of St. Andrew's,
Meriden, Conn., in 1872, and was then rector in
succession of Christ Church, Rye, N. Y. (1873-81),
Christ Church, Detroit, Mich. (1881-^), Grace
Church, Baltimore (1885-88), and Grace Church,
Brooklyn Heights (1888-97). In 1897 he was
consecrated bishop-coadjutor of Connecticut, and
became bishop in 1899. His theological position
is that of a High-chiu'chman with liberal sympa-
thies. He has written The Key of Life (New York,
1894); Aspects of Revelation (1901; the Baldwin
lectures for 1900); and The Catholic Ideal of the
Church (1904).
BREWSTER, WILLIAM: Leader of the "PU-
grim Fathers"; b. of good family probably at
Scrooby (37 m. s. of York), Nottinghamshire,
England, 1560; d. at Plymouth, Mass., Apr. 10,
1644. He matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge,
but apparently did not graduate. From 1584 till
1587 he was in the service of William Davison,
ambassador to the Low Countries and afterward
secretary of state. About 1587 he retired to Scrooby,
where he lived in the manor-house and was
keeper of the post, a position of considerable im-
portance at that time. He was a prominent mem-
ber of a separatist congregation of which Richard
Clifton (q.v.) wajs pastor, holding its meetings
regularly at Brewster's house. Because of perse-
cution in England they made an imsuccessful
attempt to flee to Holland in 1607, and in 1608
escaped to Amsterdam with John Robinson (q.v.)
aa " teacher " and Brewster as " elder." In 1609
they settled at Leyden, where Brewster, having
exhausted his means, gave lessons in EInglish and
also set up a printing-press. He favored the emi-
gration to America, was influential in securing a
grant of land in 1619, and sailed with the first
company in the Mayflower, Sept., 1620. He
continued as elder of the congregation at Plymouth,
and preached regularly imtil the first ordained
minister, Ralph Smith, came in 1629, but as he
was not ordained, he never administered the sacra-
ments. See CONORIEOATIONALIBTB, I, 1, §{5-7;
4,§1.
Bibuoorapht: Memoir^ written by his colleague, WiUnm
Bradford, the governor and tuBtorian of the Plymouth
colony (b. 1500; d. 1657). in Young's Chronidaa of Ac
PUgrima, Boston, ISAl.andm the Collectiona of the Maaaa-
ehuaetta Hiatorical Soeiaty, series 5, vol. iii; A. Steele,
Chief of the Pilgrima. Life and Time of W, Brewater, Phil-
adelphia, 1857; J. Savage, Genaalooical Dictionary of the
Firat Settlara of New England, 4 vols., Boston, 186Q-«2;
W. Walker, Hiatory of Conoregational ChurtAea^ pp. 56,
59, 61-74. 77, 227, New York, 1894; DNB, vi, 304-305.
BREYFOGEL, brd'f o-gel, SYLVAITOS CHARLES:
Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. at Read-
ing, Pa., July 20, 1851. He was ordained to
the ministry of the Evangelical Association in
1873, was elected presiding elder of the same
organization in 1886, and has been bishop since
1891. In this capacity he has made tours of
inspection throughout the United States, Can-
ada, and Europe, as well as China and Japan.
He is chancellor of the Correspondence College
of the Evangelical Association at Reading, Pa.,
has lectured frequently before the Ocean Grove
School of Theology, the Winona Assembly, and sim-
ilar summer assemblies, and has written Landmarks
of the Evangelical Association (Cleveland, 1887).
BRIC0NNET,brt"sen"n6',GUILLAUME: French
prelate; b. at Paris 1470; d. at Esmans (near
Montereau, 20 m. e.s.e. of Melim) Jan. 24, 1534.
He was a descendant of a noble family of Touraine,
and, after completing his theological studies at the
college of Navarre, wajs appointed bishop of Loddve
and was also made abbot of St. Germain-des-Prte
in 1507. Four years later he attended the Council
of Pisa, and during his absence a spirit of licen-
tiousness spread among his monks, whom he was
imable to control. Francis I then appointed him
bishop of Meaux and sent him on a mission to
Rome, where he remained two years. On his
return, he sought to improve the morals and cus-
toms of his diocese, and accordingly convoked
several synods, and also extended invitations to
a niunber of evangelical preachers, such as Lef^vre,
Roussel, and Farel, who preached in thirty-two
different places in his diocese, and introduced
French translations of the Gospels and Elpistles.
When Farel attacked Rome, however, Brigonnet
deprived him of his office and convoked two synods,
the first condenming the teachings of Luther and
forbidding the purchase or the reading of his works,
and the second prohibiting all heterodox inter-
pretations of the Gospel. Brigonnet found himself
between two factions; one turning against Rome
by denying the authority of the pope, the worship
of the Virgin and of the saints; and the other
clinging to the old traditions. In his effort to
avoid extremes, he published certain proclamations
between Dec, 1524, and Jan., 1525, threatening
to excommunicate those who had burned the bull
265
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Br0wer
Bridget
of Clement VII and destroyed images of the Virgin.
Notwithstanding this, he was charged by the
Cordeliers before the Parliament of Paris with be-
ing in sympathy with the Lutherans (Mar., 1525-
Oct., 1526), whereupon a conmiission ordered that
Lefdvre's translations be burned, and forbade
evangelical preaching. The preachers accordingly
fled to Strasburg, although Bri^onnet himself was
acquitted. Taking advantage of the absence of
Francis I, who was held captive in Madrid, the
Cordeliers renewed their charges, and two of the
new preachers. Jacobus Pauvan and Matthsus
Saimier, were convicted of heresy by the Sorbonne
and burned at the stake. Bri^onnet wrote a letter
of submission to the Parliament, and Francis
quashed the case. His works were as follows:
Synodalis oratio (Paris, 1520); Synodalia oratio
(1552); and a correspondence with Margaret of
Navarre, some of winch, with other fragments,
is contained in G^nin, LeUres de Marguerite d'Anffovr-
Ume (1841) and Nouvellea lettres de la reine de
Navarre (1842), and Herminjard, Carrespondance
dee rlformateurs (Greneva, 1878).
G. Bonbt-Maury.
Bibuoobaprt: G. BretonneftUt Hiatoire o^nMogique de la
maUondeeBri^onnett Paris, 1 620; M. T. C. Dupleasis. Hiatoire
dB fi^imdeMeaux, ib. 1731 ; V. Dunxy, HUtoire de France,
i, 675 Bqq., ib. 1856; A. L. Herminjard. Correapondance
dee r^ormaleure, vol. i, ib. 1878; E. and K. Haas, l^
France proteelante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ib. 1877 sqq.; Lich-
tenberier, ESR, ii. 423-429; 8. Berger, in BuUeHn de la
eoeiiU du proteetantieme fran^aie, 1895.
BRICnNANS (Brittinans, BrittinianSi so named
from S. Blasius de Brictinis, a desolate region not
far from Fano in Umbria): An Italian hermit-
society founded during the pontificate of Gregory
IX, who confirmed it in 1234 by an edict, enjoining
upon the members the most rigorous asceticism,
especially as to fasting and the total abstinence
from flesh in any form between Sept. 14 and Easter
of every year. Innocent IV sought, apparently
with success, to merge them, as well as the anchorite
orders of the Williamites and John-Bonites (qq.v.),
in the new order of the Augustinians (q.v.). A
bull of Alexander IV, however, dated in 1260
(Potthast, Regesta, no. 17,915), assures them the
right of independent existence. O. ZOcEXrERf.
BRIDAINE (BRYDAINE), JACQUES: French
Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Chusclan (15 m.
nji.w. of Avignon), Department of Gard, Mar. 21,
1701; d. at Roquemaure, near Avignon, Dec. 22,
1767. He studied at the Jesuit Ciollege and the
Mission Seminary of St. Charles de la Croix in
Avignon; visited as a missionary preacher or evan-
gelist neariy every city and village of France, pro-
ducing a profound impression by his somber and
vehement sermons. He almost always preached ex-
- temporaneously, appealed to the emotions of his
hearers, and sought to terrify them. He prepared
a volume of CanHquee spiritueU (Montpellier, 1748),
which has passed through fifty editions. Certain
works have been published from his manuscripts,
including Leeturea et midUalione (Avignon, 1821);
RigUmerU de vie pour une pieuee demoiselle (1821);
and five volumes of sermons (1823).
BiBuooaAPHT: Ahh6 Oarron, Le ModkU dee prHree, Paris.
1804.
BRIDEL, brt"del', PHILIPPE LOUIS JUSTIN:
Swiss Protestant; b.at Lausanne Nov. 27, 1852. He
was educated at the Academy (now the University)
of his native city and in the theological faculty of
the Free Church of the same institution, being
graduated from the former in 1870 and from the
latter in 1876. He also studied at the University
of Gdttingen, and after the completion of his
education held successive pastorates in the Canton
of Vaud (1875-78), Paris (187^-87), and Lausanne
(1887-04). Since 1894 he has been professor of
philosophy and the history of theology in the
theological faculty of the Free Church at Lausanne.
He has been associate editor of the Revue de (hSo-
logie et de philoaophie since 1895 and of the lAberU
chr^ienne since 1898. In theology he is, to a cer-
tain extent, a follower of C. Secr6tan and A. R.
Vinet, and has written La Philosophie de la religion
d'Immanuel Kant (Lausanne, 1876); La Palestine
illus^ie (4 vols., 1888-91); Roger HoUard, pasteur
d Paris (1902); and Charles Renauvier et la phi-
losophie (1905).
BRIDGE, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. in Cam-
bridgeshire about 1600; d. at Clapham, near
London, Mar. 12, 1670. He was a fellow of Emman-
uel Ck>llege, Cambridge, and, as rector at Norwich,
was silenced by Bishop Wren for non-conform-
ity (1637), and excommunicated; he remained in
Norwich, however, till the writ de excommunicato
capiendo came out against him, when he fled to
Holland and became pastor of tiie English Church
at Rotterdam, succeeding Hugh Peters and asso-
ciated with Jeremiah Burroughs; he returned to
England in 1642 and was a member of the West-
minster Assembly; was minister at Great Yar-
mouth till ejected in 1662, and spent the rest
of his life at Clapham. He was an Independent
(Congregationalist) and Calvimst, a learned man,
and had a library rich in the Fathers and school-
men. His collected works in three volumes were
published at London, 1649, and, with memorial,
in five volimies, 1845.
BRIDGET (Brigit, Brigida, Bride), SAINT, OF
KILDARE: Patron saint of Ireland; b. at Fochart
(Faugher, 2 m. n. of Dimdalk), Leinster, c. 453;
d. at Kildare (30 m. w.s.w. of Dublin) Feb. 1, 523.
She was the daughter of a certain Dubhthach and
his bondmaid or concubine named Brotsech. At
the age of fourteen she received the veil in Meath
from the hand of Bishop Machille (Mel), and during
a long life won renown for piety and benevolence,
and as a foimder of monasteries. Her first and most
important foundation was Kildare (cill dara, so
named from a large oak under which her cell was
first placed), which was followed by Breagh in
Meath, Hay in Connaught, Cliagh in Munster,
and others. She was buried at Kildare, where the
nuns of her monastery (the " fire-house ") kept
the so-called '' St. Bridget's fire " continually
burning in her honor till 1220, when the bishop of
the time ordered it extinguished to make an end
of the many superstitions connected with it. Thus
far the notices of her life are well authenticated;
but in very early times legend began to associate
marvels of the wUdest sort with her name — a tend-
Bridget
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
266
ency not unknown to her oldest biographers.
An aged seer foretold her future greatness to her
mother before she was bom.
While still a child Bridget prophesied her coming
spiritual rule over Ireland by stretching her arms
over the green fields and crying "it will be
mine." As nun and monastery-head she per-
forms numerous mirades of benevolence and
love like those of Elijah at Zarephath and Jesus
in feeding the multitude. The milk which she
gives to a poor man, instead of making it into
butter, is restored in a wondrous way; so like-
wise the bacon which she gives to a hungry
dog instead of cooking it. She gives seven sheep,
one after the other, to a beggar who comes to
her in seven different forms, but the number
of her flock is not diminished. She changes the
water drawn from a spring for a sick man into
a delicious liquor. She satisfies a whole company
of episcopal guests with the milk of a single cow
which had already been milked three times the
same day.
Some of her dream-mirades and visions are
more credible; but here, on the one hand, a
Roman-clerical tendency is easily recognised —
as when she finds herself transported to Rome
and hears a mass read there which awakens in
her the desire to transplant the same to Ireland —
and, on the other hand, we meet with characteris-
tics of a benevolent nature-deity, which the legends
mentioned above also indicate by ascribing to
her manifold miracles connected with the giving
of food and drink. It is thus not unlikely that
the old heathen nature-goddess Ceridwen (the
Ceres of the Celts), transformed into a Christian
saint, survives in Bridget. The fire also which
was kept burning in her honor at Kildare speaks
for this supposition. It is said that the foundations
of a temple of Ceridwen, with great vaults for the
storing of fruits, have been found beneath the
chapel of the monastery (cf. Transacticna of the
Royal IrUh Academy, iii, 1789, Ant., 75-85). In
old Irish legend and song, Bridget is likened to
the Virgin Mary, or even extolled as the Mary of
the Irish by expressions such as " mother of Christ,"
"mother of the Lord," and the like. A hymn,
attributed to Bishop Ultan (d. 656) and in any
case very old, calls her " beloved queen of the
true God," and the old Officium S, BrigidcB (printed
at Paris, 1622) speaks of her as " another Mary,"
" like to Maiy," etc. The monasteries, churches,
and villages named after her are almost without
number. O. ZdCKLERf.
Bxbuoobapht: The three oldest lives (by Brogar Cloen.
CogitosuB, and Ultan), dating from the sixth and seventh
centuriee, with three later lives, from the ninth to the
twelfth centuries, were published by J.Golgan in his Trias
thavmaturga, PP. 616-626, Louvain. 1647; the A8B gives
three of these lives with two others and a preface, Feb.,
i. 90-186. The life by Cogitosus is in Af PL, badi. For
later presentations consult J. Yjanigan, l^ectesiasfieol Hi§-
tory of Ireland, i, 68, 336, and chaps, viii and ix, passim.
Dublin, 1820; J. H. Todd, The Book of Hymne of the Attr
dent Church of Ireland, i. 64-70. Dublin. 1866; idem, St.
Pairidc, pp. 10-26, Dublin. 1864; A. P. Forbes. Kalendare
of ScotHeh Sainte, pp. 287-291, Edinburgh, 1872; J. Healy,
Ineula eandorum, pp. 106-121, Dublin, 1890; T. Olden,
The Chvreh of Ireland, pp. 38-48, London, 1896; J. O'Han-
lon, Livee of the Irieh Sainte, ii, 1-224, Dublin, n.d.
BIODGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN AND THE
BRIGITTINE ORDER.
Bridget's Early Life (| 1).
Bridget's Revelations and Later Life (| 2).
Her Works (| 3).
The Brigittine Order (| 4).
Bridget, the famous Scandinavian mystic and
monastic founder, was bom probably at Finstad,
not far from Upsala, in 1303; d. in Rome July 23,
1373. Her father, Birger Persson, was one of the
principal landowners of the district, and chaiged
with both administrative and judicial functions.
Her family on both sides had been distinguished
for religious devotion, and the child received a
careful education in spiritual things. Her imagi-
nation, nourished on the lives of the saints, brought
her her first vision at the age of seven. Others fol-
lowed, theresdityof which neither she
X. Bridget's nor her parents doubted. After her
Early mother's death, Bridget was entrusted
Life. to an aunt at Aspan&s, whose strict dis-
cipline laid the foundation of her asceti-
cism and strength of will. In 1316 she was married,
in pursuance of her father's political plans, to Ulf,
son of the governor of the province of Nerike, and
took up her residence at Ulf&sa in that province,
where she acquired great influence by the renown
of her piety and unselfishness. By degrees she col-
lected around her a group of devout and learned
men — ^Nicolaus Hennanni, renowned as a Latin
poet, and later bishop of Linkdping, who was the
instructor of her children; Matthias, her confessor,
the foremost theologian of the time in Sweden;
Prior Peter of Alvastra; and another Peter, who
succeeded Matthias as her confessor. Through
Matthias, who was the author of a commentary
on Revelation, she gained an insight into the
religious movements and the rich apocalyptic
literature of the day. After King Magnus Erics-
son's marriage with Blanche of Namur, Bridget
became chief lady-in-waiting to the queen, and
soon acquired a great influence at the court.
No remarkable visions or revelations seem to have
marked this period. When, however, she was
approaching the age of forty (probably between
1341 and 1343), she and her husband made a pil-
grimage to the shrine of St. James at Compostella
(see Compostella). On the way back, Ulf fell
ill at Arras; and as she watched by his bedside,
she thought she saw St. Denis, the protector of
France, who told her that she was under the special
care of heaven. Her husband's recoveiy, which
was indicated as a sign of this, was only temporaiy.
He died in 1344, and Bridget believed the last tie
which bound her to earth had been broken. Not
long afterward, she thought she saw
a. Bridget's Christ himself, who said to her: ''Thou
Revela- art my spouse, and the link between
tions and me and mankind; thou shalt see and
Later life, hear marvelous things, and my ^irit
shall be upon thee all thy days."
This was her first revelation, strictly so called.
She and those around her were fully convinced of
the reality and the divine origin of these revelations.
She used to write or dictate them in Swedish;
later they were somewhat freely put into Latin
267
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BTld««t
by Matthias, by Prior Peter, and after 1365 by
the Spanish prelate Alphonsus, formerly bishop
of Jaen. Bridget felt herself called to be a divine
instrument for the religious and moral awakening
of her age. Soon she was convinced that she should
foimd a new order in honor of the Savior, and dic-
tated to Peter the rules revealed to her. King
and nobles joined in building and endowing a home
for the order; the approval of the archbishop of
Upsala was secured. To obtain that of the pope,
Bridget undertook the long journey to Rome in
1349, arriving in the jubilee of the following year.
Here she spent the rest of her life, except for pil-
grimages, in works of mercy and in warning great
and small against sin. She did not gain the papal
sanction for her order until 1370, when her nile
was confirmed by Urban V. A pUgrimage to
Palestine in 1372 was the last notable event in her
life. She was canonized by Boniface IX in 1391.
The connection between Sweden and the South was
much furthered by her fame and by the permanent
use of her Roman house by monks from her con-
vent of Vadstena (on the east shore of Lake Vettem,
110 m. s.w. of Stockholm); its head in the Refor-
mation period was Peter Magnus, who, after his
return to Sweden, consecrated the Lutheran bishops
there, affording a basis for a claim to apostolic suc-
cession.
The authorized edition of Bridget's works con-
tains eight books of revelations, besides another
of RevelaHonea extravagarUeSf or supplement, from
the collection of Prior Peter, with his own notes;
the rule of her order; and a collection of edifying
readings for the community, with certain prayers
(known as the QuaUuar orationes). The works
were first printed at LQbeck in 1492
3. Her from the official copy preserved at
Works. Vadstena; the Roman edition of
1628 is considered the best. The
" Revelations " have been translated into most
European languages and into Arabic. With much
that is superstitious and fantastic, they contain
a pure mysticism, rich in thought, and marked by
deep insight into the inner mysteries of the devout
life. Bridget's views are of course medieval and
those of a submissive daughter of the Roman
Catholic Church. None the less, they show traces
of admirable anticipations of Refonnation ideas.
The conception of the universal priesthood appears
here and there; in her personal devotion, she goes
back to the eternal source of life and truth; and
her rule commends the preaching of the Word to
the people in the vernacular.
The Brigittine Order {Ordo SancH Augtutini
Moncti Salvatoris nuncupaiua) was intended by her
as an instrument for spreading the Kingdom of
God upon earth. Its convents (as, e.g., at Font4-
vraud) were for both monks and nuns, though
their dwellings were separate. The
4. The age of entrance was twenty-five for
Brigittine men and eighteen for women. The
Order. convent was to be ruled by an abbess
selected by the community. Origi-
nally the monks were governed by a prior in-
dependent of the abbess, but before long the
pope subjected them also to her rule, the former
prior being caUed only confessor-general. At
the same time they were placed imder imme-
diate papal jurisdiction, though provision was
made for a yearly visitation by the bishop.
They were strictly cloistered; silence was ob-
served, except at certain hours, but the rule of
fasting was not rigorous. The monks were admit-
ted to the nims' convent only to administer the
sacraments to the dying or to carry out the dead.
The rich endowments of the convent of Vadstena,
which remained the mother house, show the popu-
larity of this national foundation among all classes.
Not a few Brigittine convents, however, sprang
up in other countries, prominent among which
were N&dendal in Finland, MVmkaliv near Bergen,
Mariendal near Reval, Marienwald near Labeck,
Marienkron near Stralsund, and Sion House,
Richmond, near London. The importance of the
order during the later Middle Ages for the civili-
zation of the North, and especially of Sweden, can
hardly be overestimated. Vadstena has been
called the first high-school of the North; on it
and on its daughter house at N&dendal the literary
life of Sweden before the Reformation depended.
Vadstena had the largest library in Sweden; and
here were made the first attempts toward a com-
plete Swedish version of the Bible. In 1495 a
printing-press was set up; but it was destroyed by
fire the same year, and published nothing so far
as known.
The order was so deeply rooted in Sweden that
it survived the Reformation, though with dimin-
ished strength. Not even Gustavus Vasa's hatred
of the " popery " of the Brigittines could entirely
destroy the devotion of all classes to them. During
the sixteenth century his wife, sons, and daughters,
and many others of the highest nobility, as well
as numbers from other classes are found among
the benefactors of Vadstena, which, however, was
suppressed by Duke Charles in 1595. The Refor-
mation abolished most of the houses outside of
Sweden, but an attempt was made to revive it in
the Counterrefonnation, to which period belong the
FrcUres novissimi BirgiUini in Belgium, confinned
by Gregory XV, and the reformed order for women
introduced only into Spain by the visionary Marina
de Escobar (d. 1633) and confirmed by Urban VIII.
This is said to have a few houses in Spain now; and
four convents of the original order still exist — at
AltomUnster in Bavaria, St. Bridget's Abbey in
Devonshire, and two in Holland.
(Herman Lund8tr5m.)
Bibuoorapht: The two earliest lives, by the two oonfee-
sors of Bridget in the year of her death, were published
by Dr. C. Annerstedt in Script, rerum SvecioMrum medii
mvi. III. ii. 188-206. Upsala, 1876. The Viia Hve ehroni-
con by Margareta Clausdota was published in SeripL Su-
0ciei nudii cm, ed. J. E. Riets, pp. 103-240, Lund, 1844.
Early material is found also in ASB, Oct. 4th, pp. 368-
660. The best modem accounts are in H. Schflck, 8v€n$k
LUeraturhiwtoria, pp. 129 sqq., Stockholm, 1800, and in
lUiuUrad Svenak LiUeraturhittoria, i, 84 sqq., ib. 1806.
Consult also L. Clams, Dom Lcben der hMUfen Birgitta,
Regensburg, 1856; J. B. Schwab, Jofumnet Oer§on, pp.
S64 sqq., WOrsburec. 1858; F. Hammerich, St. BtrgiUa,
dU fionfiseAs PropheUn und OrdenB9Hft«r%n, Ootha, 1872
(Oerm. transl. from the Swedish); Bettina von Rinsgeis,
Ltben der heUiom BirgUta, Regensburg, 1800; G. Bin-
der, Die heilioe Biroitta von Sdiweden und ihr Kloater^
Bridffett
Briessmann
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
268
ortUn, Munich, 1891; Comteflse FlAvigny, Ste. BrioitU de
Suide, Paris. 1892; A. Brinkmann. Den hMige BirgWa,
Copenhagen, 1893.
For the order consult: Rerum Suevicarufn teript. tnedii
eni, ed. E. M. Fant, I, i, 1818 aqq.. Upsala, 1818; Hia-
tory of tf*» Bng. BrigitUne NufU, Plymouth. 1886; Oe$am-
mtUe Nuchriehten ikber die eivuf be^andenen Kloeter vom
Orden der heilioen BirgiUa, Munich, 1888; Binder, ut
■up., and OeaehiehtB der bayritchen BirgiUenr-Klotter, ib.
1896; Helyot, Ordrea monaaiiquea, ii, 146 sqq.. Currier.
Religioua OrtUre, pp. 185-187; Heimbucher, Orden und
KonaregaHonen, i, 440, 505-610.
BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD: English Ro-
man Catholic; b. at Derby (35 m. n.n.e. of
Birmingham), Derbyshire, Jan. 20, 1829; d. at
Qapham (a suburb of London) Feb. 17, 1899.
His parents were Baptists, but in 1845 he was
baptized into the Church of England. Two years
later he matriculated at St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, but just before taking his degree in 1850
he refused to take the oath of supremacy and was
received into the Roman Catholic Church. He
then studied for six years on the Continent,
and was ordained priest in 1856, after having
joined the Redemptorist Order. His life-work
lay in the mission field to which his order is par-
ticularly devoted, and in 1868 he established the
Confraternity of the Holy Family connected with
the Redemptorist church at Limerick, Ireland.
In addition to his activity as a missioner, he wrote
The Ritual of the New Testament (London, 1873);
Our Ladjfs Down/f or, how England Gained and
Last that Title (1875); The Discipline of Drink
(1876); History of the Holy Eucharist in Great
Britain (2 vols., 1881); Life of Blessed John Fisher,
Bishop of Rochester (1888); The True Story of the
Catholic Hierarchy Deposed by Queen Elizabeih (in
collaboration with T. F. Knox; 1889); Blunders
and Forgeries: Historical Essays (1890); The
Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More (1891);
and Sonnets and Epigrams on Sacred Subjects (1898).
He likewise edited a number of works, of which
the most important were Bishop T. Watson's
Sermons on the Sacraments (London, 1876); R.
Johnson's The Suppliant of the Holy Ghost (1878);
Cardinal W. Allen's Souls Departed (1886); The
Wit and Wisdom of Blessed Thomas More (1892);
Lyra Hieratica : Poems on the Priesthood (1896);
Poems on England*s Reunion unth Christendom
(1896); and Characteristics from the Writings of
Nicholas Cardinal Wiseman (1898).
BRIDGEWATER TREATISES: A series of
books written in accordance with the will of Francis
Henry, eighth earl of Bridgewater (d. Feb. 11,
1829), who left eight thousand pounds to the Royal
Society, to be paid to one or several authors,
selected by the president, for writing a treatise
" On the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as
manifested in the Creation." The following eight
authors were selected, and their treatises published
(12 vols., London, 1833-36): (1) Thomas Chalmers,
The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral
^nd Intellectual Condition of Man ; (2) John Kidd,
The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man; (3) William Whewell, Astronn
amy and General Physics considered vnth Reference
to Natural Theology ; (4) Charles Bell, The Hand,
its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing
Design ; (5) Peter Mark Roget, Animal and Vege-
table Physiology considered with Reference to Nat-
ural Theology ; (6) William Buckland, Geology and
Mineralogy considered with Reference to Natural
Theology; (7) William Kirby, The Habits and
Instincts of Animals with Reference to Natural
Theology; (8) William Prout, Chemistry, Meteor-
ology, and the Function of Digestion considered
with Reference to Natural Theology.
BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH COLEMAN: Congregar
tional foreign missionary; b. at Belchertown,
Mass., Apr. 22, 1801; d. in Shanghai, China, Nov.
2, 1861. He was graduated at Amberst College
in 1826 and at Andover Theological Seminary in
1829 and that year on October 14 sailed for
Canton under the appointment of the American
Board. He arrived there on Feb. 25, 1830, and
lived there till 1847, when he removed to Shanghai
to supervise the translation of the Bible. In 1832
he began, as a labor of love, the valuable monthly
The Chinese Repository and was its editor till 1851.
In 1841 he brought out his Chinese chrestomathy.
In 1844 he was one of the two secretaries of legation
to Hon. Caleb Cushing when on his special mis-
sion to China and rendered important services.
In February, 1852, he left Shanghai for a visit to
America, arrived there June 16; on his return be
left New York on October 12, and arrived at Shang-
hai on May 3, 1853.
Bxblxoorapht: E. G. Bridgman, Life of E. C. Bridgman.
New York. 1864.
BRIEFS, BULLS, AND BULLARIA: Written
mandates of the pope, differing in form, the bull
being more solemn than the brief; bullaria are
collections of both kinds of docimients. At first
the Roman bishops sealed documents with a ring,
but from the end of the sixth century seal-boxes
or seal-forms {huUce), usually of lead, began to
be attached to aU public documents, whereas for
the others the signet stamped in wax by the ring
was used. Since the thirteenth century it has
borne the same device, the apostle Peter casting
a net into the sea (Matt, iv, 18, 19), whence it is
known as the " ring of the fisherman " (annulus
piscatoris, q.v.). The oldest buUcB have on ODe
side the name of the pope, on the other the word
Papa, The present form has on the obverse the
heads of Peter and Paul with the distinguishing
inscription S. P. A. — S. P. E. (i.e., Sanctus Petrus
or Paulus Apostolus, Sanctus Petrus or Paulus
Episcopus) ; on the reverse, the name of the pope
with his number. The string by which they are
attached is of red and yellow silk or hemp. From
designating the seal, the word btdla passed to
the document itself.
The bull is written upon strong parchment; the
brief on thin parchment or paper. Instead of
having the seal attached to it, it is issued sub
annulo piscatoris, which to-day is only a stamp
on the paper. Both begin in an invariable forai
with the name of the pope and a salutation. In
the brief the number is added to the name, in the
bull the title Episcopus servus servorum Dei takes
the place of the number. At the dose of the brief
269
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bridffett
Briessmann
merely the place and date are given; the bull
gives the date according to both the ancient Roman
and the Christian calendars and the year of the
pope's reign. The most solemn form is used for
bulls issued in the consistory (fmUcB consistoriaUs),
They are signed by the pope and the cardinals,
and are sent out not in the original but in an au-
thorized copy ((rafucKp<um). Of other bulls {non
consistcriales) the pope signs only the minute
{mintUa), and the completed document is signed
by the various papal officers who helped in its
preparation. The briefs are signed ozily by the
secretary of briefs. Briefs are drawn up in accord-
ance with the special rules of the department in
the apostolic secretariate or dataria (see Curia);
bulls in the chancery. Leo XIII simplified the
procedure in 1878 by ordering that bulls other
than eonsistorial should be written in ordinary
script on parchment and sealed only with a red
stamp containing the pictures of Peter and Paul
and the name of the reigning pope.
The more important briefs and bulls are con-
tained in collections known as buUaria, The oldest
collections contained mostly only a small number.
To these belong: BiUla diver aorum pontificorum a
Joanne XXII ad Jvlium III a bibliotheca Ludovici
Gomes (Rome, 1550), containing only some fifty
documents; another from Boniface VIII to Paul IV
(1559), with about a hundred and sixty; and one
from GreQ)ry VII to Gregory XIII (1579), with
723 documents. The Magnum huUarium Romanumt
covering the period from Leo I to the year 1585,
was published in 1586, and since has been continued
in revised and completed editions. The latest as
well as most convenient and complete edition is
the BuUarium magnum Romanum^ published at
Turin by order of Pius IX and under the auspices
of Cardinal Gaude (1857-72, 24 vols., covering
the years 440-1740). For delimiting bulls {huUcB
circumscriptionisX see (Concordats and Delimit-
ing Bulls. E. Friedberg.
Bibuoorapht: If. IfArini, Diplomatica ponHfieia, Rome.
1841; H. Breslau, Handbuch der UrkundenUhre, i. 67
■qq.. Leipsic, 1888; G. Phillips, Kirchenreeht, iii. 640 sqq.,
Ri^DBburK, 1889; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch deM katKoliachen
und 0vangd.iachien Kird^enreehtt, Leifwic, 1895.
BRIEGER, bri'ger, JOHAlfH FRIEDRICH THEO-
DOR: German Protestant; b. at Greifswald June 4,
1842; educated at the universities of Greifswald,
Eriangen, and Tabingen from 1861 to 1864 (Ph.D.,
Lcipsic, 1870). He became privat-docent at Halle
in 1870, and was appointed associate professor of
church history in the same imiversity three years
later. In 1876 he was called to Marburg as full
professor of the same subject, and since 1886 has
been professor of church history at Leipsic. In
addition to numerous contributions to theological
periodicals, he has written Gasparo Contarini und
dot Regenaburger Concordienwerk des Jahres 16 41
(Gotha, 1870); De jormuLa Ratisbonenaia origine
atque indole (Halle, 1870); Constantin der Grosse
ala ReligumspoliHker (Gotha, 1880); Die angth-
liche Marburger Kirchenordnung von 1527 (1881);
Luiher und sein Werk (Marburg, 1883); Aleander
und Luther, 1521 (Gotha, 1884); Die Torgauer
Artikel (Leipsic, 1888); Die theologischen Promotio-
nen auf der Universii&t Leipzig WS-15S9 (1890);
Der Glavbe Luihers in seiner Freiheit von mensch- •
lichen Autoriidten (1892); Die fortschreitende Ent-
fremdung von der Kirche im Licht der Geschichle
(1894); Das Wesen des Ahhsses am Ausgange des
MiUelaUers (1897); and Zur Geschichle des Augs-
burger Reichstages von 1530 (1903). He was also
one of the founden* of the Zeitsckrift fur Kirchenge-
schichte in 1876, and has been its editor to the
present time.
BRIESSMAITN, bris'mOn, JOHANN: Reformer;
b. at Cottbus (on the Spree, 43 m. 8.s.w. of Frank-
fort), Brandenburg, Dec. 31, 1483; d. at K6nigsberg
Oct. 1, 1549. He belonged to a prominent family,
and as a Franciscan he studied after 1518 at Frank-
fort-on-the-Oder, and after 1520 at Wittenberg,
where he was promoted in 1521 as licentiate
and in 1522 as doctor of theology. Influenced by
Luther's appearance at the Leipsic disputation
with Eck (1519), but more especially by Luther's
great reformatory writings of the year 1520, he
soon found himself one in the Evangelical faith
with his beloved friend. When the Franciscans
had to leave Wittenberg, Briessmann went to Ck)tt-
bus, but on the initiative of Luther he was able
to return in 1522. He addressed a reformatory
epistle to the congregation at Ck>ttbu8, Unterricht
und Ermahnung (Cottbus, 1523), and at the in-
stance of Luther wrote a powerful refutation of
the attacks of the Franciscan Schatzgeyer upon
Luther's De votis monasticis (Wittenberg?, 1523),
stating in his declaration to Spalatin that he could
not refuse the wish of Luther, " since he felt him-
self in agreement not so much with a Luther as
with the Evangelical truth."
On the recommendation of Luther, he was called
in 1523 as preacher to Kdnigsberg by Albert, the
grand master of the Teutonic order (see Albert
OF Prussia). A Kdnigsberg chronicler thus
describes his life and work: he preached the word
with gentleness but with all serious-
Preacher ness; many became pious Christians
in Koniga- and better men; " on account of his
berg, godly, honorable, moral life he was
1523-27. beloved by many and his sermons
were gladly heard." About the time
when he entered upon his pastoral duties he pub-
lished his Flosculi de homine interiore et exteriore
de fide et operibus (ed. P. Tschackert, Gotha, 1887),
containing 110 verses in which, following Luther's
work '' Concerning Christian Liberty," he defends
the Evangelical doctrine against Rome and the
fanatics. His influence upon Bishop George of
Polentz (q.v.) is s:?en in the tatter's sermon delivered
on Christmas day, 1523, in which he publicly
expressed his belief in the Evangelical teaching of
justification by faith alone. As the bishop did
not preach himself, he appointed as his substitute
" the learned Dr. Johann Briessmann, a man well
versed in the holy scripture." In 1524 the bishop
issued his first reformatory mandate, enjoining the
ministers to use only the German language in their
ministerial acts, and to read Luther's writings,
especially his translation of the Bible. Of lasting
effect were also certain writings of Briessmann,
Briasaiiuuia
Brinokerlnok
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
270
as hiB Umschreibung und ErldSrung des Voter
Unsers aU Anleitung zum wahrhaft evangeliachen
GebetsUben im Oeffenaatz gegen die Mariengebete;
a Sermon wm dreierlei heUsamer BeichUf as guide
to Evangelical confession in opposition to auricular
confession; and his sermon Von der Anfechtung
des Glavbens und der Hoffnung, with reference to
the Gospel4esson on the woman of Canaan •(Matt.
XV. 21-28). For the benefit of the more cultured
members of the congregation he delivered lectures
on the epistle to the Romans. He laid stress
upon the inwardness of the Christian life in opposi-
tion to the impetuous zeal of Amandus in forcibly
doing away with ancient usages and forms. With
Luther, who greatly rejoiced over the rapid prog-
ress of the Reformation in Prussia, he entertained
a lively correspondence, and on June 12, 1524,
one day before Luther, he was married, being the
first married minister of Prussia.
After the secularization of the territory of the
Teutonic Order (q.v.) in 1525 under Polish
feudal supremacy, Briessmann and his colaborers,
Speratus and Poliander, faithfully assisted Duke
Albert at the diet, Dec., 1525. He accepted a call
from the citizens of Riga to complete
In Riga, the reformatory movement there,
1527-31. with the consent of the duke, Oct.,
1527. By preaching and teaching
he brought about the necessary reformation and
published in 1530 Kwrze Ordnung des Kirchen-
dienstes samnU einer Vorrede van Cerenumien,
After four years of faithful work he returned to
Kdnigsberg in 1531 as cathedral preacher. With
his colleagues he had soon to oppose the fanatical
tendencies of Schwenckfeld, which the ill-advised
duke had favored at first. As he labored for the
purity of Evangelical doctrine, he also labored for
the upbuilding of the inner life of the Church by
the new Landesordnung (1540), by
Activity in the articles concerning the appoint-
Kdnigsbeig ment and support of the ministers
1531-49- (1540), by the introduction of a new
order of marriage and divine service
(1544). He reoonmiended the lectio coniinuaf or
continuous reading of the whole Bible in divine
service, thus making the congregations acquainted
with Holy Scripture, and a thorough instruction
in the catechism besides the preachLog; he intro-
duced church-singing by the use of a hymn-book,
the first in Prussia. Repeated calls to Rostock
he declined. He also devoted his energies to the
development of the schools and higher education.
He fonned the plans for the university which was
founded in 1544. During the sickness of Bishop
Polentz in 1546, the business of the episoopfd
see was entrusted to Briessmann, and in 1547 he
made a tour of inspection to correct abuses which
still existed in the diocese. He opposed especially
teachings brought thither by refugees from the
Netherlands, represented by the humanist Guli-
ehnus Gnaphseus (or Fullonius, q.v.), a sympa-
thizer with Carlstadt. It was also due to Briess-
mann's energy that the troubles caused by the first
rector of the imiversity, Georg Sabinus, had no
lasting influence. Against Andreas Osiander, whom
the duke had called to Kdnigsberg, he defended the
genuine Lutheran doctrine and confession. Pain-
ful as was this Osiandrian controversy for Briess-
mann, yet he rejoiced toward the end of his life
that the Moravian Brethren, driven from Poland
by the intrigues of the Polish-Catholic clergy, were
in 1548 received into the Prussian state church,
after being settled in Prussia with the pennission
of the duke. In opposing the Osiandrian errors,
Briessmann also opposed the duke whp at first
adhered to Osiander. To the suggestion of the
duke to hear the opinion of churches from abroad,
Briessmann replied: " Since the present contro-
versy concerns doctrinal points which have been
preached in Prussia for over twenty-four years,
the opinion and judgment of others is not to be
awaited." These are the last words from his
mouth and pen, " the testament of the first Reformer
of Prussia, and therefore especially valuable for
the history of the Prussian Reformation" (Tschack-
ert). In the spring of 1540 he retired from his
arduous duties. He is buried in the choir of the
cathedral at Kdnigsberg. David Erdmank.
Bibuooraprt: P. Tschackert, Urkundenhuch sur Refor-
moHofuoeachidUe <2m Henootutna Pnunen, vols. L, ii., in
Ptiblikationen aiM den kSniglidisn jpreuttisehen StaaU-
arehiven, vols. z]iii.-xly.. Leiprio, 1800.
BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS: Protestant
Episcopalian; b. at New York City Jan. 15, 1841.
He was educated at the University of Virginia
(1857-60), Union Theological Seminary (1861-63),
and the University of Berlin (1866-69). From
1863 to 1866 he was in busineiiBs with his father.
He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry
and was pastor at Roselle, N. J., from 1870 to 1874,
when he was appointed professor of Hebrew at
Union Theological Seminary. In 1891 he was
transferred to the chair of Biblical theology, and
since 1904 has been professor of theolo^cal ency-
clopedia and symbolics. In 1892 he was tried
for heresy by the Presbytery of New York, but
was acquitted, although in the following year he
was suspended by the General Assembly. In
1899 he was ordidned to the priesthood in the
Protestant Episcopal Church. He is a member
of the American Oriental Society, the Deutsche
Morgenl&ndische Gesellschaft, and the Society of
Biblical Literaturo and Exegesis. He was editor
of the Presbyterian Review from 1880 to 1890, and
collaborated with S. D. F. Salmond in editing the
Intemational Theological Library (New York, 1891
sqq.), with S. R. Driver and A. Plimmier in editing
the Intemational Critical Commentary (1895 sqq.),
and with F. Brown and S. R. Driver in preparing
the Htbrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testa-
ment (12 parts, Oxford, 1891-1906). In addition
to numerous studies in various theological period-
icals, he has written Biblical Study (New York,
1883); American Presbyterianism (1885); Mes-
sianic Prophecy (1886); Whither f A Theological
Question for the Times (1889); The Authority of
Holy Scripture (1891); The Bible, the Church, and
the Reason (1892); The Higher Criticism of the
Hexateuch(18&3); The Messiah of the GospeU(199i);
The Messiah of the Apostles (1895); General Intro-
duction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899); The
Incarnation of the Lord (1902); New Light on the
871
RELIGIOUS ExNCYCLOPEDIA
BneMun&iixi
Bzinokorinok
Life of Jesua (1904); Ethical Teachings of Jesus
(1904); and Critical Commentary on the Psalms
(1906).
BRIGHT, WILLIAM: English church historian
and patristic scholar; b. at Doncaster (30 m. s. of
York), Yorkshire, En^and, Dec. 14, 1824; d. at
Oxford Mar. 6, 1901. He studied at Ru^y and
University College, Oxford (B.A., 1846; M.A.,
1849), and became fellow 1847; was theological
tutor in Trinity Ck>llege, Glenalmond, Perthshire,
1851-68; tutor of University College, Oxford,
1862; appointed regius professor of ecclesiastical
history and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1868.
His publications were very numerous and have
gone through many editions; besides sermons
and addresses, poems, and devotional works they
include: Ancient Collects and Other Prayers selected
from various rituals (London, 1857); A History of
the Church from the Edict of Milan, AD. 313, to
the Council of Chalcedon, A J), 451 (1860); EigU-
sen Sermons of St. Leo /, sumamed the Oreat, on
the Incarnation, translation and notes (1862);
Etieebius^s Ecclesiastical History, text and intro-
duction (1872); Orations of St. Athanasius against
the Arians, text, with life (1873); Socrates's Eccle-
siaetieal History, text and introduction (1878);
Chapters of Early English Church History (1878;
3d ed., 1897); Select Anti-Pelagian Treatises of
St. Augustine (1880); St. Athanasius's Historical
Writings (1881); Later Treatises of St. Athanasius,
translation, notes, and an appendix of St. (^1
(vol. xlvi. of A Library of the Fathers, ed. E.
B. Pusey and others, 1881); Notes on the Canons
of the First Four General Councils (1882); Lessons
from the Lives of Three Oreat Fathers (1890); Mo-
rality in Doctrine (1892); Waymarks in Church
History {IS&4); The Roman See in the Early Church
and Other Studies in Church History (1896); The
Law of Faith (1898); Some Aspects of Primitive
Church Life (1898). With P. G. Medd he edited
a Latin translation of the English prayer-book
(1865), and he contributed the section on the Litany
to J. H. Blunt's Annotated Book of Common Prayer
(1866).
Bibuoorapht: W. Bright, SeUeted Letter9, ed. B. J. Kidd,
with Mmunr by P. G. Medd« London, 1903.
BRIGHTMAH, FRANK EDWARD: Church of
En^and; b. at Bristol June 18, 1856. He was
educated at University Ck)llege, Oxford (B.A.,
1879), and was ordered deacon in 1884 and or-
dained priest in the following year. He was chap-
lain of University Ck>llege from 1884 to 1887 and
assistant curate of St. John the Divine, Kennington,
in 1887-^, while from 1884 to 1903 he was Pusey
Librarian. He was also examiner in the Theology
School in 1899-1901, and since 1902 has been
fellow and tutor of Magdalen (College, Oxford, as
well as prebendary of Carlton with Thurlby in
Lincoln Cathedral. He has written Liturgies
Eastern and Western (vol. i., Oxford, 1896) and What
Objections have been made to English Orders t
(London, 1896), and has also translated the Preces
Privatce of Lancelot Andrewes (1903).
BRIGHTMAir, THOMAS: Puritan and Presby-
terian; b. at Nottingham 1562; d.at Hawnes (5 m.
s. by e. of Bedford) Aug. 24, 1607. He studied
at Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1581; M.A.,
1584; B.D., 1591), became a fellow there in 1584,
and rector of Hawnes in 1592. He was one of
the fathers of Presbyterianism in England; as
Thomas Cartwright says, ''The bright star in
the Church of God." He subscribed the Pres-
b3rterian Books of Discipline. He was a fa-
mous expositor of Revelation {Apocalypsis Apo-
calypseos, Frankfort, 1609, Heidelberg, 1612, Eng.
transl., A revelation of the Revelation, Amsterdam,
1615, Leyden, 1616) and of Daniel from xi. 36 to
end of xii. (Basel, 1614, which edition has notes on
Canticles; Eng. transl., London, 1644). He opened
up a new path in the exposition of the Apoc-
alypse by making two distinct millenniums: the
first, from Ck>nstantine until 1300, in this corre-
sponding with the common orthodox view; the
second, from 1300 to 2300, which was a new de-
parture, by which he was enabled to find a place
for the future conversion of the Jews, and a more
glorious condition of the Church on earth, which
he gains by a symbolical interpretation of Rev
xxi. and xxii. His views greatly modified the
Puritan interpretation of the Apocalypse, and
were expounded by different writers and repro-
duced in different forms long after his death. His
collected works appeared London, 1644.
BRIGIDA, SAINT, BRIGITTINES. See Bridget,
Saint, of Sweden.
BRILL, JAKOB: Mystic; b. at Leyden Jan. 21,
1639; d. there Jan. 28, 1700. He was a follower
of Pontiaan van Hattem; between 1685 and 1699
he published about forty works of a mystical-
devotional character, which were much read; but
spiritualising Christ to such a degree that the
historical Christ almost disappeared, and the sac-
rifice on the cross became a mere symbol of the
sacrifice which shall take place in us, he at last got
lost in a mystical pantheism, far away from Chris-
tianity.
Biblxoorapht: A eulogy of Brill is found in Poiret's Caia-
loifu^ dea ierivaina myttiqueB (Lat. timnal.. Amsterdam,
1706). Consult also Ypey en Dermont, De hervormde
Kerk in Nederland, vol. iii., Breda. 1824.
BRINCKERINCK, JAN: A popular preacher
and spiritual director in connection with the Breth-
ren and Sisters of the Common Life; b. near Ztlt-
phen, Guelderland, 1359; d. at Deventer Mar. 26,
1419. Thomas k Kempis, who wrote his life,
says that he came of a good family, but tells nothing
further of his early life except that, living in the
days of the great regions awakening under Groote's
influence, he was profoundly impressed by it.
He came into intimate personal relations with
Groote and his disciples, and devoted himself to
forwarding the " new devotion " and the education
of the young. He was ordained priest in 1393,
and not long afterward took charge as rector of
the house for women founded at Deventer by
Groote, " Meester Geertshuis " as it was commonly
called (see Common Life, Brethren of the).
He introduced a strict discipline into the life of
the inmates, and was practically the founder of
the sisters whose houses afterward became so
British Church
Brooks
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
272
numerous. Under his direction the cumbers
grew so considerably that new buildings were
needed. After three years the church and convent
were ready for occupancy; at first of wood, they
were rebuilt of stone in 1407. The foimdation was
placed under the Windesheim chapter, who named
Brinckerinck as its confessor. Numbering in that
year twelve sisters and novices, by the middle of
the centiuy the community had grown to con-
siderably over a hundred, including all classes.
It was selfHSupporting; the sisters copied and
illuminated manuscripts, or occupied themselves
profitably in other ways according to their gifts.
In 1408 a new house was erected at Diepenveen,
a few miles away, in the choir of whose church
Brinckerinck was buried. He was known far and
wide for his popular preaching, which, according
to the testimony of Rudolf Dier, one of his hearers,
and of the Brethren of the Ck>mmon Life, gave to
all the impression that he had sat at the feet of
Jesus. From a manuscript biography by Elizabeth
of Delft, one of the twelve first sisters, we learn
that she wrote down some of his sermons, and
Rudolf Dier adds that out of such materials eight
vernacular " collations '* were formed, containing
his admonitions to the sisters. These were dis-
covered not long ago, and published by Moll in
1866. They read like notes of spoken discourses,
sometimes apparently combinations of different
ones. Like the usual " collations " of the Brethren
of the Common Life, they were not formal sermons
following a rhetorical method, but simple and
artless talks which pass readily from one topic to
another, and are rich in short, pithy sentences of a
kind to be easily understood and remembered by
his hearers. Taken as a whole, they form a notable
memorial of this remarkable man, whose preaching,
before their publication, was known principally
through the account given by Thomas k Kempis.
L. SCHULZE.
Bibuoorapht: The Vita by Thomas k Kempis is in the
Chronioon monaaterii S. Agnetia^ ed. H. Rosweyde, Ant-
werp, 1616; another by J. Buschius is in the latter's Chroni-
eon Windtahmenae, ed. K. Grube, Halle, 1886. Consult:
G. Dunbar, AfuUecia, vol. i., Deventer, 1719; idem, Het
Kerkalyk en WertUlyk Deventer, ib. 1732-88; W. Moll.
Kerkgea€hiedenia van Nederland voor de Hervcrmina, ii. 2,
209 sqq.. Utrecht. 1871.
BRITISH CHURCH. See Celtic Church.
BRITISH HONDURAS. See CENTRiiL America.
BRimNAlfS, BRiminAlVS. See Brictinanb.
BRIXEV, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese which
takes its name from Brixen, a town of the Tyrol,
situated 40 m. s.s.e. of InnsbrQck. The present
Tyrol became a part of the Roman Empire 15 a.d.,
and the rapid spread of Christianity in north Italy
gives groimd for the supposition that it penetrated
comparatively early into the Alpine region. The
earliest authentic mention of a bishopric in southern
Rhsetia, however, dates from the end of the sixth
century. Among the bishops of Venetia and
Rhffitia Secunda who addressed a letter to the
emperor Maurice in 501 appears the name of a cer-
tain Ingenuinus, whom Paulus Diaconus and the
author of the Versits de ordine conpromncialium
pantificum describe as bishop of Sabiona, the
present Seben. The existence of the bishopric
seems to have been continuous from this time.
It embraced to the south of the Brenner the upper
Eisackthal and the Pusterthal, to the north of the
Brenner almost the whole of what is now the Tyrol.
Probably under Otto II., the see was removed
from Seben to Brixen; in a document of 967
Bishop Richpert is designated as PrihBinensU
ecclesia episcopus. (A. Hauck.)
Brixen counts among the most ancient exam-
ples of exemption from the secular jurisdiction,
having received it from Charlemagne and Louis
the Pious. Its territory increased lai^gely by do-
nations from successive emperors, and Frederick
I. (1179) gave its incumbent the prmcely title and
rights. Henceforth the bishops received investi-
txire immediately from the emperor, and had a
seat and a voice in the imperial diet. The secular
privileges, however, were gradually absorbed by
the powerful magnates of the Tyrol, and at the
Peace of Lun^ville the principality was formaUy
suppressed, to be conferred the next year on the
house of Austria. Brixen was the meeting-place
in 1080 of a council of imperialist prelates who
undertook to depose Gregory VII. and elect Gui-
bert of Ravenna pope in his place. Cardinal
Nicholas of Cusa occupied the see from 1450 to
1464, and Caspar Ignatius, Coimt KQni^ (1702-
1747), was among the greatest and most active
prelates of his day. The nomination to the see is
vested in the emperor of Austria.
BROAD CHURCH. See England, Church or.
BROADTJS, JOHN ALBERT : American Baptist ;
b. in Culpeper County, Va., Jan. 24, 1827; d. in
Louisville, Ky., Mar. 16, 1895. He was grad-
uated at the University of Vii^ginia 1850, and
was assistant professor of Latin and Greek there,
1851-53, chaplain to the University 1855-^57, pas-
tor of the Baptist church in the place until, ia
1859, on its organisation, he became professor
of the interpretation of the New Testament and
of homiletics in the Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, then in Greenville, S. C. In 1877 the
seminary was removed to Louisville, and in 1888
he became its president. He attained high rank
as teacher, preacher, and scholar, and published
two notable volumes in the field of homiletics,
The Preparation and Delivery of Sermons (Phila-
delphia, 1870; 25th ed., by E. C. Dargan, New
York, 1905) and Lectures on the History of Preach-
ing (New York, 1876); also Sermons and kddresM
(1886; 6th ed., 1905); a commentary on Matthew
(Philadelphia, 1887); Jesus of Nazareth (New
York, 1890); Harmony of the Gospels according to
the Revised Version (1893); Memoir of James
Petigru Boyce (1893). He also prepared a oom-
mentary on Mark (Philadelphia, 1905), and edited
and revised the Oxford translation of Chrysostom's
homilies on Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalo*
nians, with an essay on St. Chrysostom as a
homilist, in vol. xiii. of Philip SchafT's Nicene and
Post Nicene Fathers (New York, 1889).
Bibuogeapht: A. T. Robertson, Life and LeUera of Jchm
Albert Broadua, Philadelphia. 1001.
BROCHHAND, brek'mOnd, JESPER RASMUS-
SEN: Bishop of Zealand; b. at Edge (20 m. s.w.
273
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
British Oliiiroli
Brooks
of Copenhagen), Zealand, Aug. 5, 15S5; d. at
Copenhagen Apr. 19, 1652. He studied at Herlufs-
holm, Copenhagen, Leyden, and Franeker; became
rector of Herlufshokn academy 1608; professor
psedagogicus, University of Copenhagen, 1610; pro-
fessor of Greek 1613; member of the theological
faculty 1615. In 1617 he was appointed teacher
to Prince Christian, son of King Christian IV.,
but returned to the imiversity three years later.
At this time Denmark was disturbed by Roman
Catholic propaganda, and Brochmand made the
controversy with Rome a subject of his public
lectures. In 1626-28 he published Coniroversice
sacrce (3 parts), a reply to Bellarmine's attacks
on the Lutheran Church, and in 1634, at the king's
order, he engaged in a polemic with the Jesuits,
who endeavored to defend the conversion of Mar-
grave Christian William of Brandenburg to Cathol-
icism. In their final reply the Jesuits stigma-
tized Brochmand as a " disturber of the Roman
empire, the boldest despiser of His Imperial Majesty
and the Catholic rulers, a poisonous spider, and
a degenerate Absalom." Against this pamphlet
Brochmand delivered a series of lectures which
after his death were collected and published under
the title Apologies apeculi verittUis confutaHo (Copen-
hagen, 1653). He was ordained bishop of Zealand
in 1639, and during his long and fruitful activity
in this office reorganized the Danish church serv-
ice, especially by abolishing the Latin choir, and
by introducing Wednesday services during Lent.
His reputation as a dogmatist was established by
his Univerace Iheologia aystema (2 vols., 1633) in
which he proved himself a bitter opponent, not
only of the Roman Catholics, but also of the Re-
formed, whom he calls " enemies of God and of
truth." He wrote several devotional works, of
which his Sabbati sancttficatio for more than two
centuries was a favorite collection of sermons
with the Danish people. (F. NiEUSENf.)
BROEMEL, brO'mer', ALBERT ROBERT: Ger-
man Lutheran pastor and author; b. at Teichel
(15 m. s.s.e. of Erfurt), Schwarzburg, Apr. 27, 1815;
d. at Ratzeburg (12 m. s.e. of LQbeck), Prussia,
Oct. 28, 1885. He was educated at Gdttingen,
Jena, and Berlin, and after spending two years
helping Otto von Gerlach (q.v.) in both educational
and pastoral duties in the last-named place, was
called in 1846 to be pastor of Lassahn in the duchy
of Lauenburg. In 1854 he became superintendent
of the whole district, with special charge of the
principal church of Ratzeburg. Besides the multi-
farious duties which occupied him during the next
thirty years, he found time for a considerable
literary activity. His principal work was his
HomiUHsche Charakterhiider (2 vols., Berlin, 1869-
1874), which is practically a history of preaching,
especially the post-Reformation and German.
As is natural from the character of his life, his
writings generally are more practical than theo-
retical. (WiLHELM GlAMANN.)
BROMLEY, THOMAS: English mystic; b. in
Worcester 1629; d. 1691. He held a fellowship
in Oxford until 1660, when, as a non-conformist,
he refused to accept the Anglican Liturgy. But
IL— 18
previously he had become a follower of Jakob
Boehme the mystic (q.v.), and with John Pordage
and Jane Lead had founded the Philadelphian
Society (see Lead, Jane); when he left Oxford
he came to Pordage, and lived with him many jrears.
Bromley was active in propagating his opinions,
which included the rejection of the outward church
and of marriage not for license but on the theory
that the example of Christ was in favor of
voluntary and holy virginity for all. He was
himself in every respect an estimable man. His
works were translated into German and pub-
lished, in second edition, at Frankfort and Leipsic,
2 vols., 1719-^2. The most important of them
was The Way to the Sabbath of Rest (London,
1692; later eds., with additions, 1710, and as late
as 1802).
BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS: English
Unitarian; b. at Letterkenny (16 m. s.w. of Lon-
donderry), County Donegal, Nov. 14, 1832. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A.,
1856), and was ordained priest in the Church of
England in 1857. He was successively curate of
St. Matthew's, Marylebone (1857-59) and Ken-
sington Church (1860-63). He was then chaplain
to the princess royal, Berlin (1863-65), and after
his return to England was minister of St. James's
Chapel, York Street (1866-75), and of Bedford
Chapel (1876-94). He was appointed chaplain
to the queen in 1872, but in 1880 he withdrew
from the Church of Englfiftid, finding himself imable
to accept the orthodox teaching concerning miracles.
Among his writings special mention may be made
of the following: Life and Letters of the late Fred-
erick W, Robertson (2 vols., London, 1865); Free-
dom in the Church of England (1871); Sermons
(1868-77); Theology in the English Poets (1874);
A Fight of Faith (1877); Spirit of the Christian
Life (1881); UnUy of God and Man (1886); The
Early Life of Jesus (1887); History of Early Eng-
lish Literature (1892); Short Sermons (1892);
History of English Literature (1894); Study of
Tennyson (1894); God and Christ (1894); Jesus
and Modem Thought (1894); Old Testament and
Modem Life (1896); The Gospel of Joy (1898);
and Poetry of Robert Browning (1902).
BROOKS, ELBRIDGE GERRY: American Uni-
versalist; b. at Dover, N. H., July 29, 1816; d. at
Philadelphia Apr. 8, 1878. He was licensed at
Portsmouth, N. H., 1836; became pastor in West
Amesbury, Mass., 1837; in East Cambridge, 1838;
in Lowell (First Universalist Church), 1845; in
Bath, Me., 1846; in Lynn, Mass. (First Univer-
salist Church), 1850; in New York (Church of our
Savior), 1859; in Philadelphia (Church of the
Messiah), 1868. He was general agent of the
board of trustees of the Grcneral (Convention, 1867-
1868. He was an eloquent preacher, courageous
and energetic, an advocate of the Maine liquor
law and of the cause of the Union during the (3ivil
War, as well as of the doctrine of remedial pun-
ishment in the future world. He published Uni-
versalism in Life and Doctrine and its Superiority
as a Practical Power (New York, 1863) and Our
New Departure^ or the methods and works of the
Brooks
Brown
TH£ NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
874
Univertalist Church of America as it enters on Us
eeamd cenhay (Boflton, 1874).
BmioamAfvr: E. 8. Brooka. Life-Work of EBbridgo Otrry
BrookM, Borton, 1881.
BROOKS, PHILLIPS: American preacher and
bialu^; b. in Boston Dec. 13, 1835; d. there Jan.
23, 1803. He was of distinguiahed New England
ancestry, being descended on his father's side from
John Cotton and on his mother's side from Samuel
PhiUips, the founder of Phillips Academy, Andover.
He was graduated at Harvard, 1855; studied at
the Protestant Episcopal Theological School, Alex-
andria, Va., 1856-59; became rector of the Church
of the Advent, Phihidelphia, 1859; of Holy Trinity
Church, Philadelphia, 1862; of Trinity Church,
Boston, 1869; he was consecrated bishop of Massa-
chusetts, 1891. He was one of the most eloquent,
spiritual, successful, and highly esteemed clergy-
men of his time, and held this position both by
mtellectual power and an engaging personality.
His preaching was preeminently the product of his
own experience; he was of broad sympathies and
tactful in his dealings with men. He was partic-
ularly courteous in cultivating cordial relations
with those of other than his own denomination.
He gave the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching
before the Yale Divinity School in 1877 (published
as Lectures an Preaching, New York, 1877), and
was Bohlen lectiuer at the Philadelphia Divinity
School in 1879 {The Influence of Jesus, 1879).
He published five volumes of Sermons during his
life (1878-90), and five have been added since his
death (1893-1905). His Letters of Travel written
to his family appeared in 1893, and a volume of
Essays and Addresses, religious, literary, and social,
edited by his brother, John Cotton Brooks, in
1894. Individual sermons, addresses, etc., have
been printed in many forms and the number of
books of extracts from his preaching is very large.
Biblioobapbt: Th« best biography is his Life and Lettera
by A. V. G. Allen, 2 vola.. New York, 1000. oondeiued
into 1 vol.. ib. 1907.
BRORSON, HANS ADOLF: Bishop of Ribe;
b. at Randrup, on the west coast of northern Sles-
wick, June 20, 1694; d. at Ribe, Jutland, Jime 3,
1764. He studied at the University of Copenhagen
(1712-17), devoting himself more to history and
literature than to theology, and acted as tutor
in the house of an uncle at Ltigum in Sleswick,
where he caught the spirit of the religious revival
at that time making itself felt in this province.
In 1722 he was appointed minister at Randrup,
and in 1729 he was called as deacon to Tondem.
Here he began collecting Danish hymns for the
use of his congregation, to replace the German
ones previously sung before and after the Danish
sermon. In 1732 he published a small volume
of Christmas hymns which contains some of his
most excellent compositions; later he published
other booklets, and in 1739 the first edition of his
Troens rare Klenodie (" The Faith's Rare Jewel "),
a collection of 250 hymns, mostly translations from
the German. In 1737 King Christian VI. appointed
him dean of Ribe stift, and two years later he
succeeded to the bishopric. Brorson was one of
the greatest of Danish hymn-writers, and is pre-
eminently the poet of Christmaa. His hjrmns are
associated with the melodies of the pec^le, and
he was easentially a singer for thoee who wor-
ship in the privacy of their homes. While not
unable to write original hymns, it was especially
the hymns and melodies of (jerman Pietism that
he transplanted into the church of Denmark. Tbe
best edition of his hymns is by P. A. Aiiand (Co-
penhagen, 1867). (F. NiKMENt.)
BiBUOGKArBT: A. D. JarsMuen, H. A. Brormm, Copea-
hasen, 1887.
BROTHERHOODS, RELIGIOUS. See Confha-
TERNTTIES.
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAll SCHOOLS.
See Christian Brothebs.
BROUGHTON, brau'tun, HUGH: Church of
England Hebrew scholar; b. at Oldbury (near the
border of Wales, 20 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shrop-
shire, 1549; d. in Tottenham, London, Aug. 4,
1612. He was helped in his efforts to obtain an
education by Bernard Gilpin (q.v.), and became
fellow of St. John's and Christ's colleges, Cam-
bridge (BA., 1570). In London he gained fame
as a preacher of Puritan doctrine. In 1588 be
published A Consent of Scripture, a treatise on
Bible chronology; it was attacked at both univer-
sities and Brouj^ton imdertook lectures in its
defense at London. In 1589 or 1590 he went to
Germany and thenceforth spent most of his life
on the Continent, where he diluted with Jews,
Roman Catholics, and Protestants who did not
agree with him, and wrote letters to England asking
for appointments. His learning and ability were
imquestioned, but his unhappy t^nper and bad
manners prevented his advancement. He was
long anxious to assist in preparing a new version
of the Bible, but when the translators were ap-
pointed by King James in 1604 he was not one of
them, and when their work was done he made a
bitter attack upon it. His writings were collected
by Lightfoot, with the pompous title The Works of
the Great Albionean Divine, Renowned in Many
Nations for Rare Skill in Salem's and Athens's
Tongues and Familiar Acquaintance with all Rab-
binical Learning, Mr. Hugh Broug?Uon (London,
1662); a sketch of his life is included.
Bibuoorapht: Besides the life prefixed to his works, there
are available sketches in: B. Brook, Livea of the Puriiamt,
ii. 215 sqq.. London. 1813; A. k Wood, AAeruB Oxonienaa,
ed. P. Bliss, iL 308 sqq., 4 vols., ib. 1813-20.
BROnSSOV, brQ"86ri', CLAXTDE: French Prot-
estant; b. at Ntmes 1647; executed at Montpellier
Nov. 4, 1608. He practised as a lawyer at Castres,
Castelnaudary, and, after 1679, in Toulouse, and
employed his talent with courage and self-sacrifice
to defend his coreligionists against the rigorous
measures of the government. In 1683 he was
compelled to leave France and lived for a time in
Lausanne. He visited Berlin and Holland to
bring about a coalition between the Protestant
princes against Louis XIV. In 1689 he returned
to France and traveled through the southern part
of the country admonishing and exhorting his
brethren, though a price was put on his head, and
he was hunted by the officials like a beast of prey.
d76
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BrookB
Srown
In 1693 he again retired to Lausanne, and was
ordained there (1694). In 1695 he reentered
France through S^an, and visited most of the
Reformed congregations north of the Loire, finally
escaping through Franche-Comt^ into Switzerland.
Once more, in 1697, he visited France, but was
caught at Oloron, and sentenced to death by
strangling. Among his works, of which a list is
given in LfO Franre protestante, vol. iii., the most
promineiit are: £tat des rifomUs de France (The
Hague, 1685); La Manne mysHque du desert (Am-
sterdam, 1695); Lettres pastorales sur le cantique
dee cantiquee (Delft, 1697).
Bibuoobapht: A. Borrel, Biographie de C. BrouMont Ntmes,
1852; H. 8. Baynes. The Evangeliet of the Deeert Life of
C. Brouaeon, London. 1868.
BROWN, ARTHUR JUDSON: Presbyterian; b.
at HoUiston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1856. He was
educated at Wabash College (B.A., 1880) and
Lane Theological Seminary (1883). He was
ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1883,
and held successive pastorates at Ripon, Wis. (1883-
1884), First Presbyterian Church, Oak Park, HI.
(1884-88), and First Presbyterian Church, Port^
land, Ore. (1888-95). Since 1895 he has been one
of the secretaries of the Presbyterian Board of
Foreign Missions. In addition to numerous con-
tributions to periodicals, he has written The New
Era in the Philippines (Chicago, 1903) and New
Farces in Old China (1904).
BROWlf, CHARLES REYlfOLDS: Congrega-
tionalist; b. at Bethany, W. Va., Oct. 1, 1862.
He was graduated from the University of Iowa
(B.A., 1883; M.A., 1886) and the School of The-
ology of Boston University (1889). He was pas-
tor of Wesley Chapel Methodist Episcopal Church,
Cincinnati, O. (1889-92); of Winthrop Congrega-
tional Church, Boston (1892-96); since 1896 he
hajs been pastor of the First Congregational Church,
Oakland, Cal. He was special lecturer on ethics
in Leland Stanford University in 1900-06, Lyman
Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1905-06, and lecturer
on ethics in Mills College in 1906-08. In 1897 he
made a tour of Egypt and Palestine, and has been
president of the board of trustees of Mills College
since 1902 and a director of the Oakland Asso-
ciated Charities since 1899, and chairman of the
oommittee for the reconstruction of the San Fran-
cisco churches after the earthquake of 1906. In
theology he is a liberal, and in addition to pam-
phlets and sermons, has written Two Parables (Chi-
cago, 1898); The Main Points : A Study in Chris-
tian Belief (San Francisco, 1899); and The Social
Message of the Modem PvlpU (Yale lectures, New
York, 1906).
BROWIf, CHARLES RUFUS: Baptist; b. at
East Kingston, N. H., Feb. 22, 1849. He was
educated at Phillips Exeter Academy (1863-65)
and the United States Naval Academy (1865-69),
and attained the rank of master. He resigned
from the navy, however, and continued his studies
at Newton Theological Institution (1874-75, 1877-
1878), Harvard University (B.A., 1877), Union Theo-
logical Seminary (1878-79), and the universities
of Berlin (1879-80) and Leipsic (1880-81). He
was ordained to the Baptist ministry at Franklin,
N. H., in 1881, and remained there as pastor until
1883. He was appointed associate professor of
Biblical interpretation, Old Testament, in the
Newton Theological Institution in 1883, and since
1886 has been professor of Hebrew and cognate
languages there. He was also librarian of the
institution in 1884-^, 1889-97, and 1900-06,
secretary of the faculty in 1887-92, and registrar in
1892-95. He has been a member of the Society
of Biblical Literature and Exegesis since 1883,
and was formerly a member of the American
Oriental Society (1886), the Archeological Institute
of America (1899), and the department of arche-
ology in the University of Pennsylvania (1902).
He has written An Aramaic Method (2 parts,
Chicago, 1884-86); in 1893-94 edited the course
of Sunday-school lessons in the Bible Study Minor
Graded Lesson System, and made a critical transla-
tion of Jeremiah (Philadelphia, 1907).
BROWIf, DAVID: Free Church of Scotland;
b. at Aberdeen Aug. 17, 1803; d. there July 3,
1897. He studied at the University of Aberdeen
(M.A., 1821); was licensed 1826, and was assistant
to Edward Irving in London 1830-32; was ordained
.minister of a country chapel six niiles southwest
of Banff 1836; he went with the Free Chureh 1843,
and the same year became minister of St. James's,
Glasgow; was elected professor of apologetics,
church history, and exegesis of the Gospels at the
Free Church College, Aberdeen, 1857; elected
principal 1876, and resigned his professorship 1887.
He was a director of the National Bible Society of
Scotland, one of the founders of the Evangelical
Alliance, was deeply interested in the Alliance of
the Reformed Churches and a member of the third
General Council at Belfast, 1888. He was an
opponent of Robertson Smith in the controversy
wUch resulted in the dismissal of the latter from
Aberdeen, and as a member of the New Testament
revision company took a highly conservative posi-
tion. He was moderator of the Grcneral Assem-
bly of the Free Church in 1885. Besides numer-
ous contributions to the periodicals, he published
Christ's Second Coming: Will it be PremiUenialf
(Edinburgh, 1846; 6th ed., 1867), a classic; Crushed
Hopes Crowned in Death, a memorial of his son,
Alexander Brown, of the Bengal dvil service, d.
Jitn., 1860 (London, 1861); The Restoration of the
Jews : the History, Princijies, and Bearings of the
Question (Edinburgh, 1861); Life of the laU John
Duncan (1872); The Apocalypse : its structure
and primary predictions (London, 1891). He col-
laborated with R. Jamieson and A. R. Fausset in
preparing the Commentary, Critical, Experimental,
and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments (6
vols., Glasgow, 1864-70), fiunishing the portion
devoted to the Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle
to the Romans; wrote the commentary on the
Epistles to the Corinthians for Schaff's Popular
Commentary on the New Testament (1882); and
prepared the Epistle to the Romans for Dods and
Whyte's Handbooks for Bible Classes (Edinburgh,
1883).
Bibuoorapht: W. Q. BUOde, David Brown, , . . A Mem'
oir, London, 1808.
Brvwii
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
276
BROWN, FRANCIS: Presbyteriao; b. at Han-
over, N. H., Dec. 26. 1849. He was educated at
Dartmouth College (B.A., 1870), Uidon Theo-
logical Seminary (1877), and the University of
Berlin (1877-79). He was assistant master in
Ayers' Latin School, Pittsburg, Pa., in 1870-72,
and tutor in Greek in Dartmouth College in 1872-74.
From 1879 to 1881 he was lecturer in Biblical
philology in Union Theological Seminary, and was
associate professor of the same subject from 1881
to 1890, when he was appointed Davenport pro-
fessor of Hebrew and the cognate languages in
the same institution. He has been a member of
the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis
since 1880, and was its president in 1895-96; a
member of the Society of Historical Theology
(Oxford) since 1891 and its president in 1899-1900;
and a member of the American Oriental Society
since 1 881 . In addition to numerous briefer studies,
he has written: The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles
(New York, 1884; in collaboration with R. D.
Hitchcock); Assyriologyf its Use and Abuse in Old
Testament Study (1885); A Hebrew and English
Lexicon of the Old Testament (12 parts, Oxford,
1891-1906; in collaboration with S. R. Driver
and C. A. Briggs); and The Christian Point of
View (New York, 1902; in collaboration with
A. C. McGiffert and G. W. Knox).
BROWN, HUGH STOWELL: En^sh Baptist;
b. at Douglas, Isle of Man, Aug. 10, 1823; d. at
Liverpool Feb. 24, 1886. He learned surveying,
and became a railroad engineer; at twenty-one en-
tered King William's College, Castletown, Isle of
Man, to study for the ministry of the Established
Church; doubts oonoeming the baptismal teachings
of the Church and the relations of Church and State
led him to think of returning to his trade; in 1846
he joined the Baptists, in 1847 became minister
of the Mjrrtle Street Chapel, Liverpool, and re-
mained there till his death. He inaugurated Sun-
day afternoon lectures for workingmen, with whom,
owing to his early experiences, he had great influ-
ence. He was president of the Baptist Union
1878, an active member of the Baptist Missionary
Society, and president of the Liverpool Peace
Society. He published numerous lectures and
sermons.
Bibuoorapht: Hugh Stowell Brown^ hit Autobioffraphy, hi9
Commonj^ace Book, and BxtraeU from h\» Sermoru and
AddreMtB, a memorial Volume, edited by his Bon-in-law,
W. S. Caine, London, 1887; DNB, supplement vol., i.
300-301.
BROWN, JAMES BALDWIN: En^sh Congie-
gationalist; b. in London Aug. 19, 1820; d.
there June 23, 1884. He studied at London Uni-
versity (B.A., 1839); studied law for two years
and then studied theology at Highbury College;
became minister of London Road Chapel, Derby,
1843; of Claylands Chapel, Clapham Road, London,
1846, and remained with this congregation till
his death; a new church on Brixton Road (Brixton
Independent Church) was occupied in 1870. He
was distinguished for the breadth of his theological
views and strongly opposed to Calvinism. He
took an active interest in public movements such
as the relief of the laboring classes during the
Lancashire cotton famine . He favored the opening
of the Crystal Palace on Sundays, and was a wann
advocate of the admission of dissenters to the
universities. He strenuously opposed the doc-
trine of conditional immortality as a deadly error.
In 1878 he was chairman of the Congregational
Union; at this time a movement to discover some
common ground on which Christians of various
ways of thinking might unite in independence of
dogma and of the historic side of Christianity
had made such progress as to call for repressive
action on the part of the Union in the opinion of
many; he strongly opposed such action, but was
overruled and outvoted. His more important
books were: The Divine Life in Man (London,
1859), which brought upon him a charge of hetero-
doxy; The SouTs Exodus and Pilgrimage (1862);
The Divine Treatment of Sin (1864); The Home
Life in the Light of Us Divine Idea (1866); Idoh-
tries, Old and New, their Cause and Cure (1867);
The First Principles of Ecclesiastical Trvih (1871);
The Higher Life, Us ReaHty, Experience, and Des-
tiny (1874); The Doctrine of Annihilatum in tin
Light of the Gospel of Love (1875); Home, its Rela-
lion to Man and Society (1883).
Biblxoorapht: For hia life oonsult Elisabeth B. Brtnrn,
/. Baldwin Brown, Miniaier of Brixion Independent
Church, London, 1884 (by hia wife).
BROWIf, JOHN: English Congr^ationalist; b.
at Bolton>le-Moor8 (12 m. n.w. of Manchester),
Lancashire, June 19, 1830. He was educated at
Owens College, Manchester, and the Lancashire
Independent College, Manchester (B.A., London
University, 1853), and was minister of Park Chapel,
Manchester, from 1855 to 1864, and of Bunyan
Church, Bedford, from 1864 to 1903, when he
became pastor emeritus. He was chairman of
the Congregational Union of England and Wales
in 1891, Congregational Union lecturer in 1898,
and Lsnnan Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1899.
He was also president of the County Association
of Free Churches in Bedfordshire from 1878 to
1902, and chairman of the committee of the Con-
gregational Union of England and Wales, 1893-95.
He represented the latter body at the Triennial
Union of the United States at Minneapolis in 1892,
and at the Congregational Union of Ontario and
Quebec at Toronto in 1905. In Biblical criticism
he is a liberal conservative, and in theology bdongs
to the evangelical school. In addition to numerous
pamphlets and magasine articles, he has written:
Lectures on the Book of Revelation (London, 1866);
God's Book far Man's Life (1881); John Bunyan,
his Life, Times, and Work (1885); The Pilgrim
Fathers of New England (1895); The Bedfordshire
Union of Christians (1896); Apostolical Succession
in the Light of History and Fact (Congregational
Union lectures, 1898); The Present Crisis in Ute
Church of England (1899); Pwitan Preaching in
England (Yale Lectures for 1899, New York, 1900);
Eras of Nonconformity (2 vols., London, 1904).
He likewise edited Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress,
Holy War, and Grace Abounding (3 vols., London,
1887-^), and the same author's complete works
for the Cambridge University Press (2 vols., Cam-
bridge, 1905-06).
277
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Brown
BROWN, JOHN: The name of several Scotch
ministerB, the moet noteworthy being:
1. Jolm Brown of Edinbtirgh: Scotch Burgher
minister, eldest son of Rev. John Brown of Whit-
bum (21 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh), Linlithgowshire
(b. 1754; d. 1832), and grandson of John Brown
of Haddington (q.v.); b. at Whitburn July 12.
1784; d. at Edinburgh Oct. 13, 1^. He studied
at Ekiinburgh and the divinity hall of the Burgher
Church at Selkirk; was licensed 1805 and ordained
minister of the Burgher Church of Biggar, Lanark-
shire, 1806; became minister of the Rose Street
Church, Edinburgh, 1822, and of the Broughton
Place Church in the same city 1829; was professor
of exegetical theology to the United Associate
Synod after 1834. He was strongly in favor of
the separation of Church and State, and in 1845
was tried (and acquitted) before the synod on a
charge of holding unsound views concerning the
atonement. He was a fine orator and a voluminous
writer; the most prominent of his works are:
Expository Discourses on First Peter (3 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1848); Exposition of the Discourses
and Sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ (3 vols., 1850);
The Resurrection of Life, an exposition of I Cor. xv.
(1852); Expository Discourses on GalaOans {1S53)]
Analytical Exposition of the Epistle of Paul to the
Romans (1857). He was the father of the well-
known John Brown, M.D. (b. 1810; d. 1882), author
of Rab and his Friends (Edinburgh, 1859).
Bibuooraphy: J. Cairns, Memoira of John Brovon^ Edin-
buisb, 1861; DNB, vii. 18-19.
2. John Brown of Haddington: Scotch Burgher
minister; b. at Carpow, near Abemethy (on the
Frith of Tay, 6 m. s.e. of Perth), Perthshire, 1722;
d. at Haddington (12 m. e. of Edinburgh) June 19,
1787. He was poor and self-taught, but acquired
no small amount of learning; was a herd-boy, ped-
ler, soldier, and school-teacher; studied theology
under Ebenezer Erskine and James Fisher of
Glasgow; was licensed in 1750, and in 1751 settled
as pastor of the Burgher branch of the Secession
Church of Haddington, where he remained till
his death, declining a call as professor of divinity in
Queen's (College, N. J. After 1768 he was professor
of theology to the Associate Synod. His yearly
income from his church never exceeded £50, and
his professorship had no salary; nevertheless he
brought up a large family, gave freely in charity,
and wrote books (which brought him no pecuniary
profit) not only popular but valuable. They in-
clude: Two Short Catechisms Mutually Connected
(Edinburgh, 1764); A Dictionary of the Bible (2
vols., 1769; revised ed., 1868); The Self-inter-
preting Bible (2 vols., 1778; often reprinted); and
A Compendious History of the Church of England
and of the Protestant Churches in Ireland and America
(2 vols., Glasgow, 1784; new edition by Thomas
Brown, Edinburgh, 1823).
Biblioobapht: SketchM of his life are prefixed to yariotu
editiona of his works; the best is that by his son, prefixed
to his Select Remaine^ ed. hie Sotu, J. and E. Brown, this
edited by W. Brown* Edinburgh, 1866. Consult also
DNB, vii. 12-14.
BROWH, JOHN IfEWTON: American Baptist;
b. at New London, C!k>nn., June 29, 1803; d. at
Germantown, Penn., May 15, 1868. He was
graduated at Hamilton Institute (Ck>lgate Uni-
versity), Hamilton, N. Y., 1823; preached at
Bufifalo, N. Y., Providence, R. I., Maiden, Mass.,
and Exeter, N. H.; was professor of theology and
church history in the New Hampton (New Hamp-
shire) Theological Institution, 1838-45; pastor at
Lexington, Va., 1845-49; editorial secretary of the
American Baptist Publication Society 1849 till his
death. He prepared (1833) and revised (1852)
the " New Hampshire [Baptist] Confession of
Faith." His most important literary work was
the EncydopcBdia of Religious KrwwLedge (Brattle-
boro, 1835).
BROWIf, PETER HUME: Scotch historian, lay-
man; b. at Haddington (18 m. e. of Edinburgh),
Haddingtonshire, Dec. 17, 1850. He was educated
at Edinburgh University (M.A., 1873), and had
originally intended to enter the Church. He gave
up this plan, however, and ultimately turned his
attention to history. In 1898 he was made editor
of the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland,
and three years later was appointed to lus present
position of professor of ancient (Scottish) history
and paleography in the University of Edinburgh.
He has written: George Buchanan, Humanist and
Reformer (Edinburgh, 1890); Early Travellers in
Scotland (London, 1891); Scotland before 1700,
from Contemporary Documents (Ekiinburgh, 1893);
John Knox: a Biography (2 vols., 1895); History
of Scotland (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898-1902); Scot-
land in the time of Queen Mary (Rhind Lectures for
1903; London, 1904); and George Buchanan and his
Times (1906).
BROWN, PHCEBE ALLEN (HmSDALE): Hymn-
writer; b. at Canaan, Ck>lumbia County, N. Y.,
May 1, 1783; d. at Marshall, Henry County, III.,
Oct. 10, 1861. She was left an orphan at the age
of two, and in early life suffered great hardship
and even cruel treatment at the hands of strangers;
she first learned to write at the age of eighteen.
In 1805 she married Timothy Brown (d. 1853)
and moved to East Windsor, C!k>nn. In 1813 the
family went to the neighboring village of Ellington,
and in 1818 to Monson, Mass. Her husband was
a village mechanic, the family was poor, and her
life was hampered by care; nevertheless she read
much, kept up systematic Bible study, and found
money to devote to Christian work, especially to
the cause of missions. She wrote for her own
amusement, but published newspaper articles,
tracts, and a volume of tales, The Tree and its
Fruits (New York, 1836); she left an autobiog-
raphy in manuscript. Her best known hynm,
" I love to steal awhile away
From every cumbering care,"
is said to have been written at Ellington at a time
when poverty and domestic duties left little oppor-
tunity for meditation at home and she was in the
habit of going out for a walk every day at dusk;
some thoughtless remarks of neighbors being
reported to her, she wrote " An Apology for my
Twilight Rambles." The second line originally
read " From little ones and care." The poem
was first printed (abridged and revised) in Nettle-
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
278
ton's Village Hymu (New York, 1824). The tune
" Monson," to which it is often sung, was written
by her son, Samuel Bobbins Brown (q.v.).
Bibuoohapht: F. H. Bird, in ThM Ind^pendmi for Jan. 6,
Jan. 20. and April 14. 1881; S. W. Duffield. EngHOi
Hymns, pp. 242-246. New York, 1886 (ciTes original text
of the hymn mentioned in the text); Julian, Hymnology^
p. 186.
BROWH, SAMUEL ROBBUfS: The first Amer-
ican appointed missionary to Japan; b. at East
Windsor, Conn., June 16, 1810, son of Phoebe
(Hinsdale) Brown (q.v.); d. ac Monson, Mass.,
June 20, 1880. He was graduated at Yale, 1832;
studied at the Theological School, Columbia, S. C,
1835-37, and at Union Theological Seminary, New
York, 1837-38; went to China in 1838 and took
charge of a school founded and maintained by
the Morrison Education Society (see Morrison.
Robert), located first at Macao, in 1842 removed
to Hon^ong. He returned to America in 1847
bringing with him three Chinese boys, one of whom
was Yung Wing, afterward at the head of the
Chinese Education C!ommission; he taught at
Rome, N. Y., 1848-51, and was pastor of the
Reformed (Dutch) Church and principal of a suc-
cessful school at Owasco Outlet (Sand Beach),
near Auburn, N. Y., 1851-59; was one of the incor-
porators (1851) and first chairman of the executive
committee of Elmira College, the first chartered
woman's college in America. In May, 1859, he
sailed for Japan as missionary of the Reformed
(Dutch) Church, and located at Kanagawa till
1863, when he removed to Yokohama; returned to
America in 1867 and for two years preached for his
old church at Owasco Outlet; was again in Japan
1869-79. Dr. Brown arrived in Japan immediately
after the opening of the country; during the
difficult transition period which followed he ld[>ored
with rare judgment and unfailing zeal for both
natives and foreign residents. His views and his
methods were free from narrowness and he con-
sidered the advancement of civilization a part of
the work of the Christian missionary. He wrote
many articles and newspaper letters on Chinese
and Japanese subjects; prepared school books
for his pupils; published Colloquial Japanese
(Shanghai, 1863), and Prendergaat'e Matiery SyeUm
Adapted to the Study of Japanese or Englieh
(Yokohama, 1878); and assisted in the Japanese
translation of the New Testament, completed just
before his death and published the same year.
Bibuoobapht: W. E. Qriffis. A Maker of ihe New Orieni,
8ami»a R. Brown, New York. 1902.
BROWH, WILLIAM ADAMS: Presbyterian; b.
in New York City Dec. 29, 1865. He was educated
at Yale University (B.A., 1886), Union Theological
Seminary (1890), and the University of Berlin
(1890-92). He was successively instructor in
church history (1892-93) and systematic theology
(1893-95) in Union Theological Seminary, where
he was provisional professor of systematic theology
from 1895 to 1898, and has been Roosevelt pro-
fessor of the same subject since 1898. He is a
member of the Society of Biblical Literature and
Exegesis, and has written, in addition to contribu-
tions to Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Musical
Instruments and their Homes (New York, 1888);
The Essence of Christianity (1892); Chria the VUal-
iting Princijie of Christian Theology (1898); and
Christian Theology in Outline (1907).
BROWN, WILLIAM MONTGOMERY: Prot-
estant Episcopal bishop of Arkansas; b. near
Orrville, O., Nov. 6, 1855. He was educated at
Seabury Hall, Faribault, Bfinn., and by private
tutors, and graduated from Bexley Hall, the the-
ological seminary of Kenyon Ck>llege, Gambier,
O., 1884. He was ordered deacon in 1883, and
priest, 1884. He was in chaige of Grace MiasioD,
Gallon, O., 1883-01, and during this period estab-
lished seven other missions in adjacent places. In
1891 he was chosen general missionary and arch-
deacon of the diocese of Ohio, and in this capacity
founded many new parishes, besides building
twenty-one mission chapels. He was likewise
secretary of the Diocesan Missionary Committee
and of the Diocesan Board of Trustees. In 1898
he was consecrated bishop-coadjutor of Arkansas,
and on the death of Bishop Henry N. Pierce in
1899, became bishop of the diocese. He has writ-
ten The Church for Americans (New York, 1896).
BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD: Bishop of
Winchester; b. at Aylesbury (35 m. n.w. of Lon-
don), Buckinghamshire, Mar. 6, 181 1 ; d. at Shales,
near Bittcme (2 m. n.e. of Southampton), Hamp-
shire, Dec. 18, 1891. He studied at Emmanuel
Ck>llege, Cambridge (B.A., 1832; MA., 1836;
B.D., 1855); became fellow and tutor of his col-
lege, 1837; curate of Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1840;
perpetual curate of St. James's, Exeter, 1841; per-
petual curate of St. Sidwell's, Exeter, 1842; vice-
principal and professor of Hebrew in St. David's
College, Lampeter, Wales, 1843; vicar of Ken-
wyn-cum-Kea, Cornwall, and prebendary of Exe-
ter, 1849; vicar of Hcavitree and canon of Exeter.
1857; in 1854 he was appointed Norrisian professor
of divinity at Cambridge; in 1864 was con-
secrated bishop of Ely; in 1873 translated to
Winchester; resigned 1890. He took a de^
interest in the " Old Catholic " movement and
attended the congress at Ck>logne in 1872; was a
member of the Old Testament company of revisers;
was prominent on the conservative side in the
beginning of the controversy concerning Bible
criticism and issued The Pentateuch and the Elo-
histic PsalmSf in Reply to Bishop Colenso (Loiulon,
1863). He also published: The Fulfilment of the
Old Testament Prophecies Relating to the Messiah
(1836); An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Artides
(2 voU., 1850-53; new ed., 1886>--the work by
which he is best known; and Position and Parties of
the English Church (1875). He also contributed
to Aids to Faith and wrote the introduction to the
Pentateuch and the commentary on (xenesiB for
the " Speaker's Ck>mmentary."
Bxbuoorapht: G. W. Kitchin. Edward Harold Browm.
. . . A Memoir, London, 1805; DNB, supplement roL,
i. 304.
BROWNE, GEORGE: First Protestant arch-
bishop of Dublin; d. 1556. He is first heard of
in 1534, when, as provincial of the order of Austin
Friars, he was employed to administer the oath of
279
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brown
Browne
succession to the friars of London and the south of
En^and; he wajs nominated to the see of Dub-
Ud, vacant by the murder of Archbishop Alien,
was consecrated the same year, and arrived in
Ireland in 1536. He worked diligently to intro-
duce the Reformation in Ireland and to further
the cause of the king; he was deposed under Mary.
His opponents have described him as avaricious,
profligate, and unlearned.
Bibuoobaprt: A sketch and useful references to Bouroes
am in DNB, vii. 43-ft5.
BROWHE, GEORGE FORREST: Bishop of
Bristol; b. at York Dec. 4, 1833. He was edu-
cated at St. Catherine's College, Cambridge (B.A.,
1856), where he was fellow and lecturer in 1863-
1865. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1859,
and after being chaplain of St. Catherine's College
and theologicid tutor at Trinity College, Glenal-
mond, Scotland, was rector of Ashley, Hants, from
1869 to 1875. He was a member of the Coimcil
of the Senate of Cambridge University in 1874-
1878 and again in 1880-92, and was Disney professor
of archeology in the same university from 1887 to
1892. He was treasurer of St. Paul's in 1891-99
and canon in 1892-97, and in 1895 was consecrated
bishop suffragan of Stepney, being translated to
the see of Bristol two years later. He was also
Bell lecturer in the Scottish Episcopal Church in
1862 and secretary to the Cambridge Local Exam-
inations seven years later, and is president of the
Alpine Club. He has written: Ice Caves of France
and SwiUerland (London, 1865); The Venerable
Bede (1879); University Sermons; The Ilam
Crosses (1889); Lessons from Early English Church
History (1893); The Church at Home before Augus-
tine (1894); Augustine and his Companions (1895);
Off the Mill (1895); Conversion of the Heptarchy
(1896); Theodore and WUfrUh (1897); History of
SL Catherine's College (1902); and Life and Works
of St Aldhelm (1903).
BROWNE, JOHN: English Congregationalist;
b. at North Walsham (15 m. n. of Norwich), Nor-
folk, Feb. 6, 1823; d. at Wrentham (33 m. n.e. of
Ipswich), Suffolk, Apr. 4, 1886. He studied at
Coward College and University College, London
1839-44 (B.A., London University, 1843); was
minister at Lowestoft. Suffolk, 1844; at Wrentham,
1848 till his death. His chief publication was the
History of Congregationalism and Memorials of the
Churches in Norfolk and Suffolk (London, 1877),
which is of great importance for the beginnings of
English Congregationalism.
BROWNE, PETER: Protestant Irish bishop;
b. in County Dublin soon after 1660; d. Aug. 25,
1735. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin; was
consecrated bishop of Cork and Ross 1710. He
opposed the custom of drinking healths in a series
of pamphlets (1713 sqq.) which won him much
notoriety, but has more enduring fame as an anti-
deistical writer; in reply to John Toland he
published A Letter in Answer to a Book Entitled
ChristianHy not Mysterious (Dublin, 1697), and after-
ward elaborated his argument in The Procedure,
Extentf and Limits of Human Understanding (Lon-
don, 1728), a critique of Locke's Essay; in Things
Divine and Supernatural Conceived by Analogy with
Things Natural and Human (1733) he asserts that
knowledge of God's essence and attributes can be
only " analogical " and not direct.
BROWNE, ROBERT: Leader of the English
Separatists (from whom they received their popu-
lar name of Brownists), and generally considered
the founder of the Congregationalists; b. at Tole-
thorp (3 m. n. of Stamford), Rutlandshire, about
1550; d at Northampton after Jime 2, 1631. He
was of good family and had influential relatives
on both his father's and his mother's side, including
the great chancellor, Lord Burghley. He studied
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1572).
It is said that in 1571 he was domestic chaplain
to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and that the
duke took his part in some obscure trouble with
the ecclesiastictd authorities; but this is doubtful.
He taught school for three years (seventeenth
century writers say in or near London) and made
" enemies " by freely speaking his mind concern-
ing " many things amiss, and the cause of all to be
the woeful and lamentable state of the Church."
In 1578 or 1579 he returned to Cambridge. At this
time his views seem to have ripened. Holding that
the true Church consisted only of such as led Chris-
tian lives and did not properly include all baptized
persons, he declared that '^ the kingdom of God was
not to be begim by whole parishes, but rather
of the worthiest, were they never so few." He
publicly harangued against " the calling and
authorizing of preachers by bishops," preached
constantly to Puritan audiences (acceptably, it
would appear) although he had no bishop's license,
and, when his brother obtained a license for him,
disdfained it. Naturally he was silenced, and ill-
ness compelled him temporarily to comply with
the bishop's mandate.
About 1580 Browne went to Norwich, attracted
thither by a friend, Robert (or Richard) Harrison
(q.v.), who became his coworker. Here he organ-
ized his first church and soon extended the field
of his operations as far as Bury St. Edmunds. The
bishop of Norwich complained of him as a preacher
of " corrupt and contentious doctrine " and likely to
mislead " the vulgar sort of people," but Burghley
protected him. Nevertheless Norwich was made so
uncomfortable for the little band that about Jan.,
1582, most of them, with their pastor, emigrated
to Middelburg in Zealand. Browne's impulsive
and imperious character, as well as the principles
of the congregation, did not promote unity. After
two years of continual discussion and division,
with four or five families, he left for Scotland.
They arrived in Edinburgh Jan., 1584, and at once
commenced the propagation of their peculiar doc-
trines. They ** held opinion of separation from
all kirks where exoommimication was not rigorously
used against open offenders not repenting; they
would not admit witnesses [sponsors] in baptism,
and simdry other opinions they had." Within a
week Browne was simunoned befose the session
of the kirk; he was imprisoned, but only for a
short time; and soon, unhindered, if not covertly
encouraged by the secular authorities, he traveled
BrowiiA
Bmoe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
280
over Scotland. He returned to England, and, pos-
sibly, again visited Holland.
It has generally been supposed that Browne
kept on as zealously and offensively as ever so far
as his strength — ^which was beginning to break
owing to imprisonments and hardships — pex^
mitted, continually harassed by the authorities and
favored by Burghley, until 1586; that in that year
the bishop of Peterborough excommunicated him,
and this so wrought upon him that he changed
completely, submitted to the Church, and thence-
forth lived quietly, and, after a few years, in the
enjoyment of a good benefice. Mr. Burrage trans-
fers the excommunication to a later period and
gives the date of Browne's submission Oct. 7, 1585.
In Nov., 1586, he was elected master of St. Olave's
Grammar-school in Southwark, binding himself
to abstain from propagating his peculiar doctrines
and to live as a member of the Church. His con-
troversial powers were now employed against his
former associates, Henry Barrow and John Green-
wood. In Sept., 1591, he received the living of
Achurch-cum-Thorpe, Northamptonshire; he was
ordained deacon and priest on Sept. 30, and he re-
mained at Achurch for forty uneventful years.
For a period of ten years (1616-26) the entries in
the parish register are not in his handwriting. Mr.
Burrage thinks that this was the time when he was
under sentence of excommunication by the bishop
of Peterborough, and that the cause was a mani-
festation of Separatist tendencies encouraged by
Browne in his parish. If this be so he made sub-
mission a second time, for his handwriting reap-
pears in the register. His last entry is dated June
2, 1631, and in Nov., 1633, a new rector took his
place. He died in Northampton jail, conmiitted
for striking a constable who came to him to collect
a debt, and having shown something of his early
fervid manner when brought before a justice in
consequence.
Browne's biographers have been much puzzled
to explain or extenuate his extraordinary conduct
in making terms with the Church. It has been
urged that he was broken phjrsically and mentally
in 1586; but he can not have been forty years old
at that time and he lived forty-five years aftex^
ward. Dr. Dexter's suggestion that he was nat-
urally of unsoimd mind with a tendency to insanity
which at times became acute has found wide ac-
ceptance. It would explain not only Browne's
own conduct but also the long forbearance and
continued kindness which he enjoyed from Burgh-
ley and others. Mr. Burrage thinks that " at last
he had become wearied of the continual criticism
to which his views in the past had subjected him,
and probably had honestly come to feel that he
might be of really more service to the world, as it
was, not by wearing himself out by combating es-
tablished ideas, but rather by accepting what the
world offered him and by using the advantage he
had thus gained to the furtherance of his higher
ideals."
The starting-point of Browne's views and system
seems to have been his conviction that the spiritual
welfare of true Christians required their separation
from others who were Christians in name only.
It was futile to hope that such separation would
be brought about by the bishops and dergy of
the Established Church or by the civil rulers. Yet
the necessity for it was inmiediate. Hence the
only course possible was for the faithful to secede
and organize themselves. A voluntary association
or covenant of true believers constituted a church,
and each church had the exclusive right of dis-
cipline and the choice of its own officers. Two
kmds of officers are designated in the New Testa-
ment: apostles, prophets, evangelists are temporaiy
and belong to the past; the abiding officers are
the pastor, teacher, elders, deacons, and widows
who have their charge in one church only. The
presence of these officers does not release any mem-
ber from the duty of watching and helping the
others, and a similar responsibility exists between
churches. The civil authorities should have noth-
ing to do with spiritual matters, and it is not their
province to enforce conformity to any ecclesiastical
system. He was thus the first Englishman to
express the Anabaptist doctrine of complete sep-
aration of Church and State. See Congregation-
AIJSTB,I., 1,§§ 1-2.
Browne published three treatises at Middelbiss (1582X
entitled respectively: (1) ii Book which Shmoeth tke Life and
MannerB of All True ChriMtiafUt and how unlike 0»ey art
unto Turk* and PapittM and heathen folk; aleo the poinU
and parte of all divinity that ie of the revealed will and ward
of God are declared by their eeveral definitione and divieionein
order (extracts in Walker, pp. 18-27); (2) A Treatiee of
Reformation without Tarrying for Any, and of (he widced-
neee of thoee preachere which will not reform till the magi$'
irate command or compel them (reprinted. Boston, " Old
South Leaflet, no. 100 "; with biographical introduction
by T. G. Oippen, London, 1003); (3) A Treatiee upon
the 2Sd of Matthew, both for an order of etudying and Aan-
dling the Seripturee and aleo for avoiding the popieh dieor-
dere and ungodly communion of all falee Chrietiane, eepe-
eially of wicked pread^erB and hirdinge (extracts in Burrage,
pp. 21-25). These were intended primarily to further
his cause in England and were spread abroad by his follow-
ers; two men were hanged in 1683 for disseminating
them (see 0>ppin, John). Several other publications or
manuscripts of Browne's are mentioned (Mr. Burrage,
True Story t pp. 74-76, enumerates twenty-five) and the fol-
lowing are known to be preserved: (4) A TVue and Short
Declaration both of ihe Gathering and Joining together of
Certain Peraone, and aleo of the lamentable breach and diri-
eion which fell among them (16847; reprinted in The Congre-
gationaliMtt London, 1882), the story of Browne's early life:
(6) An Anewer to Matter Cartwright'B Letter for joining with
the Bngliah Churehee (London, n.d.; extracts in Burrage,
pp. 31-36); (6) A Reproof of Certain Schiemaiieal Pereona
[Henry Barrow and John Greenwood] and their dodbrine,
touching tite hearing and preaching of the word of God (manu-
script written probably in 1688, discovered by Mr. Burrage
and published by him. Oxford, 1907); (7) A letter addressed
" My good Uncle," and dated " the last of December. 1588 "
[Jan. 10, 1689], discovered and published with introduc-
tion by Champlin Burrage under the title A Neva
Yeara Guift (London, 1904). The letter is quoted by
Richard Bancroft, afterward archbishop of (^terfouiy,
in a sermon at Paul's Ooss, Feb. 9, 1688, and the manu-
script discovered by Mr. Burrage is indorsed in what is
believed to be Brancroft's handwriting ** Mr. Browne's
Answer to Mr. Flower's Letter." One sheet (4 pages) ie
lacking, but the part preserved contains more than 6,000
words, discusses the subject of church government at
considerable length, and is particularly interesting for
the idea which it gives of Browne's views concerning the
(%urch of England at the time of writing; (8) A letter
to Burghley, Apr. 16. 1690, printed by Strype in the Lif*
and Aete of John WhUgift, appendix, bk. iii., no. xlv. (ap-
pendix, pp. 133-134. ed. London, 1718).
BiBUOGRAraT: T. Fuller, Church Hietary of Great Britain,
book ix.. cent. xvi.. sect, vi., f f 1-7. 64-60, ed. J. S.
281
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Browne
Bmoe
Brew«r. 6 vols., London, 1845; C. H. Cooper, AthencB
CatUabriffienaea, ii. 177-178. London. 1868-61; H. M.
Dexter. CongngcUiontUiatn of the Last Tfu^e Hundred
Yeare, New York, 1880; W. Walker. Creede and Plain
forme of Congreoationaliem, pp. 1-27, ib. 1893; idem. Hia-
tary of the CongregoHonal Churdiee in the United Statee,
31-41. ib. 1894; DNB, vii. 57-61; C. Burrage, The True
Story of Robert Browne il560-160S\ Father of Congre-
oatifonaliem, Oxford, 1906.
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS : Author of the Religio
Medici; b. in Cheapside, London, Oct. 19, 1605;
d. at Norwich Oct. 19, 1682. He attended Win-
chester College and Broadgate Hall (Pembroke
College), Oxford (B.A., 1626; M.A., 1629); studied
medicine and practised in Oxfordshire; traveled
in Ireland, France, and Italy, continued his medical
studies at Montpellier and Padua, and received
his degree of doctor of medicine at Leyden about
1633; settled at Norwich in 1637, where he gained
much repute as a physician and still more as a man
of universal knowledge. The Religio Medici was
probably written about 1635 and not intended for
publication; two unauthorized editions appeared
in 1642, which led to an edition with the author's
approval, but anonymous, in 1643. The work is
peculiar ifrom its blending of deep religious feeling
and skeptical views. '' It appears to have been
composed as a tour de force of intellectual agility,
an attempt to combine daring skepticism with
implicit faith in revelation." The style is meta-
phorical and artificial, with many Latinized words,
but striking and impressive. Browne also pub-
lished: Pseudodoxia Epidemicaj or Enquiries into
very Many Received Tenets and commonly Presumed
Truihs, which Examined prove but Vulgar and Com-
mon Errors (London, 1646); Hydriotaphia or Urn-
burial and The Garden of Cyrus (1658); many of his
manuscripts were published posthumously. The
best edition of his complete works is by Simon
Wilkin (4 vols., London, 1835-36; reprinted,
abridged, by Bohn, 3 vols., 1851-52). The Religio
Medici, with A Letter to a Friend upon Occasion
of the Death of his Intimate Friend (first published
1690) and Christian Morals (1716), and the Hydrio-
taphia and Garden of CyruSf have been carefully
edited by W. A. Greenhill (London, 1881 and 1896);
and the Religio Medici is ed. with introduction by
C. H. Herford (New York, 1907).
Biblioobapht: A rather extended sketch of Browne's life
and writings is given in DNB, vii. 64-72. where the liter-
ature and list of works is given at some length. Consult
also £. Gosee, in Bngliah Men of Lettere, London. 1905.
BROWHISTS. See Browne, Robert.
BROWULEE, WILLIAM CRAIG: American
(Dutch) Reformed clergyman; b. at Torfoot, Lan-
arkshire, Scotland, 1783; d. in New York Feb.
10, 1860. He was graduated at Glasgow Univer-
sity; was licensed and emigrated to America in
1808; was pastor at Mt. Pleasant, Washington
County, Penn., Philadelphia (1813), and Basldng-
ridge, N. J. (1819); professor of languages in
Rutgers College 1825; called to the Collegiate Re-
formed Dutch Church, New York, 1826; made pastor
emeritus after a paralytic stroke in 1843. He was
a strong opponent of Roman Catholics and Quakers.
He published Inquiry into the Principles of Quakers
(New York, 1824); The Roman Catholic Contro-
versy (Philadelphia, 1834); Lights and Shadows of
Christian Life (New York, 1837); Popery an
Enemy to Civil and Religious Liberty (1836); Ro-
manism in the Light of Prophecy and History (1857).
Bibuogbapht: A Memorial was published by the consis-
tory of his Church (New York. 1860).
BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS: Roman
Catholic convert; b. at Stockbridge, Vt., Sept. 16,
1803; d. at Detroit, Mich., Apr. 17, 1876. His
religious career is marked by its many changes.
The influences of his boyhood were of the strictest
New England orthodoxy; at nineteen he. joined a
Presbyterian church at Ballston, N. Y.; in 1826
he was ordained (at Jaffrey, N. H.) a Universalist
minister; after two or three years he left the Uni-
versalists, and, influenced by Robert Dale Owen
and his projects, became a socialist, entered politics,
and helped form a " Workingmen's Party " in
New York. He soon despaired of reform by means
of political organization, and in 1831 again began
preaching at Ithaca, N. Y., this time as an inde-
pendent, attracted by the writings of William
EUery Channing. Later he had Unitarian parishes
at Walpole, N. H., and Canton, Mass. In 1836 he
organized in Boston '' The Society for Christian
Union and Progress " and continued its minister
till 1843, when he gave up preaching. In Oct.,
1844, he was received into the Roman Catholic
Church in Boston, and did not again change his
faith, although he continued independent and com-
bative within the Church and received a recom-
mendation from Rome to be more guarded in his
language. He wrote with great zeal and no small
ability in advocacy of all of his successive be-
liefs. He started The Boston Quarterly Review in
1838 and wrote nearly all its numbers till it was
merged in The Democratic Review of New York
in 1843; from 1844 to 1864 and agam 1873-75
he published Brownson^s Quarterly Review^ at
first in Boston, later in New York, where he lived
1855-75. His books were: New Views of Chris-
tianity, Society, and the Church (Boston, 1836);
Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted (1840);
Essays and Reviews (New York, 1852); The
Spirit Rapper ; an Autobiography (Boston, 1854);
The Convert, or Leaves from my Experience (New
York, 1857); The American Republic, its Consti-
tution, Tendencies, and Destiny (1865).
Bzblioorapht: His son. Henry F. Brownson, has pub-
lished a collected edition of his Worke, 20 vols.. Detroit,
1882-«7. and his Ufe, 3 vols., 1898-1000.
BRUCE, ALEXAIVDER BALMAIN: Church of
Scotland; b. at Aberargie (a hamlet in the parish
of Abemethy, 7 m. s.e. of Perth), PerthiBhire,
Jan. 30, 1831; d. at Glasgow Aug. 7, 1899. He
was educated at the University of Edinburgh
(1845-49) and the Divinity Hall of the Free Church
of Scotland, which he entered in 1849. After the
completion of his theological studies, he was an
assistant minister at Ancrum, Roxburghshire,
and Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire, until 1859, when
he accepted a call to the pastorate of Cardross,
Dumbartonshire, where he remained nine years.
He was then minister of the East Free Church,
Broughty Ferry, Forfarshire, from 1868 to 1875,
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
and in the latter year was appointed professor of
apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the
Free Church Hall, Glasgow, a position which he
held until his death. In theology he declared him-
self to be " in sympathy with modem religious
thought, while maintaining solidarity with all
that is best in the theology of the past; in favor of
freedom in critical inquiries on the basis of evan-
gelic faith, and of a simplified and more compre-
hensive creed/' The boldness of his views brought
him to the notice of the General Assembly of his de-
nomination in 1890, but after consideration his wri-
tings were pronounced to be, on the whole, in accord
with orthodox standards. He was Cunningham
Lecturer in 1874, Ely Lecturer in Union Theological
Seminary, New York, in 1886, and Gifford Lec-
turer in Glasgow University in 1896-97, and after
1894 collaborated with T. K. Cheyne in editing
the Thetdagical TranskUion Library. In addition
to minor contributions, he wrote The Training of
the Twdve (Edinburgh, 1871); The HumiliaHon
of Chriei (1876); The Chief End of Revelation
(London, 1881); The Parabolic Teaching of Christ
(1882); The GalUcean Gospel (Edinburgh, 1884);
F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Chris-
tianity and of the New Testament (London, 1885);
The Miraculous Element in the Gospels (the Ely
lectures for 1886; 1886); The Life of William
Denny (1888); The Kingdom of God, or, Christ's
Teachings according to the Synoptic Gospels (Ekiin-
burgh, 1889); Apologetics : or, The Cause of Chris-
tianity defensively stated (1892); St. PauTs Con-
ception of Christianity (1894); With Open Face :
or, Jesus mirrored in McUthew, Mark, and Luke
(London, 1896); The Providential Order of the
World (GifiFord lectures for 1897; 1897); a com-
mentary on the sjrnoptic Gospels in The Expositor's
Greek Testament (IS97); The Epistle to the Hebrews :
the first Apology for Christianity (Edinburgh, 1899);
and The Moral Order of the World in Ancient and
Modem Thought (Gifford lectures for 1898; Lon-
don, 1899).
Bibuoobapht: DNB, rapplement i., 321-322.
BRUCH, broH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German
theologian; b. at Pirmasens (13 m. e.8.e. of Zwei-
brQcken), Rhenish Bavaria, Dec. 13, 1792; d. at
Strasburg July 21, 1874. He was educated at the
gymnasium of ZweibrUcken and the Protestant
academy of Strasburg, after which he was succes-
sively tutor at Cologne (1812), vicar at Lohr in
German Lotharingia, and private tutor in Paris
(1815). In Nov., 1821, he was appointed professor
at the Protestant seminary at Strasburg, and a
few months later became full professor in the theo-
logical faculty. His position, both then and later,
was rationalistic. EQs conception of revelation,
miracles, Christ and his works, sin, and salvation,
therefore, frequently diverged widely from the
teachings of the Church and of* tradition. His
lectures were at first restricted to Christian ethics
and the synoptic Ciospels, but later embraced also
systematic theology and the New Testament, in
addition to practical homiletics. After 1831 he
was preacher at the Nicholaikirche, where he sought
to instruct and calm the religious excitement
caused by the attacks of orthodox Pietism on Ubeial
theology, aiming to further a faith based on reasoD
and a life of true Christianity, as well as unity aad
peace within the Church.
Bruch's influence was also felt in the develop-
ment of the religious life of his city, and in the
foundation and administration of religious and
ecclesiastical projects. The first infant schools,
the evening schools for poor children, Sunday
lectures for workingmen, the society for the im-
provement of young criminals, and the society
for the evangelization of Protestants scattered
in the departments of the East^were among those
inspired and called into existence by him. He
was also the president of the Strasburg Bible
Society and until his death conducted the pastoral
conference of his dty. After 1828 he likewise
acted as the director of the Protestant gymnasium.
In 1849 he was appointed inspector of the district
of St. Thomas, in 1852 a member of the supreme
consistory, and in 1866 of the directory. Amid
all these tasks he found time and strength to treat
the most obscure problems of theology and phi-
losophy, although he was obliged, for lack of
sympathy, to abandon his plan of writing in French
to supply the deficiency of Protestant theological
literatui^ in France. The Franco-Prussian War
brought devastation into Church and school, and
Bruch was accordingly appointed rector of the new
university and placed in control of the provisional
direction of ecclesiastical affairs, the final efforts
of his life being devoted to a reorganization of the
theological faculty and of the ecclesiastical situa-
tion, which he sought to protect against the dom-
ination of the system prevailing at Berlin.
Bruch was a prolific writer, his works, in ad-
dition to numerous pamphlets and articles in
learned periodicals, being as follows: Lehimck
der christlichen SittenUhre (2 vols., Strasburg,
1829-32); ChrisUiche Vorirdge (2 voU., 183^-42);
Studes philosophiques sur le christianisme (Paris,
1839); Ideen zur Abfassung einer den Bedurfnissen
der deutschr-protestantischen Kirche Frankreichs
entsprechenden Liturgie (Strasburg, 1839); Die
Lehre von den gdtUichen Eigenschaften (Hamburg,
1842); Zustdnde der protestaniischen Kirche Frank-
reichs (1843); Betrachtungen aber Christenthum
und christlichen Glauben in Briefen (2 vols., Stras-
burg, 1845-46); Weisheitslehre der Htbrder, ein
Beitrag zur Geschichte der Philosophie (1851); Das
Gebet des Herm (1853); Ueber das Primip der
weUaberynndenden Macht des Christenthums (Gotha,
1856); Die protestanttsche Freiheit (Strasbxirg,
1857); Die Lehre von der Prdexietenz der mensch-
lichen Seele (1859); and Theorie des Bewusstseins
(1864). T. Gerold.
Bibuographt: Bnioh's life-story is told in Kindkrit- und
Jugenderinnerunffen von Dr. Ft. Bruch, StrasburSt 1889.
and Johann Friedrith Bruch, setns Wirk^anUBeii in Sckuie
und Kirche, 1821-79, 1890, both sdited from his renuuns
by his son-in-law, T. Gerold.
BRUECK, brQk (POITTANUS, real name HEINSE,
HENISCH, HBINCZ), GREGORIUS: German ju-
rist; b. at Briick (22 m. n. of Wittenberg) c. 14S4;
d. at Jena Feb. 15, 1557. He studied at Wittenberg
and Frankfort-on-the Oder, and became bo famous
283
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bmoe
Bm^mftim
as the secretary and representative of the jtiriBt
Hennig Gode that princes and critics sought his
advice. Frederick the Wise invited him to his
court, and after the death of the electoral councilor
Degenhard Pfeffinger (1519), BrQck seems to have
taken his place. He was soon interested in Luther,
and it was not without significance that he accom-
panied the elector to Cologne and Worms. Having
returned to Wittenberg, BrQck received the degree
of doctor of law, and soon afterward was appointed
chancellor. His tact and ability greatly helped
the cause of the Reformation, and the develop-
ment of the Evangelical Church. He was instru-
mental in bringing about the Torgau-Magdeburg
confederations; he advised the elector at the diets
held at Speyer in 1526 and 1529, and it was due to
him, next to Luther, that the Pack-disturbances
did not lead to a general war. But his greatest
services were rendered at the Diet of Augsburg
in 1530. He not only gave the first impulse to the
composition of the Augsburg Confession, but he
took part in the preparation of its details, wrote
the introduction to it, caused it to be read in public,
and gave to the emperor the Latin copy in the
name of the Evangelical estates. He would not
be intimidated, but, on the contrary, encouraged
the timid, and acted as spokesman in all public
debates, so that his eloquence and ability were
even recognized by his opponents. Cochlsus,
well aware of the importance of BrQck, vainly tried
to induce him to abandon the Lutherans by an
" Admonition to Peace and Unity." BrQck's reply
is unknown, for at the time he was engaged
in writing a true accoimt of events at the Diet
of Augsburg, 1530, which was first printed in
FOrstemann's Archiv fur die Geschichie der kirch-
lichen Reformation (Halle, 1831). BrQck at-
tended all diets held during his lifetime, and he
also strove for the consolidation of the Chiu'ch,
finally succeeding in 1542 in forming a permanent
consistory. For a time he resided at Wittenberg,
but after the disastrous end of the Schmalkald
War, which he had consistently opposed, he fol-
lowed the sons of the Elector to Weimar, remaining
a loyal friend of the imprisoned Frederick. Still
later BrQck retired to Jena, where he died.
(T. KOLDB.)
Biblxoorapht: CR, xii. 351 oontaixiB the OraHo de Qngorio
PorUano (by Melanehthon); J. A. Wimmer, VUa Qregorii
PofUani, Alteabuis, 1730; T. Kolde, in ZHT, 1874. pp.
34iqq.
BRUECKNBR, brQk'ner, BEHIIO BRUNO:
German Protestant; b. at Rosswein (23 m. w. of
Dresden) May 9, 1824. He was educated at the
University of Leipsic, and after serving as pastor at
Hobburg from 1850 to 1853 was appointed associate
professor and second university preacher at Leipsic.
Two years later he was made full professor, and
in the following year was appointed university
preacher and director of the seminary for practical
theology. He became canon of Meissen and con-
sis torial councilor in 1860, and nine years later
went to Beriin as provost of St. Nicholas and St.
Mary, honorary professor, university preacher,
and member of the high consistory, of which he
became clerical vice-president in 1877. In 1872 he
was chosen general superintendent of Berlin, and
in the following year was appointed canon of Bran-
denburg. He became high consistorial councilor
in 1880, a member of the Prussian council of state
in 1884, and president of the united synods of the
district of Berlin in 1889. His works include
Epistala ad Philippenaea Pavlo audori vindicata
contra Baurium (Leipsic, 1848); Betrachtungen
iiber die Agende der evangelischrlutherischen Kirche
in Sachsen (1865); and numerous sermons, both
individual and collected, many of which ran through
several editions. He also edited the second and
third editions of W. M. L. De Wette's commentary
on the Catholic Epistles (Leipsic, 1853-67) and
the fifth edition of his commentary on the Gospel of
John (1863).
BRIJEOGLERS. See Kohler, Chbistian and
HiERONYMUB.
BRUGMAlfN, brQg^mOn, JAN: A theologian
and reformer of the Franciscan order in the Nether-
lands and Germany. The date of his birth is un-
known, but from the way in which he speaks of
his age in 1473, the year of his death, he was prob-
ably bom about 1400, at Kempen. He was edu-
cated and admitted to the clerical state in a monas-
tery of the northwestern Netherlands, perhaps
Groningen. He joined the Franciscans at Saint-
Omer in Artois, where the community was full of
the spirit of St. Bemardin of Sienna, the founder
of the strict or Observant Franciscans. Here
he taught theology, until in 1439 he was charged,
at the request of the town council of Gouda, with
the erection of an Observantine house there, and
later took part in a similar work at Stuis, Leyden,
and Alkmaar. Learning to know the moral and
spiritual condition of the people while discharging
these missions, he set hhnself to elevate it by
popular preaching, at the same time effecting a
reform in the convents of Gronigen, Gorinchem,
Haarlem, Wamsveld, and Nymwegen between
1450 and 1455. At Amsterdam he foimded a house
in 1462, and composed a bitter factional strife
among the citizens. He brought about the foun-
dation of the Observantine province of (])ologne, of
which he was provincial for several years. Feeling
his end approaching, he retired to Nymwegen,
where he ched. His influence went far beyond
the reform of the Franciscan houses; he ranks
with the great popular preachers of the Nether-
lands at that time, such as Groote and Florentius
Radewyns, with whom he was in close alliance.
A few of his sermons have been printed (see be-
low). He wrote also a life of Christ, which in
some particulars resembles those of Bonaventura
and Ludolf of Saxony, though adhering more
closely to the Gospel narrative. In spite of its
frequently erroneous exegesis and its arbitrary
mystical interpretations, it is so full of simple piety
and warm devotion that it awakens respect. He
wrote also, in three different versions, the life of
Lidwina of Schiedam, a mystical ascetic considered
a saint in the Netherlands (1350-1443); it has
recently been discovered that he was a vernacular
spiritual poet of no slight importance.
L. SCBULCB.
Brolly
Bruno
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
284
Biblioobapht: The one book is W. Moll, Joh, Brugmann,
•n h€t Oodmiierutio Leven^ AmsterdAm. 1854. One of his
sermons is given in Moll's biography, but other sermons
and writings of his appear in Handtlingen . . . AtaaUehap-
jnj der Nederlandwche Utterkunde, The Hague, ISS7: De
Katholik, xx.; Archief voor NederlandscKe KerkgeMchtedenU
i. (1886), iv. (1802-«3).
BRULLY, brQ"yi' (BRUSLY), PIERRE {Petrus
Brulius): The successor of Calvin in Strasburg; b.
at Mersilhaut (Mercy-le-Haut, about 2 m. s.e. of
Metz) c. 1518; burned at the stake at Toumai (14
m. e. of Lille), Flanders, Feb. 19, 1545. Educated
for the Church, he became lector in the Dominican
convent at Mctz and was expelled in 1540 or 1541
for sympathizing with the Reformation. In July,
1541, he was in Strasburg and intimate with Calvin, in
whose house he lived, and when Calvin was recalled
to Geneva (1541) succeeded him in the pastorate.
In September, 1544, he undertook a missionary
journey to Flanders on the invitation of persons in
Toumai who wished instruction in the Reformed
faith; preached there and in neighboring cities
with earnestness and success, but necessarily in
secret, as to preach Protestant doctrine was for-
bidden. He was arrested at Toumai in November,
condemned, and executed, notwithstanding efforts
made to save him from Strasburg and by the Prot-
estant princes of Germany.
Biblioorapht: C. Paillard, Le Prockt dW Pierre BruUy,
Paris. 1878; R. Heuss, Pierre BruUy, Strasburg. 1879.
BRUNETIERE, brii^ne-tyar', MARIE FERDI-
NAND: French Roman Catholic critic; b. at Toulon
(42 m. e.s.e. of Marseilles) July 19, 1849; d. in
Paris Dec. 9, 1906. Educated at Marseilles and
at the Lyc^ Louis le Grand, Paris, he became
secretary of the editorial board of the Reims des
deux mondes in 1875 and editor in 1893. He was
appointed professor of the French language and
literature at the ficole Normale Sup^rieure, Paris,
and in 1893 became a lecturer at the Sorbonnc.
He delivered a course of lectures in the United
States in 1897. In 1887 he was made a chevalier
of the Legion of Honor, and in 1893 was admitted to
the French Academy , while in 1895 he was appointed
a commander of the Order of Pius IX. His theo-
logical attitude was noteworthy in that, like Cop-
p^, Huysmans, and other distinguished literary
men of France, he became convinced of the tmth
of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church,
abandoning the agnosticism which he had formerly
professed. His writings, which mark a new epoch
in French criticism, include Etudes critiques sur
rhistoire de la lUt&ature fran^-aise (7 vols., Paris,
1880-1903); Histoire et liU^ature (3 vols., 1884-^86);
Questions de critique (2 vols., 1889-90); Evolution
des genres dans V histoire de la liU^ature (IS90);
Nouvelles questions de critique (1890); Les Epoques
du tfiMtre franfais 1636-1860 (1892); Essais sur
la litt&ature contemporaine (2 vols., 1892-95);
U6voluJtion de la po^sie lyrique en France au dix-
neuvikme sikcle (2 vols., 1894); Education et instruc-
tion (1895); La Morality de la doctrine Evolutive
(1896); La Renaissance de Vidialisme (1896); Le
Roman naturaliste (1896); Manuel de V histoire
de la littlrature fran^aise (1897; Eng. transl., New
York, 1898); and Discours acad^miques (1901); Les
motifs d^espirer (1902); Cinq lettres sur Ernest Renan
(1903); Les difficultdsde croire (1904); and Sur la
chemins de la croyance (1904).
BRUNFELS, OTTO: German humanist and
Reformer. The date of his birth can not be deter-
mined; d. at Bem Nov. 23, 1534. His father was
an artisan at Mainz. At an early age he entered
the Carthusian order, but the spirit of the age soon
drew him out of his convent into the polemics of
the time. At first he was a follower of Hutten,
for whom he broke a lance with Erasmus, and
whose library he used in compiling a small collection
of the writings of Hubs, which he published in 1.524,
with a dedication to Luther. He served the Refor-
mation as a preacher, first at Steinheim, and th»i
at Ncuenburg in the Breisgau. When the attitude
of the imperial government made his position there
insecure, he went to Strasburg, where he supported
himself by teaching, wrote against tithes, and
studied medicine. He was a friend of Luther
and also of Carlstadt, but was still more strongly
attracted by Zwingli, whose influence procured
him a medical position at Bem. His importance
lies chiefly in the fact that he was a successful
botanist, and a pioneer in this science for Germany,
with his extensive illustrated Herbarium (Strasburg,
3 vols., 1530-40, translated into German, 2 parts,
1532-37, 2d ed., 1546). (W. Vogt.)
BRUNNER (FONTANUS), LEONHARD: Ger-
man Reforaier; b. probably at Esslingen (7 m. ejs.e.
of Stuttgart) c. 1500; d. at Landau (18 m. n.w. of
Carisruhe) Dec. 20, 1558. In 1527 he was called
from Strasburg, where he was a deacon, to
Worms, as pastor of the congregation. By his
discretion he soon restored harmony in the com-
munity, which had been endangered for a time by
the activities of the Anabaptists Denk, Hetzer,
and Kantz. In 1531 he published his Ckrtstliche
Betrachtung, une man sich bei den Kranken und
Sterbenden halten soil; and in 1543 he prepared
a Catechismus urui Anweisung zum chrisdichtn
Glavberiy of which the few fragments still extant
show his catechetical ability. In the doctrine on
the Lord's Supper he followed the Strasburg
theologians. Through the Interim he was oblige<i
in 1548 to resign his office at Worms and fled to
Strasburg, where he soon became assistant pastor.
With the other Strasburg ministers he adopted the
Lutheran teaching, and remained faithful to it in
Landau, whither he was called in 1553 by the
Treaty of Passau. Here he contributed much
toward the amelioration of the moral and religious
life of the people. Besides the works already
mentioned, he published Concordantz des Neuen
Testaments (Strasburg, 1524) and Concordanti
und Zeiger aUer biblischen Bucher (1530).
Julius Net.
Bibuooraphy: A. Weckerling, L. Brunner, Worma, 1895:
A. Becker, Beitr&oe zur OeachidUe von Wormt, pp. 54
sqq.. ib. 1880.
BRUNO OF COLOGNE: Archbishop of Cologne
953-965; b. in the spring of 925, the young-
est son of Henry I., the Fowler; d. at Reims
Oct. 11, 965. He was educated from his fourth
to his fourteenth year in the cathedral school of
285
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bmlly
Bnmo
Utrecht. Hi* brother Otto I. recalled him in 939
to the court. As early as 940 he was invested
with the functions of chancellor, and ordained
deacon a year or two later. In 951 he was made
archicapellanua and thus exercised a great influ-
ence on the administration of the whole kingdom.
In 947 he took part in the Synod of Verdun, where
German ecclesiastics settled the question of the
archbishopric of Reims, important to the later
history of France. In 951 he went with Otto to
Italy, and supported his brother faithfully in the
disturbances of the next year. Otto had him
chosen archbishop of Cologne ir 953, and added to
his spiritual sovereignty the government of Lor-
raine. He was consecrated Sept. 25. Lorraine
was a very troublesome possession; it was not until
after the banishment of Coimt Raginar of Hai-
nault in 958 that he succeeded in establishing peace
and order there. The relations with France often
ofiTered difficult problems, too. After the death of
King Louis d'Outremer and Duke Hugh the Great,
Bruno was made a sort of supreme judicial arbiter
for France in his brother's name. Peace was his
constant aim, together with the assertion of Caro-
lingian sovereignty. On Otto's second absence in
Italy (961), the administration of the empire was
confided to Bruno and William of Mainz. Bruno's
importance is mainly political, as a representative
of the close alliance of the episcopate and the crown
which marked Otto's policy. As a bishop, how-
ever, he did much to promote a real and living
piety and to encourage education. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuooraphy: The VUa BrunanU, by Ruotger, ed. O. H.
PertB, is in MGH, Script., iv. 252-275, Hanover, 1841;
and another VUa by an unknown author, ib., pp. 275-
279. Consult: Pieler, Erzbiachof Bruno I. von Koln,
Arnsbers, 1851; E. Meyer, De Brunone I. archiepiacopo
ColonienMi, Berlin, 1867; C. Martin, BeUr&ge xur GeachiehU
Bruno I. von Koln, Jena, 1878; Hauck, KD, iii. 40 aqq.
BRUNO, (FILIPPO) GIORDANO: Italian phi-
losopher of the RenaiBsance; b. at Nola (14 m.
e.n.e. of Naples), Campania, 1548; burned at the
stake at Rome Feb. 17, 1600. He joined the
Dominicans at Naples at the age of fourteen or
fifteen, but study and reflection and particularly
the influence of the works of Nicholas of Cusa
and Raymond Liilly made him doubtful of dogma
and restive under the strict rules of his order.
In 1576 he fled to Rome and thenceforth led a
wandering life. He first visited various cities of
North Italy; about 1580 he reached Geneva,
stayed there two years, and went on to Paris
through Lyons and Toulouse; at Paris he gave
lectures on philosophy; from 1583 to 1585 he was
in England, where he had the friendship of such
men as Sir Philip Sidney, and composed his most
important works; between 1586 and 1588 he was
lecturing at Wittenberg; he visited Prague, Helm-
st&dt, Frankfort, Zurich, and Padua, and reached
Venice early in 1592. Here he was arrested in
May, tried before the Inquisition, and his case
adjourned to Rome, Jan., 1593. On Jan. 7, 1600,
after a confinement of seven years, he was con-
denmed as an apostate and heretic and given over
to the civil authorities for execution. He was
the first philoBopher to espouse the Copemican
hypothesis; in his metaphysical interpretation
of it he radically opposed the philosophy and
science of his time, and subverted also the most
cherished teachings of the Church. His fundamen-
tal principle, as against Aristotle, was the abso-
lute boundlessness of the universe. The super-
natural in its traditional sense was thus eliminated.
No heaven existed separate from the universe.
The world — the phenomenal aspect of the uni-
verse— and God are not the same, but God is
identified with the universe; or God may be
designated as matter conceived of in extended
substance, essentially inmiaterial, the immanent
cause or soul of the world. Later philosophers,
Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Boehme, and Hegel
owe much to Bruno. Just three hundred years
after his execution, Feb. 17, 1900, on the very spot
where he was burned, a monument was dedicated
to his memory.
Bruno's most important works were the Spaccio
deUa bestia trionfanU (Paris, 1584); Delia causa^
principio ed uno, and Del infinito universo e mondi
(Venice, 1584); De triplici minimo et mensura, and
De numade numero et figura (Frankfort, 1591).
His Italian works were edited by Wagner (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1830) and by Paul de Lagarde (2 vols.,
Gdttingen, 1888); his Latin works by Fiorentino
(2 vols., Naples, 1879-91) and by Tocco (Florence,
1889). The Delia causa has been translated into
German by Lasson (3d ed., Leipsic, 1902), and
a German translation of his collected philosoph-
ical works begun by L. Kuhlenbeck (Jena, 1904,
vol. v., 1907), who has also edited Lichtstrah'
len ati8 Oiordano Bruno's Werken (Leipsic, 1891).
There is an English translation of " The Ex-
pulsion of the Triumphant Beast" by W. More-
head (London, 1713; only 50 copies printed and
now extremely rare), and of the " Heroic Enthu-
siasts " (Gli eroici furori, Paris, 1558) by L. Williams
(London, 1887); a general account and synopsis
of the ** Infinite Universe," written by Bruno in
his dedication of the work to Lord Castelnau, was
translated by John Toland and printed, with a
Latin essay on the death of Bruno (in A Collection
of Several Pieces of Mr. John Toland, vol. i., Lon-
don, 1726, pp. 304-349).
Bibuoorapht: On the life of Bruno a noteworthy produo-
tion is J. L. Mclntjnne, Oiordano Bruno, London, 1903.
Phases of his life and philosophy are presented in F. J.
Clemens, Giordano Bruno und Nicolaua von Ciua, eine
pkiloaoj^iachs Abhandlung, Bonn, 1847; C. J. Q. Bar-
tholmess, Jordano Bruno, 2 vols., Paris, 1846-^7; D.
Berti, Vita di Giordano Bruno, Milan, 1868; Mrs. Besant,
Oiordano Bruno, London, 1877; R. Mariano, Giordano
Bruno, la vita e Vuomo, Rome, 1881 (important); M.
Carriere, Die phUoBophiache WeltanadMuung der Refor-
mationKieit, Leipsic, 1887 (the work of a specialist); Miss
I. Frith, Life of Giordano Bruno, London, 1887; D. Berti,
Giordano Bruno, . . . eua vita e aua dottrina, Turin, 1880;
R. Landseck, Bruno der M&rtyrer der neuen WeUan-
ediauung, Leipsic, 1890; J.Owen, Giordano Bruno, in Skep-
tica of the Italian Renaieaance, London, 1893; H. Brunnhofer,
Giordano Bruno' a Weltanachauuno und Verk&nffniaa, Leip-
sic, 1890; G. Louis, Giordano Bruno. Seine WeUan-
achauung und Lehenaauffaaaung, Berlin, 1900; A. Riehl,
Giordano Bruno, Leipsic, 1900, Ens. transl., London,
1905. Consult also the works on the History of Philo»-
ophy, by Ueberweg, Ebrard, etc.
BRUlfO (BONIFATIUS) OF QUERFURT: Mis-
sionary to the Slavs and Prussians, among whom
he suffered martyrdom, Feb. 14, or Mar. 16, 1009.
Brano
Bryant
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
286
He was a Saxon nobleman, educated at the cathe-
dral-school at Magdeburg, and accompanied his
cousin, the Emperor Otto III., to Rome (996),
where he took holy orders. Pope Sylvester II.
entrusted to him a missionary expedition to the
Slavs in the east, which the Polish duke Boleslav
had asked for, and he was raised to the rank of
archbishop. His chief task was to be the conver-
sion of the heathen Prussians, to whom Adalbert
of Prague (q.v.) had fallen victim but a short time
before. Being detained at Magdeburg by wars
between Germans and Poles, he wrote the Vita
8. Alberti. Peace being reestablished, he went
to Poland and was gladly received by Boleslav,
but being unable to enter into Prussia, he con-
verted the Petchenegs and organized their church
affairs. Remaining for some time in Poland, he
wrote the VUa quinqiuR fratrum PdUmicBy Christian
martyrs slain in 1003 near Meseritz, and when at
last he took upon him the task he was entrusted
with, he and his companions, like St. Adalbert,
lost their lives by the swords of the heathen not
far from Braunsberg. Boleslav, who was deeply
afiSicted, ordered the remains of the martyrs to be
gathered and brought to Poland, where they were
solenmly buried and became an object of most
devoted reverence. A. Werner.
Biblxoobapht: The souroes for a life are: the Chronicon
of Dietmar. ed. J. M. Lappenbexs. Hanover, 1889; Da-
mian's Viia St, RomtuMi, ed. O. H. Perti. in MQH,
Script., iv. 860-864, ib. 1841; Chronicon MagtMnuvenM,
ed., Meibom, in Script, rer. Oerm.,pp. 209-378. Consult:
W. Ton Gieaebrecht, OeadiidUe der deu/Ucken Kaiaerteii,
ii. 104. 102 iqq., BrunBwiok, 1876; idem. Erabiacfu^
Brun-BonifaUu% in Heue pretusische PtovinzialbHUtert i.
(1860); Hauek, KD, vol. iii.; ADB, in. 433.
BRUNO, SAINT: Founder of the Carthusian
order. See Carthusians.
BRUNO OF SEGNI: Bishop of Segni (28 m. s.e.
of Rome); b. at Solero (6 m. w. of Alessandria),
Lombardy, between 1045 and 1049; d. at Segni
July 18, 1123. He was educated in a monastery
near his birthplace and at Bologna, became a canon
at Sienna, and came to Rome in 1079. Here he
came in contact with the leaders of the Church,
and must have soon attracted the attention of
Gregory VII., if it is true that it was at his request
that he disputed with Berengar on the Eucharist.
In any case he accomplished his task so well that
the pope made him bishop of Segni in the Campagna
the same year. He was even more closely connected
with Urban II., whom he accompanied to France
in 1095. In 1099 he entered the monastery of
Monte Cassino, out without resigning his see or
severing his relations with the outside worid. He
imdertook an important mission to France for
Paschal II. in 1106, and remained with the pope
for some time after his return, finally going back
to his cloister, where he was elected abbot in 1 107.
Paschal made no objection to this pluralism imtil
in the conflicts of 1111 Bruno took the part of the
antipope Maginulf (Sylvester IV.), and was forced
to resign his abbacy and return to Segni. Lucius
III. canonized him in 1181. His works (in MPL,
cbdv., clxv.) are principally exegetical. His LibeU
lu8 de aymoniacis, written before 1109, is important
for its discussion of the meaning of simony, and
especially for its attitude on the sacraments of a
simoniacal priest. Carl Mirbt.
Bxbuoorapht: Souroea for a life are the Ckronioon Com-
nenae, book iv., chaps. 31-42, ed. W. Wattenbach. in MGB,
Script, Yii. 776-7S3, Hanover, 1846, and an anonjrmons
Vita in A3B, 18 July, iv. 478-488. The fullest and best
modem treatment is by B. Gigalski, Bruno, Bioehof voh
Soffni, . . . §ein Loben und seino Sehriften, MOnster.
1898. Consult also Hefele, ConcUienoeodiiehie, voL t.;
C. Mirbt, Die Publixistik im Zeitalter Oregora VII., pp.
384-386, 423-424, 522-^623. Leipsic, 1804; Meyer V(mi Kno-
nau, JtikHtHcher dea deutacKen Reidta unier Heimiek IV^
pp. 02 sqq., ib. 1904.
BRUlfO OF TOUL. See Leo DC., Pope.
BRUlfO OF WURZBURG: Bishop of Wure-
burg 1034-45. He was the son of Duke Conrad I.
of Carinthia, and thus a nephew of Pope Gregory V.
and a cousin of the emperor Conrad II. The
latter made him bishop of Warzburg in 1034. In
the spring of 1045 he accompanied Henry III. to
Hungary, and died May 26 from the results of
injuries received in the fall of a building at Persen*
beug in what is now Upper Austria. As a theo-
logian he is remembered for his commentary on
the Psalms, made up mainly of extracts from older
authors, especially Cassiodorus, but including
Augustine, Gregory the Great, the pseudo-Bede,
and the Bremarium in Psalmos ascribed to Jerome.
A catechetical exposition of the Lord's Prayer
and the Apostles' and Athanasian Creeds attributed
to him is probably older. (A. Hauck.)
Bxblioobapht: Bruno's Commentary is in MPL, cxlii
Consult: J. Baier, Der heilioe Bruno , . . aia Katecket
WOrsbuxs, 1803; ADB, iu. 436.
BRUNSWICK: A North German duchy, con-
sisting of three larger territories and six smsJi
exclaves, bounded on the north by Hanover, on
the east by Saxony, on the south by Hanover, and
on the west by Westphalia; area, 1,424 square
miles; population (1900), 464,333, of whom 432,-
570 (93.1 %) are Lutherans; 4,406 (.9 %) Reformed;
24,175 (5.2%) Roman Catholics; 1,358 of various
sects; and 1,824 (.39%) Jews. The Lutheran
Church was established in the duchy in 1568, but
received its first official organization in 1657 and
1709, while in 1755 and 1764 the administration
was placed imder six general superintendencies,
which are now located at Wolfenbtlttel, Brunswick,
Helmst&dt, Blankenburg, Gandersheim, and Hol^
minden. The act of Oct. 12, 1832, emphasised the
ecclesiastical power of the duke, which is enforced
with the cooperation and counsel of an evangelical
consistory composed of both der^ and laity. At
the same time the appointment of church-directors
for the administration of individual churches was
considered, but these ofiicials were not actually
created until Nov. 20, 1851. Where the oongr&>
gation has the right of electing its pastors, these
"church-deputies," together with an equal num-
ber of representatives elected by the community,
choose the ministers, and in other cases extend
the invitation to the candidates proposed by the
duke or by patrons. The congregations, however,
have the right to reject candidates who are defi-
cient either in morality or in ability. The number
of deputies has increased with the population from
287
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Bruno
Bryant
four to sixteen, and they are chosen by secret ballot,
serving for a term of six years.
About twenty years after the organization of the
parishes, a general synod was created (May 31,
1871), consisting of twelve clergymen and sixteen
laymen from seven electoral districts, in addition
to two clerical and two lay delegates appointed
by the duke. This synod, which holds its sessions
in public, controls all modification, interpretation,
and promulgation of laws for the churches, except
in matters of doctrine. The committee of the synod
is composed of two clerical and two lay members
with a fifth chosen from one of the two main
bodies, and is required to decide, together with
the consistory, on the rejection of candidates by
individual congregations, and to discipline pastors
and teachers of religion.
Shortly after the creation of this synod, inspec-
toral synods were introduced by a law of Jan. 6,
1873, which enacted that each parish should be
inspected every two years, and that this must take
place annually for the city of Brunswick in one of
the local churches. A lay inspector may also be
appointed by the duke in addition to the regular
synod. These regulations control twenty-eight
superintendencies with 230 parishes and 428 build-
ings for religious piuposes, of which 333 are
churches. A seminary for preachers is conducted
at Wolfenbtlttel by the consistory, and numerous
institutions and associations exist in the duchy.
Among the latter special mention may be made of
a missionary society, a house of deaconesses, the
sisterhoods at Marienberg near Helmst&dt, and,
above all, of the ** Evangelical Association for the
Duchy of Brunswick," with its many affiliated
interests. Few sectaries have found their way
into Brunswick, although Baptists and Mennonites
are found here and there, the latter having an
establishment for missions in the capital itself.
(WiLHELM GOETZ.)
BiBUOOEArHT: J. Beste, OeachidUe der hmuntchweioiachen
Landeskireke, WolfenbQttel, 1889; EtUwurf einer Ver-
faa9uno9-Urkunde fftr die ewinoeliaeh4uiherUche Kirchs
d€9 HenogtumB BraunechweUf, BninBwick, 1860; J. Bu-
Benhacen, BitiO€nhaoen» Kirchenordnung fUr die Stadt
Brauneehvpeig, 16$8, Leipdc, 1885; F. Koldewey, Bei-
tHkge tur Kirehen- und SchuloeechielUe dee . , . Braun-
•ehw0ig, WolfenbQttel, 1888; BeUrUge lur Staii$Hk dee
Henogtume Braunechtoeig, Bninawick, part xx., 1907.
BRUSTON, brQ"sten', CHARLES AUGUSTE:
French Reformed; b. at Bordeaux (90 m. n. of
Marseilles) Mar. 6, 1838. He was educated at the
lyceum of Grenoble (bachelier ds lettres, 1854),
the seminary at Montauban (bachelier en thdologie,
1859), and the universities of Geneva, Halle, Berlin,
GOttingen, and Heidelberg. He was then succes-
sively pastor of Reformed churches at Ch&tillon-
en-Diois in 1861-62, Die in 1862-64, Bordeaux in
1864-68, and Orleans in 1868-74. In the latter
year he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the
Protestant faculty of theology of Montauban, and
since 1894 has been dean of the same faculty. He
is a member of the synodical committee of studies
and other committees, and was elected a corre-
sponding associate of the Soci^t^ des Antiquaires
de France. In theology he is progressive, but is
opposed to arbitrary speculations. He has written:
De VatUhenticiU des Actes des Apotres (Toulouse,
1859); Lea PsaHmes traduUs de VH^breu (Paris,
1868); Du Texte primUif des PsaHmes (1873);
De lapsu hominis (Orleans, 1873); Histoire critique
de la lUUrature prophHique des H^eux (Paris,
1881); LesQtuUre sources des loisderExode{18S3);
^tvdes sur V Apocalypse (1884); Les Deux Jiho-
vistes, dudes sur les sources de VhisUnre saints
(Montauban, 1885); Les Origines de V Apocalypse
(Paris, 1888); La Vie future d^aprhs Venseignement
de Jisus-Christ (1890); La StUammite, milodrame
en cinq actes (1891); Les Cinq Documents de la
lot mosaique (1892); Le ParallHe entre Adam et
Jisus-Ckrist, Hude exigitique sur Rom, v. lS-21
(1894); La Vie future d'aprks St. Paul (1895);
Le Dixihne congrks des Orientalistes et VAncien
Testament (1895); Etudes sur Daniel et V Apoca-
lypse (1896); Ija Descents de Christ aux enfers
d'apr^ les Ap6tres et d'aprhs V6glise (1897); Les
Paroles de Jisus dicouvertes en 6gypte (1898); Les
Predictions de Jisus (1899); Le Cantique de Dibora
(1901); Etudes phiniciennes (2 vols., 1903-06);
U Inscription de SUoi et ceUe d*Eshmoun-atar (1904);
Vraie et fausse critique biblique (1905); Frag-
ments d*un ancien recueil de paroles de Jisus (1905);
and UHistoire sacerdotale et le DeuUronome primiHf
(1906), in addition to numerous contributions to
theological periodicals and works of reference.
BRUYS, PIERRE DE. See Peter of Brutb.
BRYANT, JACOB: English antiquarian; b. at
Plymouth 1715; d. at Gypenham, in Famham
Royal (4 m. n. of Windsor), Nov. 14, 1804. He
studied at King's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1740;
M.A., 1744), and became fellow; was tutor and
in 1756 became secretary to the Duke of Marl-
borough, and enjoyed the patronage of the family
during his life and had free access to their famous
library at Blenheim. He was a learned man, but
his fondness for paradox and other eccentricities
render his writings of slight permanent value.
He published works upon a variety of subjects,
classical literature and antiquities, the gipsy
language, the Marlborough collection of gems, etc.
Those which have religious interest are Observa-
tions and Enquiries Relating to Various Parts of
Ancient History (Cambridge, 1767), in which he
defends the reading Euroclydon in Acts xxvii. 14,
and maintains that Melita was not Malta; A New
System or an Analysis of Ancient Mythology (3
vols., London, 1774-76; 3d edition with acooimt
of the author, 6 vols., 1807), an attempt to sub-
stantiate the Bible by a study of the traditional
remains of all nations; Vindicice Flaviance: a
Vindication of the Testimony of Josephus concerning
Jesus Christ (1777); A Treatise on the Authen-
ticity of the Scriptures (1791); Observations on a
Controverted Passage in Justin Martyr; also upon
the Worship of Angels (1793); Observations upon
the Plagues Inflicted upon the Egyptians, with maps
(1794); The Sentiments of PhUo Judceus concern-
ing the Logos (1797); Observations upon Some
Passages in Scripture (relating to Balaam, Joshua,
Samson, and Jonah, 1803).
Biblioorapht: Literary Anecdotee of Ike Eighteenth Century
(0 vols., London, 1812-16) and lUuetratione of the lAUr-
Bryoe
Buohwald
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
288
ary History of (^ EighUerUh Century (8 vols., ib. 1817-58).
both by John Nichols, contain very numerous referenoea
to Bryant. Consult also DNB, vii. 156-167.
BRYCE, GEORGE: American Presbyterian; b.
at Mount Pleasant, Ont., Apr. 22, 1844. He was
educated at the University of Toronto and Knox
College, Toronto (B.A., 1871), and was examiner
in natural history in the fonner institution in 1870-
1872. In 1871 he was chosen by the General As-
sembly of the Presbyterian Church of Canada to
organize a church and college in Winnipeg, and
accordingly established Manitoba College in the
same year and Knox Church, Winnipeg, in 1872.
Five years later he was one of the founders of
Manitoba University, where he was examiner in
science and chairman of the faculty of science until
1904. In the following year he was appointed
to his present position of professor of English
literature and financial agent in Manitoba College.
For many years he has been active in Presby-
terian home missions in Manitoba, and was modera-
tor of the general Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in Canada in 1902-03. He has written:
Manitoba; Infancy y Progress , and Present Condition
(London, 1882); Short History of the Canadian Pea-
pU (1887); TheApostleof Red River (Toronto, 1898);
Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company
(London, 1900); and Makers of Canada (Toronto,
1903).
BRYENinOS, brt-en"nl'es, PHILOTHEOS, fi'lo-
thd'es: Greek metropolitan of Nicomedia; b. at
Constantinople March 26 (old style), 1833. He
was educated at the " Theological School in Chalce
of the great Church of Christ" (1856), and the
universities of Leipsic, Berlin, and Munich. In
1861 he became professor of ecclesiastical history,
exegesis, and other studies at Chalce, of which
he was appointed master and director in 1863,
although he soon resigned the latter positions.
In 1867 he was called to Constantinople to be the
head of the " Great School of the Nation " in the
Phanar, or Greek quarter of Constantinople, and
remained there until in 1875 he was «ent by the
Most Holy Synod of metropolitans and patriarchs
to the Old Catholic conference at Bonn, where he
received the patriarchal letter annoimcing his
appointment as metropolitan of Serrae in Mace-
donia. In 1877 he was transferred to the metro-
politan see of Nicomedia, and three years later
went to Bucharest as commissioner of the Eastern
Orthodox Patriarchal and other independent
churches, to decide concerning the Greek monas-
teries which had been plundered in Moldavia and
Wallachia. In 1882, at the instance of the Holy
Synod of Metropolitans in Constantinople, and
the patriarch Joachim HI., he wrote a reply to the
encyclical letter of Pope Leo XIII. concerning
the Slavic apostles Cyrillus and Methodius, which
was published at Constantinople in 1882 with the
approbation and at the expense of the Holy Synod.
His fame rests upon his discovery in 1873 in the
Jerusalem Monastery of the Most Holy Sepidcher
in the Greek quarter of Constantinople of a manu-
script containing (1) a sjrnopsis of the Old and
New Testaments in the order given by St. CShrysos-
tom; (2) The Epistle of Barnabas; (3) The First
Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians;
(4) The Second Epistle of Clement to the Corin-
thians; (5) The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles;
(6) The spurious letter of Mary of Cassoboli; and
(7) Twelve pseudo-Ignatian Epistles. He edited
the Epistles to the Corinthians with prolegomena
and notes at Constantinople in 1875, and published
the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles " in the
same city in 1883. See Did ache.
Bzbuooeaprt: P. Sohaff, Teaehino of the Twelve ApoeUa,
pp. 8-9, 28&-296. New York. 1890.
BUCERy MARTIN. See Butzer.
BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS: A pioneer of modem
Anglican missionary work in India; b. at Cambus-
lang, near Glasgow, Mar. 12, 1766; d. at Brox-
boume (5 m. s.e. of Hertford), Hertfordshire, Feb.
9, 1815. At sixteen he went to the University of
Glasgow, intending to study law, but, after finishing
his course, spent three years in a careless wander-
ing life. Smitten by repentance, he placed hims^
under the care of John Newton, the celebrated
evangelical preacher in London, one of whose
friends enabled him to spend fom: years at Cam-
bridge. In 1796 he went to Calcutta as a chaplain
in the East India Company's service. He foimd
the conditions there very unfavorable for eam&t
work. All the Company was willing to do for
sixty millions of souls was to place a chaplain here
and there, who was told not to meddle with the
native population. While Buchanan was waiting
for a chance to do real work, he learned Hindustani
and Persian. In 1800, being transferred to Cal-
cutta itself, he found a like-minded helper in Lord
Momington (later Marquis of Wellesley), the
Governor-general, who founded a college in Cal-
cutta for the teaching of the Oriental languages
and placed Buchanan in charge of it. It was closed,
however, three years later, and all looked as dark
as ever. But after a while a new institute was
founded, on a smaller scale, and Buchanan took
hope once more. In 1805 he published his Ex-
pediency of an Ecclesiastical Establishment for
India, in which he developed the first plan for the
establishment of regular dioceses and bishops.
While waiting for his seed to bear fruit, he trans-
lated the New Testament into Hindustani and
Persian, and founded an institute for such work.
In 1806 he made an extended journey along the
Malabar coast, partly for his health and partly
in the missionary interest, publishing hia obser-
vations in Christian Researches in Asia (Cambridge,
1811, new ed., London, 1840). He returned to
Calcutta in 1807, full of plans for which the time
was once more unfavorable. Lord Wellesley had
been recalled, and his successor, Lord Minto, looked
coldly on such projects, as did the Company in
general. To push his views in England was the
most necessary thing, and Buchanan returned
thither in 1808 to press upon the ministry the
setting up of a theological seminary in each presi-
dency, the granting of licenses to missionaries,
and the appointment of bishops. Lord Liverpool
approved this plan, but the House of Commons
agreed to the appointment of only one bishop.
Middle ton, the first bishop of Calcutta, was con-
289
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Bryce
Buchwald
secrated in 1816, and when his successor was
provided with suffragans for Madras and Bombay,
Buchanan's plan had been realized in its essentials,
though he did not live to see it.
Bibuoqbapht: H. Peanon, Memoirs of the Life and Wri-
tinoB o/ . . . Clavdiua Budumatit 2 vols., London, 1810;
R. VormbAum, H. Mariyn, D. Brown und C. Budtanan,
Elberfeld, 1866; DNB, vii. 182-184.
BUCHANAN, GEORGE: Scotch scholar; b. in
the parish of Killeam (44 m. w.n.w. of Edinburgh),
Stirlingshire, early in Feb., 1506; d. in Edinburgh
Sept. 28, 1582. He studied in Paris, 1520-22,
at St. Andrews, 1525, and again in Paris, where
be became teacher in the College of Ste. Barbe,
1528; returned to Scotland 1535. He inclined
toward Protestant views and wrote two satires on
the monks, the Somnium and the Franciscanus et
fratrea, for which he was obliged to leave his country
in 1539. He taught at Paris, Bordeaux, and Goim-
bra, and was active in the production of literary
works; to this period belong his translations into
Latin of the Medea and of the AlcesHa and his Latin
tragedies, Jephihes and Baptistes (translated into
English verse by A. Gibb, Edinburgh, 1870; and
by A. Gordon Mitchell, Paisley, 1903-04); he
began his translation of the Psalms into Latin
(published at Paris, 1566) while confined in a
monastery by the Inquisition at Coimbra. In
1562 he was acting as tutor to Mary Stuart in
Scotland; he now openly embraced Protestantism
and became influential in both Church and State;
was an ardent supporter of Moray (who made him
principal of St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews, in
1566), and an active opponent of the queen. In
1570 he became tutor to the young James VI. and
keeper of the privy seal; his royal pupil he under-
took to make " the greatest scholar in the land."
During the last period of his life he wrote his two
greatest works, the De jure regni apud Scotoa
(Edinburgh, 1579; Eng. transl., 1680), a defense
of limited monarchy, suppressed by act of parlisr
ment in 1584 and again in 1664 and burned at
Oxford in 1683; and the Rerum Scoticarum hUtoria
(1582; 19th ed., 1762; Eng. transl., 1690). His
works have been edited by Ruddiman (2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1715; reprinted by Burman, Leyden,
1725).
Biblioorapht: The Iieyden ed. of the Worke contains a
full bibliography. The Life, by David Irving, Edin-
burgh, 1817, is an excellent literary history of the times.
Consult also: P. H. Brown, Oeorge Buchanan, Humaniet
and Reformer, Edinburgh, 1890; idem, Oeorge BiuJuinan
and hie Timee, ib. 1906; D. Macmillan, Oeorge Buchanan,
a Biographu, London, 1906; D. A. Millar, Oeorge Bu-
duman, a Memorial, ISOe-lOOe, London. 1907; DNB,
vii. 186-193.
BUCHAinXES: The followers of Elspat (or
Elspeth) Simpson, wife of Robert Buchan, a
journeyman potter at Greenock, Scotland. She
was bom at Fatmacken, between Banfif and Port-
Boy, 1738; was brought up in the Scottish Episco-
pal Church; while a servant at Greenock she mar-
ried and followed her husband into the Burgher
Succession Church. In 1781 she separated from
him and removed with her children to Glasgow.
In 1783 she joined the Dowhill Relief church at
Irvine, whose pastor was the Rev. Hugh White.
IL— 19
She had abready adopted fantastic views as to
religion and claimed to be a teacher sent from
heaven. She got a hearing, her chief converts
being Mr. White, who proclaimed that, she was the
woman spoken of in Rev. xii. 1 sqq. and that he was
the man-child she had brought forth. The Relief
presbytery deposed Mr. White from the ministry,
and when converts to Mrs. Buchan's pretensions
began to gather, the parish authorities in May,
1784, compelled the whole band to leave. They
settled on a farm at New Cample, near Closebum,
Dumfriesshire, and there the sect grew to about
fifty members, some > of whom were superior per-
sons. Mrs. Buchan was called " spiritual mother "
by her followers, and professed to be able to impart
the Holy Spirit by breathing on the candidate;
also to be a prophetess, and as such foretold that
neither she nor her followers would ever die but
would meet the Lord in the air in the advent which
she taught was at hand, basing her teaching on
I Thess. iv. 17. The usual charge of sexual im-
morality was brought against the sect, the most
distinguished witness being the poet Robert Bums,
who is said to have had a lady-love in the sect
(see his letter to John Bumess, dated August, 1784).
His song " As I was a walking " was set to an air
which was a favorite with the Buchanites. In
May, 1791, Mrs. Buchan died. This, being in
direct contradiction to her teaching, had a dis-
astrous effect on her sect which then began to
disintegrate, but the last adherent of it did not
pass away till 1848.
Biblioorapht: Jowph Train, The BuehaniUa from Firet to
Last, Edinburgh, 1846; Eight LeUere between the People
eaUed Buchanxtee and a Teacher (J. Purvee); Three of
which are written by Mr. White, and one by Mre. Buchan,
together with two LeUere from Mre. Buchan and one from
Mr. White to a Clergyman in England, ib. 1786.
BUCHEL, ANNA VON. See Ronbdorf Sect.
BUCHWALD, bQH'vOld, GE0R6 APOLLO : Ger-
man Protestant; b. at Grossenhain (19 m. n.n.w.
of Dresden) July 16, 1859. He was educated at
the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1882), and was
successively a teacher in the real-school of Mitt-
weida (1882-83) and the royal gymnasium of
Zwickau (1883-85), after which he was diaconiu
at Zwickau (1885-92) and Leipsic (1892-96).
Since 1896 he has been pastor of the Michaeliskirche,
Leipsic. In addition to numerous minor contri-
butions to theological periodicals and to collab-
orating on the Weimar and Erlangen editions of
the works of Luther, he has written Luther und
die Juden (Leipsic, 1881); Nachklang der Epiatolm
obacurorum virorum (Dresden, 1882); Logoebegrijf
dee Johannes Scotua Erigena (Licipsic, 1884); Lutheri
ScholcB in librum Judicum (1884); Ungedruckte
Predigten D. Martin Luihere 1530 auf der Coburg
gehalten (Zwickau, 1884); Secha Predigten Johannea
Bugenhagena (Halle, 1885); Andreaa Poacha hand-
achriftliche SamnUung ungedruckter Predigten D.
Martin Luthera aua den Jahren 1528-46 (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1884-85); AUerlei aua drei Jakrhunderten
(Zwickau, 1887); Eine adchaiache Pilgerfakrt nach
Paldatina vor mer hundert Jahren (Barmen, 1889);
Elf ungedruckte Predigten Luthera gehaUen in der
TnnitaHazeU, 1539 (Werdau, 1888); Luihen letzU
Back
Bnddeoa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
290
Streitackrift (Leipsic, 1803); Zur WiUenberger
Stadl-und Univernidisgeachichte in der ReformaHonS'
aeit (1893); Entstehung der KaUchismen LtUhera
und die Grundlage des grossen Katechismua (1894);
WiUenberger Ordinierten-Buch (2 vols., 1894); Se-
Uge PUgerschAft (1896; extracts from the writings
of Luther); Philipp Melanchihon (1897); Luthers
grosser Katechismua (1897); Paul Eber (1897);
Geschichie der evangelischen Gemeinde zu Kitzingen
(1898); LtUhers deiUsche Brief e auagewQhU und
erldutert (1899); RefomuUionsgeschichU der Stadt
Leipzig (1900); Konrad Sturtzel von Buchheim
(1900); Die eoangeliache Kirche im Jahrhundert
der Reformation (1900); Dr. Martin Luther (1901);
So spricht Dr. Martin Luther (Berlin, 1903; selec-
tions from the writings of Luther); Deutechlands
Kirchengeechichte fur das evangelische Haus (Biele-
feld, 1904); Lutherlesebuch (Hamburg, 1905);
and UngedruclUe Predigten aus den Jakren 1537-
1540 (Leipsic, 1905).
BUCK, CHARLES: English Independent; b.
at Hillsley (15 m. n.e. of Bristol), Gloucestershire,
1771; d. in London Aug. 11, 1815. He held pas-
torates at Sheemess and London. He is mentioned
for his Theological Dictionary , containing definitions
of all religious terms; a comprehensive view of
every article in the system of divinity; an impartial
account of aU the principal denominations which
have subsisted in the religious world from the birth
of Christ to the present day; together with an accurate
statement of the most remarkable transactions and
events recorded in ecclesiastical history (2 vols.,
London, 1802; many subsequent editions and
reprints). He also published Anecdotes^ Religious,
Moral, and Entertaining (1799), which proved a
highly popular work.
Bibuookapht: Buck's Memoir* and RemairiM were edited
by J. StyleB, London. 1817.
BUCEXABD, AUGUSTUS ROBERT: Secretary
of the Religious Tract Society; b. at Newport
(20 m. n.w. of Bristol), Monmouthshire, Apr. 18,
1867. He was educated at Pembroke College,
Oxford (B.A., 1881), and was ordained to the
priesthood of the Church of England in 1881. He
was curate of Spitalfields, London, in 1880-84. In
1887 he became editor of the Record and has since
engaged largely in journalistic work. He has also
been morning preacher in the Foundling Hospital,
London, since 1890, and was chosen secretary of
the Religious Tract Society in 1902. He has
written: Strayed East (London, 1889); The Patience
of Two (1894); The Heroic in Missions (1894);
John Harden, Missionary Bishop (1894); Women
in the Mission Field (1895); The Confessional in
the English Church (1900); and The Missionary
Speaker's Manual (1901; in collaboration with
J. D. MuUins). In addition, he has edited many
works for the Religious Tract Society, notably its
DevatUmal Commentary.
BUCBXEY, JAMES MONROE: Methodist Epis-
eopalian; b. at Rahway, N. J., Dec. 16, 1836. He
was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown,
Conn., but did not graduate, and he also studied
theology at Exeter, N. H. He held various pas-
torates in New Hampshire (1859-63), Central
Church, Detroit (1863-66), Brooklyn, N. Y. (1866-
1869, 1872-75, and 1878-^), and Stamford, Conxi.
(1869-72 and 1875-78). Since 1880 he has be«:
editor of the New York Christian Advocate. His
general theological position is that of his deooiB-
ination, although he reserves all rights to individucJ
judgment concerning non-essentials. He has writ-
ten: Appeals to Men of Sense and Rejection to begin
a Christian Life (New York, 1869); Christian ami
the Theatre (1875); Supposed Miracles (Boston.
1875); OaU or Wild Oats f (New York, 1885); The
Midnight Sun, the Czar and the Nihilist (Bostofo,
1887); Faith Healing, Christian Science, and Kin-
dred Phenomena (New York, 1892); Travel$ in
Three Continents (1895); History of Methodism in
the United States (1897); Extemponmeaus Oratory
for Professional and Amateur Speakers (1899);
and The Fundamentals of Religion and their Con-
trasts (1906).
BUCKMINSTER, JOSEPH STEVEHS: New Eng-
land clergyman; b. at Portsmouth, N. H., May 26,
1784; d. in Boston June 9, 1812. He was grad-
uated at Harvard, 1800; studied theology while
teacher at (Phillips) Exeter Academy and private
tutor at Waltham; was called to the Brattle Street
Church, Boston, 1804; appointed lecturer on
Biblical criticism at Harvard, 1811. In theology
he was liberal, a forerunner of the Unitarian move-
ment; he belonged to the " Anthology Club.'*
was a frequent contributor to the Monthly An-
thology, and one of the founders of the literary
reputation of Boston. He superintended the
publication of the American edition of Griesbach*s
Greek Testament (1808); two volumes of sermons,
with memoir by Rev. S. C. Thacher, were published
after his death (Boston, 1814; 1829), and his Worh
appeared in two volumes in 1839.
Bibuoorapht: His Memoir (together with that of his
father. Rev. Joseph Buckminster of Portsmouth, N. H.:
b. 1751; d. 1812) wm published by his sister. Eiiss B.
Lee, Boston. 1851.
BUDDE, bQd'de, KARL FERDINAlfB REIN-
HARD: German Protestant; b. at Bensberg
(9 m. e. of Cologne) Apr. 13, 1850. He was edu-
cated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and
Utrecht from 1868 to 1873, although his studies
were interrupted in 1870-71, when he served in
the Franco-Prussian War. He became privat-
docent for the Old Testament at Bonn in 1873.
and was also teacher at the Schulbnng'sche hdhere
Tdchterschule in 1873--89 and inspector of the
theological seminary of the university in 1878-85.
In 1879 he was appointed associate professor of
Old Testament theology at the same university,
and ten years later was called to Strasburg in a
like capacity, being promoted to a full professor-
ship after the lapse of a few months. Since 1900
he has been professor of Old Testament theology
at Marburg. He has written: Beitrdge zur Kritik
des Buches Hiob (Bonn, 1876); Die biblische Urge-
schichU untersuchi (Giessen, 1883); Die BOcher iff
Richter und Samuel, ihr Aufbau und ihre QueUe^
(1890); The Books of Samuel, Critical Edition oj
the Hebrew Text (in the Pofgfchrome Bible, Leipac,
1894); Das Buck Hiob (in the Handcomment<ff
sum Alien Testament, Odttingen, 1896); Das Bvd
201
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Buck
Baddens
tier Richter (in the Kurzer Handcommerdar zum
AU^n Testament, P^reiburg, 1897); Hohelied urul
IClagelieder (in the same series, 1898) ; The Religion
of Isrciel to the Exile (The American Lectures on
the History of Religions for 1898-99, New York.
1899) ; Die sogenannten Jahvelieder und die Bedeut-
ung dee Knechles Jahvea in Jesaija 40-56, ein
M inoritdtsvotum (Giessen, 1900); Der Kanon des
A Hen Testaments (1900); Die Bucher Samuel (m
Kurzer HandcammerUar sum Alien Testament,
Freibxirg, 1902); Das AUe Testament und die
Atisgrabungen (Giessen, 1903); Die SchtUzung des
K&nxgtums im AUen Testament (Marburg, 1903);
Was soU die Gemeinde aus dem Streit um Babel und
Bibel lemenf (Tttbingen, 1903); and Hebr&ische
Litieraturgeschichte (Leipsic, 1906). He also trans-
lated A. Kuenen's National Religions and Universal
Religions (Hibbert Lectures for 1882^ London,
1882) under the title Volksreligion und Weltreligion
(Berlin, 1883), and a number of the same scholar's
monographs as Gesammelte AhhaneUungen tur biblv-
schen Wissenschaft (Freiburg, 1894). He has likewise
edited the eighth and ninth editions of J. Hollen-
berg's Hebraisches SchuUmch (Berlin, 1895, 1900)
and Eduard Reuss* Briefwechsel mit seinem Schuler
und Freunde Karl Heinrich Graf (in collaboration
with H. J. Holtzmann, Giessen, 1904).
BUDDENSIEG, bad''den-stg', OSKAR GOTTLIEB
RUDOLF: German Lutheran; b. at Greussen
(25 m. n.w. of Weimar) Sept. 5, 1844. He was
educated at the universities of Leipsic and Berlin
(1864-67; Ph.D., Berlin, 1871), and studied in Lon-
don in 1867-73. Returning to his native country,
he was a teacher successively at the Andreanum in
Hildesheim (1873-74) and at the Vitzthum gym-
nasium in Dresden (1874-87), declining a call to a
professorship in the University of Vienna in 1886.
From 1887 to 1894 he was director of a normal
school for young men in Dresden, and since the
latter year has occupied a similar position in a
normal school for young women in the same city.
In 1883 he founded the Wyclif Society in Lon-
don. He has written: Die assyrischen Ausgrabun-
gen und das AUe Testament (Heilbronn, 1880);
Johann Widifs laieinische Streitschriften zum ersten
Male aus den Handschriften herausgegeben (2 vols.,
Leipsic, 1883; Eng. ed., under the title JoAn Wic-
lifs Polemical Works, 2 vols., London, 1884-85);
Johann Widif und seine ZeU (Halle, 1884); John
Widif, Patriot and Reformer (London, 1884); and
Johann Widife De veritate sacrce scripturce (3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1904; Eng. ed., 3 vols., London, 1905-07).
BX7DDEUS, bQd''d^Os, J0HA5NES FRANCIS-
CUS (Johann Franz Budde): German theologian
and philosopher; b. at Anclam (47 m. n.w. of
Stettin), Pomerania, where his father was pastor,
June 25, 1667; d. at Gotha Nov. 19, 1729. He
early received a thorough education in classical
and Oriental languages, and had read the Bible
through in the original before he went to the Uni-
versity of Wittenberg in 1685. He was appointed
adjunct professor of philosophy there soon after
taking his master's degree in 1687, and in 1689
exchanged this for a similar position at Jena, where
he also paid much attention to the study of history.
In 1692 he went to Coburg as professor of Greek
and Latin, and the next year to the new University
of Halle as professor of moral philosophy. Here
he remained until 1705, when he went to Jena as
second professor of theology. His lectures em-
braced all branches of this science, and frequently
touched on philosophy, history, and politics. R^
spected by all as a man and a Christian, he remained
at Jena for the rest of his life, several times acting
as rector of the university temporarily and being
head of his department and an ecclesiastical coun-
cilor from 1715. He was considered the most
universally accomplished German theologian of
his time. In philosophy he professed an eclec-
ticism which rested on a broad historical foundation;
but he recognized in Descartes the originator of a
new period, and in attacking the " atheist " Spi-
noza followed especially the upholders of the law
of natiu^, such as Hugo Grotius, Puffendorf, and
Thomasius. His theological position was deter-
mined by the tradition of Musseus at Jena, partly
through his close relations with Baier; but on
another side he was inclined toward Pietism.
His association with Spangenberg, Spener, and
Zinzendorf brought him under suspicion and actually
gave rise to a formal investigation of his doctrine.
In certain ways, too, he was influenced by the
federalist theology, but without allowing it to
lead him beyond the bounds of Lutheran orthodoxy.
In all departments he showed himself a man of
sound learning and scholariy instincts. His work
was epoch-making in church history, especially
that dealing with the Old Testament and the
apostolic age. Taken as a whole, the life of
Buddeus belongs to the transition period which
follows that of simple orthodoxy; the influence
of anew age and new leading interests appears
in him, and at times he seems to be conscious of
the change. Yet in his Biblical criticism he did not
get so far as to make the slightest concession;
not a verse of a canonical book can be touched
without injuring the perfection of the whole. As
an academic teacher he attained great success, and
he had the gift of a striking and pregnant style,
especially in Latin. His works, great and small,
number over a hundred. Of those published in
the Halle period may be mentioned Elementa
philoeophicB pradicce (1697) and Elementa phv-
losophicB ededicce (1703). To the second Jena
period belong among others the InstUutiones theo-
logicB moralis (1711; German transl., 1719), a work
strictly in accordance with his philosophical ethics;
the Historia ecdesiastica veteris testamenti (1715-18);
Theses theologicce de atheismo d superatitione (1716),
which, directed especially against Spinoza, attracted
much attention; InstUutiones theologice dogmoHcce
(1723), a work once very influential, obviously
founded on Baler's Compendium; Historische und
theologisehe Einleitung in die vomehmsten Religions-
streitigkeiten (1724, 1728), edited by Walch; Isagoge
histarico-theologica ad theologiam universam (1727),
dealing with the problems, methods, and history of
theology in a way remarkable for that time; and
Ecdesia apostolica (1729), intended as an intro-
duction to the study of the New Testament.
(Johannes Kunze.)
Buddhla
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Biblioobapht: Buddeus himself issued a NoHUa diueria-
Hofwm . . . Mcriptorumque a J. F. Buddeo . . . edito-
rum, Jena, 1728 (a list of his writinss); and the Ehrtn-
OedOehtniu de9 . . , J. F. BuddtuB, ib. 1731, also con-
tains a catalogue of his productions. Consult: W.
Schrader, Oeachiehte der Friedrithnmivermidt su HaUSf i.
60, Berlin, 1804; W. Gass, OstdiidUe der proteBtatUiadien
DoomaHk, iii. 80, 149 sqq., 214 sqq., Berlin, 1862; Q.
Frank, OMdUdUe der proteetanHedien Theolooie, ii. 148,
214 sqq.. Leipsio, 1865; C. E. Luthardt, OetdiidUe der
ehriaaidten Ethik, U. 203 sqq.. ib. 1893.
BUDDHISM.
Life of Buddha (| 1). Buddhist Monks (| 6).
Legendary Additions Development after Buddha's
(I 2). Death (| 6).
Buddha's Teaching (| 3). Buddhist Sects (| 7).
Nirvana (| 4). The Dhyani Buddhas (| 8).
Buddhism' and Christianity (| 9).
Buddhism is the religion established in India by
Buddha in the sixth century B.C., and having, ao-
oording to a conservative estimate, upward of
100,000,000 adherents at the present time, chiefly
in Ceylon, Nepal, Tibet, Farther India, China, and
Japan. While frequently regarded as a new relig-
ion, it is, strictly speaking, only a reformation of
Brahmanism, and can not be understood without
some knowledge of the conditions preceding it.
The religious system of India as outlined in its
oldest religious books, the Vedas, had reached in
the Brahmanas and Sutras a degree of ritualism
such as, perhaps, never existed elsewhere (see
Brahmanibm). This formalism produced a revolt,
and from time to time arose various teachers,
philosophers, and reformers, of whom the most in-
fluential was Siddhartha, also known as Sakya,
Sakyamuni, Gautama, and, most frequently, as
Buddha.
Buddha, the son of Suddhodana, king of Kapi-
lavastu, a city in the district of Gorakhpur, Oudh,
was bom in 557 B.C. in the grove of Lumbini, two
miles from the capital. He was, therefore, like
Mahavira, the founder of the rival system of Jainism
(q.v.), a member of the Kshatriya or warrior caste.
The details of the life of the Buddha, or "The
Enlightened One,'' so far as they may be verified
historically, are comparatively few. He lost his
mother, whom the later texts name Maya, at a very
early age, and he married while still young, accord-
ing to Hindu custom, and had a son called Rahula.
At the age of twenty-nine (528 B.C.), he renoimced
his succession to the throne and became a hermit.
Herein there is nothing extraordinary, for Brah-
manism divided life into the four stages of student,
householder, hermit, and ascetic. Two of these
the prince had already performed; two more yet
remained for him, and he went forth
X. Life of to win knowledge of the truth by
Bttddha. penance and meditation. From the
first he gained nothing, nor could his
teachers help him, while his five companions aban-
doned him as unfitted to receive a knowledge of
the truth. In his wanderings he came to Uruvela,
the modem Buddha Gaya in Bengal. There, in
521 B.C., after seven years of struggle, he received
illumination while sitting in meditation beneath
the sacred bo-tree {Ficus religiosa or pipul-tree).
Thus the Bodhisattva, or potential Buddha, be-
came a true Buddha or Tathagata, " the Perfected
One." He now entered upon the fourth and the
last stage of life, and became a wandering ascetic and
teacher. His earliest followers were the five monb
who had tumed from him before, and as other con-
verts were made they were sent as apostles of the
doctrine. Favor was his in high places also, for
Bimbisara, king of Magadha, became an adherent
of the faith. Over all ranks and classes Buddk
exercised a powerful influence, due, it is very pos-
sible, rather to his personal charm of manner thm
to any essential novelty of the doctrine which he
taught. It was undoubtedly in great part the
result of his disregard of the fundamental Hindu
principle of caste that he won for hiniself so large
a following. Peaceably and calmly the life of
Buddha passed, with little opposition, save from
his cousin Devadatta, who attempted, from motives
of personal ambition, to rouse hostility against
his kinsman. At the age of eighty the Buddha
felt that his end was drawing near, and for the first
time in his life severe illness befell him. At the
village of Kusinara, about thirty miles west of
Katfainandu, the capital of Nepal, the mast^
passed away (477 B.C.).
About the life here outlined the mythopeic tend-
encies of the Oriental mind wove a web of legend.
In course of time Buddha no longer stands alone.
He is the successor of twenty-seven Buddhas and
himself received recognition from twenty-four of
them, passing through a hundred thousand world
cycles and ooimtless reincarnations before be
reached the perfection which was requisite for his
high mission. When in him all perfection and all
knowledge was imited, the ^ods besought him to
be bom on earth, and in answer to
2. Legend- their prayer he entered the womb of
ary Maya in the form of a white elephant.
Additions. whUe thirty-two signs of wonder ap-
peared and the ten thousand worlds
trembled at the coming of the savior of the world.
At the end of ten months, the Buddha was bom
beneath a sal-tree in the grove of Lumbini, while
gods and men did homage unto him. On the
fifth day of his life the Brahman Kondanna
prophesied to Suddhodana the king that the
child was destined to become a Buddha when be
should see four signs of evil omen, an old man, a
sick man, a corpse, and a monk. By every means
within his power the father sought to keep his
son from seeing these sights, surrounding lum
with every luxury, and marrying him in his six-
teenth year to his cousin Yasodhara, the daughter
of Suprabuddha. It was all in vain, however, for
Siddhartha beheld the four signs, realised tbe
misery of life, and abandoned the palace. On the
expiration of his seven years of wandering, he
realized that he was at last to gain Buddhahood,
and amid many marvels he sat down beneath the
bo-tree facing the East. Fruitlessly did Mara,
the leader of the host of evil, endeavor to terrify
the Bodhisattva. The blandishments of his daugh-
ters, Desire, Pining, and L\ist, and his more subtle
temptation that the Buddha should at once enter
Nirvana without proclaiming his saving knowl-
edge to mankind, failed ignominiously. From
the time of his illumination until his death few
myths gather about the Buddha, but when he wai
S08
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
about to die there were marvels, and the course of
nature waa again disturbed, until the Tathagata
passed to Nirvana.
The key-note of Buddhism is the transitoriness
and vanity of life, which is conditioned by karma,
the fruit of deeds done in coimtless previous lives;
nor can existence be ended before the expiration of
many reincarnations devoted to works of holiness and
spent in unceasing efforts to gain Nirvana. Three
elements common to all post-Vedic
3. Buddha's Hindu thought are at once discernible
Teaching, in this teaching; viz., transmigration,
karma, and the dissolution of individ-
uality. In its shortest form Buddha's teaching
may be simunarized as follows: Birth is sorrow,
age is sorrow, sickness is sorrow, death is sorrow,
clinging to earthly things is sorrow. Birth and
rebirth, the chain of reincarnation, result from
the thirst for life together with passion and desire.
The only escape from this thirst is to follow the
Eightfold Path: Right belief, right resolve, right
word, right act, right life, right effort, right think-
ing, right meditation.
The goal of Buddhism is Nirvana. A definition
of this term is almost impossible for the simple
reason that Buddha himself gave no clear idea,
and in all probability possessed none, of this state.
He was indeed asked by more than
4* Nirvana, one of his disciples whether Nirvana
was postmundane or postcelestial ex-
istence, or whether it was annihilation. To all
these questions, however, he refused an answer,
for it was characteristic of his teachings that they
were practically confined to the present life, and
concerned themselves but little either with prob-
lems of merely academic philosophy or with the
unknowable. Some measure of light, however,
may be gained from the orthodox systems of Indian
philosophy which are based upon the doctrine of
the divine inspiration of the Veda. According to
all of these, the summum bonum is release from
karma and reincarnation, a goal which is to be
attained by knowledge, and which consists in
absorption into or reunion with the Over-Soul.
This involves the annihilation of individuality, and
in this sense Nirvana is nihilism, so that with the
tacit ignoring of any real conception of the divine
in the teachings of Buddha, Nirvana seems to imply
the annihilation of the soul rather than its absorp-
tion. It is noteworthy, furthermore, that the word
Nirvana etymologically denotes " a blowing out,"
the extinguishing of the fires of hatred, infatuation,
and all passions. Nirvana seems to have been
twofold, a secondary condition which may be
reached by the righteous in this life, and the blessed
state of freedom from rebirth.
Surpassing the teachers who had preceded him,
Buddha denied both the authority of the Vedas,
whose recognition, however formal, constitutes
orthodoxy in India, and the power of sacrifice,
while he practically ignored the existence of the
divine. He rejected the entire system of caste,
thus unconsciously preparing his doctrines to be
potentially a world-religion instead of an ethnic
faith. In the later Buddhist theology an elab-
orate cosmology is developed, with thirty-one
worlds inhabited by fourteen classes of beings, of
which the three highest are the supreme Buddhas,
Pratyekabuddhas, and Arhats, the latter being those
who are almost ready to attain Nirvana, while the
Pratyekabuddha has attained the knowledge neces-
sary to Nirvana but does not preach it. In addition
to these must be noted the Bodhisattva, a potential
Buddha who will attain to Buddhahood in due time.
Even in his lifetime Buddha established an
order, thus forming the "triple jewel," Buddha,
Dhamma (the law), and Sangha (the congregation).
In this order were gathered the followers of the
teacher, who were bound by the ten vows: neither
to kill nor to steal, to abstain from impurity, false-
hood, and intoxicating drinks, not to eat at for-
bidden times, to abstain from the folly of dancing,
singing, music, pnd the theater, to use
5. Buddhist no manner of adornment, not to sleep
Monks. in a high or a broad bed, and to receive
neither gold nor silver. The monks,
who were boimd to celibacy and poverty, and were
called, in old Hindu fashion, bhikkiis, or beggars,
might be received as novices at the age of seven or
eight, although they could not be ordained before
their twentieth year. Twice a month the monks
of each monastery assembled for the confession of
sins, and annually in the rainy season a retreat was
held both for rest from the pilgrimages of the pre-
ceding year and to gain new strength for the coming
season. Even in the lifetime of Buddha women
were admitted to the order and nunneries were
built for their accommodation.
The history of Buddhism is a curious bit of irony;
the founder who had ignored the existence of a god
himself became a god. In Southern India, how-
ever, the religion remained relatively pure, although
some heretical doctrines crept in at an early period
and a number of councils were held to maintain
the faith in its integrity. The first of these took
place at Rajagaha in the year of
6. Develop- Buddha's death, the second at Vaisali
ment after about a century later, the third, a
Buddha's sectarian meeting, at Pataliputra
Death, about 246 b.c, and the fourth at Jal-
andhara under the Indo-Scythian king
Kanishka in 78 a.d. The religion gained royal
approval at an early date, its great kin^y adherent
being Asoka, who was crowned at Pataliputra in
Madagha about 259 b.c. and reigned thirty-seven
years. Not only did he spread the faith through-
out his dominions, but his son Mahendra carried
the new creed to Oeylon. In the second century
B.C. the Indo-Scythian kings of Cabul and Bactria
established Buddhism in their lands, whence it
was promulgated in Northwestern India. Thus
the faith spread by degrees over all the country
north of the Vindhyas, existing side by side with
Brahmanism and Jainism in harmony and peace.
Its downfall in the land of its birth was due to two
causes, the conflict of the sects which arose within
itself and the Mohammedan invasion of India,
but there was no persecution by the other Hindu
sects. In Ceylon, on the other hand. Buddhism
still exists, especially in the southern part of the
island, and it is there that the purest Buddhism
is found.
Buddiiisni
BoeU
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
294
It was but natural that divergent opinions should
arise within the faith itself. These remained com-
paratively unimportant, however, until the schism
into the Mahayana and Hinayana, or the '' Great
Vehicle " and " Little Vehicle." The latter still
adhered strictly in the main to the original tenets
of Buddhism, although it was subdivided into the
Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas,
7. Buddhist the former laying special stress on the
Sects. *' Abhidhammapitaka " or metaphys-
ical section of the sacred books of the
religion, and the latter on the " Suttapitaka " or
discourses of the Buddha. The Mahayanists, on
the contrary, who form by far the larger sect, devo-
ted themselves to all manner of speculation, being
influenced not only by Hinduism but at a later
period by Shamanism (q.v.) as well. The Mahayana
postulates the existence of a thousand Buddhas
with a supreme god, the Adibuddha, and prefers
beneficent activity to the passivity of the Buddha's
own doctrines, although both the principal sub-
divisions of this sect, the Yogacaras and the Mad-
hyamikaa, are strictly idealistic, and in so far are
orthodox Hindus.
Buddhism was introduced into Tibet about the
seventh century a.d., when it was already permeated
by Saivaite and Tantric Hinduism and by Maha-
yanism, while imder the influence of Mongolian
Shamanism it departed still more from its original
ideal. Here is evolved the concept of the Dhyani-
Buddhas, the celestial types of the
8. The Buddhas which appear on earth as
Dhyani- men (Manushi-Buddhas). These Dha-
Buddhas. yani-Buddhas, who are five in nmnber,
watch over the welfare of the world
between the incarnations of the Manushi-Buddhas,
although they themselves never become incarnate.
Three of them correspond to the three Buddhas
who preceded Gautama in the present age of the
world; one, Amitabha, to the historical Buddha,
whose earthly reincarnation is the lesser Lama
of Tibet; and the fifth is the Dhyani-Bodhisatva
Padmapani or Avalokitesvara, who is represented
on earth by the Dalai-Lama at Lhassa, and is the
type of the Bodhisatva Maitreya, the future earthly
Buddha and the savior of the world. See Lamaism.
Buddhism waa introduced into Cliina in its Maha-
yanistic form by the emperor Mingti in 61 a.d.,
and despite persecutions, especially under the Tang
dynasty (620-907), it has survived there imtil the
present day, although overlaid with superstition
and consisting in great part in the worship of pic-
tures and relics. It has gained, however, only a
subordinate place in China, being unable to com-
pete either with the popular Taoism or the cultured
Confucianism, despite the fact that the three relig-
ions exist peaceably side by side. From China
Buddhism was carried to Japan, where numerous
sects have arisen, although the results have been
little more than a further departure from the
original faith (see China, I., 3; Japan, I., II., 2).
Some scholars would like to derive the gospel
narrative from Buddhism, but it is a significant
fact that an overwhelming majority of Oriental
scholars have decided that the story of Buddha
has had no influence on the canonical life of
Christ. They reach this conclusion by a com-
parison of elements of the Buddha legend com-
posed long after the death of the teacher nitL
the Gospels. The Buddhist parallels are drawn.
moreover, in the main, from the texts of the
Northern school, wliich are confessedly late an«i
mythopeic to a degree which almost totally ob-
scures the figure of the historic Buddha, wJiilc
some of the so-called cogent Christ urn
9. Bud- parallels are based upon the apocn-
dhism and phal Gospels. (Considering the canon-
Christianity, ical Gospels on the one hand and the
texts of the Southern Buddhism on
the other, the parallels between the lives of Je«i>
and Buddha seem to resolve themselves into tho?<f
which are natural in the case of great religious
teachers. Thus of five parallels mentioned by
Seydel, the ablest advocate of the theory of Bud-
dhistic influence on Christianity, the three most
important are the presentation of the infant Jesus
in the temple compared with that of the infant
Buddha; the fast of Jesus and that of Buddha;
and the preexistence of Jesus and of Buddha in
heaven. Of these the presentation of Buddha is
found neither in the writings of the Southern school
nor in the ancient text of the Northern, while at the
time of Jesus it was usual for a pious mother to
attend the temple for the redemption of the first-
bom and her own ritual purification. The account
of the fasting and temptation is not entirely har-
monious in both accounts. Buddha first over-
comes Mara and then fasts forty-nine days, while
Jesus fasts forty days and is then tempted by the
devil. Not only is the account of the Gospels the
more accurate psychologically, but it may be paral-
leled with similar events in the lives of Moses and
Elijah, while the story of the temptation is found
not only in Buddhism and Christianity, but also
in Zoroastrianism. The third parallel of the pre-
existence of Jesus and Buddha is equally discrepant.
Jesus existed in heaven from all eternity and is
unique in such existence, while Buddha merely
shares the history of all other Buddhas and was
reincarnated on earth coimtless times. It must
be borne in mind that the spirit of the two religion5
as of their founders is entirely divergent. The
tragedy and the majesty of the Christ is very differ-
ent from the peacefulness and the sweetness of
Buddha. Jesus sought to save the world, not
himself. Buddha began by saving himself and then
taught the world. The aim of Jesus is faith and
individual existence in heaven in the presence of
God; the summum banum of Buddha is knowledge
and the annihilation of self in Nirvana. In the
face of such essential divergencies, the paraUcL<
alleged to exist between Buddha and Jesus seem
to be cases of accidental coincidence, and it is
almost certain that, despite the travel between
Palestine and India, which may have influenced
to some degree the apocryphal Gospels on the one
hand and late Northern Buddhism on the other,
Christianity and Buddhism developed to all intents
and purposes independently. For esoteric Bud-
dhism (so called), see Theosopht.
Bibuoorapht: The literature on Buddhism is enonnoos.
and it ia possible to die here only a few out of the many
296
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Baddhism
BueU
bookB on the subieet, while referenoe may be made for
more complete bibliographies to the worke of Kern and
Aiken mentioned below.
General worka and Indian Buddhism: K. Kfippen, Die
lUlioiofi dea Btuidha, Berlin. 1857-69; Barthtiemy Saint-
HUaiie. L« Bmiddha et m ReUition, Paris. 1860; R. Hardy.
Manual of BuddhUm in ite Modem Development, London,
1860; E. Bumouf. IntroducUon d Vhieioire du Boud-
dhieme Indien, Paris. 1876; H. Oldenberg. Buddha, eein
L^ien, eeine Lehre, eeine Oemeinde, Berlin, 1807, Eng.
transl. by W. Hoey, London. 1882; E. Senart, Eaeai eur
la Uoende du Bouddha, Paris. 1882; M. Williams. Bud-
dhiam in ita Connection with Brahmaniem and Hinduiem
and iU Contraet with Chriatianitu, London. 1880; T. W.
Rhys Davids. Buddhism, ite Hietory and Literature, New
York. 1806; idem, Buddhiem, London. 1899; H. Kem.
Geaehiedenia van hat Buddhiame in Indie, Haarlem. 1884;
idem. Manual of Indian Buddhiam, Strasburg, 1896; £.
Hardy, Dar Buddhiamua nach HUeren Palir-Werken, Mon-
ster. 1890; idem, Buddha, Leipsio, 1903; R. Copleston.
Buddhiem, Primitive and Preaent, in Magadha and Cey-
lon, London, 189% K. Neumann. Buddhiatiache Antho-
loffie, Berlin. 1892; idem. Die Reden dee Ootama Buddhaa,
Leipsic, 1897; idem, Theratfatha und Therigatha, Berlin.
1899; H. Warren, Buddhiam in Trandation, Cambridge.
Mass.. 1896; J. Dahlmann. Buddha, Beriin, 1898; and for
special topics consult, among other works: S. Hardy.
Eaatem Monaehiam, London, 1860; A. Bastian, Der Bud-
dhiamua in aeiner Payehologie, Berlin. 1882; idem, Der
Buddhiamua ale reliffiona-phHoaophiadiea Syatem, ib.
1893; J. Dahlmann. Nirvana, ib. 1896; W. St. C. Tisdall,
The SoUa Eightfold Path, London. 1903; A. Mensies, The
Religiona of India, Brahmaniem and Buddhiam, ib. 1904.
Exceedingly important for the legendary development
of Buddhism is the Jataka: or Stariea of Ote Buddha' a
Former Birihe, Pali text edited with its commentary by
V. Fausb6U. 8 vols.. London, 1877-97; translation by
various hands edited by E. B. Cowell, vols, i.-v., ib. 1895-
1905. Consult also Portfolio of Buddhiet Art, Hiatorieal
and Modem, Chicago, 1906 (a collection of 31 plates).
Extra-Indian Buddhism: H. Alabaster, The Wheel of
the Law, London, 1871; P. Bigandet. The Life or Legend
of Oaudama, the Buddha of the Burmeae, ib. 1880; E.
Sohlagintweit, Buddhiam in Tibet, Leipsic, 1863; W. Rock-
hill. The Life of the Buddha, London. 1884; L. A. Wad-
dell, The Buddhiam of Tibet or Lamaiam, ib. 1895 (con-
tains bibliography, pp. 578-683); A. GrOnwedel, Mytho-
logie dee Buddhiamua in Tibet und der Mongolei, Leipsic.
1900; J. Edkins. Chineae Buddhiam, London. 1880; S.
Beal, Buddhiam in China, ib. 1884; idem. 8i-yu-H, Bud-
dhiet Recarde of the Weatem World, from the Chineae, ib.
1906; B. Nanjio. Twelve Japaneaa Buddhiet Seeta, Tokyo.
1887; R. Fujishima, Le Bouddhiame Japonaia, Paris,
1887.
Buddhinn and Christianity: R. Seydel, Dae Evange-
lium von Jeaua in aeinen VerhOUniaaen au Buddha-Sage
und Buddha-Lehre, Leipsic, 1882; idem. Die Buddha^Le-
gendeunddaaLebenJeau, ib. ed. 1897; Rhys Davids, Bud-
dhism and Chrietianity, London, 1888; R. Falke. Buddha,
Mohammed und Chriatua, Gotersloh, 1900; C. Aiken. The
Dhamma of Ootama the Buddha and the Goapel of Jeaua
the Chriat, Boston. 1900; A. Bertholet, Buddhiamua und
Chriatentum, Tflbingen, 1902.
Referenoe may also be made to the general works on
comparative religion and the religions of India, especially
E. Hopkins, Religiona of India, Boston. 1895, pp. 298-
347; Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbudi der R^igiona-
gaatMehte, 3d ed., Freiburg, 1905; C. von Orelli. AUge-
meina ReUgumageaehiehte, pp. 448-493, Bonn, 1899, and
the bibliographies there given.
BUDE, bO'Md', GUILLAnME : French humanist ;
b. at Paria 1467; d. there Aug. 23, 1540. He
studied law at Orl^anB, and, after leading a dissi-
pated life for several years, began to apply himself
to Greek, philosophy, theology, and science. Well
received at court, he was repeatedly entrusted with
diplomatic missions to Rome. On Aug. 21, 1522,
Francis I. appointed him librarian of the royal
library at Fontainebleau and royal councilor, and
it was owing to Bud^'s initiative that the king
enlarged the Royal Library of Paris and also the
Royal College, which afterward became the College
de France. Long before Luther, Bud6 had felt
the necessity of reforms in the Church, but, like
many scholars and bishops of his day, he feared
a rupture with Rome. Among his numerous works,
special mention may be made of the following:
De Aaae et partHrus ejus (Paris, 1514); De Studio
bonarum lilterarum rede et commode inetUuendo
(1527); Commentarii lingtue gr<ec<B (1529); De tran-
eitu HeUenismi ad Christianismum (1535); Forenaia
quibu8 vulgar ea et vere latin ob jurUconsuUorum lo-
quendi formulce dantur (1548); and Lexicon graico-
latinum (Geneva, 1554 etc.)- G. Bonet-Maurt.
Bibliography: The best account of his life is by E. de
Bud^. Vie de Ouillaume Budi, Paris. 1884. Consult also
E. and £. Haag, La France proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier,
ib. 1877-86; Rebitt^. G. Budi, eaaai hiatorigue, Paris.
1846; A. Moquet, Lea Seigneura de Marly, Paris, 1882.
BUDER, bu'der, PAUL VON: German Protes-
tant; b. at Leutkirch (40 m. s. of Ulm) Feb. 15,
1836. He was educated at the University of
Tubingen (Ph.D., 1858), and, after being lecturer
at the theological seminary attached to that institu-
tion from 1861 to 1865, was successively deacon
and inspector of schools at Backnang from 1865
to 1868 and second court-preacher, as well as assist-
ant in the consistory and a member of the theo-
logical examining board, in Stuttgart from 1868
to 1872. In the latter year he waa appointed
associate professor of dogmatics and New Testa-
ment exegesis and supervisor of the theological
seminary of the University of Tubingen, where he
has been full professor since 1877. He has written
Ueber die apologetiache Aufgabe der Theologie der
Gegenwart (Tubingen, 1876).
BUECHNER, bUH'ner, GOTTFRIED, get'fiid.
German Lutheran theologian; b. at RUdersdorf
(the district of Saxe-Altenburg) 1701; d. at Quer-
furt (18 m. w. of Merseburg) 1780. He studied
at Jena, and lectured there from 1725 until he was
called as rector to Querfurt. where he died. He is
best known as the author of Biblische Real- und
Verbal-Hand-Concordanz (Jena, 1740; 23d ed.,
Berlin, 1899; ed. H. L. Heubner, Philadelphia,
1871). A list of BUchner's other theological works
is given in Jdcher and Adelimgs AUgemeines
Gelehrten-Lexikon, s.v.
BUECHSEL, bUH^sel, KARL: German Lutheran
theologian; b. at SchOnfeld (a suburb of Prenzlau,
71 m. n.n.e. of Potsdam) May 2. 1803; d. at Berlin
Aug. 14, 1889. After completing* his studies, he
became minister in his native place, superintendent
at BrOsson, and in 1846 pastor of St. Matthew's
at Berlin. In 1853 he was made superintendent
general^ but retired from the ministry in 1884.
He belonged to the most prominent and influential
preachers of the German capital, and was the
author of Erinnerungen aus dem Leben einea Land-
geisUichen (5 vols., Berlin, 1888-97), which went
through many editions.
BUELL, MARCUS DARIUS: Methodist Episco-
palian; b. at Wayland, N. Y., Jan. 1, 1851. He
was educated at New York University (B.A., 1872)
and the Boston University School of Theology
Buff Bibl<
Bminuria
Bible
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
296
(1876). He entered the Methodist ministiy in
1875, and held suooeflsive pastorates at Portchester,
N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Hartford, Conn., in
1875-84. In the latter year he studied at the uni-
versities of Cambridge, Berlin, and Heidelberg,
and returned to the United States as professor of
New Testament Greek and exegesis in Boston
University, a position which he still holds. He
was also assistant dean in 1885-^9 and dean in
1889-1904. He is a member of the Society of
Biblical Literature and Exegesis and of the Harvard
Biblical Club, and has written, in addition to a
number of minor contributions, StudUa in the Greek
Text of the Gospel of Mark (Boston, 1890).
BUO BIBLE. See Biblx Vebsionb, B, IV., } 9.
BUOBUHAOEN, bQ^'gen-hd^gen, JOHAini: A
leader of the Grerman Reformation; b. at Wollin
(29 m. n. of Stettin), Pomerania, June 24, 1485;
d. at Wittenberg Apr. 20, 1558. He was educated
at the University of Greifswald, paying special
attention to the Latin classics. In his eighteenth
year he was placed in charge of the school at Trep-
tow on the Rega, which he made famous far and
wide by the thorough Renaissance devotion to
study which he inculcated. In 1509 he was or-
dained priest, though without any special theo-
logical training Humanism, in fact.
Early Life, strongly influenced his theology. He
turned away from the schoolmen to
seek a purer doctrine in the early Fathers, and
by Erasmus, whom he considered to represent
them, was brought to a deep study of the
Bible. In 1517 he was appointed to lecture on
the Bible and the Fathers in the new monastic
school of Belbuck. A journey throughout Pome-
rania in search of documents to aid in Spalatin's
historical work led to the publication of its results
in his Pomerania (1518), in which he foreshadows
his later career by incidental attacks on the preach-
ers of indulgences; and a sermon delivered before
a derical assembly in 1519 (or 1520) is even more
outspoken in its reproof of abuses. Not long after,
Luther's writinge fell into his hands. He was at
first shocked by the Captivitaa Babylonica, but
further reading convinced him of its truth. An
earnest correspondence with Luther followed, and
in 1521 Bugenhagen went to Wittenbei^, sending
back to Treptow a long letter in which he declared
his adhesion to his new master's doctrines.
He matriculated at the university, made friends
with Melanchtl^on, and began to expound the
Psalms to an increasing audience. The swift
development of practical rdfonn carried him with it,
and he married m 1522, in spite of the uncertainty
of his future. Luther exerted himself to find a
posit'on for him, and, a vacancy occurring in the
principal church of Wittenberg, put his useful
follower in, despite the protests of the
At Wit- capitular body to whom the right of
tenberg. nomination really belonged Here
Bugenhagen busied himself in many
practical pastoral works, finding time for literary
activity also; he helped in the Low German edition
of Luther's New Testament (1524), and in the same
year published his lectures on the Psalms and Latin
commentaries on several other books of Scriptore.
These, as well as some Gennan treatises on practical
piety, made his name known, and he was called to
St. Nicholas's church at Hamburg. The town
council objected, and the proposal fell throu^
Bugenhagen came, ho¥^ver, to the help of the
evangelical community in Hamburg in the follov-
ing year by his tractate Von dem CkristenUnen vni
rt^Uen guden Werken (published 1526; High Ger-
man version in Vogt), which is one of the best pop-
ular presentations of the Lutheran teaching. In
1525 he oflidated at Luther's marriage, and wrote
a defense of the married clergy. Besides his fidth-
ful pastoral labors, continued even throu^ the
plague of 1527, he took part in the general moTe-
ment of the Reformation by a letter '^ to the
Christians in England" (1525), by taking a
prominent part against Zwin^ and Butser in the
eucharistic controversy, and by new ezegetical
works.
Bugenhagen's forte, however, was organization,
which he carried forward in many parts of North
Germany, in both ecclesiastical and educaticnud
matters. The results of his activity were seen,
for example, in the new church constitutions of
Brunswick, Hamburg, Ltlbeck, and Pomerania.
In 1535 he came back to spend two years in
his duties at Wittenberg, and became a member
of the theological faculty. He was called away
once more in 1537 to superintend the cazrying
out of the reforming movement in Denmark,
which had been begun the year before, when
Christian III. had broken the power
His of the bishops and confiscated their
Ability as property. He revised the proposed
an Organ- constitution, crowned the king and
izer. queen at Copenhagen, ordained Be\^n
evangelical theologians as superin-
tendents to take the place of the expelled bishops,
and reorganized the university, which he governed
for a time as rector, working meanwhile at his great
commentary on the Psalms, not completed till 1544.
Returning home in the spring of 1539, he took part
in the thorough revision of Luther's Bible, and stood
by him in the conflict with Agrioola (see Anti-
NOMIANISM AND AmTINOMIAN CoNTROVEBSIES,
II., 1,(3). He declined a call to the bishopric of
Sleswick, and another to the University of Copen-
hagen; but he visited Holstein in 1542, at the king's
invitation, to assist in the adoption and adaptation
of the Danish church constitution for the duchies.
No sooner had he returned than the suooeas of the
arms of the Schmalkald League against Heniy of
Brunswick laid a new task upon him, together with
Corvinus and GOrlitz; viz., that of organising an
Evangelical Church in the conquered territory.
The constitution for Brunswick-WolfenbQttel which
appeared in the autiunn of 1543 is mostly his work,
and that adopted for Hildesheim in the following
year is practically derived from it. Yet the diffi-
culties which he had experienced in this visita-
tion were sufficient, it would seem, to make him
reluctant to accept the invitation of the duice
of Pomerania to take the place of the deceased
bishop of Kanunin; and when the duke would
have no conditional acceptance, he declined abso-
297
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bulraria
lutely, though professing his willingness to assist
for a time in organization.
Bugenhagen remained, accordingly, at Witten-
berg, a help and strength to Luther in his last years,
and preached his funeral sermon on Feb. 22, 1546.
In the troublous times that followed, he adhered
undauntedly to the cause of the Wittenberg church,
encouraged the citizens during the siege, and went
on preaching even after the emperor had entered
the city as conqueror. The consideration with
which he was treated by Charles V. and the new
elector Maurice, and his desire to
Last serve the university and to remain
Tears. connected with it, combined to recon-
cile him to the new state of things
more readily than some ardent evangelicals thought
fitting. There was much critidsm of his action
from his own side, and calunmy even went so far
as to accuse him of venality. He was drawn into
the policy of the Interim still further, as conducted
by Maurice of Saxony and represented theologically
by Melanchthon. His personal share in the nego-
tiations was, indeed, a slight one; he was in the
opposition at Alten-Zelle, and was consequently
not Bunmioned to Jikterbogk. But the concessions
made to the Roman Catholic ceremonial found a
sympathizer in the man who had impressed upon
North German Lutheranism a conservative approx-
imation to the old forms; he overlooked the fact
that, as Hering has truly said, what had originally
been consideration for the weak brethren might
now be only obsequious deference to the powerful.
His attitude cost him the confidence of the deposed
elector and of Albert of Prussia, and not a few of
his old friends turned from him. As an attempt
to set himself right, he published in 1550 his com-
mentary on Jonah, in which he gave vigorous
expression to his undiminished protest against
the Roman Catholic Church, undertaking to derive
its doctrines and practises from the Montanist
heresy. He raised his voice during the troubles
of 1556 in a warning to all pastors to prepare for
the end of the world by confession of sin and firm
adherence to their faith. Decaying bodily strength
forced him to give up preaching in 1557, and a year
later he went to his long rest, being buried near the
altar in the church he had served so long. He left
behind him many a trace of his organizing abilities
throughout northern Germany, especially in Lower
Saxony, of his wisdom in practical matters, his
sensible views on education, and his liturgical
institutions, which substantially determined the
abiding character of North German Lutheranism.
(G. Kawsrau.)
BiBUOomAPBT: Hie Bryefwhtti, ed. 0. Vost* appeared
Stuticart, 1888. The best treatment is to be found in
H. Hering, Doktor PomeranuM, J. Bugenhaoen, Halle,
1888. Special treatiaee are: Q. H. Goetie. De J. Bu-
genhaoen mtriHM . . . oratio, Leipsio, 1704; J. D. J&ncke,
Leben»oe9ehichU J. Bugenkagent, Rostock. 1757; R. F. L.
Encelken, J. Bugenhoifen, ein bioifraphucher AuftaU fUr
die evanodiacKe KireKe, Berlin, 1817; J. H. Ziets. J. Bu-
Oenhagen. Ein Hographitcher Vernuh, Leipsic, 1834; M.
Meurar, /. Bvgenhaotn'B Ldten, ib. 1862; K. A. T. Vogt,
J. Buoenhaom Pomerantu, Elberfeld, 1867. Consult
furtlier: J. KOstlin. Martin LuOur, ed. G. Kawerau, pas-
sim, 2 vols., Berlin, 1903; Schaff, ChriaHan Church, vi.
847, 467, 567, 621-622; Moeller. ChrxaHan Church, vol.
jiL pawrim; KL, ii 1453-68. Bugenhacen's Vermahnung
an die Bohmen was published in ZeUgenUiMe Traktate aue
der Reformationazeitt part 2, ed. C. von Kflgelgen, Leipsic,
1903.
BUHL, bed, FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM MEYER :
Danish Semitic scholar; b. at Copenhagen Sept.
6, 1850. He was educated at the University of
Copenhagen (Ph.D., 1878), and was successively
professor of Old Testament exegesis at Copenhagen
(1882-90) and Leipsic (1890-98). In 1898 he
was recalled to the University of Copenhagen as
professor of Semitic languages, a position which he
still holds. In theology he is dogmatically con-
servative, but liberal in isagogics. Since 1900 he
has been a member of the Royal Society of Sciences
at Copenhagen. In addition to numerous briefer
contributions, he has written: Jesaja over sat og for"
tolket (8 parts, Copenhagen, 1889-94); Geneaaret Sd
og dena OmgiveUer (1889); PaUstina i kortfaUet
geografiak og topografiak Frematilling (1890); Kanon
und Text dea Alien Teatamenta (Leipsic, 1891; Eng.
transl. by J. Macpherson, Edinburgh, 1892); Det
iaraelitiake FoJka Hiatorie (Copenhagen, 1892);
Geachichte der Edomiter (Leipsic, 1893); De mea-
atanake Forjcettelaer i det Gamle Teatament (1894);
Til Vejledning i de gammelteatamentlige Underad-
gelaer (1895); Geographie dea aUen PaUiatina (Frei-
burg, 1896); Hebraiak Syntax (Copenhagen, 1897);
Die aocialen VerhdUniaae der laraelUen (Berlin, 1899);
Paalmeme overaatte og fortolkede (12 parts, Copen-
hagen, 1898-1900); and MuhamTneda Liv (1903).
He has also collaborated in editing the twelfth,
thirteenth, and fourteenth editions of the He-
braiachea und aramdischea Handw&rterbuch aber daa
AUe Teatament of Gesenius (Leipsic, 1895-1905).
BULGARI (BOURGES): Name of a heretical
sect. See New Manichbans, II.
BULGARIA: A principality under the suze-
rainty of Turkey in the northeastern part of the
Balkan Peninsula, bounded on the north by Ru-
mania, on the east by the Black Sea, on the south
by Turkey, on the west by Servia. It was created
by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 and attained its
present extent in 1885 by the addition of Eastern
Rumelia (the territory south of the Balkan Moun-
tains) after a revolt of the Bulgars there; in 1908
it proclaimed its independence; area, 38,080 square
miles; population (1900), 3,744,283.
In race and religion the population is very diverse.
The majority are the Bulgars, who number some
2,880,000 and belong to the Oriental Orthodox
Church, their prince Boris having
Bulgarian adopted Christianity in 864, two cen-
Church. turies after they had entered the
region south of the Danube (see BrrL-
OARiAifs, Conversion of the). Simeon, the suc-
cessor of Boris as prince or czar, established an
autonomous Church for his extensive domains,
placing at its head a bishop, or exarch, who had
his seat at Ochrida on the frontier of Albania.
This diocese lapsed after the fall of the Bulgarian
state, nor was it revived when the principality was
reorganized. The Slavic bishoprics were grad-
ually replaced with Greek, and the Bulgarian
Church was first restored in 1870-72, when, through
the Insistence of Russian diplomats, the Sultan
permitted the Bulgarian Church to separate from
Bnlfrarla
Bumnffer
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
the patriarchate and to appoint an exarch in Con-
stantinople who should be the Slavic head of all
those communities which might wish to join the
new ecclesiastical body. Although condemned by
the patriarch in 1872 as schismatic, iarge num-
bers of Slavs in the Turkish provinces soon de-
clared themselves Bulgarians.
The governing body of this Church is the Holy
Synod, which consists of four bishops chosen for
four years by secret ballot of all the bishops and
presided over by the exarch; it meets annually in
May. The rights and external organization of the
Bulgarian Church are recognized throughout the
principality by the constitution, which declares
it to be the State Church. Other religions are
tolerated, however, while the exarch can issue
commands to his bishops only after reaching an
agreement with the minister of foreign affairs.
According to the exarchial statute of
Organiza- 1883, the laity exercise a considerable
tion. influence on the election of bishops,
and, with the Turkish districts of the
Bulgarian Church, even on the choice of the exarch.
In each eparchy, or diocese, three clerical and three
lay members form a committee which selects two
names from a large list of candidates, sending these
names to the Holy Synod, by which the list in ques-
tion is drawn up and constantly renewed.
In the principality of Bulgaria there are eleven
dioceses, or eparchies, at Varna, Rustchuk (Cherven
and Dorostol), Timova, Lovatz. Vratsa, and Widin
north of the Balkans, and Sofia, Philippopolis,
Stara Saghra, and Sliven south of this mountain
range. These dioceses receive from the State an
annual revenue of 800,000 francs, while the monas-
teries supply the fimds for twenty-four archiman-
drites. One of the richest monasteries is that of
St. John in the Rilo mountains, and other important
cloisters are those of St. Nicholas near the Shipka
Pass and Tcherepis at the northern end of the Isker
gap. The majority of the parish clergy lack the
requisite education, and the monks are very inferior
in education to those of Servia. The parish priests
are accordingly reverenced but little by the peasants
and citizens. They number nearly 2,000, and there
are 240 monks in seventy-eight monasteries.
Not all the Slavs recognize the authority of the
exarch, and in the southeast 60,000 Greeks have
the four small dioceses of Varna, Mesembria, So-
zopolis, and Anchiolo, as well as the metropolitanate
of Philippopolis. Roman Catholicism has but
scant representation in Bulgaria. Nicopolis is the
name of the bishopric for Danubian Bulgaria, but
in reality the bishop resides at Rustchuk. In the
south is the apostolic vicariate of
Other Sofia and Philippopolis, in charge of
Churches, the Capuchins since 1841. The ma-
jority of the Roman Catholics are
Bulgars, partly descended from the Paulicians,
who were formerly numerous (see Paulicians).
The minority are immigrants from AustrisrHungary
and other Roman Catholic countries, and have
churches and small congregations in various cities
along the Danube, as well as in Sofia, Philippopolis,
and Biurgas. The Armenians have their own bishop
in Rustchuk. Bulgarian Protestants are mainly
the result of American missionaiy propaganda.
[The Methodists entered the countiy north of the
Balkans in 1857 and the field was organized into
a missionary conference in 1892. The American
Board commenced work south of the Balkans at
about the same time as the Methodists and main-
tains schools and a publishing house at Samakov.
The educational work of Robert College near Con-
stantinople has done much for the Bulgarian's.]
There are also Protestant communities of some
500 Germans in Sofia and Rustchuk, both cities
having a German school.
The Jews in Bulgaria are for the most part descend-
ants of exiles from Spain in the sixteenth century.
The Gipsies number about 50,000, although some
of them declare themselves Orthodox.
non-Chriz- The great majority of the Moham-
tian medans are Turks; the number has
Religions, decreased owing to extensive emi-
gration since 1878. They have numer-
ous schools, including a theological school at
Shumla.
The educational system of Bulgaria snows a
creditable development, thanks to compulsoiy
schooling. There are many public and inter-
mediate schools, as well as gymnasia and nor-
mal schools. The State provides generously for
educational purposes. The minor religious bodies
have numerous schools, and the Roman Catholics
in the cities receive instruction from teachers pro-
vided by the French congregations.
[The religious statistics of the census of 1900 are
as follows:
Orthodox Greeks, 3,019,296; Mohammedans,
643,300; Jews, 33,663; Roman Catholics, 28,569;
Armenian Gregorians, 13,809; Protestants, 4,524;
Unknown, 1,122.] Wilhelm Goeiz.
Bibliography: C. JireSek, Ge^chichle der Buloaren, Pngue,
1876 (authoritative); idem, Dom Fur^tentum BtJ^ariem,
Vienna, 1891 ; J. Samuelson, Bulgaria. Past mnd Prtmni,
London, 1888 (best general account in Enalish); L. La-
mouche, La Bulfforie dans U pauf et dana le priaent, Paris,
1892; A. Strauss. Die Buioaren, ethnoffraphiad^e Studien.
LeipMc, 1898; Acta Buloaria eedenoMtiea, lSSS-t799,
colUgit C. Fennendsiu. Asram, 1868; A. d'Avril, La
Bulgarie diritiennet Paris, 1898; J. 8. Dennis, CetUenniel
Survey of Foreign Miuione, New York, 1002.
BULGARIANS, CONVERSIOH OF THE: Ac-
cording to JireSek, who follows Schafarik, the Bul-
garians were originally related to the Finns. Joi^
danis says that they lived on the shores of the Black
Sea in the fifth century, clashing frequently with
the Ostrogoths in the reign of Theodoric, who,
according to Ennodius, checked their victorious
advance toward the west in 487; Cassiodonis
mentions another victory in 504. But their attacks
were directed also against the Byzantine Einpire.
Under Constantine Pogonatus a Bulgarian horde
established itself in 679 between the Danube and
the Balkans, extending their conquests gradually
as far as the mouth of the Save. This territory
seems to have been inhabited by people of Slaric
race, who first gave their language to the conquerors
and then gradually amalgamated with them. The
race formed by this fusion was so strongly pagan
that it resisted the introduction of Christianity,
which had its martyrs in the first half of the ninth
290
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
century. A change set in under Bogoris (c. 852-
888), who in his contests with both Franks and
Greeks held out hopes of a conversion as an induce-
ment for peace. In 864 he seems to have entered
the Greek Church, and received in return a consid-
erable slice of territory. In Constantinople his
conversion was considered genuine, and Photius
took pains to instruct him at some length in the
duties of a Christian prince. The Bulgarians were
apparently less delighted, and rose in armed revolt.
The wily barbarian, however, had one eye on the
West, and at the same time sent an embassy to
Pope Nicholas I., with a number of questions on
which he sought enlightenment from Rome. Nicho-
las immediately sent two bishops to take possession
of the Bulgarian territory for the Church, and
answered the questions of Bogoris with much more
painstaking seriousness than they deserved. An-
other embassy went to Louis the German to ask
that Christian missionaries might be sent. In 867
Louis conmiissioned Bishop Ermanrich of Passau
and a numerous retinue of priests to set out for the
Danube. Charlemagne followed by raising a large
sum to provide books and church utensils for the
Bulgarians. But all this interest was thrown away.
When Ermanrich reached Bulgaria, he found the
field already occupied by priests from Rome, and
returned to Germany. The communion with
Rome lasted but a few years longer. Bogoris
requested the appointment of Formosus of Porto
(one of the two original Roman missionaries) as
archbishop, and proposed another candidate when
Nicholas declined; when this second nomination
was rejected by Adrian II. he lost patience and
turned to Constantinople. His envoys took part
there in the final session of the Eighth Ecumenical
Council (870), and after its close, in spite of the
protests of the Roman legates, declared that Bul-
garia belonged to the patriarchate of Constan-
tinople. The Roman clergy were obliged to leave
and the patriarch Ignatius organized the church
by the consecration of a metropolitan and several
bishops. Adrian II. protested (871), but in vain,
and the efforts of John VIII. to reopen the ques-
tion were equally fruitless; Bulgaria remained, as,
indeed, its geographical situation demanded, a
part of the Greek Church. (A. Hauck.)
Biblioorapbt: C. JireSek, Oetchu^ife der Bulgaren, Prague,
1876; idem. Dom Furaientum Bulaarien, ib. 1891; La
BulaarU chriUenne. 6tude hiBtarUpte, Paris, 1861; Li-
Oendf rtliifieutM bulifttres, traduiiea par Lydia Schiach-
manoff, ib. 1896.
BULGARIS, bul-ga'ris, EUGENIOS, 6"a-g6'm-6s:
Russian prelate; b. in the island of Corfu Aug. 10,
1716; d. at St. Petersburg June 10, 1806. He was
educated at Padua, and taught in various schools
and at the academy of Athos from 1755 to 1759.
His orthodoxy being impugned, he went to the
West, and was recommended by Frederick the
Great to Catharine II. of Russia, who appointed
him bishop of Slovensk and Kherson. In 1801
he retired to the monastery of Alexander Nevsky.
Bulgaris was a veiy gifted and learned man, and
contributed toward making Western culture acces-
sible to his people. Together with Korals, he may
be regarded as the founder of modem cultiu^ in
Greece. He was an eclectic in philosophy, and
was familiar with all branches of theology. Among
his numerous works (in Greek), special mention
may be made of his " Orthodox Confession "
(Amsterdam, 1767), written against the Jesuit
Leclerc, but also opposing the Protestants; and
his " Address on Tolerance " (1768), denying the
State the right of intolerance toward adherents
of other creeds than that of the national church.
His principal work was the " Dogmatic Theology "
(ed. Lontopulos, Venice, 1872), the first real Greek
treatise on dogmatics since the Middle Ages. It
is divided into four parts, treating of God, the
Trinity, anthropology, and Christology. Among
his historical writings the most important was the
" First Century from the Incarnation of Christ
the Saviour " (Leipsic, 1805), while to the depart-
ment of practical theology belongs the ** Pious
Talk " (2 vols., 1801), a moralistic exposition of
the Pentateuch. He also translated several wri-
tings of Augustine, and such works as the De pro-
cessione Spiritus sancti of Zoemikau (St. Petersburg,
1797). He likewise edited the works of Joseph
Bryennius, and assisted in the editing of the works
of Theodoret (Halle, 1768). Philipp Meybr.
Biblioorapbt: P. Strahl, Daa gelehrte RvMland, Leipsic,
1828 (from Russian sources); A. P. Vretos, Biographie
de Vareheviqus E. Bulgari, Athens. 1860; A. D. Kyriakos.
Oeackiehte der orierUaluehen Kirchen, Leipsic, 1002.
BULL, GEORGE: Bishop of St. David's; b. at
Wells, Somersetshire, Mar. 25, 1634; d. at Brecon,
Wales, Feb. 17, 1710. He studied at Oxford but
did not take a degree; became minister of St.
George's, near Bristol, 1655; rector of Suddington
St. Mary's, near Cirencester, 1658, to which was
joined the vicarage of the adjoining parish of St.
Peter's 1662; rector of Avening, Gloucester, 1685.
From 1678 to 1686 he was a prebendary of Glouces-
ter; from 1686 to 1705 archdeacon of Llandafif. He
became bishop of St. David's, Wales, in 1705. His
fame rests upon his Defenaio fidei Niccena, pub-
lished originally in Latin in 1685 and received with
marked approval by Protestant and Roman Cath-
olic (e.g., Bossuet and Jurieu) scholars everywhere;
it is still a classic. In English translation, it appears
in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology, together
with his Harmonia Apostolica (4 vols., Oxford,
1851-53).
Bibliography: His complete works appeared in 7 vols.,
1827, with the life by Robert Nelson (originaUy 1713.
separately 1840). The DNB, vii. 236-238. gives a very
satisfactory account of his life.
BULL, PAPAL. See Briefs, Bulus, and Bul-
LARIA.
BULLINGER, bul'lin-ger, HEimaCH.
Conversion to Protestantism Eucharistic Teachings (| 6).
( § 1 ). The Helvetic and Zurich Con-
Friendship with Zwingli (| 2). fessions and the Consen-
The Successor of Zwingli sus Tigurinus (f 7).
(§3). His Part in the Second Hel-
Political Activity (| 4). vetic Confession (| 8).
Pastoral and Educational Ac- Views, on the Relation of
tivity (I 6). Church and State (| 9).
The Works of Bullinger (| 10).
Heinrich Bullinger was a Swiss Reformer; b. at
Bremgarten (HJ m. e.s.e. of Aargau) July 18, 1504;
d. at Zurich Sept. 17, 1575. He was the son of a
priest, who looked after his bringing up. After receiv-
Bulllzi««r
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
800
ing his elementary education in the schools of his na^
tive town, he was sent to Emmerich on the Lower
Rhine to the Brethren of the Common Life, and
in 1519 he went to Cologne. There, in the seat of
opposition to the Reformation, Bullinger gradually
became a convert to the new doctrines. When he
began the study of theology, his text-books were
the Sententia of Peter Lombard and the Decretum
of Gratian, but noting that these were based on
the Church Fathers, he resolved to study the lat-
ter more closely, thus learning from Chrysostom,
Ambrose, Origen, and Augustine how widely the
scholastics had diverged in their treatment of
Christian truths. At the same time he came into
possession of some pamphlets of Luther which
convinced him that the Wittenberg
I. Conver- Reformer marked an advance over the
sion to scholastics. Since, however, Luther,
Protestant- like the Church Fathers, appealed
Ism. to the Scriptures, Bullinger obtained
a New Testament, which nourished
his opposition to Roman doctrine. He was also
strongly influenced by Melanchthon's Loci com-
munes, and by 1522, despite a bitter inward struggle,
he had broken definitely with the Roman Catholic
Church. Being thus debarred from an ecclesias-
tical career, he resolved to become a teacher, and
after nine months he secured a position in the Cis-
tercian monastery at Kappel, where he remained
from Jan., 1523, to Pentecost, 1529. Not only
did he introduce his pupils to the classics, but he
also interpreted a portion of the Bible to them
daily, in addition to lecturing on other theological
subjects in the presence of the abbot, the monks,
and many of the residents of the city. Through
his preaching of a reformation of doctrine and life
the movement was completed in 1525-26, although
Bullinger's life was imperiled by the hostility of
the adherents of the ancient faith. In the early
part of 1527 the monastery was transferred to the
authorities of Zurich and the monastery church
became the parish church of the conununity, with
Bullinger as the preacher. In dose harmony with
ZwingU, whom he had known since the end of 1523,
and in consultation with Leo Jud, he began the
active preparation of a large number of tracts
designed to work for the Reformation
a. Friend- in central Switzerland. After being
■hip with invited by Zwingli in Jan., 1525, to
ZwinglL attend a conference with the Ana^
baptists, he combated them, and in
1528 he accompanied Zwingli to the Disputation of
Bern, where the leading Reformers of Switzerland
and South Germany became acquainted with each
other.
In June, 1529, Bullinger succeeded his father as
pastor of Bremgarten, but his position was a peril-
ous one, and the Reformed strongholds were forti-
fied in expectation of the war between the Con-
federates, which threatened to break out in 1529.
Despite the so-called '' land-peace " and the ser-
mons delivered by Bullinger at the diets held at
Bremgarten in the sununer of 1531, in which he
urged upon his hearers the horrors of civil war and
sought to reconcile the adherents of both creeds
by the weapons of the spirit and the word of God
without the effusion of blood, the Refonnation
had long been political rather than religious, and
on Oct. 11, 1531, the battle of Kappel was fought,
in which the leaders of the Zurich Reformation feU.
The progress of the entire movement was checked,
and at Bremgarten at heavy cost a peace was made
from which the clergy were excepted. In the night
of Nov. 20 Bullinger fled to Zurich. The difficult
task of the reconstruction of the Reformed Church
and the maintenance of Zwingli's life-work now
devolved upon him, and on Dec. 9, 1531, he was
chosen pastor of the Gxx>samanster to
3. The Sue- succeed the great Swiss Reformer. At
ceisor of the same time, however, a controversy
ZwinglL arose between the adherents of the
ancient conditions, who advocated
peace at any price, and the evangelical party,
resulting in a decision to prohibit the clergy from
touching on political questions in their sermons.
After consultation with his colleagues, BuUinger
declared himself ready to promote peace, but
declined to refrain from political problems which
were connected with religion. The liberty which
he demanded was granted him after long delibera-
tion, and the clergy accordingly placed themselves
in opposition to the reactionaries. The sermons
of Bullinger and Jud, however, resulted in their
being dted before the council. They were honor-
ably discharged, but were requested in future to
lay their political complaints before the coimcil
on the chance that they might be settled without
the necessity of publicity. Through this recog-
nition of the spheres of Church and State as dis-
tinct but not opposed, Bullinger sustained a more
healthy relation to the political body than Zwingli,
and he also avoided the stru^les made by Calvin
to make the State subservient to the Church. A
still more difficult task was the stem-
4. Political ming of the Catholic reaction, and
Activity, it was chiefly due to him that the
disaster of Kappel had no worse
results. The evangelical communities, however,
suffered severely, and turned to Zurich for help,
and the coimcil, in their eagerness to refute the
charge of Roman tendencies, unwisely inserted
in their manifesto words which the Catholics
claimed were an insult to the mass. In the con-
troversy which ensued, Zurich was cited before
the council of the Confederation, whereupon Bul-
linger, while blaming the city for its folly, ad-
vised the mutual surrender of the old letters of
confederation, the peaceable division of the com-
mon territories, and the formation of a new union
with such bodies as held to the word of God.
Although it proved possible to preserve peace with-
out this dissolution of the Confederation, the result
was a partial humiliation of Zurich.
In the earlier years of his pastoral activity Bul-
linger was an indefatigable preacher, delivering
between six and eight sermons each week, nor was
it imtil 1542 that his labors were lessened to two
addresses, on Sunday and Friday. Like Zwingli,
he was accustomed to interpret entire books of
the Bible in order, and his sermons were esteemed
far and wide, especially in England. He was also
active in education, and brought the schools of
301
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bullinffer
Zurich to a high standard of excellence, propo-
sing an admirable scheme, which comprised both
teachers and pupils and prescribed their duties.
He likewise promoted theological training by the
establishment of scholarships and secured the
canons' fimd for the maintenance of the schools,
in addition to preparing regulations for preachers
and synods. The first of these, drawn up by him
and Leo Jud, remained unchanged for almost
three centuries. The synod met twice
5. Pastoral annually, and had as representatives
and Educa- of the State a non-officiating burgo-
tional master and eight members of the
Activity, great council. The chief duty of the
synod was a complete report of the
activity, qualifications, and conduct of each and
every pastor. Bullinger was highly esteemed as
a pastor, especially in time of pestilence, while his
Qtio pacto cum cegrotarUibua et morientibus agendum
sit parceneais (1540) is a work of imusual excellence.
A generous jfriend and patron of fugitives from
Germany, Locarno, and Ekigland, he also wrote an
enormous mass of letters, niunbering among his
correspondents Lady Jane Grey, Heniy II. and
Francis II. of France, Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
of England, Elizabeth, Christian of Denmark,
Philip of Hesse, and the palsgrave Frederick III.
Bullinger took part in the controversy over the
Lord's Supper as the chief representative of Ger-
man-Swiss doctrine. After the death of Zwingli
both the Romanists, headed by Johann Faber, and
Luther assailed the doctrines of his followers, only
to be answered by Bullinger in his Auf Johannsen
urieniachen Bischofa Trostbuchlein trdsUiche Ver-
nntwortung (Zurich, 1532) and in the introduction
to Leo Jud's translation of the treatise De corpore
€t sanguine Domini of Ratramnus, a monk of
Corvey. Even in these earlier works he emphasized
the objective side of the sacrament, the work of
Christ in the faithful, whereas Zwingli
6. Eucha- had taught rather the subjective
ristic aspect as a memorial. The contro-
TeachingB. versy involved the Protestant party
in Germany, and in the ensuing efforts
for reconciliation Butzer and Bullinger were active
figures, the latter preparing a confession for the
former, showing how far a imion with Luther was
possible. This confession was sent in Nov., 1534,
to the remaining Swiss cities and was gladly ac-
cepted by the majority, Bern alone refusing to
subscribe to it until after the Conference of Brugg
in Apr., 1535. This was, however, little more than
an agreement of the clergy, and the desirability
of an understanding with Luther, as well as the
expectation of a general coimdl, rendered it advi-
sable for the Swiss Chiurch to make an official formu-
lation of its creed. The result was the First Helvetic
Confession (see Helvetic CoNFESsioNa), framed at
Basel in 1536, Bullinger being one of its authors.
Meanwhile Butzer had framed the Wittenberg CJon-
cord (q.v.), which was accepted by the cities of Upper
Germany, but was opposed by Bullinger in Zurich
and rejected by Bern. The Swiss responded with
an elucidation of the Helvetic Confession prepared
by Bullinger and addressed directly to Luther
^ (Nov., 1536), seeldng the middle way between
transubstantiation and the concept of a mere
memorial meal. The reply was conciliatory, but
the peace was soon broken by Luther, who bitterly
attacked the Zwinglian doctrines of the Lord's
Supper in 1544. Bullinger replied in the Zurich
Confession of 1545, and, though no understanding
was reached between the Swiss and the Lutheran
churches, the French and German sections of the
Swiss Church were drawn together all
7* The Hel- the closer, a matter which was the
vetic and more momentous since the Reformed
Zurich had foimd a second center in Geneva,
Confessions thus giving rise to the danger of a
and the schism like that headed by Luther
Consensus and Melanchthon in Germany. The
Tigurinus. peril was averted, however, by the
Consensus Tigurinus, which was qui-
etly prepared by Bullinger and Calvin in 1549 and
which was in complete harmony with the previous
views of Bullinger on the Lord's Supper, while it
emphasized the divine work of grace, though it
restricted it to the elect. In his later years he was
involved in a controversy with Brenz, who defended
the doctrine of the ubiquity of the sacraments
but reached no definite conclusion. The views
concerning the Lord's Supper were closely con-
nected with the doctrine of predestination. While
still in Kappel, Bullinger had maintained that free
will was incompatible with the foreknowledge
of God, but later he was gradually led to accept
the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, his views
finding their ultimate expression in the famous
Second Helvetic Confession, which he prepared
in consultation with his friend Peter Martyr to
serve as a posthumous testimony of his own belief
and that of his church. It was published, how-
ever, in 1566, when Frederic III., who was accused
of Calvinism, wished to defend himself before the
Diet of Augsburg. At his request Bullinger sent
him the confession, which he printed
8. His Part and which was accepted not only by all
in the Swiss chiurches with the exception
Second of Basel, but also by the Reformed
Helvetic in France, Scotland, and Hungary
Confession, and highly praised in (jermany, Eng-
land, and Holland. It was, strictly
speaking, the bond uniting the scattered members
of the Evangelical-Reformed churches.
In the controversies concerning the relation of
Church and State, Bullinger regarded the two as
united, Christian citizens forming both Church and
State, and temporal officials being likewise the serv-
ants of Gkxi. The chief duty of the Church was
the imrestricted preaching of the word, and the
power of admonishing the authorities, when neces-
sary, of their obligations. Neither Church nor
State, however, should interfere in
9. Views on each other's affairs. External admin-
the Rela- istration of the property of the Church,
tion of on the other hand, was to be left to
Church the State, which was also to execute
and State, ecclesiastical pimishments. With this
was closely connected his attitude
toward heretics. While in his earlier career he
had expressed the utmost tolerance, he later reached
the conclusion that preaching and writing against
BulUnirer
Buntinff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
302
nercsy must be supplemented by state punish-
ment. Roused by Anabaptism, he urged in 1535
that no heretics should be admitted to the city
and that; if all efforts at conversion proved fruitless,
they should be punished by the secidar arm, though
with due consideration of the circumstances of
each individual case. This position did not ex-
clude capital punishment, and while Bullinger
did not avail himself of it in the case of the Ana-
baptists, it is easy to see how he could ooimsel the
execution of Servetus and the exile of Ochino.
The years 1564-65 were marked with sorrow for
Bullinger, who lost many of his relatives and
closest friends by death, and was himself so seri-
ously ill with the plague that his life wbb despaired
of. Even after his apparent recovery his health was
shattered, and his sufferings from calculi increased
imtil he was repeatedly near death. His last
sermon was delivered on Whitsuntide, 1575, and
four months later he died.
Bullinger's works are extraordinarily niunerous
but have never been published in collected form
and some are extant only in manuscript. The
catalogue of the municipal library of Zurich lists
about 100 separate works, and thia number is
raised to 150 by J. J. Scheuchzer. Especially
noteworthy are his Latin expositions of all the books
of the New Testament with the exception of the
Apocalypse, which were prepared up to 1548,
when their place was taken by collections of ser-
mons, the majority also in Latin, comprising 100
on the Apocalypse, sixty-six on Daniel, 170 on
Jeremiah, and 190 on Isaiah. His sermons on the
decalogue, the Apostles' Creed, the sacraments,
etc., were highly esteemed and published under
the title, Sermonum decades quinque
10. The (Zurich, 1557; translated into Dutch
Works of and French; Eng. transl., The Decades,
Bullinger. London, 1 577, ed. for the Parker So-
ciety by T. Harding, Cambridge, 184^
1851 ). Among his theological works special mention
may be made of his De pravidentia (Zurich, 1553);
De ffratia Dei justificarUe, and De scriptura sancta
auctoritaie et certitxidine deque episcaporum institu-
Hone et functione (1538, Eng. transl., Woorthynesse,
authoriiiey and sufficiencie of the holy Scripture, Lon-
don, 1579). He was likewise the author of a drama
on Lucretia and Brutus and of a hymn beginning:
" O holy (jrod, have mercy nowi " Bullinger also
wrote a chronicle and description of Kappel, and
later prepared a similar work entitled Antiquitates
aliquot ecdesicB TigurincB, which is preserved in
manuscript in the municipal library. An important
source for the history of the Anabaptists is found
in his Der Wiedertaufem Ursprung, Furgang, Sekten
(Zurich, 1560), but his chief historical work was his
detailed chronicle of the Swiss, the most valuable
part being the history of the Reformation up to
1532 (ed. J. J. Hottinger and H. H. V5geli, 6 vols.,
Frauenfeld, 1838-tO). (Emil Eoli.)
Bibuographt: Sources: Bullinger'g autobiography was
printed in MiaetUanea Tiowrini, iii. 1-171, Zurich, 1722;
valuable also is his ReformtUiimMgeachiehte, 3 vols., Frau-
enfeld, 1838-40. Other early sources are: J. W. Stucki,
Oratio funebria, Zurich, 1575; J. Simmler, De ortu, vita,
€t obitu Heinrici BuUin{/eri, ib. 1575; Arehiv fUr die
§diiweigeriech€ ReformationaoeschuJite, vol. i., Solothum,
1868. For his life consult: J. F. Frans, Merkwitdige Zugt
au$ dem Leben dee ... H. BulUfHfer, Bern. 1828; S.
Hess, Lebeneoeediichte BuUingere, 2 vols., Zurich. 182^
1829; G. Friedl&nder, BeitrOife mw ReformaHan^feeekidUt,
Sammlung unifedruckter Briefe dee BuUinoer, Beriin, 1837;
C. Pestaloszi. Heinrich BuUinoer, Elberfeld, 1858; R.
Christoffel, H. BuUinger und eeine GaiUn, Zurich, 1875;
G. R. Zimmermann, Die Zureher KircKe und lArr Abt
lutes, ib. 1877; SchafT. CKrietian Churtk, vii. 206-214,
614, 618; Moeller, Chrietian Church, vol. iii. ]
BUNBURY, THOMAS: Protestant bishop of
Limerick; b. at Shandnim, County Cork, in the
year 1832. He was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin (B.A., 1852), and was ordered deacon
1854, and priest in the following year. He wis
curate of Clonfert, County Galway (1855-58), and
of Mallow, County Cork (1858-63), rector of
Croom, County Limerick (1863-72), rector of St,
Mary's, Limerick, as well as dean of Limerick
(1872-99). From 1895 to 1899 he was also chap-
lain to the bishop of Limerick, and in the latter
year was himself consecrated to that see.
BUND, EVANGELISCHER ("Evangelical Un-
ion'*): An alliance of Gennan Protestants for
maintaining Protestant interests in Germany.
The occasion of the formation was the modern
aggressions of the papacy (leading to the Kultur-
kampf) and the arrogance of Ultramontanism, the
dream of which is to reestablish Catholicism in
Germany. Its foimder was Prof. W. Beyschlag
of Halle who, finding others interested in the
scheme, called a preliminary meeting at Erfurt,
October 5, 1886, which was attended by seventy
men representing different types of Protestant
theology. After a thorough discussion, an organ-
ization was effected imder the presidency of Count
von Wintzingerode-Bodenstein. The confessional
basis of the alliance is: " Belief in Jesus Christ,
the only begotten Son of God, as the only mediator
of salvation, and adherence to the principles of the
Reformation." In the beginning of the year 18S7
a circular containing 243 names was sent out, and
when the alliance held its first annual meeting in
Frankfort, August 15^17, 1887, 10,000 members
were reported. The ecclesiastical authorities, who
were at first indifferent, soon perceived the great
importance of the Btmd and expressed their ap-
proval of the puiposes of the idlianoe, which in
various ways has developed a great activity in
opposition to the Roman propaganda. In public
lectures the burning religious questions of the day
are treated with the intention of sharpening and
strengthening the Protestant consciousness. As
the Btmd has its own publication house at Leipsic,
it publishes not only a monthly in behalf of Protes-
tant interests, but also pamphlets intended to ex-
pose and to refute the claims of Ultramontanism
and to repel attacks, especially directed against
the memory and work of Luther and Gustavus
Adolphus. The Btmd has also the practical end
of affording material help to weak institutions in
the " Diaspora." The effect of the Bund is felt
by the Ultramontanes, and their attacks upon it
only show its necessity. (W. BEYBCHLAof.)
Biblioorapht: G. Wameck, Der evainfeliaehe Bund ufd
eeine Oegner, Leipeic, 1880; H. Meyer-Hermutnii. Der
Kampf dee evangeliedten Bundee gegen Rom und mix
Wirkeamkeit in der evanifeii»€hen Kircke, Barmen, 1S90;
303
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bullix^er
BnntinflT
Nippold, Zide und Vorgeadiichte dea evangeliachen Bundes,
1890; L. Witte, Der evartoeliache Bund, «rtn guteM Recht
ufid tin gethanea Werk, Barmen, 1896; Blankmeister. Dob
Reidi mttta uim dodi bieiAen, Leipnic, 1896; also the pam-
I>hlet8 published by the Bund.
BUNGEWER, bQn"je-nd' (LAURENT LOUIS),
FELIX: Swiss Protestant; b. at Marseilles Sept.
14, 1814; d. in Geneva June 14, 1874, He was
graduated B.L. at Marseilles, 1832, B.S. at Geneva,
1834, studied theology at Geneva and was grad-
uated at Strasburg, 1838; ordained in Geneva,
1839, and lived there as teacher, writer, and occa-
sional preacher. His books and articles were very
numerous and exerted a wide influence, especially
those of a controversial character against the Church
of Rome. From 1849 till his death he was one
of the editors of £trenne8 reliffieuses, an annual
chronicle of religious events, particularly those
connected with Geneva. His more noteworthy
books were: Un sermon sous Louis XIV (Paris,
1843; Eng. transl., The Preacher and the King,
or Bourdaloue in the Court of Louis XIV, London
and Boston, 1853); Histoire du concile de Trente (2
vols., 1847; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1852; by J. Mc-
Clintock, New York, 1855); Trois sermons sous Louis
XV (3 vols., Paris, 1849; Eng. transl.. The Priest
and the Huguenots, or Persecution in the Age of Louis
XV, 2 vols,, London, 1853); Voltaire et son temps
(2vols.,1850; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1854); Julien
oulafin d*un sikcle (4 vols., Paris, 1854; Eng. transl.,
London, 1854); Chnst et lesUde (Paris, 1856); Rome
et la Bible (1858); Calvin, sa vie, son cnivre et ses
Merits (1862; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1863); Trois
jours de la vie d*unp^e, written Biter the death of his
two years old daughter (Paris, 1863; Eng. transl.,
Edinburgh, 1864, New York, 1867); Lincoln, sa vie,
son cntvre et sa mort (Lausanne, 1865); Saint Paul,
sa vie, ses ceuvres et ses &pUres (Paris, 1867; Eng.
transl,, London, 1870); Pape et concile au xix.
sihcle (Paris, 1870; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1870).
A volume of '* Sermons " was published after his
death (1875).
Bibuographt: Jean Gaberel, in 6brenne reliffieuae for 1875;
Henri Gambier, Fflix Bungener, Geneva, 1891.
BimSEN, bun'zen, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS:
Baron; German scholar and diplomat; b. at Kor-
bach (28 m. s.w. of Cassel) Aug. 25, 1791; d. at
Bonn Nov. 28, 1860. He studied theology and
philology in Marburg and Gftttingen (1808-13).
Resigning his hopes of joumejring to India, Bunsen
followed his friend Brandis to Rome in 1816,
first as secretary to the Russian embassy, over
which Niebuhr presided. Two years later he
succeeded Brandis in the diplomatic service, and
represented Prussia at Rome (where he became a
close friend of Tholuck and Rot he) from 1823 to
1839, In the latter year he was sent as minister
to Bern, and in 1841 to London as minister plenipo-
tentiary and envoy extraordinary of his Majesty
Frederick William IV. at the Court of St. James.
In 1854 he returned to Germany and was ennobled
by the king of Prussia. In the same year he
retired to Heidelberg, devoting himself to literary
pursuits. Shortly before his death he moved to
Bonn, where he continued his studies imtil the last.
Bunsen's influence and position enabled him to
assist not only scholars like Birch, Cureton,
Max MtiUer, Richard Lepsius, and Hoffmann, but
also to found institutions, like the German hos-
pitals in Rome and London, and the archeological
institute at Rome. He helped to establish the
Anglo-Prussian bishopric at Jerusalem (see Jerusa-
lem, Anglican-German Bishopric in) as a basis
of a larger imion between the German evangelical
and the Anglican churches. A complete Ust of
his writings would include contributions to Roman
and Egyptian Antiquities, as well as to politics,
liturgy, and hjrmnology. His chief works of theo-
logical interest are as follows: Ignatius von Anti-
ochien utuI seine Zeit (Hamburg, 1847); Hippolytus
and his Age (4 vols., London, 1851), which, together
with his Analecta Ante-Niccena and Outlines of
the Philosophy of Universal History as Applied to
Language and Religion, form his great work Chris-
tianity and Mankind (7 vols., 1854), for which many
scholars wrote contributions. Soon after his return
to Germany he published Die Zeichen der Zeit
(2 vols., Leipsic, 1855; Eng. transl.. Signs of the
Times, London, 1856), in which he assailed the
anarchy existing in political, reUgious, and intellec-
tual life, advocating toleration and liberty of con-
science, and op]>osing the sophistical and fanatical
doctrines of Stahl and Ketteler. Another work
which involved Bunsen in controversy was his
Gott in der Geschichte, oder der FortschriU des Glaur-
bens an eine sittliche WeUordnung (3 vols., 1857-58;
Eng. transl., God in History, 3 vols., London,
1868-70), but his most important book was his
VoUstandiges Bibelwerk fUr die Gemeinde (9 vols,,
1858-70). Bunsen lived to see the publication of
vols, i., ii., and v.; after his death Adolf Kamp-
hausen, continued the work with the help of
Johannes Bleek, H. Holtzmaim, and others; the
work gave a marked impetus to the revision of
Luther's Bible version, and was diligently consulted
by the German revisers. A. Kamphausen.
Bibliography: The chief work on Bunsen's life is by hia
widow, Memoir of Baron C. C. J. Bunaen, 2 vols.. Lon-
don, 1868-60, tranfllated and enlarged by Nippold. 3
vols., Leipsic, 1868-71. Ck>nsult also A. J. C. Hare, Life
and LeUera of BaroneM Bunaen, London, 1878, Germ,
transl. by F. A. Perthes. Gotha, 1885. Both works have
had a lai^e circulation on both aides of the Atlantic.
BUNTING, JABEZ: The "second founder of
Methodism "; b. at Manchester May 13, 1779;
d. in London June 16, 1858. He received a good
school education in Manchester, and began to
preach at the age of nineteen; was stationed first
in Manchester, then at Macclesfield (1801), London
(1803), Manchester (1805), Sheffield (1807), Liver-
pool (1809), Halifax (1811), Leeds (1813), London
(1815), Manchester (1824), Liverpool (1830); from
1833 he lived in London and filled the most im-
portant positions at the denominational head-
quarters. He was one of the founders of the
Wesleyan Missionary Society and its secretary
for eighteen years; was first president of the Wes-
leyan Missionary Institute in London, from 1835
till his death; was president of the conference in
1820, 1828, 1836, and 1844. He perfected the
Methodist organization, and it was his influence
which gave steadily increasing powers to laymen.
He edited the seventh edition of Cruden*s Concord-
ance (Liverpool, 1815) and Memoirs of the Early
Biinyan
Burgas
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
304
Life of William Cawper (1816). Two volumes of
BermoDB, edited by his eldest son, W. M. Bunting,
appeared posthumously (1861-^2).
Biblxoorapht: His Life was written by T. P. Bunting
(brother of W. M. Bunting, above), vol. i., London, 1850,
▼ol. ii., completed by O. 8. Rowe, 1887. Consult alM>
DNBt viL 273-275, where other literature is given.
BUIVYAN, JOHN: "The immortal dreamer of
Bedford jail;" b. at Harrowden (1 m. s.e. of Bedford),
in the parish of Elstow, christened Nov. 30, 1628;
d. in London Aug. 31, 1688. He had very little
schooling, followed his father in the tinker's trade,
was in the parliamentary army, 1644r47; married
in 1649; lived in Elstow till 1655, when his wife
died and he moved to Bedford. He married again
1659. He was received into the Baptist church
in Bedford by immersion in the Ouse, 1653. In
1655 he became a deacon and began preaching
with marked success from the start. In 1658 he
was indicted for preaching without a license; kept
on, however, and did not suffer imprisonment till
Nov., 1660, when he was taken to the coimty jail
in Silver Street, Bedford, and there confined, with
the exception of a few weeks in 1666, till Jan., 1672.
In that month he became pastor of the Bedford
church. In March, 1675 (the original warrant, dis-
covered in 1887, is published in facsimile by Rush
and Warwick, London), he was again imprisoned
for preaching and this time in the Bedford town
jail on the stone bridge over the Ouse. In six
months he was free and was not again molested
In Aug., 1688, on his way to London he caught a
severe cold from being wet, and died at the house
of a friend on Snow Hill.
All the world knows that Bunyan wrote The
Pilgrim's Progress, in two parts, of which the first
appeared at London in 1678, and was, at all events,
begun during his imprisonment in 1676; the second
in 1684. The earliest edition in which the two
parts were combined in one volume was in 1728.
A third part falsely attributed to Bunyan appeared
in 1693, and was reprinted as late as 1852. The
Pilgrim's Progress is the most successful allegoiy
ever written, and like the Bible is adapted to man
in every clime. It is indeed commonly translated
by Protestant missionaries after the Bible. It is
thus read in all literary languages and is a world-
classic. Two other works of Bimyan's would have
given him fame, but not as wide as that he now
enjoys; viz.. The Life and Death of Mr, Badman
(1680), an imaginary biography, and the allegory
The Holy War (1682). The book which lays bare
Bunyan's iimer life and reveals his preparation
for his appointed work is Grace Abounding to the
chief of sinners (1666). It is very prolix, and being
all about himself, in a man less holy would be in-
tolerably egotistic, but his motive in writing being
plainly to exalt the grace of God and to comfort those
passing through experiences somewhat like his own,
his egotism makes no disagreeable impression.
The works just named have appeared in ntmier-
ous editions, and are accessible to all. There are
several noteworthy collections of editions of the
Pilgrim's Progress, e.g., in the British Museum,
and in the New York Public Library, collected by
the late James Lenox.
Bunyan was a popular preacher as well as a \TTr
voluminous author, though most of his works
consist of expanded sermons. In theology he was
a Puritan, but not a partisan; nor was there
anything gloomy about him. The portrait which
his friend Robert White drew, which has been
often reproduced, is a most attractive one and this
was his true character. He was tall, had reddish
hair, prominent nose, a rather large mouth, and
sparkling eyes. He was no scholar, except of the
English Bible, but that he knew thorou^y.
Another book which greatly influenced him was
Martin Luther's Commentary on the Epistle to the
GalaHans, in the translation of 1575.
[Some time before his final release from prison
Bunyan became involved in a controversy with
Kilfin, D' An vers, Deune, Paul, and others. In
1673 he published his i)t)7erence« in Judgement ahout
Water-Baptism no Bar to Communion, in which he
took the ground that "the Church of Christ hath
not warrant to keep out of the conmaunion the
Christian that is discovered to be a visible saint of
the word, the Christian that walketh according to
his own light with God." While he owned ** water-
baptism to be God's ordinance," he refused to
make " an idol of it," as he thought those did who
made the lack of it a ground for disfellowahiping
those recognized as genuine Christians. Kiffin and
Paul published a rejoinder in Serious Reflections
(London, 1673), in which they ably set forth the
argument in favor of the restriction of the Lord's
Supper to baptized believers, and received the ap-
proval of Henry D'Anvers in his Treatise of Bap-
tism (London, 1674). The result of the contro-
versy was to leave the question of communion with
the unbaptized an open one so far as the Partic-
ular (Calvinistic) Baptists were concerned. Bun-
yan's church admitted pedobaptists to fellowship
and finally became pedobaptist (Congregational-
ist). A. H. N.]
BiBLioaRAPRT: The best edition of Bunyan's Complele
Work9 is by G. Offor and R. Philip. 3 vols.. London. 1853.
new ed., 1862. The best bioKn4>hy is by John Brown.
London, 1885, new ed., 1902, the author of which was
for many years the minister of the Bimyan chapel at Bed-
ford. Other good biographies are: J. A. Froude. in Efii^itk
Men of Letter; 1887; E. Venables, in Great WriUre Seriee,
1888; and W. H. White, in Literary Livee Series, 1004.
BURCHARD OF WORMS: Bishop of Wonns;
d. Aug. 20, 1025. He was a Hessian by birth, and
was educated at Coblenz and under the famous
Olbert in the Flemish monastery of Laubach.
Willigis of Mains ordained him, and employed him
in a number of important afifairs. Otto III. gave
him the bishopric of Worms (1000), which had fallen
into a bad condition. He improved the city in
many ways; established the episcopal power more
firmly and even increased it; demolished the fort-
ress of Duke Otto and built a monafitery with the
stones from it, placing over the door the inscription
06 libertatem civitatis. In 1014 Henry II. gave
him secular jurisdiction over the inhabitants, which
he used to promote uniformity and security of
law. He rebuilt the cathedrsd, consecrating it
in 1016; but his fame rests chiefly on his collection
of canon law, which had a very wide circulation
not only in Germany but in Italy. (A. Hauck.)
805
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnnyan
Burffes
Bibuoorapht: The Deerttofrum libri viginH are in MPL,
cxl. Msteriab for a life are in Lex familia WomuUiennM
ecdcBia, MOH, Legum, lection iy.. ConaUtutionM et ada^
ed. L. Weiland« i. (1893) 039, no. 438; and the anony-
mous Fita, ed. G. H. Perti in MGH, Script, iv. (1841)
82Q-«46, and MPL, cxl. 607-636. Consult: Hauok.
KD, iu. 436; H. O. Gentler. Daa Hofrtcht de* Bwrckard
von Womu, Erlangen, 1869; A. M. Kfinicer, Burchard /.
von Worms, Munich, 1903.
BURCHARD OF WURZBURG: Bishop of Wflrz-
burg 741-754. He was an Anglo-Saxon who left
England after the death of his kinsfolk and joined
Boniface in his missionary labors, some time after
732. When Boniface organized bishoprics in
Middle Germany, he placed Burchard over that of
WQrzburg; his consecration can not have occurred
later than the summer of 741, since in the autumn
of that year we find him officiating as a bishop at
the consecration of Willibald of Eichst&dt. Pope
Zacharias confirmed the new bishopric in 743.
Burchard appears again as a member of the first
German council in 742, and as an envoy to Rome
from Boniface in 748. With Fulrad of Saint-Denis,
he brought to Zacharias the famous question of
Pepin, whose answer was supposed to justify the
assumption of regal power by the Merovingians.
(A. Hauck.)
Bibuoorapht: Two anonsrmous lives, one of the ninth or
tenth, the other of the twelfth century, ed. Holder-Egger,
are in MOH, Script., xv. (1887) 47-62. Consult: A.
NOmberger, Aus der liUerariachen Hinterlanenschajt de»
. . . Burehardua, Neisse. 1888; Rettberg. KD, ii. 313;
Hauck, KD, i. 487 and passim; Neander, Chrittian
Church, iy. 203.
BURDBR, GEORGE: English Congregational-
ist; b. in London Jime 5, 1752; d. there May 29,
1832. He was trained for an artist, but began
preaching under the influence of White field and
his associates; became minister at Lancaster, 1778;
Coventry, 1783; Fetter Lane, London, 1803. He
was one of the foimders of the London Missionary
Society (1795), of the Religious Tract Society
(1799), and of the British and Foreign Bible Society
(1804), and from 1803 to 1827 served gratuitously
as secretary of the first-named, besides editing
The Evangelical Magazine for many years. The
most successful of his many publications were
Village Sermone (7 vols., London, 1798-1816), and
A Collection of Hymne, Intended as a Supplement
to Watte (1784), which went through some fifty
editions and contained three or four hymns of his
own.
Bibuoorafht: There are Memoira by his son, H. F. Burder,
London, 1833. and by I. (bobbin, 1856. Consult alao
DNB^ vii. 2M-2Q6. and for his hjrmns, 8. W. Duffield,
Enoliah Hymna, pp. 121, 608, New York, 1886; JulUn.
Hvnnolon, p. 194.
BURDmUS, MAURITIUS. See Gregory VIII.,
Antipope.
BUROER, KARL HEUnaCH AUGUST VON:
German theologian; b. at Baireuth (126 m. n. of
Munich) May 1, 1805; d. at SchOnau (a village
near Berchtesgaden, 12 m. s. of Salzburg) July 14,
1885. He studied theology and philology at the
University of Erlangen (1823-27), and in 1827
was appointed teacher at the gymnasium there.
Eleven years later be became curate at FUrth
near Nuremberg, and in 1846 he was transferred
n.— 20
in the same capacity to Munich, where he was
appointed dean in 1849 and councilor of the high
consistory in 1855, holding this office until bds
resignation in 1883. Under the guidance of his
father-in-law, Johann Christian Krafft, of Erlangen,
he gained a thorough knowledge of the Bible which
was evinced by his Die Brief e Pauli an die Korinther
(2 vols., Erlangen, 1859-60); Die Evangelien nach
Matihdite, Marcus und Lucas (NOrdlingen, 1865);
Das Evangelium nach Johannes (1868); and Die
Offenharung St. Johannis (Munich, 1877). Inter-
preting the Bible by the Bible, he sought to render
his work available for the educated laity, while
clergymen also find it valuable in the preparation
of sermons. His interpretation of Revelation has
met with special favor in WUrttemberg. While
his sermons were not couched in popular style,
and while they demanded close attention on ac-
count of their logic and depth, they appealed
effectually to serious auditors, and two collections
of them were published, Predigten in der protestan-
tischen Stadtpfarrkirche zu Munchen gehalten (Er-
langen, 1857) and Predigten fUr alle Sonn- und
FesUage des Kirchenjahres (2 vols., N6rdlingen,
1864). As a member of the high consistory, Burger
aided the Bavarian Church to surmount rationalism
and to become a true evangelical Lutheran body,
and his task was facilitated by his thorough knowl-
edge of philosophy, history, and theology, as well
as by his tact and discretion. Despite his reserved
and quiet nature, which shunned all publicity, he
enjoyed the deep esteem and gratitude of the dergy
and their congregations, as well as the confidence
of the three kings of Bavaria imder whom he served,
Louis I., Maximilian II., and Louis II.
Karl BrrROERf.
BUR6ES, btJr'jes, CORNELIUS: Presbyterian; b.
in Somersetshire (date undetermined, probably 1589);
d. at Watford (7 m. s.w. of St. Albans), buried there
June 9, 1665. He was educated at Oxford in
Wadham and other colleges; was vicar of Watford
(1613-15), also (1626-41) lector of St. Magnus
Church in London, holding the two charges at the
same time. On the accession of Charles I. (1625),
he was appointed one of the chaplains in ordinary.
He was appointed a member of the Westminster
Assembly in 1643. July 8 he was chosen by them
assessor with Dr. White, and generally occupied
the chair on account of the illness of Dr. Twisse.
He was chairman of the first of the three grand
committees of the Assembly, and one of the most
energetic members of the body, being active espe-
cially in the discussion of Church Government and
the Directory for Worship. He was energetic in
political as well as ecclesiastical affairs. On the
Restoration his handsome property was confiscated,
and he died in want. His chief works are : A Chain of
Graces Drawn out at Length for Reformation of Man-
ners (London, 1622) ; The Fire of the Sanctuary newly
Discovered or a Compleat Tract of Zeal (1625) ; and
Baptismal Regeneration of Elect Infants (Oxford,
1629). Inthelatter he maintains: "It is most agree-
able to the Institution of Christ that all elect infants
that are baptized (unless in some extraordinary cases
doe, ordinarily, receive, from Christ, the Spirit in
Bnrffeoa
Buxlkl
THE NEW 8CHAFF.HERZ0G
306
Baptism, for their first solemn initiation into
Christ, and for their future actual renovation, in
God s good time, if they live to yeares of discretion,
and enjoy the ordinary means of grace appointed
of God to this end." He delivered a large num-
ber of sermons before Parliament and other civil
bodies, which were published from time to time.
He is credited also with the paper subscribed by
the London ministers, entitled A VindicaHon of
the ministers of the Gospel in and about London
from the unjust Aspersions cast upon their former
Actings for the Parliamentf as if they had promoted
the Bringing of the King to Capital Punishmenty
London, 1648. C. A. Brigos.
Bibuoobaprt: A. k Wood, Athena Oxonienaet, ed. P.
Blias. iii. 681; D. Neal. Hiatory of the Piuritana, ii. 365.
868. iv. 332. Dublin, 1759; DNB, vii. 301-304 (quite
detailed).
BURGESS, AHTHORY: Non-conformist clergy-
man. He entered St. John's College, Cambridge,
in 1623 and became fellow of Emmanuel; was vicar
of Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, in 1635; mem-
ber of the Westminster Assembly; ejected by the
Uniformity Act of 1662 after the Restoration, and
lived afterward in retirement at Tamworth (14
m. n.w. of Birmingham). He wrote: VindicieB
Legis (London, 1646); The True Doctrine of Justi-
fication Asserted (1648); Spiritual Refining, 120
sermons (1652; 2d ed., 161 sermons, 1658); Ex-
pository Sermons (145) on John xvii. (1656); The
Scripture Directory (a commentary on I Corinthians
iii.), to which is Annexed the Godly and Natural
Man's Choice, upon Psahn iv. 6-^ (1659); The
Doctrine of Original Sin Asserted (1659).
BURGESS, DANIEL: English Presbyterian; b.
at Staines (15 m. w.8.w. of London), Middlesex,
1645; d. in London Jan. 26, 1713. He studied at
Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but would not conform and
so did not graduate; went to Ireland in 1667 with
Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, and became master
of a school founded by his patron at Charleville,
Coimty Cork; was ordained by the Dublin pres-
bytery; in 1685 he settled in London, where he
gained influential friends and preached to a large
congregation attracted by his lively and witty style.
Besides preaching he took pupils and was tutor to
Heniy St. John (Lord Bolingbroke). His publi-
cations were numerous, mostly sermons; they in-
clude: Directions for Daily Holy Living (London,
1690); The Golden Snuffers ; or Christian Reprovers
and Reformers Characterized, Cautioned, and En-
couraged (1697); Proof of God's Being and of the
Scriptures* Divine Original, with Twenty Directions
for Reading them (1697).
BURGESS, FREDERICK: Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Long Island; b. at Providence, R. I.,
Oct. 6, 1853. He was educated at Brown Univer-
sity (B.A., 1873), the General Theological Seminary
(1874-75), and Oxford University (1876), and was
successively rector of Grace Church, Amherst,
Mass. (1878-83), Christ Church, Pomfret, Conn.
(1883-89), Grace Church, Bala, Pa. (1889-96),
Christ Church, Detroit (1896-98), and Grace Church,
Brooklyn (1898-1902). In 1902 he was conse-
crated bishop of Long Island.
BURGESS, GEORGE: First Protestant Epbtr^
pal bishop of Maine; b. at Providence, R. I., Ort
31, 1809; d. at sea while returning from the Woi
Indies Apr. 23, 1866. He was graduated at Brovn
1826; tutor there 1829-31; studied at Bonn, Got-
tingen, and Berlin 1831-34; was rector of Chik
Church, Hartford, 1834—17; consecrated bsb^
Oct. 31, 1847. He published a translation of the
Psalms into English verse (New York, 1M> \
Pages from the Ecclesiastical History of Xnt £n^
land between 17^0 and I84O (Boston, 1847), anJ
other works.
Biblioorapht: Memoir of Life of Rev. Geo. Burgeae, by bb
brother. A. BurgeaB, Philadelphia, ISO).
BURGESS, HEIIRT : Church of En^and clergy-
man and scholar; b. in Newington, London. Jan.
29, 1808; d. Feb. 10, 1886. He studied at the
Dissenting College, Stepney; after graduation (l83>Ji
was for a time a Baptist minister, but dee-
ded to join the Church of Elngland in 1849, was
ordained deacon 1850, and priest 1851; became
curate at Blackburn 1851; perpetual curate of
Clifton Reynes, Buckinghamshire, 1854; vicar of
St. Andrew, Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire, 1S61.
His principal Works were translations from the
Syriac of the Festal Letters of St. Athanasius (Lon-
don, 1852) and of Select Metrical Hymns and
Homilies of Ephraem Syrus, with an introduction
and historical and philological notes (1853): The
Reformed Church of England in its Principles and
their Legitimate Development (1869); Essays, Bib-
lical and Ecclesiastical, relating chiefly to the author-
ity and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures (1873 1;
The Art of Preaching and *the Composition of
Sermons (1881). He edited The Clerical Journal
1854-68. The Journal of Sacred LUerature 1854^-62.
and the second edition of Kitto's Cydopcedia of
Biblical Literature (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1856).
BURGHERS AUD AirnBURGHERS. SeePass-
BTTERIAN8.
BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM : Church of En^and
scholar; b. at Smyrna (the son of a Turkey mer-
chant) Aug. 21, 1813; d. at Chichester Aug. 4.
1888. He studied at Ix>ndon University (Univer-
sity College) 1829-30 and then entered his fathers
counting-house; matriculated at Worcester CoUege,
Oxford, 1841, and was graduated BA., 18io;
elected fellow of Oriel 1846, graduated H.A.. 1848,
B.D., 1871; ordained deacon 1848 and held cura-
cies in Berkshire and Oxfordshire; became vicar
of St. Mary's Oxford, 1863; Gresham professor
of divinity 1867; was installed dean of Chichester
1876. He has been described as " a High-church-
man of the old school," and he won distinction at
Oxford as a vehement " champion of lost causes
and impossible beliefs." He was the ablest and
most learned as well as the bitterest adverse critic
of the Revised New Testament and of the rexised
Greek text. His publications, including sermons,
articles in the periodicals, and controversial tracts
were very numerous; among the most noteworthy
of his books were : The Life and Times of Sir Thomas
Gresham (2 vols., London, 1839); A Plain Com-
mentary on the Four Holy Gospels (8 vc^.. 1855);
Ninety Short Sermons for Family Reading (2 series,
307
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BtumsB
Bunal
each 2 vols., 1855, 1867); Historical Notices of the
Colleges of Oxford (1857); Portrait of a Christian
Gentleman, a Memoir of P. F. Tytler (1859); In-
spiration and Interpretation, seven sermons in
answer to Essays and Reviews (Oxford, 1861);
The Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel according to
St, Mark Vindicated and Established (1871); The
Reinsion Revised, articles reprinted from The
Quarterly Review against the Revised Version of
the New Testament (London, 1883); The Lives of
Twelve Good Men (2 vols., 1888). The TradUional
Text of the Holy Gospels Vindicated and Established
and Cattses of the Corruption of the Traditional
Text, edited by Edward Miller, appeared in 1896.
BiBLiooRAPHT! E. M. Goulbum, John W. Burgoti: a Bi-
offraphy, vfith Letter* and JourruUa, 2 voIb., London, 1891;
DNB, supplement vol. i. 335-338.
BURGUNDIANS: A Germanic race, akin to the
Goths and Vandals, whose earUest known home
was on the Baltic between the Oder and the Vistula.
In the middle of the second century they had begun
to move southward; in the middle of the third
they were driven further to the southwest, and
occupied what is now Franconia, north and east of
Lyons. With their neighbors on the southwest,
the Alemanni, they had many conflicts, and siun-
moned the aid of the Romans; they are found co-
operating on the Rhine with Valentinian I. against
them in 370. Next they occupied the right bank
of the river, and the Vandal invasion of Gaul in
the fifth century carried them across with it, to
receive an allotment of land in Germania prima,
a province of Gaul, in 413, and become subject to
the empire. By this time they had adopted the
religion of their Roman neighbors, probably almost
in a body. Peaceful relations with the Romans
did not last long, however. In 435 King Gundicar
attacked the first Belgian province, but was driven
back by A§tius. A year later they were again
defeated by the Huns, acting with the Romans,
and lost their king and much of their power. But
they must have recovered before many years, for
in 457, with the consent of the West-Goths, they
occupied the province Lugdunensis prima; in the
following decade they extended their rule over the
Provincia Viennensis; and about 472 they added
the greater part of the Maxima Sequanorum. After
Gimdicar's death, his sons Gimduic and Chilperic I.
shared the kingship, and the latter reigned alone
after his brother's death. Gunduic's son, Gundo-
bad, succeeded Chilperic; he had three brothers,
Godegisel, Chilperic II., and Godomar. Godegisel
appears as a partaker of his sovereignty; Chilperic
was said to have been put to death by his order,
but this Lb not certain, as Avitus speaks of Chil-
peric's death and Godomar's (which happened
early in his reign) as a great blow to him. Gun-
dobad was succeeded by his son Sigismund, who
was captured by the Prankish kings in 523 and
put to death in the next year. His brother Godo-
mar II. maintained himself against the Franks
for ten years; but he also succumbed, and in 534
the Burgundian territory became part of the Frank-
ish kingdom.
The religious development of the Burgundians
during the progress of these events is peculiar.
They had come from the Rhine to the Rhone as
Catholic Christians; but most of them joined the
Arians in their new home. The royal house seems
to have been slow to change; Gunduic and Chil-
peric II. were Catholics; but Gregory of Tours
mentions Gundobad, with his brother Godegisel,
as Arians. The change to Arianism seems to have
followed from the feudal relations of the Burgun-
dians to their more powerful West-Gothic neighbors.
Gundobad was not a persecutor, though some
churches were taken from the Catholics; Avitus
of Vienne seems even to have had hopes of his
conversion. But, though the bishop failed with
the father, he succeeded with the son; Sigismund
returned to the Church in his father's lifetime,
followed by many of the people. But not until
Gundobad's death did the decisive movement away
from Arianism occur. Sigismund's son Sigeric
followed his father's example, and Godomar had
become a Catholic even earlier. In 517 a s3mod
was held at Epao, the present Albo, south of Vienne
(see Epao, Synod of), the decrees of which plainly
show that Arianism was no longer dangerous, and
that the time for its total suppression was believed
to have come. Certainly it d[isappeared from that
time, though no exact date can be assigned. By
the union with the Frankish kingdom, the Burgun-
dian Church lost its independence and became
merely a part of the Frankish ecclesiastical organ-
ization. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliogbapht: Sources are to be found in MOH, Leoum,
section iii.. Concilia, vol. i.. ed. F. Maassen, 1893; MGH,
Leges, ed. O. H. Perts. vol. iii., 1863; Chronica Minora
BCBC. iv-vii, ed. T. Mommsen, in MOH, A%iet. ant., vols. ix.
(1892). xiii., part i. (1894); G. 8. A. Sidonius. Epi$tokarum
libri, Carmina, ed. C. Ltlttjohann, in MOH, Auct. ant.,
viii. (1887) 1-264; A. £. Aviti, Opera, ed. U. Pieper. in
MOH, Auct. ant., vii., part 2 (1883). (Consult: H. De-
riohsweiler, Geachickte der Burgunden, Milnster, 1863; A.
Jahn, Die Oeachichte der Bvrgundionen, 2 vols., Halle,
1874; P. Biilaand, Bibliographie hourguignonne, 2 vols.,
Dijon. 1885-88; L. M. J. Chaumont. Hietoire de Bour-
gogne, Lyons, 1887; Rettins. KD, vol. i.; HaucV. KD,
vol. i.; Neander, Chriatian Church, vols, iii., iv., Dasaim.
I. Hebrew.
Preparation for Burial (I 1).
Place (» 2).
Varieties of Graves (| 3).
BURIAL.
II. Christian.
Early Practise and Ceremonies
(SI).
The Greek Church (S 2).
The Medieval Church (| 3).
The Reformation Burial Serviee
(S4).
Modem Developments (| 6).
I. Hebrew: In all periods interment was the cus-
tomary Hebrew method of disposing of the dead.
I Sam. xxxi. 12 and Amos vi. 10, in spite of the
corrupt condition of the text, show that burning
was exceptional; indeed, incineration implied some-
thing discreditable to the dead and in ancient
custom and the priest-code was an intensification
of the death-penalty (Josh. vii. 25; Lev. xx. 14).
Aversion to incineration accompanied ancient
belief in the existence of a bond between soul and
body even after death. The spirits of the unburied
dead wandered restless on the earth, and in Sheol
their lot was pitiable, driven as they were into nooks
and comers (Ezek. xxii. 23). The grave con-
Burial
BnxldaB
THE NEW SCHAFF-HER20G
808
fined the soul to the body so as to give it repose
and save it from injuiy. Consequently it was not
merely an awful disgrace but a terrible misfortime
not to be buried (I Kings xiv. 11; II Kings ix.
10; Isa. zxxiii. 12). Hence it was a sacred duty
to inter a body found imburied. In the case of
criminals stoned to death a heap of stones over
the body served as a grave (Josh. vii. 26).
The climate of Palestine necessitated the quickest
possible disposition of the corpse; interment, there-
fore, took place on the day of death (Deut. xxi. 23).
In the time of Christ the body was washed, anointed
with fragrant spices, and more or less completely
wrapped in linen (Acts. ix. 37; Mark xvi. 1; John
xi. 44). The Old Testament makes
z. Prepara- no allusion to this custom. The
tionfor belief that the dead in Sheol might
BuriaL be recognised by the habit implies
that in early times the corpse was
buried in the apparel of daily life. Later, royalty
and officials were buried with costly spices, orna-
ments, gold, and silver (Josephus, iin/., XIII. viii.
4; XV. iii. 4). And if the account by Josephus
of the plundering of David's tomb by Hyrcanus
and Herod may be trusted, this custom reached
back into antiquity. Embalming was a custom
foreign to the Hebrews; cases of it are Jacob and
Joseph (Gen. I. 2, 26) and Aristobulus (Josephus,
Ant,, XIV. vii. 4). The use of coffins was post-
exilic.
The place of bimal was determined by the belief
that the ties of kinship lasted beyond death. The
value of a family burying-place was in part due
to the fact that burial therein involved union with
Idn in Sheol (Gen. xxv. 8, 17; II Sam. xxi. 14).
Therefore, family tombs were in the earliest ages
on the estate and near the house (I Sam. xxv. 1).
Therein might be laid only members of the family.
A public cemetery was provided for the veiy poor,
for foreigners, and for criminals (Jer. xxvi. 23;
Isa. liii. 9; Matt, xxvii. 7). The
2, Place, kings of Judah had tombs in Jerusalem,
and Ezekiel charges them with the
serious offense of lajring their dead next to the
precincts of the sanctuary. To miss burial with
one's kin was dire misfortune or divine punish-
ment. For practical reasons people began quite
early to locate tombs outside the cities, and graves
came to be regarded as ceremonially impure. In
the time of Christ tombs were whitewashed in order
that their character might be known at a distance
and defilement avoided (Matt, xxiii. 27; Luke xi.
44).
The grave was simple in its appointments.
Wherever in Jewish tombs rich ornamentation is
found, foreign influence (generally Greek) is recog-
nized. Apart from the general lack of artistic
sense displayed by the Hebrews, a religious oon-
nderation comes in to explain this: the stem
opposition of the Yahweh-cult to ancestor-worship
discouraged adornment of burial-places, which
thus differed widely from Egyptian and Phenician
tombs. This and the lack of inscriptions make it
difficult to determine the date of Jewish graves.
For situation, rocky chambeiB, natural or artificial,
were preferred.
Four kinds of graves are known: (1) reoeas-
graves, oblong, rock-hewn, about six feet long by
one and a half square, hewn lengthwise into the
wall of the chamber, into which the body was
placed from the end; (2) simken-graves, like those
used in the Occident, but covered with stone;
(3) bench-graves, set bench-like in the
3. Varieties wails of the chamber, twenty-two
of Graves, inches high, often arch-roofed and
hewn sidewise into the chamber-wall;
(4) trough-graves, a combination of (2) and (3)
above. Of the chambers there are three varieties:
(1) single chambers with a single sunken grave
in the floor; (2) single chambers with several
graves of one or more of the above-mentioned
kinds; (3) larger burial-places with more than one
chamber. All of the third variety so far found
belong to a late date, as is proved by the architec-
ture. The oldest and commonest are of the second
type, single chambers with recess-graves, which
are so typical that they may be named specifically
Hebrew. Such allow the largest number of inter-
ments in a given chamber. Shaft-tombs of the
Egyptian pattern have so far not been discovered
in Palestine.
The Phenician custom of marking an excavated
grave by a grave-stone other than the stone-heap
piled on it was not adopted by the Hebrews. The
tombs built above ground date from the Greek
period, or later, and are of foreign origin.
(I. Benzinqer.)
Biblxoorapht: F. I. Gnindt, Dig TrauergebrSuehB der
HArditr, Leipflic 1868; W. M. Thomson, TU Land and thfB
Book, New York. 1886; F. Sehwally, Dau Uben natk dem
Tode naeh den VarsldLunoen deM alien lerael und dee Jvden-
iume, QieBsen, 1892; Benzinger, ArehOoiooiB, pp. 136-137;
NowMk. ArdkAologie, i. 187; H. B. Tristnun. Eaetem Cue-
tome in Bible Land; London, 1894; A. P. Bender, Beliefe,
Ritee and Cuetome of tke Jewe connected trtih Daotfc, Btaial
and Mourning, in JQR, 1894-95; O. M. Maokie, BibU
Mannera and Ctutome, London, 1896; KL, n. 182-189;
DB, i. 331-333.
n. Christian: From the beginning the Chria-
tians regarded the final disposal of the dead as a
congregational matter, and, when possible, they
had burial-places, in which only those who were
their members might be buried and which were
called ccBmeteria (" resting-places ")» in allusion to
the resurrection (see Cemeteries). In deference
to the body as the organ of the spirit and in the
expectation of the resurrection, they ¥^re careful
that the funeral should take place in a proper
manner. The corpse was carried to the grave by
bearers whom the Christian congregation had
appointed, and the fact that the
X. Eariy funeral took place, if possible, in
PractiBe day-time, was designed to express
and Cere- joy and hope that the departed had
monies, been set free and had entered into eter-
nal life. The pagan lamentation for the
dead, as well as the crowning of the corpse, was
not Approved, but torches were carried in front, as
befitting the victorious combatant, and h3rmns
and psalms were sung, in praise of God. A me-
morial address was doubtless made on special
occasions, but a funeral sermon in the modem sense
seems to have been unknown. Prayers were
309
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Burial
Borldan
offered at the grave, and the survivois gave food
and money to the poor. Prayeis were made for
the deceased, not only in private, but also in public.
The third, seventh (or ninth), thirtieth (or fortieth)
day were memorial days, on which the church
ceremony for the dead took place, as well as on
the anniversary of death (see Cemeteries, II., 6).
These prayers and offerings were believed to have
a beneficial effect for the dead, provided he be-
longed to the saved.
The Greek Church preserves a remnant of the
idea that the death of a Christian invites to praise,
and on this account uses the Halle-
2m The lujah in the celebration at the church
Greek The requiem-mass is unknown, but
Church, additional prayers are offered for the
dead. The ceremony at the grave is
very brief, the priest throwing earth upon the
corpse with the spade and sprinkling it with oil
from the holy lamp or ashes from the censer.
The Western Church of the Middle Ages also
knew only of burial as a means of disposal of the
dead. Charlemagne forbade the conquered Saxons
to cremate corpses on pain of death. The place
in which a Christian was buried was considered
holy ground, but patrons or spiritual
3* The dignitaries were entombed in churches
Medieval in token of distinction. Every Chris-
Church, tian was to be buried in consecrated
ground, but if special emergencies,
like war or shipwreck, necessitated a burial in
unoonsecrated ground, the grave had to be pro-
vided with a cross. The dead was washed, dressed
in linen or penitential robes, or, in case of one
in holy orders, in official dress. On the day of the
funeral he was carried by his peers, the layman by
la3rmen, and the clergy by clergy, first to the church,
where mass was celebrated, and afterward to the
grave, in which he was laid, with his face turned
towaid the East. Various ceremonies had their
meaning; the holy water sprinkled on the body
protected it from demons; charcoal indicated that
there was a grave there and thus kept it from prof-
anation; incense kept away the odor of decay,
and was a symbol of prayer for the dead, as imply-
ing that he was a sacrifice well pleasing to God;
ivy and laurel symbolized the imperishable life
of those who die in Christ. The custom of throwing
three shovelfuls of earth upon the body was known
in the Middle Ages, although the present Roman
ritual does not mention it. The modem Roman
Cathdic Church has retained the old Christian
view that the death of little children who have
been baptized is a joyful event and that their burial
should have the character of joy.
The Reformation made a dean sweep of the
existing burial rites, in so far as they presupposed
the doctrines of piurgatory, mass, and the mediation
of the Church, but it adhered to the
4. The Ref- view that the dead body is i^t a
ormation worthless thing but is to rise again,
Burial no matter how it has decayed. On
Service, this account it should have a Chris-
tian burial, and the burial-places must
have a fitting appearance. The burial was a mat-
ter of the churdi, and the congregation should take
part in it, if possible, and should also attend the
fimerals of the poor. Accordingly, the bells called
the congregation together. The church was repre-
sented by the minister and the school-children, or
at least by the sexton and grave-digger. As the
procession was passing to the cemetery, the children
or the mourners sang Christian funeral hymns,
and at the grave such Biblical passages as I Thess.
iv. 13-18 or John xi. were read and prayer was
offered, while basins were also placed to receive
alms for the poor. The burial service of the Re-
formed was similar. In some countries the con-
gregation recited the creed after the closing prayer.
The desire to instruct the congregation on every
occasion was expressed in the burial service by
the reading of Scripture and the singing of hymns.
A short discourse on death and the resurrection
was read in the home, in the church, or at the grave,
although a special sermon might be requested of
the minister if he was specially paid for it, and in
such cases he referred particularly to the life and
death of the subject of his address. Thus arose
the funeral sermon, which was originally designed
to instruct the congregation in eschatology, and
to honor the memory of the departed.
In modem times the burial rites were extended
by carrying the cross before the procession, by
casting earth upon the body thrice, and by pro-
nouncing the benediction. The first two cere-
monies were known even among the Protestants
in former centuries and were occasion-
5. Modem ally used, although they were generally
Develop- regarded with distrust, and were even
ments. diiectly prohibited. The blessing is
connected with the prayer for the
dead. The Reformed rejected prayers for the dead
unconditionally, while Luther and the Augsburg
Confession permitted it, and Johann Gerhard
endeavored to prove its validity by dogmatics.
From this developed the blessing of the dead,
which, despite vehement opposition since the
middle of the nineteenth century, has spread more
and more. That the dead is addressed by '' thou,"
may perhaps be explained on the ground that,
according to the ancient Christian view, the con-
gregation regards the departed as still belonging
to it. The meaning of the solemn declaration:
" I bless thee," however, is very uncertain, and
the blessing should take the form of a wish.
It should be noted that the Church of Rome
prohibits cremation, whereas the Protestant
Churches have not yet reached a uniform conclusion.
W. Caspari.
Bibuoorapht: On the general qiiestion consult C. Mar-
t^ne, De antique ecdencB rUibut, Antwerp, 1736-37; F.
X. Kraufl. ReaJtencyklopdidie der dtrUtlichen AUerfhUmmr,
articles Tod, TotenbuUUhing, Freibuzis. 1880-96; T.
Kliefoth, LiturgiB€h€ Abhandlunoen, vol. i., part 2. Vom
BegrObntM, Halle, 1860; Bingham, Orioinea, book xidii.
On the antiquarian and legal sides of English custom con-
sult: J. Stutt, A CompUat View of the Mannera, Cuatonu
. . . of Ae InhabitarUa of England, 3 vols., London, 1776-
1776; C. A, Cripps. Law of Churdt and Clergy, ib. 1886;
T. Baker, Law of Buriale, 6th ed., by E. L. Thomas, ib.
1898; Encydopaadia Britannica, xxvi. 466-468.
BURIDAlf, bur'i-dan or French bQ"rt"daA',
JEAN (Johannea Buridanw): Medieval French
philosopher; b. at B^thune (25 m. n.w. of Douai),
BurlM
Burma
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
810
in the latter part of the thirteenth century; d. after
1358. He was educated at Paris, and was made
rector in 1327. The story of his expulsion from
the city, like his love affair with a queen of France,
seems to be a myth, for it is clear that he occupied
a prominent position at Paris between 1348 and
1358. He was the author of the Summula de
diaUctica, or Compendium logicce (Paris, 1487),
and also wrote on the " Politios/' " Ethics," and
other Aristotelian writings, but he paid 4io attention
to theology. As an admirer and follower of Occam,
he was a consistent nominalist, and hence felt a
special interest in ethical and psychological ques-
tions, in which he showed the characteristic imion
of skepticism and dogmatism. He became famous
by his thorough research into the problem of the
freedom of the will, but his works contain ingenious
investigations rather than dear decisions, so that
it is doubtful whether he was a determinist or an
indeterminist. His psychology allowed no de-
cision of the will without a motivating judgment
of the understanding. The famous aphorism of
the ass standing between two hay-stacks, and
obliged either to starve or to decide determinis-
tically for one or the other, is not found in his wri-
tings, and it is uncertain whether either he or his
opponents used it, or whether later legend ascribed
to him the example already found in Aristotle.
His collected works were firat edited at Paris by
J. Dullardus in 1500, and were frequently reprinted.
R. SCHMID.
Bibuoobafht: Sketches of hia life and philosophy will be
found in the worka on the history of philosophy by Ueber-
weg, Ritter, and Erdmann. Consult also A. Stdckl,
GetdiidUs der PhUowophie ds§ MittekUter», ii. 1023-28.
3 vols.. Mains. 1864-66.
BURKE, THOMAS MARTIN ALOYSIUS: Ro-
man Catholic bishop of Albany, N. Y.; b. in
County Mayo, Ireland, Jan. 10, 1840. He came
to the United States in childhood, and was edu-
cated at St. Michaers College, Toronto, St. Charles'
College, Md. (B.A., 1861), and St. Mary's Semi-
nary, Baltimore (B.T., 1864). He was ordained to
the priesthood in 1864, and was successively as-
sistant and rector at St. John's Church, Albany,
N. Y. (1864-74), and rector of St. Joseph's Church
in the same city (1874-94). He was appointed
vicar-general of the diocese of Albany in 1887 and
consecrated bishop in 1894. He was created a
Knight of the Holy Sepulcher in 1890, and a
Knight of the Grand Cross in 1894.
BURKITTy FRANCIS CRAWFORD: Church of
England theologian and Syriac scholar; b. at
London Sept. 3, 1864. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1886), where he was
appointed University lecturer in paleography in
1904-05. Since 1905 he has been Norrisian pro-
fessor of divinity in the same university. He was
elected fellow of the British Academy in 1905,
and was also president of the Cambridge Philo-
logical Society in 1904-05 and Jowett lecturer in
1906. In addition to numerous contributions to
theological periodicals and encyclopedias, he has
written: The Rules of Tyconius (Cambridge, 1894);
The Old Latin and the Itala (1896); Fragments of
AquUa (1897); Hymn of Bardaisan (London, 1899);
Early Christianity outside the Roman Empire (Cam-
bridge, 1899); Tvx) Lectures on the Gospels (London,
1900); Oospel Quotations of St. Ephraim (Cam-
bridge, 1901); Evangelion da-Mepharreshe (2 vols.,
1904); and Early Eastern Christianity (London,
1905). He also made an English translation of
the Lekrbueh der dgypto-arabischen Umgangssprache
of K. Vollers (Cairo, 1890) at Cambridge in 1895,
and collaborated with R. L. Bensly and J. R. Harris
in editing The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed
from the Sinaitic Manuscript (Cambridge, 1894).
and with G. H. Gwilliam and J. F. Stcnning in the
Biblical and Patristic Relics of the Palestinian
Syriac Literature from Manuscripts in the Bodleian
Library (Oxford, 1896).
BURKITT, WILLIAM: Church of England; b.
at Hitcham (12 m. n.w. of Ipswich), Suffolk, July
25, 1650; d. at Dedham (10 m. s.w. of Ipswich),
Essex, Oct. 24, 1703. He studied at Pembroke
Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1668; M.A., 1672); became
curate at Milden, Suffolk, about 1672, and vicar of
Dedham, 1692. He is remembered for his Ex-
pository Notes with Practical Observations on the
New Testament (the Gospels, London, 1700; Acts-
Revelation, 1703; many subsequent editions).
It is a compilation and bears some resemblance to
the commentaries of Matthew Henry.
BURMA: [At present the largest and eastern-
most province of British India, having been grad-
ually annexed after three wars in 1826, 1852, and
1885. It extends southward from Tibet into the
Malay peninsula a distance of 1,250 miles, with a
breadth from east to west varying from 30 or 40
to 550 miles. According to the census of 1901 the
area is 236,738 square miles, the population 10,-
490,624 persons, classed by religions as follows:
Hindus 457,391; Sikhs 3,147; Buddhists 8,951,-
649 (85.3 per cent.); Mohanrniedans 533,973;
Christians 248,628; Animists 294,787; other r^
ligions 1,049. The native peoples are of Malay-
Chinese stock, belonging to many tribes. The
capital is Rangim. Buddhism appears at its best
in Burma; the prevailing form is of the southern
type, most closely approximating the teachings of
Gautama, and it has done much to uplift the peo-
ple, who are better educated (by the Buddhist
monks) than the people of India. Temples and
shrines are numerous and have been built at much
expense. The monasteries are well organized.]
Baptist Missions: The earliest attempt at
Protestant missionary work in Burma was at Ran-
gun, where Messrs. Chater and Mardon, of the
Baptist Missionary Society of England, opened a
mission in 1807. During a service of four years
Chater translated the Gospel of Matthew into
Burmese. Felix Carey, son of WilUam Carey
(q.v.), came soon after Chater and Mardon, re-
maining until 1814, when he entered the service of
the Burman Govenmient and removed to Ava.
The London Missionary Society sent two mission-
aries to Rangun in 1808, but within a year one
died and the other left.
The first permanent Protestant mission in Burma
was that of the American Baptist Missionary Union,
which began work at Rangun in 1813. The first
811
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Borke
Bnrma
missionaiy was Adoniram Judson (q.v.)i who
translated the Bible into Burmese. Six years after
he landed in Rangun the first convert was bap-
tized, and then the work among the Burmans pro-
gressed, although slowly.
The Karens, a hill tribe, early attracted the at-
tention of the missionaries. They had strange
traditions that they once had known of the true
God, and that foreigners would restore to them
the lost knowledge and the book containing it. In
1828 the first Karen convert, a slave redeemed by
Dr. Judson, was baptized by Rev. George Dana
Boardman (q.v.). The Karens have been more
receptive of the Gospel than any other race in
Burma. They are divided into many tribes; the
chief dialects are the Sgaw and the Pwo, into
which the Bible has been translated. Self-support
has been a marked feature of the Karen churches.
They are distinctly missionary in spirit, represent-
atives having gone from them to many other races.
A remarkable development in the Karen mission
is an independent evangelistic movement inaugu-
rated and directed by a native leader, Ko San Ye.
Large buildings have been erected and an institu-
tional work b carried on. In one year over 2,500
converts were baptized in two stations alone as a
result of this movement.
Work is conducted also among the Shans, the
Chins, the Kachins, the Talains, the immigrants
from peninsular India (mostly Telugus and Tamils),
the Chinese, and the Eurasians and other English-
R]>eaking peoples. A movement of large propoiv
tions is taking place among the Lahu and other
hill tribes about Kengtung, in eastern Burma,
where over 2,000 were baptized in 1905. They
have peculiar traditions similar to those of the
Karens.
Educational work has been emphasized, vil-
lage day-schools, station boarding-schools, and the
Rangun Baptist College being conducted in co-
operation with the government. The college has
over 1,000 students in all departments. There are
two theological seminaries at Insein, for Karens
and Burmans respectively. The American Bap-
tist Mission Press, at Rangun, has a fine equip-
ment, and prints literature in most of the languages
and dialects of the province.
StatistioB (1906): Stations, 29; churches, 843; members,
58.642; baptisms. 7,069; missionaries, 192, including 13
physicians: native workers, 1,909; schools, 696, pupils,
24.807: Sunday-schools, 618. pupils, 19.730; college, 1;
theological seminaries, 2; high schools, 3; boarding-schools,
31; hospitals, 3| in-patients, 77, out-patients, 28.093; dis-
pensaries, 7; receipts in medical fees, $1,165; total contri-
butions. $91,101 (benevolence, $19,666).
American Methodist Episcopal Missions: Amer-
ican Methodists entered Burma in 1879, when a
church was organized by Bishop Thobum. The
mission has now grown to nine stations, where work
is conducted for English-speaking peoples, Bur-
mese, Tamils, Telugus, and Chinese. Emphasis is
placed upon schools, colportage, and street pleach-
ing. The European high school in Rangun, for
boys and girls, is the only one for non-conformists
in the city and has a well-earned reputation for
thoroughness and moral training. Anglo-vernacu-
lar schools are conducted in several stations. A
number of strong schools are now being equipped
with new and larger buildings. A training institute
IB held during the summer months. At Thandaung
a successful orphanage is conducted. A monthly
paper for Telugus is published.
Statistics (1905): llissionaries, 17; native helpers, 44;
members, 561; probationers. 370; baptised adults, 46,
children, 28; high schools. 4; dajr-schools, 10; pupils, 943;
Sunday-schools, 26; Sunday-school pupils, 986; churches
and chapels, 3; contributions on field, 44,319 rupees
[= $21,494].
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel: This
society conducts work among English-speaking
peoples, Burmese, Karens, Ta^mils, Telugus, and
Chins. Educational work is vigorously pushed,
the leading institution being St. John's College, at
Rangun, whose graduates take high rank. A
printing-press at Toungoo provides Bibles, prayer-
books, and other literature. There are 35 mis-
sionaries, 13 being European.
Statistics (1905): Outstations, 196; churches, 16; board-
ing-schools, 75; teachers, 125 (14 non-Christian); boarders,
549; pupils in all schools, 3,366; cateohists, 139; readers,
4; baptisms, adxilt 722, children 753; baptised persons,
10.403; communicants, 4.047; catechumens, 3,531; con-
firmed during year, 273; native contributions, 11,759
rui>ee8, 12 annas [= $5,703].
Wesleyan Methodist Missions: English Wes-
ley ans began work in 1889 and have now four sta-
tions, with seven missionaries. Special features
are the work among soldiers, evangelistic-educa-
tional work, and a lepers' home, at Mandalay,
which has 140 in its wards.
Statistics (1903): (Chapels and other preaching places,
26; catechists, 5; local preachers, 19; teachers (day-school),
62; members. 270; on trial, 61; Sunday-schools, 19; pupils
in Sunday-schools, 1,065; day-schools, 25; pupils in day-
schools, 1,181; raised locally. £3.450 17s. 3d. The average
attendance at public worship is 1,550.
Roman Catholic Missions: Roman Catholic
missionaries have been on the ground for several
centuries, and are about equally divided between
French and Italian. Their work is in various parts
of Burma. The statistics for the French Foreign
Missionary Society, including those for Laos, are
as follows (1906): Missionaries, 70; native workers,
3; charities, 65; total Roman Catholic population,
66,600.
Miscellaneous: Besides the organizations men-
tioned, the Young Men's Christian Association and
the Young Women's Christian Association have
work at Rangun. The Mission to Lepers, the
Missionary Pence Association, and the Leipsic Mis-
sionary Society also have work in Burma. The
China Inland Mission has one missionary in Bhamo.
Stacy Reuben Warburton.
Biblioorapht: The lAfe of Adoniram Judton, by F. Way-
land, Boston, 1853, and by E. Judson, Philadelphia, 1808;
Mrs. M. Wylie, Story of the Ooapel in Burmah, New York,
1860; Mrs. Mason, CivUiHna Mountain Men, . . . Mia-
9ion Work among Vu Karen*, ib. 1862; C. J. S. F. F.
Forbes, BriiiMh Burmah and iit People, . . . Mannera,
Cuatoma and Reliaunh London, 1878; J. H. Titoomb,
BHHah Burmah and ita Miaaion Work, ib. 1880; Mrs. I.
B. Bishop, Golden Cheraoneae, ib. 1883; C. H. Carpenter,
Self Support in Baaaein, Boston, 1884; A. R. Colquhoun,
Amonoat the Shana, London, 1885; L. P. Brockett, Story
of the Karen Miaaion in Baaaein, Philadelphia, 1891;
W. N. Wythe, Miaaioruxry Memoriala, Ann H. Judaon,
Sara B. Judaon, Emily C. Judaon, 3 vols., New York,
1802; E. D. Cuming, With the JunoU Folk, London, 1897;
Bnm«e
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
812
A. Bunker, 800 Thah, . . . Making of ih€ Karm Nation,
New York, 1902; Julius Smith, Ten Year* in Bwmah,
Ondmutti, 1902; W. C. Origgs, Odd* and Bnd§ from
Pagoda Land, Philadelphia. 1906.
BURMANN, FRAHS: Dutch theologian; b. at
Leyden 1628; d. at Utrecht Nov. 12, 1679. At
twenty-three he took the pastoral charge of a new
Dutch chureh at Hanau; in 1661 he became vice-
rector of the college at Leyden, and the next year
professor of dogmatic theology at Utrecht, combi-
ning this position with a pastoral charge there, and
teaching church history also from 1671. His
principal work. Synapsis iheolofficB (2 vols., Utrecht,
1671-72), shows him to have been the clearest
systematic thinker of the school of Ck>cceiuB (q.v.).
He also wrote Dutch conmientaries on all the his-
torical books of the Old Testament (collected
edition Amsterdam, 1740), and several minor works.
(E. F. Karl MOller.)
BURN, RICHARD: Legal writer; b. at Winton
(37 m. s.e. of Carlisle), Westmoreland, 1709; d. at
Orton, Westmoreland (10 m. w. of Winton), Nov.
12, 1785. He studied at Queen's Ck>llege, Oxford
(BA., 1734); became vicar of Orton 1736, and
was justice of the peace for Westmoreland and
Cumberiand; chancellor of Carlisle 1765. His
works include two standard treatises. The Justice
of ihe Peace and Parish Officer, comprehending all
the law to the present time (2 vols., London, 1755;
29th edition, enlarged, edited by Chitty and Bere,
6 vols., 1845; 30th ed., 1869); and Ecclesiastical
Law (2 vols., 1763; 9th edition, with additions,
by Phillimore, 4 vols., 1842).
BURHET, GH^BERT: Bishop of Salisbury; b.
in Edinburgh Sept. 18, 1643; d. at Salisbury Mar.
17, 1715. He was educated at Aberdeen; became
a probationer 1661; studied and traveled in Eng-
land, Holland, and France till 1664; became minis-
ter at Saltoun 1665; professor of divinity at Glas-
gow 1669; removed to London 1674 and was made
chaplain at the Rolls Chapel, and lecturer at St.
Clement's, 1675. The popularity he enjoyed in
Scotland did not forsake him in London, but his
intimacy with Lord William Russell, whom he
attended on the scaffold (July 21, 1683), cost him
the court favor and he was dismissed from both
these positions. On the accession of James II.
he left England and, after visiting France and Italy,
settled at The Hague and was active in promoting
the accession of William and Mary. He returned
to En^and with William in 1688 and by him was
made in 1689 bishop of Salisbury, in which office
he was a model. His family connections, wealth,
and ambition, his scholarship, friendships, and
positions, his employment in diplomacy and honor-
able politics, all qualified him to write his admirable
History of his own Time (i., London, 1723; ii., 1734;
best ed. by M. J. Routh, 6 vols., Oxford, 1833; Part
I. The Reign of Charles the Second, edited by Os-
mund Airy, 2 vols., 1897-1900; a Supplement to the
History was edited by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, 1902),
a work of great accuracy and fairness. Other
works worthy of mention are: History of the Re for-
motion of the Church of England (i., 1679; ii., 1681;
iii., 1714; ed. N. Pooock, 7 vols., 1865); his works
against the Roman Catholic Church, The mystery
of iniquity unveiled (1673); Rome's glory, or a col-
lection of divers miracles wrought by popish saimts,
(1673); Infallibility of the Roman Chureh confuted
(1680); also his life of WiUiam Beddl (1685;
Exposition of the XXXIX. Artides (1699), which
was censured by the Lower House of Convocation.
Bibuoorapht: The Life, by hie eon, Thomas B. Burnet, is
prefixed to the Oxford edition of his works, in 6 tcIa^
1833, which contains also a list of the Inshop's wntinc?.
A detailed account is given in DNB, Tii. 394-405l Con-
sult also 8. A. Allibone, CriHcal DicUonanf of Engiiik
Liieratun, i. 296-288. Philadelphia, 1891. Fuxtbff
sources are the Hielary, and the LeUen to Herbert in the
Egerton MSB. in the British Museum.
BURRKT, THOMAS: Church of En^and; b.
at Croft (40 m. n. of York), Yorkshire, about 1635;
d. in London Sept. 27, 1715. He studied at CUre
Hall and Christ's College, CJambridge (fellow of
Christ's, 1657; MA., 1658; LL.D., 1685?); became
master of the Charterhouse 1685, and in 16S6
incited the first stand made by any sodety in
England against the royal dispensing power in
the reign of James II., and thereby prevented the
illegal admission of a pensioner at the Idng's demand.
He wrote fine English and excellent Latin, and was
the author of several books which created much
commotion. The TeUuris theoria sacra (part i.,
London, 1681; Eng. version, revised. The Sacred
Theory of the Earth, 1684; part ii. and Elng. voskm
of the entire work, 1689; 7th ed., with life bj
Ralph Heathoote, 1759) was a fanciful att^npt
to explain the structure of the earth, and of no
scientific value. In the ArcheologuB pkUoaophica
sive doctrina antiqua de rerum origintbus (1692;
Eng. transl., 1692) he interpreted the account of the
Fall as an allegory, and the work cost him his
position as clerk of the closet to William III. and
marred his hope of advancement. In later life he
wrote De fide et officiis Christianarum, in which
" he regards the historical religions as based upcm
the religion of nature and rejects original sin and
the ' magical ' theory of the sacraments "; and
De statu mortuorum et resurgentium, in which he
defended the doctrine of the middle state, the
millennium, and the limited duration of future
punishment; these works were first authoritatively
printed in 1727 (Eng. translations, 1727-28).
Bibuoorapht: R. Heathoote, Life of 7*homaa Btojigl, pie-
fixed to the 7th ed. of Ths Sacred Theory, 1759; DA'B,
vii. 408-ilO.
BURITETT PRIZES AND LECTURES: A foun-
dation by John Burnett, a merchant of Aberdeen,
Scotland (b. 1729; d. 1784), who bequeathed his
entire estate for charitable and philanthropic
purposes. One of the provisions of his will vested
a portion of his property in trustees to provide
prizes for the best and the next best essay intended
to prove " that there is a Being, all-powerful, wise,
and good, by whom everything exists; and par-
ticularly to obviate difficulties regarding the wisdom
and goodness of the Deity; and this, in the first
place, from considerations independent of written
revelation, and, in the second place, from the reve-
lation of the Lord Jesus; and, from the whole, to
point out the inferences most necessary for, and
useful to mankind." It was provided that the
competition should be open to the whole world;
318
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnnnaiin
Barrage
that the prizes should be of not less than £1,200
and £400 respectively, and should be offered at
intervals of forty years; and that three appointees
of the trustees of the testator's estate, the minis-
ters of the Established Church of Aberdeen, and the
principals and professors of King's and Marischal
Colleges should act as judges. The first compe-
tition was in 1815, when fifty essays were submitted
and the first prize was given to William Laurence
Brown (b. 1755; professor at Utrecht, 1788-95;
at Marischal College, 1795, principal from 1796;
d. 1830) for a treatise On the Existence of a Supreme
Creator (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1816), and the second
to John Bird Sumner (q.v.), afterward archbishop
of Canterbury, for an essay entitled Records of
Creation- {2 vols., London, 1818). In the second
competition, 1855, out of 208 essays the judges
selected Christian Theism (2 vols., London, 1855)
by Robert Anchor Thompson (b. 1821; curate of
Binbrook, Lincolnshire, 1854-58; from 1858 master
of the Hospital of St. Mary the Virgin, Newcastle-
on-Tyne; d. 1894) for the first prize, and Theism
(Edinburgh, 1855) by John Tulloch (q.v.) for the
second prize. In 1881 the use of the fund was
changed by being applied to the support of a lec-
tureship at Aberdeen, the lecturer to be appointed
at intervals of five years and hold office for three
years, and the subject to be either that prescribed
by Mr. Burnett or some topic of history, archeology,
or physical or natural science, so treated as to
illustrate the theme originally suggested. Lec-
turers and subjects have been as follows:
1883-^6. George Gabriel Stokes, professor of mathemat-
108 at Cambridge, On Light (London, 1887).
1888-^1. W. Robertson Smith, professor of Arabic at
Cambridge, On the Relioion of the Semitee (Ist series only
published. Fundamental InetituHone, London, 1880; 3d ed.,
1907).
1891-M. William L. Davidson, minister of Bourtie, Aber-
deenshire, Theism ae Grounded in Human Nature hietor-
ieally and eritieaUy Handled (London, 1893).
The funds are now devoted toward the endow-
ment of' a chair of history and archeology in the
university.
BURNS, WILLIAM CHALMERS: Missionary;
b. at Dun (6 m. w. of Montrose), Forfarshire,
Scotland, Apr. 1, 1815; d. at Niu-chwang, China,
Apr. 4, 1868. He studied at Marischal College,
Aberdeen; began the study of law, but decided
to become a minister and reentered the university
in 1832; studied theology at Glasgow and was
licensed in 1839; preached first in Dundee, and
then traveled through the British Islands and
visited Canada (1844-46) as an evangelist, meeting
with much success. On June 9, 1847, he sailed
as first missionary to China of the English Presby-
terian Missionary Society; he adopted the Chinese
dress and life and lived in Hongkong, Canton,
Amoy, Shanghai, Peking, and Niu-chwang, choos-
ing not to stay long in one place. He was one of
the most devoted missionaries of modem times
and won the respect of both the natives of China
and the foreign residents. He translated Bunyan's
Pilgrim's Progress into Chinese.
Biblioomaprt: I. Burns, Memoir of W. C. Bume, London,
1870 (by his brother); W. Q. Blaikie, in Leadere in Mod-
em Philanthropy, New York, 1884.
BURNT OFFERING. See Sacrifice.
BURR, ENOCH FITCH: Congregationalist; b.
at Westport, Conn., Oct. 21, 1818; d. at Hamburg,
Conn., May 8, 1907. He was educated at Yale
College (B.A., 1839), and devoted several years of
study in New Haven to science and theology. He
then traveled extensively, and after his return to
the United States was called in 1850 to the pas-
torate of the Congregational church at Lyme,
Conn., which he held till his death. He lectured
on the scientific evidences of religion at Amherst
College, Williams College, the Sheffield Scientific
School, and other institutions, and wrote: The
Mathematical Theory of Neptune (New Haven,
1848); Spiritualism (New York, 1859); Ecce
Ccdum (Boston, 1867); PaUr Mundi (1869); Ad
Fidem (1871); Evolution (1873); Sunday After-
noons for Little People (New York, 1874); Touxird
the Strait Gate (Boston, 1876); Work in the Vine-
yard (1876); Dio the Athenian (New York, 1880);
Tempted to Unbelief (1882); Ecce Terra (Philsr
delphia, 1884); Celestial Empires (New York, 1885);
Theism as a Canon of Science (London, 1886);
Universal Beliefs (New York, 1887); Long Ago,
as Interpreted by the Nineteenth Century (1888);
Supreme Things (1889); Aleph the Chaldean (1891);
Fabius the Roman (1897); and Autumn Leaves
from the Mansewood (Andover, Mass., 1905).
BURRAGE, HENRY SWEETSER: Baptist;
b. at Fitchburg, Mass., Jan. 7, 1837. He was
educated at Brown University (B.A., 1861), and
entered Newton Theological Institution, but left it
in 1862 and served in the 36th Massachusetts
Volunteers throughout the Civil War, rising from
private to brevet major and acting assistant adju-
tant-general, first brigade, second division, ninth
army corps. He was wounded at Cold Spring
Harbor, June 3, 1864, and was a prisoner of war
from Nov. 1, 1864, to Feb. 22, 1865. On the con-
clusion of the war, he resumed his studies at Newton
Theological Institution (1867) and the University
of Halle (1868-69), and was successively pastor
of the Baptist church at Waterville, Me. (1870-74),
and editor of Zion*s Advocate, Portland, Me. (1874-
1905). Since 1905 he has been chaplain of the
eastern branch of the National Home for Disabled
Volunteer Soldiers, Togus, Me. From 1875 to
1905 he was recording secretary of the Maine
Baptist Missionary Convention, and since 1876
has held a similar office in the American Baptist
Missionary Union. Since 1889 he has been recorder
of the Maine Commandery of the Military Order
of the Loyal Legion of the United States, and
chaplain-in-chief of the entire organization since
1899, while he was secretary of the Maine Society
of the Sons of the American Revolution from 1891
to 1905. when he was elected its president for 1906-
1907. He was secretary of the Maine Society of
Colonial Wars in 1899-1905, and is the president
of the Maine Baptist Historical Society. He is a
trustee of Colby College and Newton Theological
Institution, and was also a trustee of Brown Uni-
versity from 1889 to 1903, when he was chosen one
of the board of fellows. In addition to numerous
articles in magazines and reviews, he has written:
Btirr«U
Btirton
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
814
Brown University in the CivU War (Providence, R. I.,
1868); The Act of Baptism in the History of the
Christian Church (Philadelphia, 1879); History of
the Anabaptists in Switzerland (1882); Hosier's
Relation of WaymoutKs Voyage to the Coast of
Maine, 1606 (Portland, Me., 1887); Baptist Hymn
Writers and their Hymns (Boston, 1888); History
of the Baptists in New England (1894); Hilary
of the Baptists in Maine (Philadelphia, 1904); and
Gettysburg and Lincoln (New York, 1906). He
has also edited Early English and French Voyages
(N. Y., 1907) and a number of works relating
chiefly to the history of Maine.
BURRELL, DAVID JAMES : Reformed (Dutch) ;
b. at Mount Pleasant, Pa., Aug. 1, 1844. He was
educated at Yale University (B.A., 1867) and
Union Theological Seminary (1870), and after
serving as a missionary in Chicago for four years,
held successive pastorates at the Second Presby-
terian Church, Dubuque, la. (1876-87), West-
minster Presbyterian Church, Minneapolis, Minn.
(1887-91), and the Marble Collegiate Church,
Manhattan, New York City (since 1891). Since
1903 he has also been acting professor of homi-
letics in Princeton Theological Seminary. He has
been on the board of regents of the Theological
Seminary of the Northwest, Bennett Female Semi-
nary, Elmira Female College, and McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary; and is at present a member of
the board of managers of the American Tract
Society, the Pan-Presbyterian Coimcil, and the
American Sabbath Union; president of the New
York State Sabbath Association, a vice-president
of the National Temperance Society, and of the
Evangelical Alliance; and a trustee of the
United Society of Christian Endeavor and the
Board of Domestic Missions of the Reformed
Church. He is also a member ot the New
York and Pennsylvania Historical Societies. In
theology he is a conservative. He has written:
The Religions of the World (Philadelphia,
1888); Hints and Helps (3 vols.. New York,
1891-93); Gospel of Gladness (1892); Morning
Cometh (1893); Religion of the Future (1894); Spirit
of the Age (1895); For Christ's Crown and Covenant
(1896); The Golden Passional (1897); The Early
Church (1897); The Wondrous Cross (1898); God
and the People (1899); The Gospel of Certainty
(London, 1899); The Unaccountable Man (Chicago,
1900); The Church in the Fort (1901); The Wonder-
ful Teacher (1902); The Verities of Jesus (New York,
1903); Christ and Progress (1903); Teachings of
Jesus Concerning the Scriptures (1904); Christ and
Men (1906); The Wayfarers of the Bible (1906);
and The Evolution of a Christian (1906).
BURRITT, ELIHU: American Congregational
layman, scholar, and philanthropist; b. at New
Britain, Conn., Dec. 8, 1810; d. there Mar. 6, 1879.
While earning his living by his trade of blacksmith,
he acquired before the age of thirty some acquaint-
ance with most of the languages of Europe, and
also with Hebrew, Samaritan, and Ethiopic. So al-
though modest and deprecating notoriety, he be-
came known as "the learned blacksmith." In 1841
he was invited to lecture, and prepared an address
on " Application and Genius," in which he aigoec
that all attainments are the result of persisteat
will and application alone. His lecturing was tix-
,cessful, and thenceforth he was prominent befofe
the public as orator, editor, and philanthropist. In
1846 he went to England. For the next twenty-fire
years he spent most of his time abroad. He or-
ganized " The League of Uuivcnod Brotherhood "
to work for the abolition of war and to promote
friendly feelings between different peoples, and wa<
active in connection with the first Peace Congress
at Brussels in 1848 and similar gatherings after-
ward. He developed the idea of an " ocean penny
postage,'' i.e., the reduction of the hi^ rates then
charged on international letters to a sum not more
than double the domestic rate. After the out-
break of the Crimean War he returned to Amehca
and advocated the emancipation of the negro
slaves, with compensation to the owners. From
1865 to 1869 he was consular agent of the United
States at Birmingham. After 1870 he hxed in re-
tirement at New Britain, but was busy with his pen.
He was always active in church work and strove
to promote Christian fellowship between different
creeds and confessions. He published many worLs
including: Sparks from the Anvil (London^ 1^7);
Thoughts and Things at Home and Abroad (Boston,
1854); Walk from London to John (TGroafs House
(London, 1864); Walk from London to Land's End
and Back (1865); Walks in the Black Country and
its Green Border Lands (1866); Lectures and
Speeches (1866); The Mission of Great Suffering
(1867); Prayers and Meditatums from the Psalms
(New York, 1869); Sanskrit Handbook (London,
1874). He founded and edited a number of peri-
odicals for the promotion of his plans, of which the
most important were The Christian Citizen^ de-
voted to " peace, freedom, temperance, and every
good cause " (Worcester, Mass., 1844-51), and
Bonds of Brotherhood (London, 1846-68).
Biblioorapht: C. NortheDd. Elxku BurriU; Sketch of kit
Life and Labor; New York. 1882.
BURROUGHES (BURROUGHS), JEREMIAH:
English Congregationalist; b. about 1600; d. in
London Nov. 13, 1646. He studied at Emmanud
College, Cambridge, and was graduated MA. in
1624, but left the university because of non-con-
formity; was assistant to Edmund Calamy (q.v.)
at Bury St. Edmunds; in 1631 became rector of
Tivetshall, Norfolk; suspended for non-confonn-
ity in 1636 and soon afterward deprived, he went
to Rotterdam (1637) and became " teacher " of
the English church there; returned to England in
1641 and served as preacher at Stepney and Crip-
plegate, London. He was a member of the West-
minster Assembly and one of the few who opposed
the Presbyterian majority. While one of the most
distinguished of the EInglish Independents, he was
one of the most moderate, acting consistently in
accordance with the motto on his study door:
Opinionum varietas et opinantium unitas rum sunt
aavorara (" Difference of belief and unity of be-
lievers are not inconsistent "), His publications
were many, the most important being An Erpod-
tion with Practical Observations on the Prophecy of
Hosea (4 vols., London, 1643-57).
816
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnrrall
Burton
BURROUGHS (BURROUGH), GEORGE: The
most prominent victim of the Salem witchcraft de-
lusion; b. about 1650; executed on Gallows Hill,
Salem, fiiass., Aug. 19, 1692. He was graduated at
Harvaird, 1670; preached at Casoo (Portland), Me.;
at Salem Village (Danvers), Mass., 1680-^, where
he sufifered because of a church quarrel antedating
his pastorate; was in Casco again in 1685, and when
the town was destroyed by the French and Indians
in May, 1690. In 1692, while acting as preacher
at Wells, Me., he was accused of witchcraft by
certain of his old parishioners at Salem and ar-
rested; was brought to trial at Salem Aug. 5 and
convicted on all indictments against him; before
his execution he made an address which moved the
hearers to tears and led Cotton Mather to remind
the crowd that the devil often appeared as an
angel of light.
Bxbuoorapht: J. L. Sibley, Harvard CfraduatM, vol. ii.,
Cambridge. 1881; C. W. Upham. Sahm Witchcraft, ib.
1867.
BURROWS, WdFRID OLDFIELD: Church of
England; b. at London Nov. 9, 1858. He was
educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (BA.,
1881) and Christ Church, Oxford (M.A., 1885), and
was ordered deacon in 1886 and priested two years
later. He was a tutor of Christ Church from 1884
to 1891, after which he was principal of Leeds
Clergy School until 1900. He was then vicar of
Holy Trinity, Leeds, for three years (1900-03),
and since 1903 has been vicar of St. Augustine's,
Edgbaston, Birmingham. He was commissioner
for North China in 1894 and for Natal in 1901, as
well as surrogate for the diocese of Ripon in 1900-
1903 and examining chaplain to the bishop of Wake-
field in 1888-1905. Since 1904 he has been arch-
deacon of Birmingham, and since 1905 has also
been examining chaplain to the bishop of Bir-
mingham. In addition to briefer contributions, he
has written The MyBiery of the Cross (London,
1896).
BX7RSFELDE, CONGREGATION OF: An
ciation of reformed Benedictine monks, taking its
name from the abbey of Bursfelde on the Weser,
about 10 m. west of G6ttingen, founded by Count
Henry of Nordheim and his wife Gertrude in 1093.
It had been richly endowed, but by the beginning
of the fifteenth century was so far fallen into decay
that only a single monk lived there, and he in great
poverty, while the church was used by traveling
merchants as a stable. Johann of Minden, abbot
of Rheinhausen, with Rembert ter List, prior of
the Windesheim monastery of Wittenberg, was
charged with reforming monastic life in Saxony
and Bnmswick after the Council of Basel; and the
case of Bursfelde was specially commended to him
by Duke Otto of Brunswick. He took up the task
in 1433, and obtained the monks he needed from
the abbey of St. Matthias at Treves. Dying in
1439, he left an equally energetic successor in
Joh^um Hagen, who thoroughly completed the
task in the thirty years of his rule, and foimded
the Congregation, including four other monas-
teries, with a view to the strict observance of the
monastic rule, after the model of the Windesheim
Congregation (q.v.). The spirit grew until Hagen
could number thirty-six monasteries, besides some
nunneries, under his leadership. The movement
spread into the Netherlands also, imder the influ-
ence of Jan Busch and Nicholas of Cusa. A yeariy
chapter of the whole congregation was held, always
under the presidency of the abbot of Bursfdde. It
received numerous privileges from the provincial
council held by Nicholas of CHisa in 1451, and was
confirmed by Pius II. in 1458 and 1461. It grew
after Hagen's death until it numbered 142 monas-
teries; but in the sixteenth century it began to de-
cline, though there was a brief revival about 1629
and during the Thirty Years' War. Many of the
monasteries came into the possession of Protestant
princes, including Bursfelde itself, whose Catholic
abbot was replaced in 1579 by a Lutheran. Since
the foundation of the University of Gdttingen,
the senior professor of the theological faculty has
borne the title of abbot of Bursfelde, with an in-
come derived from the revenues of the foundation.
The last head of the Congregation was Bemhard
Bierbaum, abbot of Werden; who was elected in
1780 at a chapter held in Hildesheim and died
in 1798. L. Schulze.
Bibuoorapht: Souroes are: The Chronicon Winiukmnenm
by J. Busch, ed. with introduction by K. Gnibe, Halle,
1886; J. G. Leuckfeld. AnUquitateM Burgfeldenaes, Leip-
sic, 1713; Ewelt. Die Anfdnge der BurgfOder Benedik-
tintr-Kongregation, in Zeitachrift /Qr vaierlAndiache Oe-
achichte, 3d aeries, yoI. v., MQnater, 1865. Consult Heim-
bucher, Orden und KongrtoaHonen, L 141-144, 169, 196.
BURT, WILLIAM: Methodist Episcopal bishop;
b. at Padstow (38 m. n.w. of Fl3rmouth), Cornwall,
England, Oct. 23, 1852. He was educated at
Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. (B.A.,
1879), and Drew Theological Seminary, Madison,
N. J. (1881). He entered the New York East
Conference in 1881, and after being successively
pastor of St. Paul's Church, Brooklyn (1881^83),
and the De Kalb Avenue Church in the same city
(1883-86), he was transferred to the Italy Con-
ference and made presiding elder of the Milan
district. He then resided in Florence from 1888
to 1890, when he removed to Rome, where he re-
mained fourteen years, having charge of the Meth-
odist Episcopal churches and schools of Italy and
establishing several churches and schools, as well
as a publishing house and two colleges. He was
a delegate to the Ecumenical Methodist Conference
at London in 1901, and to the General Conference
of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1892, 1896,
1900, and 1904. He was also a fraternal delegate
to the Irish Conference at Belfast in 1906 and to
the British Conference at Nottingham in the same
year. In theology he is an orthodox, though
liberal, member of his denomination. In 1904 he
was elected bishop by the General Conference at
Los Angeles, Cal. Since that time he has resided
in Europe, with special jurisdiction over the Meth-
odists of the Continent. He was created a cavalier
of the Order of Mauritius and Lazarus in 1903,
and is the author of several works in Italian, and
in 1889 founded the Italian weekly U Evangelista.
BURTON, ASA: Congregational minister; b.
at Stonington, Conn.. Aug. 25, 1752; d. at Thet-
ford, Vt., May 1, 1836. He was graduated at
Barton
Buaoh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
816
Dartmouth, 1777; ordained zninister at Thetford,
1779, and spent his life there, laboring for the
spiritual, social, and material welfare of the com-
munity in the way of the old-fashioned New Eng-
land clergyman. It is said that he trained sixty
young men for the ministry. He published Essays
on Some of the First PrincipUs of Metaphysics,
Ethics, and Theology (Portland, Me., 1824).
Bibuographt: A Memoir by Thonuw Adams was printed
in Th0 American Qtuuierly Regi$Ur, x. 321-341. Boston,
1838.
BURTON, EDWARD: Church of England pa-
tristic scholar and church historian; b. at Shrews-
bury Feb. 13, 1794; d. at Ewelme (10 m. s.e. of
Oxford) Jan. 19, 1836. He studied at Christ
Church, Oxford (B.A., 1816; M.A., 1818; D.D.,
1829); became curate of Pettenhall, Staffordshire,
1815; went to the Continent in 1818 and worked
in the libraries of France and Italy; took up his
residence at Oxford 1824, and in 1829 became
regius professor of divinity. Among the more
important of his works are: TesHmonies of the Ante-
Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ (Oxford,
1826); Inquiry into the Heresies of the Apostolic
Age (Bampton lectures, 1829); The Greek Testa-
ment with English Notes (2 vols., 1831); Testi-
monies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine
of the Trinity and of the Divinity of the Holy Ohost
(1831); Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of
the First Three Centuries (2 vols., 1831-33). His
edition of the Historia ecdeaiastica of Eusebius
appeared after his death (text, 1838; again 1856
and 1872; notes by Heinichen, Leipsic, 1840).
Bibuographt: His collected works, with memoir, were
published at Oxford in 5 vols.. 1846.
BURTON, ERNEST DE WITT: Baptist; b. at
Granville, O., Feb. 4, lS5p, He was educated at
Denison University, Granville, O. (B.A., 1876),
and Rochester Theological Seminary (1882), and
also studied at the universities of Leipsic (1887)
and Berlin (1894). He was an instructor in Kala-
mazoo College, Kalamazoo, Mich., in 1876-77,
and a teacher in the public schools of Xenia and
Norwood, O., in 1877-79. In 1882 he was appointed
instructor in New Testament Greek in Rochester
Theological Seminary, but in the following year
was called to Newton Theological Institution as
associate professor of New Testament interpre-
tation, and was full professor there from 1886 to
1892. In the latter year he went to the University
of Chicago as professor of New Testament litera-
ture and interpretation, and head of the depart-
ment of Biblical and patristic Greek, a position
which he still holds. He has been a member of
the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis
since 1883 and of the Chicago Society of Biblical
Research since 1892. In theology and Biblical
criticism his attitude is that of a conservative
progressive. He has been associate editor of the
Biblical World since 1892 and of the American
Journal of Theology since 1897. He has also written :
Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament
Greek (Chicago, 1893); Harmony of the Gospels
for Historical Study (New York, 1894; in collabo-
ration with W. A. Stevens); Handbook of the Life
of Christ (1894; in collaboration with W. A. Ste-
vens) ; Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age ( 1895) ;
Handbook of the Life of Paul (Chicago, 1899); Con-
structive Studies in the Life of Christ (1901; in
collaboration with S. Mathews); Principlee and
Ideals of the Sunday School (1903; in collaboration
with S. Mathews); Short Introduction to the Gospels
(1904); Studies in the Gospel of Mark (1904); and
Some Principles of Literary Criticism and their
Application to the Synoptic Problem (1904).
BURTON, LEWIS WILLIAM: Protestant Epis-
copal bishop of Lexington, Ky.; b. at Cleveland,
O., Nov. 9, 1852. He was educated at Kcj^-
yon College, Gambier, O. (B.A., 1873), and at the
Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
Philadelphia, from which he was graduated in 1877.
He was ordered deacon in 1877 and was priested
in 1878. He was successively curate and rector
of AU Saints', Cleveland, 1877-80, of St. Mark's,
aeveland, 1881-84, rector of St. John's, Richmond,
Va., 1884-93, and rector of St. Andrew's, Louis-
ville, Ky., 1893-96. In 1896 he was consecrated
bishop of Lexington. While in Virginia, he was
an examining chaplain to the bishop of that dio-
cese. He is now a trustee of Kenyon College and
of the University of the South, as well as a member
of the Joint Commission of the General Convention
on Christian Education. In theology he beloxigs
to the conservative school. His publications in-
clude sermons, charges, contributions to period-
icals, and the section on the annals of Henrico Par-
ish, Va., in J. S. Moore's Virginiana (Richmond,
1904).
BURTON, ROBERT: Author of the Anatomy
of Melancholy; b. at Lindley (20 m. eji.e. of
Birmingham), Leicestershire, Feb. 8, 1577; d. at
Oxford Jan. 25, 1640. He studied at Brasenose
and Christ Church, Oxford (B.D., 1614); became
vicar of St. Thomas, in the west suburbs of Oxford,
1616, and in addition, about 1630, rector of Se-
grave, Leicestershire. His life was spent among
his books at Oxford; Anthony Wood, a generation
after his death, describes him as a good mathema-
tician, a philologist, and astrologer, a hard student
and well-read scholar, considered by some melan-
choly and morose, but by those who knew him
better esteemed for honesty and charity, and as a
merry and genial companion. His famous work
(Oxford, 1621), which is a vast collection of quo-
tations and allusions, abundantly proves his learn-
ing. Five editions appeared during Biuiion's life,
each with many alterations and additions and
a sixth was printed from his annotated manuscript
(1651-52). The edition of 1800 contains an ac-
coimt of the author. There is a modem edition
by A. R. Shilleto, with introduction by A. H. Bullen
(London, 1893). The Philosophaster is a Latin
comedy written in 1606 and acted at Christ Church
on Shrove Monday (Feb. 16), 1618; with certain
Latin poemata it was printed for the Roxburghe
Club (London, 1862).
Biblioorapht: Besides the Memoir in the ed. of 1800, ecm-
suit: A. k Wood, Athena Oxonieneea, ed. P. Bliss, IL 652-
653. 4 vols., London. 1813-20; J. Nichols. Hietory and
Antiquitiea of the County of Leiceeter, vol. iii., part i., pp.
415-410. 4 Yols., London, 1705-1811. The aeoonnt in
DNB, viii. 12-14 describes rather the book than the i
317
REUGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
orton
BURWASH, NATHAITIEL: Methodist Episco-
palian; b. at Argenteuil, Quebec, July 25, 1839.
Se was educated at Victoria College, Cobourg, Ont.
CB.A., 1859), Yale CoUege, and Garrett BibUcal
Institute, Evanston, III. (B.D., 1871). He entered
^he Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1860, and after
acting as classical tutor in Victoria College in 1860-
1861, held pastorates until 1866, when he was re-
csalled to Victoria College as professor of natural
sdenoe. He was made dean of the theological
faculty in the same institution in 1873, and since
1887 has been its president and chancellor. He
is also a member of the senate and council of the
University of Toronto and of the council of edu-
cation for the province of Ontario. He has been
a member of successive general conferences of his
denomination since 1874, and was president of the
one held in 1889-90, in addition to being secretary
of education for the Methodist Episcopal Church
in Canada from 1874 to 1886. He has written:
Memoriala of Edward and Lydia Jackson (Toronto,
1876); Genesis, Nature, and Results of Sin (1878);
Wesley's Doctrinal Standards (1881); Relation of
Children to the FaU, the Atonement, and the Church
{ISS2); Handbook ontheEpistleto the Romans (IS87);
Inductive Studies in Theology (1896); Manual of
Christian Theology (1900); Life and Times of Eger-
ton Ryerson (1902); and The Development of the
University of Toronto as a Provincial Institution
(1905).
BURT, RICHARD DE: Bishop of Durham; b.
at Bury St. Edmunds (61 m. n.e. of London) 1281,
the son of Sir Richard Aungerville; d. at Auckland
(11 m. s.w. of Durham) Apr. 14, 1345. He studied
at Oxford, then entered the Benedictine order at
Durham, became tutor to the future Edward III.,
who on his accession (1327) entrusted various
offices o him, and sent him twice to Pope John
XXII. as embassador, and later in the same, ca-
pacity to Paris, Hainault, and Germany, and as
conunissioner for the affairs of Scotland. He was
made dean of Wells, and the same year (1333)
bishop of Durham. Useful as he was to the king
and his ooimtry as a diplomat, and able as he was
as an ecclesiastic, he is remembered solely as a
bibliophile, perhaps the earliest in England worthy
of the name. He has no claim to be considered
a scholar, but he loved books and used all his per-
sonal and official influence in their accumulation.
Wherever he was, he was on the lookout for MSS.,
and he also had agents on the Continent in the
search for them. So he had more books than all
the other En^ish bbhops put together. Some of
these MSS. he stored in his palace, others he is said
to have deposited in the library he founded in
Oxford in connection with Dwham College (on
the site of the present Trinity College). His love
of books comes out in that bibliophile's delight,
the Philabiblon (first published at Cologne, 1473,
next at ^)eyer, 1483, and in Paris, 1500). It has
been often republished, the best edition, having both
the Latin text and an English translation, being
by Ernest C. Thomas (London, 1888), and Mr.
Thomas's translation was reprinted 1902.
Dibuoorapht: Sources for a biocrsphy are: H. Wharton,
Anglia Sacra, i. 705 eqq., London, 1691; Hutorim Dunet-
men»ea, edited for the Surteee Society by J. Raine, Dui^
ham, 1839; T. Rymer, Fcddera, vol. ii., best ed., London,
1816. Consult also DNB, yiii. 26-27.
BUSCH, JAN: Dutch monastic reformer; b.
at Zwolle (52 m. e.n.e. of Amsterdam) Aug. 9,
1399; d. at SUlte, near Hildesheim, c. 1480. Edu-
cated first in the school of Zwolle, which then,
under its famous rector Cele, numbered about a
thousand students, he went to Erfurt at the age of
eighteen to study law; but his inclination was
for the monastic life, and in 1419 he entered the
Windesheim house, of which Vos was then prior.
He labored diligently to overcome theoretical
doubts by study of the Scriptures and spiritual
writers, and to form himself practically in the devout
life. Vos, on his death-bed, exhorted him to con-
stancy in reforming zeal, and he was soon sent to
B6dingen near Cologne, where he was ordained
priest. He remained four years at BOdingen, and
then, after a short stay in the mother house,
received a more difficult commission, being sent
to Ludinkerken in East Friesland, where conditions
of shocking laxity prevailed, but the great papal
schism, a contested episcopal election, and his own
weak health prevented him from accomplishing
much there. After some years of comparative
rest, he began his more important work in 1437
as subprior of the reformed monastery of Witten-
berg near Hildesheim, which was to extend over
a large part of Germany and to embrace especially,
in the spirit of the Coimcil of Basel, the reform
of the Augustinian convents of both sexes, par-
ticulariy in Saxony. Working in harmony with
the Bursfelde Congregation (q.v.), he began with
the neighboring monastery of Suite, of which he took
charge himself, with the title of provost, commonly
used in Saxony instead of prior. His success in
restoring discipline there induced the archbishop
of Magdeburg in 1446 to place in his hands the Pre-
monstratensian house of Our Lady in the same city.
In the following year he became provost of the
rich NeuxDerkstift at Halle, combining with it the
office of archdeacon, which gave him authority
over 700 secular priests. After the plague of 1450,
he went on to Glauchau, where he enjoyed the
powerful support of his friend Nicholas of Cusa,
who had been sent to Germany as cardinal-legate
with special reference to monastic reform. After
a provincial synod at Bergen, the legate entrusted
Busch with the oversight of this work in the entire
province, giving him full power to inspect all monas-
teries and reform whatever disorders he found,
taking the Windesheim statutes as a standard.
He went vigorously to work in Halle, Leipsic, and
Halberstadt, but in 1452 the opposition aroused
by his zeal led to demands for his removal being
laid before the pope and the archbishop. At first
they were fruitless, but when Busch found the
archbishop cooling toward him, he resigned his
office of provost, still retaining his powers as visi-
tor. In 1456 he went to attend a general chapter
at Windesheim, and remained there several years,
living as a simple brother and employing the time
in literary work. He wrote the lives of the first
twenty-four brothers and of his teacher Cele (Liber
de viris iilustribus de Windeshem), as well as a chron-
Busembaum
Butler
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
318
icle of the house and congregation. He took up
active work again as provost of Sttlte, and exer-
cised his visitatorial powers over a still wider field,
at the same time writing an account of his work
which is of some value. He resigned his office as
provost in 1479, and probably died in the following
year. His Chronicon Windeshemense was first
printed by Heribert Rosweyde at Antwerp in 1621,
and an incomplete edition of his four books De re-
formatiane monaatenorum was prepared by G. W.
von Leibnitz, in Scriptnres rerum Brunsvicenaium
(3 vols., Hanover, 1707-11); an excellent modem
edition, with introduction and notes, is that of K.
Grube (Halle, 1886). A few smaller works, let-
ters, and sermons, have recently been discovered
and published by J. M. WOstenhoff (Ghent, 1890).
L. SCHULZE.
Bxblioobapht: The Bouroes for a life are best diBoovered
in hifl own writings: Chronicon WindMhemenM, ed. K.
Grube, Halle, 1886; Liber de reformatione monaateriorum,
ed. Grube, with the Chronicon^ ut sup. (contains a brief
life by the editor). Consult also: K. Grube, Johannea
BuscA, Augtutinerpropat xu Hildeaheifn^ Freiburg, 1881;
Kerkgeaehiedenia van Nederlande voor de Hervorming, vol.
ii., part 2, pp. 115. 221 sqq., 349. Utrecht, 1871; J. G. R.
Acquoy, Het Klooater te Windeaheim en aijn invloed, 3
vols., ib. 1875; L. Schulse, Dea Johannea Buach biaher
unbekannte Schriften, in ZKG, xi. (1890) 586-596.
BnSEMBAnM(BnS£NBAnM), HERMANN: Ger-
man Jesuit, casuist; b. at Nottelen (a village of
Westphalia) 1600; d. at MUnster Jan. 31, 1668.
He was a teacher at Cologne, and afterward
rector at Hildesheim and MQnster. His text-book
of casuistry, entitled Medulla thedogice moralis
(Manster, 1645), in seven books, ran through 200
editions before 1776, although it caused offense
when it was published with a commentary in 1710.
The book contained the Jesuitic teachings on
regicide, and in France, when an attempt wajs made
to assassinate Louis XIV., the matter was brought
before the courts. The Paris parliament was
satisfied with simply condemning the book, while
that of Toulouse had it publicly burned and held
the principals of institutions who used it respon-
sible. Meanwhile the moral theology of the Me-
dulla was incorporated in the classical text-book
of the order of Redemptorists, edited by Liguori.
Busembaum's lAlium inter spinas (Cologne, 1660)
is ascetic in character. K. Benrath.
Biblioobapht: J. J. I. Ddllinger and F.. H. Reuach, Ge-
achiehia der MoralatreitigkeHen, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1890;
F. H. ReuBch, Index der verbotenen BUcher, ii. 826, 896,
898, 920.
BUSH, GEORGE: American Swedenborgian;
b. at Norwich, Vt., June 12, 1796; d. at Rochester,
N. Y., Sept. 19, 1859. He was graduated at Dart-
mouth, 1818; studied at Princeton Theological
Seminary, 1820-22; was tutor in Princeton College,
1822-23; went to Indiana for the Home Missionary
Society in 1824 and was pastor of a Presbyterian
church at Indianapolis 1825-28; professor of He-
brew and Oriental literature in the University of
the aty of New York 1831-47; instructor of sacred
literature in Union Theological Seminary in the
same city 1836-37. In 1845 he connected himself
with the Swedenborgians and was preacher of the
New Church Society in New York 1848-52, in
Brooklyn 1854-59. He was an active defender
of the tenets of his faith with both pen s:yi
voice, and edited the New Church Repository cm
Monthly Review 1848-55. His writings on otbcr
subjects include: Life of Mohammed (New Yock.
1832); A Treatise on the Millennium (1832); A
Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1835); Sc4n
Critical and Practical on the Old Testament (Gei>-
esis-Judges, 8 vols., 1840 sqq.); Anastasis (1845;
against the doctrine of the resurrection of the body.
He was justly esteemed as a Hebrew scholar.
Biblxooraprt: Memoira and Reminiaeenaea of Geicrge BuJl
a collection of contributions from friends, edited by Wood-
bury M. Femald, Boston, 1860.
BUSHNELL, HORACE: Ck>ngregationalist>; b.
at Litchfield, Conn., Apr. 14, 1802; d. in Hartfoni
Conn., Feb. 17, 1876. He was graduated at Ysk
College, 1827; after an interval spent in teaching
and journalism, he returned (1829) to study law in
the Yale Law School, but after two years, during
which he was a tutor in the college, was converted
and studied for the ministry in the Yale Divinity
School and graduated in the class of 1833. He
was pastor of the North Church, Hartford, Conn.,
from May 22, 1833, till Nov. 22, 1859, when he re-
signed on accoimt of his health, though he con-
tinued his ministrations with undiminished power.
His distinction rests upon several great works:
(1) His Christian Nurture (Hartford, 1846)— a con-
tribution of the first rank to religious thought — in
which he drew attention away from revivals to the
training of children in Christian households as the
law of growth in the Church. (2) His doctrine of
the " Instrumental Trinity " (Ood in Christ, New
York, 1849), showing affinities with Sabellianism,
but lifting the idea of the Trinity out of the region
of speculation and making it available for actual
life (see Christology, IX., 3, § 4). (3) His su-
preme emphasis on ethical and religious values and
his refusal of metaphysics; here he anticipates the
Ritschlian attitude, the ground of which for him
lay not in philosophy, but in a theory of language
{" Dissertation on Language," in God in Christ ;
" Our Gospel a Gift to the Imagination," in Budd-
ing Eras, New York, 1881) and in a profound
Christian experience. (4) His moral view of the
Atonement (q.v.), " grounded in principles of uni-
versal obligation " and universal vicariousness,
later modified by the idea of God as propitiating
himself in the forgiveness of the sinner {The Vi-
carious Sacrifice^ New York, 1865; Forgiveness and
Law, ib. 1874 — ^the two volumes published under
the title The Vicarious Sacrifice, 1877). (5) In
apologetics Bushnell related " Miracles " to " Law,"
and drew his matchless picture of " The Character
of Jesus Forbidding his Possible Classification with
Men " {Nature and the Supernatural, New York,
1858). (6) Many of his sermons are unsurpassed
for insight, feeling, imagination, noble thought, and
splendor of diction. Yet by his own generation he
was generally called a heretic; and for his con-
denmation there was a demand throughout the
American orthodox churches! In 1849 and 1851
he was actually accused of heresy in formal fashion,
and still more savagely attacked after 1866, but
his congregation stood by him and he was not
tried. The present generation in America ven-
310
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Basembaiun
Butler
erates him as one of the molders of religious opin-
ion, and has been influenced by him more perhaps
thaji it knows. A centenary edition of his works
appieared in twelve volumes (New York, 1903).
BniL.ioGRAPBT: H. C. Trumbull, in My Fotw Religioua Teach-
erm, Philadelphia. 1003; M. B. Cheney. lAfe and Lettera of
Home* Buahnell, New York, 1880 (by his daughter);
T. T. Hunger, Horace Buahnell, Preacher and Theologian,
Boston, 1899. Hia Spirit in Man, Sermons and Selec-
Hona was published in a centenary ed., with classified
and annotated literature, by H. B. Learned, New York,
1Q03.
BUTLER, ALB AN: English Roman Catholic;
b. at Appletree (70 m. n.w. of London), Northamp-
tonshire, Oct. 24, 1710; d. at St. Omer (22 m. s.e.
of Calais), France, May 15, 1773. He was edu-
cated at Douai and became professor there of phi-
losophy and divinity; was ordained priest, 1735;
traveled through France and Italy, 1745-46, and
then was sent for a short time to the Roman Cath-
olic mission in Staffordshire. Later he was tutor
to Edward Howard, duke of Norfolk, and accom-
panied him to Paris; about 1766 he became presi-
dent of the English college at St. Omer. He
labored for thirty years on his chief work. The
Lives of the FatherSf Martifraj and Other Principal
SairUSf which was published anonymously in four
volumes (vol. iii., 2 parts) at London, 1756-59.
The second edition, with notes and other matter
omitted in the first edition, edited by Dr. Carpen-
ter, archbishop of Dublin, appeared at Dublin in
twelve volumes in 1779-80. It has appeared in
several later editions and abridgments (as by F.
C. Husenbeth, with omission of the notes and most
of the shorter lives, 2 vols., London, 1857-60), and
was translated into French and Italian. His
nephew, Charles Butler (q.v.), prepared a continua-
tion (London, 1823). A complete general index was
published in 1886.
Biblioorapht: Charles Butler, An Account of the Life and
WriHnae of Alban Butler, Edinburgh, 1800, contained also
in vol. iii. of the works of Chailes Butler, London, 1817,
and in many editions of the Livea; DNB, viii. 33-34.
BUTLER, ALFORD AUGUSTUS: Protestant
Episcopalian; b. at Portland, Me., Sept. 23, 1845.
He was educated at Griswold College, Davenport,
la., where he completed his theological education
in 1873. He was ordered deacon in the same year,
and was ordained priest in 1874. He was suc-
cessively assistant in Grace Cathedral, Davenport,
la. (1873), and rector of Grace Church, Cedar
Rapids, la. (1873-77), Trinity Church, Bay City,
Mich. (1877-84), Church of the Epiphany, New
York City (1884-91), and Christ Church, Red Wing,
Minn. (1891-94). Since 1894 he has been warden
and professor of homiletics, liturgies, and religious
pedagogy in Seabury Divinity School, Faribault,
Minn. He was active in organizing the Parochial
Mission Society of the United States, and was
chosen secretary of its executive conmiittee, and
also took a prominent part in establishing the first
deaconess school in the Protestant Episcopal
Church. He is likewise a member of the Joint
(Commission on Sunday Schools and of the General
Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
He has written: Hoxd to Study the Life of Christ
(New York, 1902); How shall we warship God f
(1904); and The Churchman* s Manual of Sunday
School Methods (Milwaukee, 1906).
BUTLER, ALFRED JOSHUA: Church of Eng-
land layman; b. at Loughborough (10 m. n.n.w. of
Leicester), Leicestershire, Sept. 21, 1850. He was
educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1874),
and after being assistant master at Winchester
from 1874 to 1879, was tutor to the Khedive of
Egypt in 1879-81. He was elected fellow of Brase-
nose College, Oxford, in 1877, and was appointed
bursar four years later, both of which positions
he still holds. He has written: Amaranth and As-
phodel, Verses from the Greek Anthology (London,
1880); Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1884); Court Life in Egypt (London, 1887);
The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and some
neighboring Countries attributed to Abu Salih, the
Armenian (1895, in collaboration with B. T. A.
Evetts); and The Arab Conquest of Egypt (London,
1902).
BUTLER, CHARLES: English Roman Catholic
layman; nephew of Alban Butler (q.v.); b. in
London Aug. 14, 1750; d. there June 2, 1832. He
studied at Douai, and for many years was a leading
lawyer of London. He was prominent in the
movement to secure the repeal of the laws against
Roman Catholics; in regard to the hierarchy and
the relations of English Catholics to the pope he
was an extreme Gallican, and found bitter opponents
in the vicars-ai)ostolic in England. He was a
voluminous writer; among the more important
of his works are Hora hiblicce (2 pts., London, 1797-
1802); Historical Memoirs respecting the English,
Irish, and Scottish Catholics from the Reformation
(4 vols., 1819-21); Reminiscences (1822); The Book
of the Roman Catholic Church (1825); biographies
of Alban Bulter (1800), F^nelon (1811), Erasmus
(1825), Grotius (1826), and others. He continued
his uncle's Lives of the Saints.
BUTLER, CLEMENT MOORE: American Epis-
copalian; b. at Troy, N. Y., Oct. 16, 1810; d. in
Philadelphia Mar. 5, 1890. He was graduated at
Washington (Trinity) College 1833, and at the
General Theological Seminary, New York, 1836;
was rector of various churches in New York, the
District of Columbia, Massachusetts, and Ohio
1837-61, and from 1849 to 1853 chaplain of the
United States Senate; chaplain of the United
States embassy at Rome 1861-64; professor of
church history in the Protestant Episcopal Divinity
School, Philadelphia, 1864-84. Besides occasional
sermons, he published: The Year of the Church,
hymns and devotional verse for the Sundays and
Holy Days of the ecclesiastical year for young persona
(Utica, N. Y., 1839); The Book of Common Prayer
Interpreted by its History (Boston, 1845; 2d ed.,
enlarged, Washington, 1849); Addresses and Lec-
tures on Public Men and Public Affairs delivered
in Washington City (Cincinnati, 1856); The Flock
Fed, catechetical instruction preparatory to con-
firmation (New York, 1862); Inner Rome, political,
religious, and social (Philadelphia, 1866); The Rit-
ualism of Law (1867); A Manual of Ecclesiastical
History (from the first to the nineteenth century;
2 vols., 1868-72); History of the Book of Common
Butlar
Battlar
THE NEW aCHAFF-HERZOG
820
Prayer (1880); History of the Reformation in Svoe-
den (New York, 1883).
BUTLER, HENRY MONTAGXTE: Bfaster of
Trinity College, Cambridge; b. at Gayton (4 m.
n. of Towcester), Northampton, July 2, 1833. He
was educated at Trinity College (B.A.; 1855),
and wajB ordained priest in 1859. He was fellow
of his college in 1855-60, and was head master of
Harrow School from 1859 to 1885. He was honor-
ary chaplain to the queen in 1875-77 and chaplain
in ordisuBuy in 1877-85, as well as examining chap-
lain to ardibishops Tait and Benson of Canterbury
from 1879 to 1887. He was also prebendary of
Holbom in St. Paul's Cathedral in 1882-85, dean
of Gloucester in 1885-86, and vice-chancellor of
Cambridge in 1889-91. Since 1886 he has been
master of Trinity College, and honorary canon of
Ely since 189S. He was select preacher at Oxford
in 1877-78, 1878-80, 1882, and 1899, and at Cam-
bridge in 1879, 1885, 1893, 1896-98, 1901, and 1903,
while in 1871 he was created a commander of the
Order of the Crown of Italy. He is also a governor
of Haileybury College, Harrow School, Cheltenham
College, Wellington College, and Westminster
School, and has written: Sermons preached in the
Chapel of Harrow School (2 vols., London, 1861-69);
Belief in Christ and other Sermons preached in
Trinity College (1898); "Lift up your Hearts'* :
Words of Oood Cheer for the Holy Communion (1898);
University and other Sermons (1899); and Public
School Sermons (1899).
BUTLER, JAMES GLENTWORTH: Presby-
terian; b. at Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1821. He
was educated at New York University (did not
graduate), Union Theological Seminary (1846-47),
and Yale Divinity School, being graduated from
the latter in 1849. After being a resident licentiate
at the same institution in 1849-50, he was ordained
to the Presbyterian ministry late in 1852 and was
pastor of the Walnut Street Presbyterian Church,
Philadelphia, Pa., imtil 1868. He was then elected
corresponding secretary of the American and For-
eign Christian Union, a position which he retained
three years, after which he was pastor of the
First Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, for two years
(1871-73). In 1874 he jetired from the active
ministry, and has since lived the life of a private
scholar. In addition to a nimiber of briefer con-
tributions, he prepared The Bible Reader's Com"
mentary, New Testament (2 vols., New York, 1879),
which was afterward enlarged under the title
Bible Work (11 vols., 1892) and made to include
the Old Testament; and Vital Truths respecting
Ood and Man (Philadelphia, 1904).
BUTLER, JOHN GEORGE: Lutheran; b. at
Cumberland, Md., Jan. 28, 1826. He was edu-
cated at Pennsylvania College (1846) and Gettys-
biu-g Theological Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa (1847-
1849), and was pastor of St. Paul's English Lutheran
Church, Washington, D. C, from 1849 to 1873. Since
the latter year he has been pastor of the Luther
Place Memorial Church in the same city. He also
served throughout the Civil War as a chaplain in
and near Washington, was chaplain of the House
of Representatives from 1869 to 1875, and of the
Senate from 1866 to 1893. He was likewise pro-
fessor of homiletics and church history in Howard
University, Washington, from 1871 to 1891, and
for many years was Washington correspondent of
the Lutheran's Observer and the Lutheran Evangel-
istf and has also been the editor of the latter paper
since 1893.
BUTLER, JOSEPH: Bishop of Durham; b. at
Wantage (14 m. s.w. of Oxford) May 18, 1692; d.
at Bath June 16, 1752. He was the youngest of
the eight children of Thomas Butler, a retired
linen-draper and stanch Presbyterian, but was
allowed to enter Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1718
the ministry of the Church of Eng^d. From
1719 to 1726 he was preacher at the Rolls Chapel,
London, where most of the congregation were
lawyers and the pay small; from 1721 to 1738 he
was prebendary of Salisbury; from 1721 to 1725,
rector of Haughton-le-Skeme (2 m. n.e. of Dar-
lington); and from 1725 to 1740 of Stanhope (26 m.
p. of Darlington). From 1733 to 1740 he was a preb-
endary of Rochester; from 1733 to 1736 chaplain
to the lord chancellor; from 1736 to her death in
1737 clerk of the closet to Caroline, queen consort
of George II.; from 1738 to 1750 bishop of Bristol,
the poorest see in England; from 1740 to 1750
dean of St. Paul's with a prebend and residentiary
canony; from 1746 to 1750 clerk of the closet to
the King (George II.); from 1750 till his death,
bishop of Durham, the richest see in England. As
appears from the above, he was a pluralist. He
was not, however, avaricious, but generous to a
fault. He was shy, reticent, sensitive, more of a
thinker than a reader, and he never married. His
one great aim was to combat the current Deiam
and contempt for religion. This he did with un-
rivaled force. He had the very expensive taste
of building and spent much money in reconstruct-
ing his episcopal residences.
His reputation rests upon his writings, all pub-
lished by himself or in his lifetime, as his literary
remains were destroyed at his death, according to
his direction. These writings are few in number
but weighty in matter. ThiB is the full list: Fif-
teen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel (1726);
The Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to
the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736); six
occasional sermons of various dates; a part of his
episcopal charge at Bristol in 1749, and his episco-
pal charge at Durham in 1751; and the corre-
spondence, down to 1714, between himself and
Samuel Clarke, which the latter published in the
fourth edition (1716) of his Boyle lectures on the
Being and Attributes of God, and separately the
same year, but which has received additions.
To understand and appreciate these writings of
Butler one must bear in mind two facts: Butler
lived in the " golden age of En^h Deism," when
Christianity, as he himself says, was " not so much
as a subject of inquiry; but that it is, now at
length, discovered to be fictitious "; and secondly
that he was intensely practical. He wrote his
famous Fifteen Sermons, as J. H. Bernard says,
" not to propound a new basis for speculative
ethics, but to justify to practical men the practice
sax
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Butler
Bnttlar
of the oommon virtues, benevolence, compassion,
and the like. He desires to take human nature
as an existing fact, and to analyze its constitu-
ents just so far as is necessary to bring to light the
obligations to right living/' His Six Sermons are
likewise practical: The first is a defense of foreign
missions; the second is an appeal for the London
hospitals; the third is on the true way to safeguard
liberty; the fourth is a plea for charity schools;
the fifth is upon the uses to which the union of
Church and State should be put, and the sixth
upon the proper management of infirmaries. Of
like practicality is his more famous Analogy. He
took the Deists on their own ground and strove to
cut the ground from imder their feet in order that
he might bring them to the Christian foimdation.
To quote Bernard again: '' We find in Butler's
worl^ no attempt to construct a philosophy
of religion nor ... an analysis of the religious
consciousness. . . . Religion is treated altogether
from the historical point of view. Its main doc-
trines are facts and are susceptible of proof, just
like any other facts. ... It is an argumentum ad
hominem all through, and is not intended to pre-
sent an absolute and consecutive statement of the
grounds of faith. . . . His point was, not that the
difficulties of revelation repeat the difficulties of
nature, but rather the difficulties of revelation,
admitted to be embarrassing in themselves, cannot
be ooimted destructive of religious belief, inasmuch
as difficulties of a similar nature beset the recog-
nition of nature as a coherent and systematic
whole."
The first part of the Analogy, consisting of seven
chapters, is the Analogy of Natiiral Religion to the
constitution and course of Nature; and b gener-
ally considered more successful than the second
part, in eight chapters, on the Analogy of Revealed
Religion to the constitution and course of Nature
(or a kind of evidences of Christianity). But both
parts are very hard reading, because, though per-
fectly clear, the argument is very profound. It has
been a college and university text-book for nigh
175 years and the quarry of innumerable works.
There are many editions of Butler. Two of re-
markable excellence are that by the late W. E.
Gladstone (two vols., Oxford, 1896, with a volume
of Gladstone's Studies subsidiary to Butler's works)
and that by J. H. Bernard (2 vols., London, 1900).
Dibliooraprt: The earliest Life appeared in the Biofpra^
jthia Britanniea, in the Supplement, London, 1753, and
the Life by Kippis, which appeared in hia ed. of the Bi-
ograpKia, London, 1778-03, ib often prefixed to the Worke
or to the Analogy. Consult further: T. Bartlett, Memoire
of Joeeph BuUer, London, 1839; John Hunt, Rdiffioue
Thoughi in England, vols, ii., iii.. ib. 1871-73; C. J. Abbey
and J. H. Overton, Englieh Church in the Eighteenth Cen-
tury, 2 vols., ib. 1878; T. R. Pynohon. Biehop Butler, a
Sketdi ef his Life wiJIh an Examination of the Analogy,
New Yofk, 1889; Biahop BulUr, An AppreciaUon, wiOi
(ke bMf pMsofiM of his WriAnoe, London, 1903; DNB,
viii. 07-72:
BUTLER, WILLIAM: Methodist; b. in Dublin,
Ireland, Jan. 31, 1818; d. at Newton Centre, Mass.
Aug. 18, 1899. He was graduated at Didsbury
0)llege, near Manchester, Eng., 1844, and the same
year became a member of the Irish Wesleyan Con-
ference. In 1850 he came to America and joined
U.— 21
the New England Conference. In 1856 he was
sent to India to be superintendent of a mission to
be foimded in that country. He located it in
Oudh, Northwest India, but had scarcely begun
work before the Sepoy rebellion broke out and he
was for a time in extreme peril. Quiet being re-
stored, he conducted the mission very successfully,
making his headquarters at Bareilly. In 1865 he re-
turned to America because, the mission being organ-
ized into a conference, no superintendent was needed.
He resumed his pastoral labors till in 1869 he became
secretary of the American and Foreign Christian
Union, in New York. In 1873 he was for the sec-
ond time selected by his Church to found a mission,
this time in Mexico, and was its superintendent till
1879. He revisited India in 1883 and 1884, and
saw the great success which had attended the mis-
sion he had founded. His last days were passed at
Newton Centre, Mass. He wrote: Comperuiium of
Missions (Boston, 1852); The Land of the Veda
(New York, 1872); From Boston to BareiUy and
Back (1885); Mexico in Transition (1892).
Bibliookapht: Clementina Butler. WUliam BuOer, th*
Founder of Two Mieeione of the M. E. Church, New York,
1902.
BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER: Chureh of
Ireland; b. at Annerville (2 m. e. of Clonmel),
Coimty Tipperary, 1814; d. at Raymoghy (5 m. n.
of Raphoe), County Donegal, Jidy 5, 1848. He
studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and was pro-
fessor of moral philosophy there from 1837 to his
death. From 1837 to 1842 he was minister at
Clondehorka, diocese of Raphoe, County Donegal,
and then rector of Raymoghy in the same diocese.
He was a brilliant and profoimd thinker, but his
works are all posthumous and prepared for the
press by others. They are Letters on the Develop-
ment of Christian Doctrine in Reply to Mr. New-
man's Essay (ed. Thomas Woodward, Dublin,
1850); Lectures on the History of Ancient Philos-
ophy (ed. William Hepworth Thompson, 2 vols.,
Cambridge, 1856, 5th ed., 1 vol., London, 1874);
Sermons Doctrinal and Practical (1st series, ed. with
memoir by Thomas Woodward, Dublin, 1849, 3d
ed., Cambridge, 1855; 2d series, ed. James Ami-
raux Jeremie, Cambridge, 1856), each series having
twenty-six sermons; the two series with his lec-
tures were reprinted in New York, 1879.
BUTTERBRIEFE, BUTTERWOCHE. See Lao-
TICINIA..
BUTTLARy EVA VON : The leader in a disgrace-
ful aberration externally connected with Pietism,
which is in no way responsible for it; b. at Esch-
wege (26 m. e.s.e. of Cassel), Hesse, 1670; d. at
Altona after 1717. Eklucated without religious in-
struction, she married at seventeen a French dan-
cing-master in Eisenach, named De Vdsias. After
ten years of a gay court life, she was touched
by the Pietistic movement, left her husband,
stopped going to church, and in 1702, with a group
of friends, founded at Allendorf in Hesse a new
Christian-Philadelphio society, like several others
which had sprung up in the Netherlands and west-
em Germany. The esoteric doctrine of these so-
cieties included the expectation of an approach-
Bai
lutts
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
322
ing milleimiuin, the rejection of marriage as
degrading, and the extinction of carnal desires by
unrestrained indulgence. Eva and her friends are
said to have practised the most lawless excesses, as
sanctioned by their beliefs. Driven from Allen-
dorf, they sought refuge in Wittgenstein, the com-
mon asylum of the persecuted; but even there the
tribunals were obliged to interfere. Eva and her
special intimates, the theologian Winter and the
physician Appenfeller, embraced Catholicism at
Cologne pro forma as a means of protection, and
then settled at LQde near Pyrmont, where their
blasphemous insanity reached its height in 1706.
They were all again arrested, but escaped. Ap-
penfeller, who had been legally married to Eva,
settled with her in Altona as a practising physician;
and she is said finally to have lived a decent, regu-
lar life with him there as a member of the Evangel-
ical Lutheran Church.
(F. W. DiBBLIUS.)
Bibuoorarkt: Thomaaiua, Otdanken HUr aUm'hand (f-
mUehU ^UoBophiaehM und jwiatUche HOndel, iii. 206-624,
Halle, 1726: KeUer. D%» Buttlaruehe Ratte, in ZHT,
1840, part 4; M. Goebel, OMchichU d€M chriaaitken Isbmu
in dtr rhtiniaek w§9iphiUueken Kirehe, Oobtens, 1852.
BUrrZ, HENRY AITSON: American Methodist
Episcopalian; b. at Middle Smithfield, Pa., Apr.
18, 1835. He was educated at Princeton College
(BA., 1858), and held pastorates at Millstone,
N. J. (1858-59), Irvington, N. J. (1859-60), Wood-
bridge, N.J. (1860-61), Mariner's Harbor, Staten
Island (1862-63), Prospect Street Church, Pater-
son, N. J. (1864-66), and Morristown, N. J. (1867-
1869). He was also instructor in Drew Theological
Seminary, Madison, N. J., in 1867, becoming ad-
jimct professor of Greek and Hebrew in 1868, and
professor of New Testament Greek and exegesis
two years later. Since 1880 he has been president
of the seminary. He has edited, in addition to a
number of briefer studies: The New Life Dawning
by B. H. Nadal (New York, 1873) and The EpUOe
to the Bomam in Qrtek (1876).
BUTZERy MARim.
Bwly AetMty in the Prote»- The Wittenberg Conoord
tant Gaun (| 1). (} 4).
The Reformation in Strae- Critique of Butier'e Attitude
burg (f 2). in the Oontroversy (| 6).
Endeavors to Seeondle Lu- Butser in England (| 6).
ther and Zwingli (| 8). Death of Butaer (| 7).
Martin Butoer (Buoer) was bom at Schlettstadt (26
m. s.w. of Strasburg) Nov. 1 1 , 1491 ; d. at Cambridge,
Eng., Feb. 28, 1551. He received his first education at
the excellent Latin school of his native town, and
In 1606 joined the order of the Dominicans. In
1517 he was at Heidelberg, where he studied the
writings of the humanists, the Bible, and also the
writing? of Luther, whose personal acquaintance
he made in 1518 and with whom he
X. Early began to correspond in 1520. Being
Activity suspected by his order and accused at
in the Rome, Butser, who favored the evan-
Protestant gelical cause, left the monastery in
Cause. 1520 to avoid further difficulties, and
became an associate of Hutten and
Sickingen. The latter called him in 1522 to the
pastorate of Landstuhl, and in the same year he
married, being one of the first priests to break his
vow of celibacy. When Sickingen was defeated
by the elector of Treves, however, Butzer had
to leave the city, and for a year he acted as
evangelical preacher at Wissenburg in Alsace,
supported by the council and citizens, but attacked
by the Franciscan monks. In 1523 he went to
Strasbuig, where the Reformation, prepared in dif-
ferent ways, was already in progress. Together
with Zell, Cf^ito, and Hedio, Butzer became the
soul of the Strasbuig Reformation, and by preach-
ing and writing, by letters and joumeya, and by
personal relations with ecclesiastics and statesmen,
he exerted a reformatory and organizing activity,
not only in Alsace but also in different countries.
He was pastor of St. Aurelia 1524-31, and pastor
of St. Thomas 1531-40, having already become in
1530 president of the newly foimded church coun-
cil which was the supreme ecclesiastical authority
in Strasburg. As spiritual spokesman of the
Strasburg citizens, who were eager for the Refor-
mation, and as leader of the evangelical ministers,
he appeared before the council, which proceeded
cautiously and advisedly. He accomplished the
abolition of the mass on Feb. 20,
a. The 1529, by a decree of the lay asseasors.
Reforma- and thus the introduction of the Ref-
tion in ormation into the free imperial city
Strasbuig. Strasburg was made a matter of his-
tory. But long before this the reor-
ganization of the divine service and of ecclesiastical
life began. Butzer's Ordnung und InhaU deutacher
Mesae (1524) was typical of the Reformed order of
worship. He devoted special attention to cate-
chetics and published three catechisms between
1524 and 1544, while by the church ordinance of
1534 he introduced the lay presbytery into Stras-
burg, and in 1539 he inaugiu*ated confirmation in
the same city. Together with his friend Johannes
Sturm, he laid the foundations of the Protestant
educational system in Strasburg, founding the
gymnasium in 1538, and the seminary in 1544. In
the interest of ecclesiastical discipline he energet-
ically opposed the Anabaptists and such radicals as
Carlstadt, Hetzer, Denk, Sebastian Frank, Schwenck-
feld, Melchior Hof mann, and Clemens Ziegler.
Outside of Strasburg Butzer brought about the
introduction of the Reformation into Hanau-Lich-
tenberg (1544), while WOrttemberg, Baden, and
especially Hesse owed him much. For the elector
of Cologne, Archbishop Hermann of Wied, Butzer,
together with Melanchthon, composed an order of
reformation (1543). His influence even reached
as far as Belgium, Italy, and France.
Butzer's activity in ecclesiastical organization
is treated too Ughtly in most works on church his-
tory, which lay their main stress on his efforts
toward a union of the two main streams of the
Reformation, and especially on his endeavors to
reconcile Luther and Zwingli in the eucharistic
controversy, which significantly interrupted the
course of the main events in the period of the Refor-
mation. When Carlstadt had to leave Strasburg
in 1524, Butzer addressed a writing to Luther in
the name of the Strasburg ministers, in which he
and they expressed their position in regard to
sas
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
iitts
ataer
Carlstadt. Concerning the sacrament of the altar,
they taught that the bread is the body of Christ
axid the wine his blood, but that greater impor-
tance should be attached to vhe commemoration of
the death of Jesus than to the question what one
eats and drinks. At first Luther answered reas-
suringly, but in his work Wider die
3. Endeav- himmlischen Propheien (1525) he at-
on to Rec- tacked the Strasburg theologians,
oncile The latter sent an envoy to appease
Luther and Luther, but he emphasized the bodily
ZwinglL presence of Christ in the Lord's Sup-
per more than ever, and gave the
Strasburgers to imderstand that they should not
be deceived by the light of reason. The Stras-
burgers now saw themselves driven more and more
to the side of the Swiss, so far as the doctrine of the
sacrament was concerned. At the Disputation of
Bern (q.v.) in 1528 Butzer made the personal ac-
quaintance of Zwingli, with whom he had been cor-
responding since 1523. Luther again attacked his
opponents in his Grasses Bekenntnis vam Abend-
mahl (1528), but Butzer did not lose hope of com-
ing to an imderstanding by a personal interview.
Together with the landgrave Philip of Hesse, who
was animated by the same interest in the union
and agreement of the Protestants, he brought about
the religious conference of Marburg (q.v.) in 1529.
Concerning the question whether the true body
and blood of Christ are actually present in the
bread and wine, no agreement ooidd be reached;
nevertheless, each party was to show Christian love
toward the other, so far as the conscience of each
allowed. Butzer visited Luther at Coburg in Sept.,
1530, and received the promise to examine a
new confession which Butzer intended to prepare.
Butzer now endeavored to induce the Protes-
tants, at least in southern Germany, to prepare
a dedaration which should approximately satisfy
Luther, since the Swiss opposed every further
advance, an additional incentive being the threat-
ening attitude of the emperor toward the Prot-
estants at this time. The outcome of these
endeavors wa the Wittenberg Concord (q .v.) , which
was agreed upon with Luther in 1536
4. The by a delegation of Upper German
Wittenberg theologians under the direction of
Concord. Butzer. In this Concrd the con-
cession was made to Luiher that the
body and the blood of Christ are truly and essen-
tially present with the bread and with the wine and
are so given and received, the only modification be-
ing that the unworthy, but not the unholy, actually
receive the body of the Lord. By this agreement
a certain sort of theological understanduig was
reached between Luther and the South Germans,
but the rupture between Butzer and the Swiss was
accomplished.
Whatever views be held of Butzer's e^iorts for
union, especially in the eucharistic controversy,
his honest intention and his unselfish zeal to serve
the Church are beyond all question. His diplo-
matic tactics were not always such as to inspire con-
fidence, and they gave offense to other parties be-
sides Luther. Butzer himself felt it afterward and
honestly acknowledged that he had not always
interfered in a discreet manner. The whole sub-
ject of controversy was of less interest for But-
zer than for Luther, hence Butzer's
5. Critique readiness to make concessions and
of Butzer's ever new formularizations. The real
Attitude success of his endeavors was that the
in the Con- South Germans were not only induced
troversy. to make oonunon political cause with
the North Germans, but were also
drawn into the conununion of Lutheranism, in spite
of their peculiar doctrine of the Lord's Supper.
The fact that Melanchthon, influenced partly by
Butzer, took an intermediate position, and was
thus drawn nearer to Calvin, was also far-reaching
in its importance for the future formation of the
Evangelical Church in Germany. The outcome of
the Schmalkald War and the defeat of the Protes-
tants (1547) gave the emperor power to settle
the religious troubles by the Augsburg Interim
(see Interim) in 1548, which was accepted by the
majority of the intimidated diet and was to be
forced upon the city of Strasburg. This was most
energetically opposed by Butzer and his younger col-
league, Paul Fagius, on the groimd of the Bomani-
zing character of the document. But when the coun-
cil, yielding to the force of circumstances, accepted
the Interim, Butzer perceived that he could remain
in Strasburg no longer, and he accepted a call to
En^and, whither he had been invited, together
with Fagius, by Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of
Canterbury, the soul of the Reformar
6. Butzer tion in England. In Apr., 1549, both
in arrived at London, and were met by
England. Cranmer and King Ekiward VI. The
king wished them to translate the
Bible from the original into Latin, this version be-
ing intended to serve aa the basis of an English
version for the people. The work was commenced
at once. At the end of the simuner of 1549 But-
zer and Fagius were to go to Cambridge as teachers
and assist in the education of candidates for the
ministry. Fagius arrived first, but died of a slow
fever (Nov., 1549). In Jan., 1550, Butzer com-
menced his lectures at Cambridge, which were at-
tended by large crowds of students, some of whom
afterward exercised a powerful influence in the
Anglican Church. Butzer was directed to exam-
ine the Book of Common Prayer, and was thus led
into a public disputation held on Aug. 6, 1550, to
expose the opposition of the Eln^h bishops (who
still leaned toward Rome) to evangelical principles
and innovations. At the request of the young
king, Butzer wrote his De regno Christie which he
prepared in less than three months. This work
was intended to teach the true nature of God's king-
dom and the means by which it might be realized
In earthly form in a country like l^giand. This
work was Butzer's last. Scarcely
7. Death had the king expressed his warm ap-
of proval and the university conferred
Butzer. the degree of doctor of divinity un-
conditionally, a thing which never
happened before, when Butzer died after a short
illness. He was buried with great honor in the
principal church at Cambridge; but in 1556 his
body was exhumed and publicly burnt. Four yean
Buztorf
Bynun
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
824
afterward, however, Queen Elizabeth again honored
hifl memory. Paul Gruenbero.
Bibuoorapht: A complete collection of Sutler's works has
never been made, that begun by hia associate K. Hubert
never getting beyond the first volume, Basel, 1577 (known
as Tomua Anolicanua because it contained mostly wri-
tings published in England). A bibliography of But-
ser's published works and literature about him was issued
by F. Ments and A. Erichson in Vierkundertmhrige 0»-
bMrUfeier M. BuUer'a, Strasburg, 1891. Consult: J. W.
Baum, Capita und Butter, StroBtburgM Reformaioren^ El-
berfeld, 1860 (from the sources); I. B. Rady, Dm Refor-
maioren in ikrer Beziehung miw DoppeUhe dea Landgrafen
Philipp, Frankfort. 1890; C. Conrad. Martin Butter,
Strasburg. 1891; A. Erichson, Die ealviniatieehe und die
AUatraeetnwger Gotteedienatordnung, ib. 1894; H. von
Schubert, in Beitr&ge twr Reformationageachichte, pp.
192-228, Ck>tha, 1896; A. Ernst and J. Adam, Kateche-
OacKe Oeaehichte dea Elaaaaea bia avr Reformation, pp. 42-
72, Strasburg, 1897; F. Hubert, Straaahurger Katechia-
men aua den Tagen der Reformation, in ZKO, xx. (1899)
895-413; A. Lang, Der EvangeUenkommentar Butzera und
die Orundznge aeiner Theologie, in Studien tur Oeaehichte
der Theologie und Kirehe, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1900; S. M.
Jackson, Huldreich Zwingli^ pasoim. New York, 1903;
J. KOstlin, Martin Luthm^ flJL G. Kawerau, passim, 2
vols., Berlin. 1903; J. M BM( Quellen eur Oeaehichte dea
kirehliehen C/nterrieAte, GQf Mlloh, 1904; J.Ficker. Theaaun
rua Baumianua, Strasburg, 1905: Moeller. Chriatian Church,
vol. iii., passim; Schaff, Chriatian Church, vol. vi., passim.
BUXTORF: A family of scholars at Basel,
noteworthy for their services in the study of the
Old Testament and Hebrew language and litera-
ture.
1. Johann Buxtorf the Elder: Orientalist; b. at
Camen (8 m. s.w. of Hamm), Westphalia, Dec. 25,
1564; d. at Basel Sept. 13, 1629. He received his
earliest education in the schools of Hamm and Dort-
mund, and then went to Marburg and Herbom,
where he began his Hebrew studies under Piscator.
Leaving Herbom, he studied successively at Hei-
delberg, Basel, Zurich, and Geneva, returning to
Basel and taking his degree in 1590. In the fol-
lowing year, after much hesitation, he accepted
the chair of Hebrew at the University of Basel,
and later added other duties to this position, in-
cluding the direction of the gymnasium. In 1610,
however, he declined an appointment to a profes-
sorship of theology, as well as calls to Leyden and
Saumur. Buxtorf was the greatest rabbinical
student among the Protestants, availing himself
not only of the Hebrew commentaries on the books
of the Old Testament and the writings of learned
Jews, but also carrying on an active correspond-
ence with Jewish scholars in Germany, Poland, and
Italy. His dose relations with Jews, however,
frequently exposed him to suspicion, and on one
occasion he was fined 100 florins for attending the
circumcision of a son of a Jew who resided in his
house as his assistant in the printing of his Hebrew
Bible. He devoted his Hebrew knowledge to the
defense of the original text of the Old Testament
against the Roman Catholics, who regarded the
Vulgate and the Septuagint as the more reliable
authorities, and also against the doubts cast upon
it by such Reformers as Luther, Zwingli, and Cal-
vin, his services being the more important in view
of the necessity of appeal to the purity of the He-
brew text in Protestant polemics against Cathol-
icism. His chief works are as follows: Mamude
Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (Basel, 1602); Juden-
Sckul (1603; Latin transl., Synagoga Judaica, by
H. Germberg, Hanau, 1604); Lexicon Hebraicum
et Chaldaicum (1607); De abbreviaittris HebraicU
(1613); Btblia Hebraica cum paraphrasi Chaldaica
et commerUariis rabbinorum (4 vols., 1618-19); and
Tiberias, aive cammerUariua masorethicus (1620);
but he did not live to complete his Concordttntice
Btbliarum Hebraicce or his Lexicon Chaldaicum,
Talmudicum et Rabbinicum, both of which were
edited by his son (Basel, 1632, 1639).
2. Johann Buxtorf the Younger: Orientalist; son
of the preceding; b. at Basel Aug. 13, 1599; d. there
Aug. 17, 1664. After receiving his first educa^
tion from his father, he attended the high school
of his native city, and in 1617 went to Heidelberg,
where he remained two years, then going to Dort,
where he attended the synod. After its conclu-
sion he made a tour of Holland, England, and
France, in company with the delegates of the city,
and then returned to Basel. At the age of twenty-
three he published his Lexicon Chaldaicum et Stfria-
cum (Basel, 1622), and in the following year studied
at Geneva, but declined a call to the professorship
of logic at Lausanne, preferring to remain in his
native city, where he served as a deacon from 1624
to 1630. Delicate health, however, obliged him
to resign all hopes of becoming a preacher, and in
1630 he succeeded his father as professor of Hebrew.
He declined calls to Groningen and Leyden, and
in 1654 accepted the chair of Old Testament exe-
gesis, as being closely associated with the one
which he already held. It was his task to defend
the views of his father on the purity of the trans-
mitted Masoretic text of the Old Testament against
many attacks, particularly by Cappel (q.v.), who
assailed the credibility of rabbinical tradition and
regarded the Hebrew text as inferior in places to
the ancient versions. In this and kindred con-
troversies Buxtorf wrote De punctorum, vocalium
aique accentuum in libris Veteris Testamenti He-
braicis origine, antiquitate et auctoritate (Basel,
1648), and Anticritica, seu vindicice veritatis Hdtraicce
adveraue Ludovici CappeUi criticam quam aacram vo-
cal (1653), but though the logical victory rested
with Cappel, who could appeal both to the judg-
ment of Elias Levita (q.v.), who exercised a power-
ful influence oa the development of Old Testament
studies amoii^ the Protestants, and could also
claim the support of many of the Reformers, he
was regarded 1 as a dangerous man, who sought to
deny the di rinity of the Scriptures, while his op-
ponent was looked upon as a defender of ortho-
doxy, and won the formal verdict. In a minor
controversy with Cappel on the Eucharist he
wrote his VindicioB exercitaiionie Sanctcs Comce con-
tra CappeUum (Basel, 1646) and his Anticritica
contra CappeUum ( 1653 ) . He likewise made a Latin
translation of the Moreh N^nikim of Maimonides
(Basel, 1629) and edited, with notes and a trans-
lation, the Liber Coari, sive colloquium de reHgione
of Judah ha-Levi (1660).
3. Johannes Jakob Buxtorf: Orientalist; son of
the preceding; b. at Basel Sept. 4, 1645; d. there
Apr. 1, 1704. He was educated at the university of
his native city, and succeeded his father as professor
of Hebrew in Nov., 1664. In the following year
825
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bnztorf
Byrum
he received leave of absence and visited Geneva,
France, Holland (wintering at Leyden), and Lon-
don. The general suspicion of foreigners in Lon-
don just after the great fire, however, caused Bux-
torf to take refuge in a neighboring village, whence
he later went to Oxford and Cambridge. In 1669
he returned to Basel and resumed his duties at the
university, in addition to acting as librarian Al-
though regarded as an excellent scholar and a dili-
gent student, he wrote Uttle with the exception of
a preface to his edition of his grandfather's Tibe-
rias (Basel, 1665), and his emendations to the
Synagoga Judaica (1680).
4. Johann Buztorf: Nephew of the preceding;
b. at Basel Jan. 8, 1663; d. there June 19,
1732. After completing his education at Basel,
he went to Holland to continue his Oriental studies.
In 1694 he was appointed preacher at Aristdorf, a
village near Basel, and in 1704 he succeeded his
uncle as professor of Hebrew at the University,
holding this position until his death. His most
noteworthy book was his Catalecta philologico-theo-
logica cum mantissa epistolarum vvrorum darorum
ad Johannem Buxtorfjium patrem et fUium acrip-
tarum (Basel, 1707). (Carl Bebtheau.)
Bibuoorapht: Athena Rattriea, BsmI, 1778 (oontainB
biographies and catalogues of their publications); K. R.
Hagenbaoh, Die theoloffUche Schule Btuds, pp. 27 sqq..
ib. 1860; C. H. H. Wright, IrUroduetion to the O. T.,
London, 1891; C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Maeao-
retieo^eriHeal BdOum of the Hehr. Bible, ib. 1S97; C. A.
Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, passim. New York, 1899;
Buztorf-Falkeisen. Johannee Buxiorf Voter, Basel, 1860;
E. KautiBch, J. Buxtorf der Oltere, ib. 1879. On the
younger Johannes, L. Diestel, Getehichte dee aUen Te$ta^
mente in der durietlichen Kirche. pp. 336 sqq.. Jena. 1868.
On Johannes Jakob, 8. Werenfels, Vita ...J.J. Buxior-
fii, Basel, 1705.
BTFIELD, ADONIRAM: Puritan and Presby-
terian; b. probably at Chester, before 1615, the son
of Nicholas Byfield (q.v.); d. in London 1660. He
was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
and chosen chaplain to a regiment of Parlia-
ment's army in 1642. In 1643 he was appointed
one of the two scribes of the Westminster
Assembly, but was not a member of that body.
The manuscript minutes (edited by Mitchel and
Struthers, 1874), now in the Williams Library,
University Hall, Gordon Square, London, are in
his handwriting. He also edited, by authority of
Parhament, the various papers in the controversy
between the Westminster Assembly and the Dis-
senting Brethren, published London, 1648, inclu-
ding Reasons Presented by the Dissenting Brethren
against Certain Propositions concerning Presby-
terian Government, The Answer of Asaemby of Di-
vines, Papers for Accumulation, and The Papers and
Answers of the Dissenting Brethren and the Commit-
tee of the Assembly of Divines. He was rector of
Fulham in Middlesex (16447) and vicar of Fulham
(16457-1667), subsequently rector of CoUingboum-
Ducis in Wiltshire. C. A. Brioos.
BTFIELD, NICHOLAS: Puritan and Presby-
terian, b. in Warwickshire in 1579; d. at Isleworth
(2 m. 8. of Brentford), Middlesex, Sept. 8, 1622. He
was educated at Exeter College, Oxford; was for
seven years pastor of St. Peter's Church at Chester,
when (1615) he became vicar of Isleworth in Mid-
dlesex, where he remained until his death. Will-
iam Gouge describes him as " a man of a profound
judgment, strong memory, sharp wit, quick in-
vention, and unwearied industry." His works
were nimierous, and greatly esteemed. His Mar-
row of the Oracles of God (London, 1620), contain-
ing six treatises previously published apart, reached
an eleventh edition in 1640. The Principles, or,
the Pattern of Wholesome Words, dedicated in 1618,
reached a seventh edition in 1665, and is a valuable
compend of divinity. His expository sermons on
the Epistle to the Colossians were published 1615,
and several series on the First Epistle of Peter at
various times, finally collected and enlarged in a
Commentary upon the Whole First Epistle of St,
Peter (1637). The Rule of Faith, or an Exposition
of the Apostles* Creed was issued by his son Adoni-
ram, after his death (1626), and is an able and in-
structive work. He must be numbered among the
Presbyterian fathers in England.
C. A. Brioos.
BTROM, JOHN: Author of "Christians awake,
salute the happy mom," a Christmas hymn in al-
most universal use in England; b. at Kersall Cell,
Broughton, near Manchester, Feb. 29, 1692; d.
there Sept. 26, 1763. He entered Trinity College,
Cambridge, 1708 (B.A., 1712; MA., 1715), and
became fellow, 1714; contributed to the Spectator;
invented a system of shorthand and taught
it with success; became F.R.S., 1724; succeeded
to the family estate at Kersall, 1740, and spent his
later years there. He was a mystic and a Jacobite;
took deep interest in religious speculations, and
knew most of the celebrities of his time; he wrote
some of the best epigrams in the language. His
Poems, written in easy, colloquial style for his own
and his friends' amusement, were printed posthu-
mously (2 vols.. Manchester, 1773; again, with life
and notes, London, 1814); the Chetham Society of
Manchester has published his Private Journal and
Literary Remains, ed. R. Parkinson (2 vols., 1854-
1857), and the Poems, ed. A. W. Ward (2 vols., 1894-
1895).
BTRUM, ENOCH EDWIN: American clergy-
man and editor of The Church of God; b. near
Union City, Ind., Oct. 13, 1861. He was educated
in the public schools, and also studied elocution
and oratory in the Northern Indiana Normal
School (1886) and Simday-school work in Otterbein
University (1887). He was ordained a minister
of " The Church of God " in 1892, and in addition
to editing The Gospel Trumpet and The Shining
Light since 1890, has written: The Boy's Com-
panion (Moundsville, W. Va., 1890); Divine Heal-
ing of Soul and Body (1892); The Secret of Salva-
tion (1896); The Prayer of Faith (1899); The Great
Physician (1900); Behind the Prison Bars (1901);
What shall I do to be Saved? (1903); Ordinances of
the Bible (1904); and Travels and Experiences in
other Lands (1905).
Oabal*
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
826
Origin and Spnad of the GabaU (i W
Doctrine of God (I 2).
Creation and the Sefiroth (I 3).
Names of the Sefiroth (i 4).
Triads of Sefiroth (f 6).
The Four Worlds (I 6).
Oricin of Evil (I 7).
Doctrine of the Meesiah (I 8).
The term Cabala designates the eaoteric doctrines
of Judaism. Although it claims to be a product
of the tannaitic period and to be the work of such
sages as Ishmael ben Elisha, Simeon ben Yoll^ai, and
Net^unya ben ha-^anah, modem investigation has
proved that it is purely a product o' the Middle Ages.
Nor does the name kabbalah (from ktbbd, ''to re-
ceive ") occur with this special connotation before the
thirteenth century, the term Icabhalah denoting in
the Talmud the Hagiographa and the Prophets in
contradistinction to the Torah, or Pentateuch.
The Cabala originated at a period when a crassly
anthropomorphic concept of God prevailed in
Judaism. In Maimonides rationalism had reached
its climax, the literal meaning alone being accepted,
while all allegorical interpretation was rejected.
The study of the Talmud had become purely legal-
istic, and worship had degenerated into formalism.
Against this stereotyped faith bom of Aristote-
liaiiism arose a reaction, the Cabala. This sought
to give the soul the nourishment it craved by
an esoteric interpretation of the Scriptures, vivid
presentation, and dramatic narrative, even though,
in its speculative fervor, it became
I. Origin involved only too often in hopeless
and Spread base, and evoked a dark superstition
of the through its juggling with the names
Cabala, of God. Arising in Provence, the
reaction against rationalism pajssed
to Spain, the real home of the Cabala. Thence,
with the expulsion of the Spanish Jews, it was
carried to Palestine, whence it spread throughout
Europe. The fundamental doctrines of the Cabala
are derived from the Hellenistic Judaism, Neo-
platonism, and Neo-Pythagoreanism, with occa-
sional traces of Gnosticism. These elements are
so interwoven, however, with the Bible and with
a midrashic method of presentation, that the whole
has been stamped with the seal of Judaism.
According to the Cabala, God is the eternal and
boundless principle of all, and is therefore called
En Sof ("The Infinite"). The attributes given
him are general, rather than specific. He is abso-
lutely perfect, and is free from all blemish; he is
imity and immutability; he is boundless
a. Doctrine and naught exists beside him; and since
of God. he may be known neither by wisdom nor
by understanding, no de&iition can be
given of him, no concept be formed regarding him,
and no question asked concerning him. To all
beings he is the concealed of all concealed, the
hidden of all hidden, the ancient of the ancient; the
first of all first, and the primal principle.
The cardinal cosmogonic doctrine of the Cabala
is creation e nihilo. The reconciliation of the im-
CABALA, cab'a-la.
Doctrines of the Soul (i 9).
Metempsychosis (f 10).
Mystic Biblical Exegesis of the Cabala
(§ 11).
Biblical Interpretation by Genia|ria
(I 12).
Macic Powers of the Tetracrammaton
(I 13).
The Early Period of the Gabala (i M).
The Befer Yefirah (f 15).
Crystallisation of the Cabala (I 16).
The Zohar (i 17).
Closing Period of the Ckbala (| 18).
Influence of the Cabala on Judaism (S 19).
Relation of the Cabala to Christianity
(§20).
perfect and transitory phenomenal world with the
perfection and immutability of God, and the mu-
tual relation of the two formed never-ending prob-
lems for the cabalists. To explain the riddle
they assumed the existence of a series of independent
and spiritual primeval potentialities, which were
intelligible substances or demiui^ges emanating
from the deity. These demiurges {sefirath) are
mentioned as eariy as the Sefer Ye^irah, where
their number is given as ten. According to this
work, the first emanation was the spirit of the living
God, from which proceeded the entire phenomenal
world. This same spirit, futhermore, caused
ether, water, and fire to emanate from each other.
From ether arises the intellectual worid, from water
the material (the tohu worboku of Gen. i. 2), and
from fire the spiritual (the angels and the throne of
God). These four sefiroth are followed by the six
bounds of space, height, depth, east,
3. Creation west, north, and south. There is,
and the however, no consistent view ooncem-
Seflroth. ing the nature of the sefiroth, which
are sometimes regarded as inter-
mediaries between God and the visible world,
and at other times as the manifestations of the
powers and properties of God; and there is an
equal divergence of opinion as to whether they are
actual creations which form, in a sense, the basis
of later creations, or emanations whereby God
emerges from his concealment and assumes form.
All attempts to reconcile these conflicting views
by postulating the existence of God both in and
above phenomena proved unsuccessful. The issu-
ance of the sefiroth from God was regarded by the
cabalists as imperiling the doctrine of his immu-
tability and infinity. The first difficulty was
obviated by the hypothesis that God's dedgn to
manifest himself had existed from all eternity.
Since, however, God in his infinity filled the entire
universe, no room was left for the sefiroth^ until
Moses ben Jacob Gordo vero (1522-70) and Isaac
Luria (1533-72) postulated two concentrations,
one a contraction and the other a retraction. Many
cabalists, however, felt themselves unable to accept
this theory of concentration, which was closely con-
nected, moreover, with the Gnosticism of Valentin-
ian and Basilides, and preferred to assume that the
emergence of God from his retirement was to be un-
derstood in terms of concept rather than of space,
and some regarded the entire process as metaphorical.
The first sefirah was Kether ("Crown"), the
primal source of all existence. The second was
Jlokmah (" Wisdom "), which, though enveloped
in God, generated the ideas. The third was Binah
(" Intelligence "), which carries out the ideas of
327
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oabala
eternal WUdom. The fifth was ^esedh (" Love ";
Boxnetimes called Gedhulah, " Magnitude '*), the
fifth IHn (" Law "; also called Oebhurah, " Might,"
or PaJiadk, " Fear ")i the sixth Tifereth (" Beauty";
also called Rahamim, '* Mercy "), the seventh Ne^ah
("Firmness"), the eighth Hodh
4* names ("Splendor"), and the ninth Yesodh
of the ("Foundation"). The tenth aefirah
Sefiroth. was MalkhtUh ("Kingdom"; also
called Shekhinah, "Royalty"), and
was united in marriage with the God who rules the
world. The number of the 8efiroih was doubtless
influenced by the fact that astronomy then pos-
tulated the existence of ten spheres, and also by
the sanctity ascribed to the number ten.
As early as the eleventh century Hai Gaon (998-
1038) classified the ten primal potentialities into
two groups, the first including three which pro-
duced the spiritual world, and the second com-
prising two triads which were united by a seventh,
and these formed the source of the material world.
The main outlines of this classification were retained
by later cabalists. Azriel (1160-1238) distinguished
three groups — intellectual, spiritual, and mate-
rial, a classification evidently due to Neoplatonic
influence. Each group forms a triad, and its
members stand in the mutual relation of thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis. The first two members,
moreover, sustain a polar relation to each other,
and are united by the third. Thus, in the first
triad, which consists of " Crown," " Wisdom,"
and " Intelligence," " Intelligence " forms the
coimecting link, hi the second triad, which con-
sists of " Love," " Law," and " Beauty," " Beau-
ty " (or " Mercy ") forms the bond of imion, while
in the third triad of "Firmness," "Splendor,"
and " Foundation," the last recon-
5. Triads ciles the first two. All three triads
of are subject to the tenth aefirah,
Sefiroth. " Kingdom," which binds them into
a harmonious whole. The first triad,
moreover, contained the " authors of the plan of
the world," the second the " arrangers," and the
third the " creators." Although the sefiroth are
by no means comparable with God and do not
condition his independence, they partake of his
infinity and transmit his streams of blessings to
the various worlds. For this purpose, on which
their existence and activity depend, they are
united with God by invisible canals (ifinnoroth)
which proceed from the throne of the divine majesty.
In so far as the sefiroth are the earliest manifes-
tations of God, they form an ideal world which
bears no relation to the material world, and in this
aspect they are termed either " primeval man "
{adham kadhmon) or " superman " (adham 'ilai),
who is sometimes considered to be the sefiroth
collectively, and sometimes regarded as the first
manifestation whereby God revealed himself as
the creator and ruler of the world. In this aspect
he seems to be a revelation interposed between
God and the universe, and thus a second god, as
it were, or the Logos.
Aooording to a later view, various grades of
emanation produced four worlds, in each of which
the ten sefiroth were repeated. The first of these
was the 'Olarn ha-Afilah (" Worid of Radiation "),
which contains the powers of the divine plan of the
worlds. These powers have the same nature as
the worid of the sefiroth or the Adham kadhmon,
while, according to the Zohar, it also contains the
throne of the Shekinah and God's mantle of light.
From the 'Olam ha-Aplah emanated the *Olam
ha-Beriah ("World of Creation"), the home of
the organizing powers and potencies. There were
the treasuries of blessing and life,
6. The and there was the throne of the glory of
Four God, as well as the halls of all spiritual
Worlds, and moral perfection, where the souls
of the righteous dwelt. In its turn,
the *Olam ha-Beriah produced the *Olam ha-Yezirah
(" World of Creation ") with the angels and Me^a-
tron as their chief. To him are subject the evil
spirits (kelifoth, " husks "), who dwell in the planets
and other heavenly bodies, or in the ether. The
fourth world is the present material and phenomenal
'Olam ha-Assiyah (" World of Action "), which is
subject to constant change and delusion. Like
the sefiroth, the four worlds are closely connected
with God as the primal principle, and receive con-
tinual streams of divine blessing. This cosmology
of four worlds is based on the theophany of Ezek.
i. and seems to be first mentioned in the Massek-
heth AfUtUh, a small treatise of the first half of the
thirteenth century. The anthropomorphic tend-
encies of the cabalists led them to make distinc-
tions of sex among the sefiroth. The mascuhne
principle, which is white in color, appears chiefly
in " Ix>ve," although it underlies both the other two
sefiroth of the right side (" Wisdom " and " Firm-
ness "); while the passive red female principle, which
owes its existence to the male, dwells chiefly in
" Law," yet also forms the basis of the other sefiroth
of the left side (" Intelligence " and " Splendor ").
Side by side with the heavenly sefiroth exist the
sefiroth of evil, and Adham kadhmon, in h'ke manner,
has his counterpart in Adham Beliyya*al. The
realms are related to each other as the right and
the left wing. In the kingdom of evil, as in the
realm of good, there are ten grades. Under the
leadership of Samael and his queen, the great
adulteress, the dark sefiroth toil unceasingly for
the destruction of the world. Since, however, the
sefiroth of darkness, like the sefiroth of light, were
regarded as emanations, there was danger that the
Infinite might be considered the author of evil.
To obviate this, the older cabalists advanced the
hypothesis that the origin of evil was to be sought in
the distances of the emanations from
7* Origin their divine author, since the further
of EviL they went from God into the material
world, the more degenerate they be-
came. The younger cabalists like Luria, on the
other hand, held that the vessels of the sefiroth
were unable to contain and conduct the fulness of
the divine blessing and burst, thus giving rise to
evil. Penance, self -mortification, prayer, and
rigid observance of the prescribed ceremonies,
however, would gradually reconcile the upper and
lower realms and restore the original harmony of
the imiverse. It is noteworthy that this doctrine
of the opposition of the two kingdoms is a late
Oabal*
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
828
development of the CSabala, and that it was not
fully developed until the thirteenth century.
The Messianic teachings of the Cabala are closely
connected with the doctrine of the realm of the evil
aefiroth. When through their piety and virtue man-
kind shall steadily have diminished the kingdom of
the JftHifofh, the Messiah will appear
8. Doctrine and restore all things to their original
of the condition. Under his rule all will turn to
Messiah, the divine light, and idolatry will cease.
In its account of the luiture and task
of the Messiah the Cabala diverges a little from the
views advanced by the Talmud and the Midrash.
In its anthropology the Cabala generally adopts
the tenets of Talmudic and Gaonic mysticism, so
that its new developments may be summarized
briefly. Earthly man is a type of the prototype
Adham Jjpadhmon, and thus comprises within him-
self all that the ideal creation contains. He is,
therefore, a microcosm. The Cabala also teaches
the dual nature of man, who consists of body and
soul. Every member has its symbolic meaning,
while the body, as the garment of the soul, typifies
the merkabah (the heavenly Throne-Chariot of
Ezek. i., X.). The soul, however, is far superior
to the body, since it is derived from the divine
all-soul, and through the ** canals " {linnoroth)
can influence the intellectual world and draw down
its blessings to the lower world. It appears imder
the three designations of nefeah, rua^y and neshamah.
The first is blind impulse, the second is the seat
both of good and evil impulses, and the third is
able to unite with God and the kingdom of light.
The Cabala also teaches the pre-
9. Doctrines existence of the soul. All souls des-
ofthe tined to enter human bodies have
SouL existed from all eternity in a fixed
niunber, nourished by the sight of the
divine radiance of the Shekinah. The entrance
of the soul into a body is a misfortune, and it im-
plores God to spare it such imprisoimient. Before
their entrance into human bodies souls are an-
drogynous, while marriage unites the severed
halves to a sin^e whole. This doctrine, like the
preceding, is reminiscent of Plato and Philo, as
is the cabalistic doctrine that all earthly learning
is but a reminiscence of what the soul had known
before it came to earth. Of special interest is the
cabalistic doctrine of reincarnation. Each soul
which is united with a body is to undergo a period
of trial in this world, and if it is found able to pre-
serve its original purity it retmns immediately at
death to its place of heavenly origin. If, on the
other hand, it falls into sin, it is subjected to a piui-
fication, and is obliged to remain in lower forms of
existence, such as animals, trees, stones, and rivers,
until it has fully atoned for its evil and has regained
the purity requisite for its return to its celestial
home. Occasionally, however, the sin-laden soul
wanders in the world with its fellows,
10. Metemp- naked and ashamed, until it finally
sychosis. receives its purification in hell. New
souls are seldom bom, the greater
number being reincarnations. This is a proof of
the corruption of the human race, and though
exalted spirits sometimes descend to earth for the
welfare of man and assume human form, all the
souls created from the begiiming have not yet been
able to be bom on account of the number of ron-
camations necessitated by human wickedness, and
the Messiah consequently has not come. During
sleep the souls of the righteous frequently leave their
bodies, ascend to the celestial regions, hold convene
with the spirits there, and receive revelations of
future mysteries. Evil souls, on the other hand,
descend to the realms of darkness and impurity and
converse with demons, who give them false and lying
words. To enable mankind to hold communication
with the worid of light during terrestrial existence,
the cabalists exacted a scrupulous observance of the
ceremonial law and, above all, prayer, to which was
ascribed an in fluence over God himself. Among other
agencies stress was laid on asceticism, flagellation,
retirement from the worid, the practise of all good
works, the wearing of white garments, and the use
of the phylacteries and the prayer-mantle.
Aristotelian scholasticism gave rise in Judaism
to a system of exegesis which resulted in a view of
religion as a matter of the head, rather than the
heart. Yet at this very time the increasing per-
secution of the Jews evoked a need for spiritual
strength and revivification, and these require-
ments were met by the cabalistic opposition to the
purely intellectual interpretation of the Bible and
by the substitution of a new method of hermeneu-
tics, which sounded the depths of the Scriptures
and thus strengthened the sinews of religion. As
eariy as the Talmudic and Mishnaic period the
feeling had prevailed in certain quarters that in
addition to the literal meaning of the Bible (peshat)
there was an allegorical meaning (dentsh). The
cabalists went still further, and regarded the
letters, words, and names of the Bible
II. Mystic as possessed of deeply hidden divine
Biblical mysteries, while such accoimts as
Exegesis of those of Hagar, Esau, and Balak
the Cahala. contained far more than mere history.
They therefore laid little stress on the
literal sense of the Bible, though not a letter might
be added to it or taken from it. In their endeavor
to unlock the divine mysteries they employed
various systems of exegesis. Of these the chief
was the gemapia, or study of letters. As eariy as
the Sefer Yefirah the twenty-two letters of the
Hebrew alphabet were divided according to sound,
form, and numerical value. To the first dass
belonged the three "mothers," aleph, mem, and
8hin, which represented the three primal elements,
aleph standing for air (awwer), mem for water
(mayim), and akin for fire {esk). The seven
" double " letters which formed the second division
(bethf gimelj daleth, kaph, pe, resh, and iaw) were
symbolic of the seven planets, the seven days of
the week, the seven gates of the soul,
12. Biblical the seven seas, and the like; while in
Interpre- virtue of their twofold pronunciation,
tation by either aspirated or unaspirated, they
Gematria. typified the seven antitheses of man:
life and death, wisdom and folly,
riches and poverty, peace and war, beauty and
hideousness, fertility and desolation, power and
slavery. The twelve "simple" letters, which
399
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oabal*
oonstituted the remainder of the alphabet, symbol-
ized the twelve activities of man: sight, hearing,
smell, speech, eating, cohabitation, toil, walking,
wrath, laughter, reflection, and sleep. The nu-
merical value of the letters, moreover, rendered
numbers sacred, so that twelve, for example,
typified the twelve tribes, the twelve months, and
the twelve signs of the zodiac. Subsequently
gematria was divided into arithmetical and fig-
urative, the first considering the letters according
to their ntunerical value and the latter devoted to
the mode of writing the letters.
A second exegetical system was the nofarikon,
the acrostic use of the letters in such a way that
each letter of a word formed the initial letter of
a new word. The third method was ftru/, the
combination of letters, and the fourth was temurah,
the creation of new words by the permutation and
interchange of letters. The names of God were
special subjects of cabalistic jugglery, since they
were no longer the means whereby God had emerged
from his concealment and become manifest to the
understanding, but were now agencies to work
upon the intelligible powers and to perform miracles
of all kinds. The most marvelous powers were
ascribed to the divine tetragrammaton YHWH.
Whosoever possessed the true pronunciation of
this name might come into relation with the upper
world and receive revelations from the All-Soul.
Each letter of the name was portentous. The yodh
represented the Father as creator,
13. Magic and the double he the upper and lower
Powers of Mother, while the v>aw typified the
the Tetra- creation. Through permutation of
grammaton. the letters of the tetragrammaton was
obtained a wealth of divine names,
to which, in like manner, were ajscribed miraculous
powers. In the " practical " Cabala these new
names played an important part, being used in
formulas, amulets, and conjurations, their correct
enunciation and the gestures with which they were
spoken being leading factors in all these operations.
In like manner, the twelve-lettered, twenty-two-
lettered, twenty-four-lettered, and seventy-two-
lettered name contained great mysteries, influenced
the Supreme Being and averted threatening doom,
while the names of the angels were subjected to
similar manipulation. The net result was the
total loss of any comprehension of the actual mean-
ing of the text of the Bible.
The histoiy of the Cabala comprises a period of
a thousand years, since its beginnings may be
traced to the seventh century, while its last adher-
ents belonged to the eighteenth. This lapse of
time may be divided into two periods, the first
from the seventh to the thirteenth century, and
the second from the fourteenth to the eighteenth.
From the seventh to the ninth cen-
14. The tury flourished the mjrsticism of the
Early Merkabah, devoted to descriptions of
Period of " the great and small halls," and de-
tha Cahala. scribing the throne of God and his
court of angels according to Byzantine
models. God the Infinite, the sefiroth, and transmi-
gration are still unknown, and the authority cited on
all occasions is the Tanna Ishmael ben Elisha« who
floiuished in the first and second centuries a.d.
The jugging with the alphabet is represented by
the " Alphabet of Rabbi Akiba," which treats of
the letters according to name aAd form, and con-
nects them with all manner of moral and religious
teachings. With the appearance of the Sefer
Ye^irah (" Book of Creation ") in the eighth cen-
tury, the mystery of the Throne-Chariot gave place
to the mystery of the creation, and a cosmogonic
element was introduced which increased steadily
in importance in the subsequent period. Here the
doctrine of emanation appears in the form in which
it had originated in Alexandria. The twenty-two
letters are connected, moreover, with the ten divine
emanations, and thus form the thirty-two paths
of esoteric wisdom and constitute the basis of all
things. God is not only the creator, but also the
sustainer and ruler of the world.
15. The The letters of the alphabet are " real
Sefer powers " which underlie all phe-
Yezirah. nomena, while their permutation and
their evaluation, like their connotation,
are of importance. The Sejer Yefirah is the earliest
work which unites cabalistic speculation in a
systematic whole. According to it there are four
basal principles, emanating in order from each other
— spirit, spirits, primeval water, and primeval fire,
all united by the three dimensions and their an-
titheses into a decade. All things are in continual
flux, dissolving old combinations and forming new
ones, while throughout phenomena rules the law
of antitheses, which are united by the mean between
them. A remarkable work of the same period
is the Sefer Bazielf which teaches the influence of
the planets and the figures of the zodiac on the
earth. The angel Raziel here takes the place of
Me^atron, the angel of the presence, as he who
possesses and communicates astrological and
astronomical mysteries.
In the thirteenth century the crystallization of
the Cabala began and the doctrine of the sefiroth
was fully developed. To the same period probably
belongs the composition of the ** Luminous Book,"
also called the *^ Midrash of Nefeiunya ben ha*
^anah," which teaches the main outlines of metemp*
sychosis, while the ten divine emanations, which
are not yet called aefirothj but ma'amarim (" com-
mands "), appear as categories pos^
z6. Crystal- sessed of creative force and connected
lization of with the attributes of God. A tend-
the Cabala, ency toward visionary prophecy
was impressed upon the Cabala by
Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (d. about 1304),
who laid special stress on a knowledge of the divine
name as determined by the exegetical methods of
gematria, notaril^ont firuf, and temurah, while his
pupil Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla devoted him-
self to the mysteries of the alphabet, which he
brought into close association with the doctrine
of the aefiroth. The cabab'stic speculation begun
by Isaac the Blind reached its climax in the Zohar,
apparently written by Moses ben Shem-Job of
Leon (d. 1305). If the Sefer Ye^irah be called the
Mishnah of the Cabala, the Zohar is its Talmud.
Ostensibly it is a midrashic commentary on the
pericopes of the Pentateuch, but practically it id
Oasdmon
THE NEW 9CHAFF.HERZCX3
830
filled with a mass of cabalistic and other mystical
speculations, and with allegorism run mad, espe-
cially oonoeming the names of God, the accents,
and the vowel-points. In like manner, the kingdom
of evil, with its demons and evil spirits which con-
tinually oppose the realm of righteousness, is
described in terms of wildest fantasy. Its state-
ments are placed in the mouth of Simeon ben
Yohai, a Tanna of the second century a.d., who,
according to the Talmud, lived in association with
the angel Metafron, who communicated to him
the divine mysteries. Yet it is by no means a
uniform work, among its older components being
the " Book of Mystery," which is devoted to the
creation and the events which pre-
17. The ceded it; the '' Great Holy Assem-
Zohar. bly," which forms a compend of
cabalistic speculation and finds the
type of all sefiroth in man, through whose mental
processes the upper world of light is united with
the lower world of sense, while the anthropo-
morphisms of the Old Testament are declared to be
mere metaphors; and the " True Shepherd," which
explains the nature of the primal emanations.
The later elements of the Zohar are as follows:
the " Small Holy Assembly," which gives a clearer
exposition of t^ subjects treated in the " Great
Holy Assembly"; the "Book of the Mystery of
Mysteries," devoted to physiognomy and cheiro-
mancy; the " Book of the Halls," which describes
the abodes of the souls in the Garden of Eden and
in hell; the "Hidden Midmsh," which recounts
the return of the souls to their new and perfect
human fonns after the resurrection, and portrays
the meal prepared for the righteous; the " Ajicient,"
which describes the transmigration of souls and
the punishments of hell; the " Young," an expo-
sition of various cabalistic teachings; and " Mish-
nas and Tosefta," which is devoted chiefly to the
mystical meanings of the divine names. Despite
the opposition of Tahnudists and philosophers the
Zohar gained an enormous following and was
regarded as a revelation from heaven. Through
it Spain became the real home of the Cabala, and
even to the present day it is considered author-
itative in some Judaistic quarters.
With the exile of the Jews from Spain the Cabala
was carried into all lands, and Safed in Palestine
became its new center. There, in the sixteenth
century, Moses ben Jacob Cordovero and Isaac
Luria systematized the Cabala and filled many a
gap wb^<sh had existed in the Zohar, the former
emphasizing the metaphysical and speculative,
and the latter the ascetic and ethical
18. Closiiig side. Through them the Zohar was
Period of well-nigh deified, and in a like spirit
the Cabala, many cabalists of the seventeenth
century, such as Shabbathai ^ebi
and Jacob Frank, proclaimed themselves prophets
or asserted that the Shekinah or the soul of the
Messiah had become incarnate in them. From
this time on, however, the Cabala has steadily
declined, and the names of its representatives are
too unimportant to require mention here.
Though the Cabala was devoted to a spiritual-
ization of religion, the pagan dements which it
adopted brought to Judaism a view of the urn-
verse which was entirely foreign to it, and worked
it grave injury. The Biblical concept of a mono-
theistic God was superseded by a vague Gentile
theoiy of emanation with a pantheistic tendency,
and the doctrine of the unity of God was thrust
into the background by the ten sefiroih, who were
regarded as divine in essence. Since prayer was
no longer addressed inunediately to God but to
the sefiroth, a genuine aefirothrcvlt was evolved.
The Talmud and philosophy were disdained by
the cabalists, and even the study of the Bible was
ne^ected, since it was no longer read for its own
sake, but solely with the aid of cabalistic methods
of hermeneutics. Nor did the ritual escape chac^
and mutilation, and the phylacteries
19. Influ- and the prayer-mantles were now put
ence of the on to the accompaniment of various
Cabala on cabalistic formulas, especially prom-
Judaism, inent being the prayers to the seftnih.
Worst ol all was the growth of super-
stition. That the soul might attain to the rc»lm
of light after death, the severest mortification of the
flesh was practised, while the mysterious names of
God were believed to heal the sick and quench the
flames, and God altered his divine will at the
prayer of the cabalist. The very kingdom of
darkness was subject to the proper formulas of
prayer, and the damned were freed from their
torments by use of the magic names of God.
During the period of the Reformation the Cabala
attracted wide attention because of the alleged
kinship and agreement of its doctrines with the
dogmas of the Christian Church. The opinion
accordingly prevailed that it formed the means by
which Judaism and Christianity might easily be
united, especially as it was believed to contain the
doctrines of the Trinity, the Messiah as the Son
of God, and his work of atonement. In his mis-
sionary seal for the Saracens in the
30. Rela- thirteenth centiiry Raymond Lully
tion of the (q.v.) considered the Cabala a divine
Cabala to revelation, and after the converted Jew
Christianity. Paulus de Heredia (about 1480) had
shown in his " Letter of Secrets "
that all the chief truths of Christianity were con-
tained in the Cabala, Christian scholars became
rivals in their eagerness to study esoteric Judaism.
In 1486 Pico de Mirandola published at Rome hb
SeptuagintOnduoB condnsianes eabbaUisticcB, and invi-
ted all scholars to Rome to attend a disputation
to convince themselves of the kinship between the
Cabala and Christianity. The first German to
investigate this subject was Reuchlin, who devoted
to it his Z>e verbo mirifico (Basel, 1494) and his
De arte cabbalisHca (Hagenau, 1517). Latin trans-
lations of various portions of cabalistic works were
made by Baruch of Benevento at the request of
Cardinal ^gidius of Viterbo and by the convert
Paul Ricdo, physician in ordinaxy to the emperor
Maximilian I., but the most important work which
sought the truths of CThristianity in the Cabala
and gave translations from it was the Kabbaia
denudata of Christian Knorr von Rosenroth (4
vols., Sulzbach and Frankfort, 1677-^), the source
for all subsequent scholars.
331
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
CaTmlA
CaBdmon
Tt is now recognized that the concepts of God
a. lid the creation are entirely divergent in the
Cabala and Christianity; the first triad of the
scfiroih does not actually correspond to the Trinity,
nor does the Christian doctrine of Christ as the Son
of God find an analogue in the Adham Jjpadhmon of
the Cabala. According to Christianity, redemp-
tion is possible only through Christ, while the Cabala
postulates that man can save himself by his mystic
influence on God and the world of light through
ri^d observance of the law, asceticism, and similar
agencies. (August WCnsche.)
Bibliograpbt: The literature up to about 1800 is arraoced
in J. Fartt, Biblioiheca judaiea, iii. 320-335, Leipeio. 1863.
The best book in Eng. is C. D. Ginsburs. The Kabbalah,
ito Doetrinea^ Devdopmeni, and LitenUwre^ London, 1866.
A most valuable work is A. Franck. L>a KabbaU^ ou la
jfhiloeophie reliffietae de» Uibreux, 3d ed., Paris, 1802
CGerm. transl., Leipsic, 1844). Of older literature the
following may be mentioned: J. F. Buddeus, Intro-
dtictio ad hi^oriam phUotophia UebrcBorumt Halle, 1721;
J. Basnage, Ui»toire d» la rtHgion det JuifM, vol. iii., Rot-
terdam. 1707-11; J. F. Kleuker. Uwber die Natur und
den Ureprung der EmanaHonBlehre bei den Kabbalietent
Riga, 1786; F. A. Tholuck, De orlu Cabbala, vol. i.,
Hamburg, 1837. Of later literature the following are
suggested as worthy of study: A. Jellinek, BeibrHoe stir
Geachichte der Kabbala, 2 vob., Leipsio, 1852 (of great
value) idem, AuewaJU kabbaUeHedier AfyttiJ;, ib. 1853;
J. W. Etheridge, Jentealem and Tiberiae, Sara and Cor-
dova, London, 1856; 8. Hunk, Miiangee de philoeophie
juive et arabe, pp. 461-511, Paris, 1857; Q. dee Mous-
•eauz. U JuiU pp. 500 sqq.. ib. 1860; C. Siegfried. Philo
. , . ale AueUger dee AUen TeetamenU, Jena, 1872; F.
Ueberweg, Hietorw of Philoeophy, i. 417, New York, 1876;
F. Weber, Syetem der aUeynaoooalen paiAeHniedten The-
ologie, Leipsio, 1880; L. Wogue, Uietoire de Vixtgeee bib-
lique, Paris, 1881; Die Kabbala. ihre HaupUehre, Inns-
bruck, 1885; Simeon ben Yochai, Kabbala denudata.
Kabbalah Unveiled, London, 1887; I. Meyer. Qabbalah;
Philoeophieal Writinge of Solomon . . . Gdnrol or Aviee-
bron and their Connedion with the Hebrew Qabbalah,
Philadelphia, 1888; P. Bloch, GeediichU der Bntwideduno
der Kabbala, Trier, 1804; J. Hamburger, Real^Encyklo-
pAdie far Bibd und Talmud, Leipsic, 1806-1001; Th$
Canon; an Ezpoeition of the Pagan Myetery Perpetuated
in ihe Cabala, London, 1807; M. Mielsiner, Introduction
to the Talmud, Cincinnati, 1807; J. H. Weldon, The Cab-
bala of the BibU, 1807-1000; C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy
Scripture, chap, xviii.. New York, 1800; W. Begley, Btblia
eabalittiea, London, 1003; E. Bischoff. De Kabbala Inleiding
tot de ioodeche myeliek, Amsterdam, 1006; 8. A. Binion,
The Kabbalah, in World't Beet Literature, ed. C. D. War^
ner, pp. 8425-42; JE, iii. 45^-470. where other litera-
ture is mentioned. At the head of the article in Hauok-
Ilersog. R^ is a very full list of works, including period-
ical literature.
CADALUS: Antipope. See HoNORnTS II., anti-
pope.
CADMAlf, SAMUEL PARKES: Congregation-
alist; b. at Wellington (30 m. n.w. of Birmingham),
Shropshire, En^and, Dec. 18, 1864. He was
educated at Richmond College, London, graduating
in theology and classics in 1889, and held successive
Congregational pastorates at Millbrook, N. Y.
(1890-93), Yonkera, N. Y. (1893-95). the Metro-
politan Temple, New York City (1895-1900), and
the Central Congregational Church, Brooklyn
(1900 to the present time). His theological posi-
tion is that of a liberal-conservative.
CADOC {Cadocus, Docus): A Welsh saint, called
"the Wise," son of a chieftain of South Wales
and cousin of St. David of Menevia; d., according
to one accoimt, at his monasteiy of Llancarven
(near Cowbridge, 10 m. w.s.w. of Llandafif. Glamor-
ganshire), according to others, as a martyr at Bene-
ventum, 570 (7). He early devoted himself to the
religious b'fe, refused to succeed his father in his
principality, studied under Irish scholars at home,
and visited Ireland, Scotland, Rome, and Jerusalem
in quest of instruction. He foimded the monas-
tery at Llancarven and made it a famous center of
learning. Tradition associates him with David
and Gildas (who was one of the teachers at Llan-
carven) as training the "second order of Irish
saints'' (see Celtic Church in Brffain and
Ireland, II., 2, § 1) and thus influencing the church
life of Ireland. One of the earliest moniunents of
the Welsh language is The Wisdom of Cadoc the
TFtse, a collection of proverbs, maxims, and the like
(in The Myvyrian Archaiology of WdUs^ ed. O.
Jones, E. Williams, and W. O. Pugh, iii., London,
1807; newed., Denbigh, 1870, 754 sqq.). The Fables
of Cadoc the Wise maybe foimd in/o2o Manuscripts,
ed. £. Williams (London, 1848).
Bxblxographt: Lanigan, Bed. HieL, i. 489-492; W. J. Rees,
Uvee of the Cambro-Britieh SainU, 22-96, 309-395, 468,
587, Llandovery. 1853; A. P. Forbes, Kalendare of Scot-
tieh Sainte, pp. 292-293, Edinbuish, 1872.
CJECILIAirnS. See Donatibm.
C^DMON: The first Christian poet of England
and, with the exception of Cynewulf (q.v.), the
only An^o-Saxon versifier whose name is known;
d. about 680. All information concerning him
comes from Bede, who states (Hist, ecd.f iv. 24)
that he was a brother in Hilda's monastery at
Streaiueshalch (see Hilda, Saint) and learned the
art of song, not from men, but from God. Till well
advanced in years he lived a secular life, and he
often left a merry company where all were called
on to sing in turn, feeling his inability to comply.
On one such occasion he went from the hall to the
stable, it being his duty that night to watch the
animals, and in his sleep he saw some one standing
before him and commanding him to sing of the
Creation — ^which he thereupon was enabled to do,
reciting an original poem, which Bede gives in
Latin translation.' On awaking ClSsedmon re-
membered the poetry of his dream, and proceeded
to add more of the same purport. Being brought
before the abbess Hilda, he related his vision, and,
at the request of the learned men there present,
put passages of Scripture which they repeated to
him into excellent verse. Thereupon he was
received into the monastery and instructed in the
Biblical stories, large portions of which he subse-
quently versified. Among these were the creation
of the world, the origin of man, and the whole
history of Genesis; the departure of the children
1 " Now onght we to praiae the founder of the heavenly
Idncdom, the power of the Creator, and his wisdom, the
deeds of the father of Glory; how he, ainoe he ia Ood eter-
nal, to the author of all thinga wonderful, and the one who
first created the heaven as a roof for the sons of men, then
the earth — ^the almighty guardian of the human raoe."
Bede explains that he gives the sense, not the order of words,
and wisely remarks that no verses can be transferred verba-
tim from one language to another, no matter how well it
may be done, without losing much of their beauty and
power.
OsBdmon
CsBsarlua of Arlea
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZOG
332
of Israel from Egypt and their entrance into the
land of promise; the incarnation, passion, resurrec-
tion, and ascension of Christ; the descent of the
Holy Ghost and the preaching of the apostles;
the terror of future judgment, the horror of hell,
and the blessedness of heaven; and many other
things by which he sought to lead men from the
love of the world and to the choice of a good life.
Ho was a very religious man and the manner of his
death was in complete accord with his devout and
tranquil life. Bede wbjb bom before Csedmon's
death and lived not far from his monastery; hence
his account is worthy of belief. The attempt of
Sir Francis Palgrave to show that the story is a
mere monk's tale is to be rejected. No doubt a
monk named Caedmon lived at Streanseshalch
and wrote poetry there, and evidently he was of
low origin and imleamed. Several poems from
a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library — a
paraphrase of Genesis of more than 2,900 lines;
Exodus, about 600 lines; Daniel, about 800 lines;
and portions of the New Testament, including
the lament of the fallen angels, Christ's visit to
hell, and the temptation of Christ, formerly known
as the Christ and Satan — ^were published by Fran-
dscus Junius (Fran9ois du Jon) at Amsterdam
in 1655 and attributed to Csedmon. At present
it is conceded that only the first of these poems
has any claim to be considered the production of
Csedmon, and that even this has been transmitted
in an interpolated and much modified form (see
Heliand, the, and the Old-Saxon Genesis) ; many
think that it contains no work of Csedmon's at all.
The hymn mentioned by Bede, however, is pre-
served in the Northumbrian dialect (Csedmon's
own) by a Cambridge manuscript of the Historia
ecclesiastica and is the oldest extant Christian poem
in a Germanic tongue. (R. WOlker.)
Bxblxographt: Beeides the edition of Junius, the poema of
the Bodleian manuscript have been published by the
Society of Antiquaries of London — Ccedmon't Metrical
Paraphra$e of Porta of the Holy Scripture in Anglo-Saxon,
with an Engliah Tranelation, Notee, and a verbal Index by
B. Thorpe, London, 1832. The same society also pub-
lished in their Archceologia, zxiv. (1832), fifty-two plates
illustrative of the manuscript, including the illumina-
tions, reissued separately London, 1833. Later editions
are by K. W. Bouterwek, 2 vols.. GQtersloh. 1849-54.
and C. W. M. Grein, in his Bibliothek der anf/eUHcheiachen
Poeaie, ii. 316-562, new ed. by R. WQlker, Lcipsic, 1894.
Grein has also furnished a German translation in allitera-
tive verse in Dichtungen der Angeleachaen etabreimend
mberaetzt, Gdttingen. 1863. Consult further: Sir Francis
Palgrave. in ilrcA(0o2o^, xxiv. (1832) 341-343, reprinted
by Cook. pp. 12-13 (see below); W. H. F. Bosanquet,
The Fall of Man or Paradise Loet of Cadmon Translated
in Verse, London. 1860; E. Bievers. Der Heliand und die
angelsHchsische Genesis, Halle. 1875; R. 8. Watson, Cced-
tnon, the First English Poet, London, 1875; B. ten
Brink. Oeschichte der englisehen Litteratur, i., 2d ed..
Strasburg, 1899. Eng. transl.. London. 1883; J. Earie,
Anglo-Saxon Literature, London, 1884; R. Walker,
Orundrisa mr Oeschichte der angdsdchsischen Litteratur,
Leipsic, 1885; idem. Oeschichte der englisehen Litteratur,
Leipsic, 1896; A. Ebert, AUgemeine OeschichU der Lii-
teratur des Mittelalters, vol. iii.. Leipsic, 1887; A. S. Ox>k,
in the PiMiaUions of the Modem Language Association
of America, vol. vi.. part 1. pp. 9-28, Baltimore. 1891;
Plummer's Bede, ii. 248-258, Oxford, 1896; W. Bright,
Early English Church History, pp. 311-316, Oxfoid, 1897;
R. T. Gaskin, Cadtnon, the First English Poet, London,
1902. For the striking resemblance between parts of the
Genesis and Milton's Paradise Lost, consult I. Disraeli,
Amenities of Literature, pp. 37-50, ed. B. Disraeli Lon-
don. 1875; S. H. Gurteen. The Epic of tKe Fall of Afen, a
Comparative Study of Caadmon, Dante, and Milton, l^cwidon,
1896 (gives reduced facsimiles of the iUuminatioiis of tiis
Bodleian manuscript).
CJELESnUS. See Pelagius, PsLAGiANiBii.
CJERULARIUS, MICHAEL: Patriarch of Con-
stantinople 1043-58. The exact date and pboe
both of his birth and death are unknown, and few
details of his life are certain. During the reign
of Michael the Paphlagonian (1034-41) he was
banished for conspiracy, but he was raised to the
patriarchate by Constantino Monomachus, who
hoped to find in him a firm ally. Caendariwi.
however, strenuously defended the rights of the
Church, and his chief importance is due to the fact
that his course resulted in the complete deavage
between the Greek and Roman Churches. At
the very time when the Norman War gave the
Byzantine court and the pope an opportunity to
draw more closely together, the patriarch violently
suppressed the Latin ritual observed in many
cloisters and churches, and renewed the ancient
charges of Photius (q.v.) in a letter to the bishop
of Trani in Apulia, reserving his special attack for
the Roman use of imleavened bread in the Sacra-
ment, wliich he condemned as Jewish. Leo IX.
replied with a haughty defense of the primacy of
Rome, and at Constantine's request an embassy
was sent to Constantinople, headed by the Cardinnl
Bishop Humbert. Their letters were intended to
win over the emperor and humble the patriarch,
and the feeble Constantine, overawed by Hum-
bert's attacks on the Greek Church, had neither
the courage to protect Cserularius nor to oppose
him openly. The patriarch, however, refused to
3rield, and on July 16, 1054, the embassy exoom-
mimicated him and all his adherents. After the
departure of the envoys, Cserularius regained his
prestige with Constantine, and maintained it during
the reign of Theodora. Isaac Conmenus, on the
other hand, banished him on account of his arro-
gance in 1058, and he seems to have died shortly
afterward. In addition to the letters already
mentioned, Cserularius was the author of some
decretals (De epiacoporum judiciis, De nupHis in
Beptimo gradu rum contrahendis, De sacerdotia uzore
adulterio poUuta; edited by Rhalles and Potlis,
" Collection of Canons," v. 40-47) and a few writings
still preserved in manuscript (De miasa, Opus contra
Latinos; listed by Fabricius, BibliothMa Orcecajed.
Harles, ». 195-197). (Philipp Meter.)
Bxbuoorapht: C. Will. Acta et scripta . , . de eontroperaia
ecdesicB . . ., Marbuis. 1861; J. Heisenrftther, Photius,
vol. iii., Regensbiu^, 1809 (rich in orisixial matter); A.
Pichler, Oesdiiehte der kirchlichen TrennuTig swiadien dem
Orient und Occident, 2 vob., Munich. 1864-^; R. Baz-
mann. Die Politik der PApate, vol. ii.. Elberfeld. 1868-66:
W. Fischer, Studien tur byaanHniadten Oeachiehte des elf-
ten Jahrhunderta, Plauen. 1883; K. Knimbacher. Oe-
achiehte der byaantiniaehen LiUaratur, paaaim, Munidu
1897.
C^SARIUS OF ARLES: Bishop'bf ^les; b. at
Ch&lon-Bur-Sa6ne (33 ra. n. of Miioon) 469 or 470;
d. at Aries (44 m. n.w. of Marseilles) Aug. 27, 542.
Little is known of his life before his eighteenth year,
but at the age of twenty he went to the famous
cloister on the island of L^rins, although it was now
333
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
C»dxnoxi
CsBsarlus of Arlea
declining under the weak abbot Porciirius. There
Ceesarius became acquainted with the writings of
Faustus, who had been abbot of L^rins for some
thirty years, and these works exercised an influ-
ence on him throughout his life. Porcarius ap-
pointed him master of the refectory,
Early Life, but the discontent of the monks
caused his removal, and he thereupon
devoted himself so rigidly to fasting that it became
necessary to send him to Aries in search of health.
He there became acquainted with Firminus, and
at his request began the study of rhetoric with
Pomerius of Africa, who is now generally regarded
as identical with the author of the De vita contem-
plativa. Pomerius was, moreover, a follower of
Augustine, and seems to have won his pupil over
to this teacher. Recognizing in Csesarius a fellow
countrsrman and kinsman, .^k>ntius, bishop of
Aries, not only ordained him and placed him in
charge of a monastery, but also induced the clergy,
citizens, and king to appoint him his successor.
In 502, therefore, CsBsarius became bishop of Aries,
though sorely against his will.
His first measure was to make daily attendance
at church agreeable to the laity, largely by singing,
and he also required them to learn passages from
the Bible, in addition to the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer. The administration of funds was entrusted
to laymen and deacons, and he strove to main-
tain firm discipline, being apparently
Bishop, the author of the first Occidental
502. manual of ecclesiastical law, the
StahUa ecdesicB antiqua. In 505
Cffisarius was charged with high treason by his
secretary Licinianus, and was banished to Bordeaux
by Alaric II., although he quickly proved his
innocence and was permitted to return. On Sept.
11, 506, he restuned the long interrupted series of
Gallic synods with the Synod of Agde (q.v.), and
the canons, evidently written by Csesarius, are
important documents for ecclesiastical history.
Particularly noteworthy among them are the
resolutions on ecclesiastical jurisdiction, slavery,
celibacy, and church-property which was to be
regarded as set aside for the poor. The death of
Alaric shortly after the close of the synod ended
the kingdom of Toulouse, and in 508 the Franks
and Burgundians began the siege of Aries. A
relative of the bishop deserted to the enemy, and
Csesarius himself was charged with treason and
imprisoned, escaping only when the treason of the
Jews who had accused him became known. In
510 the city was relieved, and Csesarius cared for
the captives without regard to creed, in addition
to ransoming many with the money and ornaments
of the churches. Three years later, however, he
was cited to appear before Theodoric at Ravenna,
probably because of his expenditures of church
funds for the foundation of a nunnery at Aries
and similar purposes, but he won the king com-
pletely to his side, and received such rich gifts from
all quarters for the ransom of Burgundian captives
that he was able to bring to Aries 8,000 solidi
(about $56,000). From Ravenna he went to Rome,
and in October gave the pope a petition, in which
> h-y requested permission to employ church funds
for cloisters; to abrogate, in view of the lack of
clergy in Gaul, the hieratic cursua honorum, on
which strict stress was laid at Rome; and also
asked information regarding the marriage of widows
and nuns, bribery in the election of bishops, and
the prohibition against naming a bishop without
the knowledge of the metropolitan. On Nov. 6,
513, the petition was granted with a few reservar
tions, Symmsu^hus allowing only the usufruct to
be devoted to cloisters and the like.
Little is known of the life of Csesarius between
514 and 523, although the canons of the Coimcil of
Gerunda in 516-517 show that his influence was
traceable in Spain. In 523, however, it became
possible for him to exerdse his metropolitan func-
tions, since the peaceable intervention of Theodoric
in the Franko-Burgundian War brought ten cities
of Burgundy under the sway of the Ostrogoths.
Csesarius now held five synods: Aries, 524; Car-
pentras, 527; Orange and Vaison, 529; and Mar-
seilles, 533. The disciplinary and legislative
su;tivity of Csesarius CM^oordin^y lies in the StahUa
ecdesia antiqua and in the canons of the six synods,
to which should probably be added
Synods the decrees of what is oonmionly con-
after 523. sidered the second synod of Aries.
Stress should also be isdd on his care
for the rural oonunimities and for the erection of
schools for the education of the clergy. As early
as the Statvia, moreover, Csesarius had taken for
granted the right and duty of presu^hing, and he
insisted on it again in the AdmonitiOf which seems
to have appeared at the synod of Vsdson. The
Council of Orange (Jime 3, 529) was the only one
devoted to a dogmatic question, and also the only
one which received papal sanction as an ecumenical
council. This was apparently the conference of
bishops of Vienne (mentioned in the Vita), who,
as Semi-Pelagians, attacked the doctrine of grace
taught at Aries, while Cyprian, bishop of Toulon,
represented Csesarius, who was prevented by illness
from attending, tmd defended the dogma of pre-
venient grace. The epilogue of its resolutions,
apparently written by Csesarius himself, ascribes
free will to all the baptized, and rejects predes-
tination to damnation. His own position toward
this problem first became clear in 1896, when Morin
edited the treatise Quid domintu Casaariua senaerit
contra eos qui dicunt quare aliis det Deus gratiam,
cUiis nan det, in whidi he maintains that divine
grace works without regard to the merits of man,
while God acts according to his will and pleasure.
The dose of the second decade of the sixth century
saw the climax of the activity of Csesarius, and his
relations with Rome changed for the worse. Pope
Agapetus charged him with cruelty and injustice
in Us proceedings against Conttuneliosus, bishop
of Riez, although he had acted simply in accord
with Gallicsui usage and had defended the disci-
pline of the Church. Under Pope Vigilius he was
obliged, as vicar of the Roman See, to render a
decision in a question of marriage, which was dis-
regarded. Old and sickly, he took no personal
part in the French synods, although the ecclesias-
tical influence of his pupils remained important.
He lived, however, to see the cloister which he had
CSBMUIUS of ArlM
OaiUln
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
334
founded on Aug. 26, 512 or 513, in a flourishing
condition, and to complete a bishopric of forty
years.
No collected edition of the works of Gesarius
exists as yet, although the Benedictine Germaine
Morin has long been preparing one, but the places
in which his scattered writings may be found
are given by Arnold, 435-450 (cf. 491-496), Mal-
nory, v.-xviii., and Fessler-Jungmann, 438, 452.
In addition to the works already mentioned, his
most important writings are his sermons. His
chief sources, often noted in his manuscript, were
Augustine, Rufirius, Faustus, Salvianus, and
Eucherius, and his generosity in giving of his
treasures to others has resulted in the ascription
of many of his sermons to Augustine, Faustus, and
similar authors. On the other hand, he prepared
homiliaries, represented by Cod. Loon. Itl (ninth
century) and Parisin. 10605 fol, 71 (thirteenth
century). A similar collection contains forty-two
admonitions, and a third is devoted to sermons
for the cloister. A special category
Works, is formed by the homilies for the Old
Testament lessons for each fast, and
these are supplemented by interpretations of texts
of the New Testament. Another group of sermons
is eechatological and a third is important for the
history of penance. His monastery rules are
extremely valuable for the history of asceticism,
and his regulations for nuns, based on Augustine's
letter Ad aancHmonialeB, the so-called rules of
Macarius, and his own monastic rules, received their
final form in 534 and deariy show the various
strata of their development. Of the other writings
of Cffisarius, only the letters need be considered,
for the Teatamentum beati Coesarii {MPL, Ixvii.
1139-42) is now recognized as spurious.
(F. Arnold.)
Bibuoorapbt: Sources for a life are: fpwf. Ardaienma,
in MOH, EpUL, iii. 1-83. ed. W. Qundlaoh« Hanover,
1801; Concilia cevi Merovingici, in MGH, Leg.t Bectio
iii., part 1, pp. 37-61. ed. Maassen. ib. 1803. The early
lives are in MOH, Script, rer. Merovinifiearum, iii. 467-
501. ed. B. Krusch. ib. 1806. and in ASB, 27 Aug.. vi. 64-
83, with comment by Stilting, pp. 50-64. Consult: A.
Malnory, 8. Ciaairt ivique d'Arlet, Paris, 1804; C. F.
Arnold, Cdsoritis von Ardate und dts ffaUi$ch€ Kirche
•einer Zeil, Leipdc. 1804; Hi$toire liUiraire de la France,
iii. 100, iv. 1. X., p. xv.. xii., p. viL; J. M. Trichaud. His-
foirs d€ S. CUaire, Svique d'Arlet, Aries, 1858; U. Ville-
vieille, Uiatoire d» S. Cifaire, Aix-en-Provsnoe, 1884;
P. Lejay, Lea Sermona de Cfaaira d* Arise, in Revue bi-
blique, iv. (1805) 503-610; J. Fessler. InatiiuHonea palro-
logia, ed. B. Jungmann. ii. 438-452, Innsbruck. 1806;
Q. Pfeilschifter. Der Oatgofhen Kdnig Theoderieh der Groaae
und die kaiholiaehe Kirche, pp. 123-136, MOnster, 1806;
Hefele, ConciliengeaehicfUe, iL 68-77, Eng. transl., iv. 131,
143 -qq.
CSSARIUS OF HEISTERBACH, hois'ter-bOH:
Monk; b. probably at Ck>logne c. 1180; d. at
Heisterbach (20 m. s. of Cologne) c. 1240. He
received an excellent education at Cologne and
gained a good knowledge of the Church Fathers
and classical writers. In 1198 or 1109 he entered
the monastery of the Cistercians at Heisterbach
and spent his life there in quiet seclusion. He
became master of the novices, and also prior
according to Henriquez (Monologium Ciaterciensef
ad diem 25 Sept.). His literary activity is closely
connected with his monastic duties. Only six-
teen of his many writings are extant and most of
these are still in manuscript. One of the be<t
known is the Dtalogus miractilarum or De miromii^
et vmantbiia sui temporis (ed. J. Strange, 2 vok.
Cologne, 1851; index, Coblenz, 1857; see bibliography
below for title of G^man select transl.). As m^ter
of the novices Cssarius had to acquaint the future
monks with the regulations, opinions, and dedsoos
of the order, and he believed the best way to ac-
complish this was by means of examples. At the
request of his abbot he committed his instructioDs
to writing and the copiousness and variety <^ his
material, drawn from the recent past as well &&
more remote antiquity, is surprising. His written
sources belong mostly to the Cistercian order, bu:
he also drew from oral communicatioDs. Each
narrative is intended to have a religious or moral
practical application, but Csesarius knew how to
include everything imder these heads, and thus i:
happens that his stories contain many points of
interest for contemporaneous history and the hi^
• tory of civilisation. In a series of pictures he
brings before us the life on the Lower Rhine, espe-
cially at Cologne, and we often meet with popul^
beliefs and superstitions in which survivals of old
Germanic mythology may still be discovered.
The Dialogu8 is especially important for informa-
tion concerning ecclesiastical customs and ooih
ditions, especially in the monastic life. The
regulations of the monasteries, especially amoD^^
the Cistercians, the chorus-singing and work, the
eating and sleeping, the fasting and bloodletting
of the monks — ^all comes before us in living ex-
amples. Csesarius is much in earnest about the
evils of confession; he suppresses the worst, but
what he tells is bad enough and his judgment upon
it is severe (cf. iii. 41 and 45). For the rest tbt>
dialogue from beginning to end is a witness to the
mania for miracles and the belief of the time in the
marvelous. One finds everywhere an interferenci'
of partly divine, partly demonic powers with
earthly happenings, and when it takes place the
most incredible becomes credible. Here is the
weak point of the book which must not be over-
looked, despite the poetic charm of manynarrati>'^
and the morally pure personality of Cssarius. He
contributed his share to cause the belief in witch-
craft and sorcery, in incubi and succubi, and all
sorts of devilish intervention, to be regarded as a
oonstituentpart of Christian belief. The praise be-
stowed on the Dialogua induced Csesarius to pre-
pare a second work of the kind, not however in the
form of dialogue, the L4bri VIII miraculorum, of
which only three books are preserved (ed. Mop
Meister, Rome, 1901, supplementary vol. to the R'h
fni8che QuartaUchrift). Cssarius's historical works
include a Catalogtis episeoporum CoUmiengium (in J. F.
Bdhmer, FonJbea rtrum Gemuinicarum, ii., Stuttgart.
1845. 272-282, and, ed. H.Cardauns, in MGH, Scnji..
xxiv., 1879, 345-347; Germ, transl. by M. Beth-
any, Elberfeld, 1898) and a Vita 9ancti EngdberH, an
archbishop of Cologne who was murdered by a rela-
tive inl225 (in B6hmer, ut sup. , 294-329). This work
insures to Cssarius a place among the most prom-
inent biographers of the Middle Ages. The first book i
886
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OsBMbrlfUi of Aries
Oaillin
describes the personality of Engelbert; the second
describes in dramatic manner the dangers with
which the arrogance of insubordinate vassals
threatened the archbishop, and ends with a thrilling
account of the final catastrophe. The third book
treats of the miracles of Engelbert, who was revered
as martyr. Lastly, Cssarius deserves no minor
place among the preachers of his time. His homi-
lies (edited by the Dominican J. A. Koppenstein,
4 parts, Cologne, 1615-28) are indeed monastic,
not popular, sermons, like those of Bernard of
Clairvaux. But both have in common the rich
application of Holy Writ, the connection of moral
and allegorical exposition, and the endeavor to
edify their hearers. In spite of their simplicity
they reveal an indeed unsought for, but not im-
conscious art in their plan. Peculiar to Caesarius
and corresponding to his method, already noted,
is the very copious intertwining of historical ex-
amples from modem times. He was a true child
of his time, and belongs to its best. In him still
lives the spirit of the old Cistercians, as Bernard
impressed it on the order. He unites an earnest
orthodoxy with fervent piety and a highly moral
sentiment. Though implicitly devoted to the
Church, nevertheless he has a keen eye for its
obvious defects, and his judgment was incorrupt-
ible. Though a zealous monk, he did not lose all
interest in the events of the world, and the political
disorders of the time, with all the misery which
they brought, concern him. S. M. Deutbch.
Bxblzoorapht: A. Kaufmann, C&Mriut von UeiUerbaeht
Cologne, 1850, 2ded.. 1862; W. Cave. Scriptonan eccUnattv-
eorum hUtoria literaria, year 1225, 2 vob., London, 1688-08;
J. Hartsheim, BiUiotheca CoUmientia, pp. 42-45, Cologne,
1747; HiBtoire litUrain de la France, xviii. 104-201.
Paria, 1835; Braun. in ZeUtchrift fUr PhUoaophis und
kathoUachs TheoiogU, pp. 1-27. Bonn, 1845 (oontaina a
list of Mb writings prepared by hixnaelf); A. W. Wy-
branda, De DuiioouM miraculorum van Cauariua van Heit-
ierbaeh, in Studitn en Bijdraoen, ii. 1-116, Amsterdam.
1871; K. Unkel, Die HomUien dee C&aariue von Heieter-
badi und ihre Bedeuiung fUr die KuUur und Sittenoe'
»d^idUe dee nvdlften und dreizehnten Jahrhunderte, in An-
nalen dee hietarMien Vereine fUr den Niederrhein, xxxiv.
(1870) 1-67; A. Kaufmann, Wunderbare und denlnoUrdige
Oeeehichten aue den Werken dee Cdeariue von HeieteHnMch,
in Annalen dee hietoriechen Vereine fOr den Niederrhein,
Cologne. 2part«. 1884-01; Wattenbach. DQQ, ii. 412, 485.
CJESARIUS OF SPETER. See Francib, Saint,
OF ASSISI, AND THE FRANCISCAN OrDER, I., § 4;
II., § 1.
C£SAROPAPISM: A name applied to the con-
ception of the relations between Church and State
which contemplates the secular ruler's exercising
spiritual power also. It is thus the converse of the
theocratic system which the popes have attempted
to carry into effect (i.e., in regard to the world
at large, not to their limited states), which also
underlies Calvin's teaching as to the relations of
Church and State. Its principles are met with as
early as 355, when Constantine addressed the
Synod at Milan in the words: " Whatever / will,
let that be acknowledged as a ' canon ' " (Atha-
nasius, Hist. Arian., xxxiii.; NPNF, 2d ser., iv.
281). It developed more rapidly in the Eastern
Church because of the absence of the coimterpoise
which the papacy formed in the West. Justinian
may be regarded as a typical representative of it;
but the Church managed during the iconoclastic
controversy to free itself in a large measure from
imperial dictation. Since that time the term has
not borne any strict application, though it is some-
times applied in a modified sense to the position
of the Czars since Peter the Great in the Russian
Church, and has sometimes, though with still less
justice, been used of the German evangelical
princes who have exercised authority in spiritual
things, though even the territorial system recog-
nizes a sphere for religion independent of the State/
See Erastus, Thomas. (E. Friedberg.)
CAIAPHASy coi'a-fos (more exactly Joseph, who
also was called Caiaphas; cf. Josephus, An^, XVIII.
ii. 2): The Jewish high priest who held office
during the ministry and death of Jesus. He was
the last of the four high priests whom the Roman
procurator Valerius Gratus appointed successively
to this dignity. As Valerius was procurator from
15 to 26 A.D., his appointment of Caiaphas must
have occurred at the latest in 26 a.d.; most likely
it happened c. 18 a.d., as Valerius Gratus probably
appointed Ishmael, the first of the four high priests,
immediately after his own inauguration, and as the
next two remained in office only about one year,
Caiaphas held his office imtil c. 36 a.d., when he
was removed by Vitellius, the legate of Syria.
His administration, therefore, lasted about eighteen
years — a long term when compared with that of
most other high priests of the Roman period.
For this he was probably indebted less to his ability
than to his submissiveness to the anti-Jewish
policy of the Roman government. Probably he
belonged to the party of the Sadduoees and shared
their fondness for foreign ideas, as did his father-in-
law Annas (Acts iv. 1, 6; v. 17) and the latter's
son Annas the Younger (Josephus, An/., XX. ix. 1).
See Annas. F. Sisffert.
Biblioobaphy: A. Ederaheim. Life and Timee of Jeeue (he
Meeeiah, ii. 547. London. 1885; D. F. Strauss, Leben
Jeeu, iv. 30 sqq., Bonn. 1805; SchOrar. OeechidUe, ii.
204. 218. Eng. transl.. II. i. 182. 100; DB, i. 338; SB, i.
171-172; JE, ii. 403; and, in general, commentaries on
the Qospeb.
CAILLm, SAINT, OF FENA6H: Irish saint of
the " second order " who flourished about 560.
His alleged histoiy is a typical one among the
stories of the Irish ** saints," and is also note-
worthy for the light it throws on the conditions
of the time and the progress of Christianity
in pagan Ireland. Caillin's kinsmen of Dunmore
(County Galway) had determined to slay a part
of their number, the land having become over-
populated; but, on the advice of the saint, who
had received Christian education in Rome, they
> The term Cnsaropapism is somewhat opprobrious in its
implications; but if it is to be kept in use at all it is appli-
cable to all monarchical governments in which union of
Church and State, with civil control, prevails. In a limited
monarchy Uke Great Britain it is not as much the king as
the cabinet, representing a majority of the representatives
of the people, that exercises authority in religious matters.
Where imperial authority is less limited, as in Germany, ec-
clesiastical control by the sovereign or his representative is
more complete. Where imperial authority is absolute, as in
Russia until recently, the term Caearopapism is applicable
without qualification. A. H. N.
Cain
Oftius
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
336
desiBted, and Caillin undertook to find more land.
In the ooune of the search be came to Fenagh
(Ck>unty Lei trim, 3 m. s.w. of Ballinamore), where
he converted the king's son, Hugh, and a band of
warriors sent to drive him away. The prince then
gave the saint his fortress and the latter built a
church there. When the druids came, at the king's
behest, to expel Caillin, he restrained his Christian
followers from attacking them, and turned them
into stones. Hugh succeeded to the throne on his
father's death; he was known as " the Dark "
from his personal appearance, but Caillin made him
of fair complexion. Notwithstanding his love of
peace, Caillin is said to have given the tribe a
cathach or standard, a mighty talisman in battle.
Biblioorapht: The Book of Fenagh, ed. D. H. Kelly and
W. M. Hennessy. Dublin. 1875; T. Olden, The Church
of Ireland, pp. 65-67, London, 1892.
CAIlfy KENITES: The Hebrew word Kai^n
occurs in the Old Testament as the name of a stock
of nomads, associated with Midian, Amalek, and
Israel, mentioned in Judges iv. 11 and Num. xxiv.
22, probably also to be read in I Sam. xv. 6b. More
often the form Kent, " Kenite," is met (Gen. xv.
19; Num. xxiv. 21; Judges iv. 11, 17, etc.). In
the time of Moses this stock seems to have been
dependent on the Mldianites, since Hobab, Moses's
father-in-law, appears (Judges i. 16) as the head
of a Kenite family, and in Num. x. 29 is designated
as a Midianite, as is Jethro in Ex.
The iii. 1 and Reuel in Ex. ii. 16. Mid-
Kenites. ianites is most likely the larger term
and includes the Kenites as one of the
branches. The Kenites attached themselves to
the Israelites during the wandering; at the time
of Barak and Deborah the Kenite Heber was near
the plain of Jezreel, detached from the rest of his
tribe (Judges iv. 11). In Saul's time the Kenites
were associated with the Amalekites. It is note-
worthy that in I Chron. ii. 55 the Kenites are
brought into connection with the Rechabites, who
retained primitive customs, suggesting their ad-
herence to a nomadic form of life and to the primi-
tive Yahweh-religion of the desert (Jer. xxxv.).
This stock of Cain was apparently intended to be
brought into connection with the patriarchs of the
race (Gen. iv. 1-16); the conclusion of Wellhausen,
Budde, and Stade, however, is that originally the
story of Cain had nothing to do with the Kenites
for the following reasons: Gen. iv. 7 sqq. deals
with the world at large (verses 17, 20-22); Gen. iv.
1-16 with the land of Israel and neighboring deserts.
The Adhamahy "ground," of Gen. iv. 14 can be
only the land inhabited by Israel from which Cain
was banished. Gen. iv. 20 makes
Their Jabal the ancestor of nomads, while
Relation Cain's nomadic condition resulted
to Cain, from his sin (iv. 14-16). Abel, too,
was a shepherd of small cattle who
dwelt in Yahweh's land. The story of Cain in this
passage can not be understood to deal with the
earliest ages of mankind because of the advanced
civilization it implies. Its region is the southern
part of Palestine; it explained the separation of a
people whose God was the same as Israel's by the
commission of murder which is named fratricide
because of the dose connection of Kenites and
Hebrews. The mark for Cain, worn on the fore-
head, must have denoted adherence to the wor-
ship of Yahweh (cf. EIx. xiii. 9, 16; Isa. xliv. 6;
I'KingB XX. 38, 41), and implied the same limits in
exacting blood-revenge as were obligatory on the
Israelites.
The word Kayin also occurs as the name of an
ancestor of a part of mankind. The name stands
in J at the head of the so-eaUed Cainite table, Gen.
iv. 17. In its present form this indudes seven
generations, and in the seventh four branches ap-
pear— Jabal and Jubal, sons of Lamech by Adah,
and Tubal-cain and Naamah, son and daughter of
Lamech by Zillah. Cain built the first dty and
named it after his son E^och; Jabal was the ances-
tor of nomads, Jubal of musicians, and Tubal-cain
of artisans. The table evidently is
Cain in an account of supposed origins ol
Gen. iy. dvilization, so is to be related to Gen.
ix. 20-27. Then Noah's earlier con-
nection with the Cainite table through Lamech
is probable, though in Gen. v. 28 (P) he is a Sethite.
That the narratives are doublets appears on com-
parison (cf. Cain and Kenan, Methusael and Methu-
selah, Ired and Jared, as well as the fact that Adam
and Enos both mean " man "). The Sethite and
the Cainite tables are both traced to a single original,
and the Cainite line of J is believed to have been
originally a Sethite line, while (xen. iv. 25-26
originally preceded iv. 17.
The present form of the text is probably attrib-
utable to the editor of the work of J who inserted
the flood stoiy. He borrowed the material from
an old Sethite table, and setting Cain at the head
formed a Cainite table and inserted the Cain-story
(Gen. iv. 1-16) and the sword-song of Lamech.
He thus brought into juxtaposition the killing by
Lamech and that by Cain, completed the identi-
fication of Cain [father of the Kenites and Cain
brother of Abel] through Cain, founder of the dty.
Thus he secured a contrast between the godless
Cainites and the pious Sethites on which was
founded the ecdesiastical tradition that alienation
from God was in the Cainite blood, while in the
Sethite piety was instinctive.
Of the other names in the table little need be
said. In II Sam. xxi. 16 Kayin means " a spear,"
in Arabic and Syriac " a smith," and possibly
(Gen. iv. 1) is to be connected with the word to
" make." Enoch {Hanokh) is the name of a
Reubenite (Gen. xlvi. 9) and a Midianite (Gen. xxv.
4) stock (cf . the Annakus who was king of Phiygia,
mentioned by Stephen of Byzantium). With
Jubal should be connected the Hebrew for " ram's
horn " (Joshua vi. 5). Tubal is the Tibareni of
Asia Minor (Gen. x. 2), while the addition of Cain,
" smith," goes well with their reputation for metal-*
work. A goddess Adah was worshiped by Baby-
lonians, and one named Naamah by the Phenidans.
(H. GUTHB.)
Bxbuographt: The oubieot is treated more or less ade-
quately in the oommentariee on Genesie. best in A. Dill-
mann's, Edinburgh, 1807, and in H. Gunkel's, Gdttin-
gen, 1902. Consult further: I. Goldiiher, Der Mi^hot
bei den H^(Um, Leipsio, 1876, Eng. transl., London,
1877; K. Budde, BibUedt* UrgeeehiehU, pp. 117 aqq.. Gie«>
S37
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gain
Oaius
sen. 1883; F. Lenormant. Lea Originea de I'hiatoire d'aprea
la BibU, vol. i., Paris, 1880, Eng. transl., Beoinninga of
Hiaiory, London, 1883; J. WellhauBen, Die Kompoaitian
dea HexaUucha, pp. 10 aqq., 306. BerUn. 1880; H. E. Ryle,
Early Narrativea of Geneaia, pp. 78-83, London. 1802; B.
QUdb, in ZATW, xiv. (1804)250 aqq.; EB, i. 622-628.
iv. 4411-17; DB, i. 338-330. On the later Jewish mytb-
ology, J. A. Eisenmenger, EfUdecklea Judenthum, i. 462,
471, 832. 836. Frankfort. 1700.
CAINirES: According to Iremeus {Hear,, i. 31),
a sect of the Ophites (q.v.) who worshiped Cain as
an instrument of the Gnostic Sophia, treated with
hostility by the demiurge. They saw in Judas the
one who best of all knew the truth, celebrated his
treason as a mystery, and had a " Gospel of Judas."
The notices of Pseudo-Tertullian {Har., vii.),
Philastrius (Hear., ii.), and Epiphanius {Har.,
mxviii.) accord with these statements. Cain was
C;enerated of higher power than Abel, and Judas was
the benefactor of the human race, either because
by his treason he frustrated Christ's intention to
destroy truth (Philastrius), or because he compelled
the archons to kill Christ, and so assisted in obtain-
ing the salvation of the cross (Epiphanius). When
Tertullian (PrcucripHo hcereticafnim, xxxiii.; cf. De
hapti«mo,\.) mentions '' Gaiana heresis" he prob-
ably refers to the Cainites. Cf. also Clement,
Strom., \\. 108; Theodoret, Hopt., i. 15; Hippolytus,
PhU.j viii. 20. For Cainites, descendants of Cain,
see Cain, Kenites. G. KBt^oER.
BiBUOGRArar: Neander, Chriatian Church, i. 448. 476. 646;
HainAck. lAUeratur, II. i. 638 aqq.; see literature under
Gnobtxcibm; Opmria.
CAIRD, JOHN: Church of Scotland: b. at Green-
ock (23 m. w.n.w. of Glasgow), Renfrewshire,
Dec. 15, 1820; d. there July 30, 1808. He was
educated at the University of Glasgow (1837-
1838, 1840-45; M.A., 1845), interrupting his studies
in 1838-^0 while engaged in his father's engineering
works. After the completion of his education he
was minister successively at Newton-on-A3rr (1845-
1847), Lady Tester's, Edinburgh (1847-49), Errol,
Perthshire (1849-57), and the Park Church, Glas-
gow (1857-62). In 1862 he was appointed profes-
sor of theology in the University of Glasgow, where
he became principal and vice-chancellor in 1873,
retaining both positions until his death, although he
annoim^ his intention of resigning early in 1898.
He was Croall Lecturer at Edinburgh in 1878-79
and Gifford Lecturer at Glasgow in 1890-91 and
1896, though a stroke of paralysis forced him to
discontinue this second course. He wrote: Ser-
mons (Edinburgh, 1858); Introdudum to the Phi-
losophy of Religion (Croall lectures for 1878-79;
Glasgow, 1880); Spinoza (Edinburgh, 1886); and
the posthumous University Addresses (Glasgow,
1898); University Sermons (1898); and The Fun-
damenUd Ideas of Christianity (Gifford lectures; 2
vols., 1899; ed., with a memoir of the author, by
E. Caird).
Bibuoobapht: E. Caird, memoir prefixed to his edition
of The Pundamenlal Idatu of ChriatianitUt 2 Yob., Qlae-
Cow. 1809; DNB, supplement, i. 368-360.
CAIRHS, JOHN: United Presbyterian Church,
Scotland; b. at Ayton Hill (7 m. n.w. of Berwick-
on-Tweed) Aug. 23, 1818; d. in Edinburgh Mar.
12, 1892. After being the wonder of his first school,
he became the wonder of the University of Edin-
n.— 22
burgh, where he studied arts (1834-40), and of
Secession Hall, where he studied theology (1840-43).
In 1843-44 he studied and traveled on the Continent
and received impressions and made acquaintances,
especially in Germany, which affected his life.
From 1^5 till 1876 he was minister of the Golden
Square United Presbyterian Church, Bcrwick-on-
Tweed. In frame he was massive, and he had appar-
ently great powers of endurance, but he toiled too
much, responded to too many calls in every direction,
and on all sorts of errands, and so in 1855 broke
down and after that was frequently laid aside.
He early became one of the leaders of his denom-
ination, and developed into one of the foremost
Scotchmen. He was from 1867 to 1876 professor
of apologetics in the theological hall of his denomi-
nation in Edinburgh; in 1872 moderator of its gen-
eral assembly. In 1876 he gave up his pastoral
charge, and moving to Edinburgh received the joint
professorship (with the principal) of systematic
theology and apologetics — the terms of which had
been lengthened from seven weeks to five months.
In 1879 he succeeded to the prindpalship. In 1880
he visited America and was a prominent character
in the second council of the Alliance of the Reformed
Churches held in Philadelphia. He died of heart
disease after a brief illness. He never married.
His best work was done upon the platform and
in the pulpit. The great respect felt for him there
and as a man of affairs and coimsel withheld criti-
cism of him as an educator, for as such he was
less successful. He had considerable learning and
remarkable gifts, especially in the way of language,
and he acquired foreign languages readily, even
such tongues as Assyrian and Arabic when in
middle life. He was sprung from the common
people, undersood how to address them, and was
reverenced by them. His nature was genial, free
from affectation and hauteur, and he was untiring
in the service of others. He made a deep impres-
sion on his own generation by his broad-mindedness,
moral courage, and fervent eloquence.
The topics upon which he spoke with convincing
power, springing from deep conviction, were the
freedom of the Church from the State; home and
foreign missions; temperance, and (after 1874) in
advocacy of total abstinence; modification of the
Confession of Faith, by a declaratory statement
(adopted 1879); union of the United Presbyterian,
the Free Church, and the Church of Scotland (real-
ized as far as the first two are concerned in 1900);
and the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland.
His literary work was small in amount. He
published aside from pamphlets a memoir of Rev.
John Brown, of the United Presbyterian Church,
father of the author of Rob and his Friends (Edin-
burgh, 1860); Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century,
Cimningham lectures for 1881; and after his death
came a volume of his sermons, Christ the Morning
Star, and Other Sermons (London, 1892).
Bibliooraprt: A. R. Maoewen, Life and LetUra of John
Caima, London, 1808: Principal Caimat in the Famoua
Seota Seriea, EdinburKh. 1003.
CAIUS, k6'ns: The name of several characters
in Roman history, of whom only two need be in-
cluded here.
Oalamy
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
838
1. Roman author early in the third centiiry,
mentioned by Hippolytus, Dionysius of Alexan-
dria, and Euaebiius. What Theodoret and Je-
rome tell of him rests on Eusebius; Photius's
account is worthless, as the tradition from which
he derived it confused Hippolytus and Caius.
It is doubtful whether he was a Roman presbyter,
to say nothing of the title of " bishop of the na-
tions " given him by Photius from tradition. In
the library at Jerusalem Eusebius found a work
of his, the " Dialogue with Proclus " (the head of
the Roman Montanists); but this is the only one
known. From the quotations of Eusebius it ap-
pears that Caius rebuked the audacity of the Mon-
tanists in manufacturing new Scriptures, that he
rejected millenarianism and with it the Apocalypse,
and that he recognized only thirteen epistles of
Paul. Ebed Jesu (in Assemani, BUd. Orient. , III.
i., p. 15) says that Hippolytus wrote some Capita
adversua Caium ; and this statement is now con-
firmed by the discovery of John Gwynn, who found
in the British Musetun and published five frag-
ments of these very Capita (Hermathena, vi., Dublin,
1888). From the statements of Caius here attacked
it is clear that he spoke strongly against the
contents of the Apocalypse (presimiably in the
" Dialogue ")? ^^^ considered it as unworthy of
credence and conflicting with the Holy Scriptures.
Thus from one of Eusebius's references (Hist, ecd.,
III. xxvili. 1-2) the conclusion is almost certainly
justified that Caius held the Apocalypse to be
the work of Cerinthus. Since this view is also that
of the Alogians of Asia Minor, and since the method
of his polemic against the book strikingly suggests
theirs, a connection between them is a plausible
hypothesis. (A. Harnack.)
Bibuoqbapht: A. HArnaok, Die Girynn'acften Ca/iM und
UippolytuBfraomenU, in TU, Ti. 3 (1801). 121-128; idem.
IMteratwr, i. 601-603; KrOser, Hittory, pp. 320-321 (gives
further literature); DCB, i. 384-386; NPNF, i. 120. 160,
163.268.
9. Pope 283-296. These dates, Dec. 17 for his
election and Apr. 22 for his death, are given in the
Catalogua L4berianu8 ; Eusebius (Hist, ecd., VII.
xxxii. 1) ascribes to him a pontificate of about
fifteen years. In any case, his nile falls in the
peaceful period before the outbreak of the perse-
cution of Diocletian, and for this reason, if for no
other, the tradition that he died a mart3rr is in-
credible. \ccording to the Depositio episcopomm
he was buried in the cemetery of St. Calixtus.
(A. Haucjk.)
CAJETANyCa'jMOn or caj'e-tan. THOMAS: Italian
cardinal; b. at Gaeta Feb. 20, 1460; d. at Rome
Aug. 9, 1534. His real name was Jacopo Vio, he
took the monastic name Thomas, and his surname
is from his birthplace. At the age of fifteen he en-
tered the Dominican order, and, devoting himself
to studies in the Thomist philosophy, became,
before he was thirty, one of its noted teachers;
he was made general procurator in 1507 and general
a year later. Faitfaiul to the traditions of the
Dominicans, he appears in 1511 as a supporter of
the pope against the claims of the Council of Pisa,
composing in defense of his position the Tractatua
de Comparatione aucloritatis Papeat et canciliorum
ad invicem. At the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17)
which Julius II. set up in opposition to that of
Pisa, Cajetan played the leading r61e; and it was he
who during the second session of the council brou^t
about the decree recognizing the infallibility of the
pope and the superiority of his authority to that
of the council. For his services Leo X. made him
in 1517 cardinal presbyter of Saint Sisto, Rome, and
bestowed on him in the following year the bishopric
of Palermo. This he resigned in 1519 to take the
bishopric of Gaeta granted him by the ^np^or
Charles V., for whose election Cajetan had labored
zealously. In 1518 he was sent as legate to the
Diet of Augsburg and to him, at the wish of the
Saxon elector, was entrusted the task of examining
and testing the teachings of Luther. Treatises
of his own, written, without knowledge of Luther's
theses, in 1517 show that Luther was justified in
his assertion that on the doctrine of dispensation
the Church had as yet arrived at no firmly estab-
lished position; the doctrine of confession Cajetan
seemed also to regard as a subject open to contro-
versy. Yet more than investigator and thinker
he was politician and prelate, and his appearance
at Augsburg in all the splendor of ecclesiastical
pomp only served to reveal him to Luther as the
type of Roman curialist, hateful to Germans and
German Christianity. Cajetan was active in fur-
thering the election of Adrian VI., retained influ-
ence under Clement VII., suffered a short term
of imprisonment after the storming of Rome by
the Constable of Bourbon and by Frundsbetg
(1527), retired to his bishopric for a few years, and,
returning to Rome in 1530, assumed his old posi-
tion of influence about the person of Clement, in
whose behalf he wrote the decision rejecting the
appeal for divorce from Catharine of Aragon made
by Henry VIII. of England (March 23. 1534; printed
in Records of the Reformation, ed. N. Power, Ox-
ford, 2 vols,, 1870, ii. 632-533). Of the Refoi^
mation he remained a steadfast opponent, com-
posing several works directed against Luther,
and taking an important share in shaping the
policy of the papal delegates in Germany.'
Learned though he was in the scholastics, he recog-
nized that to fight the Refoimers with some diance
of success a deeper knowledge of the Scriptures
than he possessed was necessary. To this study
he devoted himself with characteristic zeal, wrote
commentaries on the greater part of the Old and
the New Testament, and, in the exposition of his
text, which he treated critically, allowed himself
considerable latitude in departing from the literal
and traditional interpretation. In the very field
of Thomist philosophy he showed striking inde-
pendence of judgment, expressing liberal views
on marriage and divorce, denying the existence of
a material hell and advocating the celebration of
public prayers in the vernacular. The Sorbonne
found some of these views heterodox, and in the
[^ Cajetan bore witness to Luther's ability when he ex-
claimed, " Ego nolo amplios cum hac bestia ooUoqui: habet
enim profundos oculoe et miiabiles speculationes in capito
suo." (I do not want to have any further parley with that
beast; for he has sharp eyes and wonderful q»eeiiiatians in
his head.)l
339
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oftiua
Oalamy
1570 edition of his celebrated commentary on the
Summa of Thomas Aquinas (counted among the
best; new ed., Lierre, 1892 sqq.) the objectionable
passages were expunged. A complete edition of
his works with life appeared in five volumes at
Lyons, 1639. (T. Koldb.)
Bibliography: Besides the Life prefixed to his works, con-
sult: R. Simon, Hittoire eriUqfue du Vieux Te9tammU, p.
319, Rotterdam, 1678; idem, Higtoiredn principaux cotn-
mentat€ur§du N. T., p. 637. 1639; C. F. JAger, in ZHT,
1858, p. 431.
CAJETAHS. See Theatinbs.
CALAH. See Assyria, IV., § 3.
CALAMY: The name of an English family
which produced several distinguished clergymen in
the seventeenth century.
1. Edmund Calamy the Elder: Presbyterian;
b. in London Feb., 1600; d. there Oct. 29, 1666.
He was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge;
became (1626) vicar of St. Maxy's in Swaffham
Prior, Cambridgeshire; thence in the same year
removed to St. Edmund's Bury in Sufifolk as lec-
turer, where he remained ten years, until compelled
to retire on account of his opposition to the Book
of SportSf thereby identifying himself with the
Puritan party. He accepted from the Eari of
Warwick the rectory of Rochford in Essex, where
he remained until in 1639 he was chosen pastor of
St. Mary Aldermanbury Church in London, where
he labored until 1662. He composed in 1641 with
others '* An Anstper to a Book erUiiled, An Humble
Remonstrance in which the original of Liturgy and
Episcopacy i» discussed : and Queries proposed
concerning both. The Parity of Bishops A Pres-
byters in Scripture demonstrated. The occasion of
their Imparity in Antiquity discovered. The Dis-
parity of the Ancient & our modem Bishops mani^
fested. The Antiquity of Ruling Elders in the Church
vindicated. The Prelatical church bounded. Writ-
ten by Smectymnuus [i.e., S(tephen) M(arshall),
E(dmund) C(alamy),T(homa8) Y(oung), M(atthew)
N(ewoommen), and W(illiam) SCpurstow)]. This
reply to Joseph Hall's Humble Remonstrance became
the platform of the Presbyterians, as that became
the platform of the Episcopal party, each side
claiming jure divino. Several other tracts were
issued in the controversy pro and con. Calamy
was chosen a member of the Westminster Assem-
bly of Divines (1643), and took an active part in its
proceedings, being moderate in doctrinal position,
and inclined to a union with both Independents
and Episcopalians in some comprehensive polity.
He also became one of the most energetic mem-
bers of the Provincial Assembly of London; took
part in the composition of the Vindication of the
Presbyterian Government and Ministry , 1649; was
the author of the Jus Divinum Ministerii Evan-
gelid, 1654, both adopted by that body. He had
opposed the execution of Charles I. and was active
in restoring Charles II. to the kingdom in 1659;
was one of the divines sent to Holland to treat
with him. At the Restoration in 1660 he was
made one of the king's chaplains, and offered tne
bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield, which, how-
ever, he declined. With Baxter, Reynolds, and
others, he gave his energies for a comprehension
of Presbyterians and Episcopalians through a
revision of the Liturgy, and a reduction of Episco-
pacy on Archbishop Ussher's model. He took
part in drawing up the Exceptions against the Lit-
urgy, and reply to the Reasons of the Episcopal
clergy. He was a great preacher, frequently de-
livering sermons before Parliament and the lord
mayors on public occasions; and his lectures were
frequented by the best people of London. A
number of these have been published. His most
popular work is The Godly Man's Ark (London,
1657; 18th ed., 1709; reprinted, 1865). He was
the compiler of Tfie Souldier's Pocket Bible, issued
for the use of the Commonwealth army in 1643;
reprinted in facsimile 1895. He was a practical
man of affairs, rather than a scholar and writer.
He was ejected for non-conformity in 1662, and
imprisoned in Newgate for a short time for having
preached after his ejection. But the king inter-
posed, on account of great public indignation, and
he was released. C. A. Briogs.
Bibliography: The DNB, riii. 227-230, oontainfl an ex-
cellent Account of his life, and adds details of references
to literature.
2. Edmund Calamy the Younger: Non-con-
forming minister, eldest son of Edmund Calamy
the elder; b. at Bury St. Edmunds about 1635;
d. at Totteridge, near Bamet, May, 1685. He
studied at Sidney Sussex College and Pembroke
Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1654; M.A., 1658); was
made rector of Moreton, Essex, 1658; ejected on
the passage of the Uniformity Act (1662), and
thencetorth lived a retired life in London, preach-
ing occasionally in private or to friends.
Biblioorapht: Biographui BrUanniea, ed. A. Eippis, iii.
136, London, 1784; DNB, viU. 230-231.
8. Benjamin Calamy: Church of England, sec-
ond son of Edmund Calamy the elder; b. in London
on or before June 8, 1642; d. there Jan., 1686
(buried Jan. 7). He studied at Catherine Hall,
Cambridge (B.A., 1664; M.A., 1668; D.D., 1680);
became curate of St. Mary Aldermanbury, London,
1677, from which his father was ejected fifteen years
earlier; king's chaplain 1680; vicar of St. Law-
rence Jewry, with St. Mary Magdalene, Milk Street,
annexed, 1683; prebendary of St. Paul's 1685.
Unlike his father and ekler brother, he was a High-
churchman; he lived on very friendly terms,
however, with his non-conformist brotner and
befriended the tatter's son. He published many
sermons which are commended for beauty of lan-
guage and excellent sentiments. His Discourse
about a Doubting (in the second edition. Scrupulous)
Conscience (1683) made a great sensation, it was
directed against dissenters and called forth a reply
from Thomas de Laune, a Baptist schoolmaster
(A Plea for the Non-Conformists, 1684). His
brother James Calamy edited a volume of his
sermons, containing iJso his funeral sennon by
Dean Sherlock (London, 1690; several subsequent
editions).
Bibuograpbt: Bioorapkia BrUanniea, ed. A Eippis, iii.
137. London. 1784; DNB, viii. 22(V-227.
4. Edmund Calamy: The historian of non-con«
formity, son of Edmund Calamy the younger;
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
340
b. in London Apr. 5, 1671; d. there June 3, 1732.
He studied at several schools kept by ejected
ministers in England, and at the University
of Utrecht, 1688-^; then spent nine months at
Oxford; became assistant to Matthew Sylvester
at Blackfriars, London, 1602; was ordained 1694;
in 1703 settled as pastor of a church in Westminster,
London. He was a man of winning manners and
much tact, and succeeded in accomplishing his
purposes without making enemies. His publica-
tions were numerous, for the most part sermons;
those which have permanent value are his histor-
ical works on En^ish non-conformity. He edited
Baxter's Narrative {ReliquicB BajUeriance) and
supplied an index and table of contents (1696);
six years later he published an abridgment of the
same work, adding a histoiy of ministers ejected
for non-conformity down to the close of Baxter's
life in 1691. The publication provoked much
criticism, to which Calamy replied in a second
edition (2 vols., 1713) bringing the history down
to 1711; and in 1727 he published a continuation
of the work in two volumes. Calamy's four vol-
umes were condensed into two by Samuel Palmer,
with the title The Non-Conformist* 8 Memorial
(1775), and a three-volume edition was issued in
1803. He left an autobiography. An Historical
Account of my Own Life, with some reflections on
the times I have lived in, edited by John Towill Rutt
(2 vols., London, 1829). Calamy was well quali-
fied by his moderation and catholicity to be the
fair-minded historian of non-conformity.
Bduoorapht: Beaidea the autobiosraphy mentioned
aboye, consult: Biographia Britanniea, ed. A. Kippis, iii.
140, London, 1784; DNB, viii. 231-236 (quite in detail).
GALAS, cd'W, JEAN. See Rabaut, Paul.
CALASANZE, JOSE. See PLkBiSTS.
CALATRAVA, ORDER OF: A knightly order,
founded about the middle of the twelfth century,
to defend the frontiers of Christian Spain against
the Moors. The fortress of Calatrava (on the
Guadiana, 65 m. s.e. of Toledo), oa the borders of
Andalusia, commanded the passes into Castile
and was hotly contested. After being bravely
held for several years by a company of monks and
kinghts under the lead of a Cistercian monk and
fonner soldier, Velasquez, and the abbot Raymond
of Fitero, it was presented to the band by Sancho
III., king of Castile, in 1158. The general chapter
of the Cistercians gave the order a rule imder the
oversight of the monastery of Morimund, and
prescribed as dress a white scapulaiy (or white
cloak) with a garland of red lilies. The rule was
confirmed by Pope Alexander III. in 1164. The
knights of the order captured Cordova in 1177 and
performed other noteworthy deeds of arms. After
1195 a long period of decline began. Calatrava
was lost and the seat of the order was transferred
to Salvatierra {Mons Salutis) in the Sierra Morena.
In 1212 Calatrava was again occupied, but was
abandoned for New Calatrava, eight miles farther
south, in 1218, the Order of Alcantara (q.v.) under-
taking the defense of Calatrava. Toward the end
of the Middle Ages the grand master possessed
such wealth and power that he became an object
of suspicion to the crown. At the instigation of
Ferdinand and Isabella, Pope Innocent VIII. in
1486 deprived the order of the ri^t of choosing
its master, and after 1523 the office was united
with the crown. Since 1808 the order has been
merely one of merit. Nuns of Calatrava were
instituted by the grand master Gronzales Yanes
in 1219 at the time of the removal to New Cala-
trava. They had their convent at Barrios near
Amaya, later at Burgos, but never attained to
importance. (O. ZdCKLEaf.)
BiBLioaRAPHT: Helyot, Ordrea mtmiutiquea, vi. 34-^ 66
aqq.; W. H. Presoott, HiMtary of tht Reion cf Ferdinamd
and laabeUa, i. 308-309. Philadelphia. 1873; P. B. Gams.
KirehenoeachicKU Spanietu, iii. 64, Regeiubuis. 1879;
Heimbuober, Orden und KongngtUionen, i. 226-227;
Currier. RelioiouB OrderM, p. 216.
CALDECOTT, ALFRED: Church of En^bnd;
b. at Chester Nov. 9, 1850. He was educated at
the University of London (B.A., 1873) and at St.
John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1879), and was
ordered deacon in 1880, and ordained priest two
years later. He was curate of Christ Church,
Stafford, in 1880, fellow of St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, in 1880-86, and fellow and dean of the same
college in 1889-95, in addition to being curate of
St. Paul's, Cambridge, in 1881-82, vicar of Honi-
ingsey, Cambridgeshire, in 1882-84, and principal
of Codrington College, Barbados, and examining
chaplain to the bishop of Barbados in 1884-86.
He was organizing secretary of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel at Cambridge in 1889-
1905, and was rector of North cum South Lophan,
Norfolk, in 1895-98. Since the latter year he has
been rector of Frating cum Thorington, Essex, and
has also been examining chaplain to the bishop of
St. Albans since 1903. He was examiner in Moral
Science Tripos in Cambridge in 1884, 1888-89, and
1893-94, and was select preacher in the same uni-
versity m 1884, 1890-91, and 1894, while in 1891-
1892 he was junior proctor. In addition to his duties
as rector, he has b^n professor of moral and mental
philosophy in King's College, London, since 1891,
and examiner in theology in the University of
London since 1902, as well as Cambridge Extension
Lecturer in 1880-82 and 1886-87. He has like-
wise been senior secretary of St. John's Cambridge
Mission in South London in 1883-86 and 1889-95,
vice-president of the Cambridge Ethical Society
in 1890-1905, governor of Colchester Grammar
School in 1900-05, a member of the committee of
the Christian Evidence Society since 1903, and a
member of the Senate of the University of London
since 1904. In 1906 he was elected a fellow of
King's College, London. He has written: English
Colonisation and Empire (London, 1891); The
Church in the West Indies (1898); and The Phi-
losophy of Religion in England and America (1901).
CALDERWOOD, DAVID: The historian of the
Church of Scotland; b. probably at Dalkeith (7 m.
B.e. of Edinburgh) 1575; d. at Jedburgh (40 m.
s.e of Edinburgh) Oct. 29, 1650. He studied at
Edinburgh, and in 1604 was ordained minister of
Crailing, near Jedburgh. He was a determined
opponent of the scheme of King James to introduce
prelacy into the Church of Scotland; in 1617 he
341
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Galas
Oaleb
presented a remonstrance to the king, and argued
so boldly and successfully in support of his position
that he was imprisoned and ultimately ordered
to leave the country. He went to Holland (1619),
where he lived in quiet and obscurity; at one time
it was rumored that he was dead and a false Recan-
tation Directed to Such in Scotland as Refuse Con-
formity to the Ordinances of the Church was pub-
lished and ascribed to him (London, 1622). After
the death of James (1625) he returned to Scotland,
but did not obtain a charge until 1640, when he was
appointed minister at Pencaitland, East Lothian.
Gradually he came again into prominence and, with
David Dickson and Alexander Henderson, was
emplojred in drawing up the " Directory for Public
Worship." In 1648 the General Assembly voted
him an annual pension of £800 Scots (£66 13s. 4d.
sterling) to enable him to complete his great work,
the history of the Kirk of Scotland. He died,
however, leaving it still in manuscript, and in
three forms; the first and longest is now partially
preserved in the British Museimi; the second,
" a digest of the first," was published with a lAfe
by Thomas Thomson by the Wodrow Society in
eight volimies, Edinburgh, 1842-49; the third,
another abridgment, was published in 1678 with
the title The True History of the Church of Scotland
from the Beginning of the Reformation unto the End
of the Reign of King James VI. These histories
have slight literary merit, but are invaluable as
sources, their material having been collected with
diligence and fidelity. The most notable of Cal-
derwood's other publications was his Altar of
DamascuSf or the pattern of the English hierarchy
and church obtruded upon the Church of Scotland
(Leyden, 1621; Lat. transl., Altare Damascenum^
with considerable additions, 1623; 2d ed., 1708),
which became later the great storehouse of argu-
ments in favor of Presbyterianism.
Bibuogbapht: Besides the IAIb^ by T. Thomson, prefixed
to the Wodrow ed. of the Hittory^ and the Preface to vol.
Tiii. of the same, by D. Laing, consult: G. Grub, J?cc{esi-
omUooI History of SeoUand, vols, ii., iii., Edinburgh, 1861;
J. Walker. Theotogy and TheoUfgians of Scotland, ib. 1872;
DNB, viii. 244-246.
CALDERWOOD, HEIIRT: United Presbyterian
Church of Scotland; b. at Peebles (21 m. s. of Edin-
burgh) May 10, 1830; d. at Edinburgh Nov. 19, 1897.
He studied at the University of Edinburgh and the
theological hall there of the United Presbyterian
Church; was ordained minister of Gre3rfriar8 Church,
Glasgow, 1856; was appointed professor of moral
philosophy, Edinburgh, 1868. As a philosopher
" he tried to discover and explain the bearings of
physiological science on man's mental and moral
nature. ... He believed it to be demonstrated
by physiology that the direct dependence of mind
on brain was confined to the sensory-motor func-
tions, the dependence of the higher forms of mental
activity being, on the other hand, only indirect.
He endeavored to establish the thesis that man's
intellectual and spiritual life, as we know it, is not
the product of natural evolution, but necessitates
the assumption of a new creative cause." His
interests were not confined to his professional work;
he was chairman of the Edinburgh school board,
chairman of the North and East of Scotland Liberal
Unionist Association, was a member of the mission
board of his Church, and advocated temperance
reform, Presbyterian union, and other philanthropic
and religious movements. He edited The United
Presbyterian Magazine, and published The Phi-
losophy of the Infinite (London, 1854), a criticism
of Sir William Hamilton prepared during his stu-
dent days; Handbook of Moral Philosophy (1872);
On Teaching, its Means and Ends (1874); The
Relations of Mind and Brain (1879); The Parables
of our Lord (1880); The Relations of Science and Re-
ligion, Morse lectures before Union Theological Sem-
inary, New York, 1880 (1881); Evolution arid Man's
Place in Nature (1893; enlarged ed., 1896); several
of these works have appeared in many editions.
Biblioorapht: His Lifo was written by his son, W. L.
Calderwood, with David Woodside, with diapter on his
philosophical works by A. S. Pxingle-Pattison, London,
1900.
CALEB, CALEBITES: One of twelve scouts
whom Moses sent from the Wilderness of Sin to
spy out the promised land (Num. xii. 16-xiii. 17a,
21, 25), and his descendants. According to Nimi.
xiii. 6 he represented the tribe of Judah. Joshua
xiv. 6, 14 designates him as " the Kenizzite," with
which Joshua xv. 17 agrees in making Othniel, the
brother of Caleb, the " son of Kenaz." The Ken-
izzites were a branch of the Edomitic stock, Kenaz
being a grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15).
Then Caleb, and Othniel were originally not Israel-
ites, but had left their people and united with the
Hebrews, and this agrees with the location of their
settlements in Hebron and Debir (Josh. xiv. 6-15,
XV. 13-19; Judges i. 12-15, 20). I Chron. ii. 42-49
puts into the possession of Caleb Maresha, Hebron,
Tappuah, Maon, Jokdeam, and Beth-zur (Mad-
mannah, verse 49, is a city of the Negeb, Josh. xv.
31). The Calebites occupied the same region in
the time of Saul and David, and to them belonged
a part of the Negeb (I Sam. xxx. 14). There David
lived long as a freebooter, his first wife was of
Calebite stock, and Abigail was from Maon-Carmel.
After Saul's death David occupied Hebron and its
Calebite neighborhood and was there made king.
His realm induded the territory of Caleb and
Judah, though the latter gave the name to his
kingdom. In spite of the formal union of the two
peoples, the Calebites maintained a practical inde-
pendence with a residence in Judi^tic territory.
This explains Absalom's resort to Hebron in his
insurrection against David.
The name Caleb was then originally that of a
stock, and, personified, became that of the epon-
ymous ancestor (see Epontm). With this the story
of Achsah (Judges i. 12-15, Josh. xv. 15-19) is
seen to agree when it is remembered that tribally
'' daughter" means a weaker stock which has lost
its independence to a stronger.
The (3alebites remained in the district mentioned
till exilic times, when the Edomites drove them,
weakened by Nebuchadrezzar's measures, north-
ward to the neighborhood of Jerusalem — a change
explained in customary genealogical phrasing (I
Clm>n. ii. 18-19), and the Calebites were reckoned
to Judah (I Chron. ii. 5, 9, 18, 50-55).
Oalendar Brethren
Calendar, r~
, The Ohrletlan
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
342
An early age can not be aacribed to the narrative
which gives the story of the spies, since Caleb is
there reckoned as a Judahite without any dis-
crimination of stocks such as other passages cited
above make necessary. The assimiption in the
representation of P in Num. xiii.-xiv., and of the
Chronicler, of the assimilation by the Hebrews of
the Calebites is good for postexdlic times. (See
JUDEA.) (H. GUTHE.)
While advanced scholarship generally takes the
position indicated in the text (so, for example, J.
A. Selbie in DB, i. 340), conservative criticism in-
sists that Caleb was originally a personal name and
declines altogether the idea of eponymity; cf. J. D.
Davis, Dictionary of the BiUe, Philadelphia, 1898,
pp. 103-104
Bibuoorafht: J. WeUhauoen, De geniUma el famUi%», I
Chron. it. 4, QOttiiigen, 1870; idem, Dis Kompotition de§
Hexateudu, pp. 336-338, Berlin, 1889; H. Gr&ts, Die
Kdubaiien oder KalebUen, in ManaieBchrift fUr Oeeehidae
und Wieeenaehaft dee Jttdentume, xxv. (1876) 461 eqq.;
W. R. Smith, Kinekip and Marriage, pp. 200. 219. Lon-
don, 1886; idem, in Journal of PhiMoov, ix. (1876) 89;
E. Meyer. Die Entet^ung dee Jydeniume, pp. 114 sqq.,
147-148, Halle, 1896.
CALEIVDAR BRETHREK (Fratres Calendarii):
A fraternity which arose in the second half of the
Middle Ages, especially in lower Saxony, but also
in other portions of Germany and occ4isionally in
the neighboring countries. It might be termed a
clerical gild, for though men who were not mem-
bers of the clergy were admitted, they were re-
stricted to a minor position, and the statutes of
many communities termed only the dergy " fuU
brothers." The first fraternity of Calendar Breth-
ren which is definitely known to have existed was
that of Laer in Westphalia in 1279, but it was not
until the fourteenth century that they became
numerous. They seem to have originated in the
official conferences held by the clergy of each
archdiaoonate on the first day of the month (Latin.
KaUndcB). They centered about religious worship,
the members being required to say mass for the
repose of each other's souls or have it said, and to
pray for one another. They were likewise bound,
as in the gilds, to mutual support and social d&-
vation. With the accession of wealthy laymen,
the fraternities gained in importance and wealth,
and became famous for their banquets. They
made a firm resistance to the Reformation, since
they refused to allow their wealth to be diverted
to other purposes. Some maintained themsdves
for a considerable length of time in Evangelical
districts, but they were finally suppressed even in
Roman Catholic countries. (G. UHLHoairt.)
Biblioorapht: L. von Ledebur, Die KalandeverbrQdermn^
gen in den Landen dee eAthaiecken Vcikeatammee, in Jf Ar-
kieche Foreehungen, iv. 7 sqq.. Berlin, 1860: Bierhng. Die
Kalandebrudereehaften, in Zeiiecknft fUr AUertmmtekmmde
und Oeechichle in Weetphalen^ series 10, iii. 178 sqq.
CALEITDAR, THE CHRISTIAN.
The Origin of the Christian Calendar
(ID.
The Calendar in the Early Church (f 2).
Complications in Dating (f 3).
Early Medieval Calendars (f 4).
Greek and Slavic Calendars (f 6).
Later Medieval Calendars (f 6).
Errors in Calculating Easter (| 7).
The Gregorian Reform (| 8).
Opposition to the Gregorian Oalwwiiir
(§9).
Attempts to Reform the Calendar (| 10).
The Christian calendar is an index of the year
arranged according to months and weeks, and
giving a list of feasts, fasts, and saints' days, to
which data of a more miscellaneous character may
be added. The dependence of the feasts on chro-
nology renders it necessary to consider the systems
of reckoning time, especially as both the chrono-
logical and liturgical portions of the calendar were
established by the Church, and remained in the
hands of the clergy throughout the Middle Ages.
In its most general aspect of an annual list of days
and feasts, the Christian calendar dates from the
primitive Clhiurch, which found its model in classical
antiquity, particularly among the Romans. Nu-
merous Roman calendars of the imperial period
have been preserved either in whole or in part,
designed for public use within areas ranging from
a town to an entire country. These calendars con-
tain astronomical information as well
X. The On- as lists of religious feasts and civic
gin of the celebrations, some of which were con-
Christian nected with the cult, such as many
Calendar, of the public games, while others
commemorated historic events. The
transition from pagan to Christian usage may be
seen in two calendars from the middle of the fourth
and fifth centuries (ed. T. Mommsen, CIL, i. 332
sqq.). One of these was drawn up at Rome in
the reign of Constantine II. and is evidently a
revision of a pagan calendar, omitting all feasts of
a distinctively religious character, both heathen
and Christian, but retaining the purely civic feasts.
Christian influence is visible, however, in the recog-
nition of the Christian weeks beside the Rc»nan
system, since the year, which here begins wiUi
Jan. 1, falls in two regular divisions, one of ei^t
da3^ each (the nundince) represented by the letters
A-H, and the other of seven days, indicated by
A-G. The second calendar was prepared in 448,
during the reign of Valentinian III., and, though
pagan in basis, contains for the first time a small
number of Christian feasts, having five festivals of
Christ and six saints' days. The oldest exclusively
Christian calendar is a (jSothic fragment, apparently
prepared in Thrace in the fourth century, contain-
ing the last eight days of October and the entire
month of November. Seven days have the names
of saints attached to them, two from the New Testa-
ment, three from the general Church, and two
from the (]k)ths.
Even before the inclusion of Christian feasts in
the Roman calendar, however, the Church had
lists of saints' days arranged according to the date
of their celebration, although not yet
2. The incorporated in a formal calendar.
Calendar Allusions to such lists of memorial
in the days are found in Tertullian and Cyp-
Early rian, but the earliest one extant was
Churdi. prepared at Rome in the middle of
the fourth century. It consists of an
enumeration of twelve Roman bishops and a list of
martyrs for twenty-four days, including feasts in
843
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Calendar Brethren
Oalendar, The Christian
commemoration of the birth of Christ and of St.
Peter (Feb. 22), all the remainder being festivals of
martyrs, generally of local origin. The next oldest
calendar is a list of the festivals of the Church of
Carthage, which apparently dates from the end of
the fifth or the beginning of the sixth centuiy, and
contains the names of bishops and martyrs, the
most of whom were natives of Carthage. From
Buch beginnings a wealth of calendars soon devel-
oped throughout the Latin world, and the lists
of the days of the month received an inci easing
proportion of martyrological, hagiological, and
heortological material. The active intercourse
of the churches, especially of Rome with Africa,
Gaul, Spain, and England, resulted in the addition
of such mmibers of foreign saints that those who
received honor throughout the Church exceeded the
saints of local fame, and finally there was no day
of the year which did not have one or more saints.
Since martyrs were commemorated in the early
Church especially in the place where they had
sufiPered, each community originally had its own
list of feasts and its own calendar. This usage
was of long duration, despite the frequent inter-
change of names and despite the increasing pres-
tige of the Roman calendar and list of feasts.
The diversity of calendars was augmented, more-
over, by the reverence paid to the local saints of
individual coimtries and dioceses, while a still
more important factor was the discrepancy in the
dating of the beginning of the year. The first of
the year was reckoned from no less than six days:
(1) the Feast of the Circumcision (Jan. 1; used in
conformity to the Julian calendar); (2) Mar. 1
(Merovingian France, the Lombards, Venice, and,
for a time, Russia); (3) the Feast of the Annun-
ciation (Mar. 25; first in Florence and Pisa, whence
it extended to France, Germany, England, and
Ireland, being retained in the latter two countries
until the eighteenth century); (4)
3. Compli- Easter (especiallyinFrance); (5) Sept. 1
cations in (Byzantine Empire, and, until mod-
Dating, em times, Russia); (6) Christmas
(Carolingian France, the Anglo-Saxons,
Scandinavia, Prussia, Hungary, and portions of
Holland, Switzerland, etc.). The problem was
further complicated by the various methods of
indicating the day of the month, of which at least
five systems were used contemporaneously: (1) the
ancient Roman method of calends, ides, and nones;
(2) the Greco-Christian consecutive numbering of
the days of the month, now generally used; (3) the
consiietudo BononiensiSf which divided the month
into two halves, in one of which (mensis intrana)
the days were niunbered forward from 1, while in
the other (mensis exiena) they were reckoned back-
ward from 30 or 31 ; (4) the method of Cisiojanus
or Cisianus, which designated the days of the month
by the syllables of arbitrary mnemonic verses
(long popular in Poland and North Germany);
(5) the designation of the day by the feast cele-
brated on it. This confusion was worse confounded
oy the various reckonings of Easter, while the
movable feasts based upon it and running side by
side with the fixed festivals, or even crossing them,
added their quota of perplexity.
In the Middle Ages calendars were multiplied,
partly in consequence of the chronological intrica-
cies already noted and partly because of the uni-
versal need for ecclesiastical data of this character.
It is true that there are few calendars still extant
which were prepared previous to the eighth centuiy,
but this deficiency is made good in various ways,
especially by the sacramentaries which give the
list of feasts, while liturgical books, particularly
manuscripts of the Psalter, frequently have a
calendar prefixed to them. Such calendars are
usually perpetual, that is, available for any year,
but are usually provided with methods for the
determination of the movable feasts of any par-
ticular year. Not only are the letters
4. Early A-G repeated in them from Jan. 1 to
Medieval designate the days of the week, but
Calendars, they also contain the numbers I.-XIX.
to denote all new moons which fall,
in the course of a cycle of nineteen years, on the
day of the month designated by one of theoe mmi-
bers. By means of such a calendar, when the
Dominical Letter and the Golden Number (qq.v.)
of the cycle are known, may be obtained the day
of the week of any date and all new moons through-
out the year. From the latter is derived the date
of the spring new moon, which gives, when the day
of the week on which it falls is determined by the
Dominical Letter, the date of Easter. An Easter
table for a series of years is also frequently added
to the calendars.
All calendars of the Greek and Slavic churches
begin their ecclesiastical year, as already noted,
with Sept. 1. The great majority of their im-
movable feasts are consecrated to the saints and
the Virgin, while a number of the movable feasts
are consecrated to Christ. The latter, like the
Sundays of the year, are divided into three periods:
Trioidion (beginning with the tenth Sunday before
Easter), PenUkostarion (from Easter to the close of
the second week after Whitsuntide), and Oktoichos
(extending from the second Sunday after Whit-
suntide into the Western Epiphany).
5. Greek The calendar of the Greek Church is
and Slavic characterized by numerous fasts,
Calendars, partly of single days and partly of
several weeks. To the latter belong
the four " great fasts." Two of these are movable,
the Easter fast of seven weeks, and the Fast of the
Apostles, the latter lasting from the Feast of All
Martyrs on the Sunday after Whitsuntide to the
day of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29). The other
two, the Fast of the Virgin (August 1-15) and the
Fast of Advent (Nov. 24-Dec. 24), are immovable.
In a number of the more important feasts the Greek
calendar harmonizes with the Western, but it
deviates in numerous instances from the latter in
its dating of the feasts of saints and martyrs.
In the Western Church the majority of calendars
were written in Latin until the end of the Ousades.
Among them special mention may be made of the
ancient list of feasts prepared at Rome during the
reign of Gregory II. or Gregory III., and noteworthy
as giving the Roman stations in which the feasts
were celebrated and the lessons from the Gospela
Other noteworthy calendars include one prepared
Oaleadar
Oalf
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
344
in 781 by Godeescalo at the command of Charle-
magnOy a calendar from Luxeuil of the latter part
of the seventh century, a marble
6. Later calendar drawn up at Naples by
Medieval Bishop John IV. between 840 and 850,
Calendars, and a calendar of Bishop Gundekar
II. of Eichstfttt (1057-79). Among
other German calendars mention may be made of
one from Freising of the latter part of the tenth
centuiy, from Salzburg in the eleventh century,
from Regensburg in the twelfth, and from Passau
and Augsburg in the thirteenth. Toward the end
of the Middle Ages the Latin calendars began to be
translated into the vernacular, although a metrical
calendar had been written in Anglo-Saxon before
the dose of the tenth century. A^French calendar
of the thirteenth centuiy is still extant in manu-
script, but German calendars, which are tolerably
numerous, are not found until a hundred years
later. The invention of printing in the fifteenth
century wrought important changes in the calendar,
although the first printed specimens resemble those
in manuscript and, like them, are perpetual. The
first calendar for a definite year was printed at
Nuremberg in 1475 in German and Latin. It was
designed for the years 1475, 1494, and 1513 as the
first of a triple cycle of nineteen years each, and
was so constructed that the dates for other years
might be derived from these three, so that it really
extended from 1475 to 1531. The ecclesiastical
portions, however, were in perpetual form, since
the calendar contained, in addition to the letters
A-G for the days of the week, only the names of
the saints for a limited number of days without a
division into weeks and without the movable feasts.
It was not until the middle of the sixteenth centuiy
that calendars arranged according to the weeks and
feasts of a definite year came into general use.
The reckoning of Easter hitherto employed had
long been recognised as inadequate, and the elim-
ination of the errors which this system had caused
was one of the most urgent tasks which awaited
solution after the close of the Middle Ages. Since
the second half of the third century the rule had
been adopted by the Alexandrian Church, and con-
firmed by the Council of Nicsea, that Easter should
fall on the Sunday after the spring full moon, that
is, on the first Sunday after the full moon on or
next after the vernal equinox. The date of this
equinox was to be Mar. 21, while the
7. ErrorB in full moon was to be reckoned accord-
Calculating ing to a cycle of nineteen years. This
Easter, system of reckoning was introduced
into the Roman Church in 525 by
Dionysius Exiguus, and spread thence throughout
Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and was given to the Anglo-
Saxon churches by Bede in 729. This method,
however, was vitiated by two faults which could
not fail to become evident in the course of time.
In the first place, by its assumption that the vernal
equinox falls on Mar. 21 it adopted the entire Julian
system which makes the vear 365i days in length
and intercalates a day every four years. In reality
this year is eleven minutes too long, so that an
extra day is intercalated every 128 years. In the
second place, by its reckoning of the spring full
moon according to a nineteen-year cycle of 235
months or 6,939} days, it made the cyde an hoar
too long, thus making a discrepancy of the day
between the real and the theoretical new nxxKi
every 210 years. It was not imtil the thirteenth
century that this error attracted attenti<Hi, the
first works to note it being the Computus of Master
Conrad in 1200 (extant only in a revision of 1396
in a Vienna manuscript) and the similar work of
an anonymous author of 1223 (preserved in great
part by Vincent of Beauvais). The problem was
likewise taken up by Johannes de Sacro-Busto
about 1250 in his i>e anni raiione and by Roger
Bacon in a treatise addreased to Clement IV., Dt
reformatione calendarii, while among the Gredcs
the monk Isaac Argyros wrote on the proUem in
1272. In the fifteenth century the iWoimation
of the calendar was discussed in the great councils
of the Roman Catholic Church, especially by Pieire
d'Ailly at Kostnits in 1414 and by Nicholas of Cuss
at Basel in 1436, the latter proposing to begin the
correction of the calendar in 1439.
The actual reform of the calendar was first car-
ried out by Gregory XIII. (1572-85) in conform-
ity with a resolution of the Council of Trent. In
1577 the pope appointed a committee which held
its sessions at Rome to carry out the plan proposed
by the Calabrian astronomer Aloigi Li^, and con-
firmed this reformed calendar, which was called
the Gregorian in his honor, by a bull of Feb. 24,
1582. The reform was designed, on
8. The the one hand, to regulate Easter with
Gregorian reference to the solar and lunar revo-
Reform. lutions, thus restoring the year of the
lunar cycle according to the date and
intention of the Nioene Council, and, on the other, to
avoid any future shifting of the vernal equinox and
the spring full moon. To restore the vernal equinox
to Mar. 21, the ten days between Oct. 4 and 15
were dropped, while for the correction of the spring
full moon the new moons were set back three days
from Jan. 3 to Dec. 31. These corrections were
assured by retaining the Julian system of intercala-
tion and the nineteen-year lunar cyde for a century.
The intercalary day was to be omitted thrice in
four centuries, and the new moon was to be retarded
one day eight times in twenty-five centuries (seven
times after each three hundred years and the eighth
time after four hundred). For the correction of the
lunar cyde the reckoning of epacts, or the age of
the moon on Jan. 1, was introduced according to the
cycle proposed by Li^.
The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Roman
Catholic countries either immediately or in the
course of a few years. The Protestant districts,
on the other hand, opposed it, partly on account
of their hostility to Rome and partly on acooimt of
its chronological discrepandes. Its inaccurades
were recognised by the landgrave
9. Opposi- William IV. of Hesse-Cassel, and the
tion to the Calvinistic Joseph Justus Scaliger is-
Gregorian sued repeated warnings against it.
Calendar. After the end of the sixteenth centuiy
the Julian calendar existed in (jermany
side by side with the Gregorian, the two bemg des-
ignated as old and new style, respectively. The
845
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oalandar
Oalf
movable feasts of the two faiths acoordingiy dif-
fered, and the advocates of the new style dated the
days of the month ten days in advance of the old un-
til the end of the seventeenth centuiy. In view of
the discrepancies between the two systems the Ger-
man Protestants devised a third calendar, which was
to agree neither with the Gregorian nor the Julian
and was to take effect in 1700. In its reckoning
of time it agreed with the Gregorian, but its feasts
were calculated astronomically according to the
meridian of Uraniborg and the Rudolphinian Tables
of Kepler. The result was increased confusion
and embitterment between Roman Catholics and
Protestants, particularly in 1724, 1744, and 1788,
when there was a divergency of a week between the
Gregorian and the astronomical Easter. This
Protestant calendar was finally suppressed by
Frederick the Great in 1775, and the Gregorian
calendar became supreme throughout Germany.
German Protestants have sought in recent years
to transform Easter into an immovable feast, but
the plan as yet remains inchoate.
The evangelical reforms of the calendar thus far
considered were concerned only with chronology,
without regard to the traditional Christian lists
of saints and martyrs. There is, however, a tend-
ency among the Lutherans to revise the hagiology
of the Church, in view of the Protestant skepticism
regarding the existence of many of the saints of
tradition and the Christianity ascribed to others.
They are offended, furthermore, by the names of
such heroes of the Coimterreformation as St.
Ignatius Loyola and other opponents
ID. Attempts of their sect, while prominent Protes-
to Reform tants, it is felt, should be recognized
the in an ecclesiastical calendar designed
Calendar, for Lutheran use. Such an attempt
was made by Ferdinand Piper in his
Evangeliacher Kalender (published from 1850 to
1870), in which he sought to transform the hagi-
ology of the Western Church according to evan-
gelical ideas. To increase the interest of the laity
in this new list of names, brief biographies were
added, and these, 399 in number, were later pub-
lished separately imder the title Zeugen der Wahr-
heit (4 vols., Leipsic, 1874; Eng. transl., by H.
M. MacCracken, 3 vols., Boston, 1879). Piper's
calendar, however, failed to secure official recogni-
tion in any German church, although in various re-
visions it has been included in a number of popular
calendars in Germany. It is self-evident that only
partial success can be attained by any Protestant
hagiological calendar in view of the diversity of
Protestant conditions and requirements. Appar-
ently, the most that can be done is to add new
dates and names, whether these be supplementary
or corrective, to the traditional hagiology of the
Church, so that, according to the requirements of
time or place, a choice may be made from the
names aaaociated with any particular day.
(O. Z6CKLBRt.)
Biblioobapht: On the general subject consult: L. Ideler,
Handhueh der . . , Chronoloine, 2 vols., Berlin, 1826-26;
A. J. Weidenbflkch, Cdtendarium hiMtorico-chriatianum
medii et novi aevi, Regensburg, 1855; W. 8. B. Woolhouae.
Analvna of Oie Chriatian, Hebrmo and Mahometan CaUn-
dare, London. 1881; Ledouble, La Connaieeanee dee an-
nSee et dee iotae. TraUi . . . du calendrier, Bousons.
1887; E. Mahler, Forieeteung der Wuatenfeld'Bchen Ver-
gUuhunge-Tobellen der muhammedaniechen und cftrut-
lichen Zeitrechnung, Leipsic, 1887; J. C. Maodonald,
Chronolooiee and Caiendara, London, 1897; F. ROhl,
Chronologie dee MittdaUere und der NeuaeU, Berlin, 1897;
B. M. Lersch, EinleUung in die Ckronotogie, 2 vols., Frei-
burg, 1899 (vol. ii. on Christian Calendar); Encvdopa-
dia Britannica, iv. 604-682 (gives comparative Ubles);
DC A, i. 256-258.
On the origin of the Christian calendar consult: T.
Mommsen, Der Chronograph vom Jakre S64, in Abhand-
lungen der eOcheiechen Oeeellechaft der Wieeenechaften, ii.
(1850) 547 sqq.; A. J. Binterim, DenkwOrdigkeiten, i. 20
sqq., 7 vols.. Mains, 1837-41; L. Ck>leman. Andenl
Chrietianity, chap, xxvi., | 5. Philadelphia, 1852; F.
Piper, Der Ureprung der ehriaUichen Kalendarien, in
Kdniglicher pretiaeiacher Siaatakalender, 1855, pp. &-25;
A. Lechner, MittelaUerliehe Kalendarien in Bayem, Frei-
burg. 1891; E. Berfried, Die AuageetaUung der ehrieUiehen
Oaterbereehnung, Mittelwalde. 1893.
On calendars of the Middle Ages useful works are:
N. Nilles, Kcdendarium manuale utritiaque eedeeia, 4 vols.,
Innsbruck. 1879-85. vols. i.. ii.. 2d ed.. 1897 (a most val-
uable collection for the Eastern Churches); A. (}ave,
Scriptorutn ecdeeiaaticorum hiatoria Uteraria, Appendix,
part ii., London, 1698 (describes Eastern calendars);
F. Piper. Kirchenreehnung, pp. vi. sqq.. Berlin, 1841;
idem, Karla dee Groaaen Kaleifidarium, ib. 1858; W. I*.
KrafiFt. Kirehengeechichte der germaniachen VdUcert I. i.
371. 385-387, ib. 1854; F. Kaltenbrunner. Die Verge-
ediichte der gregorianiachen Kalenderreform^ Vienna, 1876;
O. E. Hartmann. Der r&miache Kalender, Leipsic, 1882;
J. Weale. Analecta lUurgica, 2 vols., London, 1889; H.
Qrotefend, Taachenbuch der Zeitrechnung dee deuJtaeKem
MiUdaUera und der Neueeit, Hanover. 1898; A. von Malt-
lew, Menciogien der orthodox-katholiachen Kirche dee Mor-
genlandee, part i., Berlin. 1900 (Sept.-Feb.. German and
Slavic and reference to original Gk. text).
For the history of the Gregorian reform consult: F.
Kaltenbrunner, Die Polemik Hber die gregorianieche Kalen-
derreform, Vienna, 1877; J. B. J. Delambre, Hiatoire de
Vaetronomia modeme, i. 1-84. Paris. 1821; G. 8. Ferrari,
/{ calendario Oregoriano, Rome, 1882; the literature under
Grboort XIII.
For modem Protestant calendars the following may
be consulted: F. Piper. Die Verheaaerung dee Kalendere,
in Evangeliacher Kalender, 1850. pp. 1-11; idem. Die
Verheaaerung dee evangeliadien Kalendera, Berlin. 1850;
W. L5hes. Martyrclogium. Zur ErJUdrung der herk&mm^
lichen KaUndemamen, pp. 1-12, Nuremberg, 1868; E.
Scharfe. Die chriaUiche Zeitrechnung und der deuteeh-
evangeliache Kalender, pp. 18-28. Stuttgart, 1893.
CALEIVDAR, HEBREW AM) JEWISH. See
Day, the Hebriiw; Moon, Semitic Conceitionb
of; Year, the Hebrew; Synaqooue.
CALF, THE GOLDEN, AM) CALF-WORSHH*.
Origin of Calf-worship among the Hebrews (| 1).
Bull-worship among Other Semites (| 2).
Bull-worship in Israel (ft 3).
Bull-worship in Judah (ft 4).
The story of the worship of the golden calf dur-
ing the desert journey is given Ex. xxxii. and
Deut. ix. 7-21; of. Neh. ix. 18; Ps. evi. 1^20;
Acts vii. 39-40. The authorized calf-worship of
Northern Israel is mentioned I Kings xii. 2^-33;
II Kings X. 29, xvii. 16; Hos. viii. 5-6, x. 6-6,
xiii. 2; II Chron. xi. 15, xiii. 8. The Hebrew term
generally applied to the calf is 'egel ; 'eglah in Hos.
X. 5 is probably a mistake for *egel.
It has generally been supposed that the Israel-
ites borrowed calf-worship from the Egyptians, a
supposition thought to be supported by the fact
that Jeroboam had been recalled from Egypt.
But the Egyptian animal-worship was essentially
different from the Semitic type, since the Egyptian
Oalf
Oalixtua
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
346
worship was paid to living animals. The bulls or
calves of Jeroboam — ^the classical example in
Israel — were, on the other hand, intended to be
symbols of Yahweh. In any case Jeroboam
would not have introduced a foreign
I. Origin of cult to strengthen his new and pre-
Calf-wor- carious government. The Hebrew
ship calf-worship did not reproduce the
among the cult of Apis and BInevis, which were
Hebrews, living animals, one black, the other
white, dedicated to Osiris, and he was
believed to be incarnated in them (J. G. Wilkin-
son, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,
iii., London, 1878, 86-95, 305-307). Suggestions of
bull-worship among the Hebrews are found in the
horns of the altar, in the oxen imder the lavers
(I Kings vii. 25), and possibly in the cherubim.
While examples of Hebrew bull-worship are rare,
the proof of its existence among neigUx)ring na-
tions is abundant. In the Babylonio-Assjrrian
and Syro-Phenician religions, the bull represented
the masculine type of divinity, as was natural to
a pastoral people. The primitive Aryans also ex-
plained the heavenly phenomena by comparisons
drawn from the life of their herds. The Zenda-
vesta makes mention of " the first bull." The
bull represented power and strength, and at the
same time the destructive and the re-
2. Bull- productive omnipotence of the deity.
worship The sun-god is hardly to be recog-
among nized in the bull, as has been supposed.
Other The gold of the Hebrew bull idols does
Semites, not necessarily point to the splendor
of the sun, for the images of other gods
were also of gold or gilded. Still less credible is
the assertion that the strength of the bull repre-
sented the scorching blaze of the sun. Among the
Babylonians the biidl was sacred to the thunder-
god Ramman (Syrian Rimmon), Assjrrian Adad
(Syrian Hadad), who is represented in Layard's
MonumentSf plate 65, as having four horns and
holding the lightnings in one hand and a battle-ax
in the other. The bull is also the emblem of Ram-
man-Adad on the stele of Esarhaddon found at
Zingirli in Northern Syria, as well as in the pro-
cession of the gods depicted on the rock at Maltai
(cf. G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Histoire de Vari dans
VantiquUi, ii., Paris, 1881 sqq., 642-643). An
image of the Syrian Jupiter of DoUche, which was
carried from Syria to Rome, represents him stand-
ing upon a buU (cf. F. Hettner, De Jove Dolicheno
dissertatio philologica, Bonn, 1877; A. H. Kan, De
Jovis Dclickeni CvUu dissertatio , Groningen, 1901).
The Jupiter of Hierapolis in Syria was pictured
sitting upon bulls (Lucian, De dea Syria, xxxi.).
The classical tale of the seduction of Europa is a
form of the Baal myth, in which the god, in the
shape of a buU, journeys with Astarte (q.v.) to
Crete (for the identity of Astarte with Europa, cf.
De dea Syria, Iv.). The sacredness of cattle among
the Philistines also is demonstrated by the story of
the return of the ark on a new cart drawn by two
milch kine, on which there had come no yoke
(I Sam. vi. 7 sqq.).
That bull-worship among the Hebrews was an-
cient the foregoing makes quite possible. It was,
however, hardly practised before the final settle-
ment in Canaan, since it was always characteristic
of peoples who had either reached or passed the
agricultural stage. The prohibition of the Book of
the Covenant (Ex. xx. 23, cf. xxxiv. 17) is, therefore,
the first warning against this type of worship^ Ex.
xxxii. assumes, however, that it was practised dur-
ing the journey in the wilderness. The leading fea-
tures of the narrative are as follows: The pe<^le
had become impatient under the continueid ab-
sence of their leader, and Aaron made for them an
image of the god who had led them out of Egypt.
With the material furnished by the golden ear-
rings of the women and children, " a molten calf "
was fashioned, before which an altar was built, and
to it divine honors were paid. The rest of the
chapter teUs of Yahweh's anger, of Moses's ener-
getic intervention, of Aaron's apology, and finally
of the destruction of the calf and of 3,000 of its
worshipers. The narrative — ^a composite of J and
E — has been, however, considered by many modem
critics as unhistorical and really a polemic against
Jeroboam's newly instituted worship. The cardinal
passage on calf-worship is I Kings xii. 28-29 (cf.
II Chron. xi. 15), where the story is told of the
bulls set up by Jeroboam I., who ordained a non-
levitical priesthood, and did not pre>
3. Bull- tend to do more than return to the
worship Yahweh-worship of the past. That
in IsraeL he did thus return is proved by hi<
success. When Jehu destroyed the
Baal-worship, he did not touch the bulls, a clear
proof that he acknowledged the bull-worship as
Yahweh-worship (II Kings x. 29). Yet the spir-
itual prophets opposed the bull-worship from the
beginning. Indirect testimony to this may be
seen in Amos (v. 5). Direct testimony is first
found in Hosea. This younger contemporary of
Amos is the only one of the prophets who alludes
to buU- worship; and to him the worship of an
image is the worship of an idol (viii. 5-6, xiii. 2,
cf. X. 5-6). With regard to the precise form and
structure of Jeroboam's bulls there is no direct in-
formation. Gold being scarce and precious, it is
probable that the images were small — ^an assump-
tion supported by the fact that they are called
calves. Naturally these royal statues would be of
pure gold and not merely gilded.
In the kingdom of Judah bull-worship does not
seem to have flourished, for nowhere is found a
reference to Judaic worship of this
4. Bull- kind, and the polemics of Hosea ex-
worship dusively against the calf of Samaria
in Judah. at Bethel would be unintelligible, had
he been aware of the same cult in
Judah. The Deuteronomic redactor of the book of
Kings saw in the bull-worship the special sin of
Jeroboam, wherewith he caused Israel to sin (I
Kings xiv. 16, xv. 26).
Biblioorapht: W. Baudiaain, Studien, ro\. i., Leipsie, 1878:
J. Selden, De dia Syru, pp. 45-64. London, 1617; C. T.
Beke. The Idol of Honb . . . Ab Odden /moot ... a
Cone . . . not a Calf, ib. 1871; A. Kuenen, ReKgion of
Itrael, i. 73-76. 236-236. 260-262. 346-347. ib. 1874;
E. KOnig, Hauptprobleme dor oUiaraeliUetAen AeftffioA*-
oeaehichte, pp. 63-02. Leipsio. 1884; idem, BiidUtiokeHl
Je9 UgiUmen Jahweheultua, ib. 1886; F. Baethcen, Bei-
347
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oalf
Galiztua
trdge nor MmtliacAen Rdioionagetchichlet PP. 108 aqq., Ber-
lin. 1889: J. Robertson, Early Relioion of lanul, chap,
ix.. Edinburgh, 1802; F. W. Farrar. Wm then a Golden
Calf at Dant in ExpoeUor, viii. (1883) 254-265; 8. OettU.
Der KuUua bei Amoe und Hoaea, in Oreifewalder Shtdien,
1885. pp. 1-34: DB, i. 340-343: EB, i. 631-632. Con-
sult also the works on O. T. Theology, especially that by
H. Schulti. Eng. transl., Edinburgh. 1882, and the works
mentioned under Idolatry; Images and iMAOE-woBsinp.
CALIXTINES. See Hubs, John, Hussites.
CALIXTUS, ca-lix'tUB: The name of three popes
and one antipope.
Caliztus (Callistus) L: Pope 217-222. Through
the discovery of the work of Hippolytus (q.v.)
on heresies, a new aspect, differing in many par-
ticulars from the traditional one, has been assimied
by the story of this early bishop. The old account
ascribed to him the building of the church of Santa
Maria in Trastevere. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decre-
tals (q.v.) contain two in which, among other
things, regulations are laid down for the ember fasts.
He was (»lled a martyr, but the acts of his martyr-
dom are purely legendary, probably composed in
the seventh century. The picture given by Hip-
polytus, though bitterly hostile, is at least dear
and shmp in its outlines. According to it, Callistus
was the slave of a Christian ofRcial named Car-
pophorus, who entrusted him with considerable
sums of money, which ho lost. Taking flight to
avoid a reckoning, he was pursued by Ms master,
and jumped into the sea to escape him, but was
pulled out and condenmed to the treadmill. Then
he got into a quarrel with the Jews in Rome, and
was beaten and sent to the mines of Sardinia, from
which he was released by the influence of Marcia,
the mistress of Commodus. It is impossible to
determine how far Callistus was morally blame-
worthy in this chequered career — ^probably not
as much as Hippolytus says. The events recited
are said to have happened in the pontificate of
Victor. The next bishop, Zephyrinus, brought
Callistus back to Rome, probably already in orders,
and gave him charge of the large cemetery which
later bore his name. Under Zephyrinus he came
into conflict with Hippolytus on the dogma of
the Incarnation (see Monarchianism); and at the
next vacancy a schism occurred, each party electing
its own leader as bishop (see Hippolttus). Cal-
listus seems to have been, like Zephyrinus, a
Modalist; it was he who exoonmiunicated Sabellius.
The question of discipline also brought him into
conflict with Hippolytus, according to whom he
laid down the principle, unacceptable to the rigor-
ists of the time, that all sins might be forgiven, and
denied the necessity of deposing a bishop who
should be guilty of deadly sin. Hippolytus accuses
him of taking this position so as to increase the
numbers of his own church; but it is imdeniable
that a dear-sighted man could hardly fail to see
the defects and inconsistendes of the then existing
church discipline, and Callistus was probably
seeking to establish a more logical system. The
Catalogus Liberianua is authority for placing his
death in 222. [The largest of the Roman cata-
combs is the Cemetery of St. Callistus; and De
Rossi says it was the first common cemetery, given
to the pope by some noble family for the use of the
whole Christian community. Thirteen out of the
next eighteen popes after Zephyrinus are said to
have been buried there.] (A. Hauck.)
Bzblxoobapht: The EpietoliB are in MPO, vol. z. An
anonymous TranelaHon, ed. Holder-Egger, is in MOHt
Script, rv. (1887) 418-422. Consult: C. K. J. Bunsen,
HiVpolyUu and hie Age, 2 vols.. London, 1852-56; J. J. I.
yon Ddllinger. Hippolvtus und Callietue, Regensburg, 1853;
K. J. Neumann, Der r&mieche Stoat und die aUgemeine
Kirehe, i. 312-313, Leipsic. 1880; T. E. RolfTs, Dae Indul^
Omw-Edikt dee . . KaUiet, in TU, xi. (1884) 3; H. Acbe-
lis. Hippclytatudien, LeijMie, 1887; Harnack, LiUeratur, i.
603-605; JafiFtf, Regeeta, i. 12-13. ii. 731; Milman. LaHn
Chrietianiiy, i. 75-78; Bower, Popee, i. 20-21.
Calixtos n. (Gui, or Wido, son of Count William
of Burgundy): Pope 1119-24. He was made
archbishop of Vienne in 1088, and imder Paschal
II. was legate in England, with little success. In
the investiture controversy he was one of the leaders
of the French opposition to the compromise of 1111
with Henry V. A synod called by him at Vienne
in that year condenmed lay investiture without
reserve and excommunicated Henry, threatening
the pope with renunciation of allegiance if he did
not confirm its decrees. When he was elected
pope by the cardinals assembled at Cluny (Feb. 2,
1119), Henry had reason to fear the accession of a
second Hildebrand. He made conciliatory over-
tures to the new pontiff, offering to submit the
controversy to a coundl called by Caiixtus, and
approved an agreement with the papal represent-
atives by which, in return for the revocation of his
excommunication, he surrendered his daims to
the right of investiture. But the agreement proved
impossible of execution, and soon, in a great coimdl
held at Reims (Oct. 29 and 30, 1119), CaUxtus
renewed his denial of the right and his excom-
munication of Henry and of Antipope Gregory
VIII. Though the sentence remained ineffective
in Germany, Caiixtus strengthened his authority
in France during his stay there, finding a firm ally
in Louis the Fat. He went to Italy in the spring of
1120, and entered Rome in triumph, Gregory VIII.
fleeing to Sutri. whose citizens delivered him up to
his victorious rival in the following April. This
strengthened Calixtus's position still more against
the emperor; but the final decision of the contest
was brought about by the intervention of the
German princes, assembled at WQrzburg in the
autunm of 1121. They ooimseled Henry to ac-
knowledge Caiixtus and the canonically elected
bishops, undertaking in return to arrange a peace
with the Church, and proposing the convocation
of a general council, in which they promised to
defend the honor of the Empire. Caiixtus ap-
pointed Lambert of Ostia and two other cardinals
to conduct the negotiations, which began at Worms
in Sept., 1122. Arehbishop Adalbert of Mainz
continued to urge the strict Hildebrandine position,
and it was due to Lambert's work alone that the
discussion, instead of being fruitless, led to the Con-
cordat of Worms (see Concordats and Deumitinq
BulLb, I., S 1). This was solemnly confirmed by
Caiixtus in the First Lateran Coundl, opened on Mar.
18, 1123, which also renewed the canons against
simony and clerical marriage, and proclaimed a
** truce of God " and a new crusade. While the
Oaliactafl
Oallenberff
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
348
plans for this undertaking were being made, Calix-
tus died, Dec. 13 or 14, 1124. (A. Hauck.)
Bzbuoobapht: The EpiuUjlm el PriviUgia are in MPL,
clxiii.; An Epiatola Bpuria^ ed. W. Grundlach, is in MOH,
Epiai., iu. (1891) 108-109. The Vita by Caxdinal Tan-
dulfuB Aletrinus, a contemporary, ifl in ASB, May, ▼.
14-16, and in MPL, clxiii. Consult: lAber pontificalia,
ed. Duchesne, ii. 322. 376. Paris. 1892; H. Witte. For-
§chunoM zwr Otachichte det Womuer ConeordaU. Gdttin-
Sen, 1877; M. Maurer. Papal Calixl II., Munich. 1889;
F. Gragorovius. OeachiehU der Stadl Rom, iv. 869 sqq..
Stuttgart, 1890. Eng. transl.. iv. 390-402, London, 1896;
U. Robert, Hiatoirt du papa Calixte II., Paris. 1891; idem,
BuUaira du papa Calixte II., ib. 1891; Jaffd. Regaata, i.
270; Milman, Latin ChriaOanitVt iv- 130-149; Bower.
Popaa, u. 456-460.
C^llztus nL (Johannes de Struma): Antipope
1168-73, in opposition to Alexander III. (q.v.).
After the peace of Venice, he maintained himself
for a while at Albano, but on Aug. 29, 1178, he
made his submission to Alexander and was restored
to the communion of the church, being entrusted
with the government of Benevento. (A. Hauck.)
Biblioorapht: Jafftf. Regeata, ii. 429, 430; Milman, Latin
Chriatianity, iv. 431-437; Bower, Popea, ii. 514-516.
Callxtisa nL (Alonso de Borja or Borgia) : Pope
1465-68. Bom at Xativa in Valencia [Dec. 31,
1378]. After a legal education he became bishop of
Valencia in 1429 and cardinal in 1444. On Apr. 8,
1466, being then seventy-seven years old, he was
elected pope. He was a man of simple and blameless
life, but too weak to cope with the disorders of the
time, some of which arose directly from his own par-
tiality for his relatives. Immediately after his acces-
sion, he took a vow to carry forward a war against
the Turks and atone for the manner in which Europe
had looked on supinely at the fall of Constantinople.
Legates were sent throughout the Continent to
preach a crusade and collect troops and money.
Money, indeed, came in, especially through the help
of the mendicant orders, in large sums; but the old
crusading zeal had died down too far to be rekin-
dled. The tithes which were required, on behalf
of the undertaking, from the clergy of France and
Germany aroused universal discontent. The doc-
tors of the University of Paris and the clergy of
Bouen appealed in 1466 to a general council against
the tax, and a similar appeal was made in Germany,
not only on this ground but on that of the failure
to observe the Vienna Concordat of 1448 in regard
to the system of clerical benefices. While en-
deavoring to put down this rebellious spirit, Calixtus
succeeded in assembling a small fleet which sailed
(May 31, 1466) to help the Knights of St. John in
their dangerous position at Rhodes. The fleet,
under the command of the cardinal legate Scarampo,
occupied some small islands of the Grecian archi-
pelago, without venturing on a decisive engagement.
The Greeks had not the courage to rise in force,
and the Christian princes and Italian cities took
but a languid interest in the crusade. It was a
piece of luck that the victory of the heroic Hunyadi
at Belgrade (July 14 and 21, 1466) averted the
most pressing peril. The pope was hindered by
the consequences of his hostility to Alfonso
of Naples, after whose death (June 27, 1468) he
refused to acknowledge the claim of Alfonso's
natural son Fernando, asserting that the kingdom
reverted as a fief of the papacy to himself. This
attitude was the outcome of his desire to advance
his own nephews, one of whom, Rodrigo (the
future Alexander VI.), he had made cardinal and
vice-chancellor of the Roman Church in spite of
his being below the canonical age; another, Pedro,
he had made duke of Spoleto, destining the Nea-
politan crown for him. Calixtus died, however
(Aug. 6, 1468), before his unscrupulous designs
could break the peace of Italy. His nephews and
their Spanish followers left Rome, where, in alliance
with the Colonna family, they had been guilty
of incessant crimes and violence. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: B. Platina, The Uvea of the Popea, il
260-257, London, n.d. Consult: A. von Reumont, Gc-
aehiehte der Stadt Rom, iii. 126 aqq., Berlin, 1868: F. Gre-
goroviufl, Oeachichte der Stadt Rom, vii. 146 aqq.. Stutt-
gart. 1870. Eng. tranal., London, 1000; Pastor, fapea, ii.
317-479: Oreighton, Papacy, iii. 178-201; Milman, Latin
Chriatianity, viii. 120 eqq.; Bower. Popea, iii. 238-240.
CALIXTUS, GEORG: The most influential con-
tinuator of Melanchthon's theology in the seven-
teenth century, spokesman of the so-called " syn-
cretism " in Germany at that time; b. at Medelhye
(in the district of Tondem, 115 m. n.n.w. of Ham-
burg), Schleswig, Dec. 14, 1586; d. at Helmst&dt,
Brunswick, March 19, 1656. His father, pastor
at Medelbye, a pupil of Melanchthon, wished to
have his son educated in the same way, and after
due preparation sent him to the imiversity at
Helnist&dt, where like-minded friends of Melanch-
thon, e.g., the humanist Caselius, were still in
office. From 1603 to 1607 he studied philology
and philosophy, then theology, paying e8p>ecial
attention to the study of early patristics. From
1609 to 1613 he traveled in Germany, Bel-
gimn, England, and France, enlarging his ideas,
and becoming acquainted with the conditions of
the Reformed and Roman Catholic churches,
comparing them with those of the Lutheran Church
to which he belonged. Thus he developed an
irenic tendency which he retained all his life. He was
appcHnted in 1614 professor of theology at Helm-
stadt, and remained there until his death. A
memorial tablet on his house in the little city in
the duchy of Brunswick commemorates the activity
of this enUghtened mind. His Ufe fell in the age
of the Counterreformation and the Thirty Years'
War, when the hatred of the confessions toward each
other had reached its height. The main effort of
this irenic theologian was inspired by the idea that
theology must have for its prime object not bo
much pure doctrine as Christian life. Thus he
became the creator of theological ethics as a special
theological discipline, and therein undoubtedly
marks an epoch in the progress of theology; most
moral philosophers still follow him in this formal
principle. But the danger was thereby incurred
of detaching ethics from dogmatics and building
the former without the necessary religious founda-
tion. In the second place he endeavored to bring
about a union of all Christian churches, taking the
Apostles' Creed and the consensus of the first five
centuries as a dogmatically and ecclesiastically
sufficient norm. He aspired to a union of all
Christian confessions. For this reason he took
part in the Conference of Thorn (see Thobn, Con-
S40
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Calixtua
OallMiberv
F*E3UEMCE of) in 1645, where, however, he found
that the Lutherans would not work with him, since
they felt justifiably that from his point of view
the Reformation lost its essential importance:
a religious indifferentism would be the obvious
Bequenoe, and it is certainly no accident that during
the seventeenth century many princes and prin-
cesses left the Lutheran Church and joined the
fioman Catholic (John Frederick of Hanover,
Christine of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus, and some others). On the other hand
the orthodox, not altogether from combativeness,
endeavored to maintain the religious content of the
Reformation; this is their merit against all Byn-
cretism. Finally Calixtus made himself a name
in scientific dogmatics by introducing the analytical
method. After his death the syncretistic contro-
versies continued till they lost their interest through
the Pietistic movement. Among his numerous
writings those of most interest are his academical
orations OraHones seUdce (Helmstftdt, 1660); his
influential exegetical writings, ExposUwnes and
LticubraHones on New and Old Testament books;
and, of his irenic writings, the Judicium de con-
troversiia theolofficia qua inter Lutheranos et Re-
farmaios offUantur, et de mutua partium fratemiUUe
atque toterantia propter consensum in fundamentia
(1650). His son and successor, Friedrich Ulrich
Calixtus (b. 1622; d. 1701), tried to continue the
work of hiis father, but met with no approval among
the Lutherans. They rather tried to supplant
syncretism in the Lutheran Church by a new ortho-
dox confession, Consensus repetUus fidei vere
Lutheranos, But this confession, which would
have turned the Church into an orthodox school,
was nowhere officially accepted. The syncretistic
controversy remained for a long time of such im-
portance that no interest was felt in the Pietistic
principles which soon sprang up. This can be un-
derstood only from the course of the syncretistic
oontroveisies. See Stncrstism.
Paul Tschackebt.
Bxblioorapht: Aooount ghould be taken of CalixtuB's
BrieftoechBd, ed. E. L. T. Henke, Halle, 1883. cf. is-
sues of Jena, 1833, Marburg, 1840. Consult: W. Gass,
G. Calixt und der Synkr^tUmiu, Breslau, 1846; E. L. T.
Henke. O. Calixtua und •erne Zeii, 2 vols., Halle, 1853-
1856; W. C. Dowding, Oerman Theology during the Thirty
YeoTB* War; Life and Correepondenee of Q. Calixtua,
London, 1863; H. Friedrich, Oeorg Calixtxu, der Unione-
mann det 17. JahrhunderU, Anklam, 1891; ADB, iii. 696
■qq.
CALLAWAY, HEIIRT: Church of England,
missionary bishop of St. John's, Kaffraria; b. at
Lymington, Somerset, Jan. 17, 1817; d. at Ottery
Saint Mary (12 m. e.n.e. of Exeter) Mar. 26, 1890.
In early life he was a Quaker, and after teaching
from 1835 to 1839, was successively a chemist's
assistant and a surgeon's assistant. He then
studied surgery and was licensed by the Royal
College of Surgeons in 1842 and by the Apothe-
caries' Society two years later. In 1852, however,
failing health obliged him to sell his lucrative prac-
tise and to spend a year in France. In the following
3rearhe graduated M.D. at King's College, Aberdeen,
and determined to be a physician, but his interest
in m^M'ft™' becoming active, he was ordered deacon
in 1854, having left the Society of Friends for the
Church of England two years previously, and went
as missionary to Africa. He was first stationed at
Ekukanyeni near Pietermaritzburg, but on being
priested in 1855 was made rector of St. Andrew's,
Pietermaritzburg. Three years later he obtained
a grant of land beyond the Umkomanzi River and
settled at Insimguze, which he renamed Spring
Vale. There he began his studies of Zulu relig-
ion and customs, but was recalled to England in
1873 to be consecrated first missionary bishop of
St. John's, Kaffraria. In the following year he
left England, and in 1876 removed the seat of the
diocese to Umtata, where he founded St. John's
Theological College in 1879. His fragile health,
however, had already necessitated the consecration
of Bransby Key as bishop-coadjutor in 1873, and
in 1886 Callaway resigned his see and returned to
England in the following year, settling at Ottery
Saint Mary, where he spent the remainder of his
life. He wrote: Immediate Revelation (London,
1841); Memoir of James Pamell (1846); Nursery
TaleSf Traditions f and Histories of the Zulus (Spring
Vale, 1868); The Religious System of the Amazulu
(Natal, 1868-70); and Missionary Sermons (Lon-
don, 1875). He likewise translated the book of
Psalms (Natal, 1871) and the Book of Common
Prayer (1882) into Zulu.
Biblxoorapht: M. S. Benham, Henry Cattatpay, M.D.^
D.D., -firei Biehop of Kaffraria; hie Life-Hiatary and
Work, London, 1896.
CALLEGARI, cfSl'l^'gd'A, GIUSEPPE: Cardinal
priest; b. at Venice Nov. 4, 1841. He was ordained
to the priesthood in 1864, and, after being succes-
sively a teacher and a parish priest, was consecrated
bishop of Treviso in 1880, and two years later was
translated to the see of Padua. He was created
cardinal priest of Santa Maria in CJosmedin in 1903,
and still retains his bishopric. He is likewise a
member of the Congregations of Bishops and Reg-
ulars, the (Douncil, Rites, and Studies.
CALLENBERG, cOllen-berH, JOHANN HEIN-
RICH: German theologian; b. at Molschleben
(a village of Gotha) Jan. 12, 1694; d. at Halle
July 16, 1760. He was educated at Halle, where
in 1727 he was appointed associate professor of
philology, becoming full professor in 1735 and being
transferred to the faculty of theo'ogy four years
later. His deep interest in Protestant missions
among the Jews and Mohammedans of the East
led him, in 1728, to found the Institutum Judaicum
for the education of missionaries. To this insti-
tution, which lasted imtil 1791 and was instrumen-
tal in the conversion of a large number of Jews, he
later attached, at his own expense, a press for the
promotion of the cause. Europe, as well as parts
of Asia and Africa, was traversed by his pupils,
for whom he printed Arabic translations of por-
tions of the Old Testament, the whole of the New
Testament, '* The Imitation of Christ," and other
works. His propaganda among the Mohammedans,
however, met with little success. His independent
works, which are of minor importance, include:
Kurze Anleitung zur jiidisch4eutschen Sprache (Halle,
1733); Berichte von einem Versuch das judische Volk
CalUikir
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
S5Q
tuT Erkenntnisa de$ CknsUichen aruntleiten (3 vols.,
172S-36); and De canveraione Muhammedanorum
ad Christum expetita ientaque (1733).
Bibuoorapht: J. M. H. Doering. Dis oOOuien ThMloffen
DeuUehlaruU, i, 221 aqq., Neiutadt, 1831; J. C. F. Hoefer,
NouvdU BiograpkU gSntroU, vii 202. 46 yoU.. Paria,
1851-«e.
CALLINO (vocation; Lat. voecHio, Gk. JU2m):
In dogmatic language as well as in the practical
usage of the Church that act of divine grace {gratia
applicatrix) with which the ardo aalutis (see Obdbb
OF Salvation) begins.
The Greek terms kalein, kUtos, kliaia are often
used both in the Septuagint and in the New Testa-
ment in the sense of calling (e.g., Matt. ix. 13; Acts
iv. 18), then of summoning to court,
Biblical of inviting to dinner, etc. (e.g., Ill
Usage. Macc.v. 14; Matt. xxii. 4, 8; Rev. xix.
9). But even in the Old Testament
usage the Hebrew ^xtra* or the Greek kalein has the
meaning of calling some one efifectually for some
purpose (cf. Isa. xlii. 6, xlviii. 12, xlix. 1, li. 2),
which may signify " to call into existence " (Wisd.
of Sol. xi. 25; Baruch iii. 33, 34; cf. Ps. xxxiii. 9).
From this point the solemn usage of the New Testa-
ment takes its departure. The call proceeds from
God; it comes to man through the word of preach-
ing, which is not the word of man but of God (I Cor.
i. 9; II Pet. i. 3; I Thess. ii. 13; II Thess. ii. 14).
Inasmuch as the call comes from God, it is a ''holy
calling" (II Tim. i. 9), a "heavenly calling"
(Heb. iii. 1), a " high calling of God in Christ Jesus "
(Phil. iii. 14). The call is a free act of the grace of
God (Rom. ix. 11), in which the divine election
and predestination realize themselves (II Thess.
ii. 13, 14; II Tim. i. 9-10; Rom. viii. 30). From this
it is clear that it is always the effectual calling that
is thought of; indeed it is precisely the divine
election of grace which is made manifest in the
call. Hence those who became Christians were
" called to be saints " (Rom. i. 7; I Cor. i. 2, cf.
Jude 1: " called and kept "). That to which the
Christians are called, or that which constitutes the
content of the call is the blessing of the New Testar
ment salvation, and this is expressed in the most
diverse terms: to communion with Christ (I Cor.
i. 9); to salvation (II Thess. ii. 14); to the peace
of Christ (Col. iii. 15); to the kingdom and glory
of God (I Thess. ii. 12); out of the darkness into
a wonderful light (I Pet. ii. 9); to eternal life, to
his glory and his inheritance (I Tim. vi. 12; I Pet.
V. 10; Heb. ix. 15); to the hope of his calling (Eph.
i. 18, iv. 4).
Inasmuch as the call indicates the New Testa-
ment salvation, it also procures the moral change
comprehended in that blessing. As on the himian
side obedience corresponds to the call (Heb. xi. 6),
so we are called " not for uncleanness, but in sanc-
tification " (I Thess. iv. 7); the Christian's life
is to be holy " as he who called you is holy " (I Pet.
i. 15). If, therefore, the call is the efifectual invi-
tation of God to man, conveyed through the Word,
for the kingdom and its blessings, so that every one
possessing these came by them through the call,
the call, on the other hand, points beyond itself
to the realization through God or through man: |
" Faithful is he that calleth you who also will do
it ' (I Thess. v. 24) and " give the more diligcocr
to make- your calling and election sure " (II Pet.
i. 10).
Luther's use of the expression in the expoeitioQ
of the third article of his Shorter Catedusm is
important for the history of the conception. But
the term did not immediately receive on that
account an independent place in dogmatics. la
the older Protestant literature it is used in con-
nection with election and the Church.
By the Re- It seems to have received a fiim
formerB. place in dogmatics for the first time
in Hutter (Compendium, XIIL v. S).
According to Calovius it opens the ardo sahi£u,
and he defines it (Systema, x. 1) as an '^ effectual
bringing in to the Church " (ad ecdesiam efficax
adductio), whereas Hollas (Examen iheologicum,
III. i. 4, qunstio 1) makes it an offer of benefits
by Christ. Moreover, a distinction is made between
the vocaHo generalia, which through nature, etc.
comes to all men, and the vocatio apecialis, which
comes through the Gospel. The latter may be
ordinaria, i.e., through the Word, or extraordinaria,
and that immediata or mediata. The call is serin
and efficax (in opposition to the view of the Re-
formed), inasmuch as the Spirit regulariy becomes
effectual in the Word. It is, moreover, universalis.
That many peoples do without it is their own
fault. Then comes the doubtful contention that
since Adam all peoples in one way or another have
been given the opportunity of hearing the Gospel
(the above is from Hollas; for a full discussion cf.
H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der etMmgelisehrlutheair
achen Kirche, GOtersloh, 1893, 320 sqq.).
Dogmatically considered, the doctrine of vocation
is only the application of the doctrine of the Word
of God to conversion. Therefore, this conception
will disclose no new dogmatic knowl-
In Dog- edge, but will only offer a confirms-
matica. tion of such things as have been
acquired elsewhere. But because the
Scriptures often apply the term and because it has
through the catechism gone over into the popular
religious consciousness, its right to a special treats
ment in dogmatics is not to be denied. The call
takes place the very moment a person — be he a
non-Christian or be he externally connected with
Christianity — becomes aware that the heard (or
read) Word as the Word of God efficaciously works
in him the divine will unto salvation, and as there
is no conceivable moment in the Christian life
in which that revelation of salvation in the Word
becomes superfluous, the vocation will be a con-
tinual one and the Christian will always remain a
vocatus. We may, therefore, confine the conception
to the opening of the new life; but, starting from
the thought of the Word of dod, we must define
the call as that influence of God upon man, throu^
the medimn of the Word, which makes the beginning
of the new life and conditions its continuation and
its completion. The call brings us the whole
salvation, as the passages of Scripture above dted
show. If dogmaticians as a rule, in speaking of
vocation, think only of the first influence of God.
this must be supplemented by the fact that this
361
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OalUnfl:
Galxnet
tenn comprehends within itself the further divine
activities. If now the call embraces the whole of
salvation in its relation to us, it is plain that its
content is the Gospel; as the old writers rightly
perceived. But since " law " and Gospel stand in
close connection, the law also must be indirectly
included in the call. R. Sesberg.
CALLING, EARTHLY: The position in life
occupied by each individual, and the duties to-
ward society which appertain to such a position.
These duties are primarily social rather than ethical,
and may be hedonistic in motive, as when they are
performed for the sake of livelihood. The calling
may be ethicized, however, if the ends of the social
organism be served expressly for the glory of God,
thus transforming the calling into divine worship.
Since the calling conditions the class of services
rendered to society, it must form the basis of an
ethical activity. Each function resulting from
the divinely created nature of man may develop
into a calling, although the variety in callings does
not necessarily imply a distinction in the value of
personalities. Nor is it imethical to have no calling,
but only to desire to have none, since those who
are so conditioned that, through no volition of their
own, they are without a calling do not become im-
ethical for that reason.
In the rich development of Christian ethics in
the New Testament the earthly calling is com-
paratively neglected, yet, from the point of view of
love toward one's neighbor, he who disregards
his duties to his family, and toward society and
the Church, must be considered unethical. The
earthly calling is, accordingly, individualistic rather
than universal in its obligations to society, and
represents one of the forms of Christian ethics.
Wilful neglect of the calling is inunoral, since it is
the only means of intercommunication in society,
which would otherwise be incoherent and dis-
organised. The bodily and mental gifts of man
are fruitless unless they are devoted to the welfare
of society through a definite calling, and their
neglect is not only contrary to nature but also to
the will of God.
The ethical signification of the earthly calling
forms an important chapter of philosophical ethics.
Through itn recognition of the dignity of labor and
the worth of the individual, Christianity revo-
lutionized the ethics of the pagan world, although
the full ethical evaluation of the calling began only
at the Reformation. Since God is served less by
self-chomn cults than by the ethical obedience
which he himself has commanded (Isa. i. 11-17;
Hos. vi. 6; Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7), the believing Chris-
tian performs a true worship corresponding to his
estate as a child of God in his faithful performance
of hi* calling. In a certain sense the principles of
the ethical value of the fulfilment of the calling
are merely a renewal of the New Testament doctrine
thp4 the Christian confirmation of faith through
love bears a distinct and active relation to society
(I Cor. vii. 20-24; Eph. vi. 6 sqq.; I Pet. ii. 12
M|q.), even though nowhere in the New Testament
^ earthly calling specifically mentioned. The
tistinction of callings begins in the family, whence
it develops successively into the acquisition and
control of temporal benefits and into the charge
over intellectual and spiritual blessings in religion,
science, and art, the culmination being the con-
stitution of society as a whole. Yet the individual
can not make free choice of his own calling, but is
restricted by certain social limitations; still, other
things being equal, that calling should be chosen
which is most in harmony both with talents and
inclination. External conditions, however, fre-
quently render impossible the development of the
most gifted talent, yet in such cases there is no
reason for the formation of a religious and moral
personality to suffer injury, since such adverse
circumstances demand full and complete fidelity
to the calling, and thus strengthen true Christian
piety, instead of impairing it. (L. Lkmme.)
CALMET, AUGUSTIN: French Roman Catholic
theologian and author; b. at Mesnil-larHorgne
(a village near Commercy, 25 m. e. of Bar-le-Duc)
Feb. 26, 1672; d. at Senones (7 m. n.e. of St. Di6)
Oct. 25, 1757. He was a Benedictine monk of the
congregation of St. Vannes, and studied at the
priory of Breuil, while he learned Hebrew from
the Protestant clergyman Favre. After 1698 he
instructed the pupils of the order in theology and
philosophy at the abbey of Moyen-MouUer in the
Vosges, and in 1704 was appointed subprior at
MUnster. Fourteen years later the general chapter
of his order made him abbot of St. Leopold at
Nancy, whence he was transferred in 1728 to
Senones, and there he passed the remainder of
his life. His numerous works give evidence of
extraordinary reading and erudition, but lack
critical ability and insight. His best writings are
devoted to the interpretation of the Bible accord-
ing to the principles of the Council of Trent. To
this category belongs his La Sainte Bible en latin
et en frangais avec un cammentaire litUral et critique
(23 vols., Paris, 1707-16), the French translation
being that of Sacy and the commentary giving
simply a grammatical exegesis. The excursuses
on each book, dealing with chronology, history,
antiquities, and similar topics, were the most
valuable portion of the work, and were published
separately under the title DiaseriaHone qui peuveni
aervir de proUgomhiee d VScriture Sainte (3 vols.,
1720), and the Tr^or d'anttquiUe sacriee et pro-
fanes dee commentairee du P. Calmet (13 vols.,
Amsterdam, 1722) is the same work with a different
arrangement. The notes scattered in the com-
mentaries are collected in alphabetical order in the
Dictionnaire hiatoriqtie et critique, chronologique,
giographique et litUral de la Bible (2 vols., Paris,
1722, supplement, 1728; Eng. transl., 3 vols.,
London, 1732), which long remained the quarry for
similar works. Less important are the Histoire
sainte de I'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament et des
Juifs (2 vols., 1718) and the Histoire universeUe
sacrie et profane (17 vols., Strasburg, Senones, and
Nancy, 1735-71). Calmet 's works are now little
read, with the exception of the Histoire eccUsias-
tique et civile de la Lorraine (4 vols., Nancy, 1728),
which is based on archives and accompanied with
valuable documents. (C. Pfendsb.)
OalOTina
OalTin
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
868
BtBUOOBAPHT: The autobiocraphy ifl oontained in his Hi*-
toin de Lorraine, vol. iv.. ut sup. Consult: A. Fang^, Vie
de Calmel, SenooM, 1762 (by his nephew; contains a
complete list of Calmet's works); A. Dicot, NoUee frto>
graj^iqu* el litUraire eur A. Calm^ Nancy. 1861; KL, ii.
1717-21. New material is presented in DocuirMnit
inidita eur lee eorreeportdaneee de Dam Calmei, ed. P. B.
Guillaume. ib. 1876.
CALOVIUS, cd-iyvi-vs (KALAU), ABRAHAM:
Lutheran dogmatic theologiaa; b. at Mohningen
(62 m. B.S.W. of Kdnigsberg), Prussia, Apr. 16, 1612;
d. at Wittenberg Feb. 25, 1686. He was driven
away by the plague from the first two schools he
attended, at Thorn and at KOnigsberg, but he
prosecuted his studies at home to such good purpose
that when barely fourteen he was able to enter the
University of Kdnigsberg. Here he took his mas-
ter's degree six years later, and was at once taken
into the philosophical faculty. He lectured on
philosophy and mathematics, while eagerly con-
tinuing the study of theology. His polemical
activity began with a tractate against the Reformed
court preacher Berg (1635). In 1634 he migrated
to the University of Rostock, of which he became
a doctor in 1637. Then he returned to Kdnigsberg,
was made assessor to the theological
Education faculty, and resumed his lectures,
and Early Two years later he became adjunct
Professorial professor, and visitor of the Sainland
Activity, district; in 1643 he went to Danzig
as rector of the gymnasium there
and pastor of Trinity Church. He was a delegate
to the Thorn Conference of 1645, where he came
in contact with Calixtus. From this time on a
great part of his life was devoted to polemical
activity, especially against Syncretism (q.v.) and
Calvinism. In 1650, at the invitation of the elector
John George I., he went to Wittenberg, where the
rest of his life was to be spent. He began there as
third professor and preacher at the parish church,
of which he became pastor in 1652 and general
superintendent of the district, and by 1660 he
was head professor and dean of the faculty. The
imiversity increased considerably in niunbers
through the attraction of his teaching, though
the increase fell ofif when the elector of Branden-
burg forbade his subjects (1662) to
Calovius go there for theology or philosophy,
at Witten- on account of the opposition of the
berg. principia Calovtana to the Reformed
teaching. An iron constitution en-
abled him to work incessantly at his books and
lectures, as well as to support the loss of five wives
and thirteen children and to marry again at the
age of seventy-two. A complete record of his
activity is left in his books, since he nearly always
expanded his lectures into that form. His po-
lemical activity was directed chiefly against the
Syncretistic school of Helmst&dt and its Kdnigsberg
aUies Behm, Dreier, and Latermann, as well as
later against the Hessian friends of Calixtus. He
had paid his compliments to the latter's teaching
even in his Danzig days, and in his Insiiiutumum
theohgicarum prolegomena (2 parts, 1649-50).
More important onslaughts on this school were
Synopsie coniroversiarum potiarum (1652), with an
introduction specially directed against Calixtus;
Syncretiemua Calixtinua (1653); and Harmonia
CaHrHna-hcgretica (1655), in which he accuses the
" innovators " not merely of tolerating false doe-
trine but of teaching it themselves, and proves his
point by attempting to show their " harmony "
with Calvinists and Papists, Anninians and Sodn-
ians. By the date of this publication Calo^-ius
thought the time was ripe for a step which he had
been urging for four years. The Consenstts repe-
titue fidei vera LutherancB is imdoubtedly in its
essence the work of Calovius, in its first as well as
in its final form. The purpose of this new dog-
matic standard, the exclusion of the
His Contra- Syncretists from the Church and so
veisial from the protection of the religious
Writings, truce, was not attained; in fact, after
1655, and still more after 1669, when
definite instructions were conveyed to the Witten-
berg theologians to restrain their polemical ardor,
there is a noticeable slackening of anti-Syncretist
activity; and Calovius turned his attention rather
to the Jena school, and especially to Musseus. In
1682, finally, he published a complete account of
the whole controversy in his Historia ^yneretisHca.
Owing to the prohibition of polemical publications,
it appeared without any author's name or place of
printing, described merely as the work of *' D. A. C.
[Dr. Abraham Calovius], a distinguished theologian."
The elector John George III., who objected on
political grounds to such literature, had all the
copies bought up, so that this edition is very rare.
A second edition appeared in 1685, with Calovius's
approval and with his name on the title-page. He
attacked the Roman Catholics in his Mataologia
papistica (1647), and the Socinians in several small
works, which when collected (1684) filled two folio
volumes. As if the conflict within his own Church
did not give him enough to do, he interposed in
the controversies of the Calvinists with his C<m-
HderaHo Arminianiemi (1655) and his Theses iheo-
logiccB de Labbadismo (1681). His last work, the
AnH-Bahmitia (1684), directed against Jakob
B6hme, shows a failure in power.
In the way of constructive theology, his Sysiema
locorum theologicorum (12 vols., 1655-77) is, with
the possible exception of Gerhard's, the most
important dogmatic production of the century —
the true exemplar of what has been called Lutheran
scholasticism. It takes the Lutheran doctrine,
as it had developed on the basis of the Formula
Concordia and the Scriptural principles, pushed
to their extreme since the Regensburg conference
of 1601, and defends it with unyielding logic and
fimmess against the intellectual forces of a new
age. Even his principal exegetical work, the
Biblia illustrata (4 vols., 1672-76),
His Con- has a polemical bearing, being intended
Btructive to correct the Annotata of Hugo
Theology. Grotius, which is incorporated in it.
He accomplishes his task with great
acuteness, wonderful learning, and more feeling
for the sense of Scripture than his opponoit, whose
preference was for secular authors, but with hi^
inevitable dogmatic limitations. The circum-
stances of his life render it difficult to pronounce
a summary judgment on the man and his career.
858
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oaloylu*
Oalvin
The party of CaHxtus naturally hated and despised
him; but the fact that they found it necessary
to spread absurd fictions about his horrible end
shows clearly enough that nothing could justly
be said against his personal character. In his own
day he compelled the respect and admiration of a
great variety of men, and his talents have been fully
recognized by some who were far from agreeing
with him, lUce Buddeus, Walch, and St&udlin.
His incessant controversial activity has left a mis-
leading impression of him; he hixnself says of this
branch of his work, " I come to this kind of writing
unwilhngly and by force; my dis-
Estunate position inclines me rather to stick
of to positive doctrinal work." As a
Calovius. theologian he was a faithful member
of the Wittenberg school. No one
has insisted more on the necessity of a Scriptural
basis for all teaching. It is true, of course, that
the defects of Lutheran orthodoxy — ^its hardness
and its extremes — are to be found in him. Faith
is essentially the acceptance of the orthodox system;
not only the essentials (and they covered a great
deal of groimd in those days), but every derived
article must be accepted, for the faith is one. The
standard books of doctrine are theoretically sub-
ordinate to the Scriptures; but the student is
required to accept them not hypothetically but
categorically — ^not in so far as, but because, they
agree with the Bible. His firm conviction of the
truth of his system gives, however, a certain dignity
to his polemics; but his untiring activity never
reached its aim — he did not succeed in raising the
Conaensua repetitua to the dignity of a creed, and
a new era had dawned before he went to his rest.
(Johannes Kunze.)
Bibuoorapht: The Bouroes for a life of Calovius are: hiB
own HUtoria •yncreft«(ica, 1682; a funeral disooune by
his colleague J. F. Mayer, 1686; and C. 8. Schurifleisoh,
Oraiione9 paneoyriea, pp. 71 aqq., Wittenberg, 1697.
Conaiilt: H. Pipping, Memoria theologorunif pp. 108-136,
Leiprio, 1705; J. C. Erdmann, JjebenabMchreiimngen . . .
von den wUtenbergiad^en TKeologen, pp. 88-01, Witten-
berg, 1804; A. Tholuck, Der OeUt der luUuriachen Theo-
logen WUUnbero»t pp. 185-211, Gotha, 1852; E. L. T.
Henke, Oearg Calixtut und aeine Zeit, 2 vols., Halle, 1853-
1856.
CALVARY. See Holt Sepulcher.
CALVARY, MOUNT, ORDERS OF: Three relig-
ious orders taking their name from the Mount of
Crucifixion.
1 . The CalTarists or Priests of Mt Calvary : An as-
sociation of secular priests founded by Hubert Char-
pentier at Mt. B^thiutun, diocese of Lescar (4 m. n.w.
by w. of Pau), France, in 1633 ''in commemoration
of the sufTerings of Christ and for the spread of the
Catholic faith/' five years later united with a
similar association formed in Paris by a Capuchin
named Hyadnthe, primarily to convert Protestants.
The chief seat of the united orders was Mont Var
l^rien, Paris (hence popularly called CoUine du Cal*
vaire). They perished in the French Revolution.
2. The Huns of Mt Calvary (BirUdicHnes de
Notre-Dame du Calvaire) : Founded by Antoinette
d'Orl^ans (d. 1618) and the Capuchin Joseph de
Clerc de Tremblay in 1617 at Poitiers, properly
a branch of the Order of Font^vraud (q.v.). In
the seventeenth centuiy they had about twenty
houses which were destroyed in the French Revo-
lution. Since then the order has been revived and
has a number of convents mostly in western
France.
8. The Daughters of Mt Calvary {Figlie dd
Calvario): Founded at Genoa in 1619 by \^rginia
Centurione (d. 1651), daughter of the doge of Genoa
and wife of Grimaldi Bracelli, who undertook the
care of abandoned children in a time of great dis-
tress from famine. She received help from the
Marchese Emanuele Brignole, from whom the
members of the order were called Le atun-e BrignoU
in Genoa. They spread in North Italy, were given
a house in Rome by Gregory XVI. in 1833, and
later established orphan asylums at Rieti and
Viterbo. (O. ZOcKLBRf.)
Bzblioobapht: Helyot, Ordrea monaaUquMt vi. 355-370;
Heimbuoher, Orden und KonffreoaHonen, i. 107, ii. 362,
427. Consult also A. M. Centurione. Vita di Virginia Cen-
tuirione-BraeeUi, Genoa, 1873.
CALVERT, JAMES: Wesleyan foreign mission-
ary; b. at Pickering, 25 m. n. by e. of York, Eng-
land, Jan. 3, 1813; d. at Torquay, England, Mar.
8, 1892. When appointed by the Wesleyan Mis-
sionary Society in 1838 to go to Fiji he was master
of the printing and bookbinding trades and had
been in 1837 a student in the Hoxton Academy.
His industrial training stood him in good stead
for he was able to do his own printing in Fiji and
issue many books, among them a translation of the
New Testament into the vernacular. He lived
to see the complete abandonment of heathenism
by the Fijians, a result to which his heroic labors
contributed largely. From 1865 to 1872 he waa
supemimierary minister at Bromley, Kent, England,
thence he went as missionary to the South African
diamond fields. He returned in 1881 and settled
at Torquay. In 1885 he paid a visit to Fiji and
rejoiced in the marvelous change.
B1BU00KA.PBY: Q. 8. Bowe, JamtM Calvert cf Fiii, Londoa,
1893.
CALVIN, JOHN.
Childhood (| 1).
Student of Thedlosy (f 2).
Student of Law and the Clamios (I 3).
His Finit Publiofttion. Conversion (S 4).
Cop's Inaugural Address (S 5).
"Years of Wandering." Second Pub-
lication (I 6).
John Calvin the Refonner, b. at Noyon (60 m.
n.e. of Paris), Picardy, July 10, 1509; d. in
Geneva, Switzerland, May 27, 1564, was the son
of G^raid Cauvin, or Caulvin, of which Calvin is
II.— 23
Publication of his '* Institutes " (I 7).
First Residence in Qeneva and in Stras-
burg (ft 8).
Rising Fame. Recall to Geneva
(ft 9).
Second Residence in Geneva (ft 10).
Calvin's Fundamental Ideas (ft 11).
His Reforms (ft 12).
His Opponents (ft 13).
His Ecclesiastical Influence (| 14).
His Character (ft 16).
His Personal Appearance (ft 10).
His Literary Labors (ft 17).
the Latinized form, a registrar of the government
of Noyon, solicitor in the ecclesiastical court, fiscal
agent of the county, secretary of the bishopric, and
attorney of the cathedral chapter. Calvin's mother
OalTin
THE NEW 8CUAFP-HERZOG
3M
was Jeanne Le Franc of Cambrai, noted for personal
beauty and great religious fervor and strictness.
Of the five sons of his parents he was the second,
and but one of his younger brothers
X. ChUd- survived childhood. His mother died
hood. while he was still young and his father
married a widow, whose name is un-
known, who bore him two daughters. His father's
position and ambition for his sons was such that
be secured for them the best educational advan-
tages at home, association with the children of
prominent families, and ecclesiaatical patronage;
so that Calvin on May 19, 1521, when only twelve
years of age, received the chaplaincy attached to
the altar of La G^sine in the cathedral of Noyon,
which gave him a regular income. It was expected
that he would become a priest and so he was given
the tonsure.
In 1523 he was sent to Paris to prepare for the
priesthood. He attended for a few months the Col-
lie de la Marche, wherein Mathurin Cordier
grounded him in Latin; next the College de Mon-
taigu, where he remained till the opening of 1528.
The high grade of his childish friendships and of those
of maturer years reveals his own char-
3. Student acter, and refutes the insinuations his
of detractors have dared to whisper.
Theology. That he stood well with the eccle-
siastics in his native city is shown by
their giving him on Sept. 27, 1527, in addition to
the chaplaincy mentioned, the (nominal) curacy
of Saint Martin de Martheville, eight leagues from
Noyon, which he exchanged on June 5, 1529, for
the curacy of Pont I'fivfique, a village 1 m. w. of s.
of Noyon, associated with his ancestors, who were
boatmen on the Oise (not to be confoimded with
Pont I'fivAque, 25 m. e.n.e. of C5aen). On Apr. 30,
1529, he resigned his chaplaincy in favor of his
younger brother, but resiuned it on Feb. 26, 1531,
and held it till May 4, 1534.
As a student Calvin showed rare ability and was
raptidly acquiring the priestly training when in
1528 his father, who had fallen out with the eccle-
siastical authorities in Noyon, ordered him to
change his studies to law. He meekly obeyed and
left Paris for Orleans, whose university was then
a famous law center, as there Pierre Taisan de
I'Estoile lectured, and the next year went to
Bourges, where Andrea Alciati, a
3. Student rival of equal eminence, and more to
of Law and Calvin's taste, was the great attrac-
the tion. In both universities he came
Classics, under the influence of Melchior Wol-
mar, a humanist of the front rank and
favorable to the Reformation. On May 26, 1531,
his father died, and Calvin left Bourges and returned
to Paris, to classical study and the study of Hebrew,
except that from the summer of 1532 to that of
1533 he was again a student of law at Orleans and
there '' annual representative " of the dean of the
Picard students, another indication of his moral
standing and popularity with the students, for
students do not honor of their own accord dubious
or disagreeable characters.
In Apr., 1532, he published in Paris at his own
expense, and at a pecuniary loss, the text of Seneca's
De CUmttUia, with a commentary, which showed
that he was still a humanist within the Bonum
Church. But the Reformation was making head-
way in France among the humanistic class to which
he belonged, and so must have often been a topic
of his conversation. Step by step he 24>proacfaed
the position of the Reformers, but slowly, for. as
he says himself, in the partly autobiographic pref-
ace to his commentary on the P»lms
4. His First (and it is about all that is known on
Publication, the subject), he " was too obsti-
Conversion, nately devoted to the superstitions
of popery to be easily extricated from
so profound an abyss of mire." But, some time
in 1533, "God by a sudden conversion subdued
and brought [his] mind to a teachable frame. Hav-
ing thus received some taste and knowledge of true
godliness, [he] was immediately inflamed with so
intense a desire to make progress therein, that
although [he] did not altogether leave off other
studies, [he] yet pursued them with less ardor.
[He] was quite surprised to find that before a year
had elapsed, all who had any desire after purer
doctrine were continually coming to [him] to leant
although [he himself] was as yet but a mere novice
and typo."
Among those with whom he discussed Reformed
doctrine was his bosom friend Nicolas C6p, and
when Cop was elected rector of the univerraty of
Paris it seemed to them a splendid opportimity
to commend the Reformation to the cultured and
brilUant audience which would be gathered in the
Chiurch of the Mathurins to hear the inaugural ad-
dress. Accordingly they planned it together and
on Nov. 1 , 1 533, (k)p ddivered it. He announced his
theme as "Christian Philosophy," and proceeded
to speak in a manner which greatly
5. Cop's In- amazed his audience. By " Chris-
augural tian Philosophy" he meant the Go^>d.
Address. The phrase and the treatment in the
opening part of the address were derived
from Erasmus. The burden of it was on the rela-
tion of Law and Gospel, and here Luther's influence
appears. The concluding part was more independ-
ent, and in it was struck that note of certainty as
to salvation, which was to be a feature of Calvin-
ism.
Perhaps all would have gone well, for there must
have been many secret sympathizers with their
views in the audience, had Cop not criticized the
theologians of the Sorbonne as " sophists." This
infuriated them, and they stirred up the govern-
ment against the audacious speaker, and Cop had to
fly. Calvin also fled, because his intimacy with Cop
was known, although it is not certain whether it
was even suspected that he had any share in the
composition of the address as it is now certain that
he had. Being assured that his fear^
6. Tears of of personal injury were groundless, he
Wandering, ventiu^ to return shortly afterward.
Second But his sympathy with the Reforma-
Publication, tion could not be hidden, and so !k
did not feel safe in the city where sc
many already had been imprisoned for theii
faith's sake, and in Jan., 1534, he went forth a
wanderer, usually living under an assumed name.
355
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oalvin
These wanderings lasted for two years and a half.
As well as they can be made out their course was
this: he went first to Angoul^me, where he studied
in the excellent library of his friend Louis du Tillet
and began his ** Institutes "; next to N^rac in Apr.,
1534, where Marguerite d'Angoul^me, duchess of
lierry and sister of King Francis I. of France, held
her court; in May he was at Noyon, where he re-
signed his benefices, and where he was for some
reason imprisoned; in the closing part of the year he
was at Paris again, and then it was he mot Servetus
for the first time. Next he appeared at Orleans,
whence he issued his second publication, his Paycho-
pannychia, a refutation of the theory that the soul
sleeps between death and the Last Judgment. In
Dec, 1534, he was at Angoul^me, and thence with
l)u Tillet he removed to Strasburg to escape threat-
ened persecution.
In Jan., 1535, he was at Strasburg, and the same
month at Basel. There he put the finishing touches
on Ids '' Institutes of the Christian Religion," and
issued it Mar., 1536. The persecution of the Re-
formed in France was its immediate occasion,
lie thus speaks of this famous book in the preface
to his commentary on the Psalms: " My objects
were, first, to vindicate my brethren whose death
was precious in the sight of the Lord; and next
that, as the same cruelties might very soon after
be exercised against many unhappy individuals,
foreign nations might be touched with at least
some compassion toward them and
7. Publica- solicitude about them. When it was
tion of his then published it was not the copious
V Institutes." and labored work which it is now,
but only a small treatise, containing
a summary of the principal truths of the Christian
religion; and it was published with no other design
than that men might know what was the faith
held by those whom I saw basely and wickedly
defamed by those flagitious and perfidious flat-
terers. That my object was not to acquire fame
appeared from this, that immediately after I left
Basel, and particularly from the fact that nobody
there knew that I was the author." It was pref-
aced by a letter to King Francis I. of France, who
was an archpersecutor of Protestants in his king-
dom while cultivating friendly relations with them
outside, which ranks as one of the masterpieces
in apologetic literature.
After publishing it he went to Ferrara to stay
a while in the court of the Duchess Ren^, wife of
Ercole II. In May 1536 he was in Aosta and a
little later in Paris once more. There he met his
younger brother Antoine and his half-sister Marie,
and with them left for Strasburg. The war then
going on compelled him to make a detour and so
he arrived in Geneva in the latter part of July,
1536, intending only to spend the
8. First night there. But Farel (see Farel,
Residence Guillaumb), who was trying with
in Geneva zeal not always directed by discretion
and in to keep the Genevans whom he won
Strasburg. for the Reformation at peace among
themselves, learned of his presence
and seeing in the young scholar, who wanted nothing
so much as to be allowed to pursue his studies in
quiet, a valuable ally, besought him to stay with
him, and then, as Calvin himsdf says in the preface
mentioned above, " finding that he gained nothing
by entreaties proceeded to utter an imprecation
that God would curse [his] retirement and the tran-
quillity of the studies which [he] sought if [he]
should withdraw and refuse to give assistance
when the necessity was so urgent." Calvin felt
as if " God had from heaven laid his mighty hand
upon [him] to arrest [him]." Unable to resist,
he laid aside all his plans and stepped to Farel's
side. But the city could not brook the drastic
reforms which the Reformers would institute, and
so on Easter Monday (Apr. 23), 1538, less than
two years from his arrival, he and Farel were
ordered by th^ General Assembly to leave the city
within three days. Calvin went to Basel, and then
to Strasburg where on Sept. 8, 1538, he became
minister to the French refugees, in the Church
of St. Nicolas aux Gudes. He married early
in Aug., 1540, Idelette de Bure, widow of Jean
Stordeur of Li^ge, an Anabaptist whom Calvin
had converted to the pedobaptist position. She
had had a son and daughter by her first husband,
but they had died in infancy. To Calvin she bore
a son on July 28, 1542, but he lived only a few days.
She herself passed away on Mar. 29, 1549, and
Calvin did not marry again.
When Calvin went to Strasburg he thought he
had done with Geneva. He was very poor, and
his position was comparatively obscure, but his
abilities soon brought him into prominence and
appeals for advice from friends in Geneva kept
him in touch with that city. He utilised his
position to study and also to put into practise
certain reforms he could not carry out in Geneva.
And his fame rapidly spread. He was asked to
share in the cathedral lecture course, next he was
sent as delegate of the city to the
9. Rising Colloquies of Worms and Regeiisburg.
Fame. When on Mar. 18, 1539, Cardinal
Recall to Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the
Geneva, city of Geneva which was a plea for
it to return to the Roman obedience
and it was sent to Bern, it was Calvin who was
requested by the Bern government to answer,
and he did in his masterly fashion. A change took
place in the government in Geneva and the friends
of Calvin got the upper hand. Then his virtues
and extraordinary powers were remembered, and
on Sept. 21, 1540, the Little Coimcil voted to try
to induce him to return. More and more the
impression spread that he was the man to rule
the city. There was no intention of going back
to Rome, but the city was torn by faction and
contained many unruly elements which needed an
inm hand to hold in check. On Oct. 19 and 20
the Two Hundred and the General Assembly
formally invited him to return, but the invitation
was unwelcome and he would give no decided an-
swer. But when in Feb., 1541, the impetuous
Farel urged him to go, he foimd him as irresistible
as before, and so on Sept. 13, 1541, he entered again
the city of Geneva and took up the heavy task of
ordering her affairs according to his high standards.
He came without illusions, knowing that he was
OalTin
THE NEW SCIIAKF-HERZOG
356
not even the choice of a majority, that he had
many personal enemies, and would encounter many
difficulties; but he believed that God had called
him and would sustain him.
He received an honorable reception from the
government, and was given a house to live in, and,
for salary, five hundred florins, twelve measures
of wheat, and two tubs of wine. From that time
on, Geneva was his home and his parish, his center
of activity, but by no means his dr-
10. Second cumfeience of influence. Under his firm
Residence rule the city assumed a new aspect,
in Geneva. Immorality of every sort was sternly
suppressed. It was well for the suc-
cess of this system that Geneva was a refuge for
the persecuted in every land. Hollanders, En^^h,
Italians, Spaniards, and more particularly French-
men, settled in the town, and readily lent their
aid in maintaining Calvin's peculiar methods.
But not refugees alone came: his lectures and those
of Beza attracted many thousands of students,
and thus spread their fame far and wide. But
incessant study, a vast correspondence, " the
care of all the churches," his sedentary life —
these conspired to make him the victim of disease,
and at fifty-five years of age he breathed his last.
He had spent little on himself, but given generously
both in money and service, so he left behind him only
a himdred and seventy dollars, but an incal-
culable fortune in fame and consecrated influence;
and from him Geneva inherited faith, education,
government, brave citizens, and pride in an honored
name.
Calvin based his system upon the Apostles* Creed,
and followed its lines. Ethics and theology were
handled in the closest connection. His reforma-
tion in theology was preeminently a practical
affair. Even the doctrine of predestination was
developed, not as a speculation, but as a matter
of practical concern. By the extraordinary em-
phasis put upon it, the Genevans were taught to
consider it almost the comer-stone of the Christian
faith. In opposition to the lax views of sin and
grace which the Roman Church inculcated, he
revived the Augustinian doctrine in order by it to
conquer Rome. In so doing he was one with
Zwingli, CEcolampadius, Luther, and Melanchthon.
But in his supralapsarian views he stood alone
among the Reformers. His views of
11. Calvin's ecclesiastical authority and discipline
Fundamen- are also important. He allowed to
tal Ideas, the Church a greater authority than
any other Reformer. Here, again,
the influence of Augustine is seen. He says,
" The Church is our mother " (" Institutes," IV.
i. 1). Outside of the Church there is no salvation.
Her ministry is divinely constituted, and to it
believers are bound to pay deference. Her au-
thority is absolute in matters of doctrine; but,
when civil cases arise, she hands the offenders over
to the State for pimishment. State and Church
have, therefore, separate and exclusive jurisdiction;
yet they exist side by side, and cooperate. They
mutually support each other. The ideal govern-
ment embraced a democracy, an aristocracy, and
a king or autocrat. Calvin taught obedience to the
powers that be. In this scheme he had in mind
the Israelites. He aimed at a theocracy. He
bowed before the majesty of the righteous Judg^.
His fear of God led him to unquestioning sub-
mission. In a sense it was his very breath; ani
so in his system justice is more prominent th^
love. God as the ruler, rather than as the lover
of all in Christ, was the object of his reverence.
In accordance with his principles was his work.
During his first residence in Geneva he showed his
determination to separate Church and State; and
therefore he and his fellow preachers protested
against the interference of the State in the matter
of the use of fonts, of unleavened bread in the
Lord's Supper, and in the celebration of the chureh-
festivals, aa these were properiy within the eccle-
siastical province. When, also, he refused the
Eucharist unto the city, because of its immorality,
he asserted for the Church freedom from the civil
authority. This determined stand cost him tem-
porarily his position; but, when he resumed his
work in Creneva, he and the citizens knew tlut
he aimed to rule absolutely. The reforms be
instituted are famous, and often condemned as
infamous. They are, however, not only defensible,
but commendable, if judged by the standard of
that age. We can not withhold our admiration
of the moral courage, the self-forgetfulncss. the
stem morality, and the uncompromising zeal with
which Calvin addressed himself unto the apparently
hopeless task of curbing the passions of the loos^^
populace, and gaining the cordial co-
12. His operation of the upper classes. Hl
Reforms, succeeded. Geneva came to be rc^
garded as a normal school of religioii<
life. Religion was the life of the greater part o:
the inhabitants. With a correct insight into the
necessities of the case, Calvin declared imme-
diately after his victorious reentry that he couli
not take up work without a reorganization of the
Church; viz., by the formation of a church-court,
which should have full authority to maintain dis-
cipline. On Nov. 20, 1541, at a popular meeting,
the scheme he drew up was ratified. This pro-
vided for a consistory, composed of the pastors of
the city churches, who were five in number, and
three assistants, and twelve elders — one of the
latter to be a syndic and their president — which
met every Thursday, and put imder church-dis-
cipline, without respect of persons, every species
of evil-doers. The rigor and vigor of this admin-
istration quickly awakened natural indignation,
in part even among those who on the whole f avoreU
Calvin. His life was at times in danger. Some
showed their terrified contempt for him by naming
their dogs after him. In a city like Geneva, full of
refugees of every description, there were manr
who looked upon all restraint as oppression; others
who objected to Calvin's measures as going too
far, or criticized his methods. In order still fur-
ther to increase the authority of the church-court.
Calvin secured (1555) an important modificatioa
of the city government, whereby the ConseH GerUrd
(the '* General Council "), the highest law-making
body, was only called twice a year — ^in Februan'
to elect syndics, and in November to fill smoe
857
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OalTln
minor offices, and fix the price of wine. But
nothing might be discussed in this meeting which
had not been previously determined upon in the
Council of Two Hundred; nor in the latter which
the Council of Sixty did not approve of; nor could
this council take up anything not previously
agreed to in the highest council, which thus prac-
tically governed the State. The General Council
became in this way a superfluity, without the power
of initiative. It had, however, accomplished its
mission — accepted the Reformation.
Most prominent among the means Calvin used
to reform the city was preaching. Every other
week he preached every day in plain, direct, con-
vincing fashion, without eloquence, but still irre-
sistibly; and the life that the preacher led con-
stituted his strongest claim to attention. The
reports of his sermons are probably from notes
made by his hearers; which was the easier done,
because, being asthmatic, he spoke very slowly.
Every Friday the so-called " Congregation " was
held, in which questions were answered, and de-
bates even carried on. filinors were carefully in-
structed in a catechism originally prepared by Cal-
vin in French and Latin, 1545. In 1537 he had issued
a French, and in 1538 a Latin catechism, which
was a mere abridgment or syllabus of his '' Insti-
tutes," and was not in the form of question and
answer; but the catechism of 1545 was in the usual
form.
Calvin has the credit of first introducing con-
gregational singing into the worship of the Re-
formed Church in Geneva. The first songs were
some of his own metrical renderings of the Psalms.
Like Zwin^ and Luther, Calvin had his diffi-
culties with the Anabaptists. He met them in
public debate Mar. 16-17, 1537, and in the opinion
of the Council of Two Hundred efifectually dis-
posed of their arguments. So on Mar. 10 it
passed a sentence of perpetual banishment against
them.
But he had personal controversies, the chief of
which were — (1) first with Pierre Caroli, a French
refugee and pastor in Lausanne, a religious chame-
leon, whose latest hue was that of a stickler for
orthodoxy. Calvin was very indif-
13. His ferent to the terminology of theology.
Opponents, so long as the truth was expressed.
In discussing the nature of the God-
head during his first residence in Geneva, he avoided
using the words *' Trinity " and " Person," although
he had no particular objection to them; and so
they did not occur in the Confession of Faith which
he drew up, and to which the citizens of Geneva
were compelled to assent; nor did the Geneva
Church subscribe formally to the Athanasian
Creed. Caroli accused Calvin and his fellow
divines of Arianism and Sabellianism; and so
plausible was the charge, that Calvin was greatly
troubled. However, in the synod of 1537, held
in Bern, the Genevan divines fully cleared them-
selves, and Caroli was deposed and banished.
(2) Philibert Berthelier, the son of a martyr for
freedom, was forbidden the oonmiunion (1553)
by the consistory. The council absolved the
ban. Calvin from the pulpit, two days before the
September Commimion (one of the four yearly
occasions), declared that he would die sooner than
give the Lord's holy things to one imder condem-
nation for despising God. Perrin, who was then
syndic for the second time, ordered Berthelier to
stay away from communion, and so ended a dis-
pute from which the enemies of Calvin had hoped
a great deal. (3) J^r6me Herm^ Bolsec (q.v.),
whose presumption in denying predestination, and
abusing the ministers at a ''Congregation," drew
upon him, not only Calvin's indignant reply at the
time, but also imprisonment and banishment (1551).
(4) Sebastian Castellio (q.v.), a learned but arro-
gant man, won Calvin's opposition because of his
denial of the inspiration of the Canticles and of the
descent of Christ into hell. (5) But by far the most
famous of all Calvin's opponents was Michael ber-
vetus (q.v.), who seems to have been a rather ffip-
pant person. It is said he desired Calvin's banish-
ment in order that he might be installed in his
place. To this end he accused Calvin of perfid-
ious, tyrannical, and unchristian conduct. It is
no wonder, therefore, that Calvin treated him
harshly. It is idle to shield Calvin from the
charge of bringing about Servetus's death, although
it is true that the mode adopted (burning) did not
meet with his approval — he wished to have him
beheaded; but at the same time it is easy to excuse
him on the ground of the persecuting spirit of his
age. The Protestants who had felt the persecution
of Rome were ready to persecute all who did not
follow them. The burning of Servetus (Oct. 27,
1553) for the crime of heresy, specifically anti-*
trinitarianism, was approved by the Helvetic
Chiu-ch, and, what is more remarkable, by the mild
Melanchthon; but it failed even then to win uni-
versal approval, and now it is usually considered a
sad, ineffaceable blot upon Calvin's character.
Many who know nothing else of either Calvin or
Servetus are very indignant over the tragedy, and
apparently reject Calvinism because of it. We
ought rather to mourn than to censure. Servetus
knew the danger he braved in coming to Geneva.
He had as early as 1534 been in debate with Calvin,
although they did not meet personally. On his
intimating an intention to visit Geneva, Calvin
gave him fair warning, that, if he came, he would
prosecute him to the death.' While, therefore,
Calvin may be held responsible for Servetus's death,
he must be cleared of the charges of having allured
Servetus to Geneva, and of rejoicing in bJs death
on personal grounds.
No good came of the execution, only evil —
ridicule from the Roman Catholics, and the ad-
verse criticism from many friends. It likewise
failed to check the antitrinitarian heresy. Calvin
defended himself, and Beza aided him; but no
defense could excuse the facts. In 1903 a peniten-
tial monument was erected on the place of his
burning.
By his lectures Calvin attracted students from
every quarter. He often had as many as a thou-
* "Nam si modo valeat mea auctoritas vivum exire nun-
quam patiar (I shall never permit him to depart alive if my
authority ia great enough)." Calvin to Farel, Fab. 13, 1646
(cf. Calvin's Letters, Eng. transl., ii. 33).
OalTin
Oalvinism
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
358
sand: therefore his influence waa constantly spread-
ing. As was natiiral, it was most formative in
France, whence most of his pupils came, and to
whose Protestants Calvin was leader
Z4« His Ec- and spiritual father. But in other
clesisstical lands he exerted his power. In Italy-
Influence, he came to the aid of the troubled
duchess of Ferrara. To England
he sent his commentary on Isaiah, with a dedication
to the youthful king, Edward VI. To Cranmer
he wrote letters; and through Knox he molded
Scotland. He coimseled the Moravian Brethren.
He helped the Poles in the Trinitarian controversy,
and likewise the Reformed cause in Hungary. He
also prepared, in his way, the present interest in
foreign missions by his unfortunate mission to
Brazil in 1555 (see Villeoagnon, Nicolas Duranb
de).
Calvin's relations with Switzerland and Ger-
many were unpleasant. He strove most earnestly
to unite the different branches of the Protestant
Church. But unhappily he was suspected by
many Swiss of Lutheran views on the Lord's Sup-
per— ^for this was the controverted point — and by
many Germans of too much Zwinglianism; so
that he made but an indifferent mediator. He
had high hopes of the Consensus of Ziirich (1549),
which harmonized the Swiss churches; but the
controversy with the Lutherans was violently
renewed byHesshus.
The common conception of Calvin is erroneous.
He was not the stony-hearted tyrant, the relent-
less persecutor, the gloomy theologian, the popular
picture represents him to have been. Men, by
a blessed inconsistency, are often kinder than their
creeds. So, at all events, was Calvin. To the
superficial observer he is not attractive; but it is
the opinion of every one who has studied him that
he improves upon acquaintance. Granted that
he was constitutionally intolerant; that he did
draft and sternly carry out regulations
Z5. Big which were vexatious and needlessly
Character, severe; that he knew no other stand-
point in government, morals, or the-
ology than his own — he had qualities which en-
title him to respect and admiration. He was
refined, conscientious, pure, faithful, honest,
humble, pious. He attracted men by the strength
of his character, the loftiness of his aims, and the
directness of his efforts. He had the common
human affections. He loved his wife, and mourned
her death. He grieved over his childlessness.
He took delight in his friends; and they were
the noblest in the Protestant Church. Somewhat
of the forbidding aspect of his life may perhaps
be accounted for by the imnatural life he was
forced to lead. He desired to spend his days in
study; whereas he was forced to incessant, mul-
tifarious, and most prominent labor. Experience
shows there is no harder master than a timid man
compelled to lead. Again, his ill-health must be
taken into account. He was a chronic invalid.
Such men are not apt to be gentle. The wonder
rather is that he showed so patient a spirit. The
popular verdict has been given against him; but
vox populi is not always vox dei. What Beza, his
biographer, wrote is nearer truth: "Having bem
an observer of Calvin's life for sixteen jreare. I
may with perfect right testify that we haw m
this man a most beautiful example of a trulj
Christian life and death, which it is easy to ca-
lumniate, but difficult to imitate." Em^ Renas
finds the key to his influence in the fact that Lt
was '* the most Christian man of his generatioo *"
(Studies of Religimu History and Criticism^ New
York, 1864 pp. 286 sqq.).
Calvin was of middle stature, and, through feeble
health, of meager and emaciated frame. He had a
thin, pale, finely chiseled face, a -^€1'
x6. His formed mouth, a long, pointed beari
Personal black hair, a prominent nose, a lofty
Appearance, forehead, and flaming eyes. He wss
modest, plain, and scrupulously nssJi
in dress, orderiy and methodical in all his habiu.
temperate, and even abstemious, allowing himself
scarcely food and sleep enough for vigorous work.
(The famous portrait by Ary Scheffer is too much
idealized.)
Leaving out of view his correspondence, the
writings of Calvin divide themselves into the theo-
logical and the exegetical. In regard to the latter
it suffices now to say that they have never been
excelled, if, on the whole, they have been equaled.
He possessed all the requisite qualifications for an
exegete — ^knowledge of the original tongues, good
common sense, and abundant piety. His expo-
sitions are brief, pithy, and dear.
17. His His theological writings are remaii-
Literaxy able for their early maturity and their
Labors, imvaiying consistency. Besides his
minor writings, we possess that ma^er-
piece of Protestantism, the " Institutes of the
Christian Religion." He produced at twenty-six
a book in which he had nothing essential to change
at fifty-five. The repeated enlargements were mere
developments of its germinal ideas. The first
edition (Basel, 1536) contained 519 pages, measuring
6i by 4 inches, was divided into six chapters,
and was intended merely as a brief apology of
the Reformed doctrine: (1) Of law, with an expo-
sition of the decalogue; (2) Of faith, with an
exposition of the Apostles' Creed; (3) Of prayer,
with an exposition of the Lord's Prayer; (4) Of
the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Sup-
per; (5) Of the other so-called sacraments; (6) Of
Christian liberty, church government and disci-
pline. The French translation made by Calvin
himself appeared in Basel, 1541. The final fonn
was given to the " Institutes " in the Latin edition
of Geneva, 1559, when it was made into a treatise
of four books, divided into a hundred and four
chapters.
Biblioorapht: For a oomprehenave bibliography. giriiifC
full details as to the sucoesaive publications of Okhia.
their later editions, also of books written on Calvin'? IJlr
and theology, consult A. Erichson, BiJUiograTpkia €»■
viniana, Berlin, 1900.
The complete edition of Calvin's Works, supersediax
previous editions, is Joannia Calvini Opera qua npr-
aurU omnia, vol. i.-lix., ed. J. W. Bauxn. £. Cuniti, E-
Henss, P. Lobstein, and A. Erichson. The last w
assisted by W. Baldensperger and L. Horst. The editKs
was begun by the three firsl^named, Berlin, 186a as'
finished by Erichson in 1900. There is an exceii^s^
359
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OalTiniam
translation of the oommentaries, hit InttikUes, and hia
Tracta rtlaHng to the Reformation, hy H. Beveridge, pub-
lished by the Calvin Translation Society, 52 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1844-nS5. The fullest collection of Calvin's letters
iif in the Berlin edition. In 1854 in Paris Jules Bonnet
published a collection, and this has been translated,
volumes 1., ii., by D. Constable, Edinburgh, 1855-57;
volumes iu.. iv.. by M. R. Gilchrist, Philadelphia, 1858.
The four volumes are now published by the Presbyterian
Board of Publication, Philadelphia. The letters to cor-
respondents living in French-speaking lands are given in
their original Latin or French with careful and scholarly
annotations by A. L. Henninjard (d. 1000) in the nine
volumes of his CorreBpondance dea rifomuUeurt dana lea
paya de lan^tie frartQaiae, 1612-44* Geneva, 1866-Q7. The
first letter of Calvin's is no. 310 in vol. ii.. 2d ed.. 1878.
For the life of Calvin the original source is the sketch
by his friend and coadjutor Theodore Beta, Geneva,
1564, 2d ed., Lausanne, 1575; edited by Neander, Berlin,
1841, Eng. transl., by H. Beveridge, in Traeta rdtUing to
the Reformation, in the Calvin Society translation, vol. i.,
Edinburgh, 1844. Much information comes out inci-
dentally in his correspondence.
Modem lives of Calvin, derived from independent study
of the works and other sources, which can be com-
mended are those by T. H. Dyer. London, 1850; F. Bun-
gener, 2 vols., Paris, 1862-63. Eng. transl., Edinburgh,
1863; £. St&helin, 2 vols., Elberfeld, 1863; F. W. Kamp-
schulte, ed. W. Goets, 2 vols.. Leipeic. 1800; P. Schaff, Ckria-
Han Church, vii. 257-844; E. Doumergue, Lausanne, 1800
aqq. (to be in five volumes, of which the second appeared
in 1002 and the third in 1005, a life-work, aims at being
exhaustive, is illustrated by numerous reproductions of
old drawings, plans, pictures, etc., and hundreds of spe-
cial sketches by H. Armand-Delil^); A. M. Fairbaim. in
The Combridga Modem Hiatory, vol. ii., The Reformation,
chap, xi., pp. 342-376, New York, 1004; by W. Walker,
in the Heroea of the Reformation Seriea, New York, 1006;
and by A. Boesert, Paris, 1006. Mention should also be
made of the material on Calvin and French church his-
tory generally constantly appearing in Paris in the Bul-
letin de la aoeiiU de Vhiatoira du proteatantiame frangaia,
under the editorship of the learned Nathanael Weiss, sec-
retary of the Society.
CALvnnsiL
Meaning and Uses of the
Term (§ 1).
Fundamental Principle (§ 2).
Relauon to Other Systems
(§3).
Calvinism and Lutheranism
(§4).
Soteriology of Calvinism (§ 5).
of
Consistent Development
Calvinism (§ 6).
Varieties of Calvinism (§7).
Supralapsarianism and Infra-
Upsarianism (| 8).
Postredemptionism (| 0).
Present Fortunes of Calvin-
ism (§ 10).
Calvinism is an ambiguous term in bo far as
it is currently employed in two or three senses,
closely related indeed, and passing insensibly into
one another, but of varying latitudes of connotation.
Sometimes it designates merely the individual
teachmg of John Calvin. Sometimes it desig-
nates, more broadly, the doctrinal system confessed
by that body of Protestant Churches known his-
torically, m distinction from the Lutheran Churches,
as " the Reformed Churches " (see Protestantism);
but also quite commonly called " the Calvinistic
Churches" because the greatest scien-
z. Meaning tihc exposition of their faith in the
and Uses of Reformation age, and perhaps the
the Term, most influential of any age, was given
by John Calvm. Sometimes it desig-
nates, more broadly still, the entire body of con-
ceptions, theological, ethical, philosophical, social,
political, which, under the influence of the master
mind of John Calvin, raised itself to dominance in
the Protestant lands of the post^Reformation age,
and has left a permanent mark not only upon the
thought of mankind, but upon the life-history of
men, the social order of civiUzed peoples, and even
the political organization of States. In the present
article, the term will be taken, for obvious reasons,
in the second of these senses. Fortunately this
is also its central sense; and there is little danger
that its other connotations w 1 fall out of mind
while attention is concentrated upon this.
On the one hand, John Calvin, though always
looked upon by the Reformed Churches as an
exponent rather than as the creator of their
doctrinal system, has nevertheless been both rev-
erenced as one of their founders, and deferred
to as that particular one of their founders to
whose formative hand and systematizing talent
their doctrinal system has perhaps owed most.
In any exposition of the Reformed theology, there-
fore, the teaching of John Calvin must always take
a high, and, indeed, determinative place. On
the other hand, although Calvinism has dug a chan-
nel through which not merely flows a stream of
theological thought, but also surges a great wave
of human life — filling the h rt with fresh ideals
and conceptions which have revolutionized the
conditions of existence — ^yet its fountain-head lies
in its theological system; or rather, to be perfectly
exact, one step behind even that, in its religious
consciousness. For the roots of Calvinism are
planted in a specific religious attitude, out of which
is unfolded first a particular theology, from which
springs on the one hand a special church organi-
zation, and on the other a social order, involving
a given political arrangement. The whole out-
working of Calvinism in life is thus but the efflo-
rescence of its fundamental religious consciousness,
which finds its scientific statement in its theo-
logical system.
The exact formulation of the fundamental prin-
ciple of Calvinism has indeed taxed the acumen
of a long series of thinkers for the last hundred
years (e.g., Ullmann, Semisch, Hagenbach, Ebrard,
Herzog, Schweizer, Baur, Schneckenburger, Guder,
Schenkel, SchOberlein, Stahl, Hundeshagen; for
a discussion of the several views cf. H. Voigt,
FundamerUaldogmatik, Gotha, 1874, pp. 397-180;
W. Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed Church
in its Fundamentcd Principles^ Edinburgh, 1904,
pp. 129-177). Perhaps the simplest statement of
it is the best: that it lies in a profound apprehen-
sion of God in his majesty, with the inevitably
accompanying poignant realization of the exact
nature of the relation sustained to him by the
creature as such, and particularly by the sinful
creature. He who believes in God without reserve,
and is determined that God shall be
a. Funda- God to him in all his thinking, feeling,
mental willing — ^in the entire compass of his
Principle, life-activities, intellectual, moral, spir-
itual, throughout all his individual,
social, religious relations — is, by the for'^ of that
strictest of all logic which presides over the out-
working of principles into thought and life, by the
very necessity of the case, a Calvinist. In Cal-
vinism, then, objectively speaking, theism comes
to its rights; subjectively speaking, the religious
relation attains its purity; soteriologically speak-
OalTinism
THE NEW SCHAi'F-HERZOG
860
ing, evangelical religion finds at length its full
expression and its secure stability. Theism comes
to its rights only in a teleological conception of the
universe, which perceives in the entire oounie of
events the orderly outworking of the plan of God,
who is the author, preserver, and governor of all
thing?, whose will is consequently the ultimate
cause of all. The reUgious relation attains its
purity only when an attitude of absolute depend-
ence on God is not merely temporarily assumed
in the act, say, of prayer, but is sustained through
all the activities of life, intellectual, emotional,
executive. And evangelical religion reaches sta^
bility only when the sinful soul rests in humble,
self-emptying trust purely on the God of grace as
the immediate and sole source of all the efficiency,
which enters into its salvation. And these thing?
are the formative principles of Calvinism.
The difference between Calvinism and other
forms of theistic thought, religious experience,
evangelical theology is a difference not of kind
but of degree. Calvinism is not a specific variety
of theism, religion, evangelicalism, set over against
other specific varieties, which along with it con-
stitute these several genera, and which possess
equal rights of existence with it and make similar
claims to perfection, each after its own kind. It
differs from them not as one species
3. Relation differs from other species; but as a
to Other perfectly developed representative dif-
Syitems. fers from an imperfectly developed
representative of the same species.
There are not many kinds of theism, religion,
evangelicalism, among which men are at liberty to
choose to suit at will their individual taste or
meet their special need, all of which may be pre-
siuned to serve each its own specific uses eqiially
worthily. There is but one kind of theism, relig-
ion, evangelicalism; and the several constructions
laying claim to these names differ from each other
not as correlative species of a broader class, but as
more or less perfect, or more or less defective, ex-
emplifications of a single species. Calvinism con-
ceives of itself as simply the more pure theism,
religion, evangelicalism, superseding as such the
less pure. It has no difficulty, therefore, in recog-
nizing the theistic character of all truly theistic
thought, the religious note in all actual religious
activity, the evangelical quality of all really evan-
gelical faith. It refuses to be set antagonistically
over against any of these things, wherever or in
whatever degree of imperfection they may be
manifested; it claims them in every instance of
their emergence as its own, and essajrs only to
point out the way in which they may be given
their just place in thought and life. Whoever
believes in God; whoever recognizes in the recesses
of his soul his utter dependence on God; whoever
in all his thought of salvation hears in his heart of
hearts the echo of the 9oli Deo gloria of the evan-
gelical profession — ^by whatever name he may
call himiself, or by whatever intellectual puzzles
his logical understanding may be confused — Cal-
vinism recognizes as implicitly a Calvinist, and
as only requiring to permit these fundamental
principles — ^which underlie and give its body to
all true religion — ^to work themselves freely and
fully out in thought and feeling and action, to
become explicitly a Calvinist.
It is unfortunate that a great body of the scien-
tific discussion which, since Max GObel (Die religiose
EigerUhUmlichkeit der lutherischen und reformirtcn
Kirchen, Bonn, 1837) first clearly posited the
problem, has been carried on somewhat vigorously
with a view to determining the fundamental prin-
ciple of Calvinism, has sought particularly to bring
out its contrast with some other theological tend-
ency, commonly with the sister Protestant
tendency of Lutheranism. Undoubtedly some-
what different spirits inform Calvim'sm and Lu-
theranism. And undoubtedly the distinguishing
spirit of Calvinism is rooted not in some extraneous
circumstance of its antecedents or origin — ^as, for
example, Zwingli's tendency to intelloctualism,
or the superior humanistic culture and predilec-
tions of Zwingli and Calvin, or the democratic
instincts of the Swiss, or the radical
4« Calvinism rationalism of the Reformed leaders
and as distinguished from the merely
Lutheran- modified traditionalism of the Luther-
ism, ans — but in its formative principle.
But it is misleading to find the for-
mative principle of either type of Protestantism
in its difference from the other: they have infi-
nitely more in common than in distinction. And
certainly nothing could be more misleading than
to represent them (as is often done) as owing their
differences to their more pure embodiment respect-
ively of the principle of predestination and that
of justification by faith. The doctrine of predes-
tination is not the formative principle of Calvin-
ism, the root from which it springs. It is one of
its logical consequences, one of the branches which
it has inevitably thrown out. It has been firmly
embraced and consistently proclaimed by Cal-
vinists because it is an implicate of theism, is
directly given in the religious consciousness, and is
an absolutely essential element in evangelical
religion, without which its central truth of com-
plete dependence upon the free mercy of a saving
God can not be maintained. And so little is it a
peculiarity of the Reformed theology, that it under-
lay and gave its form and power to the whole
Reformation movement; which was, as from the
spiritual point of view, a great revival of religion,
so, from the doctrinal point of view, a great revival
of Augustinianism. There was accordingly no
difference among the Reformers on this point:
Luther and Melanchthon and the compromising
Butzer were no less jealous for absolute predes-
tination than Zwingli and Calvin. Even Zwingli
could not surpass Luther in sharp and unqualified
assertion of it: and it was not Calvin but Melanch-
thon who gave it a formal place in his primary
scientific statement of the elements of the Protes-
tant faith (cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 451; E. F. Kari
Mailer, Symbolik, Leipsic, 1896, p. 75; C. J. Nie-
mijer, De Strijd over de Leer der Predestinatie in
de IX. Eeuw, Groningen, 1889, p. 21; H. Voigt,
FundarnenUMogmaliky Gotha, 1874, pp. 469-470).
Just as little can the doctrine of justification by
faith be represented as specifically Lutheran. Not
861
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OalTlninxL
merely has it from the beguming been a substantial
element in the Reformed faith, but it is only among
the Reformed that it has retained or can retain
its purity, free from the tendency to become a
doctrine of justification on account of faith (cf.
E. BOhl, Von der Rechtfertigung durch den Glaubenf
Amsterdam, 1800). Here, too, the difference
between the two t3rpe8 of Protestantism is one of
degree, not of kind (cf. C. P. Krauth, The Con-
servative Reformation, Philadelphia, 1872). Lu-
theranism, the product of a poignant sense of sin,
bom from the throes of a guilt-burdened soul which
can not be stilled until it finds peace in God's
decree of justification, is apt to rest in this peace;,
while Calvinism, the product of an overwhelming
vision of God, -bom from the reflection in the heart
of man of >the majesty of a God who will not give-
his glofy to another; can not pause until it places
the scheme of salvation itself in relation to a com-
plete world-view, in which it becomes subsidiary
to the glory of the Lord God Almighty; Calvinism
asks with Lutheranism, indeed, that most poignant
of all questions, What shall I do to be saved? and
answers it as > Lutheranism answers it. But the
great question which presses upqn it is, How shall
God be glorified? It is the contemplation of God-
and zeal for his honor which in it draws out the
emotions and absorbs endeavor; and the end of
human as of all other existence, of salvation as of
all other attainment, is to it the glory of the Lord
of all. Full justice is done in it to the scheme of
redemption and the experience of salvation, be-
cause full justice is done in it to religion itself which
underlies these elements of it. It begins, it centers,
it ends with the vision of God in his glory: and
it sets itself before all things to render to God his
rights in every sphere of life-activity.
One of the consequences flowing from this fun-
damental attitude of Calvinistic feeling and thought
is the high supematuralism which informs alike
its religious consciousness and its doctrinal con-
struction. Calvinism would not be badly defined,
indeed, as the tendency which is determined to do
justice to the immediately supernatural, as in the
first, so also in the second creation. The strength
and purity of its belief in the supernatural Fact
(which is God) saves it from all embarrassment
in the face of the supernatural act (which is miracle).
In everything which enters into the process of
redemption it is impelled by the force of its first
principle to place the initiative in God. A super-
natural revelation, in which God makes known to
man his will and his purposes of grace; a super-
natural record of this revelation in a supematui^ly
given book, in which God gives his revelation per-
manency and extension — such things are to the
Calvinist almost matters of course.
5. Soteri- And, above all, he can but insist with
ology of the utmost strenuousness on the
Calvinism, immediate supematuralness of the
actual work of redemption itself,
and that no less in its application than in its im-
petration. Thus it comes about that the doctrine
of monergistic regeneration^-or as it was phrased
by the older theologians, of " irresistible grace "
or ''effectual calling" — is the hinge of the Cal-
vinistic soteriology, and lies much more deeply
embedded in the S3r8tem than the doctrine of pre-
destination itself which is popularly looked upon
as its hall-mark. Indeed, the soteriological sig-
nificance of predestination to the Calvinist con-
sists in the safeguard it affords to monergistic
regeneration — to purely supernatural salvation.
What lies at the heart of his soteriology is the-
absolute exclusion of the creaturely element in
the initiation of the saving process, that so the
pure grace of God may be magnified. Only so
could he express his sense of men's complete de-
pendence as sinners on the free mercy of a saving
God; or extrude the evil leaven of Synergism (q.v.)
by which, as he clearly sees, God is robbed of his
glory and man is encouraged to think that he owes
to some power, some act of choice, some initiative
of his own, his participation in that salvation which
is in reality all of grace. There is acoordin^y
nothing against which Calvinism sets its face with
more firmness than every form and degree of
autosoterism. Above everything else, it is deter-
mined that God, in his Son Jesus Christ, acting
through the Holy Spirit whom he has sent, shall
be recognized as our veritable Savior. To it sinful
man stands in need not of inducements or assist-
ance to save himself, but of actual saving; and
Jesus Christ has come not to advise, or urge, or
induce, or aid him to save himself, but to save him.
This is the root of Calvinistic soteriology; and it is
because this deep sense of himian helplessness
and this profoimd consciousness of indebtedness
for all that enters into salvation to the free grace
of God is the root of its soteriology that to it the
doctrine of election becomes the cor cordis of the
Gospel. He who knows that it is God who has
chosen him and not he who has chosen God, and
that he owes his entire salvation in all its processes
and in every one of its stages to this choice of God,
would be an ingrate indeed if he gave not the glory
of his salvation solely to the inexplicable elective
love of God.
Historically the Reformed theology finds its
origin in the reforming movement begun in Switzer-
land under the leadership of Zwin^ (1516). Its
fundamental principles are already present in
Zwingli's teacMng, though it was not until Calvin's
profound and penetrating genius was called to
their exposition that they took their ultimate form
or received systematic development. From Swit-
zerland Calvinism spread outward to France, and
along the Rhine through Germany to Holland,
eastward to Bohemia and Himgary, and westward,
across the Channel, to Great Britain. In this
broad expansion through so many lands its voice
was raised in a multitude of confessions; and in
the course of the four hundred years which have
elapsed since its first formulation, it has been
expoimded in a vast body of dogmatic
6. Consist- treatises. Its development has nat-
ent Devel- urally been much richer and far more
opment of many-sided than that of the sister
Calvinism, system of Lutheranism in its more
confined and homogeneous environ-
ment; and yet it has retained its distinctive char-
acter and preserved its fundamental features with
OalTliilsm
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
362
marvelous oonsistencj throughout its entire his-
tory. It may be possible to distinguish among
the Reformed confessions, between those which
bear more and those which bear less strongly the
stamp of Calvin's personal influence; and they part
into two broad classes, according as they were
composed before or after the Arminian defection
(c. 1618) demanded sharper definitions on the
points of controversy raised by that movement
(see Arminius, Jacobus, and Arminianibm; Re-
monbtrantb). a few of them written on Ger-
man soil also bear traces of the influence of
Lutheran conceptions. And, of coursCi no more
among the Reformed than elsewhere have all the
professed expounders of the system of doctrine
been true to the faith they professed to expound.
Nevertheless, it is precisely the same system
of truth which is embodied in all the great
historic Reformed confessions; it matters not
whether the document emanates from Zurich or
Bern or Basel or Geneva, whether it sums up the
Swiss development as in the Second Helvetic Con-
fession, or publishes the faith of the National
Reformed Churches of France, or Scotland, or
Holland, or the Palatinate, or Hungary, Poland,
Bohemia, or England; or republishes the estab-
lished Reformed doctrine in opposition to new
contradictions, as in the Canons of Dort (in which
the entire Reformed world concurred), or the
Westminster Confession (to which the whole of
Puritan Britain gave its assent), or the Swiss Form
of Consent (which represents the mature judgment
of Switzerland upon the recently proposed novel-
ties of doctrine). And despite the inevitable variety
of individual points of view, as well as the unavoid-
able differences in ability, learning, grasp, in the
multitude of writers who have sought to expound
the Reformed faith through these four centuries —
and the grave departures from that faith made
here and there among them — the great stream of
Reformed dogmatics has flowed essentially un-
sullied, straight from its origin in Zwingli and Calvin
to its debouchure, say, in Chalmers and Cunningham
and Crawford, in Hodge and Thomwell and Shedd.
It is true an attempt has been made to distin-
guish two types of Reformed teaching from the
beginning; a more radical type developed under
the influence of the peculiar teachings of Calvin,
and a (so-called) more moderate type, chiefly
propagating itself in Germany, which exhibits
rather the influence, as was at first said (Hofstede
de Groot, Ebrard, Heppe), of Melanchthon, or, in
its more recent statement (Crooszen), of Bullinger.
In all that concerns the essence of Calvinism, how-
ever, there was no difference between Bullinger
and Calvin, German and Swiss: the Heidelberg
Catechism is no doubt a catechism and not a con-
fession, but in its presuppositions and inculcations
it is as purely Calvinistic as the Genevan Catechism
or the catechisms of the Westminster
7. Varieties Assembly. Nor was the substance of
of Gal- doctrine touched by the peculiarities
vinism. of method which marked such schools
as the so-called Scholastics (showing
themselves already in Zanchius, d. 1590, and cul-
minating in theologians like Alsted, d. 1638, and
Voetius, d. 1676); or by the special modes of
statement which were developed by such schools
as the so-called Federalists (e.g., Cocceius, d. 1669,
Burman, d. 1679, Wittsius, d. 1708; cf. Diestel,
Studien zur FederaUheologie, in Jakrbueher fur
deuUchs Theologie, 1862, ii.; G. Vos, De Verbands-
leer in de Gereformeerde Theclogie, Grand Rapids,
1891; W. Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed
Church, Edinburgh, 1904, pp. 18^210). The
first serious defection from the fundamental con-
ceptions of the Reformed system came with the
rise of Arminianism in the early years of the seven-
teenth century (Arminius, Uytenbogaert, Episoo-
pius, Limborch, Curcellieus); and the Arminian
party was quickly sloughed off under the condem-
nation of the whole Reformed worid. The five
points of its " Remonstrance " against the Cal-
vinistic system (see Remonstrants) were met by
the reassertion of the fundamental doctrines of
absolute predestination, particular redemption,
total depravity, irresistible grace, and the perse-
verance of the saints (Canons of the Synod of Dort).
The first important modification of the Calvinis-
tic system which has retained a position within its
limits was made in the middle of the seventeenth
century by the professors of the French school at
Saimiur, and is hence called Salmurianism; other-
wise Amyraldism, or hypothetical universalism
(Cameron, d. 1625, Amyraut, d. 1664, Placieus,
d. 1655, Testardus, d. c. 1650; see Amtraut, MoIbe).
This modification also received the condemnation
of the contemporary Reformed world, which reas-
serted with emphasis the importance of the doc-
trine that Christ actually saves by his spirit all for
whom he offers the sacrifice of his blood (e.g.,
Westminster Ck>nfession, Swiss Form of Consent).
If " varieties of Calvinism " are to be spoken of
with reference to anything more than details, of
importance in themselves no doubt, but of little
significance for the systematic development of
the type of doctrine, there seem not more than three
which require mention: supralapsarianism, infra-
lapsariam'sm, and what may perhaps be called in
this reference, Postredemptionism; all of which
(as indeed their very names import) take their
start from a fundamental agreement in the prin-
ciples which govern the system. The difference
between these various tendencies of thought within
the limits of the system turns on the place given by
each to the decree of election, in the logical order-
ing of the "decrees of God." The
8. Supra- Supralapsarians suppose that election
lapsarian- underlies the decree of the fall itself;
ism and and conceive the decree of the fall as
Infralap- a means for carrying out the decree
sarianiftm. of election. The Infralapsarians, on
the other hand, consider that election
presupposes the decree of the fall, and hold, there-
fore, that in electing some to life God has mankind
as a masea perdiHonis in mind. The extent of the
difference between these parties is often, indeed
usually, grossly exaggerated: and even historians
of repute are found representing infralapsarianism
as involving, or at least permitting, denial that the
fall has a place in the decree of God at all: as if
election could be postposited in the ordo decreio-
363
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPKDIA
Calvinism
rum to the decree of the fall, while it waa doubted
whether there were any decree of the fall; or as if
indeed God could be held to conceive men, in his
electing decree, as fallen, without by that very act
fixing the presupposed fall in his eternal decree.
In point of fact there is and can be no difference
among Calvinists as to the inclusion of the fall in
the decree of God: to doubt this inclusion is to
place oneself at once at variance with the fundamen-
tal Calvinistic principle which conceives all that
comes to pass teleologically and ascribes everything
that actually occurs ultimately to the will of God.
Accordingly even the Postredemptionists (that
is to say the Salmurians or Amyraldians) find
no difficulty at this point. Their
9. Postre- peculiarity consists in insisting that
demption- election succeeds, in the order of
ism. thought, not merely the decree of the
fall but that of redemption as well,
taking the term redemption here in the narrower
sense of the impetration of redemption by Christ.
They thus suppose that in his electing decree God
conceived man not merely as fallen but as already
redeemed. This involves a modified doctrine of
the atonement from which the party has received
the name of Hypothetical Universalism, holding
as it does that Christ died to make satisfaction for
the sins of all men without exception if — if, that
is, they believe: but that, foreseeing that none would
believe, God elected some to be granted faith
through the effectual operation of the Holy Spirit.
The indifferent standing of the Postredemption-
ists in historical Calvinism is indicated by the treat-
ment accorded it in the historical confessions. It
alone of the " varieties of Calvinism " here men-
tioned has been made the object of formal con-
fessional condemnation; and it received condem-
nation in every important Reformed confession
written after its development. There are, it is
true, no supralapsarian confessions: many, how-
ever, leave the questions which divide supralap-
sarian and infralapsarian wholly to one side and
thus avoid pronouncing for either; and none is
polemically directed against supralapsarianism.
On the other hand, not only does no confession
close the door to infralapsarianism, but a consid-
erable number explicitly teach infralapsarianism
which thus emerges as the t3rpical form of Calvinism.
That, despite its confessional condemnation, Post-
redemptionism has remained a recognized form
of Calvinism and has worked out a history for itself
in the Calvinistic Churches (especially in America)
may be taken as evidence that its advocates, while
departing, in some important particulars, from
t3rpical Calvinism, have nevertheless remained, in
the main, true to the fundamental postulates of
the system. There is another variety of Post-
redemptionism, however, of which this can scarcely
be said. This variety, which became dominant
among the New England Congregationalist Churches
about the second third of the nineteenth oentuiy
(e.g., N. W. Taylor, d. 1858; C. G. Finney, d. 1875;
E. A. Park, d. 1900; see New England Theoloot),
attempted, much after the manner of the *^ Con-
gruists " of the Church of Rome, to unite a Pelagian
doctrine of the will with the Calvinistic doctrine
of absolute predestination. The result was, of
course, to destroy the Calvinistic doctrine of
" irresistible grace," and as the Calvinistic doctrine
of the '' satisfaction of Christ " was also set aside
in favor of the Grotian or governmental theory of
atonement, little was left of Calvinism except the
bare doctrine of predestination. Perhaps it is not
strange, therefore, that this ''improved Calvin-
ism " has crumbled away and given place to newer
and explicitly anti-Calvinistic constructions of
doctrine (cf. Williston Walker, in AJT, Apr., 1906,
pp. 204sqq.).
It must be confessed that the fortunes of Cal-
vinism in general are not at present at their flood.
In America, to be sure, the controversies of the
earlier half of the nineteenth century compacted
a body of Calvinistic thought which gives way but
slowly: and the influence of the great theologians
who adorned the churches during that period is
still felt (especially Charies Hodge, 1797-1878,
Robert J. Breckmridge, 1800-71, James H.Thom-
weU, 1812-62, Henry B. Smith, 1815-77, W. G. T.
Shedd, 1820-94, Robert L. Dabney, 1820-98,
Archibald Alexander Hodge, 1823-86). And in
Holland recent years have seen a notable revival
of the Reformed consciousness, es-
10. Present pecially among the adherents of the
Fortunes Free Churches, which has been felt as
of Gal- widely as Dutch influence extends,
vinism. and which is at present represented
in Abraham Kuyper and Herman Ba-
vinck, by a theologian of genius and a theologian
of erudition worthy of the best Reformed tra-
ditions. But it is probable that few '' Calvinists
without reserve " exist at the moment in French-
speaking lands: and those who exist in lands of
German speech and Eastern Europe appear to
owe their inspiration directly to the teaching of
KohlbrOgge. Even in Scotland there has been
a remarkable decline in strictness of construction
ever since the days of William Cunningham and
Thomas J. Crawford (cf. W. Hastie, The Theology
of the Reformed Church, Edinburgh, 1904, p. 228).
Nevertheless, it may be contended that the future,
as the past, of Christianity itself is bound up with
the fortunes of Calvinism. The system of doctrine
founded on the idea of God which has been expli-
cated by Calvinism, strikingly remarks W. Hastie
(Theology as a Science, Glasgow, 1899, pp. 97-98),
" is the only system in which the whole onler of the
world is brought into a rational unity with the
doctrine of grace. ... It is only with such a
imiversal conception of God, established in a
living way, that we can face, with hope of com-
plete conquest, all the spiritual dangers and terrors
of our time. . . . But it is deep enough and large
enough and divine enough, rightly understood, to
confront them and do battle with them all in vin-
dication of the Creator, Preserver, and Governor
of the world, and of the Justice, and Love of the
Divine Personality." See Five Points op Cal-
vinism. Benjamin B. Warfikld.
BiBUOoaAPHT: The Reformed ConfeBsions have often been
ooUected; the fullest collection is E. F. K. Mailer. Die
Bekenntniaadiriften der rgformierUn Kireht, Leipsie, 1003.
For Eng. readen the most oonvenient ia Schaff, CreetU,
vol. iii. (vol. i. contains a history of oraeds). An older
Oalvinisxn
Gambridflre Platonists
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
864
ooUeotion is H. A. Niemeyer, CoUecHo ConfMtionum in
eccUHiB rtformoHt pubUcatarum, Leipsio, 1840. Con-
sult also: M. Sohneokenburger, Vergleiehende DartteUung
dea luiheriadien und reformierten Lehrbegrifft, Stuttgart,
1855; G. B. Winer, Comparative DarvUUung det Lehrbe-
griffB der verachiedenen ehriatlicKen Kirchenparteien^ Ber-
lin, 1866. Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1873; and the various
works on Symbolics, especially E. F. K. Mailer, Sym-
Mik, Erlangen, 1896. Attempts more or less successful
have been made to present the Reformed system from
the writings of its representative theologians. For e;c-
amples of these consult: A. Schweiser, Die GlaubenMlehre
der evanoeliech^eformierien Kirche, 2 vols., Zurich. 1844-
1847; J. H. Scholten, De Leer der Ilervormde Kerk in hare
Grondbegineelen, Leyden, 1848. 2d ed.. 1870; H. Heppe,
Dm Dogmatik der evanoelieeK^efarmierten KircKe, Elber-
feld, 1861; cf. B. de Moor. Commerdariue perpeiuua in
Johannie Marckii compendium theoUxfia ehrieUana, 7
vols.. Leyden, 1761.
For the *' principle " of Calvinism consult: H. Voigt,
Fundomenialdoomatik, pp. 397-480, Gotha, 1874; W.
Hastie, The Theoloov of the Reformed Church in ite Fun^
damental Principlee, Edinburgh, 1904; cf. Scholten and
Schneckenburger, ut sup., where lists of the literature are
given. A good history of the Reformed theology is still
a desideratum. Sketches have been given in: W. Gasn,
Geachichte der proteetantiedien Dogmatik^ Berlin, 1854-67;
G. Frank, GeeehiehU der proteatanHechen Theologie, 3 vols.,
Leipsic, 1862-75; I. A. Domer, GeechicMe der protea-
tantiachen Theoiogie, Munich. 1867, Eng. transl., 2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1871. Contributions have been made by:
C. M. Pfaff, Introductio in hiatoriam theologiaB literariam,
pp. 258 sqq., Tftbingen, 1724; B. Pictet, Theologia chria-
tiana, part iii., Leyden, 1733-34; J. Q. Walch. Biblio-
theca theologica aelecta, i. 211 sqq., Jena, 1757-68; A. M.
Toplady, Hiatoric Proof of Ihe Dodrinal Calviniam of the
Churdi of England, London, 1774; A. Ypey (Ijpeij),
Beknopte UtUrkundige geachiedenia der ayatem, godge-
leerd (Utrecht?), 1793-98; A. Schweiaer. Die proteatan-
tiachen Centraldogmen in ihrer Entwicklung innerhalb der
reformierten Kirche, Zurich, 1854; J. H. Scholten. ut sup.,
i. 67 sqq.; H. Heppe, Die confeaaioneUe Entwicklung der
altproteatantiaehen Kirche Deutachlanda, Marburg, 1854;
idem, Dogmatik dea deulachen Froteatantiamua im aecK'
aehnien Jahrhundert, Gotha, 1857; W. Cunningham. The
Reformera and the Theology of the Reformation, Edinburgh,
1862; idem, Hiatorieal Theology, 2 vols., ib. 1864; J. H.
A. Ebrard, Chriatliche Dogmatik, i. 44, K6nigsberg, 1863;
J. Walker. The Theology and Theologiana of Scotland, Edin-
burgh, 1872; C. Sepp, Met Godgeleerd ondenoiia in Neder-
land . . . /5«en/7tfeeutr, Leyden, 1873-74; A.Milroy, 7A«
Church of Scotland, Paat andFreaent, ed. R. H. Story, Lon-
don, n.d.; idem, ScoUiah Theologiana and Freachera, 1010-
1638, Edinburgh. 1891. Consult also on the general subject:
A. Kuyper, Calviniam, New York, 1890 (an admirable
statement, summing up a series of brochures in Dutch);
J. A. Froude. Calviniam, London, 1871, and in Short
Studiea on Great Subjecta, second series, ib. 1871; J. L.
Girardeau. Calviniam and Evangelical Arminianiam, CJo-
lumbia, 1893; B. B. War field. The Significance of the
Weatminater Standarda aa a Creed, New York, 1898; E.
W. Smith, The Creed of Freabyteriana, ib. 1901. Some
of the chief Calvinistic dogmatists find mention in the
text; a list of the more important is given in Heppe and
Schweiser, ut sup., at the beginning. The series may be
fairly represented by the following names: Calvin, Ursi-
nus, Zanchius. Polanus. Alsted, Voetius. Burman, Turretin,
Heidegger, Van Mastircht. The brief compends of Bu-
canus {Inatiiutionea theologica, Geneva, 1609), WoUebius
{Compendium theologia, Cambridge, 1648). Ames (Medulla
theologica, Amsterdam, 1656, Eng. transl., London, 1642),
and Marok {Compendium theologia, Amsterdam, 1706)
present the system in briefest form. The more recent
theologians are indicated in the text.
CAHALDOLITES (called also Camaldolensians,
Camaldolese, Camaldules, Camaldulians, from the
monastery at Camaldoli near Arezzo): A religions
order springing from the movement for monastic
reform which also gave rise to the congregations
of Clmiy and Lorraine, with which it is aSied in
some respects, though it differs from tbem in others.
The Italian movement is wholly independent of
the French, and began later — ^not before the close
of the tenth century, after the Cluniac monks had
already reformed numerous monasteries in upper
and central Jtaly. It was more enthusiastic than
the French, and had for its object not so much the
strict enforcement of the Benedictine rule as the
commendation, in opposition to the moral corrup-
tion which was even deeper in the south than in the
north, of the severest form of the ascetic life,
that of hermits. This recalls the Greek monastic
originators; and the fact is easily explicable bj
the strong influence ot Greek traditions in Italy,
especially in the south.
St. Romuald is the most prominent, but by no
means the only, representative of this idea. Before
or with him were working for the same end the
Armenian hermit Simeon, St. Dominic of Foligno,
the founder of Fonte Avellana, and the Greek
Nilos of Rossano. Romuald was bom at Ravenna,
of the ducal family there, about 950. He was
startled out of a worldly life when his father Ser-
gius killed a kinsman in a duel arising out of a
dispute over a piece of property, and retired to the
monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe near Ravenna
to do penance forty days on his father's behalf.
His ascetic zeal was not satisfied here, although the
monastery had been reformed not long before by
Majolus of Cluny. He began to live a hermit's
life near Venice, continued it in Catalonia, and
then returned to the neighborhood
SL Romu- of Ravenna. Wherever he went, a
aid. group of disciples formed around him;
but as soon as they were sufficiently
numerous in any one place, he gave them into the
charge of a superior and left them. Most of these
colonies were in central Italy; the three most impor-
tant were Val di Castro, Monte Sitrio in Umbria, and
Camaldoli, where he estabUshed a monastery in 1012.
His organization shows a combination of the West-
em cenobite system with the Eastern anchorite
life. The brothers lived in single cells, with an
oratory in the midst. The whole P^ter was
recited every day; the only written memorial
left by Romuald was an exposition of the Psalms,
which, however, is taken almost word for word
from that of Caasiodorus. Meals were taken in
common, but they were exceedingly scanty; the
brothers went barefoot and wore their hair and
beards long; the rule of silence was strictly ob-
served. They busied themselves with agriculture
and various handicrafts, those near the sea espe-
cially with the making of baskets and nets. We
meet for the first time in these hermit colonies
with famuli, the later lay brothers, who relieved
the monks of the more burdensome household
duties. The rule of fasting and silence was not »
strict for them, but apparently, as at Fonte Avel-
lana, they had to take lifelong monastic vows.
This institution was borrowed by Gualberto, a
disciple of Romuald's, for his order of Vallom-
brosa and further developed by him (see Gual-
berto, Giovanni). Romuald's activity was not
confined to the foimding of these communities. He
made a deep impression upon the most varieii
365
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Calvinism
Oambrldffe PlatonUts
classes, and exercised a great influence over the
emperor Otto III., who, it is asserted not improb-
ably, promised him to exchange the crown for the
cowl after he had conquered Rome. Though
Romuald disclaimed any intention of taking part
in ecclesiastical politics, he raised his voice loudly
in Italy against simony and the marriage of the
clergy. His zeal called him to the mission-field;
disciples of his penetrated into Russia and Poland,
there to meet death for their faith, and the de-
sire of the martjrr's crown finally took the aged
hermit himself to Hungary. Ill health hindered
his work there, and he returned to die in 1027.
His zeal for a reform of monasticism remained
active in his followers. They did not, however,
emphasize the hermit ideal to the same extent, and
the Italian movement gradually approximated to
that of Cluny. Romuald's spirit was best followed
in the community of Camaldoli, which received
papal oonfinnation from Alexander II. in 1072.
Its rule was first written in 1080 by the fourth
prior, Rudolph, who modified in some respects the
extreme strictness of Romuald's prescriptions, and
also founded (1086) the first convent of nuns under
this rule, San Pietro di Luco at Mogello. Camal-
doli received many rich gifts, and the congregation
spread throughout Italy, without, however, pro-
ducing any very notable men except the famous
jurist Gratian (q.v.). The transition from the
hermit to the commum'ty life became more marked,
in spite of the efforts of Ambrose the
The Camal- Camaldolite (q.v.) of Portico, " major "
dolese. or head of the congregation in 1431,
supported by Pope Eugenius IV., to re-
store the old ideals. In 1476 the community of
St. Michael at Murano near Venice renounced the
obedience of Camaldoli, and formed a group of dis-
tinctly cenobitic Camaldolese houses, oonfinnod
as a congregation by Innocent VIII. In 1513
Leo X. reunited all the Camaldolese monks under
the headship of •Camaldoli, providing that the major
should hold office for but three years, and be chosen
alternately from the hermits and the cenobites.
But in 1520 he allowed Paolo Giustiniani to draw
up new statutes and to form the new commu-
nities of hermits which he was to found into an in-
dependent congregation of St. Romuald. This
new congregation, which took its name from Monte
Corona near Perugia, had a very strict rule; it
spread through Germany, Austria, and Poland.
A fourth congregation, that of Turin, was founded
in 1601 by Alebsandro di Leva (d. 1612), to take
in the hermits of Piedmont. A branch of this be-
came practically a separate congregation on ac-
count of the pohtical views of Richelieu, who was
unwilling that the French hermitages should be
subject to Italian superiors. By a brief of Urban
VIII. (1635), its head was always to be a French-
man, and directly subject to the pope. From
1642 Gros-Bois near Paris was its mother house.
All the French communities perished at the Revo-
lution. The congregation of Camaldoli has now
six houses, including Camaldoli itself and one
famous for its picturesque site high above Naples.
The princippl house of the Murano congregation is
t San Gregorio in Rome, from which came the only
Camaldolese monk who has occupied the papal
throne, Gregory XVI. (1831-46). Outside of Italy
there is only the community of Bielany in the dio-
cese of Cracow, belonging to the congregation of
Monte Ck>rona. The total membership of the
order is not more than 200. Convents of nuns
exist only in Rome and Florence.
(G. GrCtzmachbr.)
Biblxogbapht: Petnis Damiannn, VUa Romualdi is in D»-
mianiu, Opera^ ed. C. CajetanuB, iL 265 aqq., Rome, 1608,
and Af PL, oxUv. 063 aqq. Another Vita is in ASB, 7th
Feb.. ii. 124-140. Conault: Q. B. MittarelU and G. D.
Costadoni, Annalea Camaldulenaea, 9 vols., Venice, 1766-
1773; W. Wattenbach. DeutMchlandt Ge9cKidU»queUen, i.
436, BerUn. 1893; C. W. Currier, HUL of Relif/iauM Ordert,
pp. 118-123. New York, 1806; P. Helyot, OrdvB mona^
Hqtua, vol. v.; Heimbucher, Orden und KonongtUiontn,
i. 203-208.
CAMBRAI, cOh'^bT^: An ancient arohbishoprio
in the north of France. As early as the beginning
of the fifth century, when the Franks invaded
Gaul, Cameracum was an important town, as is
evident from Gregory of Tours {Hist. Franearum,
ii. 9). On the death of Lothair II. it passed to
Charles the Bald. Later its possession was con-
tested by the emperors, the counts of Flanders,
and the king? of France. It was taken from the
French by the Spaniards in 1595, but has been a
part of France since 1677.
The traditional list of its bishops begins with
Diogenes, said to have been sent by Pope Siridus
(384-398); but this is untrustworthy. Firm his-
torical ground is reached -first with St. Vedast,
who was consecrated bishop of St. Remigius,
bishop of Reims, and presided over the churches
of Arras and Cambrai until his death in 540. The
see was transferred to Cambrai under Vedulf (545-
c. 580), but the two remained united until Arras
received a bishop of its own in 1093. Among later
incumbents of the see of Cambrai may be men-
tioned the holy Odo (1105-06), the unfortunate
Cardinal Robert of Geneva (bishop from 1368,
antipope 1378-94), the renowned Pierre d'Ailly
(1397- c. 1425); and, after its elevation in 1559 to
the rank of an archbishopric, F^nelon (1695-
1715), and Cardinal Dubois (1720-23). The Revo-
lution deprived Cambrai of its metropolitan dig-
nity, subjecting it as a simple bishopric to the see
of Paris, but in 1842 it was once more made an
archbishopric, with Arras as suffragan. Its mag-
nificent ancient cathedral was destroyed in the
Revolution, with the exception of the tower, which
fell in a great storm in 1809. The present cathe-
dral was formerly the Benedictine church of the
Holy Sepulcher.
Bxbuoorapht: M. A. 1e Glay, Redurehea nor Vigiim rnsbro'
polilainB de Cambrai, Cambrai, 1825; idem, Cameracum
ehriatianum, Lille, 1840; H. J. P. Piaquet. La France
ponHfieaie, e-v. Cambrai, 22 vols., Pane, 1864-71; KL,
u. 1760-65.
CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM. See Conorboa-
TIONALISTB, IV., { 1.
CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS: The name usually
given to a succession of distinguished En^h di-
vines and philosophers of the seventeenth century,
also known to their contemporaries as ''Latitude
Men," from the breadth and comprehensiveness of
Cambridge Flatonlsts
Cameron
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
366
their teaching. The most important of them were
Benjamin Whichcote, John Smith, Ralph Cud-
worth, and Henry More. Other members of the
school were Simon Patrick, Nathanael Culverwel,
John Worthington, George Rust, and Edward
Fowler; while Joseph Glanvill and John Norris,
though Oxford men, were so intimately associated
with it as to be sometimes included. Starting
with many of the same thoughts as their imme-
diate predecessors in the development of hberal or
rational thought, Hales and Chillingworth, they
aimed less than these at ecclesiastical comprehen-
sion; their purpose was to find a higher organon
of Christian thought, and to vindicate the essen-
tial principles of Christianity against both dog-
matic excesses within the Church and philosophical
extravagances without it. Unlike the former,
too, they all came from the Puritan side; with the
exception of More, their leaders were members of
the famous Puritan college of Emmanuel, and thus
closely bound together into a definite group or
school. The main source of their inspiration was
the study of the Platonic philosophy, not only in
Plato himself but in his Alexandrian and modem
disciples. This Platonic revival was important
as evoking the only force adequate to meet the
development of naturalism in a direction which
threatened the distinctive principles of religion.
But if Platonism was the positive determinant
factor in the movement, the negative influence
which formed the school was opposition to the de-
structive reasoning of Hobbes, whose materialistic
tendency they met not only, like Clarendon and
others, by polemical criticism, but by a well-or-
dered scheme of thought, whose principles had
been already worked into unison with Christian
philosophy. Of their permanent achievements,
not the least important was their inculcation of
the doctrine of toleration, at that time so novel
and unpopular. They solved the religious prob-
lem, not by giving it up, but by pushing it to its
legitimate conclusion and drawing the essential
distinction between dogma and religion, which is
one of their chief contributions to modem thought.
Against the materialism of their time, they labored
to prove that religion was a transcendent reality,
a substantive power binding the soul to God and
revealing God to the soul. Their writings are fre-
quently obscure and involved, and they show a
lack of critical and historical judgment in their
confusion of Platom'sm and Neoplatonism, in
their speculative f and fulness, and in their misap-
preciation of evidence. But their services to
their age can scarcely be overrated. The expo-
nents and advocates of a comprehensive Chiu'ch, the
purifiers of the popular theology, they were at the
same time the great champions of the reality of
religion at a time when the excesses of its partizans
were driving so many of their contemporaries into
imbelief. See the separate articles on the various
men named above.
Bibliographt: The best account is by J. Tulloch, Rational
Theology and Christian Philoaophy in England, vol. ii.,
Edinbuish, 1872. The early proepectus was a pamphlet
by S. P. (Simon PatrickT), Brief Account of the New Sect
of the New Latitude Men, London, 1662. Consult further:
E. Fowler, Practicee of Certain . . . Divinee . . . Abu-
eively Called Latitudinariane, ib. 1671; G. Dyer. Hietory
of the UnivereUy . , , of Cambridge, ii. 91-101. ib. 1814;
W. E. H. Lecky, Uiatory of . . . RaJtianaliem in Europe,
2 vols., ib. 1875 (an ill-balanced estimate); F. Greensieu
Joeeph OlanviU, New York. 1900; E. T. Campacnac. The
Cambridge Platoniate; being Sdectiona from Whieheoie.
Smith, and Culverwel, Oxford, 1901.
CAMEL: The most valuable poBsessioii of the
nomads of the desert.
The Syrian and Egyptian camel is the sin^e-
humped, lank, and long-legged CamdiM dromeda-
riu8. Its foremost utility is that of common car-
rier ("ship of the mainland" was its poetical
designation even prior to Islam). Great bodily
strength and endurance fit it for this service. Its
very voracity is content with the meanest fodder
of the driest pasture grasses, half-dried acacia
twigs, dry straw, and the like; and it can toil days
at a time upon an exceedingly small stint of forage.
At such times the fatty hump, which when in good
condition weighs as much as thirty poimds, almost
entirely disappears. It is no less easily satisfied
in the article of water. In spring it feeds on freshly
dewed grasses, and can dispense with watering
several weeks running. In the dry season it can
hold out three or four days without water; and
then, when it reaches a watering-place, it swallows
the water in enormous quantities. Its broad,
fleshy, cushioned foot prevents it from sinking
deeply into the desert sand.
The carrier camel bears ordinarily from two to
three hundredweight; still more on occasion (cf.
II Kings viii. 9). Its gait at a walk is about two
and one-half miles an hour, and it maintains this
pace right along with alacrity and freshness for
twelve or fourteen hours and even longer. The
riding camel differs from the foregoing, just as a
noble race-horse from the heavy draft-horse. It
can cover as much as ninety miles a day, and
this for several days together. The camel saddle
is a trough-shaped wooden seat fastened over the
hump with a tight gearing both front and back.
This is covered with a cushion. The rider sits as
on a side-saddle. For women and children palan-
quins are likewise in use, with seats and curtains
(Gen. xxiv. 61, xxxi. 17). The camel ministers to
the Bedouins' every-day needs. The rather thick
and fatty camel's milk is their beverage; and their
horses often drink it. The flesh of the camel, ex-
cept that of the hump, which is esteemed a peculiar
delicacy, is said to be hard and tough; but still it i»
a feast for the Bedouin to kill one of the herd and
eat meat. They also occasionally bleed the camel
a little in times of scarceness. The Israelites ac-
counted camel's flesh imdean. The Bedouins'
coarse cloaks are woven of camel's hair (Matt. iii.
4), and also their thick tent-rugs. The hide is
worked into sandals, thongs, water-skins, and the
like. The dung is dried and then serves for fuel.
The camel naturally is less important in agri-
cultural Palestine. Yet even here it has its use-
fulness as beast of burden; and when heavy loads
and great distances are in question, horses and
mules are not to be compared with it. In the Old
Testament the breeding of camels on a large scale
is found under the patriarchs (Gen. xii. 16, xxiv.
10, XXX. 43) and David (I Chron. xxvii. 30). But
867
RELIGIOUS ENCYCiX)PEDIA
Cambridge Platonists
Cameron
in every era there is reference to the manifold uses
of camels (e.g., II Kings viii. 9; Isa. xxx. 6; I
Chron. xii. 40; Ezra ii. 67; Neh. vii. 69). To the
poet the camel in its wild raging during the rutting
season is an image of the nations which in their
blind passion are devoted to strange gods (Jer. ii.
23). I. Benzinqer.
Bibltoorapht: H. B. TriBtram, Natural History of the
Bible, p. 68 aqq., London, 1867; idem. Survey of Western
Palestine, Fauna and Flora, ib. 1884; U. Blackburn.
Bible Beasts and Birds, ib. 1886; J. G. Wood. Bible Animals,
ib. 1883; idem. Domestic Animals of the Bible, ib. 1887;
H. C. Hart, AnimaU of the BibU, ib. 1888; A. E. Knight.
BibU Plants and AnimaU, ib. 1800; DB, i. 344-345;
EB, i. 633-636.
CAMERA APOSTOLICA. See Curia, § 2.
CAMERARIUS, ca"m6-ra'ri-us (CAMERMEIS-
TER), JOACHIM: Protestant humanist; b. at
Bamberg Apr. 12, 1500; d. at Leipsic Apr. 17,
1574. He was descended from an old Bamberg
family and was educated there till his thirteenth
year, when his parents sent him to the University
of Leipsic, where he devoted himself chiefly to the
study of Greek under Richard Crocus, Johann
Metzler, and Peter Mosellanus. Subsequently he
removed to the University of Erfurt, where he
joined the circle of the humanists, became master
of arts (1520), and was highly esteemed and ad-
mired for his knowledge of Greek. In 1521 he
went to the University of Wittenberg, where he
became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon.
In 1525 he accompanied Melanchthon on his jour-
ney to the Palatinate, and thence proceeded to
Basel to pay homage to Erasmus. In the same
year he left Wittenberg and went to Bamberg.
From here he accompanied Canon Fuchs on a
journey to Prussia (1525) and in 1526 was called,
upon recommendation of Melanchthon, to the
gymnasium of Nuremberg as teacher of Greek and
expounder of the Latin historians. A visit to
Melanchthon at Speyer in 1529 during the diet
held at that city brought him into immediate con-
tact with the ecclesiastical and political affairs of
the time; he also took part in the Diet of Augs-
burg in 1535. Conditions at Nuremberg did not
satisfy him, although he had intercourse with men
like W. Pirkheimer, W. Linck, Osiander, Lazarus
Spengler, and Albrecht DUrer. As early as 1528
he complained of the coldness and indifference
toward the humanistic sciences on the part of his
contemporaries. His school also did not make
progress, and in 1535 he gladly followed a call to
Tiibingen, where he found a fruitful field for his
activity as teacher. In 1541 he removed to Leip-
sic. Although Camerarius took part in the eccle-
siastical dissensions of the time, his chief impor-
tance lies in the field of humanism and pedagogics.
In his first pedagogical treatise Prcecepta honcsta-
tis atque decorts puerilia (1528) he emphasized as
a true disciple of Melanchthon humanistic educa-
tion as a necessary preparation for all later voca-
tions, but humanistic education, as he holds, has
its foundation in the reverence of God. In ac-
cordance with his view that the Christian religion
should be taught alongside of the rudiments of the
languages, he edited the chief articles of Chris-
tianity in Greek hexameters, translated the Augs-
burg Confession into Greek and composed a cate-
chism in the same language. His biographical
works are of great value as sources, and show
that he was a keen observer, especially his Narra-
tio de Eobano Heaso^ etc. (Nuremberg, 1553), Nar-
ratio de Georgio Principe AnhaUino (Leipsic, 1555),
and liis famous writing De Philippi Melanchihonia
ortUf totius vilcB currictdo et morte, imjdicata rerum
memorabilium iemporis illiiLe hominumque men-
tione . . . narra/io (Leipsic, 1566; best ed. with copi-
ous notes by S. T. Strobel, Halle, 1777; the text
.reprinted by A. F. Neander, Berlin, 1841). Another
prominent work, measured by the standards of his
time, is his Hiatorica narratio de Fratrum Ortha-
doxorum ecclenie in Bohemia, Moravia et Poloniaf
which was first edited in 1605 by his grandson
Joachim Ludwig Camerarius and is still valuable.
Camerarius also edited (though badly) the letters
of Melanchthon (Leipsic, 1569), and rendered great
services to historical research by his collection of
letters from the time of the Reformation, which
was continued by his son. (T. Koij)E.)
Bxbliooraprt: E. C. Bessel, Joachim Camerarius, Nurem-
berg, 1793; H. J. K&mmel, Joachim Camerarius in NUm-
berg, Zittau, 1862; F. Sekt, Ueber einige theologischen
Sehnften des J. Camerarius, Berlin. 1888; KL, ii. 1758-
1761; ADB, iii. 720 sqq.
CAMERLINGO (CAMERLENGO). See Curia, { 1.
CAMERON, GEORGE GORDON: Free Church
of Scotland; b. at Pluscarden (a village near Elgin,
71 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Elginshire, Sept. 13,
1836. He was educated at University and King's
College, Aberdeen (M.A., 1860), Free Church Col-
lege, Aberdeen (1860-62), and New College, Edin-
burgh (1863-65). He was a tutor on the Conti-
nent in 1862-63 and in 1865-66 was assistant
minister in Leghorn, Italy. He was then assistant
minister in Dundee, Scotland, for a year and at
Kuthrieston, Aberdeen, in 1867-69, and after an-
other year as temporary professor of Hebrew in
Free Church College in 1869-70 was assistant min-
ister for brief periods at St. Andrews, Edinburgh,
London, and North Leith in 1870-71. In the latter
year he was ordained associate minister of St.
John's Free Church, Glasgow, and retained this
position until 1882, when he was appointed to the
chair of Old Testament language and literature in
the United Free Church College, Aberdeen, where
he still remains. He is a member of various com-
mittees for the general work of his sect, and has
written, in addition to contributions to periodicals,
MemoriaU of John Roxburgh (Glasgow, 1881).
CAMERON (CAMERO), JOHN: Scottish theo-
logian; b. at Glasgow c. 1579; d. at Montauban,
France, 1625. He studied at Glasgow and began
to give lessons in Greek there at the age of twenty.
In 1600 he went to Bordeaux and was soon ap-
pointed professor of the humanities at Bergerac.
From 1601 to 1603 he was professor of divinity at
S6dan. Then he returned to Bordeaux and re-
ceived a scholarship enabling him to complete his
theological studies. He became tutor in the fam-
ily of Calignon and went with his pupils to Paris,
Geneva, and Heidelberg. At the university of the
last-named phire on Apr. 4, 1608, he supported in a
a public discussion theses de triplici Dei cum ho-
Oameron
Camlaards
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
368
mine ftpdere. Later in the same year he became
a minister at Bordeaux and had great success aa
a preacher. When the Protestants were driven
from the town after eight years he took refuge at
Tonneins. He was appointed professor at the
Academy of Saumur in 1618. In 1620 he partic-
ipated in a discussion at Orleans with Tilenus, for-
merly professor at S6dan, and controverted his
Arminian propositions. In 1622 James I. of Eng-
land called him to London and appointed him
principal and professor of theology at Glasgow.
But the jealousy of many of his colleagues forced <
him to leave his native town and in 1623 he re-
turned to Saumur. The following 3rcar the king
authorized him to teach at Montauban. He ar-
rived there at a time when there was violent con-
tention on the question of obedience to the king
and took sides with the party of passive obedience.
On May 15, 1625, he was injured in a public tu-
mult and died in consequence a few months later.
His works are: Discours apologiUque pour ceux de
la religion r^formie (Bergerac, 1614); TraiU avqud
sant examines lee pr^jugie de ceux de VJ^glise ro-
maine cantre la religion rifamUe (La Rochelle,
1616; Eng. transl., Oxford, 1624); Theses de gratia
et libero arhitrio (Saumur, 1618); Arnica coUaHo de
graticB et humance voluntatis concursu in vocatione
(Leyden, 1621); Defensio sententice de gratia et libero
arbitrio (Saumm*, 1624); and Pralectiones (3 vols.,
1626-28). G. Bonet-Maurt.
Bxblioobapbt: Sources for a life are: the memoir by Cap-
pel prefixed to Cameron's Opera, Geneva, 1642; Robert
Baillie, Letter$ and Journals, passim, 2 vols., Edinburgh,
1775. Consult also: D. Irvins. ScottUh Writtrt, i. 333-
346, London, 1850; R. Chambers, Biographical Diction-
ary of Eminent Scotchmen^ i. 273-275, Edinburgh, 1868;
DNB, viii. 295-296.
CAMERON, RICHARD, CAMERONIANS: Scotch
covenanting leader (b. at Falkland, Fifeshire;
killed at Ayrsmoss or Airdsmoss, Ayrshire, July 22,
1680), and his followers. Brought up in the
Church of Scotland, early impressed by the serv-
ices of those ministers who, ejected by the Act of
Uniformity (q.v.) of 1662, continued to preach in
the fields, Cameron adopted and advocated their
view that it was wrong to accept the Declaration
of Indulgence (q.v.) of 1662, although it mitigated
their lot. Licensed by these field preachers, al-
though without imiversity training, he soon be-
came a leader. In 1679 he went to Holland,
whither many of his persecuted coimtrymen had
gone after the defeat in the battle of Bothwell
Bridge, June 22, 1679; in 1680 he returned and with
Donald Cargill (q.v.) and Thomas Douglas headed
the party, which after him was called " Camero-
nians," or impersonally " Society People." Their
platform was the Declaration of Sanquhar (pub-
lished June 22, 1680), drawn up by Cameron and
others. In it the royal authority was disowned
because of its tyranny. This action brought Cam-
eron and his followers immediately into trouble.
A band with him at its head was attacked by the
royal troops and literally cut to pieces.
The party lived in and were united in " socie-
ties," which had become somewhat numerous be-
fore the Revolution. They welcomed King Will-
iam; but they did not approve of the Revolution
settlement, and did not join the Established Church.
They objected to the Church, which had made
many unworthy compromises; were displeased at
the want of recognition of the covenants; did not
consider that the independence of the Church was
secured; and generally believed that God was not
sufficiently honored in the new settlement. They
objected, too, to the recognition of Erastianism in
England. In 1706 the Rev. John Macmillan of Bal-
maghie joined the societies, and was their first
minister. In 1743, another minister having joined
them, they constituted ''the Reformed Pr^by-
tery." In 1774 a similar presbytery was formed
in the United States. A presbytery was consti-
tuted likewise in Ireland. About 1863 most of the
Scotch synod came to be of opinion that there was
nothing in their principles requiring them to ab-
stain from countenancing the political institutions
of the country, e.g., from voting for a member of
Parliament; but, a small minority having a dif-
ferent opinion, a disruption took place. In 1876
a union took place between the larger body and
the Free Church of Scotland. Although "Cam-
eronians " has always been a comjnon name given
to those who refused to accept the settlement of
Church and State under William and Mary, they
repudiated it themselves, preferring to be called
" Reformed Presbyterians." See Coveitamtebs;
Pbesbtterians.
Biblioorapht: Biographia preAvUriana, vol. i.. Edis-
burgh, 1827 (life of Cameron); R. Wodrow, HieL of Ae
Sufferings of the Church of Scoiland, 2 vols., ib. 1721-22;
T. MoCrie. Sketches of Scottish Church HisL, ib. 1875;
J. Cunningham, Churdi Hist, of Scotiand, 2 vols., ib.
1883; DNB, viii. 301-302.
CAMILLnS DE LELLIS. See Agonizants.
CAMISARDS, cam'i-zdrds: The name generally
applied to those French Protestants who, in the
reign of Louis XIV., rose in arms in Languedoc
and waged a bloody war (1702-05) for the pur-
pose of restoring their Church. Their name was
derived from the jacket (camisia) which they wore
over their clothes during their night attacks.
Neither the dragonades nor the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes (1685) succeeded in destroying
Protestantism in France; but, though private
worship was never forbidden, new laws were con-
tinually enacted by Louis XIV. in his attempt to
enforce conformity in religion through-
Origin, out France, which made it more and
more difficult, and at last almost im-
possible, for a French citizen to adhere to the Re-
formed confession. In 1686 and the following
years the gatherings in the desert were forbidden,
and fines, imprisonment, demolition of homes, the
galleys, and the wheel were employed as punish-
ments. Nevertheless, with the pressure grew the
power of resistance. Religious meetings were held
by night in secluded places, originally presided
over by refugee clergy, and later by men of little
learning, but fervent in prayers and exhortations.
As was natural, the miseries of the time pro-
duced a corresponding hope of the future; and
books like Pierre Jurieu's UAccomplissement des
prophities (Rotterdam, 1686) and Suite de Vac-
complissement (1687), in which he predicted tfa«
369
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oameron
Camioards
speedy downfall of the papacy, contributed to
give shape and direction to this unconscious move-
ment. A girl appeared as prophetess in Dauphin6
in 1688. Other prophets arose in Vivarais. The
niunber incret^sed rapidly, especially in the C6-
vennes after 1700, where almost a fourth of the
population was Protestant. Despite the creation of
new bishoprics for their conversion and notwith-
standing the military aid given by the State to
the ecclesiastical authorities, ecstatic phenomena
increased throughout the district, sparing neither
old nor young. In the trance, when
Fanatical seized by convulsions, and pouring
DiBorderB. forth words of repentance and ad-
monition, often in pure French in-
stead of the local dialect, those '' possessed by the
spirit " saw troops from far-off garrisons come
marching toward the place, they singled out those
among their comrades who should fall in the en-
counter, they recognized the traitors among them;
and these predictions were always accepted with
reverence and confidence, and often proved true;
although, on the other hand, the power of proph-
ecy later steadily declined. Without this apoca-
lyptic factor, diseased yet sincere, the enthusiasm
and obstinacy of the Camisards is unintelligible.
Terming themselves " children of God," and their
camp the " camp of the Eternal," they relied with,
absolute trust on divine guidance and aid, while
their fanaticism in destroying churches, like their
cruelty in killing priests, finds its explanation in
the fact that they believed themselves called of
God to extirpate " Babylon and Satan," as they
designated the Roman Catholic priests and their
Church.
Open revolt broke out in 1702, when a priest
named Francois de Langlade du Chayla undertook
to punish the refractory. In his house at Pont
de Montvert, in the present department of Loz^re,
he built a cell in which he shut up his recalcitrant
parishioners, and tortured them. On the night of
July 23, hearing a rumor that the abb^ intended
to put certain prisoners to death, the Camisards
ajBsembled at the instigation of the prophets S^
guier, Couderc, and Mazel, burned the house, lib-
erated the prisoners, and slew the priest. B&ville,
the intend£Uit of Languedoc, felt a particular sat-
isfaction in pursuing the guilty. Siguier was
caught and burned at the stake Aug. 12; but the
rest escaped among the mountains, where they
were soon reenforced by new throngs formed by
Castanet, Catinat, Roland, and others. In Jean
Cavalier (b. at Ribante, department of Gard, Nov.
28, 1681) they found an able leader.
The and the war began which was to de-
Camizard populate and devastate the prov-
Wan. inoes of Languedoc, Vivarais, Gevau-
dan, and Rouergue. The Camisards
never numbered more than five thousand, and
they had no military organization. But they
fought with brutal fury, even when they marched
into battle with psalms on their lips, while the
royal troops punished them with torture and im-
prisonment. In their camps they lived as in a
church, preaching, praying, and fasting; and they
won brilliant victories, particulariy at Sainte-Chatte,
XL— 24
Mar. 15, 1704. BAville was unable to make head
against them, and in Feb., 1703, Marshal Montre-
val was sent with a large body of troops. He de-
feated the Camisards repeatedly (La Jonguidre,
Mar. 6; La Tour de B^lot, Apr. 29), but the cruel-
ties practised by the troops won new adherents to
the Protestant cause, even though he razed all the
houses and villages in the upper O^vennes, thus
rendering 20,000 homeless. The confusion was in-
creased by a bull of Qement XI. (May 1, 1703),
proclaiming a crusade against the heretics and
creating bands which equaled their opponents in
savagery. In Apr., 1704, Montreval was replaced
by Marshal Villars. Before Villars began active
operation, he surrounded the whole district with
a line of strong military posts, thus cutting off all
communication between the rebels and the out-
side world; and then he offered pardon to all who,
within a certain time, laid down arms and sur-
rendered. Cavalier, who saw that further resist-
ance was useless, left the country, afterward
fought against his countrymen in Holland, Italy,
and Spain, and settled finally in England. There
he was appointed governor of Jersey, and later gov-
ernor of the Isle of Wight. He died in Chelsea, Lon-
don, May 18, 1740. His former comrades branded
him as a traitor and continued the hopeless strug-
gle. Roland fell Aug. 14, 1704. Castanet, Catinat,
Joanni, and others fled to Geneva. Without lead-
ers, the Camisard army gradually melted away.
In 1705 Catinat, Ravanel, and some of their col-
leagues returned and conspired to raise a new re-
volt, only to die at the stake or on the wheel. A
last attempt, made by Mazel, Coste, and Claris in
1709 in Vivarais was quenched in blood, and the
French Reformed Church was definitely blotted
out. [In England the Camisards were known as
the French ft-ophets (q.v.).]
(ThSODOR SCHOTTf.)
Biblxoorapht: For boutom from the Roman Catholic
standpoint consult: C. J. de la Baume, RHation hutorioue
d€ la rivoUe dsa Camiaardt, ed. Qoi£Fon, Ntmes, 1874;
J. B. Louvreleuil, Le Fanatiame renouveli, Avignon, 1704-
1707; Lettrea choiatM de FUehier avtc une rHakion dea fantk-
tiguea du Vivaras, Paris. 1715 (partiian); Mimovna de
VirUendani BdviUe, Amsterdam, 1734 (serviceable);
Mhnoirea de Villara, The Hague, 1734 (brief but impar-
tial). Written from the Protestant side are: M. Misson.
Le TJUdtre aacri dea Civennea, London, 1707 (by an eye-
witness, but partisan and unreliable); J. Cavalier, Mem^
aire of the Ware of the C6vennea, ib. 1712 (inaccurate).
In the BuUetin de la aocUU de I'hiatoire du proteaiantiame
fran^aia are Le Camp dea enfanta de Dieux, 1867, pp. 273
sqq., and the memoirs of Monbonnoux, 1873, pp. 72 sqq.
Read also Mimoirta de Roaael d*Aigaliera, ed. Q. Frost^rus,
in BiUiothique UniveraeUe, March-May, 1866, and A.
Jiger, Spiritua miraculoaua in provincia Sevennenai rag-
nana, Tabingen, 1712. Consult further: A. Court, Hia-
toira de trwMea dea Civennea, Villefranche, 1760, ed. Alaaji,
1819 (rich and reliable): I. C. K, Hofmann, OeachietUe
dea Aufruhra in den Sevennen unter Ludtng XIV., N6rd-
lingen, 1837 (also valuable); N. Peyrat, HiaMre dea
paateura du diaert, Paris, 1842 (picturesque but unreli-
able); Q. Frost^rus, Lea Inaurgia proteatanta aoua Louia
XIV., ib. 1868 (of importance); E. Bonnemfere, HiaUrire
dea Camiaarda, Paris, 1860; S. Smiles, Huguenota in
France After the Edict of Nantea, London, 1877; C. Tylor,
Huguenota in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 265 aqq., Lon-
don, 1892; H. M. Baird, The Camiaard Uprteing, in Papera
of the American Church Hiat. Society, ii. 13-34, New York,
1800; idem, Huguenota and the Revocation of the Edict of
Nantea, vol. ii., ib. 1895.
Campanella
Oampbell
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
370
CAMPANELLA, TOMASO: ItaUan monk and
philosopher; b. at Stilo (50 m. n.e. of Reggio), Ca-
labria, Sept. 5, 1568; d. in Paris May 21, 1639. He
entered the Dominican order at the age of fifteen;
studied philosophy and theology at Cosenza and
Naples, and added to his other accomplishments a
knowledge of medicine, astrology, alchemy, and
magic. He boldly rejected the Aristotelian system
and chose to study nature rather than author-
ity, whereby he made many and powerful oppo-
nents. After wandering through Italy for a num-
ber of years he retiuned to Cosenza in 1598, and
the next year was arrested by the government,
charged, probably truthfully, with being implicated
in a conspiracy to free Naples from the Spanish
dominion. His political and social views were un-
deniably dangerous. He was kept in prison till
1626, when Pope Urban VIII. succeeded in hav-
ing him transferred to the Inquisition, and in 1629
set him free. For a few years he lived at Rome,
but, not feeling secure there, in 1634 he went to
Paris, where he was received with favor by Car-
dinal Richelieu. His last years were spent in pre-
paring a complete edition of his works, of which,
however, only one or two volumes appear to have
been published. The philosophy which Campsr
nella would substitute for that of Aristotle was in-
complete and fantastic, influenced by Thomas
Aquinas, Bernardino Telesio (b. at Cosenza 1508),
Raymund Lully, and the Cabala, but in part in-
dependent and in certain points anticipatory of
the work of more modem thinkers. He held that
God has made a twofold revelation of himself, in
natiu^ and in the Bible; on the one rests philos-
ophy, on the other theology. These have nothing
to do the one with the other. He was thus able to
take a very conservative position in theology, and
stoutly defended Roman Catholicism and the
papacy (as in his Monarchic^ MessicB and DiacorH
della liberta e della felice suggettione alio state eccle-
aiastico, Jesi, 1633). Certainty, he taught, is found
only in immediate intuitions; the first truth is
that I exist; then that I can, that I know, and
that I want or will; these three activities indicate
the fimdamental qualities of all being (potentia,
sapientiaf amor). He believed that matter is eter-
nal and that the world was created through emsr
nations from the deity. His views concerning so-
ciety and the State were communistic; they are
set forth in his Civitaa soliSf idea reipublicce philo-
sophicoBf printed as an appendix to part iii. {poli-
tica) of his Realis philosophioB epUogiaticoB partes
iv, hoc estf de rerum naiuraj hominum moribus, po-
lUicaf et oeconomica (Frankfort, 1623); there is an
English translation (incomplete) by T. W. Halli-
day in Ideal Comrrumwealihst vol. xxiii. of " Morley's
Universal Library" (London, 1885).
Biblioorapht: Campanella is said to have written eighty-
two works, most of them during his long imprisonment.
He gives some account of them in his De libri» proprii»
et recta ratione atudendi ayrUagma, ed. G. Naud^, Paris,
1642. Among the more important of those which have
been published, besides the ones already mentioned, are:
Philoeophia aeneibua demonatrata, a defense of Telesio,
Naples, 1500; Prodromua pkUoaophiat inataurandce^
Frankfort, 1617; De eeneu rerum et moffia, 1620; Apolo-
gia pro OeUileo, 1622; Aatrologicorum liiiri vii, 1630;
AtheUmua triumphatua, Rome, 1631; Medicinaliufn libri
vii, Lyons, 16.35; De gentUiamo non r^nendo axtd Z^
praedeatinatione contra Thomi^icoa^ Paris, 1636; Pkil*^
phi<B rationalia partea v, videlicet grammatiea, diaUAz
rhdorica, poetica, hiatoriographia, 1638; Univermilia p'.-
ioaophia aeu metaphyaicarum rerum juxta propria degmm
partea iti, li^iri xviii, 1638; De monar^ia hiapanva-
Amsterdam, 1640. Eng. transl., A Diacome Tofuehin^ tk*
Spaniah Monarchy, London, 1654. A selection frozn b-
works by A. d'Anoona appeared in 2 volumee at Txj-.i..
1854. His sonnets have been translated into Sngliish b?
J. A. Symonds with the sonnets of Michelangelo, Le^-
don, 1878. For his life and criticism of his writings a:ii
teachings consult: Cyprian, Vita et phiio^ophia T. Ccn-
panOla, Amsterdam, 1705, 2d ed.. 1722; M. Baldacduc
Vita e filoaofia di T. Campanella, Naples, 1840; Bcru
La vita e le opere di T. Campanella, Rome, 1878; L. As*-
bile, Fra Tommaao Campanula, la aua oontfivra, i attA
proceaai, e la av4X pazzia, 3 vols., Naples. 1882; h^er.
L'andata di Fra T. Campanella a Roma dopo la lu^^
prigionia di Napoli, ib. 1886; idem, Fra T. Campar^elba
ne' caatelli di Napoli, in Roma ed in Pariffi, 2 vol^ ib.
1887; idem, Del carattsre di Fra T. Campanula, ib. l$9Gc
£. Nys, T. Campanella et aea tlUoriea potiUqtMea, BneseU
1880; G. S. Felici, Le dottrine filoao^ctHreUfnoae di T.
Campanella, Lanciano, 1805; P. Lafargue, Ia Die Vc*-
l&ufer dea neueren Socialiamua, pp. 46^506, Stuttgart
1805; von Koslowski, Die Erkenntnialehre Campaneih*,
Leipsie, 1807.
CAMPANUS, cam-pd'nus, JOHAHIVES: Re-
former; b. at Alseseyck (17 m. n.e. of Msestricht) in
Belgium; d. at Julich (Juliers, 15m. n.e. of Aachen)
c. 1575. He studied at Cologne, whence he was
expelled in 1520 for opposing the scholastic doc-
tors; went to Jillich and was noted for his ve-
hement Lutheranism; went to "V^ttenberg in
1527; was present at the Conference of Marburi:
in 1529, and surprised both sides by his presenta-
tion of the view that the bread is indeed bread and
at the same time the body of Christ because he
makes it so. He was not, however, allowed to
take part in the debate. This snub and others
incurred by his tendency to unorthodox \iew&
turned him against the Reformers and them
against him. He was called insane because be
would not yield to their arguments. So he was
repeatedly imprisoned and died a prisoner. In
1530 he prepared a book in Latin and German
'' Against All the World Since the Apostles " and
circulated it in manuscript — ^no complete or printed
copy is known to exist, but extracts have be^n pie-
served in a manuscript by Bugenhagen (cf. ZHT,
1846, pp. 495 sqq.). In 1532 one of his followers,
Franz von Streitten, published a popular restate-
ment of his views which he dedicated to Kin;
Frederick of Denmark. He taught that the Holy
Spirit was not the Third Person but the conmion
essence of the two, while the Son was not coeter-
nal with the Father but, created out of his es-
sence, before all creatures. He was likewise an Ana-
baptist and in general a radical.
(A. HEGLERt) K. HOLL.
Biblioorapht: F. S. Bock, Hiatoria antitriniiarianam, iL
244 sqq., Leipsio, 1784; G. J. Dlabacz, Biograpkie dea
J, Campanua,miteinem Veraeichniaae aeiner . . . Sdtrifl'
en, Prague, 1804; K. Rembert, Die " WiederUtufer " tsi
JUlich, Berlin, 1809; J. Kdstlin, MarUn Luther, voL ii
passim, Berlin, 1903.
CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER: Founder of the
Disciples of Christ (q.v.); b. near Ballymena is
mile from Shane's Castle on the northern shore oi
Lough Neagh), Coimty Antrim, Ireland, Sept. 1:^.
1788; d. at Bethany, W. Va., Mar. 4, 1866. He
371
UKLIGIOUS ENCYCLOPKDIA
Oitmpanalla
Campbell
waa the son of Thomas Campbell, a Seceder minis-
tor, and Jane Cameigle. Educated at Glasgow
University, he went to America in 1809, whither
his father had preceded him two years earlier, and
settled in western Pennsylvania. While at Glas-
gow he had come in contact with James Alexander
and Robert Haldane iq.v.) and was greatly im-
pressed by their teaching. On joining his father,
he fomid Providence had guided him into the
same liberal and independent views. Thomas
Campbell's fraternity with other Christians, his
indifference to ecclesiastical rules, and his pleadings
in behalf of Christian liberty and brotherhood had
brought upon him the censiu% of his brethren;
consequently he withdrew from them
His Father, and continued to plead for Christian
Thomas liberty and union, dwelling upon the
CampbelL evil of divisions in religious society,
urging the Sacred Word as an infalli-
ble standard and all-sufficient and alone-sufficient
basis of union, and setting forth one rule to govern
himself and his associates: " Where the Scriptures
speak, we speak; and where the Scriptures are si-
lent, we are silent." On Sept. 7, 1809, he formed
The Christian Association of Washington and is-
sued his famous Declaration and Address (see Dis-
ciples OP Christ). In May, 1811, The First
Church of the Christian Association of Washing-
ton Co., Pa., was organized at Brush Run with
twenty-nine members; here Alexander Campbell
was ordained to the ministry Jan. 1, 1812.
Mr. Campbell's marriage in 1812 to Margaret
Brown, a Presbyterian, turned his attention to the
subject of baptism. After diligent study of the
Scriptures and critical examination of the words
*' baptize " and ** baptism," he became satisfied
they could mean only " immerse " and " immer-
sion," and that believers only could
Adopts be the proper subjects of this ordi-
Baptist nance. With his father and five
Views, others he was immersed by Mathias
Luse, June 14, 1812. '' I have set
out," he said, " to follow the Ajx)stles of Christ
and their master, and I will be baptized only into
the primitive Christian faith." From this time
Thomas Campbell conceded to his son the guid-
ance of the movement he had originated. The
Brush Rim church joined the Redstone Baptist
Association after full statement of their views,
using the primitive Confession of faith instead of
a religious experience, and breaking bread weekly
without restricted communion. A second church
on the same basis was organized in Wellsburg,
W. Va.
In 1820 Mr. Campbell held his first public dis-
cassion. lie was not disputatious, and at first
declined a challenge, but it was forced upon him.
The debate was with the Rev. John Walker, a Pres-
byterian, and the chief point debated
Public was the identity of the covenants upon
Debates, which the Jewish and Christian insti-
tutions rested. His later discussions
with Rev. N. L. Rice on baptism, the Holy Spirit,
and human creeds as bonds of union, a debate
which lasted sixteen days and over which Henry
Clay presided (1843), with Robert Owen on the
claims of Christianity (at Cincinnati, 1829), and with
Archbishop Purcell on the claims oif Roman Cathol-
icism (also at Cincinnati, 1837) are masterpieces
of discussion which created a profound impression
in their time and did much to extend the principles
advocated by Mr. Campbell.
In 1823 Mr. Campbell began the publication of
The Christian Baptist. In the first seven years
from his little coimtry printing-office he issued
46,000 volumes of his works. His writings were
read far and wide. His views began to influence
large numbers of people. He was assailed as a
disorganizer, but it was not his aim merely to over-
throw the existing order of religious society. He
was well aware of the vast benefit resulting to
mankind from Christianity even in its
His Views most corrupt forms. He desired sim-
and Aims, ply to dethrone the false that he
might reestablish the true, to replace
the traditions of men by the teachings of Christ
and the Apostles; to substitute the New Testa-
ment for creeds and human formularies. His
work was positive, not negative. In 1825 he pub-
lished in The Christian Baptist a series of articles
entitled A Restoration of the Ancient Order of
Things, in which he argued for the abandonment
of everything not in use among the early Chris-
tians, such as creeds and confessions, xmscriptural
words and phrases, theological speculations, etc.,
and for the adoption of everything sanctioned by
primitive practise, as the weekly breaking of the
loaf, the fellowship, the simple order of worship,
and the independence of each church under the
care of elders and deacons. His plea was not for
a reformation, but for a restoration of the original
Church.
In 1826 Mr. Campbell published The Sacred
Writings of the Apostles and Evangelists of Jesua
Christ, Commonly Styled the New Testament, with
notes. In this work he Anglicized the Greek words
commonly rendered "baptism," "baptize," etc.,
being the first to do so in an Eng^h version. The
principles taught by the Campbells were now wide-
spread, especially among the Baptists; but in 1827
Baptist Associations began to declare non-fellow-
ship with the brethren of " the Reformation " and
from this time dates the rise of the people known
as the Disciples of Christ.
In 1829 Mr. Campbell began to publish the Mil-
lennial Harbinger, a magazine which he continued
to issue monthly until his death. In October of
the same year he sat in the Virginia State Consti-
tutional Convention. Ex-President Madison, one
of his fellow delegates, said of him
His Most afterward: " I regard him as the
Active ablest and most original expounder
Years. of Scripture I ever heard." In 1840 he
founded Bethany (}ollege with the
Bible as a text-book. In 1847 he traveled and
preached in Great Britain. This was his busiest
period; he traveled thousands of miles, lectured
and preached constantly, edited, presided over the
College, and held public discussions. In Jime, 1850,
he spoke before both houses of Congress at the
Capitol at Washington. He was gifted with a
fine presence, with great ease and skill of utterance,
Oampbell
Oampion
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
872
with fine argumentative powers, and with a great
fund of information. He was a man of profound
piety and broad philanthropy. ** Surely," said
George D. Prentice, " the life of a man thus ex-
cellent and gifted is a part of the common treasure
of society. In this essential character he belongs
to no party, but to the world." His publications
include sixty volumes. F. D. Power.
Bibuooraphy: Robert RichardBon, MemoirB of Alexander
Campbell, Cincinnati, 1888; B. B. Tyler, in American
Chwdi History 6ert««. xii. 34-59. New York. 1804.
CAMPBELL, ARCHIBALD EAN : Anglican bishop
of Glasgow and Galloway, Scotland; b. at Skipness,
Argyll, June 1, 1856; graduated B.A. at Cambridge,
1880; became vicar of the Walter Farquhar Hook
Memorial Church in Leeds, 1801; was consecrated
bishop 1904.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE: Church of Scotland
divine; b. at Aberdeen Dec. 25, 1719; d. there Apr.
6, 1796. He was educated at Marischal College, Aber-
deen, and began the study of law in Edinburgh, but
changed to theology, which he pursued there and in
Aberdeen ; was ordained minister of Banchory Teman
(on the Dee, 20 m. from Aberdeen), 1748; became
one of the ministers of Aberdeen, 1757; principal of
Marischal College, 1759, professor of divinity, 1771;
resigned on account of ill health, 1795. He was one
of the founders in 1758 of a famous philosophical
society of Aberdeen, which included among its
members Thomas Reid, John Gregory, James
Beattie, and other distinguished men. His pub-
lications were sermons and A Disaertation on Mir-
adea, an answer to Hume's Esaay (Edinburgh,
1762; 3d ed., with corrections and additions and
correspondence between Hume and Campbell, 2
vols., 1797); The Philosophy of Rhetoric, long con-
sidered a standard work (2 vols., London, 1776;
many subsequent editions); The Four Ooapela,
translated from the Greek, with preliminary disser-
tations and notes, critical and explanatory (2 vols.,
1789). Posthumous publications were Lectures on
Ecclesiasticai History, with a brief Life by G. S.
Keith (2 vols., London, 1800), and Lectures on Sys-
tematic Theology and on Pulpit Eloquence (1807).
A collected edition of his Theological Works ap-
peared in six volumes at London, 1840.
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD: Scotch clergy-
man; b. at Kilninver (on the w. coast of Scotland,
60 m. n.w. of Glasgow), Argyllshire, May 4, 1800;
d. at Roseneath, near Helensburgh (20 m. n.w. of
Glasgow), Dumbartonshire, Feb. 27, 1872. He
studied at Glasgow 1811-20, and continued his
theological course at Edinburgh; became minister
of Row (near Helensburgh), Dumbartonshire,
1825. Here he preached " assurance of faith **
and an "unlimited atonement." and in conse-
quence was tried for heresy and deposed by the
General Assembly in 1831 (cf. the volimie of his
Sermons and Lectures, Greenock, 1832, and The
Whole Proceedings Before the Presbytery of Dum-
barton and the Synod of Glasgow and Ayr in the Case
of the Rev. John McLeod Campbell, 1831). He re-
tired to Kilninver, preached in the Highlands for
a year or two, and in 1833 became pastor of an in-
dq>endent congregation in Glasgow and remained
there till compelled to retire by ill health in 1859.
His services were given gratuitously and were voy
successful. He was recognized as one of the in-
tellectual leaders of Scotland and was highly es-
teemed for his personal qualities. His theory of
the atonement, by which he was best known out-
side of Glasgow, he expressed in this sentence in
the book on the Atonement mentioned below: *' It
was the spiritual essence and nature of the suffer-
ings of Christ, and not that these siifferin^ were
penal, which constituted their value as entering
into the atonement made by the Son of God, when
he put away sin by a sacrifice of himself." He
published Christ the Bread of Life (Glasgow, 1851),
a book on the Eucharist suggested by the Roman
Catholic controversy of the time; The Nature of
the Atonement and its relation to remission of sim
and eternal life (Cambridge, 1856; 4th ed., 1873);
Thoughts on Revelation (1862), called, forth by Es-
says and Reviews (q.v.).
Bibuoorapht: A volume of Beminiacenees and Reflenoia^
begun in 1871 and left unfinished at his death, appeared
in London in 1873, edited by bis son, Donald Campbell
who also edited his Memorial, 2 vols.. London, 1877;
J. Vaughan. in Contemporary Review^ June, 1878 (an ac«
count of Dr. Campbell's views); DNB, viii. 388-389.
CAMPBELL, REOmALD JOHN: Englifih Con-
gregationalist; b. at London Jan. 29, 1867. He
was educated at University College, Nottingham,
and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1895), and en-
tered the Congregational ministry in 1895. After
being pastor of Union Church, Brighton, from 1895
to 1903, he succeeded Joseph Parker as minister of
the City Temple, London, a position which he still
retains. In theology he is a liberal evangelicaL
He has written: Tfie Restored Innocence (London,
1898); The Making of an Apostle (1898); A Faiih
for Today (1900); City Temple Sermons (1903);
Sermon to Young Men (1904; American edition
under the title The Choice of the Highest, Chicagp,
1904); Sermons Addressed to Individuals (1905);
Song of Ages (1906); The New Theology (1907};
New Theology Sermons (1907); Religion and Social
Reform (1907).
Bibuoorapht: A. H. Wilkeison, ReginaUl John CampbdK
Vie Man and hie Meeeage, London, 1907.
CAHPBELLITES. See Campbell, Alexandeb;
Disciples of Christ.
CAMPEGGIO, cOm-ped'jO (CAMPE6I, CAM-
PEGGI, CAMPEGIUS), LORENZO: Italian cai^
dinal and statesman; b. at Milan Nov. 7, 1474;
d. at Rome July 25, 1539. His father was a noted
professor of law at Pa\'ia, Padua, and Bologna, and
the son, adopting his father's career, became lec-
turer on imperial and papal law and the Decretals
at Bologna after 1499. He participated in the
political life of the university town and won the
attention of the Curia by his ardent advocacy of
the papal cause against the imperial family of
Bcntivogli. The loss of his wife hastened his en-
trance into the priestly state, for which he had
long cherished a strong inclination. Julius II.
made him representative for Bologna at the tribu-
nal of the Rota in Rome in the early part of 1511.
In August he went as nuncio to the court of the
emperor Maximilian to win that ruler away from
373
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OampbeU
Oitmplon
hiB support of the Pisan council and for the pope's
scheme of a Lateran council. Returning success-
ful in 1512 he was made bishop of Feltre and sent
as nimcio to the ooiut of Maximilian Sforza at
Milan, but was recalled to be entrusted with a sec-
ond mission to the imperial coiut with the object,
this time, of furthering the papal plan for the re-
establishment of general peace in Europe. At
this post he remained till 1517, when on account
of his ** preeminent services to the Apostolic
chair '' and for a fee of 24,000 ducats he was created
cardinal in company with thirty others. Once
mbre Campeggio was sent on a mission of universal
peace, this time to England, where he shared the
dignity of papal legate with Cardinal Wolsey and
participated in the formation of the General League
of Peace concluded in October, 1518. In the same
year he returned to Rome, bearing with him many
royal gifts and the promise of the succession to the
bishopric of Salisbury. He became bishop of Bo-
logna in 1523, but resigned the office two years later
on acquiring possession of the promised English
see and retained it till 1535. He enjoyed at the
same time the profits from a Spanish bishopric
and from other churches, though it is difficult to
determine precisely which. Alone among the car-
dinals he seems to have won the confidence of
Adrian VI. and to him (not to Egidio of Viterbo)
must be attributed the authorship of the reform
memorial addressed to the pope. After the ill
success of the papal cause at the first diet of Nu-
remberg, Campeggio was sent to Germany to work
for the enforcement of the Edict of Worms. At
the second Nuremberg diet he met the demands
of the German princes with insulting pride, but by
all his efforts could not prevent the assembly from
expressing the demand for a meeting of the repre-
sentatives of the German nation to consider means
for the settlement of the religious question. It was
Campeggio who was primarily responsible for the
league concluded at Regensburg in the simimer of
1524 by the enemies of the Reformation, the first
of the partizan confederations that were to result
in the dismemberment of the nation. At Regens-
burg, too, a scheme of reform for the clergy was for-
mulated by Campeggio with the aid of Nausea and
Cochkeus, a scheme, however, which never attained
practical effect. An unsuccessful mission to Eng-
land in 1528-29 in the matter of the divorce of
Henry VIII. was followed by an appointment to
the imperial court, where he is known to have ad-
vised Charles V. in case a policy of conciliation
toward the Protestants proved ineffective ** to
eradicate the poisonous growth with fire and
sword." At the same time he did not disdain to
attempt the milder means of bribery, notably in
the case of Melanchthon. In 1532 Campeggio re-
turned to Rome. His last phase of activity was
in connection with the plans of Paul III. for a gen-
eral council. A memorial on the Centum gravamina
GtrmanoTunty written in 1536, shows that by that
time Campeggio had arrived at a different view of
the claims and rights of the German nation.
(T. Brieoer.)
Bxblxoobapbt: C. Sigonius, Dt vUa LaurtrUii Campegii,
Bolocius 1681, republished in Stgonii Opera omnia, iii.
631-fi76. Milan, 1733; S. Fhaes, RdmUehe DokumerUe tur
Oeadiichte der EhMcheidurig Heinrieha VIII., 1697-84,
pp. zvi.-zxxi., Paderborn. 1893.
CAMPELLO, COUirr ENRICO BE: Roman
Catholic; b. at Rome in the year 1831; d. in
the year 1903. Brought up in the Roman Cath-
olic Church, he became priest 1855, and canon
of St. Peter's, Rome, 1868. Feeling himself un-
able, however, to accept the dogma of papal
infallibility, he resigned his office in 1881 and
became a member of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. Later he joined the Protestant Episco-
pal Church, and founded the Reformed Italian
Catholic Church, of which he was consecrated
bishop by Bishop E. Herzog in Switzeriand. He
worked for many years, first in Rome without suc-
cess and later in Umbria, but in 1902 returned to
the Roman Catholic faith. He wrote: Cenni aiUO'
biografici che rendono ragione deJV iiacita di lui daUa
chiesa pa-pale (Rome, 1881).
Biblioorapht: A. Robertson, Couni CampeUo and CaAolie
Reform in Italy, London, 1891.
CAMPION, EDMUND: Jesuit; b. in London
Jan. 25, 1540; hanged there at Tyburn Dec. 1, 1581.
He won much distinction for ability and scholar-
ship at school in London, and had a brilliant career
at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1561; M.A.,
1565); in 1567 he was ordained deacon in the
Church of England, but, having always been a
Roman Catholic at heart, in 1569 or 1570 he went
to Ireland, hoping to find employment in a new
university to be located in Dublin. The scheme
fell through and he returned to England, went
thence to Douai, where he openly renounced Prot-
estantism, finished his theological studies, and
took the degree of B.D. In 1573 he joined the
Jesuits in Ilome, and was sent to Prague, where
he was ordained deacon and priest in 1578. In
Jime. 1580, he entered England as a missionary
of his order, and preached and worked there with
success until July, 1581, when he was arrested and
committed to the Tower. He was treated with
much severity, was several times examined under
torture, and in November was condemned, after
an unfair trial, upon a charge of having conspired
to dethrone the queen. He is described by Prot-
estants as well as Roman Catholics as a man of
uncommon ability, an eloquent orator, of much
diplomatic skill, and amiable in disposition and
b'fe. His chief work was the Decern rationea, in
which he challenges the Protestants to meet him
in debate and professes himself ready to prove the
falsity of Protestantism and the truth of the
Roman Catholic religion by argument upon any
one of ten topics, finished about Easter, 1581, and
printed ostensibly at Douai, but really in or near
London, the same year; it was spread broadcaat
at commencement at Oxford in June (best edition
by Silvester Petra^Sancta, Antwerp, 1631; Eng.
transl., 1606, 1632, 1687, 1827). While in Ireland
he wrote a history of the country which was used
by Holinshed in compiling his Chronicles (1577),
and was printed by Sir James Ware in his Hietary
of Irelarid (Dublin, 1633; reprinted in Ancient
Irish Histories, 1809).
Bxbuoorapht: R. Simpaon, Edmund Campiam, a BioQ-
Oamp-Keetinffs
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
374
raphy, London, 1867 (" perhaps the most able mono-
graph of Catholic history "); J. A. Froude, Hiatory of
England^ vol. xi., chap, xxviii., London, 1870; £. L.
Taunton, The Hiatory of the JeauiU in England, 1680-
1773, ib. 1901; J. Gillow. BUdiographical Dictionary of
the Engliah Catholics, i. 376-392, London, n.d. (a full list
of his works is appended): DNB, viii. 398-402.
CAHP-MEETINGS: Religious gatherings held
in a grove, usually lasting for several dajrs, during
which many find shelter in tents or temporary
houses. The main features are the open-air preach-
ing, the night prayer-meetings, and the freedom
of the life. They are not now so common as for-
merly. The first meeting of the kind is said to
have taken place in Kentucky, on the banks of the
Red River, in 1799, imder a Presbyterian and a
Methodist minister. These denominations at first
used them in common; but gradually the Presby-
terians withdrew, and they became almost exclu-
sively Methodist and Baptist gatherings. In re-
cent times the Methodists have purchased tracts
of land in desirable locations on the seaboard or
inland, and turned them into parks, with comfort-
able houses, streets, post-offices, meeting-places,
Biblical models, etc., and there in the summer
many persons live, and there the religioas gather-
ings of different kinds are held daily. Thus the
primitive camp-meeting is continued in an im-
proved form. The credit of introducing camp-
meetings into EIngiand is due to the Rev. Lorenzo
Dow (q.v.), an eccentric though able minister of
Methodist views, who in 1807 proposed it in Staf-
fordshire. Two Methodists, William Clowes and
Hugh Bourne, were so impressed with the advan-
tages of this style of service that they persisted
in holding them after they were disapproved by
the Wesleyan Conference in 1807; for doing which
they were finally expelled. I n 1 8 1 0 they founded the
Primitive Methodists, which body uses the camp-
meeting. The Irish Wesleyans commenced using
them in 1860.
Biblioorapht: S. C. Swallow, Camp-Afeetitigt: their Origin,
Hiet, and Utility, aUo their Perternon, New York, 1878.
CAMUS, ca^mU', de Pont Carr€, JEAN PIERRE:
French prelate; b. in Paris Nov. 3, 1584; d. there
Apr. 25, 1652. He became successively bishop of
Belley 1609, abbot of Aulnay in Normandy 1629,
but retired to the Hospital des Incurables in Paris
1651. He was an extremely prolific writer. The
catalogue of his writings (Paris, 1653) contains 186
titles. Among them are many moral romances,
which were admired in his time, and some translated
into English, but are now forgotten. He is still
remembered for his satirical pamphlets against the
mendicant orders, e.g.. Disappropriation Clauatrelle
and PauvreU Evangdique, which were elaborately
refuted in ArUv-Camua (Douai, 1634), and especially
for the fruit of his great intimacy with Francis of
Sales, L* Esprit du bierirheureux Francois de Sales
(6 vob., Paris, 1641, new ed., 3 vols., 1840, abridged
by Collot, 1737; Eng. transl. of abridgement. The
Spirit of S. Francis de Sales, London, 1880). His
dogmatic work in the Latin translation Appropin"
qualio Protestantium ad Ecclesiam CathoHco-Ro*
manam is in vol. v. of Migne's Cours de ihiologie,
BiBUOGaAPRT: F. Boulaa, Camua, Lyons, 1879.
CANA. See Galilee, II., § 4.
CA^VAAN, CANAANITES.
The Name (5 1). The Hittitea (| 7).
Language and lieligion (( 2). The Hivitee (| 8).
Conuneroe ((3). The Horites (| 9).
Political Relations (f 4). The Periziites (| 10).
The Earlier InhabiUnt » ( ft 5 ). The Geshtirites (ft 11).
Peoples Mentioned in the The Conquest by the He-
Bible (ft 6). brews (ft 12).
Canaan, Canaanites, are names given in the Old
Testament and elsewhere to the land acquired by
the Hebrews and to the pre-Hebraic people who
occupied it. Apart from a few cases of personifi-
cation, Canaan is the general name applied to the
country (Judges v. 19; in JE, Gen. xlii.; in P, Gen.
xi. 31). It is formed from Kana' with the addition
of the n denoting place; the simple form does not
occur in the Old Testament, but there is abundant
evidence in the Amama tablets and elsewhere that
it was used. It is also clear that it was not orig-
inally a proper name. The significance of the
word is not clear, though many attempts to dis-
cover it have been made. It seems in some places
to have the signification of "Lowland" (Nuol
sdii. 29; Josh. v. 1; Zeph. ii. 5). In
I. The some of the Egyptian inscriptions the
Name. word is used to denote the part of
Asia under Egyptian control, inclu-
ding Phenicia; but the general custom of Egyptians
was to designate southern Syria by J/aru and north-
em Syria by Rutennu. In the Amama tablets it
means what is now understood by Syria. Old
Testament usage varies. In Gen. x. 19 (JE) it in-
cludes Phenicia, the land of Israel, and Philistia,
with boundaries imdefined on the north, a usage
followed generally by D, though Deut. xi. 24 ex-
tends the eastem boundary to the Euphrates. The
general statement is justified that in the Old Tes-
tament the name is used to designate what is now
meant by Syria, without very definite boundaries,
generally excluding lands east of the Jordan. And
Canaauites designated the people who inhabited
the land of Canaan, except that E uses "Amo-
rites " (q.v.) to express this meaning.
The question is suggested whether the Canaan-
ites had anything in common apart from their
dwelling in the land so designated. Isa. xix. 18
mentions " the language of Canaan," a phrase
which implies that a common language was there
used. Of course there were dialectical differences,
say, between the north and the south, but these
were not such tlrnt the inhabitant of one part could
not understand the inhabitant of another. His-
toric antl inscriptional e\4dence bears this out. Be-
sides unity of language there was a common con-
ception of religion. The deities were originally
nature-powers such as the sun, the heavens, the
moon, thunder and lightning. With
2. Language advance of civilization they blended,
and while worship was still offered at nu-
Religion. merous local shrines. At these the
proper names of the deities were not
generally used, the gods were spoken of as the
Ba'al " Lord " or the Ba'alak ** Mistress " of the
place, e.g., Baal-IIermon, " Lord of Hermon."
The places of worsliip were the tops of the hula
(see High Places). Near the altar stood a sacred
vtone or tree or pillar. If there were an image of
376
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Camp-Keetlnvs
Canaan
the deity, there was also a temple or a house and
a priest. The customs of worship were in the
closest connection with the work of daily life, the
offerings were of the products of field, garden,
vineyard, or pasture. In the cities more developed
forms took their place. The mjrth was everywhere
employed, at first in local fonn, later in philosoph-
ical and poetical development in which origins, des-
tinies, beginnings of human customs, and the be-
ginnings of cities and holy localities had their place.
In some places prostitution for religious purposes
was practised, also self-mutilation and infant-sacri-
fice. There were also numerous practises which
were siurvivals from primitive worship, from ani-
mism, totemism, and fetishism. The culture of the
people had in general a conmion stamp. Baby-
lonian influence had advanced by the third mil-
lennium B.C. at least as far south as central Syria.
Egypt's influence was first felt about 1500 b.g.
While northern Syria immediately bordered on the
Euphrates, a desert stretched between southern
Syria and Egypt. The fact that the Amama tab-
lets, which are classed as Egyptian documents,
are in the cuneiform shows that Babylonian ideas
were dominant, though some admixture of Egyptian
ideas must be allowed.
The middle position of S3rria, between the east
and the west, between the desert and the sea, in-
troduces another occupation besides those men-
tioned in which the inhabitants engaged, com-
merce. Before the sea was traversed by ships,
the roads from the Euphrates to
3. Com- Egypt passed through north and south
merce. Syria. Sea-travel later opened up
routes which included the Mediter-
ranean and the Red Sea. The products of Canaan
proper were small in proportion to those resulting
from commercial operations. These became, there-
fore, the favorite employment of the Canaanites,
and their name became synonymous with mer-
chant (Ezek xvi. 29, R. V. margin).
There were no great states built up in Canaan
(the Hebrews are not here under discussion) ex-
cept that of the Hittites (q.v.), who possessed a
great kingdom in northern Syria. Apart from
this only small states are mentioned. The Amama
tablets make known a number of these as at war
with each other and as accused of unfaithfulness
to the Pharaohs Amenophis III. and IV. Egyp-
tian overlordship was maintained more or less
completely 1500-1200 B.C. The sons of the local
kings were sent to Egypt for their
4. Political education, and their enthronement
Relations, when they succeeded to power was
the deed of the Pharaoh. The topog-
raphy of the country, cut up by mountain ranges
with intervening valleys and wadis, is not favor-
able to the formation and maintaining of great
states; even those of Damascus and of Israel were
not long-lived.
According to the representation in Gen. x. 18b,
the Canaanites had spread from the central part
toward the south. This can not be proved, but
the course of subsequent historical movements
makes it probable. The custom of E in using
" Amorites " to connote the inhabitants of the
land and the known course of the progress of this
people is one of these indications. Only faint rec-
ollections of the primitive dwellers
5. The are preserved in the Old Testament,
Earlier in such passages as Deut. ii. 10-11;
Inhabitants. II Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22, where
they appear as " giants," a mythical
term (cf. Amos ii. 9). From them the Plain of
Rephaim west of Jerusalem received its name. In
the passages from Samuel quoted above Raphah,
" the Giant," is named as their ancestor. Deut.
ii. 11 reckons the Anakim as belonging to them,
and Num. xiii. 33 is an expression of their physical
stature; their chief town is named as Kirjath-arba,
the latter part of which name is explained as the
name of the ancestor and the greatest of the Ana-
kim (Josh. xiv. 15, XV. 13).
The Old Testament employs the term Canaan-
ites not only in the sense explained in tlie foregoing
as the common name of the inhabitants of Canaan,
but also in an ethnographical sense of one of the
stocks included. But from the preceding discus-
sion the doubt is raised whether this usage is orig-
inal or has ethnological worth. For decision of
this question it is important to note that the Ca-
naanites are mentioned among other peoples of
Canaan when the author wishes to
6. Peoples note a great number of peoples whom
Mentioned the Hebrews had subdued. In this
in the case a settled form was employed
Bible. with an alternative form. The com-
mon form was '' Canaanite, Hittite,
Amorite, Perizzite, Hivite, and Jebusite " (in eleven
passages), in which the intention is clear to place
the more important peoples first in the arrange-
ment. The alternative form is " Amorite, Periz-
zite, Canaanite, Hittite, Girgashite, Hivite, and
Jebusite " (Josh, xxi v. 11). This last is varied
by the insertion of Kenites, Kenizzites, and Kad-
monites (Gen. xv. 19-21), or by the omission of one
or more from the list (for Kenites see Cain, Ke^-
NiTEs; for Kenizzites see Caleb, Calebites, and see
also AMORrrES and Jebus, Jebusftes).
The Hittites have become more familiar through
the decipherment of the hieroglyplis and cuneiform
inscriptions than through the Old Testament.
Thothmes III. (c. 1500 b.c.) first came into con-
tact with them in the district later known as Com-
magene on the northern boundary of Syria. A
hundred years later they vere in i>ossession of a
kingdom which stretched from the Euphrates to
the middle Orontes, including Hamath within its
bounds. Rameses II. (c. 1300-1230 b.c.) waged
a long war with them, and in the twenty-first year
of his reign made a treaty in wliich a demarcation
of the boundaries of their respective realms was
agreed upon. About 1200 b.c. this kingdom fell
apart into a nimiber of small states. In the ninth
and eighth centuries the Assyrians mention a small
Hittite kingdom encountered in their campaigns,
that of Carchemish on the Euphrates. They also,
use the phrase " land of the Hittites " to denote
the region between the Euphrates and the Taurus
range and south as far as Palestine. But this can
not be held to prove that the Hittite power ex-
tended so far. They left numerous inscriptions,
Oanada
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
376
in the attempt to decipher which P. Jensen is
particularly engaged, and he thinks he can dis-
cover in the Hittites the forerunners of the Arme-
nians. The Egyptians call the Hit-
7. The tites J^ata, the Assyrians call them
Hittites. j^atti. Old Testament passages locate
them in North Syria in close connection
with the Arameans (I Kings x. 29) and II Kings vii.
6 associates them with the Syrian kingdom of Musri
(according to Winckler, misread ** Egypt/' see
A08TRIA, VI., 2, 3, § 7). And the Table of Na-
tions in Gen. x. 15 with its context leaves no doubt
that the intention was to locate them in North
Syria. The Hittites in the service of David (I
Sam. xxvi. 6; II Sam. xi. 3) were probably sol-
diers of fortune who had come south. Some few
Old Testament passages coincide with the late
Assyrian usage and speak of the land far south as
Hittite. Ske HrmrES.
The Hivites are associated with the Amorites in
the LXX. text of Isa. xvii. 0 (cf. R. V. margin),
but, apart from the stereotyped formulas mentioned
afaK>ve, seldom appear in Scripture. II Sam. xxiv.
7 locates them among the Canaanites dwelling
south of lyre. According to Judges
8. The iii. 3, cf. Josh. xi. 3, their country
HiTites. was in Lebanon between " Baal-her-
mon and the entering in of Hamath."
Josh. xi. 3 is not in accord with II Sam. xxiv.
7, and it does not lighten the difficulty to substi-
tute Hittites for EQvites.
The Horites according to Gen. xxxvi. 30 inhab-
ited Mt. Seir, that is the district east and west of
the valley (the wadi Arabah) south of the Dead
Sea. They were destroyed by the
9. The Edomites (Deut. ii. 12, 22). Gen.
Horites. xxxvi. 20-30 counts seven branches
of the Horites. Gen. xiv. 6 assigns to
them the mountain east of the wadi Arabah. Now-
adays the custom prevails to connect them with
the people named ffaru by the Egyptians, who
mean by it South Palestine.
The Perizzites are seldom mentioned except in
the stereotyped formulas; in three J passages, Gen.
xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30; Judges i. 4, they are
zo. The associated with the Canaanites, and
Perizzites. in Josh. xvii. 15 with the Rephaim,
"Giants." The last passage would
make of them pre^Ganaanites, for which the J pas-
sages give no occasion, but locate them about
Bethel, Shechem, and Bezek, within the boundaries
of the Joseph territory.
The Geshurites are in Deut. iii. 14; Josh. xii. 5,
xiii. 11, 13 placed in the Aramaic district of Geshur,
in the northern part of the Jaulan
zx. The Ge- east of the Jordan; but Josh. xiii.
shurites. 2 and I Sam. xxvii. 8 locate them
in southern Philistia. Since Well-
hausen, the last passage has been made to read
" Gezerites '* instead. But it must be concluded
that the name Geshurites was applied to nomads
in southern Palestine. Besides the foregoing there
appear the Girgashites (Gen. x. 16, etc.), to be
connected, perhaps, with names known to be Phe-
nidan; the Awim (Deut. ii. 23; Josh. xiii. 3),
whose residence was south of Gaza: and the
Kadmonites (Gen. xv. 19), of whom nothing is
known.
The conquest of Canaan by the Hebrews was
rendered easy by several circumstances. The over^
lordship of the Egyptians became about 1250
B.C. a mere name. Moreover, about 1400 B.C., ac^
cording to the Amama Tablets (q.v.), a people called
the Habiri had crossed the Jordan westward,
partly because the chiefs there were employing
them as soldiers and partly to better their lot
These, related to the Israelites, were indeed
their predecessors along the same
12. The route, who by establishing themselves
Conquest gave the invitation to others to settle
by the there. But the light-armed Israel-
Hebrews, ites, who established themselves in
the more open country, had a moit
difficult task against the Canaanites armed with
iron weapons and chariots of the same material
The assault of the Hebrews was not made with
their united force and at one time, as the narrati^^
in Joshua asserts, but in two divisions, and not at
the same time. The first attack was made by
Simeon, Levi, and Judah, the second by the Joseph
tribes under the leadership of Joshua (Judges i. 1-
3, 22). A series of victories, reported in Josh.
ii.-x., made it possible for the Joseph tribes to settle
between Bethel and the Plain of Jezreel. Accord-
ing to the first part of Joshua, the Hebrews put the
ban on the Canaanites, i.e., exterminated them.
But this does not agree with other statements.
While indeed those foes were perhaps exterminated
who were taken in actual contest, the universal ap-
plication of the b&n does not accord with many
other passages of Scripture. The Canaanites were
pressed back; progress in possession was made
partly by subjecting the eariier inhabitants, partly
by peaceful means. In the former case the Cajaaim-
ites became slaves; in the latter, union of stocks
was brought about. The victory at Taanach under
Deborah and Barak assured to the Hebrews the
control of the Plain of Jezreel. The northern dis-
tricts of Naphtali and Asher retained their non-
Israelitic population (see Galilee). The southern
stock of Judah in time allied itself with many peo-
ples of alien race (see Caleb, Calebites, and cf.
Gen. xxxviii.). The remainder of the non-Hebraic
population was put to service by Solomon.
It is this reduction of the Canaanites to servitude
which is at the basis of the narrative in Gen. ix.
20-27, which deals with Noah and his three sons.
Wellhausen has made it plain that in ix. 22 the
words " Ham the father of " are an intrusion by
the editor to bring the section into harmony with
its context. Canaan is the younger brother who
is there subjected to his brethren. Shem no doubt,
in the passage, means Israel, and Japhet the Phe-
nidans, and Shem and Japhet are both ruling peo-
ples. Canaan's position in the Table of Nations
(q.v.) is quite other than that in Gen. ix. 20-27.
(H. GUTHE.)
Bxbuooraphy: K. Budde, Die bibltHhe UrgeaekU^te, GiB»-
sen. 1883; A. H. Sayoe, Race* of the Old Teekament, htm-
don, 1801 (brief, needs bringing up to date); idem. The
' Higher CriUciam ' and the MonumerUe, ib. 1894; idem.
Patriar€hal Paleetine, ib. 1895 (the last two books are
damaged by their polemic aim); G. F. Mo<u«, in JAOS,
377
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canaan
Canada
zv. (1893). pp. Ixvii.-lxx. (on the etymology); J. Ben-
linger, Ileiraische Archdohgie, § 12. Freiburg, 1894;
£. Schrader. Daa Land Amurru^ in SitgungabtricMe der
Berliner Akademie, Dec. 20, 1894; idem, KAT, Index
■.w. '* Amoriter," " Amurru," " Kanaan "; J. F. Mo-
Curdy, HiMlory, Prophecy and the Monumenta, vola. i.-ii.,
New York, 1895-06; F. Buhl, Geograpkie dea alien Palee-
Hna, I 46, TQbingen, 1896; F. Hommel, The Ancient
Hebrew Tradition, London. 1897; G. A. Smith, Hiaior-
ical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 4-6, ib. 1897 (on the
etymology); L. B. Paton, Early Hiatory of Syria and
Paleatinet New York, 1901 (an antidote for the worlu of
Sayoe and Hommel); W. Erbt. Die Holier. Kanaan
im ZeUalter der hebrdiachen Wanderung und hebrAiachen
Staatengriindungen, Leipnio, 1906; H. Vincent, Canaan
d'apria Vexploration ricente, Paris, 1907; DB, i. 347-348;
EB, i. 638-643. The literature on the Amama Tablets
usually diBCUsses the subject.
CANADA: A country of North America occu-
pying the CD tire continent north of the United
States except Alaska; area, 3,745,574 square miles;
population (1901), 5,371,315 (estimated in 1906 at
5,625,000).
The Dominion of Canada, the official designation
of the country, was formed in 1867 by a confedera-
tion of the eastern provinces of Upper and Lower
Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), New Bruns-
wick, and Nova Scotia, the coalition being recog-
nized by an Act of Parliament of the mother coun-
try. A governor-general, appointed by the king
of England, and a privy council administer the
government. The legislative power is a parlia-
ment consisting of a senate, whose members are
appointed for life by the crown on nomination of
the ministry, and a house of commons
Political elected every five yeans at the longest.
Biyisions The Dominion now comprises, in ad-
and Gov- dition to the provinces already named,
emment Manitoba (admitted 1870), British
Columbia (1871), Prince Edward
Island (1873), Alberta (1905), Saskatchewan
(1905), and the Northwest Territories comprising
the districts of Assiniboia, Athabasca, Keewatin,
Yukon, Mackenzie, Ungava, and Franklin. Each
province has its own " lieutenant-governor," ex-
ecutive council, and legislative assembly. Nearly
three-quarters of the entire population is in the
two provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and almost
ninety per cent in the five eastern provinces. The
increase during the last decade was a little more
than eleven per cent. There is no State Church,
but the Roman Catholics of Quebec are guaranteed
the privileges which they enjoyed previous to the
English occupation.
The Frenchman Jacques Cartier took possession
of the Labrador region in the name of his king in
1534, and in 1535-36 he ascended the St. Lawrence
as far as Montreal. The first permanent settle-
ment was at Quebec in 1608 under the lead of
Champlain. The gain in French
History colonists was slow, and the stream
and flowed westward toward the Missis-
Statistics, sippi. English conquest and the
peace of 1763 brought Canada under
English control. The EInglish and Protestant in-
habitants were considerably increased by immi-
gration of English loyalists from the Unit^ States
after 1783, and the Roman Catholics received a
large increment during the nineteenth century by
immigration from Ireland; the French population
also was augmented after 1871 by a noteworthy
number of Alsatians.
The following is the table of religious statistics
from the census of 1901 :
Adventists
Agnostics, Atheists,
etc
Anglicans
Baptists
Baptiste, Free
Brethren
Buddhists
Catholic Apostolio
(Irvingites)
Christadelphians. . .
Christians
Christian Scientists.
Church of Christ. . .
Church of God
Confucians
Congregationalists. .
Deists
Disciples
Dukhobors
Evangelicals
Friends (Quakers).
Greek Church
Holiness Movement
(Homerites)
Jews
8.068
3.613
680.620
202.189
24.288
8.014
10,407
400
1.030
6.900
2.619
2,264
351
6,115
28.293
78
14.900
8,776
10,193
4,100
16.630
2,776
16,401
L«atter-day Saints
(Mormons)
Lutherans
Mennonites
Methodists
Mohammedans
New Church (Swe-
denborgians)
Non-sectarian
No Religion
Pagans
Plymouth Brethren
Presbyterians
Protestants
Reformed Episco-
Roman Catholics... 2,
Salvation Army. . . .
Spiritualists
Theosophists
Timkers
Unitarians
United Brethren. . .
Universalists
Unspecified
Various Sects
Zionites.
6.891
92,624
31.797
916.886
47
881
216
4,810
16,107
2,774
842.442
11,612
874
229.600
10.308
616
107
1.628
1,934
4,701
2,689
43,222
2,796
42
The Roman Catholics constitute 41.5 per cent of
the entire population. They are most numerous
in Quebec (1,429,260; 86.7 per cent of the popu-
lation of the province); in Ontario their number
is 390,304 (1.8 per cent). The total number of
Protestants is about 3,000,000 (56.2 per cent).
Nearly all of the Buddhists and Confucians are in
British (}olumbia, whither they have come as a
result of the active trade with eastern Asia. The
adherents of the Greek Church are mostly immi-
grants from Russia to Manitoba, Alberta, and As-
siniboia; the Dukhobors (q.v.), who may be re-
garded as a schismatic branch of this Church, are
in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. Of the Jews al-
most half (7,498) are in Quebec and 5,321 in On-
tario. Nearly all the Mormons are in Ontario
(3,377) and Alberta (3,212). Of the Mennonites,
15,246 are in Manitoba, 12,208 in Ontario, and
3,683 in Saskatchewan. The *' pagans " are the
Eskimos and unconverted Indians; according to
some authorities their number is much larger than
that given by the census. All the large denomina-
tions are actively engaged in missionary work in
the wide domain of Canada, operating through
permanent stations and itinerant missionaries.
The Roman Catholic Church has from the first
been particularly successful in this work, and the
majority of the Indians converted to Christianity
belong to this Church. The " various sects " are
110 in number and include seventy-nine which re-
ported less than ten members each.
The Roman Catholic Church in Canada dates
from the discovery. Huguenots were allowed to
settle, only on conditions that soon proved fatal to
their religion. In 1615 three Recollect priests set-
tled in Quebec, forming the earliest regidar estab-
lishment. In 1625 the Jesuits arrived, and began
their missionary and educational labors. In 1657
Oanada
Oandllsli
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
378
Francis Xavier de Laval-Montmorency (q.v.) was
named vicar apostolic of New France, becoming
first bishop of Quebec in 1674. Under
The Ro- him the church system was fully or-
man Cath- ganized. For some time alter the
olio conquest, the see of Quebec remained
Church, vacant, as the EInglish Government
would recognize its occupant only as
the head of the Roman Church in Canada, and not
as the bishop of that city. The difficulty was, how-
ever, overcome. In 1819 Joseph Octave Plessis
(bishop of Quebec from 1806) became the first Ca-
nadian archbishop.
As organized at present the Roman Catholic
Church of Canada has an apostolic delegate (first
appointed by Leo XIII.), who resides at Ottawa.
There are eight provinces, twenty dioceses, and
four vicariates apostolic, as follows:
Province of Halifax (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward leland,
and New Brunswick; the Bermuda Islands also form a part
of the archdiocese of Halifax); archdiocese, Halifax (founded
as the vicariate apostolic of Nova Scotia, 1817; diocese,
1842; archdiocese, 1852); dioceses, Antigonish (founded as
the diocese of Arichat, 1844; transferred to Antigonish,
1886), Charlottetown (Prince Edward Island and the Mag-
dalen Islands, 1829), Chatham (1860). and St. John (1842).
Province of Kingston (Eastern and Northern Ontario);
archdiocese, Kingston (diocese, 1826; archdiocese, 1889);
dioceses, Alexandria (1890), Peterborough (1882), and Sault
8te. Marie (1904).
Province of Montreal (Southern and Wejitem Quebec);
archdiocese, Montreal (diocese, 1836; archdiocese, 1886);
dioceses, Joliette (1904). St. Hyacinthe (1852), Sherbrooke
(1874). and Valleyfield (1892).
Province of Ottawa (parts of Ontario and Quebec in the
neighborhood of the city of Ottawa and the region about
James Bay); archdiocese, Ottawa (diocese, 1847; archdio-
cese. 1886); diocese, Pembroke (vicariate apostolic, 1882;
diocese, 1898).
Province of Quebec (Eastern Quebec); archdiocese, Que-
bec (vicariate apostolic, 1657; diocese, 1674; archdiocese.
1844); dioceses, Chicoutimi (1878). Nicolet (1885), Ri-
mouski (1867), and Three Rivers (1852); vicariate apostolic
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (prefecture apostolic, 1882;
vicariate. 1905).
Province of St. Boniface (the extreme western part of
Ontario. Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Northwest
Territories;; archdiocese, St. Boniface (diocese, 1847;
archdiocese, 1871); diocese, St. Albert (1871); vicariates
apostolic. Athabasca (1862), and Saskatchewan (1890).
Province of Toronto (Southwestern Ontario); archdio-
cese, Toronto (diocese, 1841; archdiocese, 1870); dioceses,
Hamilton (1856). and London (1856).
Province of Victoria (British Columbia, the Klondike and
Great Slave regions); archdiocese, Victoria (1847); diocese.
New Westminster (vicariate apostolic of British (Columbia,
1863; diocese, 1890); vicariate apostolic of Mackenxie
(1901).
The Official Catholic Dtredory for 1906 gives the following
figures: number of priests of religious orders, 1,116; secular
priests, 2,613; churches, 2,495; seminaries, 17, with 1,183
students; universities and colleges, 45; charitable institu-
tions. 202. One hundred and ten Catholic papers are named,
and the list of religious orders includes twenty-seven for
men and thirty-five for women, the larger number of which
are actively engaged in missionary and charitable work.
Laval University was founded at Quebec in 1852 and has
faculties of theology, law, medicine, and arts.
The Anglican Church in Canada dates from its con-
quest by England. The first congregation was or-
ganized in Montreal in 1766, service being held in
the chapel of the Recollects at such hours as the
building was not required for mass. In 1774,
while the Roman Catholic Church was secured in
all its previous rights, it was restricted to collect-
ing its church-dues from members of its own com-
munion, and the purpose was intimated of estab-
lishing a Protestant Church- In 1791,
The when Canada first received a consti-
AngUcan tution, one-seventh of all the land in
Church, the colony disposed of by sale or grant
to colonists was " reserved " for the sup-
port of a Protestant clergy. In 1787 Charles Ingts
was appointed by the English Crown bishop of
Nova Scotia — the first of the colonial bishops; in
1793 Jacob Mountain was appointed bishop of Que-
bec. The present organization includes two prov-
inces and twenty-three bishoprics, as follows:
Province of Canada (the Maritime Provinces, Quebec,
and Ontario); archdiocese, Montreal (founded 1850; arth-
diocese, 1001; since 1904 the archbishop has borne the titk
primate of all Canada); dioceses, Algoma (with the bts^p'<}
seat at Sault Ste. Marie. 1873). Fredericton (1845). Horoo
(London, 1857), Niagara (Hamilton, 1875), Nova Scotii
(Halifax, 1787), Ontario (Kingston, 1861), Ottawa (1896 i.
Quebec (1793). Toronto (1839).
Province of Rupert's Land (the territory west of Ontarkt
and south and east of Hudson Bay); archdiocese, Rupert's
Land (1849; archdiocese, 1893; the cathedral is at Wu^
nipeg); dioceses, Athabasca (1884), Calgary (188S). Kee-
watin (1901). Mackeniie River (1874), Mooeonee (1872;.
Qu'Appelle (1884). Saskatchewan (1874). Selkirk (1891).
Dioceses not forming part of any province: Caledonia
(1879). Columbia '1859) Kootenai (1901). New Westmia-
ster (1879).
There are theological schools at Lennoxville,
Que., Montreal, Toronto, and Winnipeg.
For the history and information ijx>ut other re-
ligious bodies of Canada, see the artides on the dif-
ferent denominations.
Canada has a good system of public instmctioii.
each province managing its own affairs without
centralized system for the entire dominion. Ele-
mentary schools, high schools or coUe^ate insti-
tutes, and normal schools lead up to the university,
and a good education is within the
Edtt- reach of all. The expenses are met
cation, by government grants, local ajssesE^
ments, and school fees. Roman Cath-
olic schools are entitled to a share in the public
educational funds by the agreement of 1763, and
the religious question has 1^ to complications in
some localities. In Quebec there are two distinct
boards of school commisdoners, Protestant and
Roman Catholic, each having its portion of the
public funds and managing its schools as it sees fit.
In Manitoba there are no separate schools, but re-
ligious instruction may be given in the school
buildings by Protestant or Catholic teachers.
Bibliooraprt: Statistics and other information may be
gathered from the Canadian Almanac, Toronto, the 5fc>-
UsHcal Year Book of Canada, Ottawa, and Le Caitada
eccUnaatiqtie, Montreal, all annuals, the last Roman Cath-
olic. On the English Church consult: E. R StimsoiL
Hi»tory of Separation of Church and State in Canada, To>
ronto, 1888; J. Langtry, HiMtory of the Church in Eagltn
Canada, London, 1892. There ia also a Cjf€iopadia <fif
Methodiem in Canada, Toronto, 1881. For early Cathobr
relations consult the monumental work, ed. R. G. niwaites.
Je9uU Relationa and AUied Documents, 74 Tola., Gere-
Urnd, 1896-1901.
CANARY ISLANDS. See Africa, DI.
CANDIDUS, cOn-di'dtis (WEISS), PANTALEOH:
Reformed theologian; b. at Ybbs (60 m. w. of
Vienna), Austria, Oct. 7, 1640; d. at ZweibrQckn
379
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canada
CandUBh
(55 m. n.w. of Carlsruhe), in the Palatinate, Feb. 3,
1608. He was sent in his tenth year to Andreas
Cupicius, Evangelical preacher at Weissenkirchen,
for instruction. When his teacher was persecuted
by the Jesuits on account of his faith and thrown
into prison, Candidus attended him as famulus and
fled with him to Hungary. Returning to his na-
tive land, he continued hLs studies with the aid of
Vitus Nuber, abbot of Saussenstein (near Ybbs),
and when he also was persecuted, Candidus ac-
companied him to Duke Wolfgang of ZweibrUcken.
He received a scholarship from the duke which
enabled him to acquire a thorough himianistic and
theological education at the University of Witten-
berg, where he spent about seven years from 1558;
he became amanuensis of Hubert Languet and was
on intimate terms with Melanchthon. In 1565 he
left Wittenberg, and, after having taught a short
time in the Latin school of ZweibrQcken, became
pastor at Hinzweiler, then deacon at Weisenheim
and ZweibrQcken, and in 1571 town preacher and
general superintendent in ZweibrQcken.
The Church of ZweibrQcken had been foimded by
Johannes Schweblin in accordance with the Lu-
theran doctrine by the acceptance of the Augsburg
Confession and the Wittenberg Concord (q.v.) of
1536. Duke Wolfgang, after the death of Melanch-
thon, took vigorous measures against the Philippists
and Calvinists by employing strict Lutherans like
Marbach, Andrei, and Hesshus. His son, John I.,
continued the same policy, and the most influential
positions were filled with trustworthy Lutherans
such as Jacob Heilbrunner and Jacob Schopper.
But a change of conditions was brought about
under the influence of the Coimt Palatine John
Casimir, who sent his cousin John a statement of
the conflicting opinions of Reformed princes and
theologians. Thereupon the latter demanded in
1578 a general convention for the discussion of
these questions. Candidus, who had always
leaned toward Calvinism, became now one of the
most influential advocates of the Reformed cause,
and the duke himself openly confessed the Calvin-
istic doctrine, although he had signed the Formula
of Concord. The remonstrances oCthe Lutheran
electoral princes were of no avail, nor was a Lu-
theran embassy which was sent in 1580, consisting of
men like Marbach and Osiander. Candidus ac-
cepted the Reformed Christology and the Calvin-
istic doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and in 1585
edited a catechism which contributed considerably
to the eradication of the Lutheran doctrine. More-
over, he entered into negotiations with the Re-
formed theologians of Heidelberg and completed
the work of Calvinism in 1588 by bds Christliche und
notwendige Erkl&rung des Catechismi aua OoUes
For(, etc., which in its wording and sense follows
closely the Heidelberg catechism. The Reformed
Church service was introduced in the same way.
The dissensions were renewed in 1593 at the re-
ligious colloquy of Neuburg, where the ZweibrQcken
theologians protested against any innovations and
attempted to show their agreement with the Au-
gtistana. Since the beginning of the seventeenth
century the Church of ZweibrQcken has been
counted among the Reformed Churches. Candidus
was also active in the literary field and has left
twenty works, written mostly in Latin. He was
especially prolific in Latin poetical productions
and handled the elegiac measore with ability.
(J. Schneider.)
Bibliography: F. Butters, ParUaUon Candidu9, ein Leben»-
bild, Zweibracken. 1865; L. H&UBsor, Oeachidtte der
rheiniachen PfaU, Heidelberg, 1856; ADB, a. v., vol. iii.
CANDLEMAS: The popular English name for
the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary or
the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, Feb. 2,
derived from the ancient custom of blessing candles
on that day for use in church and elsewhere. See
Mary.
CANDLEMAS DAY. See Mary, Festivals of.
CANDLER, WARREN AKIN: Bishop of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South; b. near Villa
Rica, Ga., Aug. 23, 1857. He was educated at
Emory College, Oxford, Ga. (B.A., 1875), and en-
tered the North Georgia Conference of the Method-
ist Episcopal Church, South, in 1875, holding
various pastorates until 1880. From the latter
year until 1888 he was editor of the Christian Advo-
catCf Nashville, Tenn., the ofiicial organ of his de-
nomination, and from 1888 to 1898 was president
of Emory College. Since 1898 he has been a bishop
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In
theology he is a Wesleyan Arminian. He has
written: History of Sunday Schools (New York,
1880); Georgia's Educational Work (Atlanta, Ga.,
1893); Christus Auctor (Nashville, Tenn., 1900);
High Living and High Lives (1901); and Great Re-
vivals and the Great Republic (1904).
CANDLES.
Service.
See Lights, Use of, in Divinb
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH: One of the
founders and a leader of the Free Church of Soot-
land; b. in Edinburgh Mar. 23, 1806; d. there Oct.
19, 1873. He studied at Glasgow (M.A., 1823),
and at the divinity hall 1823-26; was licensed in
1828 and served as assistant of St. Andrews, Glas-
gow, and of Bonhill, Dimibartonshire; in 1834 he
became minister of St. George's, Edinburgh, where
his talent as a preacher soon made him famous.
In 1839 he publicly identified himself with the
party in the Church of Scotland which afterward
became the Free Church, and in all the public pro-
ceedings prior to the disruption in 1843, especially
in the debates in the General Assembly, took a
leading part; after the disruption he was foremost
in organizing and developing the Free Church.
His eloquence in debate, his business tact, and his
high character enabled him to retain the high posi-
tion he had gained in spite of a somewhat sharp
and abrupt maimer, and a tendency to what some
considered diplomatic management. On the death
of Dr. Chalmers in 1847 he was appointed to suc-
ceed him as professor of divinity in New (}ollege,
Edinburgh, but declined the appointment, pre-
ferring to continue minister of St. George's; in
1862, however, he became principal of New College,
the duties involving little labor. He was the
chief organizer and extender of the school system
of the Free Church, which was afterward incorpo-
CanislnB
Oanon Law
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
380
rated with the national system of education; and
one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance in
1845. He was a voluminous author, although
lus books did not attam a very large circulation;
among his writings were: ContribiUiona Towards the
Exposition of the Book of Geneeia (3 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1843-62; rev. ed., 2 vols., 1868); Scripture
Characters and Miscellanies (London, 1850); Ex-
amination of Mr. Maurice*s Theological Essays
(1854); Life in a Risen Saviour, discourses on I
Cor. XV. (Edinburgh, 1858); The Two Great Com-
mandmentSy sermons on Romans xii. (London,
1860); The Atonement, its Reality , Completeness, and
Extent (1801); The Fatherhood of God, the first
course of Cunningham lectures at New College,
Edinburgh, 1864 (5th ed. enlarged, 2 vols., Edin-
burgh, 1890); The First Epistle of John Expounded
in a Scries of Lectures (1866); Discourses Bearing
upon the Sonship and Brotherhood of Believers (1872);
Sermons, with memoir (1873); and The Gospel of
Forgiveness, a series of discourses ( 1878).
Bibliography: W. Wilson, MemoriaU of R. 8. Candliah,
Edinbursh, 1880 (with a ooncluding chapter on his char-
acter as a theologian by Robert Rainy, his sucoeasor as
principal of New College); Jean L. Wataon, Life of R. S.
CandUsh, London, 1882.
CANISIUS, ca-ni'si-Qs or ca-nt'shxTS, PETRUS
(Peter Kanis, Canis, Canijs): A Jesuit to whom
the order owes its spread in Germany; b. at
Nymwegen, in the Netherlands, May 8, 1521; d.
at Freiburg, Switzerland, Dec. 21, 1597. He
studied at (}ologne from 1535 to 1544 and ob-
tained the degrees of bachelor of theology, li-
centiate of arts, and master of arts (i.e., doctor
of philosophy). In 1543 he went to the Jesuit
Pierre Favre (q.v.) at Mainz, made the "spiri-
tual exercises ** (see Jesuffs) under his guid-
ance, and entered the order as a novice. With
nine like-minded companions he founded se-
cretly at Cologne the first Jesuit colony, but
the city coimcil dissolved the body, though at
the intercession of the university the members
were permitted to remain in the city, as individuals.
In 1545 Canisius began his lectures, preached,
and prepared an edition of the works of Cyril of
Alexandria, with a Latin translation, the first
volume of which was published at Cologne in 1546.
In the mean time, the fervent orator, who had
agitated especially against the archbishop Hermann
of Wied, who inclined toward Protestantism, had
obtained such authority among the strictly
Catholic party that at the beginning of the Schmal-
kald War it delegated him as mediator to the im-
perial camp at Ulm. Here he came into close
relations with Cardinal Otto Truchscss, bishop
of Augsburg, who was destined to open the way
for him into Bavaria and insure the activity of
his order. Ignatius Loyola perceived the talent
of Canisius, and, to perfect him in the spirit and
nature of the order and make him a chosen vessel,
called the young man to Rome and employed
I am for two years in Italy at Messina. Upon his
return, Canisius conmienced his work in Bavaria
in 1549, in 1552 at Vienna and in the Austrian terri-
tories, in 1555 at Prague with the two objects in
view, to permeate the German Catholics with the
Jesuitic spirit of piety, and to repel Protestantisa.
At Vienna he composed the Sttmma dodriMs '
Christiana, the '' catechism," which an impml '
edict soon introduced into ail Austria; in fou <
hundred editions published during 130 years, it j
proved an excellent means of mental traimng
(Eng. transl., Paris, 1588). His other litera.7
productions include two volumes (De Johaxnt
Baptista, Dillingen, 1571, and De Maria Ftrgzk/,
Ingolstadt, 1577), written against the " pestilenii-
simum opus," the Magdeburg Centuries (q.v.). Bui
his literary activity against Protestantism w&$
unimportant compared with what he aooomplisbei
as teacher in Vienna, Dillingen, and Ingolstadt, s^
adviser of Catholic princes, and as preacher zdj
pastor of very large circles. Besides the colleges
already mentioned, the order owes to him the est^
lishment of the important colleges of Augsburi:.
Munich, and Innsbruck, and its spread to Pobni.
When at the height of his successes he attended
the Council of Trent in 1562. And yet in the long
run he did not retain the confidence of the leader^
of bis order. ' The general stopped him when be
was on the point of preparing a third volume i&
the refutation of the " Centuries ** (De potestate
Petri et successorum). His last achievement wss
the founding of a new college at Freiburg in Swit-
zerland. K. BESfRATH.
Biblioqrapht: F. Riew, Der 9diae Peinu Canutw. Frn-
burs, 1865; M. Philippmn, La CorUre^RSvoluiUm rtliffteum.
Bruasels, 1880; Delplaoe, L'^UMinemeni de la etrmpa^^
de JfeuM dans lee Paye Bae, ib. 1887; P. Drews, P^frvi
Canieitu, der erete deuteche Jeeuit, Halle, 1892; Epuhtis
ei acta P. CanUii, ed. O. Braunaberger, 4 w>l8., Freibiirg,
1896-1905.
CANO, ca'n5 (Canus), MELCHIOR: A scholastic
Dominican of the University of Alcala; b. at T^
ranc6n (38 m. w. of Cuenca), Spain [Jan. 1, 1509;
d. at Toledo Sept. 30, 1560]. He took part in
the deliberations of the Council of Trent, espe-
cially in those concerning the doctrine of the
Eucharist, opposing the efforts made at the in-
stance of the emperor Ferdinand that the cup
should be given to the laity. Having returned
from Trent, Philip II. made him bishop of the
Canaries, wi^out residence there, as he became
provincial of his order in Castile. His principal
works are: Prcelectiones de pomitentia and De
sacramentis (both Salamanca, 1550), and his
Loci theologici (1563), consisting of twelve boob
about the sources whence doctrinal proofs may
be derived; the '' author itas ** has its place before
the " ratio" and the principal source is of course
tradition. Although an opponent of the Jesuits,
Cano was a thoroughgoing papal theologian, and b€
was a scholastic, although he opposed ** false " scho-
lasticism. For his opposition to the Jesuits he had
to suffer denimciations which caused his citation
to Rome in 1556 as " perditionis filius, Melchior
Canus, diabolicis motus suasionibus, non erubuit
pnrdicare, antichristum venisse." By the exer-
tions of the Spanish government the citation wa?
not headed. But the Loci theologici were place!
on the Lisbon index in 1624, and were much altered
by the expurgator. K. Bknratb.
ninLiooRAPHT: F. H. Reuaeh. Der Index der rerboinen
Bucher, i. 303 et passim. Bonn, 1883; F. Gaballero, Co*-
181
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OaniaiuB
Oanon Law
quenMM UluMires. II. Melehior Cano, pp. 279, 382, Madrid,
1871.
CANON: A word used in a variety of senses in
ecclesiastical terminology, all more or less related
o the primary meaning of the Greek word kandn,
' a straight rod or bar, rule, standard." (1) The
lecisive list of the books considered as forming part
»f the Holy Scriptures (see Canon of Scripture).
2) In ancient usage, any official church list, as of
hose who were to be commemorated in the liturgy,
irhence the term canonization, or of the clergy
attached to a certain church, whence (3) A mem-
ber of a body of clergy living together imder a
nore or less definite rule in connection with a
athedral or collegiate church or in a quasimonas-
ic organization as canons regular (see Chapter;
^UGUSTiNiANs; Premonstratensians). (4) The
lecree or decision of a council for the regulation of
loctrine or discipline (see Canon Law). (5) The
ixed, most important portion of the mass, from
he Sandua to the Pater noster. (6) In the hym-
lology of the Eastern Church, an important class
►f long and elaborate hymns usually simg in the
noming office, founded mainly on the Old Testa-
nent canticles then used, and composed of either
ight or nine odes.
CANONESS : A member of a company of women
mder the rule of an abbess and bound by vows of
celibacy and obedience, but not by one of pov~
rty. Some canonesses were " secular,'' and the
lOuses they lived in were homes for ladies of the
lobility; but others were "religious" and lived in
ninneries of the Benedictine or Augustinian order,
•"ew of these establishments survived the Refor-
nation, and their inmates generaUy became Prot-
stants. Some of the houses became Protestant
tomes for noble ladies, as those at Gandersheim,
lerford, and Quedlinburg in Germany.
CANON LAW.
Africa (S 1).
Spain (I 2).
British Isles (fi 3).
Frankish Empire (i 4).
Further Systematiiation.
Foreninners of Gratian
(§1).
Gratian (ft 2).
Ck>llections of Decretals.
Before Gregory IX. (§ 1).
Collection of Gregory
(J 2).
Supplements to It (S 3).
, Corpus Juris Canonici.
I. Definition and General Dis-
cussion.
[. Collections of Canons and
Decretals.
, Early History. I
. l"\Tnt Codification.
. EarlioHt Western Collec-
tions.
The Quesnelliana ( J 1 ). (
The Prisca (§2).
(Collections of Diony»iu8
(5 3).
I. Next period, by Coun-
tries.
Canon law is the sum total of the legal cnact-
aents of the Church.
L Definition and General Discussion: In mod-
m times the differences between various Christian
Churches have brought about a variance of law,
ince it springs in the first instance from the devel-
pment of the ecclesiastical conscioasness; and
b is thus possible to speak of Roman Catholic and
^testant canon law. While the expres.sion is
aost coDunonly used in connection with the f or-
der, it is not quite coextensive or identical with
he law of the Roman Catholic Church, but desig-
lates rather the content of the Corpus juris canonici
see below, II., 7), in contrast with (he newer
regulations based on the decisions of the Council
of Trent, the concordats and bulls of circumscrip-
tion of the nineteenth century, and the Vatican
Council. These have in many particulars modified
or superseded the older law, until a new codifica-
tion of the whole mass of enactments has become
necessary, and is now contemplated under the
direction of Pope Pius X.
The canon law, in the sense thus assigned to the
term, contains a large number of regulations per-
taining to matters which, according to modem
constitutions, have been withdrawn from eccle-
siastical jurisdiction and placed under the ordinary
secular tribunals. These provisions have thus
ceased to be operative. They include the relations
between Church and State, the legal status of
heretics, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, etc. The Ro-
man Catholic Church, it is true, still maintains in
theory the permanent validity of these enactments,
and claims the same preeminent power and inde-
pendence of the State as it possessed in the Middle
Ages. Since the Reformation and the upbuilding
of modem nationalities, however, the principle of
the unity of jurisdiction and the authority of the
law has proved irreconcilable with these claims. The
freedom and independence conceded to the Church
in the ordering of its own intemal affairs by no
means involves the absolute supremacy and validity
of the canon law when it comes into conflict with
the civil law, or releases the ecclesiastical author-
ities from their responsibility and their obedience
to the State; for the freedom of the Church, like
all other freedom in the modem world, is a free-
dom within the bounds of the law. But while the
Roman Catholic Church appeals to divine mission
and inalienable rights in support of its protest
against these limitations, and has occasionally
provoked serious conflicts by insistence upon its
position in this matter. Protestantism from the
very start took a much more restricted view of the
extent of ecclesiastical operations and of the au-
thority of its own law, sometimes, where it is
established, working directly with the State, but
always submitting without question to civil ordi-
nances. The difference is seen again in the fact
that while Roman Catholicism recognizes only
one Church, and thus only one valid church law,
Protestantism, though holding its own interpre-
tation of the Christian faith for the true one, does
not claim exclusive jurisdiction over all creatures,
and concedes to the various bodies which it con-
ceives as forming an invisible miity the right to
their -own independent action in matters of legis-
lation.
Canon law, the outcome of the Church's devel-
opment, rests upon positive enactment, and the
attempt to construct a natural ecclesiastical law
on rational principles must necessarily fail, setting
as it does arbitrary and subjective views in place
of the positive data of church history. A philo-
sophical treatment of church law is, on the other
hand, of great importance. It grasps in their
entirety the fundamental principles on which aa
a basis the actual development has taken place,
correlates them with the objective conceptions
and principles of the Church itself, and in thik way
Canon Law
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
382
disQovers not only the errors and deviations but
the inevitable tendencies and direction of the de-
velopment. In modem times, since the delimita-
tion of the boundary between Church and State,
doubt has been cast upon the independence of the
church law, as if there could be no law without
the action of the State, and what passed for law
outside this action was only an et Ideal standard,
not a jiuidical. The law of the State, however,
in its essence, is a product not so much of the State
as of the national consciousness of what is just,
and really precedes rather than follows the opera^
tion of the State; its standards do not have to
wait for sanction until the State declares its readi-
ness to enforce them by pains and penalties. The
Church as a distinct moral order is qualified to
regulate and develop its own internal functions
and institutions of its own motion. It is true that
until recently Protestant churches have to a large
extent been orgam'zed, especially in England and
Germany, by secular legislation; but this state
of things is really an anomalous one, not corre-
sponding to the essential idea and meaning of the
Church. The result of the modem settlement
has been in most cases to leave the Church free
to develop independently its own system, without
the need of any special permission or privilege from
the State in order to give such regulations the force
of law within the Church. Its members realize
that they are bound to the fulfilment of such or-
dinances because they have come into being in
a regular and legal manner, and so long as they
are not repealed in the same manner. This obli-
gation is not a mere matter of conscience, but rests
on a basis of positive law, because the standards
of action imposed by it are the expression of the
will of the Church in its corporate capacity. Nor
does the Church lack means to enforce obedience
by the withdrawal of blessings which it alone is
empowered to impart and equally empowered to
withhold. According to the Protestant conception,
it is true, the binding force of ecclesiastical regu-
lations is to a gTv-'at extent dependent upon the will
of the indi\idual to be and remain a member of the
church fellowship. E. Sehling.
n. Collections of Canons and Decretals. — 1. Early
History: In the first three centuries the term canon
was applied to the standard of right living accepted
in the Church, resting partly on written and partly
on oral tradition. When the synods, especially
the general ones, became the main agents in the
development of church life, their decisions on points
of practise were also known os canons — ^though
this name was not usually applied to the decrees
of local synods until the sixth century, after their
inclusion in the great and widely circulated col-
lections nad given them a status and an authority
in a measure analogous to those of the ecumenical
councils. With the development of the primatial
power of the pope, the name came at the begin-
ning of the ninth century to be applied also to his
decrees, and finally its use was extended in medi-
eval terminology to any ecclesiastical enactment.
The collections of canons were made up at first
of the decrees of councils and of popes; later col-
lections include, in addition to these, ezcezpts from
the Fathers, from letters and regulations of bi&hopF.
from Scripture, and even from Roman law, Fraak-
ish capitularies, and ordinances of German es:-
perors. The Council of Trent employed the w®d
exclusively for dogmatic propositions couched m
juridical form and followed by an anathema.
2. First Oodlfioation: During the primitive &fe
of the Church, when its constitution and discipline
rested quite simply upon the precepts of Chrisi
and the Apostles, and the new problems which w€x
later to make the Christian life more oomplioted
had not yet come up, there was no need for a cod-
ification of the laws. It is hardly neoessaiy to
say that the so-called Apostolic Constituti<M]s xad
Canons (q.v.) are the product of a later age. Tht
systematic formulation of law began with the cloin-
organization of the Church and the holding of
synods. The earliest mention of a Codex eananu^*
is found in the acts of the Council of Chalcedoa
(451), at which certain canons were read to tk
assembly from a collection. These, though num-
bered consecutively in the collection, can be iden-
tified as the sixth of Nicsea (325) and the fourth,
fifth, sixteenth, and seventeenth of Antioch (332;
This collection, accordingly, seems to have con-
tained the canons of several councils, beginning:
with the twenty of Nicsea and possibly closing
with those of Antioch, including between these
twenty-five of Ancyra (314), fourteen of Neo-
caesarea (314), and twenty of Gangra (c. 365).
There were undoubtedly other collections known
in this period; one, which is still recognizable in
the oldest Western Latin version, which omittaJ
the canons of Antioch; others which included
those of Laodioea (between 347 and 381), Con-
stantinople (381), and Chalcedon (451): and still
others which had also those of Sardica (347) ai»i
Ephesus (431). There is, however, no basis for
the supposition that either the collection read from
at the Coimcil at Chalcedon or any other of these
collections had an official character.
8. Earliest Western OoUeoUona: Of these Gre^
canons, only those of Nicsea were at first accepted
in the West, and those of Sardica in the Latin
original. As early as the fifth century, howe^^er.
there were collections here also of Greek canons
in a Latin version, through which the Eastern
decrees gradually acquired authority. Of the«
three deserve special mention. (1) The Isidoiian
version, incorrectly so called because
z. The it is found in the great collection loos:
Quesne/- ascribed to Isidore of Seville, is the
liana, oldest. It seems to have included
originally only the canons comprised
in the oldest Greek collection, to which those ot
Antioch, Laodioea, and Constantinople were added
later. It was probably made in Italy; its date
can not be determined, but its version of the Nicene
canons was known in Gaul as eariy as 439. It ^ras
first published in 1675 by Paschafiius Quesneil.
from a manuscript at Oxford of a collection appar-
ently made in Gaul at the end of the fifth centurv.
(2) The Versio prisca, made in Italy in the latter
half of the fifth century, which contains the canozb*
of Ancyra, Neocssarea, NicsBa, Antioch, Gangrr..
Constantinople, and Chalcedon; frequent uaeirsi
383
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canon Law
made of it for the completion of the Isidorian
^rersion and for other collections, especially Italian.
It was first published by Justeau in
2. The the Bibliotheca juris canonici from
PHaca. an imperfect manuscript, then more
fully and accurately by the Ballerini
3rothers. (3) That made by Dionysius Exiguus,
probably in Rome at the end of the fifth century,
md revised early in the sixth. It contains fifty
"apostolic canons"; those of Nicaea,
3. Collec- Ancyra, Neocsesarea, Gangra, Antioch,
tions of Laodicea, and Constantinople from a
Dionysius. Greek collection; from another twenty-
seven of Chalcedon in a new version;
twenty-one of Sardica in the Latin original; and the
lets of the Synod of Carthage (419). Somewhat
ater, probably under Pope Synunachus (498-514),
Dionysius made another collection of all the decrees
)f popes known to him, including those of Siricius,
[nnocent I., Zosimus, Boniface I., Celestine I.,
[jco I., Gelasius I., and Anastasius II. Of a third
jollection made by order of Pope Hormisdas
514-523), and containing the original text of
Gireek canons with a Latin version, only the
prologue is extant. The first two, however,
combined into one, soon acquired preeminent
consideration; Cassiodorus (d. 536) says that they
vere universally preferred in the Roman church
>f his time; they were used in Africa, the Prankish
jhurch, Spain, England, and Ireland. They were
supplemented in course of time by the decretals
>f Hilary, Simplicius, Felix, Synunachus, Hormis-
las, and Gregory II. A codex thus enlarged was
presented by Adrian II. to Charlemagne in 774;
his was taken, after the CapiUdare eccleaiaaticum
)f 789, as the basis of the Prankish capitularies,
Lnd probably sanctioned at the Synod of Aachen
n 802 as the official code of the Prankish church.
4. Next P«riod, by Countries: The canonical
K>llections of the succeeding period may most
conveniently be grouped under their respective
countries. In Africa discipline rested primarily
>n the decrees of home councils, special weight
being given to the Synod of Carthage
1. Africa, in 419, with whose acts those of the
synods held under Aurelius from 393
vere incorporated. These are the canons included,
hough imperfectly, in the collection of Dionysius;
iiey were later translated into Greek and received
nto Oriental collections. Of other African col-
cctions only two require special mention — that
nade before 546 by Fulgentius Ferrandus, a Car-
haginian deacon, under the name of Breviatio
anonum, containing some of the Greek canons in
he Isidorian version and African canons down to
»23, and the Concordia canonunif compiled c. 690 (7)
>y Cresoonius, possibly a bishop.
Spain had its collections of canons and decretals
n the sixth century, as is shown by the acts of the
Council of Braga in 563 and the Third
2. Spain, of Toledo in 679. The enforcement
of order and discipline required a
x>mpleter codification, and a large collection seems
» have been made at the Foiuth Coimcil of Toledo
033). By later additions it acquired the form in
vhich it is now printed (Madrid, 1808). Its first
or conciliar part contains the Greek canons found
in the Isidorian version, those of Sardica, those of
the Third Council of Constantinople (681), and
two letters of Cyril under the name of the Council
of Ephesus; nine African councils; sixteen Gallic
councils, from 314 to 549; and thirty-six Spanish,
from 305 (7) to 694. In this last division, to the
canons of the Second Council of Braga is appended
a collection made by Martin, archbishop of Braga,
a native of Pannonia (d. about 580), by free trans-
lation and selection of Greek, African, Gallic, and
Spanish canons. The second part contains decre-
tals of the popes from Damasus to Gregory I., in-
cluding all that Dionysius had placed in his. The
compiler of this great collection, usually cited as
Hispana, is unknown. There is no evidence to
show that Isidore of Seville had any direct hand in
it; his name was first connected with it by the
compiler of the False Decretals, who incorporated
the older and genuine collection with them.
In the British Isles the Celtic church developed
a disciplinary system of its own in synods of whose
proceedings scarcely anything has been preserved.
For certain fifth- and sixth-century canons of a
penitential nature, see Penitential Books.
The Anglo-Saxon church in like manner relied
for a long time on its own legislative resources,
though the collection of Dionysius
3. British was known here in the seventh century.
Isles. Except the penitential ordinances of
Theodore, Bede, and Egbert, no
Anglo-Saxon canons are extant. There is, however,
an Irish collection of the seventh century or begin-
ning of the eighth, compiled from Scripture, the
Fathers, numerous Greek, African, Gallic, Spanish,
and Irish synods, and papal decretals. The large
number of Irish canons gives a specially interesting
insight into the conditions of church life there.
The Prankish empire, before the period mentioned
above, possessed a number of collections of Greek,
Gallic, and Spanish canons and papal decretals,
which, however, need no detailed consideration.
Besides the enlarged Dionysian collection, the
Hispana was also known at the end of the eighth
century, and was used to complete the Codex sent
by Adrian. The large extent of this material and
its lack of chronological arrangement soon brought
about attempts at selection and systematic arrange-
ment, which were frequent in the eighth and ninth
centuries, and of which some deserve
4. Prankish special mention. (1) A collection in
Empire. 381 chapters, sometimes foimd inde-
pendently, sometimes as a fourth book
to the canonical work erroneously ascribed to
Archbishop Egbert of York. It dates from the
end of the eighth century, and is important be-
cause of the use made of it by Regino (see below,
5) and of the help which it gives toward explain-
ing a number of erroneous titles which passed over
into this and the Decreta of Burchard and Gratian.
(2) The Collectio Acheriana, so called from its
first publisher I^Ach^ry, extant in numerous manu-
scripts and belonging to the end of the eighth or
beginning of the ninth century. Its canons, divi-
ded into three books, are taken without exception
from Adrian's edition of Dionysius and from the
Oanon Law
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
384
Hispana. (3) The Penitential of Halitgar of Cam-
brai, compiled between 817 and 831 at the request
of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims. Of its five books
the first two are taken from the writings of Gregory
I. and Prosper of Aquitaine, while the larger part
of the last three, as well as the prologue, come
from the two collections just named, especially the
second. All three of these collections are con-
structed with special regard to the penitential sys-
tem of the time; and the same is true of the col-
lections made by Rabanus Maurus, particularly
the Liber pcmitentium ad Otgarium of 841 and the
Epistola cui Heribaldum of 853, the main purpose
of which is to restore the ancient discipline by
appeals to the writings of the Fathers and the old
canons and decretals. A somewhat similar char-
acter is seen in the Capiiula episcoporunif or small
collections made by individual bishops, sometimes
with the assent of diocesan synods, for the regu-
lation of their own subjects, usually from larger
works, but occasionally including their own edicts
and the provisions of local law.
6. Further By stematization : The great influ-
ence of the secular power on ecclesiastical action
in the Carolingian period tended to add to the
earlier church law a large amount of material, fre-
quently covering matters of church discipline, in
the capitularies of the Frankish kings. Efforts at
systematization were soon called forth in this field
also by practical needs. The first was that of
Abbot Ansegis, which, however, as it contains
nothing but capitularies, does not need further con-
sideration here. It is different from the work
which Benedict Levita of Mainz compiled in three
books. Its purpose, according to him, was the
completion of the work of Ansegis, but the im-
perial laws form only a small part of its contents,
which are far more largely taken from the Bible,
the Fathers, the ancient canons, with Roman
statute and German common law. The special in-
terest of this collection is the relation in which it
stands, or has been thought to stand, to the Pteudo-
Isidorian Decretals (q.v.).
Between the ninth and twelfth centuries a large
number of compilations came into being, with the
purpose of bringing the wealth of material scat-
tered throughout tlie older works into practical
relation with the more modem ecclesiastical prin-
ciples. Unlike the smaller collections described
above, which usually served rather local interests,
these are as a rule of considerable size and suf-
ficiently general to be used outside the limits of
the diocese in which they originate. Some of
them attained a wide currency and no little prac-
tical importance; but only a few of them need
be mentioned for the purpose of this article. (1) The
as yet unpublished CoUectio Anselmo dediccUa,
taking its name from an Archbishop Anselm, prob-
ably Anselm II. of Milan (883-897).
I. Fore- It is certainly Italian in origin; its
runners material is taken partly from Adrian's
of Gratian. edition of Dionysius enlarged by the
addition of Carthaginian, Gallic, and
Spanish councils from the Hispana, and partly
from the False Decretals, the Registrum of Gregory
1., two Roman synods under Zacharias (743) and
Eugehius II. (826), the laws of Justinian, and the
Novelloe of Julian — ^though probably this last part
was interpolated afterward. It is important not
only as being the first to make a thorough use d
the code of Justinian, but as being the source of
a large part of the Decretum of Burchard, and
through it of that of Gratian. (2) The Libri duo
de causis synodalibus et disdplinis ecclesiasticisr ocm-
piled by Regino, abbot of PrQm about 906, at the
request of Rathbod, archbishop of Treves, to be
used by him and his representatives in the admin-
istration of the diocese. This work, interesting as
another source of Burchard's as well as for its im-
mediate relation to the synodal courts and the
practise of its time, was later enlarged, re\*i««(i.
and borrowed from in a whole series of similar
collections. (3) The Decretum {Liber decretarum,
CoUectarium) of Bishop Bupchard of Worms, com-
piled between 1012 and 1023. The important
material contained in its twenty books embraces
the whole range of church discipline and order.
A peculiarity of Burchard is that he frequently
ascribes canons of councils and excerpts from Ro-
man law, the capitularies, or penitential ordinances
to one of the older popes or councils, e^adently
with the view of assuring their reception as author-
itative— ^thus misleading later compilers, especiallj
Gratian. (4) The CoUectio duodecim parHum, stilJ
unprinted; apparently made by a German very
soon after the completion of Burchard's. Theiner,
who was the first to call attention (in his LHsqui-
sitiones critical Rome, 1836) to the importance of
this collection, was under the erroneous impression
that it was a source of Burchard's; but the relation
is exactly the reverse. It contains, however, a
number of interesting Frankish and German canons,
some of them probably copied directly from the
original documents. (5) The collection of Bishop
Anselm of Lucca (d. 1086), which was incorporated
almost bodily in the Decretum Gratiani, and which
contains a number of papal decretals not previously
known, and probably taken from the Roman ar-
chives. (6) The collection of Cardinal Deusdedit.
dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-^). in four
books, of which the last deals with the freedom
of the Church from secular interference, and thus
introduces an element new to these collection^.
The ample use made of the Lateran archives gi\^
a special interest to his collection, much of which
is also in Gratian. (7) and (8) are two coUectioni
attributed to Bishop Ivo of Chartres (d. 1117)—
the Decretum in seventeen books and the Pannor-
mia in eight. The relation of these two works has
been the subject of much controversy; and if Ivo's
authorship of the PannormiOf at one time often
denied, is now considered certain, the Decretum,
on the other hand, has been recently thought not
to be his. Both, however, were abimdantly drawn
upon by Gratian, as was also, though not to the same
extent, another unpublished collection (9), known
under the name of Collectio irium pcaiium. Its
first part contains papal decretals down to Urban
II. (d. 1099) in chronological order, though not
complete; the second, canons of councils, amilariy
arranged; the third, a separate collection of csldods
taken from the Decretum of Ivo. (10) A worir
385
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oanon Law
frequently used by the Carredorea Ramani (see
below, 7) is that compiled by a certain Cardinal
Gregory in 1144, principally from the two collec-
tions Anselmi and Aruelmo dedicata. It is usually
cited as PolycarpuSy from the designation given
to it by the compiler himself in his preface, ad-
dressed to Bishop Didacus of Compostella.
These collections, from such diverse countries
and periods, had many defects when it came to a
question of practical use. There was no sort of gen-
eral arrangement, but ecclesiastical and secular, imi-
versal and local law were inextricably mixed up;
discrepancies and contradictions were numerous;
many regulations had become obsolete, and been
replaced in actual practise by others. There was
great need for the compilation of a new
a. Gratian. work which should give a compre-
hensive survey of the law that was in
force. This was undertaken by Gratian, a brother
of the Camaldolite monastery of St. Felix at Bo-
logna. Between 1139 and 1142 he compiled a
work entitled Concardantia discardarUium canonumy
though since the end of the twelfth century it has
usually been known simply as the Decretum Gra-
tiani. It is composed principally of the material
found in (3) and (5) to (10) of the works named
in the last section, and is divided into three parts.
The first twenty " distinctions " in the first part
contain propositions as to the sources of law, which
Gratian designates as a treatise on decretals,
followed by other treatises on qualifications for ordi-
nation, on ordination, and on ecclesiastical promo-
tion. The second part, though other subjects occa-
sionally come in, is mainly devoted to ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, offenses, and legal proceedings, deal-
ing in the last nine causa with the law of matri-
mony, with a separate treatise on penance put into
the thirty-third. The last part, entitled " Of con-
secration," deals with religious functions, and espe-
cially the sacraments, in five distinctions. The
feature most characteristic of the work as a whole
is that Gratian did not content himself with col-
lecting canons to illustrate and enforce the prin-
ciples to which they related and arranging them
after a certain rather unsatiBfactory system, but
in the first two parts himself elucidated these prin-
ciples in (generally short) explanations to which
he appended the canons as piUea justificatives. In
these dicta of his the attempt is frequently visible
to reconcile or eliminate the discrepancies appearing
in the canons as they stand.
The extent to which the Decrehim, in spite of all
its defects, met a practical want of its day is seen
by the approval and currency which it attained.
The older collections were superseded by it; the
work which Cardinal Laborans put together in
1182, containing much the same material with a
really better arrangement, failed to attract atten-
tion. The wide popularity of Gratian's work is
to be explained partly by the fact that it appeared
at a time when Bologna was the headquarters for
the study of law. The laborious activity of the
glossators of the Roman law afforded a model for
the application of the same learned method to
Gratian's material. He himself lectured upon it,
and thus became the founder of a new school of
n.-26
canonists who, in addition to their lectures, like
the civil jurists, expoimded separate passages of
the Decretum by glosses or conmientaries (see
Glosses and Glossators of Canon Law). In
this way it became known far and wide; and its
authority was further strengthened by the fact
that the popes made use of it and cited it. It wsb
never, indeed, expressly confirmed by any pope, or
received in the Church as an official codex; but
the influence of the university insured its respect-
ful acceptance and its application in practise. It
was not long before others, particularly a pupil of
Gratian's named Paucapaleo, added canons here
and there to make it more complete — at first in
the form of marginal glosses, but later as a part of
the text, with the designation PaUa, which must
have referred originally to the above-named scholar
(though other interpretations have been attempted)
and then have been adopted as a specific term for
these additions. That they must early have crept
into the text is shown by the fact that the ma-
jority of them are accepted in the work of Cardi-
nal Laborans, a few years later.
e. OollectionB of Decretals: Great as was the
popularity and the practical importance which the
Decretum acquired at the outset, it appeared, none
the less, in a period characterized by great legisla-
tive activity on the part of the popes, who were now
approaching the height of their power. The decre-
tals issued from the twelfth century on contained
an extraordinary wealth of new material for eccle-
siastical law, which in many particulars altered and
fiuther developed the previous discipline of the
Church; and thus it was not long before the work
of Gratian, which, when it was compiled, represented
practically the whole extant canon law, came in-
evitably to be regarded as antiquated or incom-
plete, and the need of new collections was felt.
These, because they were composed almost wholly
of papal decrees and the canons of councils held
under the pope's eye, were usually known as col-
lectionea decretalium.
Of such collections made before Gregory IX.,
five deserve special mention. (1) The Breviarium
extravagantium, completed about 1191 by Bernard,
dean of Pavia. The title comes from the fact that
the laws included in it, principally new ones, were
such as were not found in the Decretum^ but, so to
speak, wandered about homeless (extra Decretum
vagantee), Bernard took his material partly from
some older collections, of which he names explic-
itly the Corpue canonum (probably the CoUectio
Anaelmo dedicata) and Burchard, and partly, espe-
cially for the newer decretals, from collections made
after Gratian. In the division and arrangement
of his work, he evidently took the code of Jus-
tinian for a model. The first book deals with eccle*
siastical offices and prerequisites for judgment; the
second, with judicial tribunals and their procedure;
the third, with the clergy and relig-
X. Before ious orders; the fourth, with mar-
Gregoiy IX. riage, and the fifth with crime and its
punishment. The work was accepted
by the Bolognese teachers, and, as the first 'of its
kind, became known as CampUatio prima. (2) By
order of Innocent III. the papal notary Petrus Col-
Oanon Lftw
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
livacinus of Benevento made a collection of the de-
cretals of that pope, issued in the first eleven years of
his pontificate, to 1210, based upon two earlier ones
which had not been received at Bologna because
they contained unauthentic documents. Innocent,
sending the new work to the universities, guaranteed
its fidelity to the Regeata, thus making it the first
codification of canon law expressly authorized by
any pope. This Compilatio tertia, as it is called,
marloi a turning-point in the history of canon law.
The action of Honorius III., and still more of Greg-
ory IX., shows how the development of ecclesias-
tical law had by their time become an exclusive
privilege of the pope. (3) Though written after
the last-named, that which contains the decretals
of the popes from Alexander III. to Innocent III.
is known as Compilatio aecunda from its place in the
chronological order. These particular decretals had
already been compiled by two KngJishmen at
Bologna, Gilbert and Alan, but the imiversity had
not approved their work, and it was now done over
by Johannes Galensis (John the Welshman), his
collection being accepted. (4) The Lateran Coun-
cil of 1215 gave occasion for another compilation,
known as Quarta, which included the decrees of
the council and the papal pronouncements of the
years following 1210. Its compiler is unknown.
(5) In 1226 Honorius III. sent to Bologna a col-
lection of his own decretals and the constitutions
of Frederick II. It was accepted as CompiUuio
quintOf but was soon superseded, with the other
four, by the official collection of Gregory IX.
In 1230 Gregory entrusted his chaplain Raymond
of Pefiaforte with the preparation of a new collec-
tion which should reduce all that had gone before
to a consistent and intelligible whole. Raymond
omitted a number of sections from the older com-
pilations in order to avoid repetitions or discrep-
ancies, revised some older decretals to
2. Collection bring them into harmony with the
of Gregory, most recent legislation, condensed
some long documents, and divided
others into parts which could be classified by their
subjects. This compilation was sent to Bologna
by the pope in 1234 as the only authorized collection.
The legislative activity of the succeeding popes
soon made supplements necessary, which were sent
by them to the imiversities as separate compilations,
but were intended to be added to the Gregorian
collection. Thus Innocent IV. in 1245 sent to
Bologna and Paris a list of the initial words of his
bulls, desiring that they, as well as the decrees of
the Council of Lyons, should be inserted in their
proper places in the decretals of Gregory IX.;
thus too the decretals of Alexander IV., Urban IV.,
and Clement IV. were put together in special col-
lections. Gregory X. commimicated to the univer-
sities the acts of the Second Council of Lyons (1274),
and the same was done with a collection of five
decretals of Nicholas III.
The same reasons which had influenced Gregoiy
IX. induced Boniface VIII. to combine all the post-
Gregorian decretals with his own nimierous bulls
into a single whole. In his bull of publication
addressed to the universities of Bologna and Paris,
he emphasized the uncertainty which had prevailed
in regard to the authenticity of some decreUKtc
eliminate which he had had a thorou^ revision &d>!
verification made. He promulgita
3. Supple- the new compilation in 1298 under tix
ments to It. name of Libigr sextus, as being a com-
pletion of the five books of the GI^
gorian collection. The decretals subsequently is-
sued by Boniface himself (including the fames
bull Unam sanctam) and by his sueoesaor, Boiedie^
XI., sixteen in number, were frequently appended
to the Liber aexhu, though without official au^oritj.
Clement V. had the decisions of the Council d
"Nnenne (1311) and his own decretals collected (re-
cording to the traditional syBtem) into five books,
which he promulgated in 1313, apparently unds
the title of Liber aeptimtte, and sent to the Univer-
sity of Orleans. Then, however, he stopped its
further circulation and had it revised, so that it
was sent to Paris and Bologna only by his succes-
sor John XXII. in 1317. This collection ultimatdj
became known as the Clementine ConstitutioDs.
The difference between it and the other post-Gre-
gorian compilations was that while they had boni€
to a certain extent the character of exclusive codes,
it did not exclude the other Extrava^anles which
had appeared since the Liber aextus, and that i:
contained, besides the canons of Vienne, nothing
but Clement's own decretals.
The reason for this abandonment by Clement V.
and John XXII. of the system of their predeces-
sors was the difiicult situation in France, and tht
desire to avoid provoking a rejection of their com-
pilation by including in it matter which was certais
to excite violent opposition there. This account:
for the fact that no further official collections of
decretals were published. The increasing difficul-
ties of the papacy with the secular power and with
national churches made the reception of such thinp
problematical, at the same time that it claimed the
best eneigies of the popes for other matters. Of
collections subsequently published, though do
longer by the popes themselves, with the title ci
ExtravagatUeSf two have retained some importance
to the present day, because of their inclusion in the
Corpus juris canonici. When at the end of the
fifteenth century the booksellers Gering and R«n-
boldt in Paris imdertook an edition of all the parts
of the Corpus, they entrusted the editing of the
Decretum, the Liber sextus, the Clementina^ and the
Extravagardes to Jean Chappuis, who made a new
arrangement of the last>named, preserved in all
subsequent editions. He divided than into two
collections; the first, Extraoagantes Johannis Paptt
XXIL, contained twenty decretals of that pope^
put together by himself in a chronologically con-
sistent whole and ^ossed by Zenzelinus de Cassiac^
in 1325; the second, seventy-four (originally sev-
enty) decretals of popes from Urban IV. (1261-64)
to Sixtus IV. (1471-84), known as Eatropoganies
communeSf not because they belong to a number
of popes, but because they are the commonly cit^d
ones — though no single previous edition had con-
tained more than thirty-three of th^e. In 1590
Petrus Matthseus published at Lyons a Liber sepd-
mus containing decretals from Sixtus IV. to Sittcs
V. (1586-90); but this, though printed as an ap-
387
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Oanon X<aw
pendix to many old editions of the Corpxis juris
canonicif never met with much recognition or use.
Gregory XIII. appointed a commission to prepare
an official Liber aeptimtta, but the work, which
finally included the dogmatic decrees of Florence
ajid Trent, was not completely printed until 1598,
in the pontificate of Clement VIII., imder whose
name it appeared; and then Clement, for some
reason now unknown, refused to approve it. No
further systematic collection of later decretals has
been imdertaken, though frequent chronological
arrangements of them have been published imder
the title of BuUaria (see Briefs, Bulls, and Bul-
laria).
7. Ccrims Juris Oanoniol: It remains to give an
account of the Corpus juris canonicif by which name
it has been customary since the sixteenth century
to designate the collection formed by combining
the Decretum Graiiani, the decretals of Gregory IX.,
the Liber sextus, the Clementina, and the two col-
lections of Extravagantes made by Chappuis. The
name was applied to Gratian's work in the twelfth
century, and by Innocent IV. to the Gregorian col-
lection; Pierre d'Ailly, in his treatise De necessi-
tate refarmatumiSf written at the oi)ening of the
Council of Constance, speaks of the reservations
prescribed " in corpore juris canonici," where there
is no doubt that he means the sum of the collec-
tions named above, with the exception of the as
yet non-existent Exiravagantes. During the coun-
cil the term Carpus juris or jus scriptum was con-
stantly employed in contradistinction to the post-
Clementine Exiravagantes, and similarly at the
Council of Basel. The legal authority of the Ex-
iravagantes was, in fact, frequently contested, and
the thesis of the independent validity of every
papal pronouncement, which had had practical
effect since Innocent III., no longer recognized.
So far, then, this distinction was justified, and
while no new accepted collection was added to the
ClemenHna the previously accepted Carpus might
be considered as closed. The name does not occur
in the oldest printed editions, which is to be ex-
plained by the fact that the component parts were
usually printed separately. In the sixteenth cen-
tury it became usual for these parts, together with
Chappuis's two collections of Exiravagantes, to be
published by the same house in three volumes, the
first containing Gratian's work, the second the
decretals of Gregory IX., and the third the re-
mainder with the fosses. In the latter half of
this century, however, it was more common to omit
the fosses and bind the whole in one volume, so
that the inclusive title now becomes usual. The
edition of Demochares (Paris, 1550, 1561) showed
a certain amount of critical spirit, but with little
result. During the sessions of the Coimcil of Trent
the need of revision was clearly apparent, and
Pius IV. in 1563 established a commission of car-
dinals and other scholars for this purpose. Under
his successors, Pius V. and Gregory XIII., it was
confirmed and enlarged to thirty-five members.
The work of these Correctares Ramani, as they are
called, was completed in 1580, and the resulting
revised edition published at Rome in 1582. Though
they had rendered valuable service, much remained
to be done, as was made evident by the editions of
Antonius Augustinus and Berardus — ^to say noth-
ing ot the modem ones. The earlier editions
usually contained a number of appendices, inclu-
ding the Institutiones juris canonid of Paul Lancelot,
professor at Perugia imder Paul IV. (1555-59),
the Liber septimus of Petrus Matthseus, etc.
For the internal relations of the Roman Catholic
Church the Corpus juris canonid is still the au-
thority in common law, though with some limita-
tions. The appendices are not considered author-
itative, especially those just named, unless the single
decretals contained in the last of them have been
universally received; and the same principle applies
to the Exiravagantes, The position taken at the
ooimcils of Constance and Basel was not affected
by the edition of Gregory XIII., whose purpose
was not to give them an official character by in-
cluding them, but merely to establish a correct
and authentic text of the documents which had
previously been included in widely circulated col-
lections. Acting on the same principle in regard to
this edition of Gregory XIII., most modem can-
onists deny the positive authority of the Decretum
Oratiani as such, since it was a mere private col-
lection, never officially authorized by the Church
or the pope, and regard it only as a valuable collec-
tion of documents for the history of canon law.
This view was even expressed in a decision of the
Rota Romana, too long to quote here, and more
than once by Benedict XIV. But though this
may be theoretically the case, yet in practise the
Decretum has retained a large measure of authority;
and Gregory XIII. himself would scarcely have
displayed so much seal in having it edited and
completed if he had regarded it as no more than
a private compilation, without legal authority.
Its contents, however, have in the lapse of time
been to a great extent modified or rendered obso-
lete by later decretals, so that its practical impor-
tance is small.
Besides th^ general principle that a new law
supersedes an older one, which has destroyed the
validity of so much that is in the Corpus juris
(not merely in Gratian's part of it), the course of
secular legislation since the fourteenth century has
had a marked influence in the same direction.
The canon law covers not merely the doctrine,
worship, sacraments, and discipline of the Church,
but a vast mass of other things in which eccle-
siastical interests were supposed to be concerned,
such as vows, oaths, betrothals, wills, funerals,
benefices, church property, tithes, and the like.
The reaction against the all-embracing claims of
the Church has taken many of these things out of
the hands of the ecclesiastical tribunals (see Juris-
diction, Ecclesiastical), while by its proclama-
tion of the principle of the unity of national law
and govemment it has reduced the Church to the
position of any other corporation within the limits
of the State; and thus a large number of canonical
provisions, such as those covering the procedure
against heretics, which conflict with the civil con-
stitution, have necessarily become ineffective. In
France, Belgium, and Italy it is still regarded as
a part of the general body of law. In the German
QanoBlAw
Oanon of Soilptnre
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
888
Empire, after gradual restrictions in many of the
component states, it ceased on Jan. 1, 1900, to
have any legal .validity outside of the internal dis-
cipline of the Roman Catholic Church.
(J. F. VON SCHULTE.)
Biblioobafht: On the oonoeption and apologeii« of
ehuroh law oonmilt: W. T. Knig, Dot KirehermdU nock
GrumUMgen der Vwmunft uf»d im Liehie dM ChriitmUumt,
Leipno. 1826, cf. F. Schirmer, KirdiiengesehidUliehs Un-
iermidiungen^ Berlin, 1829; C. Oraes, Zur BtffriifabMtim'
mun4f und WUrdigun^f d$9 KirehenrtchUt Qrai, 1872.
Collectiona or diseeta supplementing those mentioned
in the text are: Z. B. van EiqMn, Ju9 eeeUaiaatieum uni-
veraale, 2 vols., Louvain, 1700; A. ReiffenstOl, J%i» oanoni-
eum univeraaU, 3 vole., Venioe, 1704; J. H. BAhmer,
Ju9 eeeUtiagiieum iVotetlsnliiim, 6 vole., Halle, 1714;
F. SohmalscrClber, Jim ecdMiaaHeum univermtU^ 3 vole.,
Incolstadt, 1726. Other diecuarionfl are: J. F. Sehulte,
Dm katholUeh0 KirdienredU, 2 vole., Gieaaen, 1856-60;
D. Craieeon, Manuals totitu jurU eanonici, 4 vole., Paris,
1863; F. Walter, Lehrbudi dss KireKsnrtehtB aUer ehriBUiehtn
Konfeuionsn^ 14th ed., Bonn, 1871; F. Thudieum, Kirehen-
recht, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1877-78; A. L. Riohter, Lehr-
huch d$9 luUholMiim und evanodtMchen Ktr^mreehU,
8th ed. by W. Kahl. Leipsic, 1877-«6; W. Kahl. Kireken^
reeht und KireUnpolUik, Freiburg, 1804; E. Geigel,
ReicKs- und niehtlAnductiM Kirehen^ und SHftttn4f9rtehtt
Strasbuzg, 1900; E. Friedberg. Lehrhuch det kathol%$d^»n
und mangdiscken KireKenrtehU, Leipdo, 1903.
Works in £ng. on the general question are: J. Fulton,
Index C/inonwn, Gk. Text toith TraTielatiim and Cemjit
Digeet of Canon Law of the Univeraal Cktuxk^ Nev Yoi
1892; S. B. Smith. ElemenU of EcdeeiatHeal Lax, va
Reference to the Syllabus, ConmtUutionee apoetalkm «&
of Pope Piue IX., the Council of the VaOeam . ...I
vols., ib. 1893-94. For Knglieh church law ooaaoR
K Gibson, Codex juris ecdeeiaeiici AngUcanL «r, 3$
Statutes, Constitutions, Canons, Rubrics, and Artida . . .
Methodically Dioestsd . . . wOK a Cowuneniary, LoDdea,
1713, cf. [M. Foster], An Examination of the Sditm ^
Church-Power Laid Down in the Codex jvria eed. At^
eani, ib. 1735; C. H. DaTis, Enolisk ChwA Cemim d
1604; with historical Introduction and Notet, ib. \m.
M. £. C. Waloott, Constitutions and Canons BdmaAd
of the Church of England Referred to Their Original Sevm
. . . , ib. 1874; Sir. W. Phillimore. Law of As Ourds
England, 2 vols., ib. 1895; F. W. Maitland, Csiira Ut
in England, ib. 1898; A. T. Wiigmaa, CoMliiiitis^
Aitthority of the Bishops in ihs Catholic Chwxh IUmA^
by History and Canon Law, ib. 1809. Consult abo E
Taunton, The Law of the Church. A Cydopadia of Cam
Law for Engiish-epeaking Countriee, London, 190&
For American church law consult: F. Vinton, Ma/ad
Commentary on the General Canon Law of Ae Pnkik<
Episcopal Church, New York, 1870; M. Hoffmann, Etet-
siastical Law in ths Stale of New York, ib. 1868; idea
Ritual Law of the Churtk, ib. 1872; W. S. Vmy. n*
General Ecclesiastical Constitution of tike Amerieen Ckmk
ib. 1891; Revised Conetitution and Canons of the Pnte-
tant Episcopal Chwdi, ib. 1895; H. J. Desmond. Tit
Church and the Law, with Special Reference to BakusAd
Law in tike United States, Chicago. 1898.
. The Canon of the Old Testament.
1. History Among the Jews.
Traditional Account of the Rise of
the Collection (| 1).
The Theory of the Synagogue (|2).
Criticism of the TwoTheoriee(f 3).
Positive Exposition, a. The Pen-
tateuch—the So-called " First
Canon "; b. The Historico-pro-
phetic and Distinctively Pro-
phetic Books — the ** Second
Canon "; c. The Hagiographa —
the" Third Canon " (f 4).
2. Witnesses for the Second and Third
Parts of the Canon.
8. Supposed Jewish Dissent from the
Canon.
4. History of the Old Testament
Canon Among the Jews.
The Triple Division (| 1).
Order (f 2).
CANON OF SCRIPTURE.
Number of the Canonical Books
(18).
5. The Old Testament Canon in the
Christian Church.
Patristic and Medieval Writers (|1 ).
The Ancient Oriental Versions (| 2).
The Roman Catholic Church (| 3).
The Greek Church (| 4).
The Protestant Church (| 5).
6. The Names of the Old Teetament
and of Its Chief Divisions.
II. The Canon of the New Testament.
1. The Terms Used.
2. The New Teetament. 170-220.
The Four Gospels (f 1).
The Pauline Letters (f 2).
The Acts of the Apostlee (f 3).
The Apocalypse (f 4).
The Catholic Epistles (| 5).
Writings Temporarily Regarded as
Canonical (f 6).
Summary ({ 7).
3. The New Testament. 14O-170i
ICardon's Bible (| 1).
The Bible of the Valentiiusni (i I)
The ApoetoUo Writings in Jastu
Martyr (» 3).
4. The Oldest Traces and the Onp
of Collections of Apostolic Wo-
Canon of Scripture is a term that designates the
books of the Bible accepted as authoritative. The
word " canon " (Gk. kanOn) means primarily a
straight staff, then a measuring-rod, hence, figura-
tively, that which is artistically, scientifically, pr
ethicjEdly a guide or a model; so in the earliest
Christian use (Gal. vi. 16; Phil. iii. 16; Clement of
Rome, i. 7, 41) the canon was a leading thought,
a normal principle. The next change of meaning
(indicated by Clement of Alexandria, Strom., VII.
xvi. 94) was to a type of Christian doctrine, the
orthodox as opposed to the heretical. Since 300
the plural form " canons " has been used of eccle-
siastical regulations (see Canon). Now, since the
Christian doctrines were professedly based upon
the Scriptures, the writings themselves were natu-
rally known as the canon; and the test of the
canonicity of any particular writing was its
reception by the Church. The earliest use of
the word in this sense is in the fifty-ninth
canon of the Council of Laodioea (363), "No
The Collection of Paoline Lettes
(§1).
The *' Gospel " (| 2).
Other Writings (f 3).
6, Oriflen and his School.
6. The Original New Testsmest d
the Syrians.
7. Ludan and Eusebius.
8. Athanasius.
0. The Development in the Orieit
till the Time of Jnstinita
10. The Assimilation of the Watt
psalms of private authorship can be read in the
Church, nor imcanonical books, but only the
canonical books of the Old and New Testaments,"
and contemporaneously in Athanssius {Epittck
featalia, i. 961, Paris, 1698). A few years later tiie
use was general.
L The Canon of the Old Testament—l. Hlitoir
Among the Jews: The theory, which was abnoet
universally received for fifteen hundred years, thst
Esra was the author of the Old Te^
X. Tradi- tament canon, dates from the first
tional Ac- Christian oentiuy; for it is found i
count of the IV (II) Ezra xiv. 44 that Esra wss
Rise of the inspired to dictate during forty dajs
Collection, to five men ninety-four bodkS, of
which twenty-four were to be po^
lished. These twenty-four quite evidently are the
twenty-four books of the Hebrew canon, accordiaj
to the counting given below; and the seventy tf^
the Jewish Apociypha alluded to in the Gatpd «/
Nicodemus xxviii. (ANF, viii. 453). What tie
389
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Oanon IJaw
Oanon oX Soriptaro
Fathers have to say upon this matter is derived
in part from IV Ezra, and is equally fabulous.
The theory above mentioned has been supposed
to be the one prevalent among the Jews themselves.
But this has no other support than
2. The The- that the eminent rabbis David Kimchi
cry of the (d. 1240) and Elias Levita (1472>
Syiiagogae. 1549) remarked on the work of Ezra
and the men of the Great Synagogue,
in bringing together the twenty-four books in their
divisions. The only Talmudic passage which can
be quoted directly in its behalf is in Baba Baihra ;
for the other quotations commonly made prove
merely the care of Ezra and the men of the Great
Synagogue for the law, not for the canon; indeed,
mostly for the oral law, and some also for altera-
tions in the text. The passage is in these words:
'' The order of the prophets is Joshua and Judges,
Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah
and the Twelve. Hosea is the first, because it is
written, 'The beginning of the word of Jehovah
by Hosea ' (i. 2). Did God, then, speak to Hosea
first? and have there not been many prophets
between him and Moses? R. Johanan explained
this as meam'ng that Hosea was the first of the
four prophets who prophesied at that time, —
Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, and Micah. Why, then, was
he not put first? Because his prophesy stands next
to that of the latest prophets, Haggai, Zechariah,
and Malachi: he is therefore counted with them.
So this prophet should have been kept by himself,
Guid inserted before Jeremiah? No: he was so
small that he might then easily have been lost.
Since Isaiah lived before Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
>ught he not to have been put before them? [No.]
because Kings closes with destruction, Jeremiah is
mtirely occupied with it, Ezekiel begins with it
>ut ends with consolation, while Isaiah is all con-
lolation; hence we can not connect destruction
urith destruction, and consolation with consolation.
But Job lived in the time of Moses; why should
le not come in the first part? No; for it would
lever do to begin with misfortime. Yet Ruth
ontains misfortune? True; but it issues in joy.
Ind who wrote them? Moses wrote his book and
he Balaam section and Job. Joshua wrote his
KX>k and eight verses in the Law (Deut. xxxiv.
^12). Samuel wrote his book. Judges and Ruth.
>avid wrote Pbalms for ten Elders. Jeremiah
rrote his book. Kings, and Lamentations. Heze-
iah and his company wrote Isaiah, Proverbs,
be Song, and Ecclesiastes. The men of the Great
3magogue wrote Ezekiel, The Twelve, Daniel, and
^ther. Ezra wrote his book and the genealogies
1 Chronicles up to his time. That is a support
>r the saying of Rab; for Rab Jehuda says, in the
ame of Rab, ' Ezra did not leave Babylon until
e had written his own family register.' Who
[ided it? Nehemiah the son of Hachaliah." The
nderstanding of this passage depends upon ob-
srving that the word " wrote " is used in different
maes, of actual authorship, of editorship, and of
lerely collecting and placing together books which
ad not before been brought into connection. It
ill be perceived that the passage says nothing
30ut the closing of the canon, but also that it
would readily furnish ground for the idea that the
canon was closed in the time of Ezra and the Great
Synagogue.
Both theories agree in assigning the collection
of the Old Testament to Ezra and his companions
and successors, and also asserting that the division
into the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa
(see below) was primitive. But against this, two
objections may be urged: (1) Critical
3. Criticism investigation assigns the first part of
of the Two the Book of Daniel, on account of its
Theories. Greek words, to a time when Greek
was imderstood, and the second part to
the Maccabean age (see Daniel, Book of); (2) The
position of some of the historical books, e.g., Ezra
and Daniel, among the Hagiographa, is inexpli-
cable if the canon was made at one tune. Moses
Maimonides, David Kimchi, and Abarbanel ex-
plained the fact by a difference in inspiration. But
Christ calls Daniel a prophet (Matt. xxiv. 15; Mark
xiii. 14).
The Hebrews, like other ancient peoples, pre-
served their sacred writings in sacred places. So
the law was put by the side of the ark of the cove-
nant (Deut. xxxi. 26), with its additions by Joshua
(Josh. xxiv. 26); Samuel laid the law of the
kingdom " before the Lord " (I Sam. x.
4. PoBitive 25); Hilkiah, the high priest under
Exposition. Josiah, found the l^k of the law
a. The Pen- "in the house of the Lord" (II Kings
tateuch — xxii. 8). We are, therefore, safe in
the So-called believing that since the time of Mo-
'' First ses docimients and intelligence con-
Canon." ceming the Mosaic giving of the law,
besides the tables of the covenant, and
also whatever of law and history Moses had written,
were carefully preserved in the sanctuary (Ex.
xxiv. 4, 7, xxxiv. 27; Num. xxxiii. 2). The priests
also would retain partly oral and partly written
information (subsequently combined in the Priest-
code) in regard to many similar matters. The
existence of an authoritative code is proved (a) by
the use of the " Book of the Covenant " in Deut.,
and (b) in the Priest-code; (c) by Hos. viii. 12;
(d) by II Kings xxii. The Books of Kings, finished
during the exile, mention by name the " Book of
the Law of Moses," by which only Deuteronomy is
meant (cf. II Kings xiv. 6; Deut. xxiv. 16; I Kings
ii. 3; II Kings xxiii. 25). The mention of the Book
of the Law of Moses (Josh. i. 7-8; viii. 31, 34,
xxiii. 6) can not be taken without limitation, since
it proceeds from the Deuteronomic editor of Joshua.
Hag. ii. 11-13 shows the existence of the Priest-
code, dealing, as the passage does, with two stat-
utes of that code. The Wellhausen hypothesis,
that the Priest-code was the private possession of
Ezra till 445 B.C., and that Neh. viii.-x. tells of
the introduction of the law, is in incompatible
contradiction with that passage. The lowest date
for the separation of Joshua [from the Pentateuch]
is the time of Nehemiah and the Samaritan schism.
The prophets were the spiritual exhorters and
guides of the people, and therefore held in high
esteem by the faithful, whose natural desire to
have a collection of their writings there is every
reason to believe wsjb early gratified. At idl
Oanon of Soripture
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
390
events, it is quite evident from the prophetic
parallels that the prophets were acquainted with
one another's writings. The loss of so
b. The Hist- much sacred literature in the destruc-
orico-pro- tion of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans
phetic and made the collection of the remaining
Distinct- historic as well as prophetic bool^
iveiy Pro- the more imperative. The success of
phetic a collection of historical books was
Books — the furthered by the fact that Joshua
''Second continued the narrative of the Pen-
Canon." tateuch. Since Kings continues the
history in I and II Sam., and may be
placed in the latter half of the exilic period, the
close connection with the earlier prophets gave the
name to them of " the Former PVophets " and
secured a high estimate for them on the return from
Babylon.
David and Solomon began the arrangement of
the temple praise-service and a collection of P&alms,
and later collections and individual
c. The Ha- P&alms were added. The time of
giographa Nehemiah was very productive. The
— ^the ** Third division into five books is older than
Canon." the Chronicler. The first collection
of the Proverbs of Solomon (cf. Prov.
X. 1-xxii. 16) was so highly valued that Hezekiah
ordered a second to be prepared (Prov. xxv. 1).
The name of the wise man sufficed to recommend
Canticles; its age and contents, the Book of Job.
Lamentations appealed directly to every patriotic
Jew diuing the exile, and was accepted as sacred,
although Jeremiah was not its author. Ruth, by
age, and especially by its genealogy of David, was
put in the third canon, and formed an introduction
to the Psalter. These early writings were followed
gradually by the others, Ezra-Neh., I and II Chron.,
Eccles., Esther (an explanation of Purim, the
festival the Persian Jews brought back with them),
and finally Daniel, in the time of the Maccabees.
After this time, and down to the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus, 70 a.d., the nation was so
affected by Greek customs, and divided by the
growing rival parties, the Pharisees and Sadducees,
that its religious development was too much hin-
dered for any work to receive universal recognition,
and hence canonicity. The reception of Dan. into
the canon appears explicable under the circum-
stances only if a Daniel narrative, the basis of Dan.
ii.-vi., already existed (cf. Ezek. xiv. 14, 20; xxviii.
3). Not long after the Maccabees, the second
collection or canon received its name, the Prophets,
descriptive not only of a portion of its contents,
but of their authorship; and thus the three divi-
sions of the Old Testament canon — the Law, Proph-
ets, and Hagiographa — dated from the second
century B.C. (cf. the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus).
Valentin Loescher {De causis linguoe Hebroece, p. 71,
Leipsic, 1706) said rightly: " The canon came not,
as they say, by one act of man, but gradually
from God."
2. Witnesses for the Second and Third Parts of
the Canon: Jesus Sirach (Ecclus. xlvi.-xlix., es-
pecially xlix. 10) shows acquaintance only with
the F^phets in the wider sense, the '* second
canon." His grandson testifies to the third divi-
sion also. The Second Book of Maccabees, dsad
by Niese (KriHk der beiden Makkabdairiicher, Ber-
Un, 1900) 125-124 B.C., in the section L IOhl U
contains an account of the recovery of the saerej
fire, a quotation from the " records " of Jer^
miah (a lost apocryphal writing); and then fa-
lows ii. 13: " And the same thin^ also wm
reported in the records, namely, the memoirs os
Nehemiah [another apocryphal writingi]^ and how
he, founding a Ubrary, gathered together the books
concerning the kings and prophets, and those of
David, and epistles of kings oonoeming holy gifts-'
This reference to the " epistles of kings concerning
holy gifts " can not denote the Book of Esra, ixx
only a collection of documents r^aiding inter-
national matters, such as would be of value U> a
statesman b'ke Nehemiah, and which had cooose-
tion with the temple and its ofiFerings. It, there-
fore, bears witness to Nehemiah's collection of the
second canon substantially as we have it to-daj,
in addition to the Pbalms and the documents so
weighty for the rebuilt city. The next verse, " And
in like manner also Judas gathered together all
those books that had been scattered by reason of
the war we had, and they are with us," applies
only to the third canon. Therefore, the last m-
largement of the Hebrew canon took place under
Judas Maccabsus; although probably most of the
books of the third canon had previously been
preserved in the temple archives.
Philo had the same canon as ours (cf . C. Si^ri^.
Philo, p. 161, Jena, 1875), and quotes from almoid
all the books; while from the Apocrypha he makes
no excerpts or citation, not giving it the honor be
accords to Plato, Hippocrates, and several other
Greek writers.* The New Testament contains quo-
tations principally from the Pentateuch, Prophets
and Psalms, as might be conjectured from its scope,
but recognises the threefold division of the canon
(Luke xxiv. 44). In this verse " The Ptealms '
does not stand for the entire Hagiographa; for
our Lord meant to emphasise the fact that the
Psalms spoke of him. The use of the phrase
"the Law and the Prophets" (Matt v. 17;
Acts xxviii. 23) does not imply a division into two
parts. The Syrians used the same expression for
the whole Old Testament. The absence of quota-
tion in the New Testament of any Old Testament
book argues nothing against its canonicity. The
use by the New Testament of Apocrypha or Pseud-
epigrapha has no bearing on the canonical status
of the books used or cited. Josephus (Apion, I $)
* P. G. LudoB. Die Therapeuien und ikn SieUuno in dtr
Atkeae, Strasburs, 1880. has proved that the />• vtte amktt-
flativa was not written by Philo, and oonseqoently the
classic paasase — " In every house there is a sacred shrioe.
which is called the holy place, and the monastery in wiucfa
they [the Therapeutics] retire by themselves, and perforra
all the mysteries of a holy life . . . studying in that pb«
the laws and the inspired words throush the prophets and
hymns and the other [writings], by which knowledge khA
piety are increased and perfected " {De vUa corUempL^ iii >
which is the only direct reference to the threefold divisiot:
of the canon found in Philo's works (genuine and pretendeii}
— must be given up. [The passage is translated by C. D.
Yonge. Phiio, in Bohn's Library, iv. 6. F. C. Conybeare. ia
his edition of Philo About the ConUmpUUiiM lAh (Oxftfd,
1805) defends the Philonian authorship.]
801
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OanoB of Soripture
bears the strongeBl teBtimony for the canon,* and,
as is evident, expresses the national and not his
private opinion. And, further, the books mentioned
are not mere literature, but a sacred, divine collec-
tion. He enumerates twenty-two books; thus, 1.
The five books of the Law; 2. The thirteen
Prophets, counting the twelve minor Prophets as
one book, and Lamentations with Jeremiah; 3.
The four Hagiographa — Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesi-
astes, and Canticles. But this arrangement is not
to be looked upon as either old or correct.
8. Supposed Jerwlsh Disaent trom the Oanon :
This dissent is not real, only apparent; but appeal
has been made (a) to the Talmudical controversies
about certain books, e.g., Esther; on further ex-
amination these " controversies " are perceived to
be mere intellectual displays; there is no intention
of rejecting any book, (b) The Book of Sirach, it
is said, is quoted as Scripture; but there is no proof
that it was regarded as Scripture, and the two or
three quotations are memorUer, and probably made
tmder a misapprehension of their source, (c) A
high regard for the Book of Baruch is asserted,
but all Jewish literature furnishes no proof. On
the other hand, the late origin of the book is against
the assimiption; it is dependent upon Dan. ix.,
and was not composed till after the capture of
Jerusalem by Titus, (d) The Septuagint is sup-
posed by some to show that the Alexandrian Jews
had a different canon from the Palestinian, be-
cause books are added to the canonical twenty-
four and additions are made to some of the ca^
nonical books; but this does not follow. For the
Palestinian idea of a canon (namely, the compo-
sitions of inspired prophets, a class of men not then
existent) was not known in Alexandria, where,
on the contrary, the statement of Wisdom (vii.
27), "[Wisdom] from generation to generation
entering into holy souls prepares them friends of
God and prophets," was fully believed, as by Philo
(cf. De cherubim, ix.) and Josephus {War, I. iii. 5,
II. viii. 12, III. viii. 3, 0), who even declared that
they themselves had been at times really inspired,
and freely accorded the fact unto others. There-
fore, to an Alexandrian Jew, there was no im-
propriety in enlarging the Greek translation
of the Old Testament, not only by additions
of sections to the canom'cal books, but of en-
tirely new books. The great respect entertained
for the Septuagint was extended to these addi-
tions, but without giving the latter any canonical
authority. There was no Alexandrian canon;
for neither the number nor the order of the books
added was fixed.
*ThiB paasage in oondenaed form is m follows: " We have
twenty-two books containinc the reoordB of all the jMut
timefl, and justly believed to be inspired. Five of them are
Moses'. These contain his laws and the traditions of the
origin of mankind till his death. From Moses to Artazerxes
the prophets made the record in thirteen books. The re-
maining four books contain hymns to Giod, and precepts
for the conduct of human life. The history written since
that day. though aocuratet is not bo much esteemed, beosuse
there has not been an exact succession of prophets. No
one dares add to. take from, or alter them; but all Jews
esteem these books to contain divine doctrines, and are
willing to die for them."
4. History of the Old Testament Oanon Amonc
the Jews: The Triple Division of the Hebrew
canon is testified to by the prologue to Sirach and
the New Testament (Luke xxiv. 44).
I. The The Septuagint gave up this division in
Triple favor of a different one — ^the present
Division. Christian arrangement of the books
in the order, history, {K)etiy, prophecy
— and inserted the apocryphal books and sections
in appropriate places.
The order of the books in the Hebrew canon is
as follows: 1. The Tarah or "Law"— the five
books of Moses; 2. The Nebkiim or
2. Order. " Prophets "—(a) the " Former Proph-
ets/' Joshua, Judges, I and II Samuel,
I and II Kings; (b) the '' Latter Prophets," Isaiah,
Jeremiah. Ezekiel, the twelve minor Prophets;
3. The Kethubhim (" Writings ") or Haffiographa—
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, Lamenta-
tions, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and
Nehenuah, I and II Chronicles, in all, twenty-four
books. The view once entertained that Ruth and
Lam. once were in the second canon and were trans-
ferred to the third when it was formed has no basis
in fact. The principle of arrangement of the his-
torico-prophetical books is chronological. The
Mishnah arranges the prophetical books proper in
order of length: Jer., Ezek., Isa., the Twelve.
But with this went probably the recollection that
as a whole Isa. was later than Jer. and Ezek. The
Masorites put Isa. first. In some MSS. of the
third canon the most important book, Ps., intro-
duced by Ruth, is at the head, then Job and the
three books connected with Solomon's name, and
the four latest books at the close. The Masorites
arrange: Chron., Ps., Job, Pro v., Ruth, Song of Sol.,
Eccles., Lam., Esther, Dan., Ezra. Manuscripts
differ greatly in the order of these books.
Jewish tradition, except when influenced by
Alexandria, unanimously gives the number as
twenty-four. Nevertheless, it is usual to say that
the original reckoning was twenty-two. If, how-
ever, the witnesses for the latter num-
3. Number ber be not counted, but weighed, it is
of the plain that the authority they rest upon
Canonical is Alexandrian; and this is worthless
Books, for getting at the primitive reckoning,
because the Alexandrian Jews not only
altered the order and division of the books, but
added to them others not in the canon. Further-
more, the Alexandrians arrived at the number
twenty-two by joining Ruth to Judges, and Lam-
entations to Jeremiah. Having thus made twenty-
two, they were impressed with its numerical agree-
ment with the number of letters in the Hebrew
alphabet. This idea was thought significant, part
of the divine intention indeed; and so it became
fixed in the Jewish mind. The Church Fathers
took it up in their uncritical fashion; and so it has
come down to our day. Josephus first gives
twenty-two; but he makes greater use of the Sep-
tuagint than of the Hebrew original. It is note-
worthy that Epiphanius and Jerome, who reckon
the books twenty-two, mention also twenty-seven;
i.e., the Hebrew twenty-two letters, with the five
final letters (the letters which have a special form
Canon of Soriptnre
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
3d2
when at the end of a woxxl); made by separating
the double books, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and
Ezra. But this double counting was only possible
for Jews using the Septuagint, since the original
does not divide these books. Further, neither in
the Talmud nor in the Midrash is there the least
trace of any acquaintance with the number twenty-
two; but, on the contrary, twenty-four is always
given, not because it corresponds with the twenty-
four Greek letters, but simply as the natural result
of the gradual rise of the canon. In the present
printed Hebrew Bible the number is thirty-nine,
similarly ooimted, though not arranged, with those
of Protestant Bibles.
6. The Old Testament Oanon In the Ohristlan
Ohuroh: The Fathers did not impugn the authority
of the Old Testament; but, because of the imiversal
use of the Septuagint, they recognized
z. Patristic as Scripture what we regsird as Apoc-
and rypha. Origen, who counts only the
Medieval books of the Hebrew canon, yet speaks
Writen. of Jeremiah, Lamentations, and the
Epistle as in one [book]. Justin Martyr
used the additions to Daniel; Irensus, Tertullian,
Clement of Alexandria, Cyprian, and others used
the Apocr3rpha with the same formula of citation as
when they used the Old Testament. From the
fourth oentiuy the Greek Fathers make less and
less use of the Apocrypha; while in the Latin
Church conciliar action justified and emphasized
their use. Jerome alone speaks out decidedly for
the Hebrew canon. During the Middle Ages the
Apocrypha were not recognized by the majority
of the Greeks; while just the opposite was true of
the Latins, although not a few followed Jerome.
The Book of Esther, because of its contents, was
sometimes excluded from the Christian Old Testa^
ment canon. Melito of Sardis (170 a.d.) onoits it
from his list (see Eusebius, Hist, eccl., IV. xxvi.),
although perhaps it has rather dropped out after
Esdras (Ezra), inasmuch as in other lists it comes
next to this name. It is also omitted by Atha-
nasiuB (Epistola Featalis, i. 961, ed. Bened.),
Gregory Nazianzen {Carm., xxxiii.),andin the sixth
century by Junilius (De partibus legis divin<JB,L 3-7).
On the other hand, it is included in the canon by
Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Epiphanius.
The old Syrian Church did not receive the Apoc-
rypha. They are not in the Peshito, although
found in a later Syriac translation. Ephraem
Syrus (d. 373) does not give
2. The them canonical authority. Aphraates
Ancient (fourth century) cites from every
Oriental canonical book, but uses the Apoc-
Versions. rypha sparingly and not in such a
way that they must be regarded as
canonical. A great difference is perceptible in the
Peshito translation between Chronicles and the
other books. This has started the query whether
Chronicles was accepted as canonical by the
Syrian Church. The Nestorians certainly rejected
it and Esther. The Ethiopic translation fol-
lows the Septuagint throughout, and contains
not only the canonical but also the apocryphal
books, except that for I and II Maccabees it sub-
stitutes two books of its own imder the same name,
and some pseudographs of which the Greek text-
do not now exist; for the Ethiopic Church make&
even less difference than the Alexandrian betwe^
canonical and uncanonical books. (See PsEjn>-
BPiORAPHA, Old Testament.)
The Roman Catholic Church is committed to the
use of the Apocrypha as Scripture by the deci^'on
of the Coimcil of Trent at the fourth
3. The session. In order to get a nonmJ
Roman text for purposes of quotation, a Bible
Catholic was published in Rome in 1592 under
Church, the order and care of the po|>e. Iq
it is given Jerome's remark, that the
additions to Esther and Daniel which are printed
are not in the Hebrew text; and in smaller type
the candid announcement is prefaced to the Prayer
of Manasses and the Third and Fourth Books of
Ezra, that, while it is true they are not in the Scrip-
ture canon of the Council of Trrait, they are still
included because they are quoted occasi<mally by
certain of the Fathers, and are found both in printed
and manuscript copies of the Latin Bible. The
decree of the council was not passed without oppo-
sition; and later Roman Catholics, such as Du
Pin, Dissertation pr&iminaire ou proligom^nes sur la
Bt&[e, Paris, 1699; and B. Lamy, Apparatus hiblicus,
II. V. 333, Lyons, 1723, have endeavored to estab-
lish two classes of canonical books — ^the proto-
canonical and the deuterocanonical — ^attributing
to the first a dogmatic, and to the second only an
ethical authority; but this distinction contravenes
the decision of Trent, and has found little support.
In early times and in the Middle Ages many
distinguished three kinds of writings, the canon-
ical, recognized, and apocryphal. So the " Easter
Epistle " of Athanasius. The synods of Constan-
tinople (1638), Jassy (1642), and Jerusalem (1672)
expressly reject the view of Cyril Lucar, patriarch
of Constantinople, and others, which
4. The distinguishes the canonical form from
Greek the apocryphal. And the last, which
Church, is the most important in the history
of the Eastern Chiut^h, defined its
position in regard to the Apocrypha in the answer
to the third question appended to the Confession of
Dositheus, in which it expressly mentions Wisdom,
Judith, Tobit, History of Bel and the Dragon, His-
tory of Susazmah, the Maccabees (four books), and
Ecclesiasticus as canonical. Reuss {GesckiclUe der
heiligen Schriften, §338, Brunswick, 1878) says
that the official Moscow edition of the Bible of
1831 has all the Apocrypha, Ezra, in both recen-
sions, with Neh. and I-IV Mace, at the end of the
historical books, the Prophets before the seven
Poetical or Wisdom books. But the " Longer Cate-
chism" of Philaret (Moscow, 1839), the most au-
thoritative doctrinal standard of the orthodox
Greco-Russian Church, expressly leaves out the
apocryphal books from its list on the ground that
" they do not exist in the Hebrew " (cf. Schaff,
Creeds, ii. 451). See Eastern Chitrch, III., { 9.
The Lutheran symbols do not give any express
declaration against the Apocrypha. Nevertheless,
they are dem'ed dogmatic value. Luther transla-
ted them, not, however, III and IV Eira, and
recommended them for private reading, except-
393
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canon of Soriptnre
ing Baruch and II liiaoc. In the first complete
edition of the Bible (Zurich, 1530) the Apocrypha
stood at the end. With this agree
5. The the decisions of the other Reformed
Protestant churches: the "Gallican Confession/'
Church. 1559, §§ 3, 4; "Belgic Confession/'
1561, §§4r-6; "Thirty-nine Articles,"
1562, { 6 (cf. Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, iii.).
The Book of Common Prayer contains readings
from the Apocrypha and especial recommendation
of portions of Wisdom and Sirach. At the Synod
of Dort (1618), Gomarus and others raised an
animated discussion by demanding the exclusion
of the apocryphal Ezra, Tobit, Judith, and Bel
and the Dragon from the Bible. This the synod
refused to do, although speaking stron^y against
the Apocrypha. Similarly opposed to them was
the Westminster Assembly of Divines, 1647, Con-
fession of Faith, i. 3; the Arminians, Confessio
. . . pastorum, qui . . . remonstrantes vocantur, i.
3, 6; the Sodnians (Ostorodt, UrUerrichtung von
den vomehmsten Hauptpunckten der chrisUichen
Religion, Rakau, 1604) and the Mennonites (Johann
Ris, ProBcipuorum ChrisHancB fidei articulorum
brevis confessio, xxix.) agree with the other Protes-
tants. For histoty of the relation of the Bible
societies to the Apocrypha, see Biblb SocisriBS.
For the Apocrypha in general, see Afocrtfha.
6. The Names of the Old Testament and of Its
!^hief Divisions: (a) Hebrew. Neh. viii. 8 has the
expression MUfra, " Reading," which here must
tignify the Law. Dan. ix. 2 has Sepherim, "the
3ook8 "; Kitebe hakJ^odesh, "the Holy Writings," is
falmudic. The division into three parts is common
n the Talmud, with the names Torah, Nebhtim,axid
K^ethvbhim, " Law, Prophets, and Writings," with
he abbreviation TNK. Often the whole is em-
braced in the term Torah, The first part is named
Jso "The Five Fifths of the Law." The first
»art of the prophetical canon is called " the Former
Vophets " ; the second part " the Latter Prophets."
'he third part of the canon is known as "the
V^ritings " and " the Sacred Writings." The Song
f Sol., Ruth, Lam., Eccles., and Esther are classed
3gether as MegHlot, " Rolls." The second and third
arts are often named together as the Jtabbalah,
3) Greek. It may be concluded that by the time
f the translator of Ecdus. the words " the Books "
ere in use, slnoe he speaks of " the other [books],"
the rest [of the books]." In the New Testament
ley are called "the Scripture," "Holy" or
Sacred Writings"; the Pentateuch is called "the
Id Covenant " in II Cor. iii. 14. Among the Greek
athera the following names are used: " The Books
: the Old Covenant," " The Sacred (Holy) Wri-
ngs of the Old Covenant," the " Old Covenant,"
the Twenty-two Books of the Old Covenant,"
the^ Covenant Books," and " Law and Prophets."
•) Latin. Vetus testamentum translates Hebr.
r^lh, "covenant"; instrumentum, totum instru-
entum tUriusgue testamenti, vetus scriptura, vetus
r , and veteris legis libri are used. (H. L. Strack.)
II. The Canon of the New Testament — 1. The
enis TTsad: Alongside the word canon, expressing
le idea of the collection of scriptures, were used
le terms "covenant" (derived from the Old
Testament, Ex. xxiv. 27), " Scripture " or "Scrip-
tiu'es " with the qualifying words " holy," " sa-
cred," " divine," or " of the Lord," also " Law
and Gospel," " Prophets and Apostles." The word
endiothdcos, " contained in the covenant," was op-
posed to apokryphos, " apocryphal," the former
word often containing the meaning " used in public
service."
2. The New Testament, 170-820: Since there
are at command no specific reports concerning the
origin of the New Testament, an examination of
the facts which may throw light upon the problem
must be made in order to discover that origin.
A starting-point is found in the period of the con-
test between the Gnostic sects, particulariy the
Marcionites and the Valentinians, and the ortho-
dox. The Montanistic movement was under way
during this period, though it was concerned not
so much with the New Testament as with its own
objects. The Church had a New Testament already
commonly so called, over against the Montanistic
contention of a new period of prophecy already
opened which was to lead the way to a wider devel-
opment. The Church regarded the age of revelation
as closed with the death of the last surviving
apostle and the canon of the New Testament as com-
pleted, though discussion still went on as to the
inclusion of some books therein. In opposition
to Marcion and Montanus the Church had the
feeling ithat it had an inviolable possession in
the two Testaments, and the Montanist himself
distinguished them from the body of "new
prophecy."
Opposed to the gospel which Marcion prepared
for his communities, to the Evangelium veritcUis
used by the Valentinians alongside the four Gos-
pels of the Church, to the discarding
z. The Four of the Johannean Gospel by the Alogi,
Gospels, and to the exclusive use of Matthew or
Mark by other parties of the Church,
is the statement of Irenteus that the spirit which
created the world had given to the Church its gos-
pel in fourfold form (Hcer,, III. xi. 8), to violate
which was a sin against God's revelation and spirit.
The unity of these is asserted in the designation
of them as " the Gospel " (in the singular), and
in the titles " the Gospel according to Matthew,"
etc. Clement of Alexandria in his discussion of
the origin of the Gospels dealt only with the four.
Recollection was soon lost of the fact that a gospel
not among the four had striven to be retained in
use in public service, and that one of the four had
had to win its place among them. But even the
Alogi did not deny that the Fourth Gospel belonged
to the age of John and had ever since been in the
Church. Tatian's preparation for the Syrians of
the " Diatessaron " witnesses by its very title to
the fact that for an ecclesiastical book of the Gos-
pels no other sources than the four were conceivable.
The very penmssion given by Serapion of Antioch
(c. 200) to certain of his parishioners to read a
gospel called that of Peter, which he gave without
reading the book and through confidence in them,
really speaks for the same set of facts, as does the
subsequent annulment of the permission. Origen
sums up the practise of that period in the saying:
Oaaon of Scripture
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
394
" The Church values only the four Gospels "
(/ Horn, in Lucam).
Generally thirteen epistles of Paul were received.
If in the Muratorian Canon the reception of four
private letters is justified, it appears to have been
caused less by a recollection of a late
2. The introduction of them into public serv-
Pauline ice than through a thought-process
Lettenu of the author, equatiag the seven
letters of Paul to the communities in
83rmbolical fashion with the letters to the seven
chiu*ches of the Apocalypse. No statement can
be made regarding any favorable feeling for the
letters to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians
there rejected. Great difference of opioion existed
as to Hebrews. The Alexandrians regarded it as
Pauline, and Origen supposed it substantially
Pauline through one of Paul's disciples, a position
which was widely adopted in the eastern Church.
But the western Church disputed its Paulinity,
while holding it in high esteem. This was the case
in Lyons, Rome, and Carthage. In the Montar
nistic and Novatian Churches there was a decided
tendency to ascribe it to Barnabas.
Of the Book of Acts all that need be said is that
its name, its general recognition as of Lucan author-
ship, its position between the Gos-
3. The Acti pels and the Pauline Epistles in the
of the Muratorian Canon, its abundant use
Apostles, by Irensus, Tertullian, and others,
and the condemnation by Tertullian
of Marcion for rejecting it speak abundantly for
its canonidty.
The strongest proofs are found of the reception
of the Apocalypse by all parts of the Church. It
was cited by Theophilus of Antioch about 180, and
by the church of Lyons in 177, as " Holy Scrip-
ture." Neither Irensus nor the Muratorian Canon
regard any defense of it as necessaiy.
4. The As against the high value attached
Apocalypse, to it by the Montanists, the Alogi
scornfully criticized it as the work
of Cerinthus. Caius of Rome assmned this atti-
tude also, and Hippolytus defended it against him.
But the general feeling of the catholic Qiurch was
that the book was inspired, written about 95 a.d.,
and properly closed the New Testament.
The position of the Catholic Epistles about 200
was a very varied one, though about 300 they were
known as one division of the New Testament. II
and in John must have been attached to I John,
if their history in the Church and their
5* The preservation are understood. Testi-
Cafholic mony to II John comes from Irensus
Epistles, and Clement of Alexandria; that III
John was not treated by Clement
docs not really damage the case. The doubt which
stood in the way of the imconditional recognition
of II and III John was soon banished. It is almost
certain that the Muratorian Canon designated the
two lesser epistles as recognized. Where it was not
known that the Apostle John was by his disciples
called "the Elder," there was likelihood of the
authorship of those two being questioned on the
matter of genuineness. Their brevity was against
both frequent citation and frequent use in public
and equally against serious question. Jude, a
one of the Catholic Epistles, was the subject oi
comment by Clement of Alexandria. The Mura-
torian Canon quoted it as received. Tertullbn
cited it as the convincing writing of an aposUe,
though Origen remarked that it was not generslh
received. In the fourth century it was amoc^
the arUtleffomena (Eusebius, Hist, eccl.. III. xxv. oi.
The canonicity which it had in the earlier times
was later lost for it in a wide circle of the Churd,
James, though read in the West in eaiiy times a&j
known probably both to Irensus and to Hippolytus,
was until the middle of the fourth century not in
the New Testament of the western Ghurdi. Tae
Canon Muratori is silent; among the Greeks of
the East it was among the generally reoogzuKd
scriptures. Though Origen placed it among the
antiiegomena, in Codex ClaromarUanus it standr
before I John. A noteworthy fact is that Methodios
mistakenly ascribed it to Paul. In 325 it was by
many considered not genuine and EHisebius put it
among the antUegomena {HisL ecd.. III. xxv. 3)
The general recognition of I Peter about the j&t
200 is vouched for by Irenasus, the Epistle of Lyons,
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Hippolytm
The silence of the Muratorian Canon would have
been inexplicable, and to it must refer the remark
that a letter of Peter is received as is the Apoca-
lypse. Against II Peter there were many protesti*.
At Rome it was not unknown, but was not on the
same footing as I Peter. It is doubtful whether
Irensus knew it. Origen's personal opinion was
favorable, but he recorded a divided opinion in the
Chureh concerning the letter. In the East its
position was different from that of I Peter in that
there it was not a New Testament book (Eusebius,
Hist ecd., IV. xxv. 8). As late as 380 Didymus
pronounced it uncanonical and the Syrians deter-
minedly rejected it. Of the Epistle of Barnabas
it may be said that Clement of Alexandria seexDs
to have included it among the Catholic £}pistles, and
the same is true of Origen. Codex Claromontanut
puts it after the seven Catholic Epistles and before
Revelation. It is pertinent here to remark that
the first and second Epistles of Clement are by the
Carumea Apoetoloruin, Ixxxv., put between the
Epistle of Barnabas and the Didache. I Clemeot
is elsewhere given as a Catholic Epistle; at Corinth
it was used occasionally in public service, a usage
which spread to Alexandria and to Syria. It was
cited by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen.
But its connection with the New Testament was
less firm even than that of Barnabas; in the West
it was not considered as of the canon, and Iremeus
seems to have employed it as belonging to the sub-
apostolic age.
The Shepherd of Hennas was used as scriptuie
by Irenteus, Clement of Alexandria, and in An-
tioch. At the beginning of the third
6. Writings century there was in Cathob'c and
Temporarily Montanistic cireles a loosening of
Regarded the connection between this book and
as Canonical, the canon. Tertullian, contrary to
his earlier practise, owing to the
laxity of discipline attributed to this book, de-
clared that it should be regarded as apocryphal
395
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canon of Scripture
and even as falae. The Muratorian Canon ex-
cluded it from the regular and public reading of
the Scriptures, though its perusal was permitted
and even enjoined. This was the first attempt
to form a secondary canon. There are two Latin
translations of the book, and an unknown Roman
bishop cited it as scripture, while Novatian and
Commodian indorsed it, and the Latin liturgies
show its influence. Yet by an ecclesiastical de-
cision about 200-210 the Shepherd was set outside
the canon. While Clement of Alexandria did not
include the Shepherd in his brief commentary, he
did treat the Apocaljrpse of Peter, a little book of
about 300 lines. This book closed the canon of
Codex ClaramorUanua ; but the Armenian List put
it among the Apocrypha, and Eusebius (HUL eccl,,
III. XXV. 4, cf. iii. 2) declared against its genuine-
ness. Sozomen says that it was used as late as
430 in Palestine at Easter. The Didache was cited
and used as scripture by Clement and Origen, and
during the next oentiuy this was its status in Egypt.
Eusebius (Hist ecd., III. xxv. 4) put it among the
anixlegomena of the second grade. It was known
in the neighborhood of Antioch and in the West.
The apocryphal Acts of the Apostles were often
read in the early Church without question. The
Acts of Paul came the nearest to winning canonical
authority, and received favorable notice from
Clement and Tertullian.
The New Testament of the Greek and Latin
Church of 170-220 included as in quite definite
authority the four Gospels, thirteen letters of Paul,
Revelation, I Peter, I John (to which were attached
II and III John), probably also Jude.
7. Summary. Up to 210 the Shepherd was also in-
cluded. On the other hand, there
were questioning about James, Hebrews, II Peter,
the Apocalypse of Peter, the Didache, Barnabas,
I and II Clement, Acts of Paul, and the Shepherd.
The polemic against Marcion, the Gnostics, and the
Alogi brought the discussion of the New Testa-
ment canon to a focus about the time of Irenaeus
and Clement of Alexandria. There was yet lacking
that definiteness of organization of all the churches
which alone could seciue uniformity. The New
Testament of about 200 was not the result of a
revolution occurring 150-170, but of a broad de-
velopment which was many-sided. The sharply
bounded canon of Marcion had pointed the way
to a definiteness in canonicity which the Church
was soon to follow.
8. The New Testament, 140-170: Valentinus
had founded his school which had divided into many
sections and spread from the Rhone to the Tigris
with a rich literaiy activity and yet a general con-
sensus of action. Marcion founded his church at
Rome after he had separated from the catholic
Church probably about 147. Alongside the polemic
against these movements, Christian writers were
engaged in the apologetic of the Church which was
to go before the pagan rulers and populations.
The apologetic, however, found far less occasion to
deal with the Christian Scriptures than did the
writings against the heretics.
Knowledge of Marcion's Bible is due chiefly to
Tertullian, who claimed to use as a weapon against
the heretic his own New Testament, and so came to
traverse the latter from beginning to end. After
Tertullian as a source of knowledge comes Epi-
phanius (/fcer., xlii.), and a number of
I. Marcion's citations from Greeks and Syrians up
Bible. to the fifth century which enable one
to reconstruct quite securely Marcion's
canon. Marcion issued not only his New Testa-
ment but also his Antithesis as a defense of his
dogmatic position and of his critical edition of the
New Testament, and this became the doctrinal
basis of his Church, which was studied by Tertul-
lian, Ephraem Syrus, and others. His Bible con-
sisted of a "Gospel" and an "Apostle," both
anonymous. Since Paul seemed to him the one
preacher of an unadulterated gospel, his " Apostle "
embraced ten epistles of Paul and in the following
order: Gal., I and II Cor., Rom., I and II Thess.,
Laodiceans (i.e., Eph.), Col., Phil., Philem. It is
of course evident that this collection must have
been received by him from the Church. He sought
to show that the letter to the Ephesians was the
letter to the Laodiceans mentioned in Col. iv. 16.
Galatians he especially prized because of the anti-
Judaic polemic it contains. I and II Tim. and
Titus he discarded as private letters, Philemon was
admitted on the ground that it is a letter to a church
in a household, and this alone was left intact and
imedited. For the criticism of the writings he
received he depended neither upon historic tra-
dition nor on testimonies to historicity; his basis
was his own subjective conception of what true
Christianity was and what the Pauline Gospel
was; from this standpoint proceeded all his text-
criticism. That he recognized the Gospel of Luke,
the basis of his own, as the work of one of the Paul-
ine school is shown by his elimination of the words
" the beloved physician " in Col. iv. 14. His gos-
pel, so far as its text can be made out, proves that
he had before him the third Gospel, and this, in con-
sequence of its long association with the first and
second Gospels, had received amplifications of its
text from them. But no trace of influence due to
extracanonical Gospels upon Marcion has ever been
shown. It follows from this that the canon of the
Gospels of the Church at Rome from about 140
on was our four Gospels. Marcion's canon of the
epistles coincides with that of the Mtuntorian
Canon. It is natural that he should place no value
upon the letters of Peter, John, or James, the last-
named especially in view of Gal. ii. 0, 12. Acts and
Rev. he appears to have expressly rejected. In
comparison with the ecclesiastical New Testfftnent
not only of his times but of the next two centuries
with its varying boundaries and its variant text,
the Marcion canon is a sharply drawn work of art
in miaiature, though it was the work of an arbitrary
lawgiver.
What Marcion accomplished with knife and
eraser the Valentinians sought to do by means of ^
exposition. Since they had not voluntarily sep-
arated from the Church, but merely distinguished
themselves from the communes ecdesiasticif they
had no objection to raise to the common edi-
tion of the " Prophets and Apostles." They
needed no special Bible. They used the Gospels
Oanon of Soriptnre
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
306
freely, particularly the Fourth. Apart from the
prologue to this last, the structure of the series of
eons of Valentinus are unintelligible.
2. The Heraclion commented on all four of the
Bible of Gospels. In the different branches of
the Valen- this sect Eph., Col., and I Cor. were
tinians. especially valued, but Rom., II Cor.,
Phil., and Gal. were also used. In
their criticism of the Gospels they laid stress
upon a secret tradition. They used also an Evan-
gelium veriUUis, a fifth Gospel, which probably
contained the eum of apocryphal tradition, derived,
according to Serapion, not from the Docetes but
from their precursors. The Gospel of Peter may
have arisen about 150 from the eastern branch at
Antioch as did the Evangdium verUaHa among the
western school of Valentinians. To a branch of
the Valentinian school of Asia Minor belonged
Leucius, the author of the Acts of Peter and John.
They probably used also the Gospel of the Infancy.
Leucius wrote also a " Joumeyings of John," sug-
gested by the " Letters to the Seven Churches " of
Revelation. In short, the foundation of the canon
of the most important schools of Gnostics, 140-170,
is that of the Church of 200, only that these " men
of the spirit " used alongside of the canonical wri-
tings a mass of other traditions and poetical and
subjective creations which were not employed
among the orthodox.
In his short description of the Sunday service as
observed by Christians in city and country, Justin
names as taking the first place the reading of
the " Memorabilia of the Apostles,"
3. The " which are called Gospels " (I Apol-
Apostolic ogy, lxvi.-4xvii., ANF, i. 185-186),
Writings and the " collection of the Prophets."
in Justin " Gospel " in the singular is also used
Martyr, by the Jew Trypho and by Justin as a
collective. Out of deference for his
readers who were not acquainted with the term
" gospel," Justin commonly used the term Apo-
mnemoneumata, '' Memorabilia." While generally
such memorabilia took their name from the author,
Justin named these from the subject, *^ The Memo-
rabilia of our Savior." As under the term *' proph-
ets" the whole Old Testament is included, the
term mtmorabUta in Justin may include the New
Testament writings. The answer to the question
what gospels are meant has long been, those com-
monly used about 150 in the places Justin visited
or lived in, in Ephesus and Rome, in the public
service and known as the product of the Apostles or
their disciples. Trypho (Dialogue, x.) speaks of
the " so-called gospel " as a totality, a unit. They
can be no other than what Marcion criticised and
Valentinians so fully employed. In one place
Justin expressly discriminated between the Apostles
and their disciples in a passage which goes back to
Luke xxii. 44 {Dialogue^ ciii.). He named the
second Gospel "The Recollections of Peter," a
designation which implies the old tradition of the
connection of this Gospel with that apostle. What
has partly or entirely produced the idea that Jus-
tin's " memorabilia " are not the Gospels of the
Church is first the looseness and inexactness of
quotation, and second the material additions of
facts or reports grounds for which aje not founi
in the Gospels. But in Justin's dtations exactsc^*
is no more to be expected than in dement 's; azyi
much that appears apocryphal to us may have b<ri:i
read in the Gospels of his time. Justin regarce>i
Revelation as the work of the apostle John and as a
true testimony of Christian prophecy. Investigati cc
of his writings shows contact of Justin with Rom.
I Cor., Gal., Eph., Col., II Theas., Heb., I Pet
Acts and the Didache: more questionably witL
Phil., Titus, I Tim., and James.
4. The Oldest Traces and the Origin odT CoUee-
tionaof Apostolic Writings: From the precediii^
array of facts it appears that by 140 in the entiit
circle of the cathoU^ Church the collection com-
prising the four Gospels and thirteen Epistles 0:
Paul were read alongside of the Old Testament
writing, and that in one part or another of the
Church other writings such as Acts, Rev., Heb..
I Pet., James, and the Epistles of John were held
in like honor.
The collection of Pauline letters seems to go
back to the first century, judging from I Clement,
the Ignatian Epistles, and Polycarp. The bishops
of Smyrna and Antioch had a knowledge of Paul
which involved acquaintance with
z. The his letters, and the way in which they
Collection employ them shows that the letters
of Pauline were before theuL Polycarp advised
Letters the Philippians to read Paul's letters
for edification; Ignatius knew Eph.
under the title used later by Marcion as part of an
ecclesiastical collection. Polycarp included Phil.
and Thess. in a group directed to the Macedonians
just as Tertullian knew them a century lat«r.
Clement seems to make the collection begin with
I Cor., an order which the Muratorian Canon sup-
ports, closing with Rom. This aggregation, which
contained abo the order Phil.-Thess. and the title
" to the Ephesians," has every claim to originality
and to have circulated before 97. That there wa!s
an interchange of letters among the churches before
this collection was made is dear from Col. iv. 16,
but the circulation and use implied in II Pet. ill. 15
involve a collection in one manuscript, perhaps
not official but private. The passage last cited
implies a Pauline letter to Jewish Christians, and
I Cor. V. 9 and Phil. iii. 1 imply other lettere of
Paul which have not survived. These facts suggest
a deliberate selection from the available letters of
Paul, made probably in some important center of
Christianity, which came into general use and wa>
seen to be available for public service. But the
settlement of the order of arrangement implies
that the collection was made very eariy, soon after
the death of Paul. Where this was done can not
be stated, though the placing of I and II Cor. at
the head suggests Corinth. Rome is also to be
thought of as explaining the closing of this col-
lection with the Epistle to the Romans.
The word euaggelian, which, 150-200, designated
the collection of four Gospels, is frequently found
in the earlier literature so used that by it must be
meant a written exposition of the words and deeds
of Jesus in possession of the churches and gener-
ally known to the communities {Didache, viii. 2;
307
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
OaaoB of Soripture
// Clem., viii. 5; Ignatius, Sm^^maf v. 1; Philc^
<ielphia, viii. 2). That " Gospel " was the authori-
tative document. The general knowl-
2. The edge of its contents involves its
*'GofpeL" regular use in public service. It was
cited with the formula ** the Lord
says/' with or without the addition " in the Gos-
pel," and with the formula (used with Old Testament
citations) " it ib written." But what was this
*' Gospel "7 A clear imderstanding of what it was
existed between the writers of the period 90-140
and their readers. Papias declared that during
the lifetime of John in the vicinity of Ephesus a
Gospel of Mark was used, and Cerinthus, a con-
temporaiy of John, preferred it to the others
(IreniBUs, Hcer,, III. xi. 7, cf. I. xxvi. 1). Papias a»-
serted that the Hebrew Matthew was long used in
the province of Asia with the aid of oral interpreta-
tion until a Greek version superseded it. Even the
Fourth Gospel recalls the very words of Mark and
Luke (T. Zahn, Einleitung, Leipsic, 1900, pp. 50&-
606, 520). The spurious passage Mark xvi. 9-20 is
derived from Luke, John, and Papias. The earliest
Gospels of the Infancy and the Gospels of Peter
and Marcion go back to the canonical Gospels.
In the literature of 95-140 among a mass of ordi-
nances for ecclesiastical direction only four gospel
citations are not traceable to the four 'Gospels
(// Clem., V. 2, 4, viii. 5, xii. 2-6; Ignatius, Smyrna,
iii. 2). Such imcanonical sayings as these .four
were circulated orally as well as in writing; Papias
about 125 collected many of them. Of the origin
of the making of the Gospel canon there is no trust-
worthy report, nor can it be said where it took form.
Other writings which are foimd afterward a»-
nigned to the New Testament were not unified in
any one collection as were the Gos-
3. Other pels and the Pauline Epistles. They
Writings, appeared first either as indisputable
or as debated parts of the New Testa-
ment in the stage it then had reached. A very
wide use in extended circles of the Church during
public service is provable for I Pet., I John, Rev.,
and the Shepherd, none of which was originally
addressed to a sin^e community.
6. Orlffen and HU Sohool: During the third
century the New Testament underwent no essen-
tial change. The achievement of Origen was the
comparison of the content of the traditional posses-
sion of various commimities. His varied life and
travels gave him the opportunity to learn through
5>bservation existing variations; his philological
training and his decided vocation for learned work
in the service of the Church qualified him to pro-
noimce a discreet judgment. Before 217 he was
welcomed at Rome as one of the rising stars of the
Church; his travels took him to Athens, Antioch,
and CsBsarea in Cappadocia, while his later years
were spent in Palestine. Students flocked to him
both in Alexandria and in Palestine. But Bible stu-
dent though he was, he was no thoroughgoing critic.
He quoted Prov. xxii. 28 in reference to discussion of
the canon; tradition spoke for him the last word,
though indeed that tradition was to be investigated.
Hence he voiced the distinction between the homo-
logaumena, the writings universally recognised as
scripture, and the antileg&mena, or those more or
less opposed. To the former, according to Origen,
belonged the four Gospels, thirteen Pauline Epis-
tles, I Pet., I John, Acts, and Rev., the last the clo-
sing book of the New Testament. To the latter
belonged Heb., II Pet., II and III John, Jas., Jude,
Barnabas, the Shepherd, the Didache, and the
Gospel of the Hebrews. Hebrews was frequently
cited by him as though Pauline and canonical,
especially in his earlier writings; and he defended
its Paulinity rather as coming through a member
of Paul's school than from Paul himself. II Pet.
was also frequently cited by him as scripture,
in which his scholar Firmilian followed him. Jas.
was also frequently cited both as scripture and as
** the apostle James." Jude appears to have been
valued by him, though not often appearing in his
writings. Barnabas is called a Catholic Epistle
and in the Onomaaticon is put with the other
Catholic Epistles. He regarded the Shepherd as
an inspired work and useful. He appears also to
have cited the Didache as scripture. The Gospel
of the Hebrews is not mentioned in his list of the
apocryphal gospels; on the other hand, it is often
dted with the formula he used when citing from
such writings. He sharply discriminated the
Jewish-Christian communities, whose one gospel
this was, from the heretical Ebionites on the ground
that the former held fast the ecclesiastical rule of
faith.
The allegorical interpretation by means of which
Origen undertook to reconcile the most divergent
materials and the most varied writings and to unite
them thus in one Bible found opposition. The
composition of Nepos, bishop of Arsinoe, " Against
the Allegorists" advanced and spread a chUiasm
which to Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria about
260 appeared unendurable. To Origen it appeared
that Rev. was written by an inspired man of the
apostolic age named John, but the difference in
stylo and conception from the Fourth Gospel did
not allow its ascription to the apostle. It was
especially a book for the application of the alle-
gorical method.
6. The Original New Testament of the Sirrians:
On the beginnings of the church in Edessa there is
a legendary report in Qyriac, The Doctrine of Addoi,
ed. Phillips, London, 1876, which contains some
significant words about the books introduced there
for use in the service. Addai, the founder of the
church of Edessa, is made to say expressly that
beside the Old Testament no other scriptures shall
be read than the Gospel, the Epistles of Paul, and
the Acts. And by the Gospel is doubtless meant
the Diatessaron of Tatian. On the other hand,
Ephraem knew well the four Gospels, and a Syrian
canon contained not the Diatessaron but the four
Grospels in our order. The Syrian collection of
the Pauline letters embraced, about 330-370, ac-
cording to the commentaries of Aphraates and
Ephraem, Heb. and the apocryphal III Cor., but
not Philem. The last-named book failed to appear
in the otherwise complete commentary of Ephraem.
A summary from Sinai gives Philem. at the end
and does not contain III Cor.; on the other hand,
it has a II Phil., which may be another name for
Oanon of Sorlptnre
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
898
III Cor. It is now known that this apocryphal
writing is but a section out of the Acts of Paul
which belongs to the period about 170 at the earliest.
It could, therefore, not have belonged to the original
Syrian Canon. Tatian became a Christian at Rome,
and, according to the legend, the canon of the Epis-
tles was received from Rome. Eusebius (Hist,
eccl,, IV. xxix. 6) heard an obscure report that there
was a recension of the Pauline Epistles by Tatian.
The oldest Syrian text both of Epistles and of
Gospels has a relationship to the Western text.
The Sinai sunmiary throws new light on the sub-
ject. The order of the Epistles there is Gal., I and
II Cor., Rom., Heb., and so on, and just this is the
order in which Ephraem commented upon them
and it is the order of Mardon, and no one was more
likely to follow in the footsteps of Marcion than
Tatian. It is veiy remarkable too that in the
Syriac sunmuuy II Tim. is mentioned, but I Tim.
is omitted. The Syrian Church could not maintain
its original individuality. While before the time
of Aphraates and in the third century it received
Heb. and I Tim., it could not exclude all the Cath-
olic Epistles. The Syriac translation of Eusebius's
Church History, which Ephraem had diligently
read, acquainted the Syrians with the older his-
tory of the New Testament. Intercourse sprang
up in the fourth century between Greek and Syrian
Christians, and Greeks and Greek Bibles appeared
in Edessa; it is, therefore, no wonder that Ephraem
was familiar with all the Catholic Epistles. In the
Peshito a selection was made of Jas., I Pet., I John,
while II Pet., II and III John, Jude, and Rev.
were excluded.
7. Luoiaa and BuMbius: While the New Tes-
tament of the early Church in Antioch had its indi-
viduality, the canon of Chiysostom was exactly that
of the Peshito and carried the exclusion of II and
III John back to the decision of the Fathers. This
can not be due to the efforts of Eusebius, since he
would set aside the Apocalypse, but would recog-
nise the seven Catholic Epistles; to reach the roots
of the matter, one must go back to the beginning
of the exegetical school, to Ludan. Report says
that Lucian was bom in Samosata and that he
labored in Edessa before he became a priest and
the founder of the school in Antioch. It is doubt-
less true that he extended his text-critical work to
the New Testament, and that his recension of that
as well as of the Septuagint was diffused as far as
Constantinople. So that the Antiochean school's
text of about 380-450 probably goes back to Ludan
and was a compromise between the Edessan and
the Antiochean traditions. Rev. was excluded
while Jas., I Pet., and I John of the Catholic Epis-
tles were taken in. This doubtless influenced the
Peshito.
In Palestine the Bible-studies of Origen were
continued by Pamphilus and Eusebius. But
Eusebius was affected both by the Origenistic
tradition and by the Antiochean school, with
representatives of which he was connected in the
debate over the Trinity. In his Church History
according to his promise he has diligently given
the pronoimcements of earlier writers about the
anHUgomena of the New Testament, and also in-
teresting information about both acknowledged
and doubtful writings. With Origen, he found
two classes, homohgoumena and antUeffomena ; but
the second he divided into two subclasses, the one
containing the books he would have acknowledged
and the other the notha or '* spurious." His table
then is: (1) Homologoumena, the Gospels, Acts,
fourteen Pauline Epistles, I Pet., I John, and Rev.;
(2) AntiUgamenat (a) the better sort, Jas., Jude,
II and III John, and (b) the notha. Acts of Paul,
Shepherd, Apocalypse of P^ter, Barnabas, and the
Didache. But Eusebius's treatment is not always
either dear or consistent. He uses a term endia-
thdco$, '' within-the-New-Testament," as a syno-
nym of homologoumenaa and appears thereby to
exclude from the New Testament the first class of
the antiUgamena. On the other hand, in naming
the second subdivision of the antiUgomena " spuri-
ous " he seems to argue the genuineness of the first
subdivision. But for him the seven Catholic
Epistles are a closed collection. It was about Rev.
that Eusebius foimd it hard to come to a decision.
Many times he dies it and adduces the strongest
testimony for its eccledastical importance {Hist,
eccl,, IV. xviii. 8, xxiv. 1, xxvi. 2, V. viii. 5, xviii.
14, VI. XXV. 9). But when in III. xxiv. 18 he
reports the vacillation of opinion about the book,
he calls attention to the influence of the Lucian
school. He dtes it as " the so-called Apocal3q)6e
of John " (III. xviii. 2, cf. xxxix. 6), briefly refers
to the vituperation of Caius (III. xxviii.), and notes
the more cautious criticism of Dionysius (VII. xxiv.
5). His conjecture that another John wrote it
he follows out with diligence, and in the interest
of this hypothesis seeks to prove the existence of
a presbyter John as distinct from the apostle. He
would disrobe the book of its apostolic dress and
remove it from the New Testament, though he
never expressly utters this decision. On account
of its quite universal recognition in the Church
he leaves open the choice between pladng it among
the homologoumena or among the noOia. Apart
from this book, however, his New Testament is
the same as ours. The making of fifty copies of
the New Testament on parchment for Constantine
gave him an opportunity to diffuse his opinions,
and the result showed that he inclined to the Ludan
form of text rather than to the Origenistic, though
induding therein the lesser Catholic Epistles.
8. Athanasius: According to the Easter Letter
of 367, recently recovered through a Coptic trans-
lation, in which is given a view of the continuous
imdiscriminating usage of all kinds of Apocrypha
as scripture in the ecclesiastical province where
Athanasius was, there was afforded him the oppor-
tunity of setting forth a definitely limited canon
arranged in order of books and in groups. He was
the first to name the twenty-seven books of the New
Testament as exclusively canonical. He ignored
the opposition to which several of them had so long
been subjected, notably II Pet., which Didymus
continued to oppose. But not to break completely
with the Alexandrian tradition, he placed in sharp
distinction from the *' canonized " books and
equally from the apocryphal ones a class of ana-
gignoskomena. The Fathers had designated these
899
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oanon of Soriptore
as to be placed before the catechumens for their
instruction. They included Wisd. of Sol., Ecdus.,
Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Didache, and the Shep-
herd. The Didache had great influence upon the
Uturgy in Egypt, and to the Shepherd Athanasius
himself attached high value. The surprising ele-
ment, however, is the complete silence concerning
other writings which at least in Alexandria had
equally with the Didache and the Shepherd been
reckoned with New Testament writings. Serapion,
the friend of Athanasius, had cited Barnabas as
" the most honored apostle Barnabas " along with
the Romans of Paul, and in Codex SinaiHcus it
stood between Rev. and the Shepherd. The New
Testament of twenty-seven books seemed to be
as firmly settled as that of Eusebius's twenty-six
had been. And this view came to have the victory
in the Church, ruling out finally the shorter canon
of Eusebius and the use of a class of books merely
for the instruction of catechumens.
9. The Davelopment In the Orient till the Time
of Justinian: The peculiar criticism of Theodore
of Mopsuestia did not essentially change the sit-
uation established by Lucian and Eusebius. The
concordant testimony of Theodore's opponent
Leontius and of his admirer Jesudad is that Theo-
dore rejected the seven Catholic Epistles. And
since as an Antiochean he rejected the Apocalypse,
his New Testament was the Syrian one of about
340. In the arrangement of the Pauline Epistles
(Rom., I and II Cor,, Heb., Eph.) he followed the
Syrian usage in respect to Heb., and the Greek in
respect to Rom. and Gal. He defended the cano-
nicity of Philemon, but rejected III Cor. It is no
wonder that, admired as he was by the Syrian
N^cstorians, these latter adopted his canon. And
the Nestorian Jesudad (ninth century) still regarded
:he three greater Catholic Epistles as a sort of
mtilegomena. How tenacious the opposition to
/he Apocalypse was, as also that to the four lesser
I^atholic Epistles, has been shown above. Never-
theless, by the sixth century the Apocalypse had
von all along the line from Jerusalem to Constan-
inople. If Philoxenus of Mabug, c. 508, had Rev.
ind the lesser Catholic Epistles translated for the
irst time into Syriac, this implies that in the con-
iguous Greek ecclesiastical province, in the patri-
archate of Antioch, the Apocalypse was no more
gnored as it was c. 400, that on the contrary it
vas again received. About the year 600 Andrew
vrote in Csesarea his great conmientary on the
Ipocalypse, in which with a certain assiduity by
ippeal to the older teachers from Papias to Cyril
le defended the inspiration of the book, and in a
lote on Rev. xxii. 18--19 assailed the critics. About
SO Leontius designated, in lectures delivered in
he monastery at Jerusalem, the " Apocalypse of
he Holy John" as the latest canonical book of
he Church.
lO. The Assimilation of the West: By the
acillation and the attempts at fixation which the
anon underwent in the East the Latin Church was
ot immediately affected. Until the fourth cen-
ury the New Testament there excluded Heb., had
n incomplete canon of the Catholic Epistles,
ut included the Apocalypse, which was seriously
assailed only by Caius. The events of the fourth
century made isolation impossible. The settle-
ment of Pierios, " the new Origen," in Rome was
a significant preparation. There followed the
councils, the exile of Athanasius in Trier (336-337),
in Rome (340-343), and in other parts of the West
(till 340); of Hilary of Poitiers in Asia Minor
(356-360), of Lucifer of Cagliari, Eusebius of Ver-
celli, and others; the long sojourn of Jerome and
Rufinus in Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, and during
this whole period the close connection of Latin
Church literature, especially of exegesis, with Greek
models. The ecumenical consciousness of the
Church overleaped all barriers and affected even
the canon. The influence of Athanasius in this
respect is not to be imderestimated, especially in
connection with the production of a recension of the
Bible at Rome 340^43.
Hebrews, prized by the Novatians as a produc-
tion of Barnabas, began after the time of Hilary and
Lucifer to be quoted more and more in the West
as Pauline and, therefore, canonical. The growth
of sentiment in favor of James took place unnoted,
as did that of the lesser Catholic Epistles. The
African Canon (350-365), published by Mommsen,
has a more or less official air; it makes no mention
of Heb., Jas., or Jude, but includes I and II Pet.,
I, II, and III John; but it was corrected by a re-
viser so as to omit II Pet. and II and III John.
In a synod of c. 382 the controlling spirit was
Jerome, so that II and III John were received as
the presbyter's while the rest of the Catholic Epis-
tles were ascribed to Apostles. Hebrews was reck-
oned as a fourteenth Pauline letter. The influence
of Augustine was dominant in the synods of Hippo
(383) and Carthage (397), the pronouncement of
which was for thirteen Pauline Epistles, to which
Hebrews was added as a sort of stranger.
The history of the canon was closed in the West
by the beginning of the fifth century, a hundred
years earlier than in the East. (T. Zahn.)
Bibuoorapht: On the general topic of the canon for the
reader of English poraibly the belt survey of the results
of modem scholarship is W. Sanday. Intpiratian . . .
Early Huiory and Orioin of the Doetins of Biblical In-
sptroliofi, London, 1896 (fkirly advanced on the O. T.,
conservative on the N. T.); L. Gaussen, Le Canon dot
aainteo ierituret au double point do vue do la odence ot do
la foi, 2 vols., Geneva, 1860, Eng. transl., London, 1863;
E. Reuse, Hittoiro du oanon deo aainteo Scrituroo dan*
Viglioo ehriUenno, Strasburg, 1864, Eng. transL, Edin-
burgh, 1891; T. H. Home, Introduction to tho Critical
Study . . . of the Holy Seripiwroo, 3 vols., London. 1872
(though written a century ago, it contains much that is
still valuable); 8. Davidson, The Canon of the Bible, ib.
1880 (radical, but the work of a scholar); F. Overbeck,
' Zur Oeedtiehto deo Kanono, Chemnits, 1880 (contains an
essay on the origin of the canon); J. J. Given, The Truth
of Scripture in Connection with . , . the Canon, Edin-
burgh, 1881; G. T. Ladd. The Doctrine of Sacred Scrip-
ture, 2 vols.. New York, 1883 (abstract and wordy, but
scholarly); C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, chaps,
v.-vi., ib. 1899; W. H. Bennett and W. F. Adeney,
Biblical Introduction, London. 1899 (brief, but accurate);
F. E. C. Gigot, Oeneral Introduction to the Study of the
Holy Scripturee, vol. i.. New York. 1901 (an example
of the newer Roman Catholic scholarship).
On the canon of the O. T. there are four works of first
rank, vis.; H. E. Ryle. Canon of the O. T., London. 1892;
F. Buhl, Kanon und Text dee A. T., Leipdc, 1891, Eng.
transl., Edinburgh, 1892 (a short treatise, but lucid and
uncumbered with technicalities); Q. Wildeboer, if si
Oanonioal Hoars
Oantor
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
400
onataan van den Kanon d$$ Ouden Vm-hondi, Groningen,
1891, Eng. tnnsl., Oriffin of Uu Canon of the O. T., Lon-
don. 1896 (much like Buhl); £. Kautiach, AbriM dm-
G0§ehiefUe df alUnlaiiMfUlithsn Sehrifttumt, Freiburs, 1897,
Enc. trand., London, 1808 (lucid, altogether a model
brief dtBcuesion). Other woriu which may be consulted
are: J. FOrst, Der Karum dM A. T., Leipoic, 1868; A.
Loisy, Hutoiro du Canon do VA. T., Paris, 1890 (Roman
Gatholio and teientific); G. H. Dalman, TradiUo Rab-
hinorum voierrima do librorum V. T. ordino ot originot Leip-
rio, 1891; Smith, OTJC; X. Koenig, Eooai nor la for-
motion du Canon do VA, T„ Paris, 1894; W. J. Beecher,
Tho Attooed TripU Canon of the O. T, in JBL, xv.
(1896) 118-128; W. H. Green, Otnoral JntrodueHon to the
O. T., 2 vols.. New York, 1898-D9 (states the ex-
treme oonserratiTe position); Magnier, t^tudo our la
oanonieitS do VA. T„ Paris, 1899; F. E. C. Gigot. Oontral
Jnirodudion to tho Study of tho Holy Saipturoa, vol. i^
New York, 1900; J. P. Peters, Tho Old Toatamontand tho
Now Scholar^ip, New York, 1901.
On the N. T. canon the best work is by B. F. Westoott,
A Oenoral Survey of tho HioU of tho Canon of tho N. T.,
London, 1889; K. A. Gredner, OoochiehU dot noutoota-
mentlichon JCanons, Berlin, 1860 (though an old work,
much of the material is still usable); R. F. Grau, Ent-
wieklunooooochidito doo noutaatamon&idhon SchrifUhunu,
2 vols., Gatersloh, 1871; A. H. Charteris, CanonieUy:
a CoUoetion of early TeoHmonioo to tho Canonical Booko
of tho N. T., London, 1880; idem, Tho N. T. Scnpturoo,
their Claime, HiaL, and Authority, ib. 1882 (a popular
form of the preceding); T. Zahn, For§ehun4fen eur Ot-
scAscAls deo neutootamentlithen Kanona, 6 parts, Erlangen,
1881-93; idem, OaaehiOUo doa neuteetaimenaichen Kanona,
£>langen and Leipdo, 1888-92; A. Loisy, Hiatoiro du
Canon du N, T.. Paris, 1891; H. J. Holtsmann, Hia-
ioriaehrkritiadte Einleiiung in doa N, 7., Freiburg, 1892;
G. Salmon, Hiatorieal JntrodueHon to the Study of the
Booka of the N. T., London. 1894; A. Hamaok. Doa N. T.
urn doa Jahr BOO, Freiburg, 1889; idem, Altehriatliehe
Litteratur, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1897-1904 (exhaustive); B.
W. Bacon, JntrodueHon to N, T., New York, 1900 (con-
densed); D. S. Mussey, ttiae of the N. T., ib. 1900; A.
JOlicher, Einleitung in daa N. T., TQbingen, 1901, Eng.
transl., London, 1904; C. R. Gregory, Canon and Text of
the N, T., Edinburgh, 1907; J. Leipoldt, Oeachiehie dee
neuteatamentliehen Kanona, vol. i., J)ie Entatehung, Leipsic,
1907.
CAirOllICAL HOURS: Certain portions of the
day set apart according to the rule (canon) of the
Church for prayer and devotion. It seems likely
that the Apostolic Church observed the Jewish
custom of praying three times a day (Ps. Iv. 17:
Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 30), at the thixd, sixth, and
ninth hour. In the fourth century the zeal of the
Psalmist (" seven times a day do I praise thee,"
cxix. 164) was held up for Christian imitation by
Ambrose, Augustine, and Hilary, and by the time
of Cassian (d. about 435) it had become a general
rule of devotion. (See Breviart.) In England
the term " canonical hours " also refers to the time
within which marriage may legally be solemnized
in a parish church without a license, which was
from eight to twelve in the morning, until a re-
cent Act of Parliament extended it to three in the
afternoon.
CANOmZATION: The process of attributing
the title of saint to a man or woman already known
as " blessed." The word refers to the inclusion
of the person's name in the list (canon) of the saints
and recognizing his right to a fitting veneration,
which includes the setting apart of a day in the
ecclesiastical calendar for the commemoration of
the saint's feast, together with an office in the
breviary and a mass for the day in his honor.
To promote the veneration of a saint throughout
the universal Church, no better method existed
than to seek papal confirmation of his daim^.
This probably happened now and then e\ea in
early times, or the popes gave such oonfirmatkn
of their own motion. We have definite evidesoe
of the formal canonization of Bishop Ulric d
Augsburg in 093. But canonLsation as a right
reserved exclusively to the pope appears first Hoder
Alexander III. (1159-^1). The bishops continued
to feel justified in canonizing for their own dio-
ceses, until this was declared unlawful by Urban
VIII. in 1625 and 1634. At present a formal z&d
veiy carefully regulated process is gone through
before canonization. The candidate, having died
in good repute, is first designated as " of pious
memoiy," and when a regular investigation hu
been set on foot, as " venerable." If it is ood-
clusively shown that he has lived a holy life
and worked miracles, his beatification may be
requested, but normally not until fifty years after
hiB death. The process is first conducted by tiK
bishop of his home; a commission of the Congrega-
tion of Rites examines whether it is permissible,
in which case papal authority to proceed is granted.
In order to make the necessary demonstration that
the candidate possessed " heroic " virtues and
worked miracles, three separate investigations are
held — one before the Congregation of Rites, one
before the whole college of cardinals, and one before
a consistory held under the pope's presidency.
When the pope has approved the request, a brief
is drawn up which grants the title of betUuSf and
determines the limits of the consequent culius,
including commemoration and invocation in public
worship, the erection of altars, public exposition of
relics, and the like. The solemn publication of the
decree of beatification takes place in St. Peter's.
After repeated miracles and a similar process of
investigation, canonization may follow later, with
still more imposing ceremonies, the pope or his
representative singing high mass in honor of the
new saint. While the veneration of the " blessed "
is limited to a certain definite part of the Roman
Catholic Church, that of the saints is extended to
the entire Church. (N. Bonwstsch.)
Bxbuoorapht: Oiusto Fontaaini. Codex amatituHonum
Quaa eumnU ponHficaa ediderunt in aoUmni eammiaatiatie.
99S-17M9, Rome, 1729; W. Hurd, Rcligioue Ritea end
Ceremoniea, p. 244, London, 1811; C. Elliott, Delineation
of Roman Catholiciam, book iv., chap. 4. New York, 1S42;
Boiseonnet, IHcHonnaire . . . dee drimoniea . . . eaerSai,
in Mizne. EneytUtpSdie thiologique, zv-.-xvii.; L. Ferraru^
Prompta bibliotheea oanoniea, 8.T. *' Veziermtio Sancto-
rum," new ed., Rom«, 1844-45.
CARSTEIN, cOn'stoin, KARL HILDEBRAin),
BARON VON: Founder of the Canstein Bible In-
stitute at Halle; b. at Lindenberg (a village near
FUrstenwalde, 21 m. w. of Fnmkfort) Aug. 4.
1667; d. at Berlin Aug. 19, 1719. After comple^
ting his legal studies at the University of Frankf ort-
on-the-Oder, in 1686, he traveled through Holland,
En^and, France, Italy, and southern Germany,
but was called to Berlin by the death of the Elector
in 1688. In the following year he was appointed
gentleman of the bed-chamber, but resigned afUr
a few years, and enlisted as a volimteer with the
Brandenburg troops sent to Flanders. There he
401
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Canonical Hour*
Cantor
fell seriously ill, was converted, and after recovering
his health, returned to Berlin, where he lived in
retirement, devoting himself to philanthropy. In
1691 he became acquainted with Spener, and thus
formed a lifelong friendship with August Hermann
Francke (q.v.)» whom he aided in all his enter-
prises.
A literary result of Canstein's unceasing study
of the Bible was his Harmonie und Audegung der
heiligen vier Evangelisten (Halle, 1718), but his
crowning life-work was his establishment of the
Canstein Bible Institute. Seeking to make the
Scriptures known in the widest circles, he ex-
pounded his views in a small pamphlet entitled
Ohninassgebender Vorachlag, wie Gotteswort den
Armen eur Erhauung um einen geringen Preis in
die Hdnde zu bringen set (Berlin, 1710), in which he
expressed his conviction that the use of stereotype
plates would render it possible to sell copies of the
New Testament for two groschen, and of the entire
Bible for six. His first edition of the New Testa-
ment appeared at Halle in 1712, and was followed
by the entire Bible in the next year. Before Can-
stein's death the New Testament had appeared in
twenty-eight editions, and the Bible in eight octavo
and eight duodecimo editions, making a total of
about 100,000 New Testaments and 40,000 Bibles.
When the foimder died, Francke took charge of the
Institute. In 1727 the buildings were enlarged,
and in 1734-i35 the Cansteinische Buckdruckerei
was established. The Bible was printed in Bohe-
mian and Polish in 1722, and in 1868-69 versions
in Wendish and Lithuanian appeared. The re-
vised text of Luther's version was also first printed
by this Institute (Halle, 1892). See Bible So-
cieties, II., 1.
CAlfTATA. See Music, Sacred, II., 2, § 5.
CAIVTERBURY: The ancient metropolitan see
of England. The city is of great antiquity, suc-
ceeding the British village of Durwhem, the Ro-
man Durovemum, and the Saxon Cantwarabyrig.
Augustine, sent from Rome by Gregory the Great
in 596 to convert the Anglo-Saxons, made it the
headquarters of his missionary activity; but it
was not until the episcopate of the great organizer
Theodore of Tarsus (668-690) that the claim of the
see to metropolitan jurisdiction over the whole of
England was acknowledged by the other bishops
and confirmed by Pope Vitalian. This authority
extended over Ireland as well until the elevation
of the see of Armagh (q.v.) to primatial rights.
Owing, however, to the important position of
York in the north of England, the archbishops of
that see for a long time contested the first place
with Canterbury, and it was not until the pontifi-
cate of Alexander III. (1159-81) that the latter
enjoyed an unquestioned primacy. Among the
long line of archbishops some distinguished names
occur: Dimstan (959-988); .fflfheah martyred by
the Danes (1006-12); Lanfranc (1070-89) and
Anselm (1093-1109), the great defenders of the
rights of the Church and people against the first
Norman kings; Thomas Becket (1162-70), mur-
dered in the cathedral itself for his resistance to the
king's encroachments; Stephen Langton (1207-28).
U.— 26
William Warham (1503-32) was, with the excep-
tion of the two years' tenure of the see by CardinaJ
Pole under Mary (1556-58), the last Roman Cath-
olic archbishop. Thomas (>anmer (1533-56) begins
the Anglican succession, followed by Parker,
Grindal, and Whitgift imder Queen Elizabeth.
William Laud (1633-45) kept up the earlier tra-
ditions of the see by giving his life for his principles;
but in the post-Reformation annals few names of
great significance occur — though Archbishops Tait,
Benson, and Temple in the latter half of the nine-
teenth century were men of broad and statesman-
like abilities. The archbishop of Canterbury
ranks as the first peer of the realm after the princes
of the blood royal, and has the right to crown the
sovereign and to other secular prerogatives. The
cathedral in its present shape was begun by Lan-
franc on the site of St. Augustine's monastery;
it contains work extending from his time to that of
Prior Goldstone in the fifteenth century, thus ex-
hibiting specimens of all schools of Gothic, and
afifording the best guide to the study of the devel-
opment of architecture in England. From the
death of Becket until the Reformation, it was a
favorite place of pilgrimage. His body, brought
from the crypt, was placed in 1220 in a shrine of
such magnificence that Erasmus, who visited it in
1512, recorded that '' gold was the meanest thing
to be seen." In 1538 Henry VIII. destroyed the
shrine, as that of a rebel against royal authority,
and confiscated its treasures. Among the other
interesting ecclesiastical remains in Canterbury
are St. Martin's church, said to be the oldest in
England and to date in part from the period of
the Roman occupation, and the first house of the
Dominicans in England. See the biographical
notices of Augustine, Theodore, and other arch-
bishops of Canterbury; also the articles Anglo-
Saxons, Conversion op the; Celtic Church in
Britain and Ireland; England, Church of.
Bxbuoorapht: The history of the diocese is given by R.
C. Jenkins, in IHoceaan Hititarie», Canlerbury, London,
1880. On the cathedral consult: A. P. Stanley, Hi»-
toneal Memorials of Canterbury Caihodral, ib. 1900; J. M.
Cowper, Memorial Ineeriptione of the Cathedral Church
of Canterbury, Canterbury, 1807. For the monastery
consult: Liter a Canhuxrienaet. Letter Booke of the Monaa-
lery of Christ Church, 3 vols., ed. by J. B. Sheppard for
Rolls Series, London. 1881-80. Consult also: S. R. Gar-
diner, Student's Hist, of England, passim, ib. 1805; W.
Bright, Early English Church Hist., Index, Oxford, 1807;
W. A. Shaw, History of the English Church, 1640-1660,
London, 1000 (contains much material); W. W. Capes,
English Church in 14th and 16th Centuries, ib. 1000; W.
R. W. Stephens. The English Church, 1066-1272, p. 33,
ib. 1001; J. Gairdner, The English Churdi in the ISth
Century, pp. 1, 66, 104, et passim, ib. 1003
CANTHARUS: A well, cistern, fountain, or
simply a vessel for water, in the center of the
atrium just in front of the entrance of the ancient
basilica, used by the faithful for the ablution of
hands and face before entering the church build-
ing. See Holy Water.
CANTICLES. See Sono of Solomon.
CANTOR: A name applied in the early Church
to those who were specially set apart to conduct
the singing. They are mention^ as a special
class in the Apostolic Constitutions and in the
Cans
OikpenuMim
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
m
canoDB of the Council of Laodioea (365), and were
set apart by the clergy with a particular rite. In
the later Western Church the name was alao applied
in cathedrals and collegiate churches to one of the
canons who had the oversight of the musical in-
struction of the younger members and led the
musical part of the service; called also precentor.
It is sometimes used quite generally for specially
designated singers, whether derical or lay, who
intone or begin the psalms, antiphons, and hymns.
CANZ, cOntz, ISRAEL GOTTLIEB. See Wour,
Christian, and the Wolffian School.
CAPECELATRO, cd-p^'chd-ld'trO, ALFOHSO:
Cardinal priest; b. at Marseilles Feb. 5, 1824.
He entered the oratory of St. Philip Neri, and in
1878 was appointed sublibrarian of the Holy
See. Two years later he was consecrated arch-
bishop of Capua, and in 1885 was created car-
dinal priest of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo. In the
following year, however, he chose the church of
Santa lAaiiA del Popolo in preference to that of
Santi Nereo ed Achilleo. He still retains his archi-
episcopal see, and also remains the official librarian
of the Holy See. In addition to a number of
briefer contributions, he has written: Storia di
Santa Caterina e del papato del auo tempore (2 vols.,
Naples, 1856); Newman e la religiane cattolica in
Inghilterra (2 vols., 1859); La vita di OeeH Crieto
(1862); Storia di San Pier Damiano e del euo tem^
pore (Florence, 1862); ScritH Vari religiosi e
eociali (3d ed., Milan, 1873); La dottrina cattolica
(3 vols., 2d ed., Sienna, 1879); Vita di San Filippo
Nen (2 vols., Naples, 1879; Eng. transl., by T. A.
Pope, London, 1882); Prose sacre e morale (Sienna,
1884); and Nuove Prose (2 vols., Milan, 1899).
An edition of his works was published in eighteen
volimies at Rome in 1886-93.
CAPE COLONY: The most important of the
British possessions in South Africa, comprising,
in general, that portion of the continent south of
the Orange River; area, 277,000 square miles;
population (1904), 2,409,804, of whom less than
one-fourth (not quite 580,000) are Europeans or
whites; the remainder (still predominantly heathen)
includes 1,114,100 Kafirs and Bechuanas, 310,-
720 half-breeds classed as Fingo stock, 91,260 Hot-
tentots, 15,680 Malays, and 298,340 classed as
half-breeds and of miscellaneous origin.
The more important religious bodies of the colony
are as follows: (1) The DtUch Reformed Church,
with 399,500 members (1904), of whom 296,800
were white. It is the church of the original Euro-
pean (Dutch) settlers, who spread widely through
the land by conquest from 1652 onward. Their
Church is governed by a general synod, whose
sessions are held every three years. The separate
congregation is administered by a church council
(kerkeraad)f and six to twelve congregations con-
stitute a congregational circuit (" ring "), whose
chosen representatives become members of the
General Synod. A standing conmiittee of the
Synod administers the principal affairs of the Church
as a whole. The colored congregations are for
the most part the result of missionaiy labor; only
a small number of their dergy have a higher ec>
cation. (2) The Church of England, 281,440 rotr
bers (122,560 white). The diocese of Cape Tcv
was founded in 1847; the incumbent has boroe *.-
title of archbishop since 1897 and is metropolis:
of the province of South Africa, which oompnse
nine dioceses besides the metropolitan see^rj.
Bloemfontein (formerly the Orange Free Sum.
formed 1863), Grahamstown (1853), Lebocir
(1891), Mashonaland (1891), Natal (fonK:::
Maritsburg, 1853), Pretoria (1878), St. Hebii
(1859), St. John's, Kaffiaria (1873), and Zulok^i
(a missionaiy bishopric, 1870). (3) The TTHf^i^
Methodist Church of South Africa, 277,300 mem^1e^
(35,900 white). This body very early emplcr^.
colored teachers and has applied less rigorous te<t>
of conversion than others; in 1891 it had abc.:
1,250 lay helpers. Two other Methodist bocir'
have an inconsiderable aggregate membership. '4
CongregationalistSy 112,200 members (5,000 Eiuo-
peans), for the most part connected with tl^ Im-
don Missionary Society. The Congregational Unioi
of South Africa was fonned in 1900 from the Un:.-:
of South Africa (1877) and the Union of Nat&l asu
Southeastern Africa (1882). (5) Pre^nfteriarj^,
88,660 members (26,360 of European orig^i
The Scotch Church began missionary activity i:
the east of the colony in 1821. (6) Lutheran,'
37,050 members (13,100 Europeans), mostly •
German origin. They are united in the Gencj:
Evangelical Lutheran ^Synod of South Afiics.
(7) The Rhenish Mission Church has 20,800 mex-
bers and (8) the Moravians 23,100, neariy it
colored. (9) The African Methodist Epiaeoy,
Church has 12,060 members; (10) the Baptu<^
number 14,100, of whom 9,950 are white, the:
congregations being organised practically on s
European basis; (11) the Church of Christ hi^
7,600 members (1,075 Europeans), and (12) t^^
South African Reformed Church 6,210, nearly ji
Europeans. Further, there is a group of missi^^
congregations, of which the largest is Dutch (4,79) >
and the smallest American (215), and more thsz
forty additional sects or denominations witces?
the tendency to religious division which manifest'
itself in English-speaking lands. For further in-
formation concerning missionary activity, 9e«
Africa, II.
The Roman Catholic Church has had a vigorous
growth in the last ten years, and now counts men
than 37,000 members (28,500 of European origin t
The organisation includes the apostolic vicariste^
of western and eastern Cape Colony, dating it-
spectively from 1837 and 1847, with residence sx
Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, and the apost^^^lie
prefecture of central Cape Colony (1874), wiit
residence at Cape Town. The Roman Catbojc
Church is active throughout South Africa and hts
established vicariates for Natal (1850), the Trans-
vaal (1904), and Orange Free State (1886), and s
prefecture of Basutoland (1894).
The Oreek Orthodox Church reckons l.aiO a^i-
herents, almost exclusively European. The I^rnf!-
ites have decreased on account of emigration: >ti
19,500 remain. Mohammedanism is repraaratt^i
by 22,630 members (among them 15,100 MalsTst.
408
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Cans
OapemAum
and 2,035 Hindus are enumerated. In spite of
the missionary seal of so many Christian sects,
more than half the natives continue in heathenism,
the official figures of colored heathen being
1 ,015,230.
The number of illiterates, after deduction of
children under school age, is 1,368,000. The
religious bodies are engaged in active rivalry to
meet the needs of education and thereby to in-
crease their numbers, and the government has
latterly applied itself to the building and equip-
ment of schools on a scale of greatly increased
expenditure. Attendance at school was made
compulsory in 1905. Wilhelm Goetz.
Bibuoorapbt: For feneral facts and status, J. Bryoe, /m>-
pretHonB of South Africa^ London, 1890. For statistics.
South African Year Book, annual, London. For phases
of mission and other church work consult: A. T. WirK-
man, HUtory of the BnglUh Church in South Africa, Lon-
don. 1806; A. G. 8. Gibson. Skotehet of Churdi Work in
the Dioeeee of Capetown, Gape Town. 1000; MiaeionChron^
ieU of the Scottieh Church, with the Kaffrarian Dioeeean
Quarterly, Edinburgh; SoujOi African Catholie Magaaine,
Cape Town; Reporte of the Weeleyan Mieeione in Ms Cape
of Good Hope Dietriet, annual. Gape Town; Almanak voor
de gerefoormeerde Kerk, annual. Gape Town; HandoLin-
gen [dor Vergadering van de eyriode der gerefoormeerde
Kerk, Cape Town (published subsequent to the meeting of
each synod); J. liackensie, Day-Dawn in South Africa,
London, 1884; idem, London Miseionary Society in JSouth
Africa, ib. 1888; A. Brisg, Mieeionary Life in the South
of Ms Dark Continent, ib. 1888; W. 8. Walton. Cape Gen-
eral Mieeion, ib. 1880; A. G. 8. Gibson. Eight Yeare in
Kaffraria, ib. 1801; T. Cook, My Mieeion Tour in South
Africa, ib. 1806; Meransky. in Mieeioneaoitechrift, 1807-
1808; Baeler Mieeionemagaein, 1000.
CAPENy ELMER HEWITT: Universalist; b. at
Stoughton, Mass., Apr. 5, 1838; d. at Medford,
Mass., Mar. 22, 1905. He was graduated at Tufts
College, 1860; admitted to the bar, 1863; was pas-
tor of the Independent (Universalist) Christian
Society of Gloucester, Mass., 1865-69; of the First
Universalist Church of Providence, R. I., 1870-75;
and after 1875 president of Tufts College, Medford,
Mass. He belonged to the school of Universalists
who make the final triumph of good over evil a
corollary of the nature of God — a result to be
wrought out through those moral processes which
are seen in operation around us. He was member
of the legislature from Stoughton, 1859-60. His
publications consisted of sermons, addresses, re-
ports, etc.
CAPERNAUM, ca-per'na-xmi: The name of a
Galilean city, situated near the Sea of Galilee. The
form of the word follows the texiua receptua, though
the best manuscripts give Caphamaum, It is a
compound name meaning " village of Nahum "
or "of consolation." Jesus made it the center of
his Galilean activities and it was called " his own
city " (Matt. iv. 13, ix. 1); his disciples Simon Peter
and Andrew had a house there; he taught in the
synagogue there, in Peter's house, and on the sea-
shore, and performed a number of wonderful cures.
There he obtained his disciples Peter, Andrew,
and Levi-Matthew, and near-by James and John
(Mark i. 16-17, 19, ii. 14). The city lay on the
west shore of the sea, had a customs-office and
royal collector and a garrison in command of a
captain who was a friend of the Jews and had built
them a synagogue. Josephus in describing the
plain of Gennesaret (War, III. x. 8) speaks of a
copious spring watering the plain which was called
by the inhabitants Capernaum. There are still
near the north of the plain two springs. One of
these, the Ain-el-Tine, issues from the rock imder
the roots of a fig-tree not far from Khan Minyeh.
But this can not be the one meant by Josephus,
since it lies too low to water the plain. The other
lies northwest of the first and outside the boundaries
of the plain. This is the most copious spring in
Galilee, stronger by far than the Banias source of
the Jordan, known now as Ain-el-Tabigah, the
waters of which are collected in a hexagonal res-
ervoir of old masonry, showing that the spring
was used for irrigation purposes. This is doubtless
the spring mentioned by Josephus, and Capernaum
must have been in the neighborhood, and, like
the spring, not within the limits of the plain.
Josephus states (Life, Ixxii.), that in a skirmish
against the troops of Agrippa II. which took place
on the banks of the Jordan, he was thrown from
his horse and woimded, and had himself carried
to the village Cephamome and in the following
night to Tariches. In spite of different textufd
readings of the name of the place, it is probable
that Josephus here meant Capernaum.
Eusebius (Onanuuticon, 273) discusses " in the
borders of Zebulim and Naphtali" of Matt. iv.
13 in connection with Isa. ix. 1. The meaning of
the phrase is ** in the district of," not " on the
boundary of." With Tel-Hum goes well Jerome's
statement of two Roman miles as the distance
between Chorasin and Capernaum (the " twelve
miles " of Eusebius seems a copyist's error). Put
alongside the foregoing that Capernaum and
Bethsaida were adjacent (Epiphanius, Hcer., 1. 15),
and early reports are quite exhausted.
Tel-Hum is the one old site in the vicinity of the
spring, forty minutes distant in a northwestern
direction. E. Robinson in 1838 visited and de-
scribed the ruins, some quite pretentious buildings,
of black basalt and limestone, among which travel-
ers have thought they identified the remains of a
synagogue. The name of the foimtain, even though
forty minutes away, makes for the identification
of Tel-Hum ^th Capernaum. And the form Tel-
Hum may be an Arabic variation for Tenhum, ab-
breviated from the Talmudic Kaf Tanhumim
(" VUlage of Consolation").
The Franciscan Quaresmio in 1616-26 identified
Khan Minyeh near Ain-el-Tine as the site of Caper-
naum, and he has been followed by many scholars.
On this site appear the traces of the larger streets
which a garrison city seems to require. A con-
elusion has been urged that John vi. 1-21 and
Mark vi. 45-53 imply that Capernaum was on the
plain of Gennesaret, but this falls after close exam-
ination of the passages. Arguments drawn from the
element "Minyeh" in the modem name have also
no cogency.
The ruins of Tel-Hum belong now to the Fran-
ciscans, who have enclosed them with a wall, in-
tending to excavate there in the future.
(H. GUTHE.)
BnuooEAPirr: Authorities and literature favorinc Tel-
Hum are: J. Wilson, Lande of the Bible Vieited and De-
8SS
^perolani
Ital Punishment
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
401
9(rihed, ii. 13»-149, London. 1847: A. E. Wilson and W.
Warren, Recovery of Jenualem, pp. 375-387, ib. 1871:
W. M. ThomBon, Land and the Book, 3 toU., New York,
1880. i. 352-366 of London ed.. 1873; V. Qu^rin, Do-
ecriviwn . , . de la PaUetine, part 3. OaliUe, i. 227-228,
Paris, 1880; F. Buhl, Geogravhie dm alien Pal&eUna, pp.
224-225, Freiburg, 1896. Favoring Khan Minyeh are:
A. P. Stanley, Sinai and PaleeHne, London, 1866; E.
Robinson, Biblical Reeeanhee, Boston, 1868; T. Keim,
Jesus of Naeara, 2 vols., London, 1870; C. R. Conder,
Tent Work in PaleeHne, ib. 1880; A. Henderson, Palee-
fiiM, Edinburgh, 1885; G. A. Smith, Hiatarical Geography
of the Holy Land, pp. 456-457. London, 1807; DB, i. 850-
351; EB, i. 006-608.
CAPEROLAin, e(l-p«"r5-l(l'nt. See Francib,
Saint, of Abbibi, and thk Franciscan Ordkr,
IIL,i7.
CAPEROLO, c(l-p6'W^l6, PIBTRO. See Francis,
Saint, of Assisi, and the Franciscan Order.
CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. See Africa, III.
CAPERS, ELLISON: Protestant Episcopal bishop
of South Carolina; b. in Charleston, S. C, Oct.
14, 1837; d. at Columbia, S. C, Apr. 22, 1008. He
was graduated from the South Carolina Military
Academy 1857, was assistant professor there
185^-60. On the outbreak of the Qvil War he en-
tered the Confederate Army, in which he attained
the rank of brigadier-general. From the close of the
war until 1868 he was secretary of the South Caro-
lina Legislatiu^, but in the mean time studied the-
ology, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1867.
He was then rector of Christ Church, Greenville,
S. C, 1867-87, except for a year (1875-76) as rector
of St. Paul's, Selma, Ala., and of Trinity, Columbia,
S. C, 1887-93. In 1886 he had been tendered and
had declined the bishopric of Easton, but in 1893
he was consecrated bishop of South Carolina.
Bibuoorapht: W. S. Peiry, The Epiecopate in America,
p. 365. New York, 1806.
CAPHTORy caf'tor: A locality provisionally
identified with Crete, though the question can not
be regarded as settled. According to Amos ix. 7
it was the original home of the Philistines; Jer.
xlvii. 4 (Masoretic text) makes of it an island or
coast-land; Deut. ii. 23 and Gen. x. 14 use the
term " Caphtorim " of the inhabitants. The early
tradition is indicated by the fact that the Septua-
gint, Vulgate, Peshito, and Targums uae " Cappa-
docia" and '' Cappadocians " in Amos ix. 7 and
Deut. ii. 23; this was based, however, on a misun-
derstanding. Attempts to find the meaning have
been made by investigating the word *' Cherethites "
(I Sam. XXX. 14-16; Zeph. ii. 5; Eaek. xxv. 16),
used of a people in the Philistine region and of Phi-
listine stock. The transliterations of the Hebrew
in the Septuagint show that the latter did not un-
derstand the meaning. In the prophetical books the
form KrUes is used by the Septuagint, implying im-
migration from Crete; but how far this rested upon
data known to the interpreters is indeterminable.
On Egyptian monuments of the time of Thothmes
III. appears mention of a land the name of which
takes a form corresponding to " Caphtor " minus the
final consonant (Kefti). Ebers explained this by
*' Phenidans," only to have the explanation shown
untenable by W. Max Mailer. Accordmg to G.
Stemdorff, the Egyptian word connotes " islands of
the £gean "; and the same authority notes among
the representations of tribute to Thothmes III
from the Kefti vessels of the Myoensan type of aba®
145Q-1250 B.C. The Kefti must have been within
the sphere of influence of Myoeiuean culture. Bst
MQller connects them with Cilicia. Evans in b
investigations in Crete has discovered numenrj!
evidences of the existence there of Mycenseai
eidture, thus bringing Crete within the sphere d
influence of that civilisation. Alongside of than
are articles of Egsrptian workmanship, shoving
exchange of commodities between Egypt ani
Crete. Steindorff puts the two facts together, ana
equates Crete and the Egyptian Kefti. But ttu-
may prove superfluous provided success is attained
in geographically defining the word kptar rececthr
found at Ombos, a word which closely oorrespo&ii
with the Hebrew Caphtor. The eqiiation Kefti -
kptar is not fully proved. (H. Guthe.)
Bxbuoobapbt: W. M. MOller, Aeien und Eur^pa, pp. S3?
■qq., I^eipne, 1803; idem, in MittheihisHfen dm- voHe-
aeiatiechen Geeeliechaft, i. 1 aqq., 1000 (plaoes Caphtor cs
ih* Ljtaan, or Carian coast); G. Ebera, Aegypien umd &
BlUher Moeie, p. 130, Leipac, 1868; G. A. Smith, fltf-
iorical Geography of the Holy Land, p. 171, London. 1607;
DB, i. 351-352; EB, i. 008-700; JE, uL 563-654.
CAPISTRANO, GIOVAKin DI: Franciscan; b. at
Capistrano (22 m. s.e. of Aquila), in the Abruzzi.
1386; d. at Illok (Ujlak, 26 m. w. of Peterwaidem:.
Slavonia, Oct. 23, 1456. He first studied juris-
prudence, but joined the Franciscans in 1416 and h
the school of Bemardin of Sienna became a theob-
gian and preacher. After 1426 he acted as inquisi-
tor against the Fratricelli and Jews, and by cruel
measures attained a moderate success. His main
achievement was the defense and extension of tbe
order of the Observantines, of whom he was made
vicar-general in Italy in 1446. In 1451 he was sent
to Gennany against the Hussites. Followed by
large crowds, he went to Vienna, and is reported to
have performed 320 miracles on the way, while th?
number of his hearers is said to have increased from
150 to 300,000. He intended now to go to BohemU
to destroy the heresy there; a disputation to which
he was invited by the Utraquist bishop Rokycxana
he managed to avoid, and finally he did venture to
enter the country. .£neas Silvius states that he
did, indeed, converts few Hussites, but,considenii|
the multitude of the heretics, they are hardly worth
mentioning. At any rate Bohemia, in spite of hi$
sermons, remained as it was before. By way d
Bavaria, Saxony, and Lusatia, he went to Si)^&
and Poland, and on account of his sermons and
miracles was everywhere revered like a saint.
After the fall of Constantinople (1453) he tried to
induce the princes of Germany at the Diets d
Frankfort and Wiener-Neustadt to make war
against the Turks, but failed, and was very little
successful generally in preaching the cross. He
went to Hungary in 1455 and when Mohammed II.
advanced against Belgrade (1456) Capistrano, the
papal legate Carjaval, and John Hunyadi were
almost the only men who bestirred themselves to
repel the foe. In spite of his age, (Capistrano with
a number of crusaders went to Belgrade and by a
daring sally gave Hunyadi opportunity to best the
Turks. For this the friends of his order have cek-
406
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OAperolaxil
Oapltal Punlshmant
brated him as savior of Europe. He died soon after,
exliauBted by hardships. Although revered in his
lifetime as a saint, he was not canonized until
1690. Prominent contemporaries, among them the
subsequent pope Pius II., expressed some doubts
as to his miracles and had no favorable opinion of
him because of his bragging self-glorification ond
choleric irritability. E. Lempp.
Bibuookapht: Tba early VUtB and some of John's letters
are in ASB, Oct., x. 260-^662, with which cf.' L. Wadding,
AnnaU9 Minorwn, vols. iv.-Ti.. Leyden, 1648, orix.-xiii.,
Rome, 1734 (an excellent source). The most comprehen-
sive biosraphy is by A. Hermann, CapUtranuM triumphan*,
Cologne, 1700; the first scientific life is by G. Voigt, in
SybelB HiUarxBchs Zeitaehnft, X. (1863) 10-06; cf. idem.
Enea Silvio di* Fieeolomini, vol. ii.. Berlin, 1860; the latest
life is by E. Jacob, Johannet von Capiabxmo, Breshiu, 1003.
A oonaiderable list of literature is given in Potthast, Wbq-
iMiser, pp. 1306-07.
CAPITAL PUmSHMENT.
I. The Historical Derelopment of Capital Punishment.
In Primitive Society (f 1).
In Roman Law (f 2).
Attitude of the Church (f 3).
II. Place of Religious Ideas in the Question.
III. Capital Punishment in Modem Times.
L The Historical Development of Capital Pun-
ishment: It must be borne in mind that the
killing of a person guilty of grievous crime does not,
in primitive society, belong to the class of deliberate
ordinances enacted by the commu-
X. In nity. It is rather a form of the im-
Primitive pulse of revenge, which the primitive
Society, institutions of all the older civilised
nations first tolerate, and then regu-
Ate and uphold or limit (see Blood-Revenge). In
3rimitive conditions revenge has a twofold opera-
Jon. It m directed in some cases against offenses
vhich affect the individual or tl^ family (such as
heft, adultery, and the murder of a freeman); in
hese cases the injured family proceeds against the
>frender or his family, and the community takes
>art only in the interests of public peace, by estab-
ishing a penalty on payment of which the offender
9 to be safe from revenge. Quite a different form
>f procedure is that against crimes which offend
he consciousness of the whole community (sacri-
?ge, unnatural vices, treason in war, etc.). Here
he vengeance of the community is provoked, and it
cts first by formal delivery of the offender to the
k'ill of the members or outlawry, then later by ac-
ual execution, in connection with which sacred
eremonies analogous to those of sacrifice are often
3und. As organized government grows stronger,
; takes an official interest in crimes which were
riginally in the private sphere, withdraws them
-om individual vengeance, and subjects them to
apital punishment. Religion has its influence
ere; the interference of government in such cases
I usually brought about by the conception that the
rime, apart from the injury to the inmiediate vic-
ms, defiles the community and must be punished
I order to retain peace with the deity. This can
e clearly shown in the Greek law of the post-
[omeric age, less clearly but still probably in an-
ent Roman law; and the same course was followed
I Hebrew history. In the primitive law (cf. Ex.
Ki. 12 sqq.) the murderer is exposed to the pursuit
: the avenger of blood, and the elders of the com-
munity cooperate only to the extent of driving the
fugitive from an asylum and delivering him to the
avenger. In the case of the other crimes men-
tioned in Ex. xxi. the punishment of death is either
private vengeance, or at most a sort of tribal
vengeance or lynch law. As late as the period of
Deut. xix. the blood-vengeance is mentioned; but
by the side of it appears the idea that the whole com-
munity is affected with blood-guiltiness by a de-
liberate murder, and must be purified by the death
of the offender. The same law began, when priestly
influence increasingly dominated all departments of
life, to be applied to other offenders (blasphemers,
traitors, adulterers, etc.). The formal abandon-
ment to the avenger was replaced by stoning, in
which all the men of the community took part.
In so far as the religious influence remained a
permanent factor in the penal code, the Jewish
State stands alone among the Mediterranean com-
munities. In the others, especially
3. In the Greek and Roman, punishment
Roman became exclusively a matter of secu-
Law. lar enactment. Li the Roman the
principle is continuously applied from
the fifth century that the death penalty (whether
by decapitation, burning, or throwing down a
precipice) is due to all grave crimes (including
murder, arson, perjuiy, treason, etc.); but in prac-
tise this was mitigated by the frequent substitution
of the ** interdiction of fire and water," i.e., banish-
ment from the community, especially after the
introduction of the provocatioad papulvm, an appeal
to the whole body of the people against the decision
of consuls and other magistrates empowered to
pronounce sentence of outlawry. In the last two
centuries of the republic capital punishment was
seldom applied, to members of the upper classes at
least. But it was never abolished, and when the
reorganization of the Roman system took place
under imperial legislation it was again more fre-
quently employed, even against Roman citizens.
Thus at the beginning of the Christian era it was an
accepted institution throughout the Roman Empire,
though with variations in usage due to local law.
The teaching of Christ made no substantial alter-
ation in these conditions. Of his own recorded
sayings, the only one directly bearing on the sub-
ject is Matt. xxvi. 52, which (like Gen. ix. 5) refers
rather to the eternal working out of the divine
justice in the abstract. But Paul speaks expressly
in Rom. xiii. 1 sqq. of the legal death-pexialty —
although here it is merely designated as reconci-
lable with the divine law, not required or imposed
as a duty upon the State. Accordingly Christian
teaching made no change in the Roman law, and,
when the Christians became dominant, after having
been for two centuries frequent victims to its pro-
visions, they still allowed it to take free coiubc.
In fact, it was applied with increasing frequency
even to Roman citizens of the higher classes, and
from the time of Constantine to a large number
of minor offenses.
Although the Church was more firmly and fully
organized when it came into contact with the insti-
tutions of the new Germanic kingdoms, and assumed
the right of extensive interference with their penal
gapital PunUhment
aplto
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
406
legislation on principles resembling those of the
Jewish theocracy, its influence in the question
of capital punishment was not deci-
3. Attitude sive. Gennanic law at first, like
of the all primitive systems, made private
Church, vengeance and the mitigation of it by
surrender of property on the part of
the offender the principal factor in the punishment
of crime. The Church undertook to regulate this
to the extent of minimizing private vendettas,
both by providing and supporting means of recon-
ciliation between the contending parties and by
strengthening orderly official justice. But in spite
of the "horror of bloodshed" consistently em-
phasized by the Church, which from the tenth
century on created an impressive mechanism
against private vendettas in the Truce of God (q.v.)i
it was obliged to give a general support to the
gradual upbuilding of the secular system of corporal,
including capital, punishment in the kingdoms of
western Europe. When the death-penalty had
been finally established as a regular part of settled
secular law, the Church in theory took the position
of a simple spectator of its exercise. It forbade
the clergy to take any part in its administration,
laid down the principle Eccleaia rum aUU sanguinem
(" The Church does not thirst for blood "), and
admonished ecclesiastical authorities to provide
asylums and in other ways to work for mercy to the
offender in the hope of his improvement. This
position was somewhat modified when the war
against heresy began. Even in the eleventh cen-
tury the State threatened heretics with death in
isolated cases in France and Germany; and by the
middle of the twelfth century the growth of heresy
led to a formal alliance between Church and State,
by which Frederick Barbarossa in 1184, and then
other sovereigns of southern Europe, pledged the
pope the support of the secular arm for the suppres-
sion of heresy. The penalties were at first outlawry,
infamy, and confiscation of goods; but in 1224
Frederick II. approved of death by fire as the pen-
alty in Lombardy; and this penalty, soon applied
throughout Italy, was not only sanctioned but
directly called for by Gregory IX. It was not long
before the new principle was extended to Germany,
France, England, and Spain, and the death-penalty,
while theoretically administered by secular officials,
was actually the consequence of an eodesiaBtical
condemnation.
The teaching of the Reformers brought about
no essential alteration in the general attitude to-
ward capital punishment; it might seem that the
Reformation strengthened the institution, but
really this attitude is rather the result of contem-
porary conditions. The death-penalty had been
more frequently employed in all European states
since the fifteenth century as a result of violent
proletarian risings and the increase of the dangerous
unemployed and vagabond population, and the
period from 1530 to 1630 is that in which the num-
ber of executions reached its high-water mark.
When a reaction came about, it was directed pri-
marily against an excessive use of this penalty,
and then toward the establishment of penitentia-
ries (London 1580, Amsterdam 1506, Hamburg
1622, etc.), which brou^t about a decrease in tir
number of executions. The movement for the abo-
lition of capital punishment did not proceed fit-
a religious source. While Locke, Voltaire, Monte^
quieu, and Thomasius had aU recognized it as ^
necessary part of the social system, and Roisse^
in the Cantrat social had left it theoretically fr^
play, it was Cesare Beccaria in 1764 who, as a deduc-
tion from Rousseau's general ideas, proclaimed he
irreconcilability with abstract justice. In modmi
times no agreement has been reached on the ha^
of religious convictions.
n. Place of Religious Ideas in the Question:
The historical outli^ given above shows dea^
that the sanction and province of capital punish-
ment in secular law can not be brought directlr
under religious control. The old philosophical doc-
trine of the " Christian State " is now no loopr
recognized. On modem principles^ the State's
justification for existence lies in its necessity to the
unhampered development of human activity; and
on this rests its power of punishing, and in partlco-
lar its right to apply the deatb-p^ialty. The ed-
sential characteristics of a just and proper pun-
ishment will thus have to be determined by a comse
of empirical historical research
In the older development of the penal code ci aD
nations, corporal punishment is found concuneotir
with penalties affecting the property of the offender;
but the corporal is finally preferred because it l>
capable of application alike to all, while mooer
fines have a varying effect according to the wealth
of the offender. By degrees the permission of com-
pounding for corporal penalties is abolished, with
the gradual building up from the twelfth century
of modem principles of government. The death-
penalty is increasingly preferred as emphasizicg
the thought of the equality of all men before the
law. It is misused for a time as the easiest way d
ridding society of dangerous persons, and then, in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the que^
tion is widely discussed how far it ought propeiiy
to be applied, and the principle of justice is urged
in favor of its restriction to very grave crimes.
These arguments, however, produced no great effect
until the reaction from the excessive use of it led to
the creation of a third form of penalty in a regular
system of imprisonment, thoroughly established
about 1700. The considerations which moved
John Howard and others in the eighteenth century
to agitate for prison reform on the ground of htunso-
ity led also to the more frequent discussion of the
desirability of abolishing capital punishment, and
finally to an almost universal recognition of the
sole ground on which its maintenance can be de-
fended. It is now admitted that on grounds of hu-
manity the State has no right to annihilate the
individual existence, and that so far as these grounds
go, the heaviest penalty that may be inflicted is that
of penal servitude for life. From the standpoint,
however, of abstract justice, it is still possible to
defend the death-penalty, not in the interest of
terrifying offenders, nor yet on the basis of a ki
talioniSj but on that of a proportion between crime
and penalty, which may fairiy demand that the
severity of the punishment shall correspond in
407
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Capital Punialmieiit
Oaplto
some measure to the importance of the social func-
tion injured by the crime. With this is connected
the requirement that the penalty shall be impres-
sive— as much so as the crime — in order that the
authority of the law shall be upheld, and equal,
falling with the same severity on all classes of the
community. The validity of this argument will
be denied by those who reject the principle of equiv-
eJent compensation and, taking their stand ex-
clusively on the principle of humanity, seek as the
result of punishment the amelioration of the offender
uid the deterrence of him from any further crimes.
But the fact that many of those who take this
theoretical view acquiesce in the retention of capi-
tal punishment in practise shows that the tradi-
tional verdict of many centuries as to the relation
3f crime and punislunent is still to be reckoned
with in any discussion of this question.
(Richard Schmidt.)
m. Capital Punishment in Modem Times: In
nodem times the maintenance or abolition of the
ieath-penalty has been considered mainly from the
standpoint of social utility and social justice. In
:,he history of penology the influence of Christian
md humane sentiments has been distinctly felt;
3ut many drastic punishments have been laid
iside, not because they were cruel and severe, but
because they were indffective. As mutilation has
deen practically abandoned in civilized countries,
K> reliance upon capital punishment as a means of
repressing crime has beien greatly weakened. A
conclusive proof of this is seen in the restriction of
the number of offenses to which it is applied.
Scarcely more than a century ago 200 offenses
nrere included in the list of capital crime in
England. Until 1894 twenty-five offenses were
nade capital under the military code of the United
States, twenty-two imder the naval code, and
leventeen under the penal code. Under Federal
aws the number of capital offenses has now been
-educed to three. Many advocates of capital pun-
shment to-day are willing to limit its application
vhoUy to cases of murder.
Publicity was formerly regarded as absolutely
lecessary for the deterrent effect of executions.
Sven after death the body of the criminal was ex-
x)6ed for weeks on the gibbet as a warning to male-
actors. The practise of gibbeting has now been
ibandoned, and the practise of public execution
s gradually following it. Within recent years
;even or eight States of the Union, including New
^ork, Massachusetts, New Mexico, North Dakota,
lave decided that attendance on executions should
x; limited to a nmnber of legal or specified witnesses.
The governors of Georgia and Kentucky have rec-
>mmended similar legislation. In several States
;he electric chair has been substituted for the gal-
ows with a view of mercifully rendering death in-
(tantaneous. Other States of the Union have
ibolished the death-penalty altogether. Michigan
ibolished it in 1847, Rhode Island in 1852, Wiscon-
sin in 1 853. Maine abolished it in 1 876, restored it in
L883, and again abolished it in 1887. In 1903 New
Hampshire abolished the death-penalty for murder
in the first degree unless the jury should have fixed
the same to the verdict; otherwise the sentence is for
life imprisonment. In Kansas there have been no
official executions since 1872, as no governor has
exercised his power to order the execution of a
prisoner. In 1907 the legislature amended the law
by substituting life imprisonment for the death-
penalty. The governor of Nebraska in 1903 urged
the legislature to abolish capital pimishment. Col-
orado abolished the death-penalty in 1897, but
restored it 1901, as a result of a lynching outbreak
ml900.
In its session 190&-07 the subject of the abolition
of capital punishment occupied a prominent place
in the discussions of the French parliament without
final result. Russia, one of the first countries to
respond to the appeal of Beccaria, abolished it in
1753, except for political offenses. It was abol-
ished in Portugal in 1867, in Holland in 1870, in
Italy in 1890; and it has been abolished in the
majority of the Swiss cantons, in Costa Rica, Brazil,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Venesuela, and three states of
Mexico. Some coimtries which have not formally
abolished it by legislative act have suppressed it in
practise. This is true of Belgium, and of some
states of Mexico. It remains yet to be proven that
an increase in capital crimes has foUowed the abo-
lition of the death-penalty in any country. On the
contrary, the higher development of civilisation in
these countries, the growth of the humane senti-
ment, and increased reliance upon educational and
preventive measures, instead of upon drastic de-
terrent laws, have led to a gradual reduction of
crimes of violence. Samuel J. Barrows.
Bxblxoorapht: O. B.Cheever, FunUhmerU 5v Death: Ut Au^
iKoriiy and Expediency, New York, 1840 (one of the most
vigorous defeofles of the prftctiae); H. Seeger, Abhandlun^
Oen aue dem Strafrechte, TQbingen, IS6S; C. J. Mittei^
maier, Die Todeeetrafe naeh den Broebnieeen der wieeen-
mAafUidten Foreehungen, Heidelbei«, 1862 (the standard
wwk against capital punishment, Eng. oondensation by
J. M. Moir, CapUal PuniekmmU, London, 1865); R. E.
John. Ueber die Todeeetrafe, Berlin, 1867; H. Hetsel,
Todeeetrafe in ihrer kuUurgeeehidUlidien EntwicMung, ib.
1870; F. von Holtsendorff, D<u Verhreehen dee Mordee
und die Todeeetrafe, ib. 1876; L. ron Bar, Handbuth dee
deutedten Strafreehte, vol. i., ib. 1882; H. Romilly, The
Puniehment of Death, London, 1886; A. J. Palm, The
Death Penalty, New York. 1801; J. MacMaster. The Divine
Purpoee of Capital Puniehment, London. 1802; 8. R. D.
K. Olivecroner, De la peine de la mort, Paris, 1803; R.
Schmidt, Auftfoben der Strafreehtepfiege, pp. 178 sqq.. 224
sqq., Leipdo, 1806; R. Katsenstein, Todeutrafe in einem
neuen Reidieetrafoeeettbueh, Berlin, 1002; D. P. D. Fabius.
De doodetraf, Amsterdam, 1006. For the ancient enact-
ments conralt JwieprudenUa anteiuBUniana, ed. E.
Buschke, 6th ed., Leipao, 1886 (cf. Index under "Capite
puniuntur")« And "The Institutes of Justinian," Book
IV., title xvui.. in Moyle's transl.. 4th ed.. pp. 206-2(^7.
Oxford. 1006; A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia; Ue Place in
Roman PvbHc and Private Law, 1804.
CAPITO, ca-pt'to, WOLFGAlfG: Reformer at
Strasburg; b. at Hagenau (16 m. n. of Straaburg)
1478; d. at Strasburg Nov., 1541. He was the
son of a blacksmith named Koepfel, whence the
Latin name CapUo, Having passed the schools at
Pforzheim and Ingolstadt, he studied at Freiburg
first medicine, then law, and finally theology. In
1512 he became parish priest at Bruchsal and there
made the acquaintance of (Ecolampadius and
Pellican. Called to Basel in 1515 as preacher and
professor, he became intimate with the humanists,
including Erasmus, and, abandoning scholasticism.
Oapito
Oapp«l
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4<%
betook himself to the study of the Bible. He
published the Psalter in the original (1516), be-
came personally acquainted with Zwingli and from
1518 corresponded with Luther. Q>ntrary to
all expectation, he was appointed in 1519 chaplain
to Albert, elector and archbishop of Mains. For
a time he tried to mediate with humanistic liber-
ality between the elector and Luther, but in 1522
he was brought over completely to the cause of the
Reformation, and resigned his position at Mains.
In May, 1523, he went to Strasburg and as provost
of St. Thomas (a position obtained by the favor of
Leo X.) preached in accordance with his conviction.
In 1524 he married and became pastor of the Jimg-
St. Petergemeinde; From this time on, he belonged,
with Butzer and the burgomaster Jacob Sturm,
to the leaders of the Strasburg Reformation. In
his Kinderbericht (1527 and 1529) he prepared a
catechism, which, by its peculiar arrangement and
characteristic treatment of the matter, forms a
noteworthy pendant to Luther's contemporaneous
smaller catechism. With Butzer, Capito prepared
the C<mfe88to TetrapolUana (1530). His most im-
portant reformatory work is the Bemer Synodus,
the result of the synod held at Bern in 1532, a kind
of church-discipline and pastoral instruction, dis-
tinguished by apostolic power and unction, great
simplicity, and practical wisdom. He took an
active part in Butzer's efforts to bring together the
Evangelicals of Germany, France, and Switzerland.
He also had part in bringing about the Wittenberg
Concordia of 1536. Toward the Anabaptists and
other sectaries who disturbed the church at Stras-
burg he was more friendly and confiding than Butzer,
and for a time sided with them, thus destroying the
good understanding between himself and Butzer.
But in 1534 he became convinced of the necessity
of stricter measures against the Anabaptists. Char-
acteristic of Capito were not only his mildness and
large-heartedness, but also a certain timidity and
uncertainty in his theological and ecclesiastical
position. However, this was not due to diplomatic
opportunism, but to a sincere repugnance to un-
fruitful theological controversy and a religious
individuality which had more regard to the inner
possession of the fruits of salvation than to a
dogmatic definition of the doctrine of salvation.
He died of the plague after having attended the
Diet at Regensburg. Paul GRtlNBERo.
Biblioorapht: J. W. Baum, Capito und Butxer, Elberfeld,
1860; ADB, iu. 772-776; A. Baum. Magi^trai und Refor-
mation in StroMbuTQ bie 1629, Strasburg, 1887; C. Ger-
bert, GeBchidUs d«r StraaAurger Sekienbetoeffung . . .
ISt^lBSA, ib. 188Q; A. Ernst and J. Adam. KaUcheti»ch§
Oeachichte det EIsosmb, pp. 22-36, ib. 1897; S. M. Jack-
son. Huidreich Zwinifli, passim. New York. 1903; J. Ficker.
Theaaurua Baumkmua, pp. 52-67. Strasburg, 1905; A.
Hulshof. Oeachiedenia tun de Doopageginden te Straataburg
van 16M6 M 1567, Amsterdam. 1905.
CAPirULARIES: A term which designates a
certain class of royal edicts in the Carolingian
period, and which is frequently employed not only
for the Carolingian capUtUaria but also for the
edidaj propceptioneSf decreta, or decretiones of the
Merovingian kings and the mayors of the palace
under Amulf. They are distinguished from the
other class of diplamata or mandata, not so much
by the division into chapters, from which they get
their name, or by the general nature of their pro-
visions as by their form and by the abaence of iij
attestation in the way of signatures or seal. Tn'
absence is explained by the fact that they iren
either put into execution by the kings in persoi
or had to pass through the hands of officials. 11^
attained their highest importance uoder Cfa^-
magne, and were scarcely less used tinder Locds
the Pious; after his death they ceased in the Ear.
Franldsh kingdom, to be kept up for a while in tk
West Franldsh and in Italy by his sons and grani-
sons, disappearing here also toward the end of tic
ninth century. They contain partly instnictic^
for officials, especially the missi dtnninici, arr:
partly supplements or modifications of the ok
tribal law; but to a still greater extoit they an
substantive regulations for all departments of both
secular and ecclesiastical life. The former indaie
the most diverse matters, of administration, ooid-
meroe, the army, markets, coinage, toUs, protectkiD
against robbers, etc. These substantive legulatioci
go deeply into not merely the external organizauoD
of the Church and its relation to the temponl
power, but also the monastic system, educatioo
church discipline, and even liturgical matters.
The origin of the capitularies and the basis of
their authority have been much discussed. Toe
prevalent view, derived in the first instance fran
Boretius, distinguishes between capUvlaria Ug^'trji
addenda and per se scribenda, which means prac-
tically a class of laws originating (like those spe6i-
ically known as leges) in the assent of the wbok
people, and another class originating frcnn the Idsi:
alone, at most with the advice of the nobles as-
sembled in a diet. But there seems to be no sd-
ficient ground for this distinction between popukr
and royal law; in so far as there is any contrasr
between leges and capUiUaria, it may be fully ex-
plained by the special reverence which was felt for
the ancient tribal law. In the cases in which the
capitularies do not oontsdn merely instructions
to officials, they were less legislative enactmenia
than promulgations of a law already existing.
This law, so far as we can trace its origin, came into
being with the assent of the temporal and spiritud
lords, assembled in diets or synods. But the diet
must not be conceived of as a representative as-
sembly of the whole people; its decisions were held
to be binding upon the individual by virtue of Ins
allegiance to the sovereign, and the period of the
capitularies is precisely that in which the oath of
allegiance was most pimctiliously required from
all adults within the empire. The multipUcatioo
of capitularies led before long to the need of codib-
cation; for the collection made by Ansegis of
Fontanella, see Anseois, and for the forged capit-
ularies appended to his collection by Benedictus
Levita, see Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.
(Siegfried Rietschel.)
Biblioorapht: Critical editions of the Capibdaria rtipm
Francorum, ed. O. H. Perts. are in MGH, Legum^ i.. J-.
1836, 1837; and. ed. A. Boretius and V. Krauae, ib. l^^
Bectio II. i.. ii., 1883-97 (cf. A. Boretius. in GGA, ISSi T9-
65 sqq., 1884, pp. 713 sqq.). Consult: A. Boretius. [he
KapUuiarien im Langobardenreieh, Halle, 1864: idea.
Beiiriige aw KapUularienkriHk, Leipaic, 1874; R. Soha.
Die frdnkiaehe Reidia- und GerieAtaverfaatung, pp. I^^
eqq., Weimar, 1871; Fustel de Coulanges, De la cof^^v-
409
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Capito
Cappel
tion dea UHm au tempa dea CaroHngierUt in Revue hietoriquet
iii. (1878) 3 aqq.; M. Th^enin, Lex et eapUuIa, in MS-
lanoee de Vicole dee hatttee itudee, pp. 137 sqq., 1878; H.
Bninner, Deutacfie Rechtegeeehidite^ i. 639 Bqq., Leipeic,
1906; E. Glasflon, Hietoire du droit et dee inetUutione poll-
Hquee et adtninieiraHvee de la France^ i. 281 Bqq., Paria.
1890; O. Seeliser, Die Kapitularien der Karolinger^ Mu-
nich. 1893; R. 8chr5der, Lehrbudi der deutechen Reehte-
oeecKichte, pp. 253 sqq., Leipsic, 1902.
CAPPADOCIA, cap^'pa-do'shi-a. See Asia Minor
IN THE Apostolic Time, XL
CAPPEL (CAPPELLUS) : A French family which
produced many noteworthy statesmen and schol-
ars between the fifteenth and seventeenth centu-
ries, as well as three theologians, Louis Cappel
the Elder, Jacques Cappel the Third, and Louis
Cappel the Younger.
1. Louis Cappel the Elder: Reformed theo-
logian; b. at Paris Jan. 15, 1534; d. at S^an
Jan. 6, 1586. Despite the early death of his father,
he received an excellent education, and in his twen-
ty-second year went to Bordeaux to study law,
but before long accepted a professorship of Greek.
Becoming acquainted with certain of the Reform-
ers, he was converted to their doctrines, and went
to study theology at Geneva, where Calvin con-
trolled the Church. Returning to Paris about
1560, he won the confidence of his coreligionists
by his zeal for the interests of the Reformed, and
was finally ordained pastor. He officiated suc-
cessively at Meaux, Antwerp, and Clermont, but
the constant outbreak of disturbances rendered
any continuous activity impossible, and he was
repeatedly obliged to retire to S^dan, where he was
safe, since it lay in the duchy of Bouillon. In
1575 he was appointed professor of theology at
the University of Leyden, but was recalled in the
following year to France and made preacher and
professor of theology at S^an, hofding these
positions imtil his death.
2. Jacques Cappel the Third: Nephew of the
preceding; b. at Rennes Mar., 1570; d. at S^an
Sept. 7, 1624. After completing his theological
education at S^an, he went in 1593 to his ances-
tral estate le Tilloi, where he preached for several
irears. In 1599 he accepted a call to S^an as
professor of Hebrew, and eleven years later was
ippK>iDted professor of theology. His learning,
)iety, and charity won him high esteem. Among
lis numerous works special mention may be made
>f his Observationea in selecta Peniateuchi loca (ed.
r. Cappel, in his Commeniarii et notes criticce in
7ettis Teatamentum, Amsterdam, 1689) and his
iistoTta sacra et exotica ab Adamo usque ad Augusti
*rtum (S6dan, 1612).
8. Louis Cappel the Younger: Youngest brother
»f the preceding; b. at St. £lier (a village near
;^an) Oct. 15, 1585; d. at Saumur June 18,
658. His father, Jacques Cappel the Younger,
frho had been a parliamentary counselor at
Serines, had been forced to resign on account of
lis conversion to the Reformed Church and had
)een driven by the adherents of the League from
lis estates of le Tilloi. During his flight to his
>rother Louis Cappel the Elder at S^dan, his son
vaa bom and named for his uncle. After his
ather's death in 1586, the boy was taken by his
mother to le Tilloi, where he was educated by
Roman Catholics until his brother Jacques Cappel
took him from their charge. He then studied
theology in S^an, and in 1609 received from the
church in Bordeaux the means to study four years
in England, Belgium, and Germany. On his re-
turn he was appointed professor of Hebrew at
Saumur, but in 1621 the war forced him to take
refuge with his brother at Sddan, where he re-
mained three years. In 1626 he became professor
of theology, and through him, together with Molse
Amyraut and Josu^ de la Place, Saumur attained
high fame. Of his five sons two died in early youth,
the eldest, Jean, became a convert to the Roman
Catholic Church, and the youngest, Jacques the
Fourth, when eighteen years of age succeeded his
father as professor of Hebrew at Saumur. Louis
Cappel was a man of piety, sincerity, courage,
energy, and learning. His life-work was devoted
to the study of the history of the text of the Old
Testament and the refutation of false views con-
cerning it. His first book. Arcanum punctationia
revetatum, was completed in 1623, and sought to
prove that the Hebrew punctuation did not orig-
inate with Moses and the other Biblical authors,
but had been introduced by Jewish scholars after
the completion of the Babylonian Talmud. The
novelty of the book is not its assertion, but its
logical proof. The work was sent by its author to
various scholars for their opinions, but while Bux-
torf at Basel counseled caution, Erpenius at Leyden
had it printed anonymously on his own responsi-
bility in 1624. The book found a friendly reception
in many quarters, but twenty years later Buxtorf 's
son attacked the author bitterly in his Tractatus
de punctorum origine (Basel, 1648). Cappel replied
with his Vindiem arcani punctaiionis, although it
first appeared thirty years after his death in the
Commeniarii et notes critica in Vetue Teaiamentum
edited by his son, Jacques Cappel the Fourth
(Amsterdam, 1689). His second famous work
was the Critica sacra (Paris, 1650), based on the
theory of the integrity of the text and completed
in 1634, although it remained unprinted for many
years on account of the opposition of the Protes-
tants in Geneva, Leyden, and S^an. The work
is divided into six books with the following sub-
jects: parallel passages in the Old Testament;
citations from the Old Testament in the New; the
various readings of the keri and kethibh, the manu-
scripts of the Oriental and Occidental Jews, printed
Bibles, and the Masoretic and Samaritan texts
of the Pentateuch; deviations in the Septuagint
from the Masoretic text; variants in other ancient
translations, the Talmud, and early Jewish writings;
the choice of readings and the restoration of the
original text. Cappel was obliged to meet repeated
attacks. Even when his work first appeared, it
contained a defense against the younger Buxtorf,
who had learned the contents of the book
before it was printed, and had combated it in the
Tractatua already mentioned. Certain passages
which had been omitted in the original edition
against his will were added by Cappel in his Epia-
tola apologetica (Saumur, 1651), another work in
his own defense. A new edition of the Critica
Cappel
Oaraooioli
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
410
sacra was prepared by G. J. L. Vogel and J. G.
ScharfenhBBrg (3 vols., Halle, 1775-«6). His third
important writing was the DitUrtba de veria et
antiquis Hebrctorum Uteris (Amsterdam, 1645), in
which he proved the priority of the Samaritan
script over the square characters and Mius refuted
the treatise of the younger Buxtorf, De liUerarum
Hsbraicarum genuina antiquitate (1643). In these
writings Cappel discussed problems which were of
the utmost importance to the Protestants in their
controversy with the Roman Catholics. Gf his
opponents the younger Buxtorf was the most im-
portant, and had practically all the theologians of
Germany and Switzerland on his side, while many
prominent scholars of France, England, and Hol-
land defended the views of Cappel. The first sen-
tences of the Helvetic Consensus Formula of 1675
are directed against Cappel, the greater number
of the rest being aimed at Amyraut. In later
times a fairer and calmer judgment prevailed con-
cerning the investigations of Cappel, and his results
are now generally accepted. A list of his printed
and unprinted works is given by his son Jacques
in the Commentarii noted above. Special mention
may also be made of his Templi Hieroaolymilani
delineaHo triplex and Chronologia sacra (both con-
tained in Walton's Polyglot), as well as of his
Historia apostolica illustrata (Greneva, 1634). [His
Pivot de la foi et religion (Saumur, 1643) was trans-
lated into English by P. Marinel (London, 1660).]
Carl Bertheau.
BiBLiooBAPHT : Nio^roii, Mfynoiret, vol. zxii.; Biogra-
phie univeraelle, vii. 7&-80, Paria. 1813; I. A. Dorner,
(ienchidtU der prote»tanti»chen Theologie, pp. 450 sqq..
Munich. 1867, £ng. transl., Kdiaburgh. 1880; L. Diestel,
GeachichU des Alien Te$iam9nta in der efuriailiehm Klreht,
pp. 336 sqq., 346 sqq.. Jena. 18G8; G. Schnedermann,
Die Controvert dee L. Cappellua mit den BiuUorfen, Leip-
oic, 1878; C. A. Briggs. Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 222
sqq.. New York. 1899.
CAPREOLUS, JOHANIIES: The most distin-
guished Thomist theologian of the fifteenth cen-
tury; d. 1444. Little is known of his life. Accord-
ing to Qu<^tif, he joined the Dominican order at
Rodez. The subscriptions of the four books of his
Defensiones (first printed in Venice, 1483), where
he is described as of Toulouse, tell that he finished
the first book in 1409 at Paris, where he was then
lecturing, the others at Rodez in 1426, 1428, and
1433. So, at least, Qudtif asserts; but an extant
copy of the editio princeps assigns the composition
of the first three books to 1409, and the fourth to
1432, no place given; and the second edition
(Venice, 1514-15) gives 1409 for the first two,
1428 and 1432 for the others, all in Paris. The
diversity renders all the dates uncertain; nor can
we be sure of the date (Apr. 6, 1444) assigned to
his death by an inscription on his tomb at Rodez,
of evidently later composition. The Dominicans
of Toulouse assert that he was for some time at
the head of their studium generaU. (A. Hauck.)
Biblxooraprt: J. Qii^tif and J. £ohard, Seriptorea ordinia
prtgdicatorum, i. 796 sqq., Paris, 1719; K. Werner, Der
heilioe Thomaa von Aquino, iii. 151 sqq., Regensburg, 1859.
CAPTIVITY OP THE JEWS. See Israel, His-
tory OF, I., 5 9.
CAPUCHIlfS: A branch of the order of Frss
ciscans, founded in the third decade of the sii:t<^^ : .
century by Matteo di Bassi, an Obaervantine Fran-
ciscan. Repeated attempts had been made tirfe
the fourteenth century to restore the primitjr>
strength and simplicity of the Franciscan ri'
and one of these movements was oonoemed e:>]*^
dally with the habit of the order. In connert..^
with this attempted reform, Matteo was told hy s
brother monk that the cowl worn by St. Fnn-.j
differed essentially from that adoptrj
Early by his order. Matteo thereupon Irft
History, his monastery of Montefaloone ana
hastened to Rome, where in 15-'»^ >:
obtained permission from dement VII. to wear i
pyramidal hood and a beard, to live as a herru:
and to preach wheresoever he wished, on conJdTi i
that he should report annually to the pro^-mciJ
chapter of the Observantines. Matteo's exam:*
was followed by his fellow Observantines LodoM*^'
and Raffaelle di Fossombrone, both of whom re-
ceived similar privileges from the pope; and ty
three, soon joined by a fourth, found a home wiirj
the Camaldolites and the duke of Camernv
Through the duke's influence, they were recei\Tii
among the Conventuals in 1527, whereupon Loio-
vioo and Raffaelle returned to Rome and obtaiiifi
from the pope the bull of May 18, 1528, by wiiich
they were permitted to preach repentance, have try
care of souls, especially of abandoned siniicr>,
and form a congregation with the pri\'ileges aln^ iy
granted them. They were freed, moreover. fn>r:
the Observantines and placed under the contn>l d
the Conventuals, since their vicar-general mu.<t \.*:
confirmed by the general of the Conventuals, whi.e
they were to receive visitations from the Conven-
tuals and were obliged in their processions to nuirch
under the cross either of the Conventuals or the
parish clergy. The members of the new ori'-r
speedily became conspicuous by their long bearJ^
and pointed hoods or capuches, whence they wens
termed Capuchins in ecclesiastical documents aa
early as 1536 (Capucini ordinis fratrum minarum
or Fratres minores Capucini). Their first momv^
tery was given them by the duchess of Camerico.
but by 1529 they possessed four houses and in the
same year their first chapter was convened. At tbv>
same time the rules of the order were drawn up.
and thenceforth remained essentially unchanged.
The Capuchins were required to preserve the
primitive service, to refuse all compensation for
singing mass, to devote two hours daily to silent
prayer, to observe silence throughout the day with
the exception of two hours, to practise flagellatinn.
to beg only what was necessary for each day, t*^
provide only for three or at most seven days, ani
never to touch money. The use of meat and wine
in strict moderation was allowed, bu'
Rule, the friars were forbidden to b^ for
meat, eggs, or cheese, although they
might accept them when they were offereil. The
habit was to be poor and coarse, and the brothers.
who might ride neither on horseback nor in wagons.
were required to go barefoot, sandals being allowi>ii
only in special cases. The monasteries, which
were to contain at most ten or twelve friars each,
411
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
loU
were to be fitted in the most meager mamier pos-
sible. In addition to the general, the Capuchins
had provincials, custodians, and guardians, but
no procurators or sjmdics. Elections were held
annually, except in the case of the general, who
was elected by the chapter triennially.
The first vicar-general was Matteo di Bassi
himself, but two months after his election in 1529
he resigned, and in 1537 returned to the Obser-
vantines. He was succeeded by Lodovico di Fos-
Bombrone, who failed of reelection in 1535 Tand was
expelled for exciting dissatisfaction within the
order. The next heads of the Capuchins were
Giovanni de Fano and Bernardino
Since the Ochino (q.v.). The defection of the
Reforma- latter to Protestantism in 1543 caused
tion. Paul III. to contemplate the dissolu-
tion of the order, and for a number
of years the Capuchins were forbidden to preach.
The result of Ochino's act was the transformation
of the Capuchins into a rigidly ultramontane order
which renounced all independent judgment in
matters of faith and doctrine.
After the middle of the sixteenth century the
spread of the order was rapid. Originally re-
stricted to Italy, it was established in l^ttpe at
the request of Charles IX. in 1573, and i?^93
entered Germany, after having already been\n-
planted in Switzerland. In 1606 it was in Spain,
and thirteen years later was freed from the Con-
ventuals and received its own general, as well as
the right to march in processions imder its own
cross. The Capuchins, who then had 1,500 monas-
teries and fifty provinces, followed the Spaniards
and Portuguese across the sea, and toiled valiantly
for the Church in America, Africa, and Asia beside
their great rivals, the Jesuits. In the suppression
of the monastic orders in France and Germany
at the end of the eighteenth century, the Capu-
chins suffered severely, and had also to endure
[nuch south of the Pyrenees. In the nineteenth
century, however, they again prospered, and at its
close numbered fifty provinces with 534 monas-
teries and 294 hospices. The twenty-five Italian
provinces are officially suppressed, but retain a
imited existence. Of the other twenty-five, Gei^
nany contains two, Austria and Hungary seven
Switzerland two, Belgium and Holland one each,
Prance five. Great Britain three, Russia and Po-
and two, and the United States two, that of De-
troit with sixty-eight fathers and that of Pitts-
>urg with sixty-five.
Capuchin nims were founded at Naples in the
Srst half of the sixteenth century, although,
itrictly speaking, they are a branch of the Clares,
rhey now have a number of houses in France,
[taly, Spain, and America, and are subject, when the
lunnery contains the full number of thirty-three,
x> the jurisdiction of the general of the Capuchins,
ind in other cases to the bishop of the diocese in
vhich they live.
CapuchLa scholars have been authors of works of
xiification, practical exegesis, moral theology, and
lermons. Among their most famous preachers
lave been Ochino, John Forbes, St. Laurence of
Srindisi, Jacques Bolduc, Conrad of Salzburg, and
Martin of Cochem. Father Joseph, the confidant
and adviser of Richelieu, and Father Matthew,
the noted temperance lecturer, were Capuchins.
(O. ZdCKLERf.)
Bibuoorapst: Soutom for the history are: Z. BoveriuB.
Annalsa . . . ordinia minorum nve Franeiaei qui Capu-
eini nuneupatur, vols, i.-ii., Leyden, 1632-39, vol. iii., by
Maroellin de Pin, 1676; MichAel a Tugio. BuUarium or-
dinia frairutn minorum . . . Capueinorumt 7 yols., Rome,
1740-62; OrdinaHonea et deeiiionM capUulorum gene-
ralium Capudnorum, ib. 1851; AnaUda Capueinorum, an
annual, ib. 1884 sqq. Consult further: Heimbucher,
Orden und Konoreoationen, i. 279, 315-328, 359, 361-362;
L. Wadding, AnnaUa Minorum, 2d ed. by J. M. Fonseca,
xvi. 207, 24 vols.. Rome, 1731-1860; Helyot, OrdrM
monaatiquea, vii. 164-180; P. Lechner, Leben der HeUigtn
. . der Kapuzinar, 3 vole., Munich, 1863; A. M. Ilg,
0ei9i det . . . Franz von Aaaiai dargeatMt in Lebenabild-
em aua der GeschicfUa dea Kapuiiner-Ordenat Augsburg,
1876; K. Benrath, B. Ochino, passim, Leipeic, 1892;
Currier, Ralioioua Ordera, pp. 244-248.
CAPUTUTI, ca-pQ'ti.Q"tl ("hooded," "ca-
puched''; also known as Paciferi and Blancs
Chaperons): A society foimded in 1183 at Puy-en-
Velay (Le Puy, 68 m. s.w. of Lyons) in the Au-
vergne by a poor artisan called Durand to oppose
the fearful devastations caused by the mercenary
and predatory bands of the " Braban^ons " or
" Cotereaux." Durand claimed that the Madonna
had authorized him to do this; the members of the
society were to wear a white dress with a capuche and
a leaden image of the wonder-working Madonna of
Puy. Organized after the manner of an ecclesias-
tical brotherhood, the Caputiati followed the royal
troops and took bloody vengeance on the destroyers
of peace. The society did not last long. Later
reports, but little reliable, make its members rebels
against State and Church, who, as is alleged, were
routed about 1186 and condemned to do penance.
Even in late times, from too implicit reliance on
these reports, the Caputiati have been considered
a sect opposed to the Church.
Herman Haupt.
Bibuoorapbt: A. Kluokhohn, Oaachiehta dea Ootteafriodena,
pp. 126 aqq., Leipdo, 1857; E. S^michon, La Paix at la
irh>e de I>t«tt, pp. 194, 390, Paris. 1857; L. Huberti. Studien
gurRachtaoaachidUa dea OoUea- und Landfriedena, i. 462 aqq.,
Anebaeh, 1892; Legrand d'Auesy, in NoHoea ei extraita
dea manuacrita de la BiUiolMque Nationale, tom. v., anno
Yii., pp. 290-293, Paris, 1798-99.
CARACCIOU, cd-rd'chl-d'ai, 6ALEAZZ0 (Mar-
chese di Vico): Italian Protestant; b. at Nicies
1517; d. at Geneva July 5, 1586. He was the most
distinguished of the Italians who sought a refuge
at Geneva when the reaction came over Italy;
his mother was a sister of Pope Paul IV., he was
in the royal service, and his wife was a Cdraffa.
At Naples he became acquainted with Juan de
Vald^s and Peter Vennigli, who at that time
preached there, and was deeply impressed by these
reformatory men. The evangelical ideas which he
imbibed at Naples and which caused him many
struggles in his family and in society, were deepened
by a journey to Germany in 1544. He found it
impossible to make open profession at Naples;
the efforts to introduce the Inquisition after the
Spanish pattern were frustrated by the resistance
of the people in 1547 bordering on a revolution;
but, nevertheless, the vice-regent urged the sup-
pression of every anti-Roman opinion. Carac-
Oarlstei
istadt
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
41:
cioli decided to forsake fatherland, position, and
possessions rather than to continue as a hypocrite.
Pretending to go to the imperial court at Augs-
burg, he left Italy, his wife refusing to follow him.
He reached Geneva Jirne 8, 1551, and joined the
Italian community which was founded there in
1542. All efforts of his people to bring him back,
renewed by Paul IV., after his accession in 1555,
were in vain. Toward the end of 1555 he became
a citizen of Geneva. He kept up correspondence
with his wife and his son and in 1558 met them
once more in a little isle of the Adriatic Sea and in
the paternal castle at Vico; as they refused to
follow him, in spite of his entreaties, he left them
forever. The consistories of Geneva and other
places declared his marriage dissolved, and in
1560 he married again. K. Benrath.
Biblioorapht: His life was written by N. Balbani, Hi9-
toria deUa Vita di G. Caraccioli, Genevft. 1687, repub-
liflhed, Florence. 1876.
CARAFFA, cd-raf'fd, GIOVAKin PIBTRO. See
Paul IV., Pope.
CARCHEMISH, cdr'che-mish (modem Jerabis):
A city situated on the right bank of the Euphrates
in the upper part of its course. In the cuneiform
inscriptions the name denotes either a Hittite state
or the capital of that state, which long maintained
itself against the Assyrians. Its earlier identifica-
tion with Circesium, at the confluence of theChebar
with the Euphrates, is obsolete. The earliest men-
tion dates from Ammi-zaduga (about 2200 B.C.),
which speaks of the weight (measure) of Carch&-
mish, a mention which agrees with a later Assyrian
note of the ** Mina of Carchemish," and with the
city's location on one of the most important routes
of commerce. It appears first in Assyrian annals
in the accounts of Tiglath-Pileser I. about 1110 B.C.
The Hittite power was at that early date already
breaking under the pressure of the northern immi-
grations then going on, and was completed later
by the Aramean migrations. King Sangara paid
tribute to Asshumasirpal (about 880 B.C.), was
worsted in a conflict with Shalmaneser II., and was
compelled again to pay heavy tribute and to send
his daughter to the Assyrian's harem. Its last
king, Pisiris, was taken prisoner by Sargon II.,
717 B.C., and imder Sennacherib the region was made
an Assyrian province. Near it was fought the
battle between Nebuchadrezzar and Necho which
decided the fate of western Asia. (A. JerIimias.)
Biblioorapht: G. Masp^ro, De Carchemia oppidi titUt Leip-
sic, 1872; idem, Strugale of the Nationa, pp. 144-145.
London, 1896; J. Menant, Kar-Kamia, aa poaiHon, an
appendix to the Fr. transl. of A. H. Sayoe's HittUea, Paris,
1801; W. M. Mailer, Aaien und Ettropa nach aUAoyp-
Haehen Denkm&lem, p. 263, Leipric, 1893; DB, i. 353;
EB, i. 702-703.
C ARDALE, JOHN BATE : Apostle of the Catho-
lic Apostolic Church; b. in London Nov. 2, 1802;
d. at Albury (26 m. s.w. of London), Surrey, July
18, 1877. After his schooling at Rugby he was
admitted to the bar in 1822, became head of a
London firm of solicitors, and retired with a com-
petency in 1834. He had already become inter-
ested in the religious movement, originating in Scot-
land, known as the '' Catholic Apostolic Church *'
(q.v.), whose distinguiflhing feature is its beL<
in the revival of the ministries and gifts seen z. I
the apostolic age of the Church, especially of x^
ministries of apostles and prophets. Sir. C«r- !
dale was the first called of the twelve " apostle- ~
of the Church, Henry Drununond (q.v.) bcji^
the second. This was in 1832, although it was d *
until July 14, 1835, when the number was cosd-
pleted, that the twelve were formally set af i.t
to their work as an Apostolic College- Mr. Car-
dale was the author of a number of anonjT& -^
religious publications, the most noteworthy o:
which was Beaqdins upon the lAturgy, LoiKi* ^
vol. i., 184^-51, vol. ii., 1852-78- G. C. Boase. ^
the Dictionary of NaHonaL Biography, says of Lin
"His strength of will, calmne«B and deames.^ f
judgment, and kindness of heart and mazmv-.
added to the prestige of his long rule, made \ l-u
a tower of strength. He was indefatigable e.
labour, of which he accomplished a vast amour t
besides Latin and Greek, he was a good French an .
Grerman scholar, and late in life learned Danish.^
Samuel. J. Ajn>REWd.
Bibuoorapht: DNB^ ix. 30-38.
CARDINAL. See Curia, § 1.
CAREY, WILLIAM: Baptist miasioiiary and Or-
entalist; b. at Paulerspury, Nortfaamptonshirt
Eng., Aug. 17, 1761; d. at Serampur, India. Jcne
9, 1834. By baptism a member of the Est^
lished Church, he was eariy in life convinced d
the Scriptural authority for the Baptist \ieiFi.
and joined this sect, in which he soon became a
preacher. His congregations were very poor,
and he supported himself and family by sbce
making. But his thirst for knowledge was strong:
and he managed, notwithstanding the pressure d
poverty, to acquire Latin, Gieek, H^rew, and a
goodly amount of other useful learning, especiai>
in natural history and botany. His attention v^
turned to the heathen, and he saw plainly his dutr
to go to them. On Oct. 2, 1792, largely through
his exertions, the first Baptist missionary societr
was foimded; and on June 13, 1793, he and \k
family sailed for India, accompanied by John
Thomas, who had formerly lived in Bengal. On
reaching Bengal early in 1794, Carey and his com-
panion lost all their property in the Hugli; bet.
having received the charge of an indigo-factorj
at Malda, he cut off his pecuniary connection with
the missionary society, and began in earnest wba:
instead of regular missionary labor, was to be the
work of his life — the study of and translation boib
from and into the languages of India. In 1799 tbe
factoiy was closed; and he went with Thomas to
Kidderpur, where he had purchased a small
indigo-plantation. Here, joined by Marshman aai
Ward, he started, under bright hopes, a misskfi.
but soon encountered the opposition of the Indiio
government, which forbade the mission's enlarge-
ment, and compelled its removal, at a great peco-
niary loss, to Serampur, a Danish settkroent
(1800), where it took a fresh lease of life. Fof
some time Carey and Thomas had been diligently
at work upon a version of the New Testament is
Bengali. In 1801 it was published by the press
413
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
OarafCk
OarUtadt
Carey instituted. About the same time the Marquis
3f Wellesley appointed him professor of Oriental
languages in the Fort William College, which the
marquis had founded at Calcutta for the instruction
Df the younger members of the British Indian civil
aervice. Carey held this position for thirty years,
uid taught Bengali, Mahrati, and Sanskrit. He
nrrote articles upon the natural history and
Dotany of India for the Asiatic Society, to which
ie was elected, 1805, and thus made practical
application of acquisitions of former years; but
:his was only a part, and by far the less val-
jable part, of his work. That which has given
lim his undying fame was his translation of the
Bible, in whole or in part, either alone or with
>thers, into some twenty-^ix Indian languages.
The Serampur press, under his direction, ren-
iered the Bible accessible to more than three hun-
dred million human beings. Besides, he prepared
grammars and dictionaries of several tongues; e.g.,
Mahratta Grammar , 1805; SanacrU Grammar , 1806;
ifahratta Dictionary, 1810; Bengalee Dictionary,
1818; and a dictionary of all Sanskrit-derived
anguages, which unhappily was destroyed by a
fire in the printing establishment in 1812. Later
students have discovered errors and omissions in
these works; but all honor is due to Carey for
• breaking the way," and every inhabitant of
India is liis debtor.
Sibliooraphy: John Taylor, Biographical and Literary
NoticM of William Carey. Bibtiographieal NoHcea of
Worka .... Northampton, 1886; J. C. Marahman, Life
and Timee of Carey, Marahman and Ward, 2 vols., Lon-
don. 1859; J. Culross, William Carey, New York, 1882;
Geonee Smith. Life of WiUiam Carey, London, 1887; H. O.
D wight, H. A. Tupper, and E. M. Bliss, Encyelopctdia of
Miaeiona, pp. 133-134, New York, 1904; DNB, ix. 77.
CARGILL, DONALD (or DAlflEL) : One of the
coders of the Scotch Covenanters; b. in the parish
>f Rattray, Perthshire, 1619; beheaded at Edin-
burgh July 27, 1681. He was educated at Aber-
leen and St. Andrews; and about 1650 he became
>astor of the Barony Church, Glasgow. In 1661,
vhcn Episcopacy was established in Scotland, he
efused to accept his charge from the archbishop,
ind was banished (1662) beyond the Tay; but he
lid not go; instead he became one of the '' field
>reacher8," who, deprived of their churches,
>rcached in the open air. In 1679 he joined Cam-
eron, Douglas, Hamilton, and others in the rebellion
i^ainst prelacy, which arose out of the " Rutherglen
:>eclaration " of May 29 of that year, and with his
allow Covenanters endured the defeat of Bothwell
Bridge, June 22. He fled to Holland, but soon
ie turned. The next year he and Cameron, with
heir adherents, drew up the *' Sanquhar Declara-
ion,'' June 22. The government set a price upon
he leaders' heads. They were attacked at Ayrs-
noss, July 22, and Cameron was slain; but Cargill
(ucceeded to the leadership, and, as if to testify
n the most signal manner his abhorrence of the
;yTannical persecutors, he publicly excommunicated
;he king and several of the nobles at a field-preach-
ng held at Torwood in Stirlingshire in September.
SVhcn the Duke of York, one of the " excommu-
licated," came to Scotland, the persecution of the
followers of Cargill increased. He himself was
hunted from place to place; but on July 11, 1681,
he was captured between Clydesdale and Lothian,
and taken to Edinburgh for trial. He readily
confessed that he had done what the council had
called treason. The council were equally divided
whether to imprison him for Hfe or to execute him;
but the vote of the Duke of Argyle decided in favor
of the latter — a vote which cost Argyle, later on,
the support of the Covenanters, to say nothing of
deep remorse. Accordingly Cargill was put to
death. See Covenanters.
Biblioobapht: Biographia preabyteriana, vol. ii.. Edin-
burgh, 1827 (life of Cargill); R. Wodrow, HiaL of the
Sufferinoa of the Church of Scotland, 2 vols., ib. 1721-22
T. McCrie, Sketchea of ScoUiah Church Hiat, ib. 1875;
J. Cunningham, CAurcA Hiat. of Scotland, 2 vols., ib. 1883;
DNB, ix. 7»-80.
CARLILE, WILSON: Church of England; founder
of the Church Army (q.v.) ; b. at Brixton (a suburb
S.W. of London) Jan. 14, 1847. He was educated
at Highbury College, London, but did not take a
degree. He entered conmiercial life in 1862, but in
1878 matriculated at the London College of Divinity,
and was ordered deacon in 1880 and ordained
priest in the following year. He was curate of
Kensington from 1880 to 1882, when he founded
the Church Army in the Westminster slums, and
in 1890 established the Social System of Church
Army in Marylebone. He was also rector of
Netteswell, Essex, in 1890-91, and since the latter
year has been rector of St. Mary-at-Hill, Eastcheap,
London. He was appointed a prebendary of St.
Paul's Cathedral, London, in 1906, and has written:
The Church and Conversion (London, 1882); Spiri-
tual DifficuUiee (1885), and The Continental Outcast
(in collaboration with V. W. Carlile; 1906).
CARLSTADT, cOrl'stat (KARLSTADT, CAROL-
STADT), ANDREAS RUDOLF BODENSTEIN VON:
Protestant Reformer; b. at Karlstadt (14 m. n.w. of
Warzburg), Bavaria, c. 1480; d. at Basel Dec. 24,
1541. The assumption that he pursued his aca-
demical studies at foreign universities rests upon
a confusion with his later journey to Rome. In
the winter term of 1499-1500 he entered the Uni-
versity of Erfurt, where he remained until 1503,
and then removed to Cologne. In 1504 he turned
to the newly established University of Wittenberg,
in which he acquired considerable fame as a teacher
of philosophy. He was a sealous adherent of
scholasticism, advocating the imoon-
Training ditional authority of Thomas Aquinas,
and Life to By 1510 he had obtained all the higher
15x8. academical degrees. In 1508 he re-
ceived a canoniy at the collegiate
church in Wittenberg and in 1510 became arch-
deacon. As such he had to preach and read mass
once a week and to lecture at the university. In
1515 he left Wittenberg, without the permission
of the imiversity and the elector, and went to
Rome, where he studied law and took a degree,
hoping to obtain the first prelacy at Wittenberg,
for which legal training was necessary. He did
not succeed, however, in obtaining the position
after his return. His journey to Rome brought
about a rupture with scholasticism. The evidence
of the worldliness of the papacy which Carlstadt
Oitflstadt
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
414
saw in Rome may have been the chief factor in
the change of his religioua views. His 151 theses
of Sept., 1516, contain the fundamental traits of
his later theology. He combats the scholastics
and Aristotle (theses xxxvii., cxliii.)^ and even
anticipates Luther, en the basis of Augustine, con-
cerning the inability of the human will to attain
unto God and in attributing the act of redemption
exclusively to the work of divine grace. Thus no di-
rect dependence of Carlstadt upon Luther can be as-
sumed ; each influenced the other after 1516, although
a bond of personal friendship never united them.
In the spring of 1518 Caristadt published a
comprehensive collection of theses, on the occasion
of Eck's attack upon the ninety-five theses of
Luther. Here he affirms for the Bible the most
absolute authority as a source of religious knowl-
edge and adheres to its literal interpretation. In
June and July a disputation took place between
Carlstadt and Eck, and although the fonner was
always equal to the dialectic cleverness of his
opponent, he became more and more conscious of
the impossibility of reconciling his convictions with
the ruling doctrine of the Church.
Deviates He emphasised more and more the
from efficacy of divine grace alone in the
Church redemption of humanity, and wrote
Teachings, polemical treatises against the church
doctrine of justification by works and
against indulgences. In 1521 he went to Denmark
by invitation of King Christian II. and helped in
the establishment of ecclesiastical laws, but after
a few weeks in Copenhagen he had to give way
before the united resistance of nobility and clergy.
In June he was again at Wittenberg, where he ex-
pressed his views concerning the Lord's Supper in
a treatise Von den Empfahim Zeichen und Zuaag
des heUigtn Sacramenta, In this treatise he still
clings to the corporal presence of Christ in the sacra-
ment, but looks upon it only as a sign of divine
promise. In another treatise Caristadt places
beside the literal explanation of Scripture a spiritual
interpretation which penetrates its deeper sense
and rests upon divine interpretation. Here are
to be found certain points of contact between the
views of Carlstadt and those of the enthusiasts.
The attitude of Carlstadt in the Wittenberg
disturbances and his doings there during Luther's
stay at the Wartburg have frequently been repre-
sented in an erroneous light. When the Augus-
tinians, in Oct., 1521, refused to hold mass and
demanded the administration of the Lord's Supper
in both kinds, the university appointed a com-
mission of four theologians, among them Carlstadt,
to investigate. Against the more decided attitude
of Melanchthon, Carlstadt conceded that the abo-
lition of the mass could only be accomplished
with the consent of the magistracy. A letter,
expressing the same spirit and signed
The Ref- by seven professors, was sent to the elec-
ormation at tor. As the excitement did not abate,
Wittenberg, Carlstadt tried to quiet the more strenu-
X53x-aa. ous by emphasizing the Gospel as the
proper guide in all actions. Never-
theless, the disturbances continued until on
Christmas day he administered the Lord's Sup-
per in both kinds. His action was approved
by all Evangelicals. From this moment he was
silently acknowledged as the leader of the reforma-
tory movement in Wittenberg. He did not stop
with the refonnation of the Lord's Supper. At the
end of 1521 and at the beginning of 1522 auricular
confession, the elevation of the host, and the in-
junctions concerning fasting were abolished. Jan.
19, 1522, Caristadt marri^. On being informed
of the events in Wittenberg, the so-called Zwickau
prophets arrived (see Anabapttbts, II., § 1 ; Zwickau
Pbophetb), but Carlstadt kept aloof; it was only
at the end of 1522 that he began to correspond
with Thomas MOnser (q.v.). He proceeded in his
reforms in entire conformity with the Council of
Wittenberg, in which he saw the supreme author-
ity in the ecclesiastical affairs of the city. He
soon opened the battle against pictures in the
churches, in which he was assisted by the coun-
cil. Some small excesses occurred, which, how-
ever, were severely condemned by both the council
and Carlstadt.
These ecclesiastical changes had aroused the
displeasure of Frederick the Wise, who was espe-
cially offended by the abolition of the mass. Cari-
stadt and Melanchthon were called to account.
Melanchthon immediately showed himself sub-
missive; Carlstadt also promised in Feb., 1522, to
renounce further innovations after he had carried
through the reforms which he deemed essential.
But Frederick desired an entire rehabilitation of
the Old Church usages. The course of events made
it impossible for Luther to remain at the Wartburg.
He did not agree with Carlstadt's radical measures,
believing that forbearance ought to be shown
toward the weak. After his arrival at Wittenberg,
on Mar. 6, he succeeded in shaking the dominating
position of Carlstadt and counteracting his reforms.
The Lord's Supper 8vb una specie was restored, also
the elevation of the host. Carlstadt remained
as professor in the university, but lost all his influ-
ence. As he was thus deprived of the possibility
of being active in a practical way, he devoted himself
to speculative theology. His views were somewhat
mystical, but, unlike the true mystics, Carlstadt
was not satisfied with the contemplative rapture
in the union of the soul with God, and set up ethical
standards for the practical realization of his new
convictions. In his desire to do away with all
intermediary agencies in the religious communica-
tion between God and man, he denied the indelible
character of orders and did not even acknowledge
the ministry as a special profession. He called
himself after 1523 '* ein neuer Lai" put off his
clerical robes, and lived for some time as a peasant
in Segrena, near Wittenberg, with relatives of his
wife.
In 1524 Carlstadt became preacher in Orlamfinde,
where he carried on the reform of the church serv-
ice as he had done two years before ia
At Oria- Wittenberg. He expoimded the book
miindSy of Acts daily to his congregation, and
1524. on SimdayB and holidays the Gospel of
John. In the course of his develop-
ment Caristadt arrived at the conviction that bap-
tism and the Lord's Supper are not sacramenta
L16
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarlatadt
Vt the same time he strongly attacked the mass.
Igainst Luther he wrote Verstarid des Worts PauLi
^ch begeret ein Verbannter sein. Without men-
ioning Luther's name, he shows the dangerous
X)n8equences to which the exaggeration of the
>rinciple concerning forbearance for the weak might
ead. Apart from his controversial writings,
!^arlstadt emphasized the necessity of personal
ievotion and sanctification.
Carlstadt did not derive his political or social
>rinciples from his theological views. When
^lanzer's revolutionary measures in Allst&dt became
hreatening, Carlstadt cautioned him, and he in-
iuced the people of OrlamQnde to separate them-
lelves formally from those of Allst&dt. Neverthe-
ess, the points of difference between Wittenberg
md OrlamUnde were so considerable that the uni-
versity took active measiunes against Caristadt.
IfUther met Carlstadt at Jena, in Aug., 1524, and
hence proceeded to OrlamUnde; he waa not suc-
cessful, however, in settling the difficulties. In
^ptember Carlstadt with his family, his adherents
tfartin Reinhard, preacher in Jena, and Gerhard
^esterburg, his brother-in-law, were expelled from
;he territory of the elector. Carlstadt now en-
x>untered a time full of hardships and dangers, but
he developed an extraordinary activity
Hard- as a writer. The assumption of the
ships of his corporal presence of Christ in the
Later Life. Lord's Supper is, according to him,
in contradiction to the fundamental
presuppositions of Christian doctrine. He found
idherents to these ideas not only among the people,
3ut many even in the clergy. In Oct., 1524, he
sojourned at Strasburg, then lived temporarily
n Heidelberg, Zurich, Basel, Schweinfurt, Kit-
singen, and Ndrdlingen. He was active for a con-
dderable time in Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber, where
lis sermons carried away the great majority of the
ntizens. It was at this time that the Peasants'
IVar broke out in Rothenburg. Carlstadt was sent
LS envoy to the peasants, thus making himself un-
K>pular among them. After the defeat of the
Bouth German peasants and the capture of Rothen-
burg by Margrave Casimir, Carlstadt escaped from
;he town with difficulty. The collapse of his hopes
>roke down his power of resistance. He wrote
lumbly to Luther to open the way for his return
x> Saxony. Luther took pity upon him, and
I^arlstadt returned to Wittenberg after he had
scanted to some degree his doctrine oonoeming the
Liord's Supper; but he had to pledge himself not
)o teach or preach. He lived at first in Segrena,
ifter 1526 in Bergwitz, where he had to earn his
iving like a peasant. Before the close of the year
le was reduced almost to poverty, and he removed
x> the little town of Kemberg and kept a small
(tore. He soon retracted his former recantation
ind was compelled to flee. In Mar., 1529, he was
idth Melchior Hofmann, the Anabaptist, in Hol-
itein. Being expelled hence also, he wandered
prith Hofmann to East Friesland, where he remained
imtil the beginning of 1530 and gathered a great
number of adherents. Thence he went to Switzer-
land, where he was kindly received by Zwingli,
who secured for him a position as assistant preacher
in Zurich. In Sept., 1531, he became preacher in
Altst&tten in the valley of the Rhine, but the un-
fortimate battle near Kappel (Oct. 11) compelled
him after a few months to return to Zurich, where
he lived in close union with the Reformers of that
city. The preachers of Zurich took Carlstadt's
part when Luther renewed his attacks. In 1534
he was called to Basel as preacher and professor
in the university. Here he became involved in
disputes with Myoonius; the people took Carl-
stadt's part, but he estranged himself from his
friends in Zurich. He fulfilled his last public task
in 1536, when the government of Basel sent him
with Grynsus to Strasburg to negotiate with the
theologians of that city concerning a reconciliation
with the Wittenberg theologians on the question
of the Lord's Supper. He showed a very concilia-
tory spirit, which was not approved by the Swiss
theologians.
Carlstadt's eariiest writings, De inUntUmibuM
(1507), DisHnctiones aive formalitatea Thamista
(1508), were of a scholastic nature. Hia journey
to Rome occasioned his treatise Von pApatlicher
Heiligkeit (1520), in which he criticized the abuses
of popery. In De cananxcis scripturia (1520) he
laid down the results of his investigations of the
Old and the New Testament writings; he shows him-
self a free and independent critic, but
Writings, does not shake the authority of the
literal sense. In 1521 appeared Von
den Empfahem Zeichen und Zueag dee heiligen
Sacramente and Von OelUbden Unterrichtung ; in
the latter treatise he advocated the abolition of
monastic vows, especially the vow of celibacy.
In Sept., 1521, appeared De legie liiera aive came et
epirUu; here Carlstadt propounded for the first
time an entirely new principle of interpretation
which became of much importance in the further
development of his theology — ^the spiritual inter-
pretation of the words of Scripture. Against
pictures in churches he wrote in 1522 Von AbAuung
der BUder, In 1524 he published Prieetertum und
Opfer Ckrieii, After his expulsion from Saxony
in 1524 appeared the most radical of his writings,
Ob man gemach faren eoll, in which he denies the
corporeal presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper,
and Ameig eUicher Hauptariikel christiicher Lehre,
which contains a comprehensive summary of his
views. He combats the central position which
the conception of sin had assumed in Luther's
theology, as he understood it, and emphasizes the
necessity that Christian liberty and justice must
produce fruits in good works.
(Hermann Baroe.)
Bibuoobapst: The authoritative biosraphy is H. Barse,
Andrta9 BonUnaUin von Karlttadt, 2 vols.. Leipsio. 1006.
Among the older literature the following may be
consulted: Mayer, DiMertatio de KaroUtadio, Oreifs-
wald, 1703; F(lsslin« LeberieoeechiehU dM A. B. wm
KarUtadi, Frankfort. 1776; J. F. KGhler. BeitrOge sur
ErgOnMuno der deuUdten Littaratur, i. I>ld2, ii. 239-269,
2 vols.. Leipeic. 1792-94; M. Kirchhofer, Oewald My-
coniitt, pp. 153. 316-343. Zurich. 1813. More modem
treatment will be found in: A. W. DieckhofT. De Card'
atadio Luiherana dodrina contra Eckium defeneore, Q6t-
tingen. 1860; idem. Die evanoelieehe AbendmahUlehre im
ReformaHoneaeiiaUer, ib. 1854; Jiger. A. B. mm Karl-
eladi, Stuttgart. 1856; G. P. Fisher. The ReformaHan, pp.
93. 113, New York. 1873; W. Walker. Tkt R^ormaiion,
Oarlatadt
Oarmel
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
41!
pMflim, ib. 1000: J. Kdstlin, Martin Lulher, pMsim, 2
▼oU., Berlin, 1903 (important); Cambridgt Modem HU-
tory, vol. ii., The Reformation, paaeim, ib. 1904; Moeller,
Chiietian Church, vol. iii. paaaini, especially pp. 27-35;
Schaff, Chrietian Church, vol. vi. pMsim. Consult also:
O. Bauoh. in ZKO, xi. (1890) 448 sqq. (on CarUtadt's
scholasticism); D. Sohftfer, ib. xiii. (1892) 311 (on the
De legit Uiera).
CARLSTADT, JOHANN. See Draconites.
CARLYLE, THOMAS: Historian, biographer,
and easayiBt; b. at Ecclefecban (60 m. 8. of Edin-
biu^h), Dumfrieflshire, Scotland, Dec.
Life and A, 1795; d. in London Feb. 5, 1881.
Writings. He was early noted for his extraordi-
nary memory, and for his love of read-
ing. He entered the University of Edinbuigh in
1810, and distinguished himself as a mathematician,
but declared that he owed nothing to the university
but the miscellaneous reading afforded by its
hbrary. Having abandoned the study of theology,
he taught mathematics in the high school at Annan
for two years. In 1816 he was appointed rector of
the Burgh School at Kirkcaldy. Here he devoted
himself to the study of German, and translated
Legendre's Oeometry, adding an introductory essay
on proportion.
Carlyle removed to Edinburgh in 1818, where he
supported himself by literary work, pursued a
large and varied course of reading, and devoted
much time to the study of German. From 1820
to 1823 he contributed a number of articles to the
Edinburgh Encydopcedia and the Edinburgh Review,
In 1824 he introduced Goethe to English readers
by the translation of WUhelm Meiater*s Lekrjahre,
and in 1825 published the Life of Schiller. He
married Jane Welsh in 1826, and removed in
1828 to Craigenputtoch, where he wrote his Crit-
ical and Miacellaneoua Esaaye, and Sartor Resartua,
a philosophic romance in the form of a treatise on
dreaa, containing his views on the problems of
religion and life; it was published during 1833-34,
in Fraeer's Magazine.
In 1834 he removed to London, to the house in
Gheyne Row, Ghelsea, where he resided until his
death. In 1837 appeared The French Revolution,
the first of his works to which his name was for-
mally attached. In the same year he began lec-
turing, and, during 1837-43, delivered courses on
Oerman Literature, The Periods of European Cul-
ture, the Revolutions of Modem Europe, and Heroes
and Hero-Worship, besides publishing Chartism, a
political treatise, and Past and Present.
One of his most important woiks, Oliver Crom-
well's Letters and Speeches, was issued in 1845, and
produced a great revolution of sentiment in favor
of Cromwell. In 1840 Carlylo inaugurated the
movement which resulted in the London Library,
of which he was afterward elected president. Dur-
ing 1848-^50 he wrote a number of political and
social treatises, notably The Latter Day Pam-
phlets, the ultimate and most violent expression
of his political creed.
The Life of John Sterling, especially valuable
as a partial expression of his own religious views,
appeared in 1851. His magnum opus. The History
of Frederick the Great, was begun in 1858, and
finished in 1865. It is a monument of patient
industry and minute research, and contains .
complete political history of the eighteenth f^>
tury. In 1866 Carlyle was choeen rector <rf i -
University of Edinburgh, and delivered an in2>
gural on The Choice of Books. Mrs. Caririe u-d
during his absence on this occasion (Apr. 2:
A few newspaper articles, with Historicai Shi^ia
of the Early Kings of Norway, and The Partra-:*
of John Knox, marked the next five years, aaj
completed his literary labors.
Cariyle's life is mariced by great unity of per-
pose and concentration of energy. He lived :cr
literature. With his imaginative genius, Li
poetic insight, and his opulent diction, he wa^ i
poet by constitution; but his lack of the sense .''
form and proportion, and his inip>atienoe of man-
ured expression, made him despise poetry. He ^ 3
preacher and a prophet rather than an aitL<
His keen sense of the grotesque, with the htl.
depth of his nature, made him a humorist at oe^
racy, subtle, and satirical; but this element dercl-
op^ itself disproportionately, and ran into rp-
icism as he grew older.
Notwithstanding the large admixture of ethic*
and philosophy in his writings, it is well-nli^
impossible to define accurately ks
Ethics position as a philosopher, morali^'.
and or reUgionist. Veracity is the ba.^ii
Philosophy, of his ethical conceptions, by which be
means the disposition to gp behbi
appearances to facts, and the assertion of reality as
against mere symbols and conventionalities. Eji
hatred of shams is intense, and often leads him mto
needless roughness of speech. His ethical ides!
is defective from its identification of physical and
moral order, of might and right. It is too sub-
jective, lodging the test of right in each mac's
moral consciousness. Hence his fundamental fal-
lacy, expounded in Hero-Worship, and applied ic
Frederick — the reverence for strength, regardless
of moral quality. He is a dangerous guide, there-
fore, as a historian and political philosopher.
His conception of history as only the record d
the world's great men is radically false. He has
no sense of the popular power in the solution of
political problems. The moral teaching of his
histories is unsound in blinding the reader to
vice through the admiration of greatness. The
logical outcome of his political philosophy is sla-
very and despotism. As a historian he is distm-
guished by exact and laborious attention to detsSi.
He studies folios and pasquinades alike; and no
detail of topography, feature, or costume escapes
him. His histories are a series of striking por-
traits or pictures. He stands committed to no
philosophical system. With much talk about the
real and practical, his philosophy is intuitional aod
sentimental, emphasizing feeling above reason.
Theologically he can not be accuratdy placed.
The Life of Sterling throws most light upon hk
religious views. He may fairly be
Religious regarded as a theist. He is zxiainlj
Views, silent on the truth of creeds, always
reverential toward Christ, and, whOe
agreeing that Christianity is the supreme religion.
denies that it embraces all truth. He seems to hdi
17
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarlstadt
Oarmel
:SLt responsibility to God is the essential truth
reshadowed in all religions, and that the essence
all religion is to keep conscience alive and shining.
e believes in retribution as the natural outteme
iRrrong. He revered genuine piety, and his own
oral life was singularly pure. As a critic he has
"eat knowledge and keen discernment, but is too
kble to be swayed by his personal prejudices.
His earlier style, as in the essays on Bums and
M>tt, was natural, simple, dignified, and vigorous.
ia later style is figurative, abrupt, enigmatical,
znetimes turgid and involved, inverted, declama-
•ry, and at times coarse, yet withal often beauti-
I, rich, and powerful, and always picturesque.
M. R. Vincent.
blioorapht: DNB^ ix. 127 appends to aeoount of Car-
lyle's life a list of the uncollected writings as well as of
his books. K H. Shepherd has published a BihUoffraphy
of Ttumuu CarlyU, London, 1881, and in Nolf and
Queries, 6th series, iv. 145, 201, 226 are lists of articles
referrinc to Garlyle. The authorities for Garlyle's life
Are his Reminiactneet, ed. J. A. Froude, London, 1881;
J. A. Froude, Thomaa CarlyU, a Hiatary of tk$ FirH Party
Yeara of hia Life, 2 vols., 1882, and HtMtory of Ma lAfa in
London, 2 vols., 1884; Corraapondonea of Thomaa Car-
lyU and Ralvh Waldo Bmtraon, ed. C. E. Norton, Boston,
1883; Lattera and Mamoriala of Jane WOik CarlyU, pr^
•pared ... by Thomaa CarlyU and edited hy J. A. Froude,
3 vols., London, 1883.
For accounts of his life and estimates of his writings
and activities consult: O. BfacCrie, The Relioion of our
lAterature, Baaaya upon Thomaa CarlyU, London, 1876;
M. D. Conway, Thomaa CarlyU, ib. 1881; E. D. Mead,
The Philoeophy of CarlyU, Boston, 1881; K H. Shep-
herd, Memoira of the Life and WriHnga of Thomaa CarlyU,
London, 1881; H. James, Literary Remaina, Some Per-
aonal ReeoUeeOona of CarlyU, Boston, 1884; D. Masson,
CarlyU peraonaUy and in hu WriHnga, London, 1886;
A. 8. Arnold, The Story of Thomaa CarlyU, ib. 1888;
E. FlOgel. r. CarlyUa rtLioiHee und siltficAs Bntvoidduno
Mfuf WeUanaehauung* I^eipsie, 1887, Eng. transl., Lon-
don, 1891; J. M. Robertson, Modem Humaniata, Socio-
logical Studiea of CarlyU, ib. 1801 { David Wilson. Mr.
Froude and CarlyU, New York, 1808; May Alden Ward,
Propheta of tka Nineteenth Century, Boston, 1000; J. M.
Sloan, The CarlyU Country, PhiUdelphia, 1003; H. Paul,
Life of Froude, London, 1006; lUuatrated Memorial
Volume of the CarlyWa Houae Purehaae Fund Committee,
ufith Catalogue of CarlyWe Booka, MSS., Pieturea, and
Furniture, London, 1807.
CARLYLE, THOMAS: Apostle of the Catholic
postolic Church (q.v.) ; b. at King's Grange (90 m.
w. of Edinburgh), Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland,
Illy 17, 1803; d. at Albury (26 m. s.w. of London)
an. 28, 1855. After studying at Edinburgh Uni-
ersity he was called to the Scottish bar in 1824.
he same year by the death of a relative the dor-
tant title of Baron Cariyle passed over to him.
n 1831 he figured as legal counsel of the Rev. John
[cLeod Campbell (q.v.) in the famous Row heresy
ase. He believed that the revival in Scotland
f the speaking in prophecy and tongues was a true
rorlc of the Spirit, and in Apr., 1835, was himself
ailed to the apostolate. Thereupon he gave up
is practise at the bar and settled with his wife
t Albury, where was the seat of the Apostolic
lollege, and the center of its work. He was much
a Germany, and made the acquaintance of many
heologians, among them H. W. J. Thiersch (q.v.)
nd C. J. T. Boehm. In 1845 he published at
x)ndon The Moral Phenomena of Germany ^ which
ntroduced him to King Frederick William IV. of
i^rufl8ia. He wrote many pamphlets, among which
n,— 27
may be mentioned Pleadings with my Mother , the
Church of Scotland (1854). A volume of his col-
lected writings was published in 1878.
Samuel J. Andrkwb.
CARMEL : The mountain in the west of Palestine
which separates the Plain of Acre from the Plain of
Sharon. I Kings xviii. 40-46 locates it near the
Kishon and between the Mediterranean and Jezreel
(q.v.); Joshua zix. 26 and Jer. xlvi. 18 locate it
as the southern boundary of Asher and as abutting
on the sea. Jabal Karmal is the name it still bears,
and it is also called " Mount of the Holy Elijah."
In the Hebrew the name has the article, and means
"wooded garden," setting forth the contrast
between the greenness of Carmel and the bareness
of the hills of central Palestine. This fact is often
referred to in Scripture, the wooded Bashan, Leb-
anon, and Carmel being named together, though
the bushy rather than forest growth of the last is
sometimes noted.
The mountain is wedge-shaped, with the edge
toward the sea; the western extension turning
toward the south runs approximately parallel to the
coast, while the northern cliffs curve gently along
the plain of the Kishon. Its stone is a gray lime-
stone, and caves are numerous. It is about thir»
teen miles in length and eight and a half broad at its
eastern end. It is marked off by the Wadi-al-Milh,
emptying into the Kishon, and the Wadi-al-Matabin,
which flows to the coast plain.
The northern point is occupied by the convent
of the Carmelites and a shelter provided for pil-
grims. The situation affords an imobstructed view
both of the coast to the south and of that to the
north as far as Acre. There are at present only two
villages on the mountun, both in the southern part
and inhabited by Druses. In earlier times the
mountain was more densely populated, as is shown
by the remains of dstems and oil- and wine-presses.
In 1820 the Druses made seventeen settlements
there, but in the Turco-Egyptian war all were
destroyed but two.
' From its striking characteristics of position, form,
and abundance of tree-growth, it is hardly to be
wondered at that Carmel was a sacred place.
I Kings xviii. connects this fact with the memory
of Elijah. The site of the episode related there is
given by tradition as El-Mahraka, "the Place of
Burning," a terrace, 1,600 feet above the sea, where
are a [Druse] chapel and some ruins. Beneath this
on the bank of the Kishon is a little mound to
which the name "Hill of the Priests" is given,
pointed out as the place where the priests of Baal
were slain. Tradition locates also the place where
Elijah dwelt, in a valley, in which there is a spring
known as Ain-al-Sih, about two miles south of the
convent. The Mohammedans regard the place as
sacred, and point out the site of Elijah's garden,
where appear numbers of " Elijah's melons,"
geodes which characterize the Carmel formation.
Near it the first monastery was built about 1200,
replaced by a new one somewhat later, which was
destroyed by Abdallah Pasha in 1821 that it might
not be used as a fort by his enemies. It was re-
constructed about 1828, and the church is built over
Caroline Books
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
42l
an '* Elijah-grotto "; that is, a cave in which Elijah
is said to have lived.
The Old Testament does not determine to which
of the tribes Carmel belonged, whether to Asher,
Zebiilim, or Manasseh. At various times it was
oomited to Galilee and to Phenicia. Tacitus, asserts
that ** Carmel " was the name of a mountain and a
deity, and Vespasian had the oracle there consulted.
The coast at the foot of the mountain is about
100 yards wide, broadening north and south. At
the foot of the bay of Akko there was an old city
called Sycaminum by Greeks and Romans and
Haifa in the Talmud, coins of which are known.
The place was destroyed and the material used
to build the present Haifa at the mouth of the
Kishon, 1760, the growth of which in recent years
has been quite rapid. (H. Guthb.)
Biblxoorapht: C. R. Condor and H. H. Eatohener. Survey
of Wealem Paiettina, Memoira, i. 264 sqq., London, 1881;
G. A. Smith, HiHoricai Geooraphy of Ikt Holy Land, 337-
340, 7th ed.. London. 1897; E. RobinBon, Biblical Re-
oeanhet in PaUttine, iii. 180, Boston, 1841; A. Reland,
PaliBuUna, 2 vols., Utrecht, 1714; J. de 8. Th^rfese, Le
Sanctuaire du Mont Carmti depuia aon origine iu$qu*h noa
joura, Maraeilles, 1876; T. Saunders, Introduction to ti^a
Survey of Weatem Palaatina, London, 1881; PEF, Quar-
terly Statementa, particularly for the years 1882-86; G.
Ebers and H. Guthe, PaUXatina in BUd und Wort, ii. 106
iqq., 1884; C. R. Conder, Tent-work in Paleaiina, new ed.,
London, 1880.
CARMELITES.
Origin and Early History (( 1).
Habit and Scapular (( 2).
Reforms Within the Order (| 3).
Controversies with Other Orders (i 4).
Present Status (S 6).
Carmelites (Ordo fratrum BeatcB Virginia Maria
de monte Carmdo) is the name of a Roman Catholic
order founded in the twelfth century by a certain
Berthold (d. after 1185) on Mount Carmel, whence
the order receives its name. Carmelite tradition
traces the origin of the order to a community of
hermits on Mount Carmel that succeeded the
schools of the prophets in ancient Israel, although
there are no certain records of monks on this moun-
tain before the ninth decade of the twelfth century.
Berthold, who had gone to Palestine from Calabria
either as a pilgrim or as a crusader, chose Mount
Carmel as the seat of his community because it was
the traditional home of Elijah. It was but natural
that this conmiunityof Eastern hermits in the Holy
Land should gain constant accessions from pil-
grims, and in 1209 they received a rule from the
patriarch Albert of Jerusalem. This
z. Origin consisted of sixteen articles, which
and Early enjoined strict obedience to their
History, prior, residence in individual cells,
constancy in prayer, the hearing of
mass every morning in the oratory of the com-
munity, poverty and toil, daily silence from ves-
pers until terce the next morning, abstinence from
all forms of meat except in cases of severe illness,
and fasting from Holy Cross Day (Sept. 14) to
Easter of the following year. This rule received
the approval of Honorius III. in 1226. With the
increasing cleavage between the West and the
East, however, the Carmelites found it advisable
to leave their original home, and in 1238 they settled
in Cyprus and Sicily. In 1240 they were in Yiii
land, and four years later in southern Frsi
whil<^ by 1245 they were so numerous that tis-
were able to hold their first general chapter
Aylesford, England, where Simon Stock, tie
eighty years of age, was choeen generaL Durz^'
his rule of twenty years the order prospered, espe-
cially by the establishment of a monastery v>
Paris by St. Louis in 1259.
The original rule of the order was now chacft.
to conform to that of the mendicant ordeis :•:
the initiative of Simon Stock and at the commsi .
of Innocent IV. Their former habit of a mstu
with black and white or brown and white strrin
was discarded, and they wore the same habit i:
the Dominicans, except that the cloak was vhhe
They also borrowed much from the Dominiec
and Franciscan rules. Their distinctive ganDei:
waa a scapular of two strips of gnj
3. Habit cloth, worn on the breast and bsei
and and fastened at the shoulders. TU:
Scapular, according to the traditions of the oni<:
was given to Simon Stock by tir
Virgin herself, who descended from heaven u:
promised that all who wear it in this world, or ^
least in the hour of death, should be saved, ^
herself going each Saturday to piu^gatory to rescae
those to whom this might apply. Thus arose .
sodality of the scapular, which affiliated a lare;
nimiber of laymen with the Carmelites. The wdt^
speedily became infected with arrogance, bower^T
contesting the invention of the rosazy with tk
Dominicans, terming themselves the brothers i
the Virgin, and asserting, on the basis of tbej
traditional association with Elijah, that all ikf
prophets of the Old Testament, as well as the Yup^
and the Apostles, had been Carmelites. Their
second general, Nicholas of Narbonne (1263-?'!.
protested in vain, only to be deposed from iu
office.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the
Carmelites, like other monastic orders, decline>i
and reform became imperative. Shortly before
1433 three monasteries in Valais, Tuscany, a&i
Mantua were reformed by the preaching of Th(»nss
Conecte of Rennes and formed the congregatioa
of Mantua, which was declared independent of
the order by Eugenius IV. In 1431 or 1432 the
same pope sanctioned certain modifications of the
Carmelite rule, and in 1459 Hus II. left the rtpi-
lation of fasts to the discretion of the gener&l
Soreth, who was then general, and had alre^dr
established the order of Carmelite nuns in 145:^.
accordingly sought to restore the
3. Reforms primitive asceticism, but died d
Within poison at Nantes in 1471- In 1476
the Order, a bull of Sixtus IV. founded the Car-
melites of the Third Order, who re-
ceived a special rule in 1635, which was amended
in 1678. The sixteenth century saw a number of
short-lived reforms, but it was not until the secoaj
half of the same century that a thorough refor>
mation of the Carmelites was carried out by St
Theresa, who, together with St. John of the Cro^
established the Discaloed Carmelites. In oonsdo^
opposition to Protestantism the order was qot
410
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarmelitoa
Oarolino Books
inspired with an asceticism and a devotion hitherto
unknown to it. In 1593 the Discaloed Cannelites
had their own general, and by 1600 they were so
numerous that it became necessary to divide them
into the two congregations of Spain and of Italy,
or St. Elias, the latter including all provinces except
Spain. Henceforth there were four Carmelite
generals: the general of the Observantines, of the
independent congregation of Mantua, and of the
two congregations of the Discalced Carmelites.
By the middle of the seventeenth century the
Carmelites had reached their zenith. At this
period, however, they became involved in contro-
vereies with other orders, particularly with the
Jesuits. The special objects of attack were the
traditional origin of the Carmelites and the source
of their scapular. The Sorbonne, represented by
Jean Launoy, joined the Jesuits in their polemics
against the Carmelites. Papebroch,
4. Contro- the Bollandist editor of the Acta
▼ersies with Sanciorumt was answered by the Car-
Other melite Sebastian of St. Paul, who
Orders, made such serious charges against the
orthodoxy of his opponent's writings
that the very existence of the Bollandists was
threatened. The peril was averted, however, and
in 1696 a decree of Rocaberti, arohbishop of Va-
lencia and inquisitor-general of the holy office, for-
bade all further controversies between the Carmel-
ites and Jesuits. Two years later, on Nov. 20, 1698,
Innocent XII. issued a brief which definitely ended
the controversy on pain of excommimication, and
placed all writings in violation of the brief upon
the Index.
The French Revolution and the sequestration of
monasteries in southern Europe were heavy blows
to the Carmelites. At the present time there are
five provinces of Calced Carmelites (Rome, Malta,
Iceland, England, and Galicia) and
5. Present eight of Discaloed (Rome, Genoa,
Status. Lombardy, Venice, Tuscany, Pied-
mont, Aquitaine, and Avignon), in
addition to a number of isolated cloisters and
priories of both Calced and Discalced Carmelites
in various countries. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Bibuoorapht: For souroes consult: ASB for Mar. 6
and 20, and Apr. 8; D. Papebroch, Retponaio ad ex-
ponHanem emrum per Sebaatian a 8. Paulo «vi40olam,
3 vob., Antwerp, 1606-00; Chroniquea de Vordv de» Car-
maUe» de la Rifarme de 3te, TfUriee ... en France,
6 vols., Troyes, 1846-65, second series, 4 vols., Poitiers,
1888-80. Consult further: Heimbuoher, Orden und Kon-
greoaJtumen^ ii. 1-32; Helyot, Ordree monaetiquee, L 282-
300; H. E. Manning, Life of St, Tertaa, London, 1866;
H. J. Ck>leridge, Life and Lettere of St. Tereea, 3 vols., ib.
1881-88; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen BUcher, ii.
267-276. 620-621, 601. Bonn. 1886; H. H. Koch. Die
KarmdHenkldeter der niederdetUachen Provinx, Freiburg,
1880; G. W. Currier, Carmel in America, Baltimore, 1800;
idem, Relioioue Ordere, pp. 284-304; L. A. le Moyne de
la Borderie, Hietoire dee Carmee en Bretagrte, Rennes,
1806; J. P. Rushe, Carmel in Ireland: Narrative of iKe
IrWi Protfinee of CarmeHtee, London, 1807; B. Zimmer-
mann, Carmel in England. Hiet. of the Eng, Mieaion of
the Carmelilee, 1615-1849, London. 1800; Life of St. John
of the Croee, transl. and ed. by David Lewis, London,
1807.
CARNESECCm, cOr'n^-sdc'^cht, PIETRO. See
Italy, Thb Reformation m.
CAROLINE BOOKS.
Origin of the Caroline Books
(8 1).
Manuscripts and Editions
(§2).
Problem of Authorship (I 3).
The Work Sent to Pope
Adrian (| 4).
Relation of Original Work to
Larger Recension (( 6).
Book I. (S 6).
Book II. (S 7).
Book III. (I 8).
Book IV. (S 0).
Characterisation of the Caro-
line Books (I 10).
Importance of the Work
(8 11).
Theological Standpoint (1 12).
Later Influence of the Caro-
Une Books (( 13).
" Caroline Books " is the name given to a criticism
of the proceedings of the Second Council of Nicea
(787), which appeared under the name of Charle-
magne toward the end of the eighth century.
The acts of the council had been sent to Charle-
magne in a very imperfect Latin version. Already
displeased with the attitude of the Byzantine court
and the equivocal policy of Pope Adrian I., he took
occasion to have the whole question of the icono-
clastic controversy and of the validity of the coun-
cil's action discussed by his^ theologians, and sent
on the report of its proceedings to King Offa in
England, with a request for the opinion of his
bishops. Alcuxn, then in England, drew up their
reply, and brought it to Charlemagne. It has
been lost, and thus it is not now known in what
relation it stands to the work which the emperor
caused to be written about the same time (790
or soon after), and promulgated as having the
assent of the bishops of his realm,
X. Origin under the title Opus inlustrisHmi el
of the excellenHasimi aeu spectabUia viri Caroli,
Caroline nittu Dei regis Francorum . . . contra
Books. Synodum, qucB in partibiu GrcBcice pro
adorandia imaginibua stolide et arro-
ganler gesta eat. The work, whose contents and
spirit are sufficiently indicated by this title, con-
sists of four books containing 120 chapters. It
is preserved in two manuscripts, the Codex Pariai-
nua and the Codex Vaticanua, the latter somewhat
defective and apparently dating from the beginning
of the tenth century. Two more were known in
the sixteenth century, but have since been lost.
One was said then to be extant in Rome, and a
chapter from it was quoted by Steuchi, the papal
librarian, in a polemical work against Laurentius
Valla. The other, then extant in France, was the
basis of the editio princepa of 1549,
3. Manu- printed probably in Paris and edited*
Bcripts and by Jean du Tillet, later bishop of St.
Editions. Brieux and of Meaux. This edition,
which the subsequent ones followed,
was used by the Protestante (Flacius, Calvin,
Chemnitz, and others) in their attacks on the Ro-
man Catholic Church, and, therefore, put on the
Index by the popes from 1564, which accounts for
its rarity. Of the subsequent editions the best
is that published by Heumann in 1731, which
makes use of all the materials at his command
and gives the introductions and notes of previous
editors. The less perfect edition of Goldast (1608)
is followed in MPL, xcviii.
The authenticity of the work was denied by
many of the older Roman Catholic theologians,
such as Surius (who thought it a sixteenth-centuiy
forgery), Bellarmine, Suarez, Baronius, and as
Caroline Books
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
ti:
recently as 1860 by Floes of Bonn, who succeeded
in convincing Baur that it was at least doubtful.
But these doubts have long since been abandoned
by Catholic theologians (the Jesuit Sirmond,
Natalia Alexander, Du Pin, Hefele). The oldest
external evidence in its favor is the letter of Adrian
himself (printed by Mansi, Biigne, and Jaffd);
the next is that of Hincmar of Reims, who says he
has seen the book in the imperial palace, and quotes
a chapter (iv. 26) from it. If, however, the origin
of the work from Charlemagne's immediate entou-
rage and by his authority is indubitable, the ques-
tion as to the actual author is still
3. Problem unsolved. This can not, of course,
of Author- have been Charlemagne himself,
ship. though his name is used, but must have
been one (if not more than one) of
the most prominent theologians of his court. The
majority of scholars are inclined to favor Alcuin;
but there is some reason to think that it may have
been Abbot Angilbert of St. Riquier, who stood
in dose relations to Charlemagne and was en-
trusted by him with negotiations at Rome regard-
ing this controversy.
The composition of the work was begun, as
appears from the preface to the first book, not
earlier than the winter of 78&-790 and not later
than the summer of 791. When it was completed
is not now known, but Charlemagne was not likely
to have granted his theologians more time than
was necessary, so that it may have been finished
in 790 or 791. It was intended to affect public
opinion in favor of Charlemagne's rejection of the
Nicene decrees. He endeavored to obtain like
action from Pope Adrian, and sent Angilbert to
Rome for this purpose. Adrian's answer referred
to above discusses and controverts eighty- five
chapters somewhat fully. The question arises
whether Angilbert laid before him the whole work
or only these chapters, and whether
4« The these eighty-five were the basis for
Work Sent a revised and enlarged edition, or a
to Pope condensation of the larger work. A
Adrian, supplementary question also arises
as to the date of Angilbert's mis-
sion, whether it was before or after the Synod of
Frankfort in 794. The answer to the first ques-
tion is determined by Adrian's assertion that he
lias answered each chapter seriatim, and by a
similar assertion of the Council of Paris (825).
Hincmar was probably in error when he said that
the '' not small volume " which he saw had been
sent to Rome. The second question involves more
difficulty. The theory, recently supported by
Hampe, that Adrian's answer led to the expansion
of the original document into the
5. Relation present Caroline Books is invalidated
of by the fact that in their present shape
Original they contain no reference to Adrian's
Work to answer, and make no attempt to rebut
Larger Re- it. It is more likely that the eighty-
cenaion. five chapters consisted of extracts
from the larger work. Adrian was
asked to condenm certain propositions, not to
confirm Charlemagne's official pronouncement.
As to the date of tiiis proceeding, it must have
been before the Synod of Frankfort, whose .
dsion was taken in the presence of papal lep^
and its validity never questioned, while the r?;-
tion of the eighty-five chapters would h&ire [rr.
tantamount to a oondenonation of it. Anfit''*
was in Rome in 792, and the occurrence probln
took place then — ^possibly not till the next ^
In consequence Chariemagne laid the matter to
the synod.
We come now to the contents and chancUr .:
the lAbri Carolini, Each book has ita own \x-
ace. That of Book I. begins with a rhetora:
eulogy of the Church as the ark of aafety, Ckrt-
magne's duty to which leads him to take up tb
question. Pride and ambition have led the Ea^te
princes and bishops to introduce innovatioDs ici-:
the true doctrine "by notorious and seoseb
synods." The Coimcil of Constantmople (T3i
erred in one direction, by abolishing the pictJ^
which had from of old served to adom the chortba
and commemorate past events, referring what Go:
had spoken of idols to images. The Mco
Council, on the other hand, three years befort :>
date of writing, had erred not less, by exborr::
the people to worship such images. Both per-
vert^ the teaching of the fathers, who aUotK
the possession of images, but ioAah
6. Book L the worship of them. We, hower?
resting on the foundation of the Scf -
tures, the orthodox fathers, and the six ecumaii&-
councils, reject all innovations, espedallj thoR :
the Nicene Council, whose acts have r»cbed &
We have undertaken to combat these errors rcz
theassistanceof the clergy of our kingdom. Neitl^
of these councils deserves the name of ecumenioL
and in contrast with both, the tna iMdia must be
followed, which consists in neither breaking dor
the images nor worshiping them, but retabi:<
them as ornaments and memorials, adoring ^'^'
alone and rendering due veneration to the sais-^
The standpoint being thus set forth in the preisft
the polemic of Book I. is directed first a^'o^ ^
imperial sunmions to the Nicene Council, wbc
phraseology is oondenmed in four several poiO'*
The council itself is accused of erroneous exj<^
sition of the Scriptures and erroneous empIoyniS'
of patristic citations. The author thinks it oecfr
sary (i. 6) to express his acknowledgment of t:^
authority of the Roman Church, both in faith a^
in worsUp, founded not on human ordinances H
on divine prescription. The section i. 7-ii ^
examines the passages of Scripture alleged by ttf
council, and ii. 15-20 the patristic paasages, soot
of which are not authentic and others incondiw^
In iL 26 the conclusion is drawn that, as the wj*
of Scripture proclaims in thunder-tones, "Godaka*
U to be worshiped and adored," the "cultusofir
ages " is altogether to be reprobated, aa contrary tJ
the Christian religion; whether or not pictures aff
retained in the churches is a matter of indiffero**;
though, indeed, visible memorials «
7. Book n. Christ and the saints are unnecessary
The friends of images (<*^"*^
eluding the pope) are warned not to <^^^Jj^
peace of the Church and the prosperity of 0^
kingdom by their councils. The apostles v^
121
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oaroline Books
taught the veneration of images by word or ex-
unple; it is an error to compare them with the ark
)f the covenant, and an absurdity to place them in
;he same category with the eucharistic host; nor
nust they be likened to the cross of Christ, the
lacred vessels, or the Scriptures, all of which are
irenerated in their own way and measure for dif-
ferent reasons. •
Book III. begins with a confession of faith, for
;he purpose of evincing the orthodoxy of the Frank-
sh Church. This is supposed to be taken from
Ferome, but is really almost verbally the profession
>f Pelagius (the LtbeUua fidei ad Innocentium of
117), which throughout the Middle Ages was re-
ceived as orthodox, under the name of Symbolutn
^ieronymi or Sermo Auguatini. The author then
ittacks the patriarch Tarasius on the groimd of the
rregularity of his consecration and the error of
lis teaching on the procession of the Holy Ghost.
The latter reproach and that of further doctrinal
iberrations are brought against the other members
>f the council, and one chapter attacks the im-
propriety of the empress Irene's
8. Book in. assumption of the teaching office.
A special onslaught is made on a
>ropo6ition assumed to have been uttered by one
>f the bishops which clearly rests upon a gross
nistranslation. A distinction is drawn between
mages and relics; and even if it is true that some
>f the former have worked miracles, no adoration
s therefor due them. Still less can dreams and
nsions, or absurd apocryphal inventions, be ad-
iuced in favor of the "adoration of images." Not
;hi8, but the keeping of the divine precepts, is the
>eginning of the fear of the Lord.
Book IV. continues the attack upon expressions
>f individual members of the coimcil, and upon
ts authority as a whole. It can in no wise be com-
)ared with the First Nioene Council; that asserted
he equality of the Son with the Father, while this
places pictures on a level with the
9. Book IV. Trinity. Apart from all the unseemly,
obscure, perverted, absurd, illogical,
ind untheological expressions to be found in the
icts of the latter, it does not deserve the name of
ecumenical given to it by the Greeks, because it
leither utters the pure Catholic faith nor is recog-
dzed by all the churches.
The Caroline Books, then, in their fundamental
inceptions, attempt to preserve the golden mean
ndicated by Gregory the Great in his letter to
k?renus of Massilia: " We approve unreservedly
lecause you have forbidden to worship them
images]; but we do not approve of their being
»roken; if any one wants to make images, at least
orbid him; but shun in every way the worshiping
•f them." But their polemic (apart from its
vehement, almost passionate tone)
10. Char- does material injustice to the Nicene
Kcterization Fathers by ignoring their distinction
>f the Caro- between UUreia [worship] which is due
line Books, to God alone, and proakuniaia Hmitiki
[honoring obeisance] which may be
jven to creatures, and in ascribing to them the
blasphemous proposition that the same " servitude
f adoration" is due to the images as to the Holy
Trinity. This is explained by the imperfection of
the version of the acts sent to Charles, which al-
wajrs renders the Greek praakuniaia by adoratio»
and by a particular misunderstanding or wrong
reading already referred to.
The work as a whole, however, may be taken as
giving a good general view of Frankish and Anglo-
Saxon theology in its day, of considerable impor-
tance for the dogmatic, exegetical, dialectic, and
critical attainments of the age. Of special interest
is the attitude assumed toward the great funda-
mental questions of medieval theology — the rela-
tions of Scripture and tradition, authority and
reason, the Roman and the universal
XX. Impor- Church. In spite of all its recog-
tance of nition of the teaching authority of the
the Work. Chiu'ch, and particularly of the Roman
Church, the work postulates the right
of critical examination in a way seldom foimd in
the Middle Ages — ^though it will not do to interpret
this tendency in terms of modem views. The
theological standpoint of the book as a whole ia
that of Gregory the Great, a somewhat weakened
Augustinianism which allows the author to accept
the profession of Pelagius as" the Confession of the
Catholic Faith." He follows Gregory, as in the ques-
tion of images, so also in the doctrines of original
sin, of the replacing of the fallen angels by an equal
number of redeemed men, of purga-
X2. Theo- tory and prayers for the dead. Other
logical patristic authorities cited are espe-
Standpoint cially Augustine and Jerome, and
sometimes Ambrose and Sedulius.
The author attempts to show his universal culture
by all sorts of grammatical, rhetorical, philosoph-
ical, historical, and literary remarks; by quotations
from Plato and Aristotle, Vergil and Cicero, Ma-
crobius and Apuleius, Cato and Josephus; and by
the use of scientific terminology and logical formulas.
The work, however, has not the character of a
theological treatise written by a private person;
it is a state document, an official protest on the
part of the Frankish Church against Byzantine
and Roman superstition and against the unjus-
tified anathemas pronounced by both the Greek
and the Roman Church on all who differed from
them as well as on their own purer past.
The effect of this protest can not here be fol-
lowed out in detail. Adrian was cleariy much
disturbed by it, and sent his defense to Charle-
magne with many conciliatory expressions, declar-
ing that he had not as yet given an answer to the
Byzantine emperor, because the latter still per-
sisted in his usurpation of what belonged to the
Roman See, but that he must, following the ancient
tradition of his predecessors, condemn those who
refused to venerate the sacx^d images. Charles's
answer was the Synod of Frankfort, the presence
at which of the papal legates beto-
13. Later kened Adrian's submission. The pope
Influence died on Christmas day, 795, and the
of the Caro- question slumbered until it came up
line Books, once more, under Louis the Pious and
Eugenius II., at the Synod of Paris in
825. This synod adhered to the position of the
Libri Carolini and the Synod of Frankfort,
Oaxpenter
Carpsov
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
422
venturing openly to condemn Adrian for encour-
aging superstition, though unconsciously, in the
cultus of images. It was mainly through the
influence of the Caroline Books that the Prankish
Church excluded this cultus all through the ninth
century. Even in the tenth we find the Nicene
Council spoken of as " The pseudo-synod falsely
called the Seventh/' and the principle adopted that
pictures are tolerated in the churches ''only for the
instruction of the ignorant/' without any attempt
on the part of Rome to enforce its anathema.
Charles and his theologians must thus have the
credit of holding back for a time the influx of
superstition into the West, while at the same time
they asserted the rights of Christian art and its
value for ecclesiastical decoration. When in the
sixteenth century Tridentine Catholicism reaf-
firmed the proposition assailed in the Caroline
Books, that veneration was paid not to the pictures
but to their subjects {" honos refertur ad proto-
typa "), and on the other hand Swiss Protestant-
ism, in its abhorrence of idolatry, renewed the
tumults of iconoclasm, the Lutheran controver-
sialists, especially Flacius and Chemnitz, with
cheerful confidence " went back to the moderation
of Charlemagne." (A. Hauck.)
BiBLioaBAPHT: A luminoos diBcuaaion is found in Hefele,
ConcUienoetchiehU, iii. 00&-717. Consult: H. J. Floss,
Commentatio de »u$pecta librorum Carolinorum fide, Bonn,
1860; R. Baxmann. Die PoliHk der PAptle, i. 29 sqq..
207-299. Elbertold. 1868; H. Reuter. Qtechiehie der
AuJklArung, i. 11 sqq.. Berlin, 1877; F. H. Reusch.
Index der verhotenen BiUher, i. 256, Bonn, 1883; O.
Leist, Die UUeraariaehe Bewegung dee BUderetreite, vol.
i., Magdeburg, 1871; Neander, Chrietian Church, iii.
235-243 (still of great value, though supplementary
reading is neoensary); Bchaff, Chrietian Church , iv. 467-
468: Hauck, KD, ii. 105. 110. 316 sqq.; DCB,l 406-406;
KL, vii. 190-196; and the literature on Charlemagne.
CARPENTER, J(OSEPH) ESTLIN: English Uni-
tarian; b. at Ripley (22 m. s.w. of London), Surrey,
Oct. 5, 1844. He was educated at University
College, London (1860-63), and Manchester New
College (1860-66; B.A., University of London,
1863), and was successively minister of Oakfield
Road Church, Qifton, Gloucestershire (1866-69),
and Mill Hill Chapel, Leeds (1869-75). From
1875 to 1906, he was a lecturer on Hebrew, Old
Testament literature, and comparative religion in
Manchester New College, first in London, then
at Oxford, where he was appointed principal in
1906. He has edited the third, fourth, and fifth
volumes of Ewald's History of Israel (London,
1871-74), a portion of the Sumahgala VUdainl
(1886), and the Dlgka NikQya (2 vols., 1890-
1903; both in collaboration with Rhys Davids);
and The Hexateuch According to the Revised Ver-
sion (2 vols., 1900; in collaboration with G. Har-
ford-Battersby); and has translated C. P. Tide's
Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst tot aan de heer^
schappij der Wereldgodsdiensten (Amsterdam,
1876) imdcr the title Outlines of the History of
Religion (London, 1878). His independent works
include: Life and Work of Mary Carpenter (Lon-
don, 1879); Life in Palestine when Jesus Lived
(1889); The First Three Gospels, Their Origin
and Relations (1890); Composition of the Hexa-
teuch (1902); The Bible in the Nineteenth Cen^
tury ^903); Studies in Theology (1903; in col-
laboration with P. H. Wicksteed); The Place oj
Christianity Among the Religions of the World
(1904); and James Martineau, Theologian and
Teacher (1905).
CARPElfTER, LAKT: English Unitarian; b. at
Kiddenninster (15 m. s.w. of Birmingham), Worces-
tershire, Sept.' 2, 1780; lost overboard from a
steamer between Naples and Leghorn Apr. 5,
1840. He studied at Glasgow College 1798-1801;
became a popular and successful school-teacher
and preacher; was minister at Exeter 1805-17,
and at Bristol 1817-39. He did much to broaden
his denomination and to consolidate its scattered
congregations; was a leader in philanthropic work;
and was one of the most efficient of English school-
masters. His publications were numerous, the
most noteworthy being: An Introduction to the
Geography of the New Testament (London, 1805);
Unitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel (1809; Sd
ed., with alterations, Bristol, 1823); Systematic
Edttcation, in collaboration with William Shepherd
and Jeremiah Joyce (2 vols., 1815); An Examina-
tion of the Charges Made Against Vnitarians by the
Right Rev. Dr, Magee (Bristol, 1820); PHnciplei
of Education (London, 1820); A Harmony of the
Gospels (Bristol, 1835). After his death appeared
a volume of Sermons on Practical Subjects (Bristol,
1840), edited by his son, Russell Lant Carpenter.
Bibuooraprt: R. L. Carpenter, Memoire of the Life of
Rev. Lani Carpenter, toith SetecUone from hie Ccrreepond^
enee, Bristol, 1842; DNB, ix. 167-159.
CARPENTER, MARY: Philanthropist; b. at
Exeter, England, Apr. 3, 1807; d. at Bristol June
14, 1877. She was the eldest child of Lant Car-
penter (q.v.), and received an excellent education
in her father's school; she taught for several years;
became interested in reformatory movements in
India through the visit to Bristol of the Rajah
Rammohun Roy in 1833, and also in work for desti-
tute children in England through the instrumen-
tality of Joseph Tuckerman, of Boston. She opened
" ragged schools " and developed and set in opera-
tion a plan for reformatory schools which was
legalized by Parliament in 1854; she was also one
of the chief promoters of the Industrial Schools
Act passed in 1857. She visited India four times
between 1866 and 1876, and came to America in
1873. Prison reform also received her attention,
and she was earnest in advocacy of the higher
education of women. She wrote much in behalf
of her projects, and her reports and memorials to
Parliament had no little influence in shaping
legislation.
BiBUoaRAPHT: J. E. Oarpenter, Life and Work of Mary
Carpenter, London. 1870; DNB, iz. 159-161.
CARPElfTER, WILLIAM BOYD: Church of
England bishop of Ripon; b. at Liverpool Mar.
26, 1841. He was educated at St. Catherine's
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1864), and was ordered
deacon in 1864 and ordained priest in the following
year. He was successively curate of All Saints',
Maidstone, Kent (1864-66), of St. Paul's, Qapham
(1866-67), and of Holy Trinity, Lee (1867-70). He
was then vicar of St. James's, Holloway (1870-79),
L28
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Carpenter
Oarpzov
ind of ChriBt Church, Lancaster Gate (1879-^).
He was chaplain to the bishop of London from
1879 to 1884 and canon of Windsor from 1882 to
1884, while he was also honorary chaplain to Queen
iTictoria in 1879-83, and chaplain in ordinary in
1883-84. In 1884 he was consecrated the bishop
>f Ripon. He was select preacher at Cam-
>ridge in 1875 and 1877, and at Oxford in 1883-84,
md was also Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge
n 1878, Bampton Lecturer at Oxford in 1887,
Pastoral Lecturer on theology at Cambridge in
1895, and Noble Lecturer at Harvard University
Q 1904. He has been a clerk of the closet since
.903, and is also a knight of the Prussian Order
»f the Royal Crown. In addition to numerous
relumes of sermons, he has written: ThoughU on
Frayer (London, 1871); Narcissus, a Tale of Early
Christian Times (1879); The Witness of the Heart
o Christ (1879; the Hulsean Lectures for 1878);
Oistrict Visitor's Companion (1881); My Bible
1884); NatweandMan(lS88); Permanent Elements
}f Religion (Bampton Lectures for 1887, 1889);
Vhe Burning Bush (1893); Twilight Dreams (1893);
'^ctures on Preaching (1895); Thoughts on Re-
inion (1895); Religious Spirit in the Poets (1900);
Popular Hilary of the Church of England (1900);
ind Witness to the Influence of Christ (Noble Lec-
ures for 1904; 1905). He likewise contributed
.he notes on Revelation in C. J. EUicott's New
Testament Commentary (London, 1879).
CARPOCRATES, cOr-pec'ra-tfs, AND THE CAR-
H>CRATIAIVS: An Alexandrian Gnostic of the first
lalf of the second century and the sect which he
bunded. His teachings rested upon a Platonic
)asi8, and were interspersed with Christian ideas.
\coording to Irenseus {Hosr., i. 25), supplemented
lere and there by Epiphanius {Hear., xxvii.), he
aught that in the beginning was the divine primi-
ive source, " the father of all," " the one begin-
ling " (Gk. archi). Angels, far removed from this
ource, have created the world. The world-builders
lave imprisoned in bodies the fallen souls, who
mginally worked with God, and now have to go
hrough every form of life and every act to regain
heir freedom. To accomplish this a long series of
ransmigrations through the bodies is needed. The
irords of Jesus in Luke xii. 58 (Matt. v. 25) ex-
>ressed this thought very clearly in Carpocrates's
riew; the " adversary " is the devil, who drags
he souls to the highest of the world-builders; the
alter delivers them to another angel, his messenger,
o be incarcerated in bodies until they have paid
he last farthing, i.e., have won freedom, and can
ise to the highest God. During their transmi-
^ations the souls have retained the power of
'cmembering (Gk. anamnisis), though in different
iegree. The soul of Jesus, son of Joseph, possessed
,he power of remembering God in greatest purity.
Therefore God bestowed upon him power to escape
,he world-builders and to despise the Jewish cus-
toms in which he was brought up. Whosoever
thinks and acts like him obtains the same power;
Nrhosoever is still more perfect can reach higher.
Phis is the faith and the love through which we are
laved; everything else, essentially indifferent, is
good or bad, godless or shameless only according
to human conceptions; for by nature nothing is
bad. This is the teaching which Jesus himself
gave to his disciples, "privately in a mjrstery,"
ordering them to disseminate it among the faithful
(" the worthy and believing "). The Carpocra-
tians rendered divine honor to Jesus as to the other
secular sages (Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle). They
claimed for themselves the power of ruling the
world-builders: magic arts, exorcism, philters and
love-potions, dreams and cures were at their com-
mand, and like other secret societies they had a
special mark of recognition, which they burned
with a hot iron on the back of the lobe of the right
ear.
Later writers follow Irenseus. Clement alone
adds new matter in some quotations from a Car-
pocratian manuscript. He Bays that Carpocrates
had a son, Epiphanes, whose mother was Alex-
andria of Cephalonia; that this son became an
author, died when seventeen years old, and was
honored as a god at Same in Cephalonia. This
story has been declared mythical (cf. Volkmar. in
the Monatsschrift des wissenschaftlichen Vereins in
Zurich, 1858, pp. 276-277; Lipsius, Zur QueUen-
kritik des Epiphanius, pp. 161-162, Leipsic, 1865),
and it is maintained that traits of the moon-god
worshiped at Same (Gk. theos epiphanis) were
transferred to Epiphanes, the Gnostic. Though
this suggestion is striking, there is hardly reason
for making a myth of the entire statement of
Clement, so much the more as he has filled out his
account by a long extract from a work of Epiph-
anes " On Righteousness." In this work the
young idealist advocated community of goods and
women without the intention of preaching general
immorality. Even Irenseus had written: " I can
hardly believe that all the ungodly, unlawful, and
forbidden things of which we read in their books
are really done among them." One needs only to
reflect how inconsistently highly endowed advo-
cates of similar views think and act nowadays,
though of course it must be admitted that such
conceptions in earlier times might have caused in
immature minds the same troubles as they do
to-day. At all events, Carpocratianism can not be
called Christianity. It is a specifically ethnic
phenomenon, easily explicable from the religious
syncretism of the second century. G. KrCoer.
Bibliogkapht: The Muroes are Moeasible in Eng. in ANF,
i. 360. ii. 382-404. iu. 216. 651. v. 113; NPNF, i. 114,
170. 199. Consult also: C. W. F. Waloh. HUtarU der
KtUereien, i. 302-335. Leipsic. 1762; A. Neander. Oene-
Hadte Entwidctluno der vomehmalen gnoalUehen Syatemet
pp. 355-360. Berlin. 1818; idem. ChriMtian Church, i. 292.
399. 449-451. 484; W. M6ller. OnehichU der Koamolooie,
pp. 335-343. Halle. 1860; A. Hilffenfeld. K§Uerge9ehiehU
dea Urckr%$Uniuma, pp. 397-408. Leipsic, 1884; Har-
naok. Litteratur, i. 161-162.
CARPZOV: A family of German lawyers and
theologians, of which the following are the most
important members:
1. BenediktCarpzov: Liawyer; b. at Wittenberg
May 27, 1595; d. at Leipsic Aug. 30, 1666. He
was educated at Wittenberg, Leipsic, and Jena, and
after a tour through Italy, France, and England
became a member of the court of sheriffs at Leipsic,
OarpBOT
Carroll
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
42i
where he remained with little intemiption for
forty years. He was later appointed assessor of
the supreme court in Leipsic and counselor of the
Dresden court of appeals. In 1645 he was made
professor in the faculty of law at Leipsic, and was for
eight years a member of the privy coimcil of Dres-
den, but returned to Leipsic in 1661. Although
he had not a creative mind, his diligence, judg-
ment, and system enabled him to become the
founder of German jurisprudence, and in his
PracHea nova imperialis Saxoniea rerum crimtno'
Hum (Wittenberg, 1638) he formulated the first
system of German criminal law, while his Juria-
prudenHa ecdenaatica aeu consiatorialis (Leipsic,
1649) formed the earliest complete system of
Protestant ecdedaatical law. He distinguished
carefully between ecclesiastical and canon law,
and was the first to use the ordinances of the
Evangelical Church, the rescripts of the sovereigns,
and the decisions of the consistories, thus simi-
marizing the legal development of Protestantism
since the Reformation.
2. Johann Benedikt Carpzov the Elder: Theolo-
gian, brother of the preceding; b. at Rochlitz (16
m. n.n.w. of Chemnits) Jime 22,^1607; d. at Leipsic
Oct. 22, 1657. He studied at the University of
Wittenberg from 1623 to 1627, and then entered
the University of Leipsic. In 1632 he was ap-
pointed pastor at Meuselwita and five years later
became deacon at the Church of St. Thomas at
Leipsic. In ten years he rose to the archdeaconry
and received the additional appointments of as-
sessor of the consistory and canon, having become
professor of theology at the university in 1641,
although his pastoral duties allowed him little
time for teaching. He maintained a certain reserve
in the syncretistic controversies of the period, and
though in harmony with his colleague Holseinann,
he carried on a friendly correspondence with Caliz-
tus and later with his pupil Titius. His most
important work, which has won him the title of
the father of symbolics, was his IsagOgi in libroa
ecdesiarum lAUheranamm 8ymboUeo8 (Leipsic, 1665),
which was completed after his death by Olearius,
general superintendent of Magdeburg. Still more
famous, however, is his Hodegeticum hrevibus
aphoriamU olim pro coUegio concionatorio conceptum
et nunc reviaum (1656), which gives 100 methods
of arranging sermons.
8. Johann Benedikt Carpzov the Tounger: The-
ologian, son of the preceding; b. at Leipsic Apr. 24,
1639; d. there Mar. 23, 1699. He was educated
in his native city and at Jena, and was also influ-
enced by Buxtorf in Basel and by Johann Schmid
in Strasburg. In 1659 be became privat-dooent
at Leipsic, and in 1665 was appointed professor of
ethics. Three years later he was made licentiate
of theology and professor of Oriental languages.
In 1684 he became professor of theology, having
already been made deacon in 1671, archdeacon in
1674, and pastor of St. Thomas's in 1679. His
pastoral duties forbade extensive literary activity,
and he therefore restricted himself to editing the
works of others, such as the Jua regium of Wilhelm
Schickhard (Leipsic, 1674), the In Prophetaa
Minorea commentariua of Johann Tamov (1688), the
Hor€B TalmudiccB et Hebraicca of John Lightfoot
(1674), and an enlarged edition of hia father's Hd^
geticum (1689). Through this last-named works^
interest was aroused in homiletics which oompkttlj
overshadowed philosophy and exegesis. Thoe wi<
gradually evolved, therefore, an antagoniflmbetTes
Carpsov and Spener, which increased in bittentei
until in 1691 three programs assailed Pietki
and five years later Carpaov attacked Thomfr-im
in his I>e jure decidendi controveraiaa theobgksi
(1696), vainly attempting to support a failing exst
4. Samuel Benedikt Carpzov: Theologian, eoco:
Johann Benedikt the ESder; b. at Leipsic Jan. 17.
1647; d. at Dresden Aug, 31, 1707. After studyins
philosophy and philology at the university of his
native city from 1663 to 1668, he went to Wittoi-
berg, where he became a close friend of Calov &£i
Aegidius Strauch. In 1674 he was called to DresdeB
as court-preacher, and five 3rears later he n«
transf erred to the Kreuzkirche, being also appoints:
superintendent and thus given the right to atta:
the sessions of the high consistory. He conducted
the negotiations for the call of Spener, and proved
himself a true friend of the Pietist until his broths
at Leipsic became the leader of the opposition asd
persuaded him to change his attitude. After tke
retirement of Spener and the death of Gieen,
Carpaov was chosen to succeed them, aad he
accepted with much hesitation, althou^ be h^
the position for the remainder of his life.
6. Johann Gottlob Carpzov: Theologian, sod of
the preceding; b. at Dresden Sept. 26, 1679; d, at
Labeck Apr. 7, 1767. He was educated at Leip«
and Altdorf , and though the most learned theo-
logian of his family, was indoctrinated with ^ea^
tionaiy principles by his father and uncle. Is
1708 he went from Dresden to Leipsic as deacon
He ranked among the foremost of Old Testamat
scholars, although in the preface to his Inirodvdio
in libroa Veteria TeatamenH (Leipsic, 1721) he d^
dared that only the entire absence of such a wori
had rendered it possible for him to publish his ovu
This book, like his CHHca aaera (1728), is cha^a^
terised by clear arrangement, deep knowledge.
and thorough criticism. Equally valuable waa his
Apparatua hiatorico-criHeua onHquiiatum Ydtni
TeatamenH (1748). His chief attacks were reserwd
for R. Simon, Clericus, and Spinoza, as repreeat-
atives of the new criticism, and hia point of viev
was that of Buxtorf and Hottinger, so that he p(»-
tulated the verbal inspiration of the text of the
Bible, and admitted no error whatsoever. He
was, moreover, a consistent opponent of Pietian
and the Moravians, and gladly accepted a c^
superintendent to the orthodox city of Luheck
in 1730, after having been obliged to decline a
similar invitation to go to Danaig. There he cod-
tinned his polemics against the Moravians, p^
lishing in 1742 one of the sharpest of all attacks
on them in his ReHgumaunterauchung der hchni-
achen und mOkriachen Bruder von Afibegv» wff
Gemeinden hia auf gegenw&rtige Zeiten.
6. Johann Benedikt Carpzov: CUasical seboUr
and theologian, grandson of Johann Benedikt tbe
Younger; b. at Leipsic May 20, 1720; d. at Kom^
lutter (9 m. w.n.w. of Helmst&dt) Apr. 18, !»»•
426
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OarpsoT
OarroU
He was educated at the univeraity of his native city,
where he was appointed associate professor in 1747,
but was called in the following year as professor
of Greek to Helmst&dt, and in 1757 became abbot
of Kdnigslutter. Adhering to the orthodoxy of
his family, he was conmiissioned by the duke to
save the reputation of the imiversity, endangered
by the rationalism of Albrecht Teller, and he accord-
ingly published his Liber dodrinalia theologicB puri-
oris (Brunswick, 1768). His philological learning
was shown in his editions of the classics and in his
SacrcB exercUatianes in eputolam ad Hebraos ex
PhUone Alexandrino (Hehnstftdt, 1750); Stric-
turcB theologica in eputolam S, PauLi ad Homanos
(1756); and Epiaiolarum caiholicarum eeptenaritu
(Halle, 1790). His lectures, which he delivered
in Latin, were devoted to classics, the New Testa-
ment, patristics, and Dolsdus's Greek translation
of the Augsbuig Confession.
(Gboro Mueller.)
BiBUoaRAPBT: On the fftinily oonsiilt: ADB, iv. 10-26;
R. Stintxinc, OMchiekle der deutaiMn Rschitwittantekaft,
i. 723, iL 66, Munich, 1880. On Benedikt Carpiov oon-
flult: K. Rieker, Die rtehaicKB Stellung der evatHfeliachen
Kirdie DeuiedUande, pp. 218-220, Leipaio, 1893. On
Johann the Elder consult: A. H. Kreyng, ABmm der
evangeliech'lutiieriedten OeietliA^n in . , . Satheent PP.
265-267. Drewlen. 1883; T. Spiiel, Vehu aeademia Jeeu
Chriati, pp. 227-233, Augsburc. 1671. On Johann the
Younger consult: H. Pipping, Saeer deeadum eepienariue
menwriam Iheolooorum . . . , pp. 763-784, Leipaio, 1706;
K. Rieker, ut sup., pp. 220-222; A. H. Kreysig, ut sup.,
pp. 266, 277. On Samuel Benedikt consult: J. A. Gleieh,
Annalium eedeeiaeHeorum, ii. 522-^660, Dresden, 1730;
O. L. Zeissler, Oeeehiekle der adeheiaehen Oberhofpredioer»
pp. 111-110. Leipsie, 1866. On Johann Gottlob consult:
A. H. Kreysig. ut sup., pp. 106, 266; L. Diestel, Oe-
ediichte dee AUen Teatamenta in der ehriaUicKen Kirdte, p.
362, Jena, 1860. On Johann Benedikt consult: F. Kol-
dewey, Geaehichte der klaaaiaehen Philoioffie, pp. 166-168,
Brunswick, 1997 (gives further literature).
CARRANZA, cOr-rdn'tha, BARTGLOME: Arch-
>ishop of Toledo; b. at Miranda (175 m. n.e. of
Madrid), Navarre, 1503; d. at Rome May 2, 1576.
fie entered the order of the Dominicans and from
1528 lectured on philosophy and scholastic the-
>logy at Alcala, afterward at Valladolid. Charles
V. offered him the bishopric of Cuzco in Peru, but
ic declined. At the request of the emperor he
ook part in the deliberations of the Council of
Trent after 1546, and insisted that the bishops
ihould reside in their own dioceses. Strange to
By, Carranxa came into conflict with the Roman
heologians because he asserted that the bishops
lad their rights jure divino, not by papal appoint-
nent. When the council was suspended he might
lave gone to Flanders as confessor of the infante
'hilip, but he declined this influential position to
rork in Spain as provincial of his order. He ao-
ompanied Philip to England (1554) when the lat-
er was married to Mary Tudor, and shared in the
crsecution of the Protestants there. For this
le was rewarded by Philip in 1557 and made arch-
ishop of Toledo, which proved the culmination of
lis career. When Charies V. was dying (1558),
barranca gave him the sacrament. His opponents
irculated the report that the emperor had not
ied in the faith of the Church and that this was
wing to Carransa. The Inquisition had state-
ments made by prisoners, which offered sufficient
material to justify intervention, and his enemies,
especially the inquisitor-general Valdez and Mel-
chior Cano, called attention to his catechism (Co-
mentarioe del reverendiesimo Fray BartolonU Car^
rama eobreel CatechismoChristiano, Antwerp, 1558),
which contained anything but Protestant doc-
trines, but deviated in some expressions from the
Roman tradition. Carransa was imprisoned, his
papers were confiscated, and some further material
for charges was found. The examinations of
Protestants in Valladolid which he held in 1558 and
1559 were especially scrutinized, and it was foimd
that on the doctrine of justification and purgar
tory he had made oral statements which were not
Catholic. In spite of his appeal to the pope, the
Spanish Inquisition kept him in prison eight years
and when he was transferred in 1567 to Rome at
the behest of Pius V. he was kept there under
examination nine years longer. The Roman
process ended with a solemn abjuration of four-
teen statements especially taken from his wri-
tings and with canonical punishment. He was
suspended for five years and died in Rome
without returning to Spain. The court of in-
quisition had overcome in his person the highest
episcopal dignitpry, but Gregory XIII. allowed
a laudatory epitaph to be set up in Santa Maria
Bopra Biinerva. K. Benrath.
BiBuooBArar: Carransa't moet noted work, Summa eon-
eiliorum et pontifieum (a churoh history to Julius III.),
waa published at Venice, 1646 and often. His life, by
H. Langiwiti, Bariholomeo Carranaa, BrAiaehaf w»n To-
ledOf waa published at Kempten, 1870. Consult also:
J. Qutftif and J. 6chard, Scripioraa ordinia prcadioatorum,
vol. ii., Paris, 1721; F. H. Reusoh, Der Index der esr-
botenen Blieher, i. 254. 308, 688 et passim, Bonn. 1883;
Moeller, Chriatian Church, iii. 317; H. G. Lea. Inquieition
in Spain, ii. 46-87, iv. 16. 486. 602. New York, 1006.
CARRASCO, cOr-rOs'co, AUTONIO: Spanish
Protestant; b. in Malaga Jan. 19, 1843; lost with
the steamer " Ville du Havre " Nov. 22, 1873,
while returning home from the Sixth General Con-
ference of the Evangelical Alliance held in New York
Oct., 1873. He was converted at sixteen and
joined a band of Bible-readers in. Malaga connected
with Manuel Matamoros (q.v.); was imprisoned
for two years (1860-62), and then condemned to
the galleys for a term pf nine years, but at the
solicitation of the Evangelical Alliance, supported
by representations of the Prussian government,
the sentence was changed to banishment (1863).
He studied theology in Geneva; on the downfall
of Queen Isabella in 1868 he returned to Spain and
undertook the work of evangelization; at the time
of his death he was pastor of the Free Church in
Madrid, with a membership of 700, and president
of the Protestant Synod of Spain.
Bibuooeapbt: A brief sketch of his life may be found in
the Hiatory, etc., of the Sixth General Conference of the
Evangdieal AUiance, p. 764. New York, 1874.
CARROLL, HENRY KINO: Methodist Episco-
palian; b. at Dennisville, N. J., Nov. 15, 1848.
He was self-taught, and eariy entered journalism,
being successively editor of the Havre Republican,
Havre, Md. (1868-69), and assistant editor of
The Methodiet, New York (1869-70), and of the
Carroll
Oarthsffe
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
426
Hearth and Home, New York (1870-71). From
1876 to 1898 he was religious and political editor
of The Independent, New York, but resigned in the
latter year to accept the appointment of special
conmiissioner of President McKinley to Porto Rioo.
In 1881 he was a delegate to the Ecimienical
Methodist Conference in London, and in 1884 was
organising secretary of the Methodist Centennial
Conference, of which he edited the proceedings (New
York, 1885), while in 1890 he was special commis-
sioner of the United States census for religious
denominations. In 1900 he was elected corre-
sponding secretary of the Methodist Missionary So-
ciety, and was reelected four years later. He is
a member of the Methodist Historical Society, a
manager of the Methodist Sunday School Union and
of the American Sabbath Observance Society, and
a trustee of the United Society of Christian En-
deavor. In theology he is in thorough accord with
the doctrinal position of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. In addition to a number of minor con-
tributions, he has written: Religious Forces of the
UniUd States (New York, 1893, 2d and enlarged
ed., 1895).
CARROLL, JOHN : First Roman CSatholic bishop
in the United States; b. at Upper Marlborough,
Prince George's C])oimty, Md., Jan. 8, 1735; d. in
Baltimore Dec. 3, 1815. He studied with the
Jesuits at Bohemia, on the east shore of Bfaryland,
and at the C])ollege of St. Omer, France; joined the
Jesuits in 1753; was ordained priest in 1759; taught
at St. Omer, Li^ge, and Bruges; traveled through
Europe as tutor to the son of a Roman Catholic
nobleman; returned to America in 1774 and
became missionary and priest of his native region
with headquarters at his mother's residence at
Rock Creek, not far from Washington. Like his
kinsman Charles Carroll of Carrollton, he warmly
supported the cause of the colonies in the Revo-
lutionary war. When the Roman Catholic Church
in the United States was organised as a distinct
body, free from the authority of the vicar apos-
tolic of London, he was made prefect apostolic
in 1784; in 1789 he was chosen bishop of Balti-
more and consecrated in England in 1790; in 1808
he became archbishop. He founded Georgetown
College in 1791.
Bibliographt: John Q. Shea givw CaarroU*a LiU oind
Timea in History of the Catholic ChurA in tk$ U. 8., vol.
ii.. New York, 1888.
CARROLL, JOHN JOSEPH: American Roman
Catholic; b. at Enniscrone, Coimty Sligo, Ireland,
June 24, 1856. He was educated at St. Bfichaers
College, Toronto (B.A., 1876), and St. Joseph's
Provincial Theological Scminaiy, Troy, N. Y.,
from which he was graduated in 1879. In the
following year he was ordained priest, and was
appoint^ assistant rector of the Cathedral of the
Holy Name, Chicago, and since 1887 has been
rector of St. Thomas Church in the same city. In
1898 he was elected chairman of Gaelic history in
the Gaelic League of America and in 1902 was
chosen national librarian of the same organisation.
He has written: Notes and Observations on the Aryan
R^ce and Tongue (Chicago, 1900); Tale of the
Wanderings of the Red Lanes (1902); and Pre-
christian Occupation of Ireland by the GaeUe Arym
(2 vols., 1903-06).
CARSON, ALEXANDER: Irish Baptist; b. at
Annahone, near Stewartstown (30 m. w. of Bel-
fast), County Tyrone, Ireland, 1776; d. at Belfast
Aug. 24, 1844. He studied at Glasgow and was
ordained a Presbyterian minister at Tobeimore.
near Coleraine, County Londonderry, 1798. Aftn-
a few years he left the Presb3rteria]is and publisiied
as justification of his action Reasons for Separatir.^
from the General Synod of Ulster (Edinburgh, 1804
a portion of his congregation followed him, and h:
ten yesjB he preached in bama or the open air. A
stone church was built for him in 1814. In th«
eariy part of his independent career, while studyx^
the New Testament in order to confute the BaptL^^^,
he became a Baptist himself, and thenceforth
advocated their views with the exception of da«e
communion. His Baptism in Its Mode and ShJth
jects Considered (Edinburgh, 1831; enlarged cd.
1844) is a Baptist classic. His other writings were
numerous and treat topics of Bible interpietatioE.
philosophy, doctrinal and practical theology, asd
the like. He was a bitter oontroversialist. His
collected works were published in six volumes at
Dublin, 1847-64.
Bibuoorapht: Q. C. Moore, lAfe of AlesBonder Canot^
New York, 1851; John Douclaa, A Bioffrapkieol SktiA
of ... A. Carbon, London, 1884; DNB, ix. 186.
CARSTARES, WILLIAM : Scotch clergyman ami
political leader; b. at Cathcart (5 m. wji.w. of
Glasgow) Feb. 11, 1649; d. in Edinburgh Dec, 2S,
1715. He studied at Edinburgh (graduated 1667)
and at Utrecht, whither he went because of the
political troubles at home, in which his father was
implicated. Toward the close of 1674 he was
arrested in London, being suspected of having a
hand in the distribution of a seditious pamphlet
and of being the bearer of despatches to the dis-
affected in Scotland from their sympathisers in
Holland; he was kept in confinement till Aug., 1679.
When released he entered actively into the plots
which were then rife, and appears at different times
in Ireland, En^and, Scotland, and Holland. After
the discovery of the Rye House plot (a scheme to
assassinate Charles II.) in July, 1683, he was cao^t
in Kent, and was sent to Edinbturgh and examined
under torture before the Scottish Coimcil, but dis-
played ** great discretion " in the disclosures which
he made. In 1686 or 1687 he settled at Leydea,
and thenceforth was seldom separated from William
of Orange, whom he had known from his student
days in Utrecht and who trusted him implicitly
and often took his advice, especially on Scotch
affairs. After William became king of En^and,
he made Carstares chaplain for Scotland, and the
latter rendered valuable services both to his ooimtiy
and his king, especially in reconciling the Scot-cb
Presbyterians to the new regime. His person^
influence at court ceased with the death of William,
and thenceforth he resided in Edinburgh, where he
was made principal of the university in 1703; be
also became minister of the Gray Friars' Church,
and distinguished himself in both capacities. He
retained his position as royal chaplain under Anne,
and at the accession of George I. was chosen by the
427
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OarroU
Oartha«re
General Aesembly to make the usual congratulatory
speech. But for his mfluence it is doubtful if the
Scotch parliament would have passed the Act of
Union in 1707, and again in 1712, when the Pres-
bjrterians were deeply incensed and alarmed by
the course of the government, he averted serious
consequences by counseling moderation both in
England and Scotland. He was four times mod-
erator of the General Assembly.
Biblioorapht: SteU»-Papera and LetterM Addreated toWiU-
iam CarBtarea, with life by J. M'Cormick, Edinburgh,
1774; R. H. Story. WiUi4xm Caratares, a character and
career of the revolutionary epoch, 1649-1716, London, 1874;
DNB, ix, 187-190.
CARTER, JAMES: American Presbyterian; b. m
New York Oct. 1, 1853. He graduated at Colum-
bia College in 1882, and at Union Theological
Seminary in 1885. He was pastor at Williamsport,
Pa., from 1889 till 1905, when he became professor
of church history and sociology in Lincoln Uni-
versity, Pa. He has written the biography of
his father, Walter Carter (New York, 1901), and
two volumes of poems.
CARTESIANISM. See Descartes, RenA.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF.
I. Synods before and under Cyprian.
11. Ssmoda during the Donatist Controveray.
III. Synods in Connection with the Pelagian Controvergy.
IV. Concluding Synods.
Carthage, the ancient rival of Rome, preserved
a renmant of its former greatness in the conmiand-
ing position assumed by its bishops, at least from
the beginning of the third century, in the North-
African Church. By right of their see, they were
ex officio primates of their province, while this
position in Numidia, and later in the other prov-
inces of North Africa, went by seniority. But
many bishops of these provinces paid great heed
to the counsels of the bishop of the capital, at
least in Cyprian's time, and even earlier than that
had formed the habit of meeting there for con-
ference. The decisions taken in regard to the con-
troversies agitating the African Church, especially
the Donatist and Pelagian, were of permanent
Eind far-reaching importance for the development
[>f theology.
L Synods before and under Cyprian: (1) That
under Bishop Agrippinus (c. 220), to whose de-
cision Cyprian appealed in the controversy about
baptism by heretics. (2) That held c. 240 at Lam-
7ese in Numidia (or Carthage), which condenmed
/he heretic Privatus. (3) The first under Cyprian
ifter his return to Carthage, just after Easter, 251.
ifter a long debate, it decided that the lapsed,
specially those who had offered sacrifice, should
>e restored only on an extended penance, except
n danger of death, while the libeUatici (see Lapsed)
aight, provisionally at least, be at once received,
t seenis to have been customary at this time to
lold an annual Easter synod; and at least one
4) is known in 252, to which probably the letter
>f Cyprian and sixty-six bishops to Fidus (Epist,,
xiv.) refers; here Privatus attempted to have his
ase reopened, but was refused and joined the
pposition that set up Fortunatus as a rival bishop.
5) In 253, with reference to the new persecution
under Gallus, the procedure in the case of the
lapsed was modified, so that, if truly penitent,
they might be at once restored (Epiat , 1 vii. ). Subse-
quent synods dealt with baptism by heretics, con-
cerning which the African bishops held strict views:
(6) One attended by thirty-one bishops in 255
{Epiat, Ixx.) . (7) A more general one, of seventy-one
bishops, from Numidia as well, in the spring of 256
(Epiat, Ixxiii.). (8) One of eighty-seven bishops,
this time including the Mauritanians, in September
of the same year. The views expressed in the last-
named were controverted by Augustine, De bap'
Hsmo contra DonaHaUu, vi., vii.
IL Synods during the Donatist Controyeisy:
(1) In 312, composed of seventy bishops, opponents
of Cbdlian, who was excommunicated. (2) One
of 270 Donatist bishops, about 330, which showed
a conciliatory spirit, and sanctioned the admis-
sion of traditores to communion. The succeeding
synods for some time are all on the Catholic side,
and show a more or less severe attitude toward the
Donatists according to the position taken at the
time by the schismatics. (3) The so-called " First
Council of Carthage," between 345 and 348, at-
tended by fifty bishops, at the close of a heavy
persecution. This, like 8, 10, 11, 15, and 20, dealt
only cursorily with the Donatist question, while 4,
5, 6, 7, 9, and 18, as far as we know, did not touch
upon it at all. Under Bishop Genethlius of Car-
thage, who was much esteemed by the Donatists,
took place (4) a synod in the " Prsetorium," and
a year later, or in 390, (5) the so-called '' Second
Council of Carthage," attended by sixty bishops.
Under his successor, Aurelius, twenty synods are
said to have been held, in the most important
of which Augustine participated. In a general
African council held at Hippo in 393 it was de-
cided that the various provinces should take turns
in holding such general gatherings; but this system
was difficult of execution, since Mauritania and
TripoUs were too distant, and the latter had only
five episcopal sees. Among such general councils
may be reckoned, besides that of Hippo which
began the series, that of Hadrumetmn, 394, those
numbered here 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, and 20, and that
of Bfileve, 402. In 407 it was decided to abandon
the attempt and call them when and where it
seemed expedient, while the provincial synods
were to go on as before. (6) and (7) Two synods
held respectively on June 26, 394, and June 26, 397,
of which little is known.
What is known as the Breviarium canonum
Hipponensiwn corresponds substantially with (8)
the Carikaginienae III. of the Spanish collection,
Aug. 28, 397. The canons of 393 and 397, con-
firmed at Mileve in 402, give a comprehensive view
of the church life of the time. The most famous
is that containing the list of Scriptural books, and
dealing with the reading of the martyrologies.
The position of the presbyters in relation to the
bishops is restricted, aggressions by bishops on
neighboring dioceses reprobated, and the whole
conduct of the clergy within the bounds of the
Church regulated. In regard to the Donatist
matter, a change is made, allowing clerics coming
from the schism to exercise their function, imder
Cmrthmf
Oarthualana
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
428
oertain conditions, where formeriy they had been
relegated to lay communion. Legations from the
court often appeared, aa at (9) a synod of Apr. 27,
390, when the right of asylum in churches was
considered. From 401 on more attention is paid
to the Donatist controversy, at first in a concilia-
tory spirit; in that year two synods were held
(10) on June 16 and (11) on Sept. 13, both of which
occupied themselves also with the removal of the
remains of paganism. (12) The general synod of
Aug. 25, 403, laid down a formula to be accepted
by the Donatists which only increased the bitter-
ness, and the following synod (13) of June 16, 404,
appealed to the emperor to repress the schisznatics
by legal measures. This was done, and tho next
synod (14), Aug. 23, 405, returned thanks to him.
At the general synod (15) of June 13, 407, measures
were adopted to facilitate the reception into the
Church of entire schismatic communities; and,
after the issue of an imperial decree which mitigated
the former severity, both on (16) June 16 and (17)
Oct. 13, 408, delegations were sent to impress the
eeclesiastical view on the emperor. The only
extant provision of (18) the provincial synod of
June 15, 409, has no direct connection with the
burning question; but after the issue of a decree
of toleration, the next (19), on June 14, 410, sent
another delegation to the emperor, and this time
with success. (20) The synod of May.l, 418, is
occupied again with the reception of Donatist com-
munities and the duty of the conversion of heretics;
while some of its provisions look forward to the
next division.
nL Synods in Connection with the Pelagian Con-
trover^. For these see Pslaoiub, Pelaoianibm.
IV. Concluding Synods: At the head of these
comes the frequently cited synod of 419, attended
by 217 bishops, which held two sessions. May 25
and 30 (designated in the Hispana as Carthaginienae
VI, and VIL). It codified and to some extent
shortened the preceding legislation. Part of its
work dealt with the claims of the Roman See, based
improperiy on the decrees of the First Coimcil of
Nicea. It drew up also a reply to a letter of Pope
Boniface, who had laid four points before it — the
question of appeals, the journeys of the African
bishops to the imperial court, the right of excom-
municated clerics to apply for restoration to neigh-
boring bishops, and the conduct of the bishop of
Sicca in deposing a priest who had appealed to
Rome. The council temporised on the first and
third points, agreed to the restoration of the priest,
though not in the same diocese. A still firmer tone
was taken toward Rome by the synod which
(after 422) wrote to Pope Celestine in connection
with the priest above mentioned, which showed
that the ancient independence and conciliar spirit
of the African Church were still unbroken.
But with the invasion of the Vandals from the
west, threatening Carthage in 439, the existence of
the Church of North Africa drew to a close. In
the face of such dangers as the persecutions of the
Arian kings brought upon the Christians of those
parts, minor differences disappeared. The con-
ference on religion held in 484 did not give them
much relief; but more was accomplished by the
synod of Feb. 5, 525, in the reign of Hilderie, at-
tended by sixty bishops froai different provinces.
After the annexation of North Africa by the Byisn-
tine government, Bishop Reparatus held a sjdM
of 217 bishops in 535; it dealt with Rome aboL*.
the reception of converted Arians into the senia
of the Church, regulated the relation of monasteritt
to the bishops, and sent a deputation to Justin ias
to ask the restoration of property and privilep^
Thenceforth the history of the North-Africa
Church is merged in the general development c:
the state religion, and has no more a^>arate im-
portance before its final extinction by the Arabs.
(Edoab HsNirscKs.)
Bibuoorapht: For Um ouxms of the BsriKMiB eonmlt: W
Bervridce, Synodikan, tim pandtetm eamommm^ Oxfcru
1672 (indudes the oanona of the AMean eynods); G. l\
Fueho, BibUo^A der Kirekmoenamwdmng, in. 1-476,
LeipBio, 1783. On the geoei«l question eooBult: F.
Meewen, OttdkidU* der QtuiUn witf dm- lAtmuiur dm
kawmUtknt, JUAta, L 149 miq.. Gims. 1870; J. Uoyi,
Th4 North African Chwrek, London, 1870; O. RitacLi
Cyprian von KarOnago, pp. 163 aqq., Gfittincen, IS^^cs
Hefele, ConcUionoootkUkla, vc^ L, ii. peiwriin, EInc. tr»&«l.
Tola. L, ii. peanm; the brothen Ballerini in Appendix to
the Optra of Leo I., yoL i., ehapp. iii, xxi.-xxix.. Venice.
1767. Detailed treatment may be found in Neaadrr.
ChriaHan Churck, yob. L, ii panim. eonralt Index undrr
" Oounei]* and Synods." Short diaounicMks are also ji
Sehaff. ChruHan ChwrtK, iii 703. 798; Moeiler. Ckn*-
Uan Churek, L 263. 267. 832. 447. 462-^463. 457; DC A,
i, 36-89; and literature under Domxtism .
CARTHUSIAHS.
The Life of St. Bruno (S 1). Guthuaans in Italy (| 3\
Foundation of Chartreuse Growth of the Order (f 4).
(I 2). Onaniaation (i 6).
Seholardiip (S 6).
The Carthusians are a Roman Catholic order
founded by St. Bruno of Cologne at Grande Char-
treuse (14 m. n. of Grenoble) in Dauphin^ in the
latter part of the eleventh century. The period
was particularly favorable to the formation of nev
monastic orders. The monastery of Quny (q.v.)
inspired a tendency to the religious life throughout
the surrounding regions, but tMs cloister, which had
adopted the cenobitic monastidsm of St. Bcne^
diet, gave no impetus to eremitic life. In the
course of time, however, the longing for me<ii-
tation in solitude peopled the wastes of Burgundr
and Lorraine, apparently gaining inspiration from
Italy by way of Dauphin^. To this period be-
longed Hugo, bishop of Grenoble (1080-1 132^
who had barely ascended the episcopal chair when
he renounced it to bury himself in the monastery
of Chaise-Dieu, whence he was recalled to his hich
office by the mandate of Gregory VII. In a like
spirit two canons of St. Ruf us in Dauphin^ retinJ
to the north of France, returning after some years
with Bruno.
He was bom of noble parentage at Cologne
before the middle of the eleventh century, and
educated at the cathedral school of Reims. Sue>
cessively canon of St. Cunibert at Cologne an<i
scholastic of the cathedral of Reims, Bruno haii
held this latter office with distinction for some
twenty years and had diligently inculcated the
stem principles of Hildebrand and the monks of
Cluny. Appointed chancellor of the archbishopric
of Reims in 1075, Bruno relaxed his energies as s
4dO
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Uartnave
OarthualAns
teacher to ajBsail the simony of his own archbishop,
Manasseh of Goumey (1067-80). After a long
Btruggle, in which Bruno was seconded by the best
element in his chapter, as well as by
z. The Life the neighboring clergy, Manasseh was
of St' deposed. His antagonist, however,
Bruno, had become disheartened with the
condition of the Church. In equal
despair regarding the theology to which he devoted
tiimself , he resolved to abandon the world and live
the life of a hermit. Where he met the two canons
'who were later to take him to the Chartreuse is
vmcertain, but at all events he retired with a few
friends of like sympathies to Molesme in the dio-
cese of Langres to live the life of an anchorite in
the center of French asceticism. He there joined
the adherents of Robert, then abbot of Molesme
&nd later founder of the Cistercians, and with his
permission established a small conmiunity of her-
mits in the neighboring Sdche-Fontaine. Feeling
that this refuge was insufficiently sundered from
the world, Bruno left all his followers but six in
S^che-Fontaine, pushed southward, and in 1084
reached Grenoble, where the little company was
welcomed by Hugo, who had but recently resumed
his episcopal office.
Partly through the influence of the abbot of
Chaise-Dieu, Bruno and his companions received
from Hugo the lofty and almost inaccessible valley
of Cartusia as their place of refuge, and on Jime 24,
1084, they began the construction of the hermitage,
originally consisting of three wretched huts, each
to be occupied by two anchorites, and a chapel.
At first the new community had no special rule,
although they seem to have been influenced by
the Italian Camaldolites in many respects. They
were clad in white, and were bound to perpetual
silence, to the observance of the monastic hours,
to the most rigorous renunciation and mortifica-
tion, and to the copying of books of
3. Foimda- devotion. After directing his little
tion of colony of hermits for six years, Bruno
Chartreuse, was sunmioned to Rome by Urban
II., who had once been his pupil at
Reims. Bruno obeyed with reluctance, but went
accompanied by some of his monks, while others
remained in their hermitage, although for some
time they proved restive under the administration
of Landuin, whom Bruno had placed at their head.
In Rome the hermits found themselves longing
for their mountain valley, and Bruno obtained
permission for them to return, bearing letters of
commendation from the pope to Hugo of Grenoble
and Hugo, archbishop of Lyons. Bruno, however,
remained in Rome, although he was neither ener-
getic enough nor polemical enough to exercise an
influence on Urban's rule of the Church. He de-
clined the proffered archbishopric of Reggio in
Calabria, and shortly before the first crusade, ap-
parently in 1001, he retired to the
3. Carthu- wild region of La Torre near Squil-
aians in lace in Calabria, where he gathered
Italy. about him a number of hermits and
formed a community like that at the
Chartreuse. In 1097 Count Roger of Calabria
gave him La Tone and Santo StefanoinBosco, and
two years later presented him with San Jaoobo
de Mentauro, so that he was able to establish two
large cloisters for his order. He was buried in
Santo Stefano in 1101, but the monastery, which
then contained thirty monks, soon passed into the
hands of the Cistercians, nor was it imtil 1137 that
the Carthusian cloisters even reached the number
of four, all situated in France.
After the middle of the twelfth century the order
steadily increased, and in 1170 the Carthusians
were deemed worthy of the special protection of the
pope and were officially recognised by Alexander
III. In 1258 the monasteries of the order num-
bered fifty-six, but in 1378 the Carthusians were
obliged to contend with a division corresponding
to the papal schism and lasting until
4* Growth the Council of Pisa. The entire body
of the of Carthusians recognised Martin V.
Order, as pope, and the two generals of the
order resigned in favor of John of
Greiffenberg, the prior of the Carthusian monastery
of Paris, who thus became sole general. In 1420
Martin V. granted the order exemption from tithes
for all its estates, and in 1508 Julius II. issued a
bull enacting that the prior of the mother house
should always be the general of the order, and that
the annual chapters should be held there. Five
years later the Calabrian monastery of Santo
Stefano, where the founder of the order was buried,
was restored to the Carthusians, and in 1514 Bruno
was canonised. At the beginning of the eighteenth
century the Carthusian monasteries numbered 170,
of which seventy-five were in France. The Revo-
lution struck the order a heavy blow, but it sur-
vived and in 1819 the mother house near Grenoble
was again occupied. In 1905, in consequence of
the legislation enacted in France concerning re-
ligious orders, the Grande Chartreuse of Grenoble as
well as the other Carthusian monasteries was again
vacated, and most of the monks retired to Spain.
The Carthusian spirit may be learned from its
rule. Until 1130 the order had no special regu-
lations, but in that year Guigo de Castro, the fifth
prior of Chartreuse, prepared the Conauetudinea
CartusicB. In 1258 the resolutions of the chapters
from 1141 were collected by Bernard de la Tour
and designated SUUuta antiqua, while additional
collections were made in 1367, 1509, and 1581.
The chief aim of them all was the most absolute
detachment, not only from the world and all its
attractions and interests, but even
5. Organ!- from the brother monks of the order
zation. and the monastery. The lay brothers,
who are divided into the three classes
of convern, donoH, and redditi, are sharply dis-
tinguished from the professed. Each monastery
is strictly separated from the surrounding popu-
lation and from all other orders, while every form
of ecclesiastical and secular influence, whether
active or passive, is carefully avoided. The faithful
adherence of the Carthusians to their rule spared
them the necessity of reform felt by many orders
in the transition from the Middle Ages to modem
times.
The Carthusians now control twenty-six monas-
teries, and still retain their absolute retirement
Oarthnsiaiia
Oartwriffht
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
430
from the world. The order likewise includes
Carthusian nuns, who are said to have existed as
early as the twelfth century, although in the eight-
eenth only five nunneries were known, all dating
from the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Over
these convents Carthusian monks presided, who
as vicars ranked above the prioresses and lived in
separate houses with other professed and lay
brothers. The nuns, who were first permitted to
become professed by the Council of Trent in the
sixteenth century, may eat together and converse
more frequently than is allowed to the monks.
Although in scholarship the Carthusians can not
rival the Benedictines, Dominicans, or Jesuits,
they are not without their men of fame. From
the pre-Reformation period mention may be made,
in addition to the Guigo already noted, of such
authors of the fourteenth and fifteenth
6. Scholar- centuries as Ludolf of Saxony, Hen-
ship, drikof Coesfeld, Gerhard of Schiedam,
and Henry of Kalkar, as well as of
Jacob of jQterbogk and Dionysius of Rickel.
Noteworthy names of later date are the hagiog-
raphers Lorenz Surius and H. Murer, and such
historians of the order as Petrseus, Le Vasseiur, and
Le Couteulx. In recent times, moreover, the order
entered upon a revival of literary activity.
(O. ZttCKLBRt.)
Bxbuoorapht: Heimbucher, Orden und KongregtiiUment
i. 261-263; Le Vaaseur, Sphemeridea ordinU Carthuaisn-
«M, 2 ToU., Montreuil, 1802 (a biography airaiuied by
theoalendar, goes only to July 31; the author died 1093);
Helyot, Ordre* moruuHguM, vii. 366-^406; Magna VUa
S. HugonU, ed. J. F. Dimoek for RolU SeriM, no. 37,
London, 1864; F. A. Lefebure, 8. Bruno et I'ordre dea
Chartrtux, 2 vols.. Paria. 1883; idem. La ChartreuBede Ndire-
Dame-dea-PrM h Neuv^le, Neuville, 1890; C. Reichenlech-
ner, Der KarthAuserorden in DetUacMandt WQnburg,
1885; C. le Ck>uteulx, Annalea ordinia CartuaienaU, 1084-
1429, 2 vols., Montreuil, 1887-^; G. Boutraia, Ths Mon-
oMtery of tho Oranda Chartreuaa, London. 1893; Vie de 8.
Bruno, Montreuil, 1898; H. Ldbbel. Dar Stiftar daa Kar-
ttULuaarordena, . . . Bruno aua Kdln, MOnater, 1899;
Currier, Raligioua Ordera, pp. 153-161. On the Eng.
Garthusiana oonault: W. H. Brown, CharUrhouaa, Paat
and Preaenl; a Brief Hiatory, London, 1876; W. D.
Pariah. Lw< of Carihu»iana, 1800-1879, ib. 1880; T. Moi-
ley, Raminiacanoaa of Towna, ViUagaa, and Sehoola, i. 376-
436, ib. 1885; D. L. Hendrika, London Charterhouae, Ita
Monka and Martyra, ib. 1889.
CARTWRI6HT, PETER: American Methodist;
b. in Amherst County, Va., Sept. 1, 1785; d. near
Pleasant Plains, Sangamon County, 111., Sept. 25,
1872. His parents removed to Kentucky while
he was a ch^d, and there he was " converted " in
1801 ; he was licensed as an exhorter in 1802, and
spent eight years in the old Western conference,
four in the Kentucky, eight in the Tennessee, and
forty-eight in the Illinois. He is said to have
received more than 10,000 members into the
Church, baptized more than 12,000 persons, and
preached more than 15,000 sennons. He was
known as the " backwoods preacher," and it
is reported that when moral suasion proved in-
effective with the rough characters with whom he
had to deal he was able and willing to quiet them
by physical force. He was once a member of the
Illinois legislature and was defeated for Congress
by Abraham Lincoln in 1846.
Bxbliooiiapht: He wrote aeveral tracts, an Aviobio^vpi,.
ed. W. P. Strickland, New York, 1856. aod F^tg Yfsrt
a Praaiding Elder, ed. W. 8. Hooper, Cinciimati. 1872.
CARTWRI6HT, THOMAS.
Leader of the Puritan Party (§1).
Controversial Writings (i 2).
Minister in Antwerp (f 3).
Atain in England (| 4).
Attitude Toward the Browniats (f 5).
Thomas Cartwright, English Puritan and Pres-
byterian, was bom in Hertfordshire 1535; d. %i
Warwick Dec. 27, 1603. He was matriculated ^
a sizar of Claire Hall, Nov., 1547, and as 3
scholar at St. John's College, Cambridge. Not.
5, 1550. Being a Protestant and refusing U
return to the Roman Church, he was debarreti
from the university during Mary's reign (1553-59 <.
In 1560 he became a minor fellow of Trinity
College, and on Apr. 6 of the same year a fd-
low of St. John's College; in Apr., 1562. a
major fellow of Trinity College. In 1567 be took
his bachelor's degree, and in 1569 was chosen Ladj
Margaret professor of divinity, and began to lectisc
on the Acts of the Apostles. Els
X. Leader lectures were exceedingly popukr,
of the Pun- and made a profound impresaoo is
tan Party, favor of his distinctively Puritan
views, but created a storm of expo-
sition from the Prelatical party, headed by Dr.
Whitgift. This conflict, under these two grea:
champions, continued to grow more and mott
severe, and was continued by their successors m
two great parties in the Church of England — the
Presbyterian and the Prelatical. The Puritan
platform is well stated in the six propositions
which Cartwright delivered imder his own hazMl
to the vice-chancellor, the grounds of his persecu-
tion by the Prelatists:
1. That the names and functions of archbishops and srch-
deaoons ought to be abolished. 2. That the offices of U»
lawful ministers of the Church, vis., bishops and deacocs,
ought to be reduced to their apostolical institution: bishops
to preach the word of God, and pray, and deaoons to b« em-
ployed in taking care of the poor. 3. That the gorrmuneat
of the Church ought not to be entrusted to bishop's chsa-
cellors, or the officials of archdeacons; but every ehureb
ought to be governed by its own ministers and presbyto^
4. That ministers ought not to be at large, but every ooe
should have the charge of a particular congregation. 5. That
no man ought to solicit, or to stand as a candidate for tiie
ministry. 6. That ministers ought not to be created by the
sole authority of the bishop, but to be openly and fsiitr
chosen by the people.
Having been deprived of his professorship Dec. 11,
1570, and of his feUowship at Trinity College in Sept.,
1571, Cartwright went to the Continent, and in
Geneva conferred with Beza and other chiefs oi
the Reformed Chiurches. He was prevailed upoo
by his friends to return in Nov., 1572.
a. Contra- An Admonition to Parliament far the
verBial Reformation of Church Discipline had
Writings, been issued by his friends John Field
and Thomas Wilcox, for which they
had been cast into prison. Cartwright espoused
their cause, and issued The Second Admonitum,
iffiih an Humble Petition to Both Houses of Parlia-
ment for Relief Against Subscription, 1572. Whitgift
replied in An Answers to a Certen Ltbell, IntituUd
An Admonition to the Parliament, 1572. Cartwright
431
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarthualana
Oartwriffht
rejoined in A Replye to an Answere Made of M.
Doctor WhiUgifte Againste the AdmonUion to the
Parliament, 1573. This was a renewal of the old
discussion on a larger scale, going to the roots of
differenoe; Cartwright and the Puritans contend-
ing that the church government and the discipline,
as well as the doctrine, must be reformed according
to the Scriptures. The discussion took a wide
range — ^as to the standard of church government,
the choice of ministers, the offices of the Christian
Church, clerical habits, bishops, archbishops, the
authority of princes in matters ecclesiastical, con-
firmation, etc. Whitgift replied in A Defense of
the Ecdeeiasticall Regiment in Englande Defaced by
T. C. in hia Replie againsU D, Whitgifte, 1574, and
also The Defense of the Answere to the Admonition,
against the Replye of T, C, 1574, pp. 812, folio.
An order for Cartwright's apprehension was
issued Dec. 11, 1574; but he fled to the Continent,
and became minister of the English congregation
of merchants at Antwerp and Middelburg. In
1576 he went to the isles of Jersey and
3. Minister Guernsey, aided the Puritans there
in Antwerp, in settling the discipline of their
churches, later returning to Ant-
werp, where he preached for several years. While
abroad, he wrote the Second Replie of Thomas
Cartwright AgaynstMaister Doctor Whitgiftes Second
Answer Touching the Churche Discipline, 1575, and
also The Rest of the Second Replie, 1577. He, in
1574, prepared also a preface to the Latin work of
William Travers, and translated it imder the title
A FvU and Plaine Declaration of Ecclesiasticall
Discipline owt off the Word off God and off the
Declininge off the Churche off England from the
Same, 1574. which still more embittered his foes.
In 1583, at the solicitation of the Earl of Leicester,
and Lord Treasurer Burleigh, and a large number
of Puritan friends, he imdertook to write a confu-
tation of the Rhenush version of the Scriptures,
which took him many years; but he was prevented
by the ecclesiastical authorities of England from
publishing his work. The year before his death,
however, his Answere to the Preface of the Rhemish
Testament, 1602, was issued; but the work itself,
not until 1618, under the title A Confutation of
the Rhemists Translation, Glosses, and Annotations
on the New Testament, so farre as they contains
Manifest Impieties, Heresies, Idolatries, etc., fol.,
pp. Iviii., 761, xviii., Leyden. In 1584 he was in-
vited to the divinity chair in St. Andrews, Scotland,
but declined.
In 1585 Cartwright returned to England without
the royal permission, and was apprehended by
Bishop Aylmer of London and cast into prison,
where he remained from April until Jime, when
he was released through the influence of his power-
ful friends, and the Earl of Leicester
4. Again in appointed him master of a hospital
England, which he had founded at Warwick.
His preaching was opposed by his
enemies, but without success, imtil 1590. During
ihis time he went over a great part of Proverbs
uid Ecclesiastes. The latter was published in
1604 under the title Metaphrasis et homilue in
ibrum Solomonis, qui inscr^ur Ecclesiastes, 4to;
the former in 1617, Commentarii sucdncti et delu-
cidi in Proverbia Solomonis, 4to. He is said to
have been the first preacher in England who
practised extempore prayer before sermon, although
he usually employed forms of prayer. During this
period the ecclesiastical conflicts waxed hotter and
hotter. The Puritans had been making rapid prog-
ress. The first presbytery was organized at Wands-
worth within the Church of England in 1572.
Classes were rapidly organized in all parts of Eng-
land, but secretly. In 1583 a rough draft of a
book of discipline was drawn up by Thomas Cart-
wright and Walter Travers, and at an assembly
held either at London or Cambridge it was re-
solved to put it in practise. It was revised at a
national synod in London (1584), and referred to
Mr. Travers "to be corrected and ordered by
him." It was then passed around the various
classes. It was adopted and subscribed by an
assembly of all the classes of Warwickshire in
1588, and then by a provincial synod in Cam-
bridge; and by 1590 the Directory had spread all
over England, and was subscribed to by as many
as 500 ministers. The episcopal party were greatly
alarmed, and determined to arrest Cartwright
with the other leaders and to destroy as large
a number of copies of the Holy Discipline as pos-
sible. A few copies were, however, preserved,
two copies in manuscript, one in the British
Museimi, another in Lambeth Palace, in Latin,
entitled Disciplina ecclesia sacra. These were
discussed and the Lambeth manuscript published
by F. Paget in his Introduction to the Fifth Book of
Hooker's Treatise, London, 1899, pp. 238 sqq. An
edition in English with slight modifications was
issued in 1644 by authority of the Long Parlia-
ment, entitled A Directory of Church Government
anciently contended for, and as farre as the Times
would suffer, practised by the first Non-Conform-
ists in the Daies of Queen Elizabeth, Found in
th£ study of the most accomplished Divine, Mr.
Thomas Cartwright, after his decease; and re-
served to be published for siich a time as this.
The discussion between the Presbyterians and
the Prelatists was complicated by the Brownist
party and the Marprelate tracts (q.v.), which
bitteriy satirized the bishops. Cartwright took
strong groimd against the Brownists
5. Attitttda and their doctrine of separation, and
Toward the opposed the Marprelate method of
Brownifts. controversy; but it was the policy
of the Prelatists to make the Puritans
bear all the odimn of the weaker and more obnox-
ious party. Manuscripts of Cartwright against the
Brownists are preserved and lately published (see
Browne, Robert). In May, 1590, he was sum-
moned before the High Commission, and com-
mitted to the Fleet. He and his associates
were confronted with thirty-one articles of
charges, afterward increased to thirty-four, be-
sides articles of inquiry. He was willing to
reply to the charges, but refused to give testimony
against his brethren. He was then summoned
before the Star Chamber with Edmimd Snape
and others; but the case never reached an issue.
Powerful friends worked in his behalf, and
Oama
Oaaslitifl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
432
he was finally released from prison in 1592, on
the promise of quiet and peaceable behavior,
in broken health. From 1505 to 1598 he lived on
the island of Guernsey, and afterward at Warwick.
To a bitter attack, he wrote A Brief Apoloffie
of Thamaa Cartwright against all auch daunderouB
Accusations as it pleaseth Mr. Sutcliffe in his Sev-
erall pamphlets most injuriously to load him with,
etc,, 4to, pp. 28, 1596. In the main, the Presby-
terian churches of Great Britain and America still
stand by his principles.
Other worlu besides those mentioned in their
historical connections were published after Cart-
wright's death by his disciples: A Catechisms,
1611; A Treatise of the Christian Religion, 1611
(anonymous), 2d ed., 4to, 1616, edited by Will-
iam Bradshaw; A Commentary on the Epistle to
the Colossians, 1612; Harmonia Evangelica, Am-
sterdam, 4to, 1627; Commentaria Practica in totam
Histariam Evangelicam, 1630, 3 vols., 4to. See
also Puritans, PuaiTANisif, { 7.
C. A. Brioos.
BiBuooaArar: C. H. and T. Cooper, AAmus Cantabrigitn-
■M, ii. 3eo-36e, London. 1861; B. Brook. JAvm of Ou
PurUafu, iL 136 Kiq.. 3 vob., ib. 1813; idem. Mmurir
of Iks Lif€ attd WHHnga of Thomas Cartwright, ib. 1845;
F. L. Colvile, WorthtM of Wanriekahin, pp. 92-100. 878.
ib. 1870; J. B. MuUingw. Historv of tike Univsniiy of
Camhridgt, ib. 1888; DNB, ix. 226-230.
CARUS, PAUL: Philosopher and student of
comparative religion; b. at Ilsenburg (27 m. s.e.
of Brunswick), Germany, July 18, 1852. He was
educated at the universities of Tobingen, Greifs-
wald, and Strasburg (Ph.D., Tttbingen, 1876),
and after teaching in two realgymnasia in Dresden
and in the Royal Saxon Cadet Corps, he came to
America in 1883, and since 1887 has been editor
of The Open Court, Chicago, also editing The
Monist, Chicago, since 1890. He has been secre-
tary of the Religious Paiiiament Extension since
its inception, and was the inaugurator and presi-
dent of the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago
in 1893. He is also a member of the Leopoldina,
Germany, the Press Club, Chicago, the American
Oriental Society, and the American Association for
the Advancement of Science. In theology he holds
that religion is to be purified by scientific criticism
and ultimately to be based upon the facts of ex-
perience. He has written, in addition to a large
number of minor articles and contributions: Helgi
und Sigrun, ein episches Gedicht der nordischen Sage
(Dresden, 1880); Metaphysik in Wissenschajt,
Eihik und Religion (1881); Algenor, sine episch-
lyrische Dichtung (1882); Oedichle (1882); Lieder
einee Buddhisten (1882); Uraache, Grund und
Zweck (1883); Aus dem ExU (1884); Monism and
Meliorism (New York, 1885); Fundamental Prob-
lems (Chicago, 1889); The Ethical Problem (1890);
TheSoulofMan (1891); HomUies of Science (1892);
Primer of Philosophy (1893); The Religion of
Science (1893); Truth in Fiction (1893); The
Gospel of Buddha, According to Old Records (1894);
De rerum nalura, philosophisches Gedicht (1895);
Religion of Enlightenment (1896); Buddhism and
its Christian Critics (1897); Chinese Philosophy
(1898); Kant and Spencer : A Study of the Fal-
lucies of Agnosticism (1899); Sacred Tunes for the
Consecration of Life (1899); The Dawn of a Sew
Era, and Other Essays On Religion (1899); Whence
and Whither : An Inquiry into the Nature of the
Soul, Its Origin and Its Destiny (1900); The History
of the Devil and the Idea of Evil (1900); The Surd
of Metaphysics (1903); Friedrich Schiller (1905):
Magic Squares (1906); and The Rise of Man ( 1906).
His works of fiction include: Karma : A Story of
Early Buddhism (CSiicago, 1895); Nirvana: A
Story of Buddhist Psychology (1897); The Chiefs
Daughter: A Legend of Niagara (1901); The
Crown of Thorns : A Story of the Time of Christ
(1901); and Amitabha (1906). He has also trans-
lated from Latin the Eros and Psyche of Apuleius
(Chicago, 1900), and from German the Xenums of
Goethe and Schiller (1896) and Kant's Prolegomena
to any Future Metaphysics (1902), while he has
edited and translated the Chinese texts of ULo-
tse's Tao-Teh-King (Chicago, 1898), as well as
the Kan Ying P'ien (1906) and the Yin Chih Wen
(1906).
CART, ALICE: Poet and hymn-writer; b. on
a farm 8 m. n. of Cincinnati Apr. 26, 1820; d. in
New York Feb. 12, 1871. Her name is inseparably
connected with that of her sister, Phoebe, b. Sept.
4, 1824; d. at Newport, R. L, July 31, 1871. Both
began to write verses eariy and published jointly
a volume of Poems in 1850. In 1850-51 they
removed to New York, where they supported
themselves by literary work and gathered a wide
circle of friends. Alice was the more productive
writer and published stories and novels as well as
poems. BaUads, Lyrics, and Hymns (Boston, 1865)
is her most important volume of verse. Phoebe
published independently Poetns and Parodies
(1854) and Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love (1868);
with Dr. Charles F. Deems she compiled Hymns
for all Christians (1869). The poems of both
sisters are collected in the " Household Eldition ''
(Boston, 1882) and Early and Late Poems (1887).
The most familiar of their hjrmns is Phoebe's
" One sweetly solemn thought comes to me o'er
and .o'er."
Biblioobapht: Mary Clemmer Ames, Metnorial of Aliet
and Ph<Bb0 Cory, New York. 1872; 8. W. Duffield. Bng-
luh Hymna, pp. 447-440. ib. 1886; Julian. Hymtnoloffy.
p. 214.
CART, GEORGE LOVELL: Unitarian; b. at
Medway, Mass., May 10, 1830. He was educated
at Harvard College (B.A., 1852), and was acting
professor of Greek in Aiitioch College, Yellow
Springs, O., in 1856-57, being appointed full pro-
fessor of Greek and Latin in the following year and
serving in this capacity until 1862. In the latter
year he was made professor of New Testament
language and literature in Meadville Theological
School, where he remained until 1902, when he
became professor emeritus. He was also acting
president of the institution in 1890-91 and presi-
dent in 1891-1902. His theological position is,
in general, that of modem Unitariamam. He has
written: An Introduction to the Greek of the New
Testament (Andover, Mass., 1878) and The Syn-
optic Gospels, Together with a Chapter on the Text-
Criticism of the New Testament (New York, 1900).
133
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oarua
OaasliUB
CARY, HENRY FRANCIS : Translator of Dante;
>. at Gibraltar Dec. 6, 1772; d. in London Aug. 14,
1844. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (M.A.,
1796), took orders, and became vicar of Abbot's
Bromley, Staffordshire. In 1800 he removed to
.vingsbury, Warwickshire, and after 1807 lived
n London. He was assistant keeper of printed
>ookB in the British Museum, 1826-37. His
xanslation of Dante was begun in May, 1800, and
inished twelve years later; the Inferno was pub-
ished in 1805 and the completed work in 1814. It
Lttracted little attention at first, but was com-
nended by Coleridge in his lectures in 1818, and
^uthey afterward pronounced it ** one of the most
nasterly productions in modem times." Four
Kiitions were issued during Gary's life, and it still
-emains the standard translation in English blank
•rerse.
)xblioorapht: Henry Gary, Memoir of Rsv. H. F. Cory,
2 vols., London. 1847; DNB, ix. 242-244.
CARYL, JOSEPH: English Independent clergy-
nan; b. in London 1602; d. there Mar. 10, 1673.
Ele studied at Exeter College, Oxford, and became
preacher at Lincoln's Inn; was appointed minister
>f St. Magnus' Church near London Bridge, 1645;
ejected by the Act of Uniformity, 1662, but gathered
% new congregation and continued to preach in the
same neighborhood. He was a member of the
Westminster Assembly and one of the triers for the
approbation of ministers in 1653. He is remem-
t>ered for his ExpoHtion with Praetical Observations
yn the Book of Job (12 vols., 4to, London, 1664-66;
2d ed., 2 vols., folio, 1676-77; abridged ed. by
Berrie, Edinburgh, 1836).
CASALI DEL DRAGO, cd-saOl del dra'gO, 6X0-
/AlfNI, j&-van'nt, BAPTISTA, bflp-tis'tfl: Car-
dinal; b. at Rome Jan. 30, 1838. He was educated
eit the Roman Seminaiy, and was ordained to the
priesthood in 1860. Six years later he was ap-
f>ointed chamberlain by Pope Pius IX., and was
then canon successively of the Lateran (1867-71)
and of St. Peter's (1871-78). In 1878 he became
domestic prelate, and in 1895 Leo XIII. created
bim titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople. He
received the carcQnal's hat in 1899, being created
cardinal priest with the title of Santa Maria della
Victoria.
CASAKAS Y PAGES, ca-sa'nyOs t pQ-H^z^ SAL-
^ATORE, B0y'y(X-t6'T^: Cardinal, b. at Barcelona,
Spain, Sept. 5, 1834. He was educated in his
native city, and in 1879 was consecrated titular
bishop of Keramus and seven months later be-
c;amc bishop of Urgel. In 1901 he was translated
to his present see of Barcelona, and in 1895 was
created cardinal priest of Santi Quirico e Giulitta.
CASAS,BARTOLOMEDELAS. See Lab C as as.
CASAUBON, ca-sfilaon or ca''z6"b«n', ISAAC:
Scholar; b. in Geneva Feb. 18, 1559; d. in London
July 12, 1614. His father was a poor Huguenot
preacher, who could give his son little education,
nevertheless he came to be considered the most
learned man in Europe after Joseph Scaliger. He
was professor of Greek at Geneva, 1582-96, at
Hontpellier, 1596-99; in 1600 he went to Paris,
II.— 28
where he might have been professor in the univer-
sity if he had embraced Roman Catholicism; this,
however, he refused to do, although he offended
the rigid Calvinists by denying their extreme posi-
tions. He was given a pension by Heniy IV. ( 1600),
and in 1604 became sublibrarian of the royal
library. In 1610 he went to England, where he
was well received by King James and the Anglican
bishops and was made prebendary of Canterbuiy
and Westminster. His works belong for the most
part to the field of classical scholajship, but he
edited a Greek New Testament (Geneva, 1587), and
published some minor pamphlets of theological
interest; his criticism of the Annates of Baronius^
begun at the request of King James, was left un-
finished. His letters (in Latin), with life, were
published by D'Almeloveen (Rotterdam, 1709);
his diary, Ephemerides, ed. Russell, was printed at
Oxford, 1850.
BxBLiooaAPHT: ICark Pftttiaon, I§aae Ca$aubon, London,
1875. 2d ed.. by Nettleship, 1892.
CASELIUS, cansdOi-us, JOHANlfES, yfr-hOn^es:
German scholar; b. at (>Ottingen 1533; d. at
Helmstadt Apr. 9, 1613. He belonged to the
Dutch family of Chessel, which during the Refor-
mation period had emigrated on accoimt of its
faith. His father, Matthias Bracht von Chessel,
foimd a refuge at GOttingen and became a teacher
there. Johannes studied at Wittenberg under
Melanchthon and at Leipsic under Joachim Came-
rarius. Under their guidance he became one of the
most distinguished humanists of Germany; he
was made a doctor of law at Pisa in 1566, and was
ennobled in 1567 by the emperor MftYimilmn II.
From 1563 to 1589 he labored at Rostock and then
accepted a call to Hehnst&dt. He enjoyed there
the favor of his prince, Duke Henry Julius of
Brunswick, and the fame of his learning made him
a kind of European celebrity. But the orthodox
theologians in the imiversity, who opposed Melanch-
thonianism, soon attacked Caselius. The leader
of the orthodox was Professor Daniel Hoffmann
(q.v.), who considered all use of reason and phi-
losophy in theology as dangerous, because the
revealed truth Ib injured thereby. In this and
similar tendencies Caselius saw the approach of a
new barbarism, and he was not far wrong. He
had the encouragement of a few bright pupils,
including the young Georg Calixtus (q.v.), and
comforting messages came to him from friends
abroad. But unfortimately his material cireum-
stances became more and more wretched, and for
this reason his life ended in discord and dark-
ness. In the barbarism which came over Ciermany
with the Thirty Years' War his numerous writings,
distinguished by spirited contents and elegant form,
were soon almost forgotten. As far as they are
printed, they can only be found in larger libraries.
They refer to Greek authors, ancient grammar,
hermeneutics, and rhetoric, as well as to pedagogics
and political science. . Caselius was the firet to
separate political science from the Roman juris-
prudence and raise it to a distinct discipline.
Paul Tbchackebt.
Bxbuographt: For the letters consult: J. a Draasfeld,
Opu9 epiatolieum /. CoMlii, Frankfort, 1687; ComiiMr-
Oasparl
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
43(
eium liierarum darorum virorum « muMo R. A. NoUeniit
Bremen, 1737. See Calixtus. Consult: E. L. T. Henke,
CalixtuM* BrUfwechMel, Halle. 1833; idem. O. Calixtua und
teins Zeil, vol. i.. Halle, 1866; ADB, iv. 40 sqq. F. Kol-
dewey has projected a monograph on Oaeeliufl, for which
he hat aooesa to the best sources.
CASPARI, cOa'pa-ii, CARL PAUL: Norwegian
Lutheran; b. at Dessau Feb. 8, 1814; d. at Ck^a-
tiania Apr. 11, 1892. He was of Jewish parentage
and was brought up in the faith of his fathers.
From 1834 to 1838 he studied at Leipsic, where
he acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Persian
under Fleischer. Partly from the influence of
fellow students, among whom was Franx Delitssch,
he adopted Christianity and was baptised in 1838.
His Jewish training naturally fitted him for work
in Old Testament exegesis, and he spent two years
at Berlin under Hengstenberg. In 1842 he became
doctor of philosophy at Leipsic, and in 1847 he
accepted a call to Christiania, where he remained
from choice the rest of his life, declining calls to
Rostock in 1850, to Dorpat in 1856, and to Er-
langen in 1857 and again in 1867. His linguistic
ability enabled him speedily to master the Nor-
wegian language, so that he could begin lectures
in less than a year. He was made fiill professor
in 1857. In Us university work Caspari inter-
pieted various books of the Old and New Testa-
ments and treated Old Testament introduction.
His lectures were inspiring, thorough, earnest, and
bore evidence of a living Christian faith. In his
exegesis and apologetics he followed Hengstenberg,
and he remained to the end an opponent of modem
critical scholarship. But his work and interest
were not confined to the Old Testament field. In
1825 a Danish preacher, Nioolai Frederik Severin
Grundtvig (q.v.), propounded peculiar views, vi«.,
that the baptismd formula, the renunciation, the
Lord's Prayer, and the words of the Lord's Supper
come directly from the Lord, have never been
changed, and therefore stand above the Scriptures.
The view foimd adherents in Denmark and Norway,
and fear was felt that the formal principle of the
Lutheran Church was in danger. Caspari undeiv
took a careful investigation of the questions con-
nected with the baptismal formula and its history
and thus was led on to extensive ecclesiastico-
patristic studies. He published a long series of
articles and books as the result, most of them in the
Norwegian language. Under the auspices of the
Norwegian Bible Society he assisted in making a
new translation of the Old Testament, which was
completed for the seventy-fifth anniversary of the
Society, May 26, 1891; at the time of his death he
was working on the New Testament (see Biblb
Versions, B, XV., § 2). He was a member of the
central committee of the Bible Society, president
of the Norwegian mission among the Jews, and
belonged to numerous learned and honorary so-
cieties.
His meet important publications were: A commentary on
Obadiah (in Dselitssch and Caspari 's ExeaeUaehet HantBtueh
9u den PropheUn det AUen Bundes, Leipsic, 1842); Gram-
matioa Arabiea (2 parts, Leipsic, 1844-48; 5th Germ, ed., by
August Mailer. Halle. 1887; Eng. ed.. by W. Wright. Lon-
don. 1859-62, 1874-76; by W. Robertson Smith and M. J. de
Goeje, Cambridge, 1896-98); BeitrOoe wur EifUeitung in da»
Buck Jmaia und tur OmAiehU dtr jtaaianUdten ZeU (voL
ii. of Delitisch and Caspari 's BibUack-tkeoUtgudte wd r.' ■
0€Haeh-4crUUehe Studien, Berlin, 1848); Ueber dn ir*
tvkraimiHathen Krieg unier Jotham und AhoM (Chr.-'-au
1849); Ueber Michn den Moraethiien und aeine pnrpke:'
Schnft (2 parts. 1851-52); UngedruekU, unheadim u^
wenig heachtete QuMen gur Geechiektt dee Tauft]f^tM» a
der Olaubeneregel (3 vob., 1866-75); Zur EinfiArmg i* a
Bueh Danid (Leipsic, 1869); Alie und neue QvtGn a
Oeeckiehte dee Taufeymbole und der GUntbenertgd (CtuiAsa.
1879); an edition of Martin of Bracara's De eama^n
rusfioorum (1883); Kir€h«nkietariedie Aneedota luta ana
Auegaben patrteUed^er und kirdUidkr^nitleUilterlicka' Sdr.v
(1883); Eine Auffuslifi /dlscA/idk beiodegU HamOia it «r^
legiie (1886); Brief e, Abhandluttgen und Predigin eu u
ewei Idxien Jahrhunderten dee kirdUidten Alter^vj a
demAnfang dee MiUdaUere (1891); DaeBuA Hiob i*H'-
nvmue'e Uebereeteung (Christiania, 1893). Drr Gleti' r
der TriniUU OoUee in der Kvrdudee erUenduiiduKnJr
hundertenadigewieeen (Leipsic. 1894). In Xorwcguo br po-
lished a translation of the Book of Concord iCbrbtau
1861); an essay upon the Wandering Jew (lS62r, ftM>
mentary on the firit six chapters of Isaiah (IS^v a t>
torical essay on the confession of faith at baptism 'is''. . .
Abraham's trial and Jacob's wrestling with (jod 'S
on Abraham's call and meeting with Mdchisedek .h'-
a volume of Bible essays (1884); etc With ltt» frv:.
Q. C. Johnson (q.v.) he established in 1857 the Ti^^^
Tidekrift far den evangeliek^uikereke Kirke i Sjt^ ■
which a volume appeared annually till shortly brfore l»
pari's death. Most of the articles were written by the ^i-i **•
and in this and other periodicals a large number d Cb^'
writings were originally published.
J. Beiseedl
CASPARI, WALTER: German theologiM: -
at Sommerhausen (a village of Lower FnmxLi
June 19, 1847. He was educated at the ul'"
sities of Munich, Erlangen, and Leipsic from y^
to 1868, after which he was pastor in Memminft:
and Ansbach until 1885. In the last-named y-
he was appointed associate professor of prac^ "*'
theology, pedagogics, and dogmatics, andunireiv'
preacher at Erlangen, and became full pro-^-^'
two years later. In addition to contribution^ '
the Hauck-Herzog RE and briefer studies, be b»
written: Auagew&hlU Lesestucke der audaruii^f^
lAUratur (Munich, 1877); Die epistolischen Fr-
kopen nach der Auswahl van Dr. Thomasius r:^y j
tisch-homiUHsch erkldrt (Erlangen, 1883); DiVf'
gelische Konfirmatum (Leipsic, 1890); and ^'
ffeschichUiche Grundlage des gegenwdrtigen ««^*'
lischen Gemeindelebena (1894).
CAS-SANa>ER,6E0RGIUS: Roman Catholic >
ologian; b. at Pitthem (15 m. s.e. of Bruges .U
24, 1513; d. in Cologne Feb. 3, 1566. Heleci::^
at Bruges and Ghent on antiquities, theology, ^'
canon law, but retired to Cologne in 1549 i-
devoted himself to study. The Duke of C.f '
employed him in an effort to win back tbeA^'
baptists in Duisbuig, and still more important v->'
the charge of the Emperor Ferdinand I. ^'
endeavored to unite the Catholics and P^ote^li ■'
in his territories. Cassander had already pubii>^'^
anonymously an irenic writing, De officio p"/*
publiciB tranquiUUatia vere amanHs rin v^ '^
religionie dissidio (Basel, 1561), which elidt^^^
sharp rejoinder from Calvin. Strict ^^.
Catholics also disliked the work, and it was p|>^^
on the Lisbon Index in 1581. At the emperor-'*'
quest Cassander prepared a ConsuUatio de orf '^ . |
inter Catholico8 et Protestantes controversis, *^
he presented to Maximilian II. in 1564, Feric^
having died in the mean time (published at Lv^
435
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oasporl
Oa4Mianiui
1608; ed. H. Grotius, Amflterdam, 1642). To
bring about a union Cassander starts with the
" consensus '' of the most ancient chiurch, expressed
in the Apostles' Creed. Though the Holy Scrip-
ture is to be authoritative, he wishes to maintain
the importance of tradition, especially of the great
Church Fathers (down to Gregory I.); only a dif-
ference which concerns the position to Christ
himself, not " opiniones " or " ritus," may become
a cause of division, but the bond of ** caritas "
is by no means to be violated. In the doctrine of
original sin, the Lord's Supper, and justification,
he tries to mediate. He is even inclined to give
the cup to the laity, and he will also admit of the
marriage of the clergy as a makeshift. In the other
controversial questions (worship of saints, monas-
ticism, indulgences, papal power) he tries to soften
the difficulties and do away with exaggerations.
A recantation before his death has been imputed to
him. It iB hard to save him for the Roman
Catholics, however, and still less can he be
claimed by the Ftotestant side. Seckendorf is
correct when he says in the CammerUariiu (Frank-
fort and Leipsic, 1680, p. 347): " Georgius Cassan-
der, a good theologian, to be sure not a Lutheran,
but a lover of truth." K. Benrath.
Biblxogbapht: The Opera sppMirad Paris, 1616. Consult
F. H. Reusch, JmUz der verhoUnen BUdier, i. 361 sqq.,
Bonn, 1883.
CASSEL, CONFEREIfCE OF: A religious col-
loquy at Cassel, July 1-9, 1661, between certain
Reformed theologians from the University of
Marburg and Lutheran theologians from the Uni-
versity of Rinteln, arranged by Landgrave William
VI. of Hesse. The aim was to bring about agree-
ment or at least mutual toleration. They suc-
ceeded in finding some not imessential points, in the
doctrines of the Lord's Supper, predestination,
the person of Christ, and baptism, on which both
parties agreed. It was resolved, moreover, not
to revile one another in the future because of the
differences still remaining, to free sermons from the
burden of confessional polemics, and in any case
no longer to attack an opponent personally. But
this peaceful agreement did not meet with a kind
reception in the rest of Germany. Frederick
William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, was,
to be sure, an exception, and the Reformed party
in France and Holland were inclined to come half-
way; but the Lutherans rejected the arrangement
absolutely. The union became the subject of
lively literary combats, and the final result was a
further intensification of confessional differences.
Carl Mirbt.
Biblzoobapht: E. L. T. Henke, Dae UnionekoUoquium
tuCaaeel leei, Marbuis. 1861; H. Heppe, Ktrehenge-
BchichU beider Heeeen, vol. ii., ib. 1876; H. Landwehr,
Die KirehenpoUUk Friedrich Wilhelme, Berlin, 1894.
CASSEL, PAULUS STEPHANUS (SELI6): Ger-
man Protestant theologian; b. at Grosa-Glogau
(55 m. n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Feb. 27, 1821;
d. at Friedenau, a suburb of Berlin, Dec. 23, 1892.
He was of Jewish parentage, studied history at
Berlin, and from 1850 to 1856 edited a newspaper
at Erfurt. On May 28, 1855, he was baptised at
Bilssleben near Erfurt, and the next year became
librarian of the Royal Library at Erfurt. In 1859 he
settled at Berlin, where he acted as tutor and devo-
ted himself to literary work. In 1866-67 he was a
member of the Prussian Parliament, then he entered
the service of the London Jewish Missionary Society
and became its minister at the Christuskirche in
Berlin. In 1891 he resigned his position and died
shortly afterward. Cassel was a most prolific writer,
and his article on the history of the Jews from the
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus to the year 1847,
written while still a Jew for Ersch and Gruber's
AUgemeine Enq^klopddief sect. II., vol. xxvii., pp.
1-238, Leipsic, 1850, is still valuable. By public
lectures delivered in different cities of Germany,
he tried to influence the educated Jews in favor
of Christianity, and baptized many. He also
combated anti-Semitism. Other works by him in-
clude the commentaries on Judges and Ruth in
Lange's Commentary; also Weihnachten, UrsprHnge,
Braucheund Aberglauben (Berlin, 1862); AWcirch-
licher Festkalender nach Uraprungen und Br&uchen
(1869); VomWegenachDamaskus (Gotha, 1872);
Die QerechiigkeU aua dem Glavben (1874); Dob
Buck Esther (Berlin, 1878); and Die Symbolik des
Blutes (1882). (H. L. Strack.)
CASSETTA, cOs-set'tO, FRANCESCO DI PAOLA:
Italian cardinal; b. at Rome Aug. 12, 1841.
He was educated at the Roman Seminary and
was ordained to the priesthood in 1865. In
1884 he was consecrated titular bishop of Amiata
and appointed canon of Santa Maria Maggiore,
and three years later became titular archbishop of
Nicomedia and grand almoner to Pope Leo XIII.
As titular patriarch of Antioch he was nominated
vicegerent of Rome, in which capacity he acted as
the deputy of the cardinal vicar. He was created
cardinal priest of Santi Vito, Modesto e Crescenzia
in 1899, and is titular bishop of Sabina, perpetual
abbot of Farfa, apostolic visitor of the Hospice
of 'the Catechumens, commissioner for the apos-
tolic visitation of the Italian dioceses, and a mem-
ber of the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars,
the Coimcil, the Index, the Consistory, the Prop-
aganda, the Propaganda for the Oriental Rite,
and Indulgences.
CASSIAIf : A martyr whose death is described
by Prudentius in the ninth hymn of his Peristepfui-
mm. The poet says that he saw the martyr's
grave at Forum Comelii (Imola), with a picture of
him, and that the custodian related that Cassian
had been stabbed by his own pupils with their styli
and otherwise cruelly handled. Gregory of Tours
gives substantially the same account. The Mar-
tyrologium Hieronymianum names Aug. 11 as the
day of his death. The fact of his martyrdom at
Forum C]k)melii need not be doubted, but the man-
ner related by Prudentius is improbable, and it is
impossible to fix the date. (A. Hauck.)
CASSIANUS, cas"s!-a'nn8, JOHANNES: Monk of
the fifth century and the real founder of Semi-
Pelagianism (q.v.); b. probably in Provence c.
360; d. at Marseilles c. 435. He received a thor-
ough education, and then visited the East with an
iflianua
Oastellii
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
486
older friend named Gennanus. At Bethlehem he
entered a cloister, but the desire to know the
famous Egyptian hermits led him and Germanus
to Egypt, where they remained seven years, after
which they revisited Bethlehem, but soon re-
turned to Egjrpt. Thence Cassianus went to Con-
stantinople, where he became the pupil of John
Chxysostom, who ordained him deacon. The
exile of Chiysostom in 403, however, obliged Cas-
sianus and Germanus to take refuge with Innocent
I. When Cassianus was ordained priest and
returned home is unknown, and the fate of Ger-
manus is equally uncertain. At Marseilles Cas-
sianus foimded two cloisters, one for monks and
the other for nuns, and seems to have died shortly
after completing his polemic against Nestorius.
His earliest work, written before 426, was en-
titled De inatUutU eotnobufnun et de odo princi-
palium vUiorum remediia lihri ducdecim, and was
composed at the request of Castor, bishop of Apta
Julia, who wished to introduce the Oriental and
especially the Egjrptian rules into the monastery
which he had founded. His second work was his
CoUaHones viginti-^iucUtuar, completed before 429.
Both were widely spread throughout the Occident;
Benedict of Nursia commanded that they be read
to the monks in the refectory; Cassiodorus es-
teemed them highly, although he warned his monks
against the heretical views of the author con-
cerning the freedom of the wUl; and Gregory of
Tours mentions them as used, together with other
Oriental rules, in the monastery of St. Yririz.
A brief compend was made by the friend of Cas-
sianus, Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, which served
as a source for the Concordia refftikaruin of Benedict
of Aniane.
The thirteenth collation of Csssianus is impor-
tant in the controversy on Augustine's doctrine of
grace. Against his enemies, who were centered
in Marseilles, the latter addressed, shortly before
his death, his De proBdeaHnoHone sanctorum and
De dono pereeveranHce, his chief opponent being
Cassianus, who in this collation had enunciated
the doctrine called Semi-Pelagianism in the Middle
Ages, although it might more properly be termed
Semi-Augustinianism, since Cassianus separated
himself sharply from Pelagius and branded him
as a heretic, while he felt himself in complete har-
mony with Augustine. His Greek training, how-
ever, rendered it impossible for him to accept
Augustine's doctrine of unconditional predestina-
tion, particular grace, and the absolute denial of
the freedom of the will. Cassianus, on the other
hand, recognized the necessity of divine grace
throughout the process of salvation, while postu-
lating the existence of free will as a necessary
condition for the operation of grace, and asserting
that God never destrojrs the freedom of the will,
even in such an extraordinary case as the conver-
sion of Paul. He regarded it as a religious axiom,
therefore, that salvation through Christ is not
restricted to a small number of the elect, but is
intended for all. This non-Augustinian concept
of the process of salvation conditions Cassianus's
view of original sin. He believed that the fall
of Adam had brought destruction on the whole
human race, although it still retained the power
to seek goodness in virtue of its original state <^
immortality, wisdom, and complete freedom of the
will. After the victory of a modified Augustiniaih
ism at the Synod of Orange in 529, the doctriiui
of Cassianus were generally regarded as heterodox,
although this did not injure his fame as a monastic
author, and in southern Gaul he was officiaUj
honored as a saint. See Ssmi-Pelaoianism.
In the latter part of his life Cassianus oecame
involved in the Nestorian controversy, and at the
request of the archdeacon Leo (later Pope Leo I.)
wrote his De incamatume Domini contra NesUnivn
libri aeptem, the date being subsequent to the
letters written by Nestorius to Pope Celestine in
430. The work lacks the importance which it wouU
otherwise possess as the only extensive contribu-
tion of an Occidental to the Nestorian controversy,
through its restriction to personal attacks on the
opponent of its author and a complete omi86io&
of positive and independent Christological state-
ments. Cassianus sought to prove that the di-
vinity of Christ had existed from eternity and had
never been renounced, so that Mary must be called
not merely the mother of Christ, as Nestoriiu
taught, but the mother of God. The work is
especially valuable as showing the close sympathy
of the interests and methods of Nestorianism and
Pelagianism, while Cassianus, following the Gallic
monk Leporius, who had renounced Pelagianian
in 426, held that Christ possessed in a single per-
son the two coexistent substances of God and man.
(G. GhOtsicacher.)
BnuooaAPHT: The Opera, ed. A. GftsauB. were publiahed
at Douai, 1616. reprinted in AfPL. xliz., 1.; best ed. by
M. Petecbenig. in C8BL, 2 vole., 1886-«8. An Eog.
tnxul., witb a well-written Life, is eontained in NPNF,
2d teries, zi. 163 sqq. Coneult: G. F. Wicgen, Pra^-
maiucKe DareleUuiHf dee AwiffueHemue und Pdoffianitmiti,
ii. 7-163. Berlin. 1833; A. Hamaok. Doomenoeeehiehle, iil
154. Tabinsen. 1897, Eng. transl., ▼. 246 Kiq.. 253 sqq.
Boston. 1809; A. Hoeh. Die Lehrm dee J, Caeeiane eoa
Naiurund Onade, Freiburg, 1895.
CASSIANXTS, JULIUS. See Docetism; Encra-
TITE8.
CASSIODORUS, cas^'si-^MK^rus (CASSIODO-
RIUS), ICAGKUS AURELIUS: Roman historian,
statesman, and monk; b. at Scylacium (the mod-
em Squillace, on the gulf of the same name, 40 m.
s.s.e. of Gosenza), Calabria, c. 480; d. in the monas-
tery of Vivarium, near Scylacium, c. 570. Ow-
ing to the esteem in which his father was held
by Theodoric, a public career was early open to
him; and he pursued it until he had reached the
highest dignities under the Ostrogothic monarcha.
He stood in close personal relations with Theod-
oric, with whose efforts to bring about a fusion
between the Germanic and Roman elements among
his subjects he thoroughly ssrmpathised. About
540 he retired from public life to the peace and
quiet of the monastery founded by him on his own
estates at Vivarium. Here he devoted himself
to literary work, of which he had already made
a beginning amidst his political activity, and
pursued it lealously until his ninety-third 3rear.
He insisted on the duty of intellectual labor for
his monks, helped their studies by evexy means
IT
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oasfllanna
Oaatellion
Ills power, of which his own example was not
e least, and so contributed largely to the estab-
liment of the tradition which made the monas-
riesy especially of the Benedictine order, the
»iiiee of learning throughout the dark ages.
His literary work, like his life, falls into two
kriods. To the first belong a consular chronicle
ritten in 519; twelve books of Gothic history,
imposed in the spirit of the policy of fusion already
ferred to, known to us only in the recast version
Jordanes, De origine actibuaque Getarum (the
ork of Cassiodorus seems to have borne the same
tie); panegyrics on the kings and queens of the
oths, of which only dubious fragments remain;
collection (made about 538) of rescripts com-
osed by him during his long and varied official
fe, and formulas of appointment to a great va-
ety of offices, in twelve books, under the title
"^aricg ; a small philosophical work, De animaf
rritten immediately after the completion of the
''arice, at the request of friends, whose questions
bout the soul he answers, following Claudianus
iamertus and Augustine. The last-named work
orms a sort of transition to those of the second
period. The most important of these, composed
>robably in 544, is the InstihUianea divinarum et
tigctdarium litterarum (or better lectumum). The
irst book is devoted to spiritual learning, the
lecond to secular; and both together form the first
;>art of a complete course of instruction designed
3y Cassiodorus for the Western clergy, and espe-
cially for his own monks. The first book is only
an introduction to the study of theology, explaining
the most important preliminary knowledge re-
quired and the literary helps at the student's com-
mand for his further education; the second gives
brief compendiums of various branches of secular
learning. To this the last work of Cassiodorus,
De orihographia, forms a supplement. Another
voluminous theological work, begun before the
Institutionea but finished long after, was a full
explanation of the Psalms in their threefold aspect,
spiritual, historical, and s3rmbolic. He wrote
other exegetical works, of which his CompUxumea
in epiatolaa et acta apoatohrum et apocalypain is
still extant. Of much greater value to posterity is
his Hisiaria ecdeaiaatica tripartita in twelve books,
composed of extracts from the Greek historians
Socrates, Soaomen, and Theodoret, whose works
he had translated by Epiphanius. It is in no sense
an original work, and is put together in a patchwork
fashion; but it filled up a great gap in the general
Western knowledge of church history, and, incom-
plete as it is, was the principal handbook used in
the Middle Ages for its period.
(A. Hauck.)
BxBLiooRAnrr: The Varia and OraOonum rdiquim,
with introduction, are in MOH, AueL anL, xii. 1-386,
45^-484; the Varia are aleo in MPL, Ixix. The
Letten of CasHodonu, a Condtnttd Trantl. of th« Varim,
•d. T. Hodskin, appeared London, 1886. Consult: A.
OUeris, Catoiodoro, eonaervaieur deo l%vro§ de VanHquiti
Uitine, Paris. 1841: R. KOpke, Deutodte Fonchungen.
Dm Anf&ngo deo Kfhiiatum; pp. 78-04, Berlin. 1850;
A. Tborbecke, Cauiodorut Senator, Heidelberg. 1867;
A. Freni. M. Attreliut Caoaiodorius Senator, Breslau. 1872;
H. Ton Sybel. Entatehung dee detttacken Kdnifftuma, pp.
184-20B. Frankfort, 1881; A. Ebert. QoackiehU dor Lu-
Uratur dea MiUdaltera, i. 108. 408-514, Leiprie. 1888.
For further literature ooneult Potthast, Wetneoiaer,
p. 108.
CASSOCK. See Vebtmentb and Inbionia,
Ecclesiastical.
CASTBLL, EDMnHD: English Orientalist; b. at
East Hatley (12 m. s.w. of Cambridge), Cambridge-
shire, 1606; d. at Higham Gobion (10 m. s.s.e. of
Bedford), Bedfordshire, 1685. He studied at
Emmanuel and St. John's colleges, Cambridge
(B.A., 1625; M.A., 1628; B.D., 1635; D.D., 1661).
He assisted Walton on his Polyglot (1657), con-
tributing the editions of the Samaritan, Syriao,
Arabic, and Ethiopio versions, and other (unac-
knowledged) portions, and also spent freely of his
own fortune for the work. In 1669 he brought out
in two volumes, folio, at London, his Lexicon
Heptaglotton, Hebraicum, Cftaldaicunif Syriacum,
Samaritanum, ^tkiopicum, Arabicum, eonjunctim ;
et Peraicum aeparatim, specially prepared to sup-
plement the Polypi, This work was the result of
eighteen years of the most unremitting labor,
cost the author £12,000, and left him ruined in
fortune and health. His work was enthusiastically
received on the Continent, but neglected in Eng-
land. Late in life he received some favor from
the king, was appointed chaplain in ordinary in
1666, prebendary of Canteibuiy and professor
of Arabic at Cambridge 1667, and was successively
vicar of Hatfield Peverell, Essex; rector of Wode-
ham Walter, Essex; and rector of Higham Gobion.
Bibuoqrapht: A. h Wood, AtKena Oxonienaaa, ed. P. BUm,
iii 883. 4 role., London, 1813-20; twenty-three of hit
letten appear in J. Lightfoot. WhoU Worka, ed. J. R.
Pitman. 13 voU., London, 1822-25. Ooneult DNB, ix.
271-272.
CASTELLIO(lf), SSBASnAHUS (SEBASTIEN
CHATEILLON): French Reformer; b. at Saint-
Martin du Fresne (30 m. w. of (Geneva) 1515; d. at
Basel Dec. 29, 1563. He pursued his studies under
difficult circumstances until he became tutor to three
young noblemen. In 1540 he went to Strasburg,
lived in Calvin's house, and accompanied him to
Geneva, where on Calvin's recommendation he be-
came rector of the high school. But disagreement
soon arose between him and the great Reformer,
Castellio holding views of his own concerning
election and Christ's descent into hell, and re-
garding the Song of Solomon as an erotic poem
which should be exclude<i from the canon. He
left Geneva in 1544 and settled in Basel, where he
lived in great poverty till 1552, when he was ap-
pointed professor of Greek literature. His first
publication was Dialogi aacri (Geneva, 1543; Eng.
transL, The History of the Bible, collected into 119
dialoguea, London, 1715; again under the title,
Youth*a Scripture Remembrancer, 1743), much used
as a school-book. In 1551 he published in Basel
his chief work, an elegant annotated Latin trans-
lation of the Bible, which he dedicated to Edward
VI. of England (12th ed., Leipsic, 1778). The
notes gave offense, as they betrasred skepticism
as to the attainability of religious truth, and the
dedication, a noble plea for religious toleration,
was imacoeptable to the age. In 1555 he published
at Basel a complete French translation of the Bible,
Oastor
Caawall
THE NEW SCnAFF-HERZOQ
438
with a dedication to Henry II. of France. It also
had notes, but is not of great importance. He was
violently attacked by Calvin and Beza because of
his criticism of their conduct in burning Servetus,
but defended himself vigorously in his De hceretp-
eis, writing under the pen-name of Martinus Bel-
lius (Basel, 1554); and in Contra libeUum Calvini, in
quo ostendere conatur hogreticoa jure gladii coercendos
€886, Calvin's influence suppressed the latter, and
it was not published till 1612.
Biblioobapht: F. Buiflson, SSb. CagMlum^ aa vie §t 9ou
€tuvre, 2 vols., Paris, 1802 (i, p. xvii. gives Utoratura oon-
oerning him; ii. 341 sqq. gives list of his writings); C. Jarrin,
Deta oubliia; Sib, Ctutdlion, lAonard RaeU, Paris, 1806.
CASTOR, SAINT: According to legend, a com-
panion of St. Maximin of Treves, who had an influ-
ential career as a missionary and ascetic on the
lower Moselle. But these assertions can not be
traced further back than the Carolingian period;
and nothing is said of him by Gregory of Tours,
who had a great devotion to Maximin. His relics
are said to have been miraculously discovered imder
Bishop Weomad (d. 791). They were first placed
at Carden on the Moselle (the Roman Caradunum);
but in 836 a part of them was translated to Co-
blenz (of which city Castor has since been known
as the patron) by Archbishop Hetti of Treves, and
preserved in the minster founded there by him.
(A. Hauck.)
CASUISTRT: The name of a special form of
dbcipline, or branch of ethics, constituting a some-
what elaborated scheme of doctrine concerning
proper moral action in single and concrete instances.
The evaluation of this kind of activity evolves
itself generally as consequence of a lawful and
rightful apprehension of the moral walk, whereby
we accentuate external conduct according to defi-
nite prescriptive rules. Coordinately with a fun-
damental moral code for this action, certain ethical
norms with legal adjuncts were in practical opera-
tion so far back as the Jewish " scribes and Phar-
isees." Jesus came forward in sharpest contrast
with this casuistical doctrine of morals.
Teaching As he suffered his disciples to become
of Jesus derivately participant of his integral
and PauL community with God, he kindled in
them a love to God, which was to
verify itself in love to men. To this love he brought
back the conception of the Law fulfilled; and accord-
ingly he teaches in the place of casuistry a direction
of life spontaneously individual. Even where he
appears himself to set up casuistical requirements
(Matt. V. 21 sqq., vi. 1 sqq., xxii. 17 sqq.; Luke
xiv. 3 sqq.) it is always expressly in order to lay
emphasis upon the spiritual interpretation of the
Law, over against legalizing constructiveness.
These thoughts were but dialectically expanded
through Paul's epistles, inasmuch as he teaches
that faith in God's grace in Christ has its operation
in the love which fulfils the requirements of God's
will in agreement with the spirit of the Law. Yet
he knew that even though faith and love be present,
still the certainty is not immediately vouchsafed
as to what is right in this or that particular in-
rtance (Rool xii. 2; Phil. i. 9, 10). He, therefore,
dwells on a persistently proving examinatian of
God's will, and gives corresponding instructions to
his own congregations; which instructions now
and then through their touching upon particular
conditions have a certain casuistic stamp about
them (cf. I Cor. vii. 8, 10); but, in distinction fr(»n
every form of casuistic legalism by means of morally
postulated direction, they seek to develop the proper
moral consciousness of the congregations thon-
selves.
But even eariy in the postapostolic age, the
tendency set in, coordinately with a one-sided
intellectualizing conception of the faith, to regu-
late by outwajpd legaUsm the moral life as thus
robbed of its religious mainspring; and the same
tendency involved the casuistical treatment of
ethics. Still further was this disposition fostered
in Western theology through the influence of
Stoicism, and in part through the legalizing devel-
opment of ecclesiastical doctrine. It shows itself
even in Augustine, despite his obliteration of
ethics, and continued to be characteristic of the en-
tire Western Catholic ethical system. What min-
istered still more widely to the development of
casuistry was the very eariy and momentously
elaborated ecclesiastical institution of
Devel- penance, with the infliction of ecde-
opment of siastical penalties for individual sma.
Casuistry. The appertaining customary rules of
the ancient forms of procedure and
the relevantly codified decrees of separate synods
were brought together, supplemented, and arranged j
by the compilers. There thus arose the definite '
manuals on penance for the use of confessors; i
among which the best known were those attributed |
to Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690)
and the Venerable Bede (d. 735). A still greater
amplification of casuistry was promoted by the
entire method of the scholastic ethics, with its
subtle disputations; by the influence of the canon-
ical repetition; and by the universally obligatoiy
institution of auricular confession (1215). Under
such influences there arose a distinctive system-
atic discipline, which in contradistinction to the
philosophic and legal came to be designated as
theological casuistry. The scholars who cultivated
the same constituted, under the name of casuists
or schemists, both in the Middle Ages and at
Roman Catholic universities much later still, a
special class of teachers, notably so as against the
canonists. The writings which embodied this dis-
cipline were the so-called " surnma of cajses of
conscience " (summts casuum consdenHa). Of
these the most ancient was compiled in the thir-
teenth century by Raymond of Pefiaforte (printed
at Lyons, 1719). There then followed a good many
such writings while scholasticism was approaching
the term of its decay through the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. The most renowned of these
8umm<Bf which are usually designated in brief by
the author's name or birthplace, are the following:
the Asteaana (printed 1468, and often); PisaneUc
(written 1338; printed, Paris, 1470); Padfica
(written 0. 1470; printed, Venice, 1576); Rosella;
Angelica; and lastly the one usually known as
I summa summarum : property the compilation
k30
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Castor
Oaawall
tnerely of Sylvester Plierias, which dates from
the beginning of the Reformation period.
As the Reformers revived the Pauline idea of a
free motive power in faith, casuistry proper was
riindamentally set aside, and they even occasion-
ally declared themselves expressly opposed to it
(Calvin, " Institutes," IV. x. 1 sqq.; Luther, Reaol i.
concl, Ecc., n.). Existing conditions nevertheless
gave rise to a certain evangelical ooimterpart to
the Roman Catholic casuistry. The Reformatory
movement introduced a multitude of new problems
in morality. So in difficult contingencies people
frequently appealed for enlightenment to the
Reformers and other persons of esteem, or in
turn to the theological faculties. In this way the
collected letters of Luther and Calvin,
Casuistry as well as Melanchthon's counsels
in Protes- (Berathaehlagimgen, etc., issued by
tantism. Petsel, 1601), have furnished copious
illustrations at large in the matter of
evangelical resolutions of conscience. The sys-
tematic collections of faculty decisions (Thesaurus
ctmsUiorum, etc., by Dedekenn; Gerhard's In
richtigerer Ordnung, 1676) even early denote the
transition to a distinctive evangelical casuistry.
The more legalizing spirit of the post-Reformation
era became thus practically effective. Even here,
however, the various particular moral transactions
were not viewed, in their development, as in the
Roman Catholic casuistry, but as fruits of faith,
of knowledge in part, and of the life according to
the spirit of Christ. The Reformed theology took
precedence in the elaboration of casuistry. The
first treatise of this kind is that of the Cambridge
professor William Perkins (d. 1602; see Perkins,
William), Decisions of Certain Cases (originally
in English; Latin by Mager, 1603), of a strict
Puritan tone. A similar book of kindred thought
was written by his pupil the Scotchman William
Ames (De eonscienHa, Amsterdam, 1630). Some-
what prior to this, the German theologian Alstedt
had published a work on casuistry (Theologia
casuum, Hanover, 1621). But although he rep-
resented casuistry as a singularly important science,
there were in the Reformed Church only a
few English theologians that still espoused caa-
uistry. The first Lutheran work on casuistry
grew out of lectures delivered by Professor Baldwin
at Wittenberg in opposition to the Roman Catholic
casuistry, and with the design of systematically
setting forth the import of the faculty's opinions.
His manuscript was published after his death by
the Wittenberg Theological Faculty (TraeUUus de
casHms conscienHce, Frankfort, 1659). Of the
remaining Lutheran writings of this nature, there
should still be noted the works of Dannhauer (1679),
Bechmann (1692), and Johannes Olearius (1699).
Pietism, although Spener's views on moral ques-
tions {Tkeoloffische Bedenken, 1700; Leizte iheo-
logische Bedenken j 1711) have a casuistical tone,
still contributed not a little to the shelving of cas-
uistry, in that it deepened the imderstand[ing with
reference to the interdependency of the Christian's
total transactions with his religious-mond basic
intmtions. After Buddeus in his moral theology
had shown casuistry to be superfluous, only isolated
works on the subject appeared in the Lutheran
Church.
In the Roman Catholic Church, on the contrary,
the ethics of the Jesuits came to be out and out
easiustical. And even t^art from them, in that
quarter, casuistry was cultivated (cf. P. Lambertini,
Casus conscienticB, Augsburg, 1763; S. Sobiech,
Compendium theologia moralis, Breslau, 1822).
F. SiBFFERT.
BiBUooaAPHT: F. D. Maurice, The Conaeienee: Leetuns
on CannUry, London, 1872; K. F. StAudlin, OtachidUB
dmr ehruUidiMn Moral, Gfitiingen, 1806; W. M. L. de
Wette, Chrigaichs SUtenUhre, vol. ii., part 2, Berlin, 1821;
S. Pike and 8. Hayward, Rdiounu Ctuet cf Coiueienoe,
new ed., Philadelphia, 1850; C. Beard, Port Royal, pp.
262-201, London. 1861; J. Cook, The Coiueierux, Boa-
ton, 1870; W. Oaoa, Ge$eh%chl0 der chrUUidien Bthik, i.. ii.,
parts 1-2, Berlin, 1881-87; W. T. Daviaon, The Chrit-
tian ConaeUnee, a CorUribuHon to Ethiet, London, 1888;
C. E. Luthardt. GMchichle der chrUUichen Ethik, 2 vols..
Leipsie, 1888-^. Many of the treatiaee on ethics deal
with the subject of casuistry.
CASUS RESERVATI ("Reserved Cases"): In
the Roman Catholic Church, cases in which abso-
lution can be given only by a priest specially author-
ised. The practise of such reservation is defended
on the ground that Christ granted the power of
absolution only to the apostles and their successors
(John zz. 21-23), and that the pope and bishops
have thus the right to reserve to themselves as
much of this power as in their judgment the good
of the Church requires. This view is formally
sanctioned by the Council of Trent (Sess. XIV.,
cap. vii., de pcmitentia, 11). The cases in question
are ** certain graver cases of offense," ** certain
more atrocious and graver offenses " — grave external
sins, definitely completed and specifically deter-
mined by the legislator, i.e., by the pope or bishop.
The details were gradiially fixed in practise. Or-
dinarily speaking, the popes reserved to themselves
only sins for which excommunication was the pen-
alty, from which only the apostolic see could re-
lease the culprit, though there are some to which
this did not apply. The principal instances are
those named in the bull In caena Domini (q.v.).
Where, in these cases, the sin is not matter of public
knowledge, the bishops are allowed to absolve (in
person or by deputy) in foro conscienHce ; and other
cases reserved to the pope are placed in their juris-
diction by their quinquennial faculties (see Fac-
ULTiBs). The constitution ApostoliccB sedis of Pius
IX. (1869) gives predse details on the different
classes of reserved cases at the present day. The
cases reserved to the bishops vary according to the
locality; in general, they include a number of the
graver sins, certain forms of unchastity, homicide,
breach of the seal of confession by priests, etc.
Bishops commonly depute their powers over a
number of these cases to subordinates, either per-
manently or for special seasons. In all kinds of
reserved cases, however, a penitent may be ab-
solved by any priest in case of urgent necessity,
such as approaching death. (E. Friedbero.)
Bibuooraprt: M. Hausmann, CfsediiehU der pApeUichen
ReeerpatflkUe, New York, 1868: H. C. Lea. Hietory of
AurietUar Confeeeion and indulgenoee in the LaHn Church,
I 312 sqq., Philadelphia, 1890.
CASWALLy EDWARD: Hymn-writer; b. at
Yateley (35 m. w.b.w. of London), Hampshire, July
Oataoomba
Oataoheaia
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
44£
15, 1814; d. at the Oratory, Edgbaston, near
Biimingliam, Jan. 2, 1878. He studied at Braae-
noee College, Oxford (B.A., 1836; M.A., 1838); was
curate of Stratford-sub-Castle, near Salisbury,
184(M7; in 1850 he joined the Oratory of St.
Philip Neri under Newman, to whose influence his
conversion to Roman Catholicism was due. He
wrote original poems, but Lb best known for his
translations from the Roman breviary and other
Latin sources, which are marked by faithfulness
to the original and purity of rhythm. They were
published in Lyra Caiholica, containing all ths
breviary and missal hymns (London, 1849); The
Masque of Mary (1858); and A May Pageant
(1865). Hymns and Prose (1873) is the three
books combined with many of the hymns rewritten
or revised.
CATACOHBS. See Cbhxterieb, I.; II., 3; III., 1.
CATAFALQUE: A structure erected to repre-
sent a corpse lying in state, decorated with em-
blems of mourning (also called tumba, castrum
doloris). The custom of erecting such structures
arose in the Catholic Church when the corpse of
the deceased was no longer brought into the church,
where, according to the Roman rite, the office of
the dead, the requiem-mass, and the Libera were
to be sung, before the interment. The object of
the cataf^que was to keep the older custom in
mind, and to add greater solemnity to the service
The bier is covered with black hangings, and sur-
rounded with lights. The officiating priest sprin-
kles it with holy water, as a s3rmbol of the purifying
blood of Christ and the water of eternal life, and
then censes it as a token of honor to the body of
the deceased, which has been the temple of the
Holy Ghost, and as a symbol of the prayers for the
departed soul which are to go up as a sweet savor
before the Lord.
CA-TAL'DTJS: According to legend, a native of
Ireland and bishop there of a place called Rachan,
otherwise unknown. He is said to have made a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to have been directed
in a vision to preach the Gospel to the heathen at
Tarentum. With signs and wonders he performed
his mission, became bishop of Tarentum or even
archbishop, and converted the entire region before
his death. The historical fact which underlies
the legend is probably that a pious Irishman
named Cataldus or Cathaldus ( ^ Cathal or Cathald,
a real Irish name) preached in Lower Italy. His
time can not be earlier than the sixth or seventh
century. The veneration of Cataldus begins in
the early Middle Ages. His relics were discovered
in 1071, and many churches are dedicated to him
in Lower Italy, and also in France, where he is
honored as St. Carthauld or St. Catas. He is
commemorated on Mar. 8, May 8, and May 10,
the last being the day of his death according to the
Martyrologium Romanum,
(O. ZdCKLERf.)
Bibliography: A SB, May, ii. 56^-677; J. Colgan, Ada
•ancUmun veterU et majoria ScoHm aive Hibemimt pp.
544-662, Louvain, 1645; Lanigaa, Ecd. Hist, iii. 121-
128; J. Healy. intula Sanctorum, pp. 457-465, Dublin,
1800.
CATECHESIS, CATECHETICS.
Orisin and Sisnifieation of the Terms (f 1).
Divergent ViewB of the Object of CktJichMin (f 2).
Tnw Aim of Oateohesb (f 3).
Methods of Oatechesis (f 4).
Praetical Application of Cateeheais (f 5).
Relation of Cateohesis to ConfirmAtioa (| 6).
The education which the Christian Church im-
parts to its immature members through its dioss
servants, and the theory of this education, is caOed
catechesis. The Greek word kaUchein, laeaa
literally " to sound downwanL" Hippocrate&, om-
necting it with the accusative of the petson. sf-
nified by it the oral instruction which the phjsseb::
imparts to the layman concerning the nature and
treatment of disease. Lucian applied the wm
in a similar sense to the relation of the dram^
poet to his audience. Thus it g;radually came tc«
denote the making of an oral oommunicatio& tc'
another (Acts xxi. 21, 24), or the instructicm d
another. It is used in the sense d
z. Origin religious instruction in Luke L 4
and Signifi- Acts zviii. 25; Rom. ii. 18; I C<?.
cation of xiv. 19; Gal. vi. 6. In ecdeoaftiai
the Terms, usage it signified preparation d
adults for baptism (see Ga-tecbt-
menate). Here instruction waa the piincipd,
but not the only factor; heart, will, and oond&et
were to be influenced. The word catechedi.
therefore, properly covers the whole training gives
by the Church to its children. It is difltingiwhei
from Christian pedagogics in that it funiishes
only an elementary knowledge of Chriatian truth,
while pedagogics leads to a detailed and adentific
knowledge.
In the ancient C!hurch ecdesiaatical educati<iB
began as soon as a heathen announced his willing-
ness to be received into the Church. He was then
accepted among the catechumens and bore the
name of Christian. Nowadays Christian educa-
tion is concerned no longer primarily with the
heathen, but with the childien of Christiana Tbey
are baptized in infancy, on condition that their
parents promise to give them a Christian educadcm.
Moreover, the baptised, when they come to yean
of discretion, must evince a desire for the ble»-
ingB of the Church, and give promise of Christiaa
conduct.
It is more difficult to define the aim of eccle-
siastical education. This can not be intellectual
only; for catechesis is to lead to Christian feeling,
to a Christian formation of will and conduct. Nor
is it merely to inculcate obedience to the teach-
ings and commandments of the Church; for
catechesis is intended to lead to personal convic-
tion. Others have considered qualification for the
Lord's Supper as its aim, but this definition hep
the question; for who is really qualifif>i
a. Diver- for the Lord's Supper? Others regard
gent ViewB living faith as the aim of Christian edu-
of the cation; but children of Christian par-
Object of ents can not be regarded as unbelievers.
Catechesis. They come from Christian surround-
ings and possess already a certain un-
conscious faith in God and the Savior; ecclesiastical
education is rather to confirm this implicit faith
and develop it into Christian conviction and conduct
441
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oataoombfc
Cateohesls
Thus faith is the presuppositioQ of ecclesiastical
education, but not its aim. As to what this really
is, Scripture does not give a definite answer; the
distinction, however, between immature and mature
Christians (I Cor. iii. 1; Eph. iv. 13; Heb. v. 12)
brings nearer to a solution of the problem. There
is a childlike faith in the Lord which is still ignorant
and without a firm hold, and there is a faith of the
adult who has attained a convinced knowledge of
Christian truth and a certain perfection in Christian
conduct. Whoever of his own will and upon the
basis of his faith seeks conununion with Christ
in the means of grace and in prayer is mature,
and ecclesiastical education exists for the purpose
of attaining that maturity. It is evident that no
definite age can be laid down for such
3. True Aim an attainment, because faith and
of Christian conduct are based upon
Catechesis. moral freedom. Maturity depends
altogether upon the individual, and
can not be affirmed of any one because the heart
can not be read. On that account every person
must be considered matiu« who possesses a suf-
ficient knowledge of Christian truth and who
promises to lead a Christian life. Maturity is, there-
fore, more than a qualification for the reception of
the Lord's Supper; a child of ten years may have
the faith and knowledge necessary for receiving
the sacrament in a becoming manner, but he is not
mature. Ecclesiastical education must be con-
tinued after the first communion. This further
growth may be gradually attained by the contin-
uation of Christian fellowship in the family and
in the Church; but since this, imder the conditions
of modem life, is not always applicable, theologians
usually lay down the necessity of special institu-
tions whose educational work shall continue until
the attaiimient of maturity.
Instruction is the principal although not the only
means of education. ReUgious instruction is first
and foremost instruction of the heart, intended to
lead to a knowledge of God. But this knowledge
is based upon irmer experiences, and these expe-
riences again have their foundation in observation.
God has revealed himself in nature, but more com-
pletely in the spiritual life. This, as manifested in
Christ, is the perfect revelation of God; and as the
record of this life is foimd in Holy Scripture, the
Bible is the principal book of instruction. Owing
to the wealth of material contained therein, it has
been considered advisable to condense and select
certain stories specially adapted for the young
without paying particular attention to
4. Methods their cormection as a whole. From
of this book of stories the pupil is grad-
Catechesis. ually led to the Bible itself. He is to
memorise certain passages and read
different portions of it in order to penetrate its
spirit and attain practise in its use. The Gospels,
some historical sections of the Old Testament, and
the Psalms are best adapted for this purpose.
Another source of material for religious instruction
is found in the Church hymns, which awaken relig-
ious sentiment and enable the pupil to participate
intelligently in public worship. After the pupil has
acquired a number of religious tmths from the
selections or from the Bible itself, it is possible to
present these truths in their most concise form and
in their connection. This Ib necessary in order
to give the pupil a clear survey of the Christian
truths and to strengthen his conviction. Such an
epitome is given in the catechism. The part of
it longest in use is the Apostles' Creed; next fol-
lowed the Lord's Prayer, and in the Middle Ages
the decalogue was added as a basis of instruction,
to give a proper understanding of sin. These three
articles form the main portions of the Evangelical
catechism; from the law the pupil learns the great-
ness of his sin, in the creed he professes his faith
in the means of salvation from it, and in the Lord's
Prayer he expresses his longing for Christian con-
duct as a disciple of Christ. Since the immediate
aim of religious instruction is participation in the
Lord's Supper, the doctrine of the sacrament forms
the fourth division of the Catechism. This is the
order of the Reformation catechisms; and though
objections have been made to it, they may be
shown to be unfounded.
As the catechist has not only to commimicate
knowledge, but to move the heart and will, the
instmction must be oral and personal. No book
ought to be used in religious instruction, except
the Bible at the time fixed for reading it. Biblical
stories, hymn-books, and catechisms are only aids
to be used at home. As children like to hear
stories, the teacher should begin his instruction
with telling them. Verses of hymns, texts and
answers from the catechism are to be used mainly
in illustration of the Biblical story. As the child's
attention is attracted only a short time by the talk
of the teacher, his interest has to be retained by
asking him questions. There is a distinction made
between analytical and synthetical instmction.
In analytical instmction the material is ready at
hand, as in the Biblical story, in Scripture-reading,
and hymns, and the religious tmth is developed
from it. In synthetical instruction only the theme
is given, as m the catechism and Bible texts, and
the material has to be gathered elsewhere.
Owing to the amount of material, religious in-
struction must be spread over several years. In
the German system it covers eight, during the first
four of which the Bible story forms the basis of in-
stmction. In the fifth year hymns are treated in
connection with the church year, and Bible-reading
and instruction in the catechism are begun. The
pupils receive practise in the use of the Bible, and
some portions of the historical books are read
in connection with the Biblical stories. The deca-
logue, the creed, and the Lord's Prayer are briefly
explained and thus stamped upon the memory.
The last two years place Bible-reading and the
catechism in the foregroimd. The instmction
should be imparted by both pastor and teacher.
It is advisable that the pastor should instmct the
pupils at least two years; he should confine him-
self mainly to the catechism in connection with
Bible-reading, and leave the Biblical stories and
hymns to the teacher. On any arrangement it is
essential that pastor and teacher should work in
harmony, each with an e3re to the special instmction
imparted by the other.
Oateoheaia
Oataobiams
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
442
As religioufl education addresses itself to the
heart as well as to the mind, the cultivation of the
former is not less the duty of the catechist. Com-
mon devotional exercises are held, consisting of the
singing of hymns, reading of Scripture, and an ex-
tempore prayer by the teacher. Moreover, observ-
ance of Sunday and regular attend-
5. Practical anoe on the Church services should
Application be required of the children. As the
of sermons at those services can not be
Catechesis. sufficiently grasped by younger chil-
dren, special services are to be arranged
for them. With the religious practise moral prac-
tise must go hand in hand. Order, diligence,
modesty, obedience, truth, and other virtues must
be inculcated.
While the pupil must be taught obedience and
respect, the teacher should not be immoderate and
unjust in his demands or irascible. If he shows
the least partiality or injustice, he weakens his
authority. Reproof should come before punish-
ment, and should be made to suffice as long as
possible, so that the teacher shall not come too
soon to the end of his resources. Older scholars
should be won by private exhortation where neces-
sary, and led to self-examination and self-judg-
ment, so that they may find the path of goodness
for themselves.
Christianity as a spiritual religion demands a
definite religious conviction and moral sentiment.
The Christian Church, therefore, receives as mem-
bers only those who make their confession of faith
and promise Christian conduct. In the early
Church a profession of faith and a vow were made
before baptism, and the first communion followed
after it. When infant baptism became general,
the need was felt of bringing in this profession and
vow later as a preliminary to the first communion.
In this way originated the rite of confirmation
(q.v.) in the Protestant churches. Confirmation
is not a declaration of maturity. The faith of a
child may be of such a kind as to
6. Relation admit him or her to the Lord's Sup-
of per, but not yet to a life that may
Catechesis dispense with all further religious
to Confir- aid. The profession and the vow
must be spontaneous, they must pro-
ceed from the candidate's own moral
decision; therefore, the child should not be forced to
confirmation at a fixed age. The custom of con-
mation.
firming children as a matter of course at the age of
fourteen has led to insincerity ajid hypocrisy, ani
it is the duty of the Church to check it as mir^
as possible, which can to a certain extent be
accomplished by emphasizing the purely volununr
character of the act, and by having an interveniaz
time between the examination in religious knovi-
edge and the profession of faith.
If the confirmed are still immature in the r^gio:is
sense, their education must be continued. TLe
influence of the Christian home and of chuira
fellowship are hardly sufficient for this. Our an-
cestors in both the Lutheran and the Refonned
churches demanded that the children should ccsi-
tinue to participate, even after their first commu-
nion, in the regular catechetical instruction of tbe
Church until their eighteenth year or until tfcd:
marriage. These customs have disappeared is
the last century because confirmed children h^vt
been considered mature, but this is a grave mistake.
in view of the diminution of wholesome familj
influence and the observance of Sunday, and tL<
reform of these conditions is an urgent necesiitj
of our modem Church. (£. Sachsse.)
The preceding article is written from the staaJ-
point of a subject of Germany, where Church and
State are united and religious instruction is con^
quently a part of the curriculum of the schoot>.
A treatment of catechetics from a more geneni
point of view is given by impUcation in Catechismi
(q.v.).
Bibuoorapht: The bibliographies under Catkchh^hs •at'
Catechumen ATB should be consulted; C. I. Nitzt>ch,
Praktiaehe Theaiooie, ii. 133-235. Bonn. 1860; C. Pabn^^r.
Evangaitehs KatecKeHk, Stuttgart, 1875; R. Kubd, Kaii-
chstik. Barmen, 1877; J. G. Wenham. The Caieehumn,
London, 1881; E. Daniel. How to Ttatk Ihe Churtk Caie-
chum, ib. 1882; T. Hamaek. Kateeheiik, Erlangen. ISSJ:
8. J. Hulme. PrineiplM of the Caiechitm of the Churrh ^
England, Stow-on-the-Wold, 1882; N. Haas. Wie toU der
ReligioneUhrer dffenUieh katechUiennf RegenaburK. 1SS5.
E. Bather. Hinta on Ae Art of Caiechieing, London. 1888;
K. Buchruoker, Orundlinien dee kirchlithen. Kattehiemsit,
Berlin. 1880; J. £. Denison. Caiechieing on the Caieehifsi,
London. 1880; F. A. P. Dupanloup. The Minis^ <?f
Caiechieing, ib. 1801; P. Schaff. Thedogical Propadn^,
xwrt ii.. pp. 500-504. New York. 1803; K. ScfaultK.
Evangelied^ VolkeeAuikunde, Gotha. 1803; G. R. Crooks
and J. F. Hurst, Theoiogieal EneycLoptedia^ pp. 514-S^
New York, 1804; E. Sachsse, Die Lehre von der hirdir
lichen Enithung, Berlin, 1807; E. 0. Achelia, Prakhtche
Theologiet ii. 1-176, Leipaic. 1808; J. Latkemann. An-
leUung xur Kaiediiemueldtrej Hermannaburs. 1898; R.
Staude, Der Kaiedtiemueunterrit^ Pr^iparaHonen^ 3 voJa..
Dresden, lOOO-Ol.
CATECHISMS.
I, The Middle Ages.
Need of Catechetical Instruction
(§1).
Influence of Confession ({ 2).
Pre-Reformation Catechisms ({3).
IL The Post-Reformation Period.
Early Lutheran Catechisms ({ 1).
Gradual Supremacy of Luther's
Smaller Catechism ((-2).
Early Catechisms Based on Luther's
Work (5 3).
Orthodox and Pietistic Catechisms England ({ 13).
({ 4). France ({ 14).
Catechisms are written or printed summaries
of the principal doctnnes of the Christian faith, in-
t<?nded for the instruction of the uoleamed and the
the
Rationalistic Catechisms of
Eighteenth Century ({ 5).
Modem German Lutheran Cate-
chisms ({ 6).
Modem German Reformed Cate-
chisms ({ 7).
Switxerland ({ 8).
Austria-Hungary ({ 0).
Slavic Countries ({ 10).
Scandinavian Countries ({ 11).
Holland (S 12).
Italy (J 15).
American Lutheran Gafeeehisns
(I 16).
Tbe Moravians and Bobeoaiu
Brethren ({ 17).
Methodist Catechisms (S IS).
Baptist and Irvingite Catechisms
(I 10).
Unitarian Catechisms (§ 20).
Roman Catholic and Old Catholie
Catechisms ({ 21).
The Greek Church (§ 22).
yoimg. These formal aids to systematic instniction
are of comparatively modem growth. For the sys-
tem of the primitive Church, see Catechxjmenats.
443
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oateoheaia
Oatechisma
L The Middle Ages: The beginningiB of modem
catechetical inBtruction, as to the development
of which see Catechesis, Catechetics, are foimd
principally in the Geimanic Churches. Here, as
in primitive days and for the same reason, it orig-
inally addressed itself chiefly to adults. Some-
times whole tribes had been converted to Christi-
anity in which the individuals did not possess the
most elementary knowledge of the Christian faith,
and it was necessary to impart by further teaching
what had been neglected at the time of baptism.
The Anglo-Saxon Church, and afterward Charle-
magne, under the influence of his Anglo-Saxon
adviser Alcuin, decreed that every baptized person
should know by heart the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer. But the rising generation was not left
altogether out of view. There was from the begin-
ning an indefinite feeling among the Teutonic
Churches that the Church, by its acceptance of
infant baptism, was bound to care for the instruc-
tion of the children thus brought into
o ^^ ^' ^^ '°^^' ^* ^^ naturally impossible,
^!^T *" "* ^®^ ^^ *^® widely scattered parishes
struotion *"^^ *'^® necessity of instruction being
almost exclusively oral, to imdertake
the actual teaching; but the need was to some
extent indirectly met by the requirement that no
sponsor should present a child for baptism without
being able to recite the Creed and the Lord's Prayer,
and that sponsors should teach the same articles
to their godchildren.
Another influence that helped to enforce a certain
amoimt of Christian knowledge was the system of
regular confession, especially after an annual con-
fession was made obligatory by the Fourth Lateran
Council of 1215. With the act of confession was
usually connected a recitation of the articles which
the sponsors were supposed to have impressed upon
their godchildren. The system further led to an
enlargement of the scope of regular instruction.
As the Creed and the Lord's Prayer
ofOon't^ *^*^^y ^°™®^ * suitable basis for the
fesaion. confession of sins, there originated
lists of the sins which required .eccle-
siastical penance; and these, with corresponding
lists of virtues, were often ordered to be learned
by heart; in this connection the decalogue was
redeemed from obUvion. It became a regular
practise to preach sermons on the Ten Conmiand-
ments in Lent, the most usual time for confession;
and thus catechetical preaching developed. The
reformers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
such as Gerson and Geiler von Kaisersberg, were
strong advocates of these sermons on the foimda^
tions of Christian doctrine. The Ave Maria was
included among the articles to be learned, and came
to take equal rank with the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer. The tendency was to enlarge the material,
though some attempts were made, on the other
hand, to condense it; thus Johann Wolf of Frank-
fort showed that all the articles used in confession
could be traced to the decalogue. He also laid
special emphasis upon the religious instruction of
youth in a period when the councils of the Church
paid no particular attention to it as a distinct
branch of church work. The beginning of a refor-
mation in this respect was the work of humanists
like Jakob Wimpheling and Erasmus. Colet in
England drew up a manual of religious instruction
imder the title of Catechyzon for the boys of St.
Paul's School, which Erasmus put
3. Pre-Bef- into Latin hexameters, thereby per-
ormation haps giving the impulse to Petrus
Catochlama. Tritonius to produce a similar work.
Outside, however, of such efforts,
which were rather scholastic than ecclesiastical,
catechisms in the modem sense, or compilations
of the principal articles of faith for children, were
practically imknown to the medieval Church.
There were, indeed, such compilations for the
clergy, which with the invention of printing began
to circulate widely among the laity. The Tafd dea
chrUUichen Leberu (c. 1480) is in more ways than
one a direct predecessor of Luther's smaller cate-
chism, but a comparison shows the characteristic
difference between the medieval and the Evan-
gelical Church. In the Catholic table are foimd
numerous pieces without any explanatory word,
sacred formulas that were frequently repeateii
without comprehension; in Luther's catechism
appear the five main articles, with the emphasis
laid upon the explanation. Great importance was
attached to the religious instruction of youth by
the Bohemian Bretl^n and the Waldenses. The
InterrogacUms menora of the Waldenses date from
the end of the fifteenth, or at least from the begin-
ning of the sixteenth, century. The Kinderfragen
of the Bohemian Brethren are still older, since they
served as a model for the IrUerrogaciona.
IL The Post-Reformation Period: From the
beginning of the Reformation care was taken to
provide for the religious instruction of youth.
Almost simultaneously the two places where the
movement had its origin established institutions
which were followed as models; in 1521 Johann
Agricola was appointed catechist at Wittenberg,
and in 1522 systematic instruction of youth in the
Christian faith was established in Zurich in place
of the Roman confirmation.
Luther's popular expositions of the Ten Com-
mandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer,
especially his Kurze Form and his Betbuchleirif are
not catechisms in the proper sense of the word,
but rather prepared the way for them.
1. Early Several adaptations of the Kinder-
Lutheran fragen of the Bohemian Brethren,
Oataohlama. German translations of Melanchthon's
Enchiridion and Scholia^ and numer-
ous other compilations of the Christian truth
adapted for children show the demand for an Evan-
gelical text-book. Toward the end of 1524 Justus
Jonas and Agricola were ordered to write such a
book; they did not execute their commission, but
toward the end of 1525 there was published the
Buchlein fur die Laien und Kinder (possibly by
Bugenhagen), which provisionally at least supplied
the want. About the same time Luther urged, in
his Deutsche Meaae^ the introduction of religious
instruction for children. His appeal called forth
numerous expositions of the articles of faith, and
in many places systematic teaching was begun.
In 1529 Luther published his Smaller Catechism
Cl>tiw)*** *"* "
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
444
(sometimes known as Enchiridum), and with it
the material of the catechism was firmly estab-
lished for the future (see Luthsr'b Two Catb-
cbismb). In some places, especially under the
influence of the Nuremberg Kinderpredigten (1533),
the power of the keys was added as a sixth article,
and is still used as such in some of the churches
of Germany.
At first Luther's catechism was merely one among
several others, though it was almost universally
adopted in both parts of Saxony, in Brandenburg,
and in Pomerania. Apart from manuals produced
under the influence of the Swiss theology, like
those of Leo Jud and Bullinger, there are others
which follow Luther's doctrine, among them Kaspar
L6wer's Unterricht dea Olauberu (1529), Johann
Brens's FragestUcke (1535), which is still used in
Wttrttemberg, Butler's catechisms for Strasburg
(1534 and 1537), and others. It was only by
degrees that Luther's work assumed the supremacy
over other catechisms of the same tendency, until
it finally attained the importance of a standard of
doctrine. It was treated as such for
2. Oradnjal ^^® ^'^^ ^^® ^ ^^^ ^ ^^® articles
Supremaoy o^ LOneburg, where it had its place
of Luther's beside the Augsburg Confession, the
Smaller Apology, and the Schmalkald Articles
Oafchlsm. (see Corpus Doctrine). It attained
a still stronger position in contradis-
tinction to the Heidelberg Catechism (q.v.). The
latter, which from the first was considered in the
light of a confession of faith, was compiled in 1563
by Olevianus and Ursinus from the catechisms of
Leo Jud and Bullinger, from the Emden cate-
chism of 1554, from Calvin's catechism of 1542
(see below), and from two catechisms used among
Low-Oerman emigrant churches of the sixteenth
century, and was soon introduced in all countries
where the Reformed faith prevailed. In 1580 the
Smaller Catechism was included in the Book of
Concord, and took rank everywhere as the corre-
sponding standard of Lutheran doctrine. While
the Heidelberg Catechism, as the more compre-
hensive work, retained everywhere its old form,
Luther's Endiiridion formed frequently only the
basis for fuller expositions, in connection, e.g., with
Brenz's Fragutucke of 1535 and a booklet printed
in 1549 at Erfurt under Luther's name, though
really compiled by Johann Lang, entitled Frcbge-
Hacke fur die, so turn Sacrament gehen wdllen.
No little influence on the development of a
traditional form for catechisms was exercised by
the Latin ones prepared for the Latin schools.
The material of these, based partly
8. Barly upon the Loci of Melanchthon, grew
Oateohlsmato such an extent that they al-
Baaod on most formed regular dogmatic works.
Luther's Among the catechisms which origi-
Work. nated from such sources on the basis
of Luther's Encheiridion the Kleiner
Cateehiemua D. M. Lutheri by Nicolaus Herco (1554)
shows a fairiy definite form already assumed by the
development. A wider circulation was attained
by the Frageetucke of Bartholomseus Rosinus
(1580). The first regular catechism with expo-
sitions was the Ooldene Kleinod of Johann Tetelbach
(1568); and the first of such to receive official
sanction was the Nuremberg Kinderlehrbiichlein
(1628).
During this whole period catechetical instruction
consisted of nothing more than the memorixing by
the children of the catechisms. Further expla-
nations were left to the catechetical sermons which
gradually became more common, modeled after
Luther's Larger Catechism and the Nuremberg
Kinderpredigten of 1533. Frequently it was de-
cided that the children should be questioned on
these sermons. On the other hand, efforts were
eariy made to guard children against a mechanical
memorizing by making the text intelligible to th^n.
A school edition of the Heidelberg Catechism (1610)
gives four rules in tbjs respect; (1) dif-
4. Orthodox ficult passages are to be explained;
andPietls- (2) a long paragraph is to be con-
tie Oats- densed by the pupil; (3) the text of
oMsms. the catechism is to be analysed by the
teacher, putting questions which the
children have to answer from the text; (4) the
catechism is to be confirmed and proved by Bible
texts and stories. The method laid down in these
rules dominated catechetical instruction until a
late time in the eighteenth century. Orthodox
and pietistic catechists agreed in the use of the
analytical method; but the latter emphasized more
stron^y the cultivation of the heart, and in fonnu-
latlng the questions and answers of the catechism
laid stress upon the practical side of life, as may be
seen from Philipp Jakob Spener's Tabtdce caU-
cheiiccB (Frankfort, 1683). The two principal
pietistic catechisms are Spener's Erkldrung der
ehristlichen Lehre (1677) and the Dresden Kreuz-
Kateehiemue (1688). But even Pietism could not
hinder the gradual degeneration of catechetical
instruction into mere formalism.
A fresh impulse was received from the new methods
introduced by the rationalist school. Starting
from rationalistic premises, Johann Bemhard
Basedow (q.v.) demanded in his Abhandlung vom
Unterricht der Jugend in der Religion (LObeck, 1764)
that children should not be forced to memorise
anything but what they already understood, and
that they should be left to acquire new knowl-
edge only by their own thinking, with
6. Bation- ^^® ^®^P ^^ instructive questions,
alistio Oat- Basedow laid down these views in his
eohismaof catechism for two grades entitled
theBlffht- Orundrisa der Religion, welche durch
aenth Oen- \achdenken und Bibelforechen erkannt
^^* wird (1764). This, which gradually
became known as the Socratic method,
was developed fiuther by Kari Friedrich Bahrdt
in his PhUanthropinischer Erziehungeplan (Frankfort,
1776) and confirmed from the philosophy of Kant
by Johann Friedrich Christian Graeffe in his VoU-
stdndigee Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Katechetik
(G6ttingen, 1799). Its most prominent repre-
sentatives were Johann Peter Miller, Johann Chris-
tian Dolz, and especially Gustav Friedrich Dinter.
With these new ideas new manuals appeared wliich
either dropped altogether the old catechisms bsAed
on the articles of faith or relegated them to an
appendix. Johann Gottfried Herder attempted
445
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ctatteohisma
to explain the smaller catechism of Luther accord-
ing to the new principles (Weimar, 1800). The
ivcak point of the Socratic method is its inseparable
cx>nnection with rationalist theology. Pestalozzi
criticized this method because it tried to elicit
from children what is not in them. Schleiermacher
pointed out that the Socratic method ignored the
revelation of the Christian religion and its history.
Marheinecke, Nitssch, Kraussold, Harms, and Htlf-
f ell followed him in opposition to it. The modem
method of catechizing has retained from the So-
cratic method its feature of development; it does
not, however, consider human reason and natural
religion as the basis of this development, but rather
the docimients of revelation and the history of the
Church.
The catechisms used in the different territories
of Germany are too numerous to mention. In the
territories of the Evangelical Union as well as among
the orthodox Lutherans the Smaller Catechism of
Luther forms the basis of instruction.
^' ^^^f"^ But in accordance with their peculiar
- *Jwa ^^octrines the Unionists have made
Gatecbisma coii<*88ions to the Reformed teach-
* ings, so that their manuals represent
more or less a compromise between Luther's Smaller
Catechism and the Heidelberg Catechism. The
chief country of the Union is Prussia, and here
the consistories in agreement with their respect-
ive provincial synods have selected a nimiber
of compendiums to be used in instruction. Man-
uals of the same sort are foimd in the other
Unionistic territories. Anhalt, Baden, Hesse,
Waldeck, Hanau, the Rhenish Palatinate, Nassau,
and Birkenfeld.
In the distinctively Lutheran territories Luther's
Smaller Catechism is used everywhere, in Hesse in
connection with the so-called Hessiache Frage-
stuckef in WQrttemberg with Brenz's catechism.
The text is at present formulated after the revision
proposed by the Evangelical conference held at
Eisenach in 1882. In the selection of aids to be
used besides the text a certain freedom exiits in
Saxe-Coburg, in the Lutheran Church of Alsace-
Lorraine, in Hamburg, in the Lutheran Church
of the pro^nnce of Hanover, and in Frankfortr-on-
the-Main. In certain places besides the text of
the Smaller Catechism are mostly SpruchbUcherf
that is, collections of Bible texts and hymns.
The use of such books for the explanation of Lu-
ther's catechism has been made obligatory in the
kingdom of Saxony, in Altenburg, Meiningen, the
principalities of Reuss, in Sleswick-Holstein and
Eutin, in Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe. Be-
sides the' Spruchbucher, various expositions of Lu-
ther's catechisms have been introduced, the use of
which has been made obligatory in Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, LObeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Brunswick,
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt, the former coimty of Schaumburg, Weimar,
Bavaria, and in the Free Lutheran Church of
Prussia.
As regards the Reformed territories, the Heidel-
berg Catechism is used in the Reformed Church of
Lippe-Detmold, in the Reformed congregations of
East Friesland, in the former county of Bentheim,
in the synodal district of Bovenden (near GOttingen),
and in the confederation of Reformed Churches in
Lower Saxony. In the Reformed
7. Modem territories of the consistorial district
Oerman Be- of Cassel (Lower Hesse) and in the
formed Cat- synodal district of Hamburg the
eohiama. Hesaischer Landeskatechismus, a Re-
formed revision of Luther's Smaller
Catechism with the Hessische FragestUcke inserted,
is used. In Bremen and in the Reformed Church
of Alsace-Lorraine no special manual for religious
instruction is prescribed.
In Switzerland there appeared at St. Gallen in
1527 a compilation of the Kinderfragen of the
Bohemian Brethren. About the same time (Eoo-
lampadius published his Kinderbericht for Basel.
In 1534 Leo Jud published his catechism for
Zurich. An epitome of it followed in the next
year, which in 1598 was declared obligatory to the
exclusion of the catechisms of Heinrich Bullinger
(1550) and Burckhardt Leemann (1583), and was
introduced also in Orisons and Schaffhausen. In
1536 Kaspar Grossmann (Megander)
8. Switaer- revised Jud's catechism for Bern; as
land. in the course of time it was made to
serve the views of Zwingli, it had to
be revised anew, and in this form became known
as the Bern Catechism. These old catechisms were
either superseded or influenced by the Heidelberg
Catechism. The Zurich Catechism of 1609, the
work of Marcus Bftumlein, originated in a combi-
nation of the Heidelberg Catechism with those used
in Zurich. It was introduced in different cantons
and used imtil 1839. Under the influence of ration-
alism most of the cantons adopted new catechisms
between 1830 and 1850. Basel took the lead in
1832, then followed Zurich with a new catechism
(1839). In French Switzerland Calvin's CaU-
ehismua Genevenaia (1542) was used at the beginning.
In the canton of Vaud it was replaced in 1552 by
a translation of the Bern Catechism, which gave
way to that of Heidelberg in the eighteenth cen-
tury. In 1734 there appeared in Geneva the small
catechism of Jean Fr^^ric Osterwald, which, after
revision, was also adopted in Vaud. About 1620
Stephen Gabriel, pastor at Ilanz, compiled a cate-
chism for the Romance districts which remained
in use even after a translation of Osterwald's cate-
chism had appeared. But entire freedom exists
as to the choice of religious manuals in Switseriand.
In many cases the individual preachers write their
own books of instruction.
Since the edict of toleration of Joseph II., the
Lutheran Church in Austria has used Luther's
Smaller Catechism and the Reformed Church the
Heidelberg Catechism. According to the consti-
tution of the Evangelical Church in Austria, all
further guides in religious iastruction have to be
sanctioned by the Evangelical Supreme Church
Council in Vienna, and approved by
9. Austria- the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs
Hungary, and public instruction. Some of the
approved manuals are, in German,
Buchrucker's and Emesti's editions of Luther's
Smaller Catechism, in Bohemian that of Molmar.
Among those approved for the Reformed Church
Oateohisms
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
446
may be mentioned the enlarged German edition of
the Heidelberg Catechism by Frana (Vienna, 1868),
and the Bohemian by Von Tardy (Prague, 1867),
and by Vesely (1885). In Hungary and Transyl-
vania the same conditions exist as in Austria.
In the Baltic provinces of Russia an Esthonian
translation of the Smaller Catechism seems to have
appeared as early as in 1553. In 1586 a Lettish
translation by J. Rivius was printed at Kdnigsberg.
It was revised in 1689 by E. GlUck and used a long
time among the Lettish congregations of Livonia.
Another by H. Adolphi i^peared in
10. Slavlo 1685 and found a large circulation in
Oountrles. Courland. In accordance with a reso-
lution of the Synod of Livonia and
Courland in 1898, a new Lettish standard text
has been established (Riga* 1898), which has sup-
planted all earlier translations. An Esthonian
exposition of the Smaller Catechism was intro-
duced in Esthonia in 1673 as the official catechism,
and used almost exclusively until 1866. The
catechism of Martin KOrber (1864), modeled after
the official catechism of Neustrelits, has found a
considerable circulation. The Germans in the
Baltic provinces also produced nimierous inter-
pretations of their own; Jodocus Hoist, EinfdlHffe
Attalegung des Kleinen KaUckismua LtUhen (Riga,
1596); Immanuel von Essen, ChrisUiche KfUechis-
musubung (1781); Werbatus, Dr, Martin Luthera
Kleiner Katechismua (1895); and many others.
For the Lutheran congregations of Poland there
has been recently approved McUy Katechizm Doh-
tora Marcina Lutra (Lublin, 1900). It is an expo-
sition of the Smaller Catechism by Alexander
Schdnaich, preacher at Lublin. An official text
of the Smaller Catechism has been published for the
RussianHspeaking Lutherans (St. Petersburg, 1865).
The first catechetical writings in Sweden were
a working-over of Luther's Betbiichlein, a translar-
tion of the revision of the Kinderfragen of the
Bohemian Brethren published at Magdeburg in
1524, and a translation of the Handbhchlein fur
junge Christen by Johann Toltz. The Smaller Cat&-
chinn was translated by Laurentius Petri into
Swedish perhaps as early as 1548; the oldest
extant copy dates from 1572. In 1595 the Smaller
Catechism v/as officially introduced,
11. Soandl- but came into general use only after
navian the Church Order of 1686. An official
Oountrles. translation of Luther's Larger Cate-
chism dates from 1746. The expo-
sition of the Smaller by Olaf Swebelius, which had
been in use for some time, was revised in 1811 by
Archbishop J. Axel Lindblom and introduced as an
official catechism. In 1843 a new revision ap-
peared, but in 1878 the Doktor M&rien Luthers
Lilla Katekes med kort tUveckling, stad/det af kon-
tingen den 11. Oktober 1878 took its place and is
still used. In 1532 the Smaller Catechism was trans-
lated into Danish by Jorgen Jensen Sadolin. In 1537
there appeared almost simultaneously two further
translations. Den lUle danake Catechi/nnus by Frans
Wormodson and Luthera liUe Katektsmus by Petrus
Palladius. The latter was republished in 1538 as
Enchiridion sive Manuale lU vocamt and officially
recognized. H. P. Petersen edited the Latin text
of the Smaller Catechism side by side with a Danish
translation for the use of schools (1608). In ItLT
he used the Danish text for a miunial destined for
popular instruction. The text deviates frequently
from the original, and these variants have crepc
into other compilations modeled after it. It re-
tained its authority in Denmark until 1813. in
Norway imtil 1843. The standard work for Nor-
way is at present Dr, M, Luthers lAUe Kaieki^mut
(9th ed., Christiania, 1897), and for Denmaik
C. F. Balslev's Luthers Kaiekiemus meden koH
Forklaring (Copenhagen, 1899).
In the Dutch Reformed Church absolute free-
dom exists in the choice of guides to be used is
^ religious instruction. Besides the Gt-
j^^ " neva and Heidelberg catechisms, Abra-
ham Hellenbroek's Vorbeeld der god-
delyke Waarheden has been used.
The Established Church of England usoi tcMiaj
the catechism from the Book of Common Prajer.
with but slight changes from the original form of
1 552. An exposition of it by John Palmer (Londcm,
1894) shows the text of the original catechism in
prominent type and provides each individual para-
graph with an introduction. The Congr^ational-
ists have also adopted the catechism of the Estab-
lished Church, but besides this they use a manual
by Samuel Palmer, A Catechism for Protestant
18 Bnff- J^^w»««<«^ (London, 1772, 29th ed.,
•J^T^" 1890), which contains a brief history
of non-conformity and treats of the
reasons for it. In the Sunday-schools the Gcmgre-
gationalists use a catechism by J. Hilton Stowell
revised by A. M. Fairbaim (1892). The Presby-
terian Church of England and the Church of Soot-
land have accepted the Westminster Catechism as
the basis of their instruction. It is divided into
the doctrines we are to believe and the duties we
are to perform (The Moral Law; Faith and Repent-
ance; Sacraments; Prayer). The form of relig-
ious instruction chiefly cultivated in EIngland is
the Sunday-school, for which the Sunday-school
Union furnishes manuals. Dr. Watt's first and
second catedusms have also found a large circu-
lation; the former contains a short survey of the
doctrines of Christian salvation and especially a
catechism on Scriptural names, the latter an inter-
pretation of the decalogue and information on the
sacraments and prayers. Before the catechism of
the Book of Common Prayer appeared, Luther's
Smaller Catechism was used for several years in
England; at the instance of Cranmer the Nuron-
berg Kinderpredigtsn which interpret it was in
1548 translated into En^h under the title A
Short Introduction into the Christian Religion.
In the French Reformed Church Calvin's cate-
chism of 1542 was at one time almost universally
used, later with Osterwald's smaller catechism,
but has now been superseded by Bonnefon's
Nouveau aU^chisme ^Umentaire (14th
14. France, ed., Alais, 1900) and Decoppet's Cate-
chisme popuknre (Paris). Leas popular
are Babut's Cours de religion chritienne (6th ed,.
1897) and Nyegaard's CatSchisme h Vusage des
Sglises evang&iques (13th ed., 1900). The Free
Crhurch uses the same catechisms. In the "f
447
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oateohismfl
de la Confession d' Augsbourg " Luther's Smaller
Catechism has always been in use. The Petit cate-
chisme de Luther (Chateauroux) has added to Lu-
ther's text Bible texts and stories and renders
the Ten Commandments exactly as they are found
in Ex. XX. 1-17, combining the ninth and tenth
commandments and treating the prohibition of the
worship of images as a separate commandment.
Ab a result of the Evangelical movement in
Italy, there originated about 1535 the '' Christian
Instruction for Children " by Juan de
16. Italy. Vald^, apparently first written in
Spanish, but published first in Italian
and then translated into various languages (cf.
the polyglot edition of E. Bdhmer under the title
Instruction cristiana para loa nifiae por Juan de
Valdee, Bonn, 1883). To-day the " Free Church "
uses II catechismo ossia eunto delta dottrina cristiana
secondo la paroladi Dio, by G. P. Meille (Florence,
6th ed., 1895). Of a similar nature are the cate-
chisms used by the Waldenses, Caiechismo delta
Chiesa evangelica Valdese o Manuale d'istruziane
cristiana ad uso dei catecumeni di delta Chiesa (1866)
and Caiechismo evangelica ossia sunto delta dottrina
cristiana (1895).
The Lutherans in the United States use Luther's
Smaller Catechism, which exists in many German,
English, and German-English editions. In the
Synodical Conference the Dresden Kreuzkatechis-
mus of 1688 has a large circulation, in the Missouri
Synod Dr. M, Luthers Kleiner Katediismus in
Frage und Aniwort grundlich ausgelegt by J. K. Die*
trich (St. Louis, Mo.) and a condensed edition of
the same are much used; the former also in Eng-
lish. In the Ohio Synod originated Der Kleins
Catechismus Dr. M. Luthers mil erkl&renden und
heweisenden BtbelsteUen, also in Eng-
16. Ameri- iish (Allentown, Pa.). It contains
can Luther- besides the Smaller Catechism the
an Gate- « Order of Salvation," that is, a sur-
ohioms. yey ^f ^ike whole contents of Christian
doctrine, an analysis of the catechism
formed like Spener's catechetical tables, and the
Wdrttemberg Konferew^Examen, which is an epi-
tome of the Xiruier^^re introduced in 1682 in Wflrt-
temberg. Prof. M. Loy, Prof. F. W. Stellhom, and
Rev. C. H. Rohe wrote an exposition of the Smaller
Catechism on the basis of Dietrich's, under the
title Dr. M. Luthers Kleiner Katechismus, in Frage
und Antwort ausgelegt (Columbus, O., 1882). On
the basis of Caspari's catechetical exposition, W.
J. Mann and G. F. Krotel, of the Synod of Penn-
sylvania, published Luthers Kleiner Katechismus in
Fragen und Antworten zum Gebrauch in Kvrche,
Schule und Haus (Allentown, 1863). The General
Council uses also a catechism which contains the
WUrttemberg Konferem-Examen as an appendix.
It appeared under the title Dr. M. Luthers Kleiner
Katechismus mil ErkUbrung fUr die evangelischr-
lutherische Kvrche in den Vereinigten Staatenf also
in English (New York). A recent addition ex-
plains Luther's text by Bible texts and stories —
Luthers Kleiner . Katechismus mil Bibelspruchen
(Philadelphia). • The German-Evangelical synod,
which is akin to the Evangelical Union in Germany,
has published its own official catechism, Kleiner
evangelischer Katechismus, also an edition with
German and English on parallel pages (St. Louis).
It is a free revision of the Smaller Catechism, dif-
fering from it especially in the doctrine of the
sacraments. The German-Reformed Church uses
a catechism prepared in 1862 by Philip Schaff and
entitled ChrisUicher Katechismus : ein Leitfaden
eum Religionsunterricht in Schule und Haus (Phila-
delphia). These rather comprehensive books are
intended for the school and especially for yoimg
people to be confirmed. In the numerous Simday-
schools the children are frequently instructed only
in Biblical stories. A catechism intended for that
purpose is The Little Lamb's Catechism by J. R.
Lauritzen (Knoxville, Tenn.). The same author
wrote another manual which has become very
popular — Dr. M. Luther's Kleiner Katechismus,
also in English (Knoxville, Tenn.). The German-
Evangelical Synod possesses an excellent manual
for the instruction of Sunday-schools in Kurte
Katechismuslehre (St. Louis, 1899), which extends
its material over three grades and is considered a
preparation for the catechism proper.
In the German Moravian congregations the
department for churches and schools under the
direction of the Unitas Fratrum has reserved to
itself the right of selecting manuals to be used in
instruction. Luther's Smaller Cat&-
17. The chism is chiefly used, in some places
Moravians ^^ HaupHnhalt der chrisUichen UeHs"
and Bohe- lehre sum Oebrauch bei dem Unterricht
mian der Jugend in den evangelischen BrUder^
Brethren, gemeinden (8th ed., Gnadau, 1891),
compiled by Samuel LieberkUhn in
1769. Among the Bohemian Brethren the Kale^
chismus der christlichen Lehre eum Gebrauch bei dem
Unterricht der Jugend in den evangelischen Briider^
gemeinden (Dauba) has become the standard. It is
based upon a catechism written by L. T. Reichel for
the American congregations of Brethren. Among
the earlier catechisms which are out of use now
may be mentioned Zinsendorf 's works — Kus strange
production Lautere Milch der Lehre von Jesu Christo
(1723) and Kus Gewisser Grund christlicher Lehre
naeh Anleitung des einfachen Catechismi seel. Herm
Dr. Luthers {1725).
Among the Germannspeaking Methodists of
the United States the only books used are
the manuals written at the order of the Gen-
eral Conference in 1868 by WUhelm Nast in
Cincinnati, especially with the aid of Schaff's
catechism, Der grdssere [kleinere] Katechismus fitr
die deutschen Gemeinden der Bischdf^
2f/-??Jir '*c*«^ Methodistenkirche (Cincinnati).
The English Methodists use A Brief
Catechism for the Use of Methodists
Compiled by Order of the Conference (London) and
The Catechism of the Wesleyan Methodists (ib.).
The latter work consists really of three catechisms,
arranged in gradation for pupils of different ages.
The manuals used among the Baptists in Ger-
many are Rode's ChrisUicher Religionsunterricht far
die reifere Jugend (Hamburg, 1882) and Kaiser's
Leitfaden fur den Religionsunterricht, which first
appeared in English under the title of Prize Cate^
Msm. Besides these, Weert's Katechismus, ein
odlat Cate- ,
Cateohisxns
OateohnmMiato
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
AAA
Leitfaden fUr den ReligumninUrrichi (Caasel, 1899)
is used. [Several catechisms were prepared by
English Particular Baptists in the seventeenth cen-
tury: A Sold Searching Catechism, by
19. Baptist Christopher Blackwood (1653); CaU-
and Xrvlnff* ehism for Children, by Heniy Jessey
ite Cate- (1673); The Child's Instnuior : a New
ohiams. and Easy Primer, by Benjamin Krach
(1664). The General Assembly of the
Particular Baptists at its session in London in
June, 1693, requested William OoUins to draw up
a catechism " containing the substance of the
Christian reUgion, for the instruction of children and
servants." It hajB been reproduced in authentic
form in Confessions of Faith, and oiher Documents,
edited for the Hanserd KnoUya Society, by E. B,
I'nderhUl (London, 1854). Among the Baptists of
the United States in the South and Southwest
Question Books (four series) by A. C. Dayton, and a
Catechism by J. A. Broadus, have been widely used.
A H. N.]
The catechism of the Irvingites contains three
chapters; the first two represent practically the
Prayer-book catechism; the third part treats of the
doctrines peculiar to the Irvingites, the doctrine
of the Church and its offices.
[For the catechisms used in most Presbyterian
communions see Webtminbter Standards.]
The English Unitarians use especially two small
manuals — Ten Lessons in Religion by Charles
Beard (London, 2d ed., 1897) and A Catechism of
Religion by H. W. Hawkes. While
20. TTnita- the former contains only an exposition
rianOate- of the Lord's Prayer and instruction
ohlams. qq the Bible, the latter treats in
fifty-two questions of the most im-
portant terms in Christian faith and interprets
them in the Unitarian sense. The latter is in some
respects dependent on An Evangelical Free Church
Catechism for Use in Home and School (London),
which is used by Unitarians, Methodists, Baptists,
Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and some smaller
denominations.
The Roman Catholic Church learned from the
Evangelicals its solicitude for the religious in-
struction of youth. Numerous manuals appeared
as imitations of Evangelical catechisms. The cate-
chism of John Dietenberger, a vexy popular book,
was in some passages copied verbatim from Luther's.
But all the catechisms previously published were
far surpassed in popularity by the Summa doctrines
ehrisHancB, per qucsstiones tradUa et ad capitum rudv-
orum accommodata (1556) by the Jesuit Peter
Canisius. It forms an epitome of his
21. Soman fSumma doctrina christianfB of 1555
Oathollc <^cl was translated into all European
and Old languages. It was used even in India
Cathollo and remained for about two centuries
Cataohiams. the principal catechism of the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1559 Canisius
enlarged it under the title Parvus Catechismus
eatholicorum, which became the model for numerous
expositions of the Summa, In 1566 appeared the
Catechismus ex decreto Concilii Tridentini ad
Parochos Pii V. Pontificis Maximi iussu edUus,
intended as a homiletical and catechetical hand-
book for the clergy; but the influence of the Jes-
uits was so great that it could not compete with
the catechisms of Canisius; and even thoee of
Bellarmin, which appeared in 1598, did not attain
equal popularity with them. The Roman Catholic
books of instruction, like the Evangelical catechisms,
did not escape the influenoe of rationalism, at first
in method and then even to some extent in con-
tents. A return to the stricter teaching of the
Church made itself felt in the first decades of the
nineteenth century. Since 1847 J. Dehaibe's
catechisms have been generally recognised as
standard works. They include Katholischer Kale-
chismus fur Stadt- und Landschulen (Regensburg,
1847); and Kleiner katholischerKatechismustundchst
far soUhe Landschulen, welche nur w&krend des
Sommer- oder WirUersemesters hesucht toerden (1847).
In the United States the Catholic Church provides
manuals of catechetical instruction, such as those
edited by W. Faerber in Gennan and English (St.
Louis, 1897 and often), and Catechisms of Catholic
Teaching (New York, n.d.).
The Old Catholic Church hajs two ofiidal cate-
chisms, the Katholische Kalechismus, herausgegeben
im Auftrage der aUkatholischen Synods (Bonn) and
Leitfaden fOr den katholischen Rdigumsunterritht
an hdheren Schulen, herausgegeben im Auftrage der
aUkatholischen Synods (Bonn, 1877).
In 1721 the synod of the Russian Orthodox
Church decreed that three small manuals for the
instruction of youth and the common people should
be made, one on the principal doctrines of faith
and on the decalogue, a second on the
82. The q)ecial duties of each class, and a third
Greek containing sermons on the principal
Ohuroh. doctrines, virtues, and vices. On the
strength of this order there appeared a
book entitled *' First Instruction of Youth, Contain-
ing a Primer and a Short Exposition of the Decalogue,
the Lord's Prayer and the Oeed, by order of his
Majesty Peter I., emperor of all the Russias," which
is probably the first real catechism in the Greek
Church. The catechism used at the present time,
the ** Complete Christian Catechism of the Ortho-
dox CathoUc Eastern Church," first published in
1839, originated under the influence of a manual
composed by Jeromonach Platon in 1765 for the
heir to the throne, the Grand Duke Paul Petrovitch,
which is influenced in the arrangement of material
by the Confsssio orthodoxa of Peter Mogilas (1643).
Like the latter, it groups its material under the
three Christian virtues of faith, hope, and love.
After an introduction on revelation, Holy Scripture,
and catechetical teaching, it begins with an expo-
sition of the Nicene Creed, followed by the Lord's
Prayer and the Beatitudes, the union between
faith and love, and an exposition of the Ten Com-
mandments. The book closes with the application
of the doctrine of faith and of piety.
(Ferdinand Cohrs.)
BisLiooBAraT: The works under Catschxsib, CATScsmcB;
CATBCiriTifBMATa; LirrRBR'8 Two Catbchibiis; and Hn-
nsLBVRo Catbchisii should be oonnulted. Collections of
early catechismB are made in Monumettta Germ€ini(B pada-
oogica, ed. C. Kehrbarh, vols. 4. 20-.33. 39. Berlin. 1887-
1907. and in JCatech«fi«eA« HandMbliothek. ed. F. Walk,
Kempten, 1891-1905 (containing not only oatMdiisms but
>4e
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oataohisma
Oataohimienata
works on oataelMtiei). On the oatachiams of the ICiddla
Acea oontult: Q. LAngemaek, HiUoria eateduHea, vol. L.
Str&lmind. 1729; J. Geffeken, D€r BUdmrkaUekiwmuM dM
fQnfxehnUn Jahrhundmi» und dU kaUAetUehmi Haupt-
mtUcJte in diamr Z0U 6m ati/ LulW. vol. i., Leipaic. 1865;
H. Bruck, Dm- nlUfidM UnlerridU . . . in Deutaehland,
Mains. 1876; P. GAbl, ChnkUhtB do- Kateehtm im Abmtd^
landm aom VtrfaU dM Katttkumtnat 6m turn End» dm
MxtUUMUmrM, Kemptan, 1880; F. Probst. GeackickU dmr
kaiholUcUn Kataehsm, Bradau, 1887; F. Falk, Dm- Unitr-
riehi dsa VoUu tn dtn katachaliadtm HaupiaUiekmi am
Bndm dst MiUOaiUn, in HuterMcA-poltliMAa BUlUtr, eviii
(1891). S63 aqq., 682 aqq., ox (1892) 81 aqq.. 721 aqq.;
P. Hahlmann, DeuUddand^ kalOuiiimshB KatmhUmtn 6m
au«f» KndB dm teehutknim^ Jahrhundmit, Mflnster, 1894;
Hauok, KD, vok. i.-iii.
For eoUaetioDfl of oataohismB in post-Raformation times
in Germany consult, besides the collections of Kehrbach
and Walk, ut sup.: J. Hartmann. AdiuU kaUd^stische
OmUtvnale dm mtanodimktn Kinke, Stuttgart. 1844; F.
W. Bodemann, KatmktHacka DmUemdU dm wvanQeliad^
hUKmritehen Kirtkt, Harburg. 1861; G. Kawerau, Ztosi
^Uteafa Kaimkimmn dm luikerUehsn lUfcrmaHon, Halle.
1890. For a bibliogr^hy of newer literature consult:
F. Schneider. KriHmhm W^gwtiam durek dU LUUratwr
d€9 Kcnfirmandmiunlmri^tB und dm affenUithen CAHsten-
lehrm, Stuttgart, 1899. The history of catechisms is
treated in: G. Langemack, ut sup., vols. iL-iii., Stralssund.
1730-40; K. J. Lteohke, Du nlioidM BUduno dm Ju-
gend und dm tUOieh^ Zuatand dm SchuUn im 16. JaMiun^
dmrt, Breslau. 1846; F. R. Ehrenfeuchter. Zur Osso^icMt
de» KaUcMmnuM, GAttingen. 1867; K. Neumann. Dm
«win4ftUmh9 iMttfiofManltrricM im ZmiaUm dm Reforma-
tion, Berlin, 1899.
On other than German lands consult: 8. Hess. OsseAieMt
dea Zlirehm-KatediiamuM, Zurich. 1811; TmemUenary
Monument, in CommmnoraHon of Aa Thrm Hundredth
Annvvmrnry ef A* HeidtOmg CaimkUm, Philadelphia,
1863; C. A. Toren. Der evangelieelie Reli4fion»-UnimridU
in Deutikkmd, Orossftrilanfiisa und DOnemark, Gotha,
1866; H. Bonar, Caimhimne of the ScoUiah refomMMon,
London. 1866; A. T. fiCitehell, Caiediiema of Uis Second
Reformation . . . iriHb Hialorieal Introduction, London,
1886; A. C. Bang. Dokumenim og etudim vedr&rende den
luihereke katekiemue' hielorie in Nordene kirkm, 2 vols.,
Christiania. 1893-99; I. Moechakes, Cated^iem of Ihe
Orthodox Saalem Chunk, London. 1894; J. Poynet. The
Real Reformation CatedUem of 155S, ib. 1894; W. Eamee,
Early New Bnoiand Cateckieme. A bOMographical Ac-
count of eome Cateckieme puUidied before 1800, Worcester.
1808.
The literature on Roman OathoUe catechisms is very
voluminous; the following may be consulted: The Cate-
diiem of John Hamilton, Oxford, 1844; C. Moufang, Die
Mainam Kateekiemen von dm Brflnduno dm Buchdrucker'
kunH bU sum Bnde dee at^teehnten JahrhunderU, Mains.
1877; Commentaire eur le catkkieme dee protfincee eorUei-
aetiquee de Quebec, Montreal, OUawa, Montreal. 1897; F.
X. Thalhofer. Bntwidedung dee kaOuiiedien Kaiediiemue
in Deutedtland von CaniHue bu Ddutrhe, Freiburg. 1899;
F. Spirago, The Catediiem Bxplained. New York. 1899; T.
E. Oox. BikUeal Treaeury of the Catediiem, ib. 1900; T.L.
Kinkaad. B^vlanalKon of A* Baltimore Catediiem, ib. 1902;
J. Parry. foplomUum s/ Ae CaJtediiem, St. Louii^ 1903.
CATBCHUllEirATB.
Eariiect Data (| 1). Second Period of Develop-
Aooording to the Church ment (f 4).
Fathers (f 2). Deelina of the Oataehuma-
First Period of Devefepment nata (f 6).
(f 3). Ritual Survivals (f 6).
Gatechumenate u a tenn applied to the method
of receiving and instructing, in preparation for
baptism, those who applied for membership in the
early Christian Church. As soon as the apostolic
mission had reached the stage of founding a Chris-
tian society, it was natural that those who wished
to enter it should be required to go through a
course of instruction as to the meaning of the hopes
'vhich it held out and the demands which it
11.-20
of its members. Our information as to the method
pursued in the earliest period is very scanty. Ap-
parently the gatherings of the disciples were at fint
freely opened to any one (I Cor. xiv. 24) who
desired to know more of their faith and practise;
and baptism was probably often administered
with but a short delay. As time went on, more
care was exercised; the need of it
I. Earliest was demonstrated by cases of relapse
Data. into heathenism and of the seeldng
of membership from interested or
treacherous motives. We find traces of this greater
caution as early as the first Apology of Justin
(c. 150). A demand is made for some security
as to the belief and conduct of the candidate, who
is not apparently admitted to the assembly of the
faithful until he has been adjudged worthy of
baptism. How this security was obtained is not
dear; the preparation seems to have been private,
and the one who conducted it probably answered
for the candidate, as at once sponsor and catechist.
Tertullian portrays a somewhat different system;
though catechumens are still excluded from the
assembly, the application of this name to them
implies that they were already reckoned as in a
sense belonging to the Church and under its care.
This is still more deariy the case in Origen's account.
The much discussed passage Contra CeUr
a. According sum, iii. 51 showsplainly that there was
to the a definite system of examination and
Church of instruction. It gives also the fact
Fathers, that at this period, besides the class
which (as in Justin and Tertullian)
is excluded from the assembly, there is another
which has advanced far enough to daim the priv-
ilege of admission, and is only waiting for the last
decisive step of baptism. It is a mistake to at-
tempt to deduce from his words three dasses
divided by a hard and fast line, or to apply
to these dasses the names aitdienUs {Ok. akrod-
menoi) , genufledenie (jgontiklinontea), and sompeUn-
tea {phlUuomerun), The last occurs in the Apostolic
Constitutions, and in Cjrril of Jerusalem passim,
for the candidates approaching baptism, who are
definitely distinguished from the catechumens.
The name akroOmenoi occurs for the first time in
the passage of Origen referred to, but without a
distinct meaning; its use later in the prodama-
tion of the deacon in the liturgy, summoning those
not entitled to be present to depart, relates to a
dass of penitents not allowed to hear a part of the
service to which catechumens were admitted. In
like manner the application of gontdUinonteB to a
dass of catechumens rests on a misunderstanding
of the corrupt Greek text of the fifth canon of the
Synod of Neoccesarea (314), which really means
that catechumens falling into sin are to be put
among the penitents, and expelled altogether if they
do not amend.
To sum up, then, what has been said, Origen
shows a development of the catechumenate from
what Justin gives, while Tertullian exhibits an
intermediate stage. We must, however, remember
that these witnesses are from different parts of
the Chureh. The development was probably
largely influenced by local conditions. In Tar-
&1
>tiiohwin<m>t6
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
450
tullian'B time,Septiiniu8 Sevenishad forbidden oon-
verrions to Christiaiiity, and fonnal arrangements
for the preparation of ccmverts would have been
direct rebellion. In Origen'e day, on the other
handi the Churoh had enjoyed a long period of
peace, and was not afraid to allow
3. Flzit trusted catechumens to be present at
Period of its services; but the large number of
Develop- converts made it more probable that
ment some unworthy ones would be among
them, and so to the ori^^nal exam-
ination before baptism, a second and earlier
one was added. Origen's account of the cato-
chumenate gives all the essential features of
the institution, as we meet with it when fully
established, after persecution had ceased. Chris-
tianity had become the state religion, and it was
possible to work out in detail institutions which
had been carefully planned in the daric days pre-
ceding.
This second or established period coven roughly
the fourth and early fifth centuries. The can-
didate, accompanied by a sponsor, announces his
desire, normally to a deacon, who infoims the
bishop or presbyter. The grounds of fcds desire are
investigated; people of certain sinful or dubious
occupations are ipso facto ezduded unless they will
abandon them. If the candidate is acceptable,
he receives a preliminaiy instruction, and is then
set apart by the sign of the cross, laying on of hands,
and (in the West) with blessed sdt, as a catechumen.
For a time he receives no special instruction, shar-
ing that which the whole congregation gets in the
misso oatachummorwn, though depart-
4* Second ing before the later and more solemn
Period of part of the liturgy. After two (or
Develop- three) years, he may ask for baptism;
ment he enters the dass of competenlM, and
his name is inscribed on the church
list The inmiediate preparation indudes special
instructions, usually given by the bishop; certain
ceremonies, especially of exorcism, which show
the influence of the pagan mysteries; and finally
the tradUio tymboli, or instruction in the precise
words of the baptismal creed, whose general sense
has long been Imown to him. After learning and
repeating this, he is taught the words of the
Lord's I^yer, which has alio been withheld from
him until now by the Areani dudpUna (q.v.). The
redtation of the creed as a solemn act and
the final renunciation of paganism acccunpany the
act of baptism, which usuidly takes place in the
night before Easter. During the following week
the neophyte recdves further instructions, and on
the next Sunday, still wearing his white iM^tismal
fobe, he takes his place among the congregation
as a baptiaed Christian, and joins in the redtation
of the Lord's Prayer, the prayer of the children of
God. As to the matter contained in the instruc-
tions to the catechumen in this period, fullest in-
formation comes from Augustine in the West and
Cyril of Jerusalem in the Einst.
The decline of the institution was brought about
by the constantiy increasing numbers of those
who sought admisdon to the Church. A thorough
examination of them all became impossible; t£e
preliminaiy instruction was gradually dropped,
and the catechumenate was reduced to the inuitf-
diate preparation for baptism. Tbe
5. Decline growing practise of baptiiiiig infanti
of the Gate- and young children completed tb
chomenate. process, since there was no pUce for
instructicm in their case. Samethi&g
still remained, however, of the andent prooedoR.
On the Monday after the third Sunday m IM
notice was given to present the children who ven
to be baptised at Easter. On the following Wedoes-
day their sponsors brought them to the churdi,
where their names were registered. The cen-
monies of dgning with the cross, laying on of hands,
exorcism, giving of salt, and a final pnyer madi
them catediumens. Seven masses were said oa
succeeding days, five containing similar oereinoiiie%
while the last two were especially sdemn. The
sixth contained the " opening of the ears," a r^
minder of the andent tradiHo gymboH ; the book
of the Qofipds was home in proceadon to the alter
and a short extract from each Gospel
6. Ritual read, after which the creed was ^m
Survivals, to the candidates, and an aoolyte
brought forward two children, a bof
and a giri, and redted the creed for than (the
andent reddUio 9ymbolx)\ with the subeequest
conununication of the Lord's Prayer were uniallf
connected short expodtions of each dauae. Tbe
last " scrutiny " todc place the day bdore Eaater,
and followed much the same order, but more sol-
emnly and formally; and baptism took place at
the traditional time.
When the time came that nothing lemained d
the original institutions of the catechumenate except
the outward ceremonies, these were more and more
condensed, until they formed but a single rita
leading up to the baptism which immediatelj
followed them. In the Onio iNiptismt of the RomaB
Ritual the order of the andent preparatioDa for
baptism may still be traced without difficulty, and
not a few relics of it remain in the evan^cal
baptismal ceremonies (see Bapttbic).
(Ferdinand Oobbs.)
A very interesting survival of the andent cate-
chumenate is found in the Armenian woik found
among the modem PauHdans, trandated and edited
by F. C. Conybeare {The Key of Truth : A Mimud
of the Paulieian Church of Armenia, Oxford, ISSS)
and bdieved by the editor to have been written not
later than the ninth century and to represent an
almost primitive foim of Oriental (%ri8tianit]r. It
is adoptionist in its OhrisUdogy and drastic in its
oppodtion to infant-baptism. It provides iot *
solenm consecration of the infant of Ghriatian pa^
ents by the minister when it is seven days old, the
careful training by parents and churdi until oa-
turity is reached, the thorough testing of the caD-
didates for baptism in life and in knowledge of Om^
tian doctrine and morals^ and the adminisintiaD
of baptism with condderable ceremony to those
who have fulfilled all the conditions and h^
attained to the age at which Christ was baptiied.
A brief catechism, embracing the points of doctnoe
in which catechumens must be grounded, is ff^
at the end. AH.N.
461
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDU
Oateohumenato
Bibuoorapht: The aoureefl are to be found in the worics of
Justin Martyr, Origen's Contra CtUum, the '* Catechetical
Leetuiea " of Cyril of Jemaalem, Auguetine't D€ ealeeki'
aandia rudihv, and the Didaofte, all of which are acoccaible
in Enc tranal. The history of the institution is traced in:
G. von Zeaschwits. SyaUm dtr tkritmd^tn Kaitek^Hk,
2 vols., Leipnc 1863-72; J. Mayer. OtadUdUg dM JCote-
ekumtnaiB . . . ia den enkn tacAs JahrhunitHin, Kemp-
ten, 1866 (Boman GathoUo); A. Weiai, Di$ aWnrdtUdU
Pamdagogik . . . d«r eraUn weeha Jakrhundsrie, Fieiburs,
1869; F. X. Funk, in TlMnotr ThaolaoiadiM QuartaltdiHtU
1883, pp. 41-77, 1886. pp. 868 eqq.. 1899, pp. 484 aqq.;
E. Hatch, OrgmUaaa&n of At Early ChtmAm, London,
1888; J. Heron, Churdi of Svb-Apoitoiie Aov Of Life,
Warahip, and Organisation, London, 1888; E. SaehsM,
SvanoaHaeho KateduHk: dU Ldnf von dor kirdUidton
BrHohung, Berlin, 1897; F. Wiccand, Dio Stdlvng doo
apootoliadion SymboU im ktrdOidiim Ld)on dot MittdaUtra,
L Symbol und KataAumianai, Leipde. 1899; Neander.
ChriaHan Churchy vols, i and ii. oontain much valuable
matter, eonsult the Index; Schaif, Ckriakan Chunk, ii.
25&-267: Bincham, Originaa, books z., si., nv.; DC A,
L 317-319; the literature on the Didadka (q.v.) usually
discuaaee the cateohetics of the eariy Ghureh.
CATENA.
Origin (f 1). Form (| 6).
Meaning of the Term (I 2). Catena Previous to the Four-
Souroee (f 8). teenth Century (| 7).
Value (I 4). Medieval Catens (f 8).
Method <f 6). Post^Reformation Catena (f 9).
The ienn catena, " a chain " (plural, catena), des-
ignates a commentary on Holy Scripture made up
by piecing together short extracts from the Fathers
and older writers. This pUn of construction was
suggested by the accumulation of ezegetical mate-
rials made both by Origen and his school and by
the theologians of Antioch in the third and fourth
centuries.
The principal motive which impelled later scholars
to collect and examine the eariy utterances was a
dogmatic one. After the conversion of Gonstan-
tine, the Church was anxious to put together in
a dear and systematic form the results
X. Origin, of previous theological work, and to
emphasise the connection of the past
with the present. For this purpose in regard to
doctrine the decrees of the ecumenical coundhi
answered admirably; but it was not so easy to
attain the same result in the exposition of Scrip-
ture. The problem was to represent the results
arrived at by the recognised commentators in
propositions that had a unity of scheme and an
admitted authority. The principles of its solution
are laid down in the nineteenth canon of the Quini-
sext (Second Trullan) Council: that Holy Scripture
is the standard of truth, that the limits of doctrine
already fibced and the traditions of the Fathers are
not to be transgressed, and that if any question
eonceming the Sksripture comes up, it is to be ex-
pounded in no other way than as the great teachers
of the past have given it in their works. The
exposition of the Scripture was thus firmly at-
tached to the recognised orthodox doctrine. The
second canon of the same council had named some
of the " U^tB and doctors " who were to be fol-
lowed, and the first canon had given warning against
all heretics, not merely against Arius, Maoedonius,
ApoUinaris, and Nestorius, but also against
Theodore of Mqpsuestia, Origen, Didymus, Eva-
gnus, and Theodoret. It was, however, found
impossible to carry out tliese principles strictly.
The writings of the authors suspected of heresy
offered material too valuable to be neglected; and
it was found impossible to arrive at a unity of
results in an anthology of this kind without doing
violence to the individuality of the authors and
damaging their authority, so that nothing could
be done but to put together what was selected.
In this manner arose the collections of extracts
which are so characteristic of Bysantine theology,
covering all the books of the Bible (especially
Genesis, Job, the Pbalms, Canticles, Isaiah, Mat-
thew, and John) by extracts from patristic com-
mentators, and setting an example of method whicl^
was widely followed in Western and medieval com-
mentaries. These collections are usually known
as Catenm (Seirai). The origin of the name is
obscure, but its meaning is plain. It refers to
collections of material put together
a. Meaning in a purely external but visible con-
of the nection, and strung upon the thread
Term. of the text. There may have been
originally a mystical significance at-
tached to it. As the hermetic chain of the later
Neoplatonists symbolised the harmonious con-
junction of the bearers of wisdom to the worid,
hand joined in hand from the earliest to later times,
so the line of the Fathers was to hand down the
Improved expositions of the one true Church.
The first compUers have no fixed phrases to
describe their process; but their lengthy titles
give an idea of the pUn they set before them.
They collected their material according to the
maxim of Seneca, Quod verum esf, meum eai (" What
is true is mine "). The manner in which literary
property was handled in the ancient worid per-
mitted not only straightforward appropriation of
other people's work, but the utmost freedom in
adaptation to the borrower's special purpose. The
retention of the original authors' names here is an
evidence of the wei^t attached to their testimony
as authoritative expositors; where the compiler
adds comments of his own, he is usually careful
to distinguish his additions. Great variety is
found in the manner of reproduction and in the
extent of the material included. In Uie Catena of
Possinus on Matthew we have one constructed on
the exact lines laid down by the Quinisext Council —
a mosaic of verbal citations from
3. Sources, commentaries or other writings of
orthodox Fathers. Where the com-
piler, like Nicetas of Serre, added reflections of
his own, he generally put them at the head of the
group of quotations following a fresh section of
the text. Where he adapted and condensed, he
either kept to the serial order, or worked over all
the material he had accumulated without making
divisions for the separate authors. This is the
manner adopted by Procopius, (Ecumenius, and
Theophylact, who emphasise at the same time the
fact that thfiy are not originators but transmitters.
There is no sharp dividing line between this kind
of Catena and the Bysantine commentary; for
the latter also patristic tradition is the standard,
though the sources are not indicated in the margin,
as is usually the case in the Catence, and the expo-
sition proceeds wiUiout a break.
Oatenas
Oatharine
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
452
The value of the Catens is measured by their
judgment in selecting and their skill in combining
the material they borrow. The difficulty of choice
is increased by the dogmatic limitations, which
are sometimes in inevitable conflict with the
scholarly interest. Origen, for instsuioe, the first
great Christian critic and commentator, was of
inestimable value to exegesis; and for the Old
Testament Catens both Philo, who had been
studied by all learned theologians
4. Value, from Origen down, and Josephus were
invaluable authorities. A compro-
mise was reached in the principle (still followed
by Roman Catholic commentators) of Cyril of
^exandria: " We need not avoid or question
everything that heretics have said; for they con-
fess many things which we also confess." Another
difficulty was found in the occasionally conffict-
ing expositions; their diversity was explained by
Drungarius, with reference to the obscurity of the
text, as providential. He contents himself with
placing side by side the varying renderings and
explanations of Isaiah, leaving the reader to form
his own judgment.
The simplest method of making a Catena was to
follow one principal authority, to whose expo-
sition shorter scholia are added from other sources.
Thus Chrysostom is the main source in the Catena
of Possinus on Matthew, as well as in the Gospel
commentaries of Euthymius and Theophylact,
though all of these differ in the ad-
5. Method, ditions they make to what they take
from him. Other Catense are indis-
criminate anthologies, no one authority being pre-
ferred. Of this type are those of Procopius and
Nioetas, and most of those on the Epistles.
The external form of the Catense differed accord-
ing to their extent. Where they were not too
extensive, the text was placed in the middle of
the page, surrounded by the exposition, usually in
smaller characters, sometimes even in tachygraphy.
The names of the authorities are sometimes in the
margin, sometimes in the body of the exposition,
as a rule abbreviated. Occasionally diacritical
marks show the connection between text and com-
mentary. If the Catena is too extensive to allow
this arrangement, the sections of the text are fol-
lowed by the commentary, in separate paragraphs,
with the authors' names on the margin, or else writ-
ten without a break. The manuscripts, of which few
date further back than the tenth century, differ
much in execution. Some are of admirable work-
manship, with illustrations; others
6. Form, are plain copies for students, with the
marks of long use upon them, and
some seem to have been hastily and carelessly made
to supply the demand of the bookselling trade.
Besides the commentaries, the Catense contain a
good deal of introductory or illustrative matter.
Thus the Gospels are frequently prefaced by the
canons of Eusebius and his epistle to Carpianus, as
well as by arguments and biographies of the evan-
gelists; the Pauline epistles have a life of Paul, a list
of his journeys, and an account of his martyrdom.
Whether the beginnings of the manufacture of
Catense can be traced back to the patristic period
it is impossible to say with certain^, tttougb i
seems not improbable. After Eus^ius the wed
of theologians to a great extent took the direccks
of codifying and criticizing what had been faaaskd
down. But Procopius (d. 528) is the first who oi
be demonstrated to have made C^teos. Tbe
value of his work, which rests not only upon tbe
Fathers from the third to the fifth oentuiy bs
upon Josephus and Philo and upon some of tbe
teachers before Origen, gave it an ^x>clHBiskii£
position. From the manner in which be speaSs d
his task in the prefaces to Genesis and Isaiah* vc
may conjecture that he was not ii
7. Catenas imitator of others but an oriffnaUx 'z
Previous this line. Other extant Catois vs*
to the compiled by Andreas the pxesbjtc:
Fotirteenth (seventh to tenth centuzy); Johim^
Century. Dnmgarius (tenth century); Micfua
Psellus, and Nioetas, bishop of Sens
later metropolitan of Heradea in Thrace (elereoL.
century); Nicolaus Muzalon and Neophytus E>
cleistus (twelfth century); and Haearius Chxysv
cephalus (fourteenth century). To these may be
added not only the conunentaries arranged mat
or less in catena style, though without names ci
authorities: CEcumenius, of whose date and per-
sonality we know nothing certain, though be w^
probably a contemporary of Arethas of Cappadom:
and the Gospel commentaries of Thec^hjiact asd
Euthymius, composed under the ConinenL Then
is, however, a much larger number of anonymoi^
Cateme; and this fact is surprising, since Byzss-
tine theologians were not given to hiding their b'gbt
under a bushel. It may possibly be explained bj
the theoxy that these Catens were produced cot
by any one man but by a group of collab<»ators
Their dates are very hard to determine; the surest
way to reach conclusions on this point is by exam-
ining their relations to those whose dates we know,
which requires a good deal more investigation thai
has yet been given to them. In fact, what hss
been done in the way of scientific study of the C^
tense in general has only covered certain spedie
points; and those which have been printed cover
only a small part of the extant material, and that
not always selected with judgment.
The catena form impressed itself as a modd
upon medieval exegesis in the West, which sUo
imitated the spirit in which the Eastern compOen
went about their work. Here too the aim vai
to preserve the tradition of the Church in a uni-
form arrangement of Scriptural exposition. ''§0
that the line of prophetic and apostolic interpn-
tation may follow the nonn of the ecclesiastical
and catholic sense " (Vincent of Lerins). The
principal sources were AJmbroee, Hilaiy, Augostioe.
and Jerome; less often the Greek Fathers, such u
Origen, Chrysostom, and Cyril of Alexandria, are
cited. The prototypes of the medieval catoa
conmientaries may be seen in the expositioDS of
Cassiodorus and Isidore of SeviDe.
8. Medieval On the Carolingian period the nuzDO^
Catene. ous commentaries of Bede exercised
a decisive influence. He knew Greek.
and shows some feeling for textual critidam; but
he was not an exegetical individuality. He eo^
453
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oatenn
Oatharine
lects his fragments of exposition mainly from
Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory, and
lays his chief stress on the edifying explanation of
the moral and mystical sense. In this tendency
he was followed by Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, Wala-
fried Strabo, Dietrich of Hersfeld, Haimo, and
Remigius of Auxerre, all less careful in the repro-
duction of their sources than Bede, with whom
it was a matter of principle to designate clearly
the intellectual property of his authorities. Among
later commentaries of the catena sort especial
influence was exerted by that of Peter Lombard
on the Pauline epistles, which made no pretense of
indicating sources, and the Catena Aurea of Thomas
4quinas on the Gospels, which makes use of some
Greek Fathers as well as of Augustine, Jerome,
Rabanus, and Remigius. Mention should also be
made of the " fosses " — the Glossa ordinaria of
Walaf ried Strabo, the Glossa interlinealis of Anselm
of Laon (1110), and the PosHllce perpetual of
Nicholas of Lyra (1340; see Glosses, Biblical.
AND EcCLEBIASTIGAL).
These works lead up to the exegetical collections
which were made after the Reformation and under
its influence. The expository standpoint was
different, but the method of compilation remained
the same. They either gave the ob-
9. Poet- servations of certain selected exposi-
Refonna- tors side by side without change, or
tion they made groups of extracts from as
Catense. large a number as possible. Instances
of the first method are the Btblia
magna of De la Haye (Paris, 1643), the Biblia
maxima (ib. 1660), the English Annotations upon
ail the Books of the Old and New Testament (London,
1645), and the Critici sacri edited by J. Pearson
and others (ib. 1660). The second class is repre-
sented by Matthew Pole's Synopsis criticorum
aliorumque scriptura sacra interpretum et commenta-
torum (London, 1669), which contains the most
varied extracts from more than eighty theologians
of all ages and beliefs, even including the Jewish.
The Roman Catholic expositors, such as Cornelius
a Lapide, Estius, and Calmet, followed the lines
laid down by the older Catens, to which, however,
with their uncritical subservience to a tradition
presupposed as authoritative, they are far inferior.
(G. Heinrici.)
CATHARL See New Manicheans, II.
CATHARINB, SAINT, OF ALEXAl^RIA. See
Catharine, Saint, the Martyr.
CATHARINB, SAINT, OF BOLOGNA: Roman
Catholic saint; b. at Bologna or, according to other
accounts, at Verona Sept. 8, 1413; d. at Bologna
Mar. 9, 1463. About 1430 she entered the order
of the Poor Clares at Ferrara after having been a
lady of honor at the court of Princess Margaret of
Este for about two years. She later became abbess
of a convent of her order which was founded at
Bologna. Her name was included in the Roman
martjrrology in 1592, and she was canonized by
Benedict XIII. in 1724. Later tradition wove
many legends about her name, and her body was
preserved undecayed in her convent until recent
years. To St. Catharine is ascribed a prophetic
work entitled RevelaOoneSf sive de septem armis
spirittuUibus, composed about 1438 and first edited
probably at Bologna in 1475 and repeatedly since.
In art she is represented in the habit of the Poor
Clares, carrying the Christ-child, since the Virgin
is said to have appeared to her and to have placed
in her arms the infant Jesus in his swaddling-
clothes. (O. ZOCKLERf.)
Bxblioorapht: The Vita which is the earliest source was
published «t Bologna, 1502, from which a number of
biographies were drawn in the next century. Consult:
J. Gdrres, Die chriaaiche MyWc, ii. 53 sqq., 158-159, 4
vols., Regensburg, 1836-12.
CATHARINE, SAINT, OF GENOA: Roman
Catholic saint; b. at Genoa 1447; d. there Sept. 14,
1510. She was the daughter of Roberto Fieschi,
who had been viceroy of Naples under Ren4 of
Anjou. Despite her desire for a life of religion,
she was obliged to marry a nobleman of her native
city named Giuliano Adomo, whence she is often
called Catharina Fiisca Aduma. After a life of
extravagance her husband died in 1474, but not
before he had been converted by his wife's piety
and had become a Franciscan of the third order. Fof
the remainder of her life his widow, as a member
of the order of the Annunciation of St. Marcellina,
was distinguished both for her care of the sick in
the Genoese hospital Pammatone (especially during
the plagues of 1497 and 1501) and by her extreme
asceticism. For twenty-three years during the
seasons of Lent and Advent she is said to have
fasted absolutely, taking at most a j^ass of water
with salt and vinegar " to cool the raging jQame
within." She was formally canonized by Clement
XII. in 1737, and the following pope, Benedict XIV.,
placed her name in the Roman martyrology, ap-
pointing her feast for Mar. 22. St. Catharine was
one of the numerous msrstic and prophetic authors of
the latter part of the Middle Ages and wrote Demon-
stratio purgatorii or Tractatus de purgatorio (ed.
C. Marabotto and E. Vemazza in their biography
of St. Catharine, Genoa, 1551 ; Eng. transL, London,
1858), Dialogus animam inter et corpus, amorem
proprium, spiritumy humanitatem ac Deum, and a
treatise on the Christian life (both contained in the
edition already mentioned). Her visions were
assailed by Adrian Baillet in his Vies des saints
(Paris, 1701) from the Gallican point of view, but
other Roman Catholic authorities, such as St.
Francis of Sales and the modem Jesuit Christian
Pesch, have esteemed them highly.
(O. ZOCKLBRf.)
Bibuooraphy: The anonymous VUa with commentary is
in ASB, Sept., v. 123-176, and was translated into French
by the AbM Piot, Paris, 1840. Consult: P. Lechner,
Ld>en und Schriften der heilioen KaUiarina von Oenua,
Regensburg. 1S50; T. de Bussibre. Vie et eruvret de S.
Catherine de Ginee, Paris, 1873; P. Fliche, S. Catherine
de Qtnee, Paris. 1880; F. von HOgel, in The Hampetead
Annual, 1808, pp. 70 sqq.
CATHARINE, SAINT, THE MARTYR (SAINT
CATHARINE OF ALEXANDRIA): One of the
most honored saints both of the Eastern and the
Western Church. Many modem hagiographers
identify her with a wealthy and noble Christian
lady of Alexandria who, according to Eusebius
{Hi8t. eccl., VIII. xiv. 15), resisted the licentious
advances of the emperor Maximinus, and was oon-
Omthmxinm
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ00
■equently deprived of her estates and banished.
This identification, however, does not agree with
the statement of Rufinus {Hist, eecL, viii. 17) that
this lady was named Dorothea, nor does it har-
monise with the legend of St. Catharine as given
both by £fimeon Metaphrastes and the Roman
martyrology. According to these sources, St.
Oatharine was a maiden of royal birth (the daughter
of King Konstos, in the Gredc Offidum), and of
extraordinary wisdom and beauty. At the age of
eighteen, she engaged in a controversy, at the com-
numd either of Maximinus or Maxentius (althouf^
the latter never ruled Alexandria), with fifty pagan
philosophers, whom she converted so signally that
they remained faithful to Christianity even to
martyrdom. In prison, a few days before her own
execution, she converted the empress, the general
Porphyrius, and his 200 soldiers, all of whom
suffered death by the sword for their faith. Resist-
ing both the pleadings and the threats of the tyrant,
Catharine remained unharmed by torture, even
on a machine of sharp-pointed wheels, until she
was finally beheaded by the command of Maxi-
minus.
The day of St. Catharine is celebrated either on
Nov. 26 or on Mar. 5. Her body is said to have
been borne by angels to Mount Sinai, where Justin-
ian I. built a cloister in her honor and where her
bones were said to have been discovered by Eg3rp-
tian Christians in the eighth century, thus giving
rise to the feast of the discovery ^ the body of
St. Catharine on May 13 or 26. About 1027 Sim-
eon, a monk from Sinai, is said to have carried a
portion of the relics of St. Catharine to Rouen,
and her monastery on Mount Sinai now retains
only her head and one hand fThese are en-
closed in a marble sarcophagus.] Inspired by the
tradition of her victory over the philosophers of
Alexandria, the philosophical faculty of the Uni-
versity of Paris later chose her as their patron saint
According to Occidental tradition, she is one of the
fourteen " helpers in need," the only other fem-
inine members of this band being SS. Barbara and
Margaret. See Helpers in Need.
In Christian art, both of the East and the West,
St. Catharine is an important figure. Her usual
attributes are a sword and a wheel (either entire
or broken), through which curved knives are thrust.
To these are frequently added a palm of victory,
a book in token of her learning, and oocarionaily
a crown, or, more often, a bridal ring which the
Christ^child himself is said to have placed on her
finger in emblem of betrothal. The oldest Oriental
picture of this saint is a mosaic over the apse of the
basilica of the Transfiguration in the monastery
on Sinai, which represents simply a female head
without attributes. In a picture by £&non of
Sienna (d 1344) she bears in her hand a palm and
a book. Among the numerous representations of
St. Catharine in Western art, special mention may
be made of the works of Altichiero da Zevio (c.
1380) in the frescos of the chi^l of St. George at
Padua, the frescos of Masaodo (c. 1420) in the
upper church of St. Clement at Rome, eleven marble
bas-reliefs (probably dating from the fourteenth
century) in the church of &mta Chiara in Naples,
nine pictures of 1385 in the doisler of St Pad i
Leipsie, and the miniatures in the Vie dt Sa\
Caiherine d^ Alexandria by Jean Mielot, ieocta:
of Philip the (kod, duke of Burgundy (c 14Si!
After the middle of the fifteenth century the oki
noteworthy artists of Italy, Flanders, and Germii;
such as Flesole, Raffael, Gario Dolce, Ja& n
Eyck, Hans Memling, and Lukas Craaach, t»
with one another in the production of pictom <
St. Catharine, and the medieval Christiaii dn=
repeatedly represented the legend of the samt i
mysteries, the earliest being that of the Nonsi
Geoffrey, abbot of St. Albans, which waa plsji
at Dunstable about 1120. (O. ZdCKUB^
Biblioobafbt: TktLeomial SL KaAtrim,td.frm*)^
inOtsCifliimLibraryhwJ.McrtimfiirAtAhboltfmiCk
London. 1841; Lt/« and Martyrdom of SL KtAmMt
AUxtutdria, Roxburcbe Gliib publicatioM» bo. H, i
1884; lAf€ of 8t J?a£h«risM. ed. E. Emenktl for Im
Tizt Soeiety. ib. 1884; Ths ZAfmMttneai,hjJ.Ca9pm
«L F. C. HincMton. is In RoOa Smim, no. 1, pp. ST-
864, ib. 1858. Conault: C. Hnitlwiek. Biataneal Iwfm
Tauikino SL CaAmim cf AUaamdria, CSuibndfB. Hi
H. Kniut, 0€tdUdUB der Ugmidmn der htSUgtn CtAma,
Hallo, 1800. On the art aide, oonmlt: Mn. Juon
aaend cmd Ugmtdary AH, ii. 74-07, Bovton. IM, I
Wipfli nndJ. J. Ton Ah, Dn Ltbtm dtr hmUftn Mmm
von AUxaniritn, Einnadein, 1808.
CATHARIHB DB' RICCI, rtt^cht, SADIT: Roac
Catholic saint; b. at Florence [Apr. 23] 1522; i ^
Prato (11 m. n.w. of Florence) Feb. 2 [1590]. i^
was educated in a convent at Monticdli snd at tb
wish of her father lived in the worid for a sho^
time, after which she took the vefl and entend tbi
Dominican nunnery of St. Vincent at Prato. At
the age of twenty-five she became priores, ss;
spiritual counsel was sought from her bj bubcpi
cardinals, and princes. She was also a dosefns^
of St Philip Neri, with whom she msintaiiwi £
active correspondence. The intensity of heroKC-
tation on the Passion was such that she actusij
felt the sufferings of Christ and frequently tbt^
blood as if from scourgings and wounds. Si
Catharine was canonised by Benedict XD'. ^
1746 and her feast was appointed for F^. 13. I^
art she has the attributes of the crown of ibons
and a marriage ring. The elegant style of tg
letters ranks her as one of the best Italian dtfsfl
of the second half of the sucteenth oentuiyH^
Gheraidi, Fkxenoe, 189(q. (0. ZikxmV
I
BiBXJOOBAPar: F. M. Cupm, Uf9<^8L CaAmae^Bitd l»
don, 100ft, whiohgiYMairanal. ofattumberofherktua I
I
CATHARIHB, SAIRT, OF SIBRHA: Bm ,
CathoUc saint; b. at Sienna [Mar. 2q 1347; d >^
Rome Apr. 20, 1380. Shewa8thetwent74bm)^
of a dyer named Jaoomo Benincssa. Her w
home in the vicinity of a Dominicsn nwMj^
made a deep impression on the senstive
0,
and she believed that St. Dominic hiinfldf ^>P»J*^
to her in a dream and urged her to enter hii oj^
Disregarding her mother's wish that ^jZ
marry, Catharine, then about twelve J®""^ JJJ
cut off her long blond hair to escape oj**'^
attentions. Three years later smallpox <k^||7
her beauty and she was able to fulfil \«sj^
desire, to which her mother had ooDaeoted n^
455
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oatluurlne
time previoudy, by entering the order of peni-
tents of St. Dominic. She no longer drank wine,
while her only food was micooked
Early Life, herbs, taken as a salad, or with oil,
fruit, and bread. She scourged her-
self thrice daily according to the most rigid Domin-
ican custom, once for herself, once for the living,
and once for the dead. Under her habit she wore a
shirt of haircloth for which she substituted later
an iron chain about her waist. She passed the
night in prayer until the bells on the monastety
called to matins and then lay down between boards
which symbolised her coffin. This asceticism she
practised in a tiny room in her father's house which
■he scarcely left for three yean except to attend
mass in the neighboring Dominican church. After
1366, however, she appeared more frequently in
pubUo and became conspicuous for her deeds of
mercy to the poor and sick, especially during the
plague of 1374. Through her devotion and her
piety she gathered around her a spiritual house-
hold of about twenty persons of both sexes,
chiefly members of the Dominican order.
The chief cause of St. Catharine's fame was her
reputation for visions and for prophecy. Even
during the time of her novitiate ^e believed that
Christ often appeared to her and, toward the end of
this period of preparation, that he himself betrothed
her formally as he had the first St. Catharine (see
CATHARiini, Saint, thb Mabttr), by placing a
ring upon her finger. This marriage symbol,
she dedared, was always visible to her, although
no other eyes might see it. Her union with Christ
was further sanctified by an interchange of hearts
and finally by the divine stigmata,
IHstons. beginning with the print of a nail on
her hand and ending with the painful
impress of the four other wounds. This stigmati-
aation also, as in the case of her Gennan con-
temporary, Bfargareta Ebner (q.v.) of Medingen,
always remained invisible, whereas in St. Francis
and the majority of the stigmatists, the wounds
might be seen of all. She ^ewise believed that
she associated much with the Virgin and with
Christ, not only being convinced that she drank
the blood from the wounded side of the Lord, and
the milk from Mary's breast, but also that she
received divine instruction, admonition, and com-
forts, which she was frequently able to conunu-
nicate to others in her ecstasies. Many of her
letters and writingpi, especially her '' Dialogues,"
were dictated by hmr ia trances. She once fasted
during the forty days from Easter to Ascension,
being supported solely by the Eucharist and thus
becoming a model for later saints, particularly
for the two Catharines of the fifteenth century.
Despite her death to the worid, St. Cathiuine
was compelled, during the closing years of her life,
to take part repeatedly in the political and ecd^
aiastical affairs of her country. After 1374 she
frequently left Sienna for the promotion of peace
between the hostile nobles of Tuscany. In 1375
she was in Pisa, where she wrote Queen Joan of
Naples to undertake a crusade to free the Holy
Land. A year later she went to Avignon to reoon-
dle the republic of Florence with Gregory XI.,
but was imsuccessful on account of the treachery
of the Florentines. Later, however, after she had
in great measure been instrumental
Political in securing the return of the pope to
Activity. Rome, she effected her purpose by a
journey to Florence in 1378. The
schism between Urban VI. in Italy and Clement
VII. in Avignon also engaged her attention. She
was a firm partisan of the former, who summoned
her to Rome and after listening to her exhortations
of peace sent her to the court of Joan together with
St. Catharine of Sweden to win the queen from
Clement to himself. The mission failed, since
Bridget's daughter would not be subordinate to
her sister saint, but Catharine of Sienna lived to
see the longed-for, thou^^ brief, adherence of
Naples to her pope. She was recalled to Rome
by this turmoil and struggle and there died. She
was buried in the Dominican Church of Bfinerva in
Rome, although her skull is said to be in the Domin-
ican CSiurch of her native dty. She was canonised
by Pius II., in 1461, while Urban Vin. i^pointed
her feast for Apr. 30. She is represented in art as
carrsring a crucifix with stigmata on her hands,
as well as with the bridal ring. Occasionally she
carries in her hand a lily or a book.
The chief writings of St. Catharine of Sienna
are 373 letters (best separate edition by N. Tom-
maseo, Le LeUere d% Santa Caterina da Siena, 4
vols., Florence, 1860), many of them addressed to
popes, cardinals, princes, and nobles, and impor-
tant for the history of the period. She likewise
wrote twenty-six prayers, various short prophetic
oracles, and a dialogue between herself and God
the Father, dictated in a trance in 1378, under the
title Libro deUa Divina DoUrina (Eng. transl., by
A. Thorold, Dialogue of ths Serajiue Virgin Cathr
anne of Sienna, London, 1806), later divided by
G. Gif^ into four treatises on religious wisdom,
prayer, providence, and obedience; an (Ader di-
vision is into six treatises under the
Writings, title Dialogi de promdenHa Dei. His-
torically, the most interesting of these
treatises is the one on prayer, in which St. Catharine
emphasises the value of the prayer of tbid heart,
which needs no words, in contradistinction to
mere formalism. In her criticisms she spared
neither priests, cardinals, nor pope, sternly re-
proving them for their derelictions and admonish-
ing them of their high duty. Yet thou^^ she pro-
claimed the necessity of reformation, she derired
it to be within the Church and was unswerving in
her orthodoxy and in her allegiance to the Roman
Catholic faith. Her complete works were first
edited by Aldus at Venice in 1500, but the best of
the older editions is that of G. Gif^, UOpere deHa
Serafiea Santa Caterina da Siena (5 vols.. Sienna,
1707-26). (O. ZOcKLBBt)
Biblioobafbt: The Mrly VUa and othar doeumsnto m
eoUeoM in A8B, April, iii. 86a-«78. For letar Utm
and tfitioism eontnlt: A. Gkpe«eUtro. Staria di Cot&rina
da Buna « dd Papato dd 9uo tempo, 4th ed., Sienna, 1878;
Auaiusto T. Dimne, HiH, of St CoAmiM of Sirnia and km'
CompamonM, 2 voli.. London, 1887; A. H. Chiimt, 8.
CaOkorim ds Sunns ti V*gli»» au 14^ tUd^ Tmria, 1888;
JoMphine E. Butler, ColftorifM of Signa, London. 1805;
de FUrisny. S, Catkmine de Sienm, Pftria,
Sal
.tholio Apostolio Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
456
1805; Vldft D. 8oudd«r. St CoDUKim of Sima m mm
ill h0r L§ttar9, New York. 1006; St. Caiherine of Sisna
and H€r Timf, London. 1006: E. Q. Qftrdner, St.
Catherine of Siena, London and New York, 1007. Al«>
L. Gaiet, Le Orand Sekieme d*Oeadeni, 2 toU.. FkranoBb
1880.
CATHARINE, SAINT, OF SWEDEN: Roman
Catholic saint; b. in Sweden 1331 or 1332; d. at
Vadfltena (130 m. 8.w. of Stockholm) Mar. 24,
1381. She was the second daughter of St. Bridget,
the founder of the Brigittines (see Bridqet, Saint,
OF Sweden). At the age of thirteen or fourteen
she married a young nobleman of German extrac-
tion named Eggart of Karnen->the marriage was,
however, by mutual consent only nominal, and both
parties preserved a lifelong virginity. During the
Ufetime of her husband, Catharine accompanied her
mother on the last-named's first journey to Rome,
where through a vision of St. Bridget she learned
of her husband's death in Sweden. She then made
a pilgrimage with her mother to the Holy Land,
but was in Rome with her brother Birger when
St. Bridget died there in 1373. She wbb one of
those who escorted her mother's bones to Sweden,
and she then took up her abode at Vadstena, the
mother house of the Brigittines, where she ruled
as the successor of St. Bridget. About the time
of the return of the popes from Avignon, St. Cath-
arine again resided for some years in Italy and
twice secured papal confinnation of the rule of her
order, first from Gregoxy XI. in 1377 and again
from Urban VI. two years later. The day ap-
pointed for her feast in the Roman martyrology
is Mar. 22. In art her attribute is a hind. She
wrote a '' Consolation of the Soul," which has been
lost According 'to the preface, it was a compila-
tion from many books and treated of the ten com-
mandments, the seven benedictions, the seven joys
of Mary, the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, and
the seven deadly sins. (O. ZOcKLERf.)
Biblioobafbt: The early Viia with eommentary is in ASB,
March, ii. 603-631, and in E. M. Fant, Script rer. Sueeir
eorum, iii.. section 2, pp. 244r-276; cf. A. Butler, Livet of
Ae Faihen, Martifn, and Other Sainie, Not. 26th, London,
1860; XL. vii. 344-346.
CATHARnmS, AMBROSIUS: The monastic
name of Lancelotto Politi, Dominican, bishop of
Minori and archbishop of Consa; b. in Sienna 1487;
d. in Naples Nov. 8, 1553. In 1517 he entered in
Florence the monastery of Savonarola, against
whom he wrote a polemic treatise in 1548. Eager
in opposing evexy form of heresy, he appeared
against Luther in 1520 with an Apologia pro veri-
tate eaiholiccB ae apostolica fidei. Luther replied
in 1521 {Ad Hbrum A, CaUiarini responHo), and
Catharinus answered. Then he went to France,
and wrote in Paris against a member of his own
order. Cardinal Cajetan, Annotationes in commen-
taria Cajetani. After returning to his coimtry he
wrote against his fellow townsman Bemaxdino
Ochino, who in the mean while had fled from Italy
to live according to his own belief (see Ochino,
Bernardino). A little later Catharinus issued
two treatises against Italian Protestant works;
viz., TraUato utiliaHmo del benefino di Gemi Criato
crodpMO and Sommario deUa Sacra Scrittura. The
polemic theologian was present at the Council of
Trent. He arrived in 1545 with the legate Del
Monte and made a speech at the third Ktsai
As a reward for his servioea Paul IH. made hb
bishop of Ifinori in 1546. Julius IH. made him
archbishop of Consa in 1552, and was on thepdis
of woming ||ini Cardinal when Catharinus died. Tbe
eariiest of the works of Catharinus are odlected
in his Opuacula (Leyden, 1542), but there is so
complete edition. K BsniATE.
BnuooBAPHT: The life And writinse of Cfetfaarinw are d»
euaeed in: J. Qu^tif And J. Echard, Script ardimi frw&
eatorum, u. 144 aqq., 332, 885; K. Werner. Gndudikie
apoloffoHetAen und polemiedien lAieraittr, vol ir. pan.
Sehaffhausen, 1866; F. H. Retiaeh. Der Index der te-
6oteiMfi BUeher, toL L panim, Bonn, 1883.
CATHCART, WILLIAM: American Baptist; b.
at Londonderry, Ireland, Nov. 8, 1826. Eene
educated at Glasgow University and Horton (nofr
Rawdon) Baptist Theological CoU^e, Yoriofaire,
En^^and, from which he waa graduated in ISS^l
He was minister of a Baptist church at BainsI?.
near Sheffield, from 1850 to 1853, when he irsit
to the United States, and accepted a call to Mystic
River, Conn., where he remained four yean. He
was then pastor of the Second Baptist dnird
Philadelphia, from 1857 to 1884, and was alao
president of the American Biq[>tiBt Historical So-
ciety from 1876 to 1884. He has written: Tk
Papal SyaUm, from lU Origin to the PreterU Titu
(Philadelphia, 1872); The Boptieta and the Ameri-
can RevoltOion (1876); and The Baptim oj ih
Ages and of the Nations (1878), and edited Tht
Baptist Eneydopesdia (Philad^phia, 1881). Sna
1884 he has held no regular charge, his health not
pennitting him to accept a pastorate, althoogii
he has been able to devote part of bis time to
literary labors.
CATHEDRA: The ancient Latin title for tbe
special seat occupied by the bishop \n Christuo
churches. Even in the catacomhB such sots
were used, either cut out of the solid rock or port-
able. In the basilicas the cathedra stood at the
back of the semicircular apse, behind the altar,
which was on the chord of the arc; but when it
became customary to place the altar back against
the wall, the bishop's seat was brought down into
the choir and placed on the north or gospel side.
The eariy Church preserved with great reverence
the seats of its first bishops; thus it is leaned from
Eusebius {HieL ecd,, VH. xix. 32) that the churA
of Jerusalem preserved that of James, and t«
church of Alexandria that of Marie. A very ancteot
chair traditionally believed to be that of Peter ia pic-
served in St. Peter's at Rome, and waa ii»d for
many centuries for the enthronement of new popes>
until Alexander VII. (1655-67), for its bcttwprej
ervation, had Bernini endoee it in a coloaw
bionse throne. At the celebration of the cighteatt
centenary of the apostie's martyrdom in lw7,
Pius IX. had it again exposed to view; an enf
description and picture of it may be ^^^^
Kraus, Roma sotterranea, Freiburg, ^^'^
bishop's seat was often used as a symbol of t^
teaching oflice of the Churdi, excrciaed through
him; this is frequentiy referred to in the moautf
and carving of extant chairs dating fra& ^ °^
457
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oathaxlne
Oatholio Apoatollo Ohiiroh
to the ninth century. Thus in the definition of
the doctrine of papsl infallibility, the pope is said
to speak ex cathedra when he proclaims a doctrine
" in the exercise of his office as pastor and teacher
of all Christians."
CATHEDRAL: In the churches with episcopal
organisation, the principal church of a diocese,
the especial seat of the bishop. It is the normal
place for the principal episcopal functions, such
as ordination, and is directly under the charge of
the bishop, who is assisted in its administration
and in the performance of divine service by a body
of canons (see Chapter), whose head is a dean or
provost. In Eln^and, from the Reformation until
1840, a distinction was drawn between cathedrals
of the old and of the new foundation. The former
were those where the chapter had been always
composed of secular canons, and whose constitu-
tion remained, therefore, unchanged; in the latter,
after the suppression of the monasteries by Henxy
VIII., a new organisation was required to replace
the earlier monastic chapter. The older cathe-
drals, from their rank and importance in the his-
tory of the Church, offer some of the most splendid
and imposing examples of Christian architecture.
See Arcbitkcture, Ecclesiastical.
Bibuoqbapht: M. E. C. Walcott, Cathedralia: o ConatUu'
tional Hialory of CcUh^raU of th* Weaiem Churth, London,
1865 (authoritative); idem. Documentary HUiory of EnQ'
liah CathedraU, London, 1866; J. 8. Howson, ed., E99av§
on CathedraU, hy variout trntert, London, 1872; C. A.
SwainBon, HiH. of a CcUhedral of the Old Foundation^
London, 1880; P. Schneider, Die bUchdfliohen Domkajriid,
Mains, 188fi; BeU'§ CcUhodral Seriee, 35 vols., London,
1896-1903 (deals with history and archeology); J. J. Bou-
rasstf. Le$ pZus beUs$ eathidralet de France, Paris, 1896; L.
Cloquet, Le$ Orandet Cathidralet du monde caiholigue,
Paris, 1897; 7A« CaihedraU of England and WaUe, New
York, The Churchman Company, 1907.
CATHOLIC (Gk. katholikoSf "general, univer-
sal," from kath* hoUm, "on the whole"): The
phrase hi katholiki ekkliaia, " the catholic church,"
was first used by Christian writers to distinguish
the entire body of beUevers from individual bodies.
it then came naturally to designate the orthodox
in distinction from heretics and schismatics. Later
it was applied to faith, tradition, and doctrine;
it was understood as expressing the universality
of the Church (" in Greek that is called ' catholic '
which is spread through all the world," Augustine,
Epist., lii. 1); it distinguished a cathedral from
parish churches, or the latter from oratories or
monastic chapels. After the separation between
the Greek and Latin churches, the epithet '' cath-
olic " was assumed by the latter, as " orthodox "
was by the former. At the Reformation it was
claimed by the Church of Rome in opposition to
the Protestant or Reformed churches; in England
the theory was maintained that the national Church
was the true catholic Church of the land, and the
expression " Roman Catholic " came into use for
the sake of distinction. " Anglo-Catholic " was
coined by analogy with this at the time of the
Traetarian movement. On the Continent the single
word " catholic " is the common designation for
that branch of the Church in affiliation with Rome.
By Protestants the term has generally been inter-
preted to mean the entire communion of the saved
in all time and places. The word *' catholic " in the
phrase " the holy cathoUc Church " of the Apostles'
Creed is explained by Pearson {Exposition of the
Creed, art. ix.) as indicating that the Church is to
be disseminated through aU nations, extended to
aU places, and propagated to all ages; that it
contains in it aU truths necessary to be known,
exacts absolute obedience from aU men to the
commands of Christ, and furnishes us with aU
graces necessary to make oiu* persons accepta-
ble and our actions well-pleasing in the sight of
God. The word was not in the eariiest form of the
Creed.
CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH: The out-
come of a religious movement which began in
Scotland in 1830, but took its full and distinctive
form in 1835. Its adherents do not use the term
"The Catholic Apostolic Church" as implying
that they alone constitute the Church, but as
affirming that they are members of it. It em«
braces dl the baptised.
In 1828 about fifty gentlemen, some clergymen
and some laymen, but mostly of the Church of
England, met at the country seat of Henry Drum-
mond (q.v.) at Albury, West Surrey, for the study of
the prophetic Scriptures. The subjects considered
were those connected with the return of the Lord
and the present office of the Spirit in the Church.
In Feb., 1830, some members of a Presbyterian
family living near Glasgow began to speak in what
were believed to be supernatural utterances. They
affirmed that their oigans of speech were used by
the Spirit of God to express the divine mind and
will. It is said by one who had intimate personal
knowledge of those speaking that
Supemat- the subject of spiritual gifts had not
oxal Utter- at all occupied their attention; much
ancsi. less had they any thought or expec-
tation of their revival. These utter^
ances, both from the religious character of those
speaking and from their own intrinsic nature,
awakened great attention in all the region round;
and having come to the knowledge of certain gentle-
men in London, some of whom had attended the
conferences at Albury, a deputation was sent up
to Scotland in July to inquire into them, and ascer-
tain whether the utterances were of the Spirit, or not.
They returned fully convinced that the utterances
were divine. In May, 1831, like utterances were
heard in London, the first in a congregation of the
Churoh of Ehigland. This being reported to the
bishop, he forbade them in the future as inter-
fering with the service. Their occurrence in several
dissenting congregations brought forth similar
prohibitions, and this led to the utterances being
made chiefly in the church of Edward Irving (q.v.),
he being a believer in their divine origin. But
they were not confined to London. At Bristol and
other places the same spiritual phenomena ap-
peared. Of these utterances one of the earliest
was, "Behold the Bridegroom oometh. Go ye out
to meet him"; and another often repeated, " The
body of Christ."
llie meaning of this was for a long time
not understood, but it was gradually made
OathoUo Apoatollo Ohnroii
Oatholio Bmanolpation
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4a
plain that the Lord oould not return till due
spiritual preparation had been made in the Church,
and that thu oould be effected only through the
Spirit working in all the ministries
Apottlet and ordinances appointed by God in
Appointed, it. It was also made known that it
was his purpose to restore the ministiy
of i^XMitles; and twelve men were designated as
such by the Spirit speaking throu^ prophets.
The first was so designated in 1832; but it was not
until 1835 that the number was completed, and
in a solemn service they were separated to their
work as an i^xMtolie college. The names of the
apostles were J. B. Cardale, H. Drummond, H.
IQng-<:;hurdi, S. Perceval, N. Armstrong, F. V.
Woodhouse, H. Dalton, J. O. Tudor, T. Gariyle,
F. Sitwell, W. Dow, and D. Mackensie. The fol-
lowing account has been given of their antecedents
by one who knew them personally:
Climud by their religkmi podtion, dsht of tiiaia wwa
mambera of the Chureh of Engluid; three of the Chureh of
8cotl*iid; And one of the Independenta. deieed by their
oeeupatioiM and eoeiel poeitions, three wera eleronwii,
three were membera of the bar, three beloncad to the gentry,
tiro of them beinc membera of PerliMnent; end of the re-
maining three, one wea an artiat, one a merehant, and one
held the poat of Keeper of the Tower. Some of them were
of the higfaeat atanding aociaUy and politicaUy, aome of
them of graat ability aa acholara and theologiana; and all of
them men of unblemiahed eharmeter, aoundneaa in the faith,
and abundant aeal in all Chriatian Isbora.
To prepare them for their work two thingn were
necessary — ^knowledge of the purpose of Ckxl in
the Chiut^, and of its present actual condition.
Their separation was followed by a retirement to
Albury that the Scriptures might be read with such
light through prophecy as God might please to give,
llkter they visited the several countries of Christen-
dom, which were divided among them, to seek for
all that was good and true in doctrine and ritual.
Another step was a work of testimony to the
Church in general of the Lord's acts in the restora-
tion of his ministries. In 1836 they delivered an
address to the king of En|^d and the privy
coundbrs, and another later to the archbishops
and bishops of the United Churdi of En^^and
and Ireland; and in 1837 a testimony addressed
to the rulers in Church and State in Christian lands.
So far as practicable, these testimonies were deliv-
ered by the i^)0stle8 in person to the patriarchs,
archbishops, bishops, emperors, kings, and sover-
eign princes to whom they were addressed.
In these documents, as well as in the whole
course of their i^xMtolio labor, the i^postles wit-
nessed to such things as these: — ^That the Churdi
is the company of the baptised, the body of Christ,
and constituted by God in infinite wisdom that
the Head in Heaven might manifest himself through
it in word and act; that its constitution was per-
manent, having a fourfold ministry — i^)ostle8,
prophets, evangelists, pastors; that these minis-
tries were adi^ted to the mental and spiritual
constitutions of man; that all were needful that
the Head might carry on his work and perfect his
saints; that the Head only could appoint his
ministers; that apostXea chosen by him were his
representatives, the bond of unity, having universal
jurisdiction; that prophets speaking throu£^ the
Holy Ghost were media of light from God to ik
apostles; that evangelista were to preadi to tb»
without the Churdi, bringmg Uxq^
Doctrines, baptism, and then to transfer tbs
to the pastor; that the pastonl m
istry embraces bishops, priests, and deaeoDs; ;k
the retention by the Churdi of the paitonl
ministry only points to its having d^Mrted ii
measure from the ways of the Lord, and that tk
departure ultimatdy leads to the apostaqr i&d
the man of sin spoken of by St. Paul The adk-
ents of this movement point to the apottoiieafr
gregations as the true credentials of apostkMle
faith in the Scriptures, their order, their obedios.
their worship, their calm and patient waitiof ra
the Lord, their catholic spiritw
The gathering of these congregatiaEis wu i
necessity, not of choice, as otherwise the dhir
order in ministries and worship oould not be mas-
fested. Their rdation to the memben of tiie
Church in general is thus defined: " We are a^
separatists nor schismatics. We are not gathocd
together and distinguished from others in i:?
hostile or aggressive attitode. IV
Congrega- Head is not erecting new altan, b^
tions and rebuilding that which was dectjed'
Wonfaip. The liturgy used was not a mere ea&
pilation from existing lituzgies, M
was based upon the Mosaic ritual, its spaitd
antitype and fulfilment. In the worship the tlon
great creeds of the Churdi, the Apostles', Sim
and Athanasian, are used. In all oongieptiQai
suffidently large, daily worship is appointed atsx
▲.If. and five p.ic., the opening and dosing itoon
of the day. The Eucharist is the chief foiocxs
service on eveiy Lord's day, and at other timai'
appointed. The ministers of each fully orgaoiaii
local church are a chief pastor, or ang^, or bisbcfK
and under him priests and deacons. All memben
pay tithes of income as of obligation, and, ss able,
voluntary offerings.
As no official statistics of the number of eonp-
gations have ever been published, it is impossl^
to say how many there may now be, but oonfftp-
tions are formed in most of the largo- dtiei d
Christendom. The death of the apostfea made
necessary some changes in the administntkn au
worship, but the faith is apparently ^*'^^^^^
the Lord will in some supmatural way tpem
confirm the work already done, and will cam^^
(Samuel J. AHDEBWst) ^
This body repudiates the title "Lringit^
by which it is generally known (see Ikvwo. E^
ward). In the eariy days of the movement that
was no little uncertainty aa to the final ainnfiDa|
of the offices and jealouay between the diffa^
ranks. In 1830 Cbodale was recalled bom ies
second mission abroad to compose the diff««^
which had arisen on account of the daim of the el-
ders, which was supported by the ^^^"^
voice in the government of the church, tte tp*^
late succeeded in suppressing this revolt, m^
avoid any recurrence ci it the full genenl con^
was not again convoked, and ody revived m w'J
in the form of a conference of the sevea sn|P^
London under the presidency of the apostle-
450
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OathoUo Apostolio Oburoh
Oatholio BnuuioixMttion
the same ends (1840) the principle was laid down
that the purity of the prophets' doctrine must be
attested by the apostles, and thXis the superiority
of the apostolio office vindicated. The same year
marks the beginning of another important ohimge.
The apostles who had been traveling on the Conti-
nent had oome there into contact with Roman
Catholicism, and the result was a definite assimila-
tion to its ways of the " Catholic Apostolic Church,"
as it was now officially called. All traces of Scotch
Presbyterian or Encash non-confonnist traditions
were gradually eradicated. Altars were now erected
separated from the body of the church by a rail
at which the communicants knelt. The people
were taught to regard the Eucharist as a sacrifice
of praise and thanksgiving in which the elements,
changed by the Holy Ghost into the body and blood
of Cbist, were offered to God in commemoration
of his death. The same tendency appeared in the
liturgy introduced in 1842 and drawn up mainly
by Cardale, which went back to eariy forms. East-
ern as well as Western. The eucharistic vestments
were adopted practically as in the Roman Catholic
Church; extreme unction was introduced in 1847;
from 1860 the consecrated dements were reserved
in a tabernacle and every morning and evening
(on the analogy of the showbread) exposed, not
as objects of adoration but to assure the people 'of
the Lord's presence and abiding intercession. In
1852 the use of candles on the altar and incense was
added, and in 1868 holy water. The most original
ceremony is the " sealing," which was introduced
in 1847 on Cardale's motion; with reference to
Rev. vii. 3 sqq. it was taught that those who were
to be saved must be sealed in order to escape the
great tribdation. This was to be done by the
apostles with laying on of hands and unction;
candidates must be at least twenty years old.
The result of the discord which followed these
innovations, of the defection of the apostle Macken-
zie, and of the failure of prophecy to fix the exact
date of the Lord's coming, aJl contributed to keep
down the numbers of the body, which in 1851
counted 4,018 members with thirty-two churches,
a decUne from the days of the first enthusiasm.
But the movement had already spread to other
countries. In 1835-36 it had gained a foothold in
Geneva; in 1841 a propaganda had been under-
taken in southern Germany by Caird (husband of
Mary Campbell, one of the ori^nal claimants of the
gift of tongues), and still more lealously in northern
Gennany by the apostle Thomas Gariyle (q.v.), who
established public worship in Berlin in 1848. Out-
side of Holland, however, little progress was made
in other countries. Doubts were awakened by the
death of one apostle after another, and in 1860, at
a meeting of the apostolic college at Albuiy the
prophet Geyer called for the elevation of the evan-
gelists B6lun and Caird to the apostolio offiee.
These two then, and in 1870 some others, were
recognised as ccMuijutor apostles. Geyer was not
satisfied, and in 1861, being in Kdni^dwrg with
Woodhouse, proclaimed the call of a local evangelist
Rogasatski to the apostolate. The latter soon
made his submission, but a schism ensued. In
1863 Geyer himself was called, and ten months
later one Schwarts, especially for Holland; on the
assumption that there must always be twelve
apostles, there were six in Hamburg and three in
Amsterdam by 1875. Woodhouse, the last En^^h
apostle, died in 1901. In the Eni^h body proph-
ecy was allowed less and less importance, and Oar-
dale's treatise Prophesying and the Ministry of the
Propha m the ChriaUan Church (1868) practically
gave it its death-blow.
The accessible figures give the present number
of churches in EIngland as about eighty, and in the
United States as ten, with 1,401 communicants.
Probably more numerous are the followers of the
Gennan and Dutch branch, which has increased
in strength, though its separation from the ^<^gl<«*»
body has favored a tendency to fanatical extrava-
gance and to the abandonment of the likeness to
Roman Catholicism in externals. Apostles, proph-
ets, and other functionaries appear in oidinaiy
dress, and the altar is usually replaced by a com-
mon table. The element of adoration in public
worship ii less and less emphasised, while more stress
ii laid upon conversion by preaching and prophecy
and the assembling of the faithful for the speedy
coming of the Lord. The insistenee on the numbw
of twdve apostles which was the justification for
the schism is now considered merely as the letter,
the essential being the pennanence of the ofilce, so
that in 1000 thm were fourteen apostles minia-
tering in this branch. Its principal seats are
Brunswick, Hamburg, Berlin, and KOnigsberg. In
recent years it has extended also to North and South
America, and claims that with the help of a native
missionary no less than 15,000 converts have been
" sealed " in the island of Java. Its official organ
is the Wdchteretimmen aue Ephraim, published
monthly by the apostle Fr. Krebs at Iseriohn,
Westphalia, Prussia, containing reports of the
journeys of the apostles and statistics of conver-
siona. (T. Kolds.)
BiBLiooBArBT: ThewuroMMvfoiiiidinthe writings of Ed-
ward Irving, and in the following works on his life: W.
JoDm,BiogravKiealSk§iek of itsv. Bdward Irvino, iriHb f *-
tneiafromkU . . . PHndpai ITrilintfs, London, 1886; W.
Wilks, Edward irving, an BeeUtiaaUeal amd Wtrary Biog-
rapky, ib. 1854; Mrs. O. W. OUphant, Lt/s of Edward
Irving, lUmtitaitd 6|r hi» JoumaUand CorntpandaneB, S
vols., ib. 1802, new ed.. 1885 (on ibis eonsult D. Ksr,
ObmrvaUone on Mrt, OUphanfe Life of Edward Irving,
Edinbingh, 1808); T. Cariyls. In his Baminieeenem, od.
C. £. Norton, 2 vols., London, 1878; T. Kolde, Edward
Irving, Lsipsie, 1001. For the history and doetrins of the
Choreh eonsult: J. N. KOhler, tfsl /mtviseM, The Hague,
1870; E. Miller, HMorv and l>oe«rifM•o//^vifl0isn^ 2 vols..
London, 1878; H. U, Trior, My Esperianee of Ae CaAoUe
Apealolie Ckwrtk, ib. 1880; B. J. Andrews, Ocd'e Asvslo-
Uane of Himedf to Man, New York, 1880; E. A. Boss-
toussher, Dsr Aufbau dm' Kirdke ChrioU auf don wr-
oprAnoUchonGrwndlagon, BamA, 1880; A. B. Dyer, AMdbM
«f Bnglitk NoneonfmmiiM, London. 1808.
CATHOLIC BMANCIPATIOll: The name £^ve&
to the Act by which Parliamenti on Apr. 13, 1829,
finally removed the civil disabilities under which
the Roman Catholics of England and Irehind had
labored ever since the reign of Elisabeth, when
those who refused to take the oath of supremacy
and conform to the Established Church were ex«
duded from the House of Commons and from all
political power. Tbay suffered from a mass ol
^thollo Bmanoipation
QathoU
OMulda
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
460
accumulated dkabilities, which, if the law had been
strictly enforced, would have deprived them of their
rights, not only as dtiaens, but as parents, proprie-
tors, and men. With the growth of toleration, a
bill abolishing some of these disabilities was passed
in 1778, to be followed by the uprising of the Lon-
don mob known as the " Gordon Riots." Pitt had
intended that the union between Ehigland and
Ireland should be followed by a measure admitting
Catholics to Parliament, with a provision for their
clergy and a commutation of tithes. This hope,
informally held out, probably helped to win their
support for the union; but George III. was inflex-
ibly opposed to this measure of justice, and Pitt
resigned in consequence of its failure. In 1821,
with Canning for its eloquent champion, a measure
of emancipation was carried throu^ the House of
Commons, only to be defeated by Lord Eldon in
the upper house. But a mighty agitation followed
in Ireland, led by Daniel O'Connell and fomented by
a great Catholic Association. This body was dis-
solved when Canning became minister in 1825,
but revived when he was replaced by the anti-
Catholic ministry of Wellington and Peel, and soon
showed such fonnidable strength that the great
Duke, with his political insight, saw that the hour
for concession had come. The bill which Peel
introduced threw open to Catholics Parliament and
all the great offices of state, except those of regent,
lord lieutenant of Ireland, and chancellor, the
crown remaining limited, by an Act of Settlement
to the Protestant Concession, and gave the elec-
toral franchise to English Catholics. As the re-
moval of an unjust anachronism, this measure was
inevitable; but it failed to restore tranquillity to
Ireland, since the concession had been robbed of its
grace by delay and enforcement, and since the
chief cause of Irish disaffection was, after all, not
the religious disabilities but the tenure of land,
as the sequel clearly showed.
Biblioorafht: fiouroes: A. Wellesley (Duke of Wellincton).
SuppUm^fUary Deapatdie; ediied by hit toti, 7 July. 1812,
London; 1867-80. Speechet, 17 May, 1819, 2 voU., ib. 1854;
F. 8. Larpent, PrivaU Journal, i. 95. ii. 20, London,
1853; Memoir of Sir Robert Peel, pt. i.. The Roman Catholic
QuetUon, London. 1834; J. F. Stephen. Hietory of Crim^
inal Law of Enifland, ii. 476 sqq., London, 1883 (exceed-
ingly valuable); W. J. Amherst, Hietory of Caiholie
Emancipation in the Britieh ielee, 2 vole., London, 1886
(fairly eomplete).
CATHOLIC EPISTLES: A name given to seven
of the epistles of the New Testament; viz., James,
I and II Peter, I, II, and III John, and Jude.
Different explanations have been given of the sig-
nificance of the name. (1) It has reference to the
writers, who were the apostles in general, whereas
the other New Testament epistles were believed
to be written by Paul. (2) It refers to the con-
tents, which do not treat of any particular topic,
but are general. (3) It refers to the recipients,
the letters not being addressed to a particular
church, but to the Church universal. (4) It refers
to opinion concerning these writings and indicates
that they were generally accepted as authentic,
in distinction from the many writings current and
ascribed to apostolic authorship but not every-
where so received. The name was given to the
First Epistle of John in the East about the second
century, and by the fourth oentuiy it included the
seven epistles hamed. In the West they were
called " canonical " epistles. Certain non-canon-
ical writings (as the Epistle of Barnabas and the
letter from the apostles at Jerusalem in Acts xv.
23-29) are also called '' catholic " by eariy writers.
See Canon of Scbipture, II., 2, | 5.
BxBLxooaAPHT: The Caiholie Epistlee are of oourve dealt
with in the principal worlu on the N. T. Canon, N. T.
Introduction, and in the Commentaries. Conmilt: P.
J. QkMC. tntroducHon to the Catholic SpiaOee, Edinbursh.
1887; W. Sanday. in Biblical inepiraiion, London, 18«6;
W. H. Bennett, in the Century Bible, ib. 1901; and C. A.
Bin, Commentary on 8t Peter and 8t. Jude, Edinbuz^h.
1902.
CATHOLIC OR UllITBD COPTS. See Uniates.
CATHOLICUS: In the time of Constantine, a
civil oflicer established after the organisation oi
dioceses, each diocese having its catholicus, or
receiver-general. As an ecdesiastical officer occur-
ring in several Eastern churches, the catholicus
occupied a position between the metropolitan and
the patriarch. The title is also applied to the head
of an independent or schismatic communion, such
as the Armenian Church.
CATTLE. See Pastoral Lifb. Hebrew.
CAVAGIIIS, ca"va"nyt8, FELICE: Roman Cath-
olic cardinal; b. at Bordogna (near Bergamo,
39 m. n.e. of Milan) Jan. 13, 1841; d. at Rome
Dec. 29, 1906. He was educated at the Roman
Seminary, and was ordained to the priesthood in
1863. Three years later he became a teacher at
Celano, and later became a member of the faculty
of the Roman Seminary, of which he was rector
from 1 887 to 1 893. Later still he was appointed sec-
retary of the Congregation for Extraordinaiy
Ekiclesiastical Affairs, and in 1901 was created
cardinal deacon of Santa Maria ad Martyres. In
addition to the Congregation for Extraordinary
Affairs, he was a member of the Congregations of
the Consistory, the Bishops and Regulars, the
Council, the Index, and the Sacred Visitation.
CAVALIER, JEAN. See Caiobards.
CAVE, ALFRED: En^h Congregationalist;
b. at London Aug. 29, 1847; d. there Dec. 19, 1900.
He was educated at New College, London (B.A..
London University, 1872), and was Congr^ational
minister successively at Berkhampst^d, Herts
(1872-76), and Watford, Herts (1876-80). He
was appointed professor of Hebrew and church
history in Hackney College, London, in 1880, and
two years later was chosen principal and professor
of apologetic, doctrinal, and pastoral theology in
the same institution, retaining both these positions
until his death. He was also Congregational
Union Lecturer in 1888, vice-president of the
London Board of Congregational ministers in 1888
and 1898, and Merchants' Lecturer in 1893-94.
He collaborated with J. S. Banks in translating
the System der christlichen Olaubenslekre of I. A.
Domer (2 vols., Beriin, 1879-81) under the title
System of Christian Doctrine (4 vols., Edinburgh,
1880-82), and also wrote the independent worb:
Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifiee and Atonement
TEdinburgh, 1877); An Introduction to Theology:
461
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Catholic Bmanoipatlon
Ceadda
lU PrincvpUB, lU Branehea, lU RenUta, and lU
lAterature (1886); Ths InMjriratUm of the Old Tes-
iament Inductively Considered (Congregational Union
Lectures; London, 1888); Ths Battle of the Stand"
arda, the Old Tentament and the Higher CrUidem
(1890); The Spiriiwd World, the Last Word of
Philosophy and the First Word of Christ (1894);
and The Story of the Founding of Hackney College
(1899). An enlarged edition of his Introduction to
Theology appeared in 1896.
CAVE, WILLIAM: Church of England patristic
scholar; b. at Pickwell (13 m. e. by n. of Leicester)
Dec. 30, 1637; d. at Windsor Aug. 4, 1713. He
studied at Cambridge, in St. John's College, and
was made M.A. in 1660, D.D. in 1672, in 1681 D.D.
by Oxford. He was vicar of Islington, now part
of London, 1662-^1; rector of All Hallows the
Great, Thiunes Street, London, 1679-^; became
chaplain of Charles II. and canon of Windsor in
1681; and in 1690 vicar of Isleworth, London. His
reputation rests on his eminent attainments in
patristics. His principal works are: (1) Primitive
Christianity (London, 1672; reprinted, Oxford,
1840, in connection with his Dissertation Concerning
the Government of the Ancient Church hy Bishops,
Metropolitans, and Patriarchs, 1683); (2) TabulcB
ecclesiasiica, tables of ecclesiastical writers (1674;
improved ed. under the title Chartophylax eccle-
aiasticus, 1685); (3) Apostolici, or the Lives of the
Primitive Fathers for the Three First Ages of the
Christian Church (1677); (4) Ecclesiastici : or,
the Histories of the lAves, Acts, Deaths and Writings
of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Church Thai
Flourisht in the Fourth Century (1683; 3 and 4
were combined and edited by Henry Cary under
the title Lives of the Most Eminent Fathers of the
Church That Flourished in the First Four Centuries,
3 vols., Oxford, 1840); (5) Scriptorum ecdesiasti-
eorum hietoria literaria (1688; in Latin, to the
fourteenth century, continued by others to 1617
and reprinted, Oxford, 2 vols., 1740-43).
Bibuoorapbt: J. Darling, Cydopeedia Bibliographiea, pp.
606-607. London. 1854; S. A. Allibone, CrUieal DieHonary
of EnolUh LUmUure, i. 356-367. Philadelphi*. 1891; DNB,
ix. 341-343.
CAVICCHI05I, ca-vi'ch9''n!, BEHJAMIN: Ro-
man Catholic cardinal; b. at Veiano (a village
near Viterbo, 42 m. n.n.w. of Rome) Sept. 27,
1836. He was ordained priest in 1859, and, after
teaching for several years, went to Rome, where he
studied canon law. In 1872 he became a member
of the Congregation of the Council, and twelve
years later was consecrated titular archbishop of
Amidaand appointed apostolic delegate to Peru,
Bolivia, and Ecuador, where he remained until 1889.
In the latter year he was appointed secretary of the
council, with the title of archbishop of Nazianzum,
and in 1903 was created cardinal priest of Santa
Maria in Ara Cceli. He is a member of the Congre-
gations of Bishops and Regulars, the Council, the
Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, the Index, and
Indulgences.
CAYET, ca"y*' (CAHIER, CAIET, Cajetanus),
PIERRE VICTOR PALMA: Roman Catholic con-
vert; b. at Montrichard (18 m. s.s.w. of Blois),
Touraine, 1625; d. in Paris May 10 (or July 22),
1610. He studied at Paris and Geneva, was Prot-
estant pastor at Poitiers and in its neighborhood,
and in 1584 became chaplain to Catherine of Bour-
bon, sister of Henry IV.; in 1595 he embraced Ro-
manism, was made professor of Hebrew in the
Sorbonne in 1596, and became priest in 1600. He
was accused of scandalous writings and immoral-
ity, but claimed that all charges were prompted
by ill will because of his change of faith. His most
noteworthy writings were Chronologie sepUnaire
de Vhistovre de la paix entre le roi de France et
d'Espagne (Paris, 1605) and Chronologie novinaire
sous le rkgne de HenH IV (1608).
CAZALLA, cfl-thOl'ya, AUGUSTmO: Spanish
Protestant; b. at Valladolid 1510; executed by
the Inquisition there May 21, 1559. He was a
scholar of Bartholom^ Carranza (q.v.) and stud-
ied at Valladolid and Alcala. The influence of
his father, the chief officer of the royal finances,
opened to him a brilliant career in the Church, and
his own ability won him the reputation of being one
of the foremost preachers in Spain. In 1545 he be-
came chaplain and almoner to Charles V. and accom-
panied the emperor to Germany on the outbreak
of the Schmalkald war. There he undertook to
confute the Lutherans, but ended by accepting
their doctrines. Returning to Spain in 1552, he
was cautious at first in expressing his opinions,
but ultimately his mother's house in Vsdladolid
became the meeting-place of the Protestants of the
city and Cazalla himiself the head of the congrega^
tion. In 1558, with his brothers and sisters and
about seventy-five others, he was put into prison.
On Mar. 4, 1559, when threatened with torture,
he acknowledged that he had accepted Luther's
teachings, but denied that he had taught them to
others except to those already of like mind; fur-
ther concessions he steadfastly refused to make.
The auto da f€ at which he perished was the first
of these sad spectacles. Sixteen persons, including
a brother and a sister of Cazalla, brought to judg-
ment at the same time, were condemned to im-
prisonment for life; two, Cazalla's brother Fran-
cisco and Antonio Herezuelo, a lawyer of Toro,
were burned alive; and twelve others, including
Cazalla, were strangled before being burned. At
the place of execution he was persuaded to address
his fellow prisoners. (O. ZdCKLERf.)
Biblioobapht: T. McCrie, HiwUrry of the Proffnn and Sup-
prt—ion of the Reformation in Spain, pp. 226-231, 285-
289. Edinburgh. 1829: C A. Wilkens. Oeediiehts dee
epaniechen ProteetanHemue, pp. 79 «qq., 224 aqq.. 234 sqq.,
Gttteraloh. 1888; H. C. Lea, Hietory of the Inquiaition in
Spain, ii. 318. 512. Ui. 201. 430. 431. 438. New York. 1906.
CEADDA (CHAD), ST. : Third bishop of Mercia;
d. at Lichfield Mar. 2, 672. He was one of Aldan's
pupils at Lindisfame and also spent some years at
the monastery of Rathmelsige (Melfont, near
Drogheda?) in Ireland. His oldest brother, Cedd
(q.v.), chose him to succeed himself as abbot at
Lastingham, Northumbrian in 664. After the Synod
of Whitby (q.v.) Wilfrid was elected to the North-
umbrian bishopric and went to Gaul to be conse-
crated. As he did not return immediately King
Oswy saw fit to appoint Ceadda, and he was
OelMtina
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOQ
462
oonsecratod (6057) by Wine of Winchester and
two British bishc^. Wilfrid acquiesced on go-
ing back to England, but when Theodore be-
came archbishop of Canterbury (660) objection
was raised to Oradda's consecration; he expressed
his willingness to lay down an office of which
he had never deemed himself worthy, retired to
his monastery in Northumbria, and Wilfrid was
instated in his place. Theodore, however, impressed
by Oeadda's humility and worth, reconsecrated him
as bishop of the Mercians to succeed Jaruman, and
he fixed his residence at Lichfield (S^t, 660).
His simplicity, piety, and devotion to du^ won
the hearts of all, and in later times he was one of
the most popular of English saints.
BnuooBAFHT: Bede, HitL «eel., ill. 28, 24, 28; iv. 2, 8; t.
19. 24; FatH Eboraemam, ad. W. H. Dixon and J. lUiiM,
L 47-«6. LoDdon, 1868; W. Brisht, Bwrly Bngliak Chunk
Hittory, pp. 248-246^ 250-200, Ozfoid, 1887; DNB, iz.
801-808.
CECIL, RICHARD: English "evangelical "; b.
in London Nov. 8, 1748; d. at Hampstead (Lon-
don) Aug. 16, 1810. His eariy life was profligate,
but he was converted about 1772, and in 1773
entered Queen's College, Oxford (B.A., 1777); he
was ordained priest 1777 and, after holding various
livings, was appointed minister of St. John's Chi^,
Bedford Row, London, in 1780. He was the lead-
ing "evangelical" clergyman of his time, and
exerted a wide influence. He had an original mind,
dignified carriage, and impressive delivery. His
works were collected and published with memoir
by the Rev. J. Pratt (4 vols., London, 1811; new
ed., with his letters and memoir by ^^» CecU,
1854). Ptohi^M the most noteworthy of his works
is The Remains of Richard Cecily wUh numeroue ee^
UetUma from hie worke, new ed., with introduction
by his daughter and preface by R. Bickenteth
(London, 1876), containing reminiscences of his
oonversations.
CBCnjA, 8AIHT: Roman maiden of noble
family, who is said by different versions of the un-
certain and contradictory tradition to have suf-
fered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius and Oom-
modus, under Alexander Severus, and under
Diodetian. Her Ada relate that on the eve of her
marriage she converted her husband, Valerianus, to
Christianity. Angels appeared to both Cedlia and
Valerianus charging them that her virginity should
not be impaired. Tibertiua, the brother of Valeri-
anus, was then converted. The two brothers, refu-
sing to sacrifice to the gods at the bidding of the
prefect, Almachius, were executed by the sword, and
Cecilia was exposed to death in an overheated bath
in her own house; when this means failed she too
was beheaded. The remains of the three martyrs
were placed in the catacombs of St. Calixtus, whence
Pope Paschal I., in 821, is said to have removed the
relics of Cecilia to a cfaureh called after her name
(Sta. Cecilia in Traatevere); her coffin of cypress
wood was found there in 1609 (Baronius, AnnaUe,
ad an. 821 ). De Rossi discovered what is probably
the original crypt of Cecilia, adjoining the papal
crypt in the cemetery of Calixtus, and has at-
tempted to prove that she belonged to the old pa-
trician family of the OBBcilii; also that the date of her
martjrrdom was 177 under Marcus Aurelius. To-
ward the end of the Bliddle Ages Cecilia begiDs to
be represented in art with musical attributes.
The conception of her as patroness of the organ
dates probably from Raffael's painting of 1513,
now in Bologna, and may be baaed upon a mis-
understanding of certain words of her Acta which
refer io the (secular) musical instruments at her
wedding, but were thought to indicate a particular
instrument plajred by iwrself . The r61e which she
fills among both Roman Catholics and Protestants
as patroness of church music in general may be
due to the founding of a musical aoidemy at Rome
by Gregory XIII. in 1584 under her protecdon
and named after her. (O. ZOcxuEBf.)
BnuooBArar: A8B, April. U. 208-211: A. Borio. Acte 8,
CmeiHa, Rome, IdOO ed. J. lAderelii. with title. Acta,
8, CmcOim H InnatiUrina ba»aiea Obuinia, 2 voli.. Borne,
1722; J. B. de Romi, Roma mita twimt d^riatiama, iL, piK.
zzadi.-^z]iiL. 119-161. Borne. 1807, EnctniuL. i. 816-333.
Loodoii, 1870; Dom OuAreDcer. 8la, Cidla, Ptoria» 1874
(riohly iUuetreted, but of little eeientifie Taliie); C. Mertin.
DiM kmiica CeeUia, Maine. 1878; Bertha E. LorewvO.
Th§L%f€af8l. Cmitia, in Yak 8ludim in Bn^Uk, toL iii^
New York. 1808.
CEDD (CEDDA), ST.: Bishop of Essex; d. at
Lastingham (25 m. n.n.e. of Yoi^), Northumbrian
Oct. 26, 604. With his youngest brother Ceadda
or Chad (q.v.), he was brought up at Lindisfame,
and was sent in 653 by his abbot, Finan (q.v.),
and Oswy, king of Northumbria, as missionaiy,
first to Peada, Idng of Merda, and then to Sigbert,
king of Essex. He was very successful and was
consecrated bishop of the East Saxons by Finan
and two Scotch bishops in 654. He founded two
monasteries in Essex and the one at Lastingham
and governed them stricUy, according to the Co-
lumban rules. He was present at the Synod of
Whitby (q.v.) in 664 and acted as interpreter; he
inclined to the British side, but when the Roman
prevailed he acquiesced. He died of the plague
while on a visit to Northumbria. He has been
called the second bishop of London, but Bede,
who is the source of all information concerning him
(Hiei. eccL, iiL 21-23, 25, 26, 28; iv. 3), never
speaks of him as such.
CBILLIER, M'ly^, RBKT: French bibfiogra-
pher; b. at Bar-le-due ICay 14, 1688; d. at Flavigny,
near Nan^, Nov. 17, 1761. He entered the Con-
gregation of St. Vannes (reformed Benedictines)
in 1705, and became titular prior of Flavigny.
His great work was an HieUnre nerUraU dee auieure
eaarie ei eccUeiaetiquee, gui anUierU lew vie, le
catalogue, la eriHgue, le jugemeni, la chronologie,
Vatialuee, el le dinombremenl dee diffArentee SdiUone
de leure ouvragee; ee gu*ile rer^ermefU de plue in-
UreeeafU eur le dogme, sur la morale, ei eur la die-
cipline de Vigliee (23 vols., Paris, 1729-63; Table
g^rUrale dee maUiree by Rondet and Drouet, 2 vols.,
1782; new ed., 16 vols., 1858-«9). This work is
brought down to the middle of the thirteenth oen-
tury, and is more complete and exact than the
similar undertaking of Du Pin (q.v.), but is in-
ferior in respect to style and eritioal judgment;
it is of most value for the first six centuries, for
which Ceillier was able to use Tillemont and the
BenedieUne editions.
168
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oeoll
OelMtina
Siblioorapbt: A. Beugnet, £tud€ hiooraphitus ei arUiqut
9ur I><nn Bimi CeiUiar, Bai^le-Due, 1891.
CELB, JOHiUllTES: Teacher at ZwoUe; b. at
Zwolle, about the middle of the fourteenth century;
d. there May 9, 1417. He received his eariy edu-
cation in his native place, continued his studies in
some unknown school, and, returning to Zwolle,
in 1374 was entrusted with the school-management
there. Having been awakened by the preaching
of Gerard Groote, he thought of joining the order
of Minorites, but was prevented from doing so by
Groote, who advised him to complete his studies
at Prague. Whether he went to Prague is not
known. Depressed in mind. Ode spent some time
in the monastery at Munnikhuisen and in com-
pany with Ruysbroeck. Through the influence
of Groote, in spite of opposition, Cele was made
rector of the school at Zwolle. He received much
help from the Brethren of the Common Life and
as^sted them especially in the difficult task of
securing houses at Zwolle for their adherents and
those committed to their charge, but he did not
join the brotherhood, remaining rector of the ever-
growing school, which numbered 1,000 pupils.
He taught Latin, grammar, and rhetoric, and
expounded the Scriptures, admitting laymen to
his lectures against the will of the city ministers.
He founded a large library by buying and copying
manuscripts. For more than forty years he stood
at the head of the institution, highly esteemed for
his learning and piety and his lasting influence on
his pupils. The lasy and presumptuous were kept
under rigid discipline. All wore the simple dress
of the brethren. He had no method of his own,
but labored in the spirit of his friend Groote, recog-
nizing in a pious personality the source of all
morality, and thus he gave to the growing human-
ism the right direction and true basis in the Chris-
tian faith and genuine piety. Many prominent men
were his pupils, such as Heinrich von Herxen,
Wessel Gansfort, Alexander Hegius, Rudolf Langen,
Rudolf Agricola, Ludwig Dringenberg, Merits von
Spiegelberg, and Johannes Busch.
L. SCHULZB.
Bibuoobapbt: Bendas the works nMntioned in the article
CoimoN LiFs, Bbsthebn of tbb, valuable eouroes for
Cele are the personal reminieeenoeB of Thomas k Kempis
in the Chronieon wumaaUrii 8, AgneH*^ ed. H. Bosweyde,
p. 171, Antwerp, 1616, and of his scholar, Johannes Busch«
in the Chronieon WindMhomente, ed. K. Grube, pp. 204r-
222, Halle, 1887. Ck>nsalt also ^2>B, iv. 70.
CELBSmVE: The name of five popes.
Celastine L : Pope 422-432. He was a Roman by
birth, and only a deacon when, in Sept., 422, he
was raised to the episcopate. The main endeavor
of his pontificate was to extend the jurisdiction
of his see. To this end he made use of a conflict
which had been going on for years in the African
Church in order to assert the right of the Roman
pontiff to receive appeals thence. He restored to
communion Apiarius, an African priest who had
been deposed by his bishop and had appealed to
Rome under Zosimus and Boniface I. The Afri-
cans, however, in a synod at Carthage in 424 or
425, denied his right to interfere. Celestine's part
in the dogmatic oontrovenries of his time was also
influenced by political considerations (see Semi-
Pelaoianism ; Nestobius). He died at the end of
July, 432. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Liber pontifiealU, ed. Duchesne, i. 280,
Paris. 1886; Jaifd, Reonia, i. 66; Hefele. Coneilimge-
tchiehU, ii. 160 sqq., Eng. transl.. ii. 476 sqq.; Bower,
Popes, i. 166-186; Milman, LaHn Chrutiani^, I 200-238.
Cdastine IL (Guido de Castellis): Pope 1143-
1144. He was a Tuscan of noble birth, reputed to
be learned and pious. He occupied the papal
throne only from Sept. 26 to Mar. 8, not long
enough to fulfil the hopes which his elevation had
raised. (A. Hauck.)
Bzblxoobafht: JmS4, fit^stla, ii. 1; Bower, Popes, ii. 476.
Celestine HL (Jacinto Bobo): Pope 1101-08.
After being a cardinal forty-seven years, at eighty-
five he was elected. Mar. 30 (7), 1101, the first pope
of the house of Ondni. The times were troublous
(see CUEBiENT in.), and the aged pope, a man of
mild temper and inclined to hidf measures, was no
match for his fonnidable opponent Heniy VI.,
who appeared before Rome and demanded his
coronation, which Celestine was obliged to per-
form on the day after Easter. Heniy surrendered
Tusculum to him, but later forced him, in compli-
ance with the agreement of May 31, 1188, to give it
up to the Romans for destructioiL From 1104
he saw the Norman kingdom, with which his pred-
ecessors had invested Tancred, in the possession
of the hated Hohenstauf en. Heniy refused to take
the oath of fealty or to pay tribute; he appointed
bishops and judged them, and gave the lands of
Countess Matilda to his brother Philip in fee.
Celestine did not venture to excommunicate him,
but did break off relations with him, though he
offered reconciliation when Henry took the cross
(May 31, 1105). It soon became evident that
Henry was a crusader only for political advantage,
and the territory and rights of the Church were
invaded in various quarters. Humiliations beset
the aged pope. He was obliged to release Philip
Augustus of France from his unperformed vow to
free the Holy Sepulcher; and could not force the
recognition of his legate in England, William of
Longchamp (the bishop of E3y, Richard Cceur de
Lion's chancellor), by Prince John and the barons;
nor did Philip Augustus heed his admonitions
against the arbitrary dissolution of his marriage
with Ingeborg of Denmark and the contracting
of a new one. His fear of the emperor pre-
vented him from protesting against Richard's im-
prisonment; only after the English king had paid
his ransom did he excommunicate Leopold of
Austria. Celestine survived Henry VI. by only a
few months, dying Jan. 8, 1 108. (A. Hauck.)
Bibuoobapht: Jaff^, Regmta, ii. 677; J. M. Watterieh,
Pontifieym Romanontm vUa, ii. 706. Leiprio, 1862; F.
Grccoroviui, OeeehitkU dtr Stadt Rom, ir. 601, Stuttcart,
1890, Eng. tranal., iv. 62<Mk30. 600, London, 1806; Bower.
PopM, U. 681-1634; Hauok, X2>, iv. 663-681.
Celestine IV. (Galfrido di Castiglione): Pope
1241. A Milanese by birth, he was elected pope
in a conclave held by permission of Frederick II.
on Oct. 26. He was old and feeble, and died, be-
fore he could be consecrated, on Nov. 10.
(A. Hauck.)
Bxbuoqbapbt: Bower, Popet, ii. 660-660.
CMMUaa
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4e4
Cdeftine V. (Pietro di Murrbone): Pope 1294.
He wai bom about 1216 in the Abnissi; d. at
Fumone, near Anagni, May 19, 1296. At twenty
he entered the Benedictine order, and lived for
years in retirement first on the Murrhone, then on
the Majella, where numerous followers gathered
around him (see CKLSBTiNnX After the death 3f
Nicholas IV. (Apr. 4, 1292), dissensions among
the gftHiwi^l* hindered an election, until in March,
1294, Charles II. of Naples, who needed a pope
to support his designs on Sicily, took up the matter.
Since there was no hope of agreeing on a cardinal,
Latinus, the head of the Angevin party in the sacred
college, drew his attention to the hermit of the
Abrusii, whose sanctity was universally revered;
and Pietro was elected on July 6. His unfitness
for high affairs of state was equally well known;
the various leaders hoped to rule through him.
But the remarkable choice can only be fully ex-
plained by a study of the mystical reform move-
ment represented by Joachim of Fiore (q. v.), which
had spr^ so widdy among a section of the Fran-
ciscan order. Their prominent men favored the
election of Pietro enthusiastically, flocked to his
coronation, and renewed their old relations with
him by a formal embassy. The new pope sanc-
tioned their observance of the rule of the order in
its strictest form, and took them under his special
protection, allowing them to be known by the name
which he had assumed as pope. Meantime Charles
was preparing to use his candidate for his own
purposes; he surrounded him with Sicilian coun-
selors, and brought him to Aquila, where he had
him crowned in the presence of only three cardinals.
The king's influence, however, finally induced the
others to appear one by one, the last being Bene-
detto Gaetani, Gelestine's successor as Boniface
VIII., and the coronation ceremony was repeated.
Celestine's whole interest was given to the pro-
motion of monasticism; in other things he was
merely a tool in the hands of Charles, who got him to
create twelve Angevin cardinals, confirm his treaty
with Aragon, and supply large sums of money for
the Sicilian war. The strict regulation of Gregory X.
for the conclave was reenacted, that Charles might
have the next election also securely in his hands,
and in October the curia was removed to Naples.
Both the cardinals and the pope were discontented
with the state of affairs, and the latter began to
think of abdication, that he might be able to give
himself once more wholly to his ascetic practises.
The thing was without precedent, and offered great
constitutional difficulties, which, when Celestine's
resolve was seen to be fixed, were as far as possible
removed by the legal wisdom of Gaetani, and the
abdication took place on Dec. 13. While Dante
speaks scornfully of the pope '* who made the great
refusal," others lauded the act highly— Petrarch
among them, who regarded it as an example of
humility entitling the poor hermit to rank above
the apostles and many other saints. Gaetani was
later accused of having brought about the abdica^
tion by guile in order to secure his own advance-
ment. The charge is not justified, but he un-
doubtedly had his eye on the tiara in view. After
be had attained it, he wished to keep his prede>
oessor with him in Rome, lest he should be used
as a tool by the opposition; but the ascetic fled.
and was finally taken and in^>Tisoxied in the
mountain castle of Fumone, where he died the
next year. He was canonised by dement V.
(HaN8 SCHULZ.)
Biblioorapht: The older documenta are eolleeted in ASS,
May, iv. 419-496, cf. Muratori. Saripiarm, lU. i 613-641
Consult: A. Potthast, Reaeata ponUficum Romtanorym,
u. 1916-22. Berlin, 1875; Don Joeaphet. D^ heuiffe
Paptt CotlMHn v., Fulda. 1894; F. Gpe«orovit«. 6*-
wdiidUe tUr Stadt Rom, v. 490 eqq.. Stuttgart. 1W2. E^
traaal.. v. 623-634, London, 1898; Bower. Popet. m. 40-13
CELESTDIES: A name bome by two mopa^k
societies which owe their origin to Pope Cdestine V.
(q.v.). (1) The Benedictine CeUstinee, known also
as Moronites and Murrhonites, were originaiij
composed of men who were monbers of the Bene-
dictine order, but lived as hermits on Monte MaJeilA
in the Abrusai from about 1258, under the guidance
of the future pope Celestine, who gave them a
severer rule and obtained papal confirmation for
the congregation from Urban IV., probably in
1264, though the alleged bull of this year, as well
as another of Gregory X. from 1274, is of doubtM
genuineness. The «uly history of the congrega-
tion is, in fact, frequently open to critical objection:
as, for example, the statement that it already had
sixteen houses in 1274, when its founder is said to
have gone to the general oouncQ at Lyons and
attracted great attention as a wonder-worker.
After about 1290, the mother house seems to have
been at Monte Murrhone near Sulmona. On the
foimder's elevation to the pspacy in 1294, he at-
tempted by rich grants of indulgences and other
privileges to give it a commanding position in the
Benedictine monastic family; ind€«d, he a^ired
to reform the mother house of the whole order
at Monte Cassino on the principles of his congre-
gation. But the brevity of his pontificate pre-
vented the execution of his plans. The congrega-
tion, however, continued to grow, until in Italy
it had at the beginning of the eighteenth century
ninety-six houses. Its rule, which in some points,
especially as to fssting, surpasses the original
Benedictine rule in strictness, was revised by
Urban VIII. in 1629. The French province never
got beyond twenty-one houses. In Bohemia sad
Lusatia the congregation had some famous seats,
as at Prague, KOnigstcin, and Oybin near Zittau,
the last of which was founded by Charies IV. in
1366 and suppressed in the sixteenth century.—
(2) The Franciscan Celeetinee (Poveri eremiti di Ce-
lesHno), called also Fraticelli, were a oongregatka
within the Franciscan order, founded in 1294. <m
an impulse given by Celestine V., by two of the
" spiritual " sections of the order, Pietro da Macerate
(Liberato) and Pietro da Fossombrone (Angdo
Claremo, d. 1357). It existed down to about 1340
in nearly all its original strength as a oongre^
gation of the Minorites. See Francis, Saint, or
AfiSISI, AND THE FRANCISCAN OrDER.
(O. ZOCKUBt)
Biblioorapht: For (1) Helyot, Ordrm wummtHqitm, t. 51
■qq., vi. 180-101 ; Heimbueher, Ord^n und Kononoatienen.
i. 134-136 (giVM the later litermture); Currier. Rdiffiemt
Ordm% p. 147; KL, iii. 682-684. For (2) Felioe To«h
466
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oeleatlne
OeUbaoy
/ fratieeUi o poveri eremxH di CeUtHno, in the BoUeUino
delta aoeieih ttoriea AbruMMe§e, vii. (1886) 117-169.
CELESnUS. See Pelaoiub, Pelaqianibm.
CELIBACY.
Celibacy in the Early Choreh (i 1).
Marriace of the Clergy Still Permitted (i 2).
In the Early Roman Catholic Choroh H 3).
The Medieval Period (i 4).
The Council of Trent on Celibacy (i 6).
Protestant Rejection of Celibacy (i 6).
Celibacyi in the Roman Catholic Church, rceans
the permanently unmarried state to which men
and women bind themselves either by a vow or by
the reception of the major orders which implies
personal purity in thought and deed. The Jewish
priests and high priests were married, being re-
stricted only in the choice of a wife (Lev. xxi. 7,
S, 14, 15). In preparation for the exercise of their
office, they were to abstain from commerce with
their wives, which was also required of the whole
people before the reception of the Law on Sinai
(Ex. xix. 16). The New Testament contains no
prohibition of marriage; some of the apostles were
married (Matt. viii. 14; I Cor. ix. 5), and Paul
recommended marriage to the heads of churches
(I Tim. iii. 1), though he considered that under
some circumstances it was better not to marry
(I Cor. vii. 38). Very early in the history of the
Church the idea grew up that the unmarried state
was preferable (Hennas, I. ii. 3; Ignatius to Poly-
carp, v.), and grew into a positive contempt of
marriage (Origen, Ham, vi. in Num. ; Jerome, Ad
Jovinianumf i. 4). As early as the second century
examples of voluntary vows of vir-
I. Celibacy ginity are found, and the requirement
in the Early of continence before the performance
Church, of sacred functions. By the fourth
century canons began to be passed
in that sense (Synod of Neocsesarea, 314 a.d.,
canon i.; Synod of Ancyra, 314 a.d., canon x.).
Unmarried men were preferred for ecclesias-
tical offices, though marriage was still not for-
bidden; in act, the clergy were expressly pro-
hibited from deserting a lawfully married wife on
religious grounds (Apostolic Canons, v.). The
Synod of Gangra (3i557) anathematized in its
fourth canon, against the Eustathians, those who
refused to accept the ministrations of a married
priest. The stricter view prevailed so far, how-
ever, that the Council of Nicsea could speak of it
as an ancient custom that priests and
9. Marriage deacons should not marry after ordinap-
of the tion, unless, in the case of deacons,
Clexgjr Still they had expressed an intention of
Permitted, marrying at the time of their ordina-
tion— though both were allowed to
retain wives already married, and a marriage
contracted in contravention of this regulation was
valid. The standpoint of the Roman Church was
different from this. Thus Pope Siricius declared
in 385 that priestly marriage had been allowed in
the Old Testament because the priests could only
be taken from the tribe of Levi; but that with the
abandonment of that limitation this permission
had lost its force, and that " obscoBms cupiditates "
(i.e., marriage) hindered the proper performance
of spiritual functions. Succeeding popes adhered
to this view (cf. decretals of Innocent I., 404, 405,
and Leo I., 456, 458), and the rest of the Western
Church came to it (Synods of Carthage, 390, 401).
Candidates for the higher orders were accordingly
required to take a vow of celibacy, and from
the fifth century those for the sub-
3. In the diaconate also. A breach of this vow
Early Roman entailed degradation from office, but
Catholic not the nullity of the marriage.
Church. Those in minor orders were still
permitted to marry, but not a widow
or for the second time (Fifth Synod of Carthage,
401; Gregory I., 601). Secular legislation con-
firmed these regulations in so far as it fort)ade
married men, or men who had children, to be
made bishops, and even went further by declar-
ing the nuuriages of those in major orders
void and their children illegitimate. The Eastern
Church adhered to the older legislation, with the
modifications introduced by the imperial decrees
just referred to; prohibited marriages were now
declared void, but mairied men could still be ad-
mitted to orders without giving up their wives,
except in the case of bishops (Coundl of Constan-
tinople, 692). This system the modem Roman
Catholic Church still allows for the Uniat Greeks,
as explained by Benedict XIV. in the constitutions
Etsi paatoralis (May 26, 1742) and Eo quamviB
tempore (May 4, 1745). But within its own bound-
aries the Latin Church has held more and more
strictly to the requirement of celibacy, though not
without continual opposition on the part of the
clergy. The large niunber of canons on this
subject enacted from the eighth century on shows
that their enforcement was not easy. After the
middle of the eleventh century the new ascetic
tendency whose champion was Gregory VII. had
a strong influence in this matter. Even before
Hildebrand's accession to the papacy, the legis-
Ution of Leo IX. (1054), Stephen IX.
4. The (1058), Nicholas II. (1059), and Alex-
Medieval ander II. (1063) had laid down the
Period, principles which as pope he was to
cany out. In the synod of 1074
he renewed the definite enactment of 1059 and
1063, according to which both the married priest
who said mass and the layman who received com-
munion at his hands were excommunicate. Urban
II. decreed in 1089 that the marriage of one in
major orders should be punished by the loss of
both office and benefice. The Coundls of Reims
(1110) and of the Lateran (1123) ordered that the
parties to such a marriage should be separated
and sent to places of penance. The Lateran Council
of 1139 confirmed this provision, with the dedarar
tion " that such connection was not nuuriage."
These strict principles were not extended to the
minor orders. It is tme that Alexander III. and
Innocent III. prescribed the loss of clerical rank and
privileges for even the holders of these in case they
married; but Boniface VIII. (1298) and Oement
V. (1311) reasserted the older law. After the
Reforaiation had done its work, Charles V. endeav-
ored by the Interim of 1548 to bring about the
abolition of these rules, and with several other
CaUbAoy
Oelsna
THE NEW SCHAFF-HEUZOG
4at
princes requested the discussion of the question
at the Council of Trent. The council, however,
maintained the system as a whole,
5. The and the following rules are now in
Coiindl of force: (1) through the reception of ma-
Trent on jor orders or the taking of monastic
CelibAcy. or other solemn vows, celibacy becomes
so binding a duty that any subsequent
marriage is null and void. (2) Any one in minor or-
ders who marries loses his office and the right to go
on to major orders, but the marriage is valid. (3)
Persons already married may receive the minor
orders if they have the intention of proceeding to
the major, and show this by taking a vow of per-
petual abstinence; but the promotion to the higher
orders can only take place when the wife expresses
her willingness to go into a convent and take the
veil. The Council of Trent further lays down that
the fimctions of the minor orders may be per-
formed by married men in default of unmarri^ —
though not by those who are living with a second
wife. In the nineteenth oeutuiy attempts were
not lacking, even within the Roman Catholic
Church, to bring about the abolition of celibacy.
They were rather hindered than helped by
temporal governments, and always firmly rejected
by Rome. Celibacy has been abolished among the
Old Catholics; and modem legislation in Germany,
France, Belgium, Italy, and Switzeriand authorises
the marriage both of priests and of those who have
taken a solemn vow of chastity. Austria, Spain,
and Portugal still forbid it. The evangelical
churches at the very outset released
6. Protes- their clergy from the obligation of
tant Rejec- celibacy, professing to find no validity
tion of in the arguments adduced in its favor
Celibacy, on the Roman side. The question
is carefully discussed and decided
against the Roman practise in the Augsburg Con-
fession (xxiii.) and the Apology (vi.). Similar
ground is taken in Art. xxxvii. of the first Helvetic
Confession and Art. xxix. of the second, as well as
in Art. xxxii. of the Thirty-nine Articles. Like-
wise disapproval is expressed of binding vows of
celiba'y in the Augsburg Confession (xxvii.) and
Apology (xi.). (E. Friedbero.)
Bibuoobafbt: The book best worth oonsulting from the
Protestant standpoint is H. C. Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy in
ihe Chrietian Church, 3d ed., 2 vols.. London and New
York, 1907; for the CathoUc presentation consult Migne,
Eneydopidie TMohgiQue, vol. xxv., "Otflibat," Paris.
1856; Dictionnaire de Thiologie eatholique, " CAibat eccl^
siastique." ib. 1005. Other treatises are: J. Schmitt.
Der Prieelercdlibat, MQnster. 1870; P. M. R. des Pilliers,
Le Cdibal eecUeiaetique, Chamb^ry, 1886; CUrieai Celibacy,
Oxford. 1801; F. Chavard, Le Cilibat, le prHre el la
femme, Paris. 1804; L. Booquet. Le Cilibat aocIMosfi^iM
iuequ'au eoncUe de Trente, Paris. 1805; A. Vassal. Le
Cilibat eccUnaMHque au premier eiide de Viglim, ib. 1806;
Beeay on the Law of Celibacy, Woro&ster, n.d.; E. Carry.
Le C&ibat eccUeiaetique devant Vhietoire el devarU la
eonecienee, Paris. 1005: E. A. Sperry. An OuUine of Oie
HieL of Clerical Celibacy in Weetem Europe to Ute
CouncU of Trent, New York. 1006 (contains a bibliog-
raphy). On the change of status in the Eng. Church
consult J. Collier, Ecdeeiaetieal Hietory, ii. 262 nqq.. Lon-
don, 1714. and Q. Burnet, Hietory of the Reformation,
iL 84 sqq.. ib. 1715. The subject of celibacy is treated
at greater or less length in the church histories, e.g., Nean-
der, Chriatian Church, consult the Iiulex.
CELL: Usually the room or hut in viudi 1
monk, nun, hennit, or friar lives, but also a deps.i
ency of a large monasteiy, ruled by a prior, deia,
or abbot, who was the virtual choice of the abbot
of the mother house. Such "cells" were fre-
quently country houses which with the grouuk
were bestowed upon the abbey as a source of m*
enue, as the monks living therein had to paj &
certain part of their revenue to the mother hocse
Sometimes the " cell " was an important buildinz
as Tynemouth Priory near Newcastle, Eo^LaDd
which was a " cell " of the Benedictine abbey of St.
Alban's (20 m.n.of London); orBeimondaer^vfaicL
was a " cell " of the Quniac abbey of La Charite
(140 m. s. of Paris). Originally a " cell " was in
oratory erected over the grave of a martyr or samt.
CELLARIUS. See Borrhaus, Mabtin.
CELLITES (CELLITA). See Aleziakb; Bdt
HARD6, BeOUINES.
CELSTTS: A pagan philooopher and controrer
sialist against Christianity. In the period of peta
which the Church enjoyed under the emperor
Philip in the year 248, Origen brought to notiet
by an exhaustive reply (the Contra CeUumi •
treatise written about seventy years eariier agaiost
Christianity by a highly educated Platonist IV
occasion of this reply may have been the celebra-
tion in that jrear of the thousandth anniversaiT
of the founding of Rome, which gave the C3iristia&»
reason to fear religious excitement on the part of
the pagan population. Origen gives the aiguzDents
of Celsus sometimes word for word.
Origen'i sometimes in substance; in the latter
Contra case there is little abbreviation and
Celsom. not many omissions, so that there is
very fair material for an attempt tc
reconstruct the original text of Cdsus. This at-
tempt was first made, not very systematically or
successfully, by Jachniann in 1836; in 1873 Keisi
undertook a restoration of Celsus in a Gennan
version which, in spite of its defects, has many
merits, and this was partially improved on in the
French version of Aub6 in 1878. The recent leooo-
struction by Neumann in the Greek shows that not
more than one-tenth of the original has been lost,
and that three-fourths of what we have is word-
for-word quotation.
The '' True IMscourse " of Celsus was oomposRi
in the last years of Marcus Aurelius. It notices
the rescript of that emperor, issued in 177 (or 176 at
the earliest), against popular tumults caused by
the introduction of a new religion (viii. 69)- Id
viii. 71 the author speaks of two emperors reigDms
at the time, which fixes the date in the joint role
of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, from 177 to
180. He was thus at least a contemporary of the
Celsus to whom Lucian dedicated his "Alexan-
der," and some have supposed the two to be iden-
tical. Lucian's friend, however, ww
The ''True an Epictuean, while our Oeto, '^
Discourse "spite of Origen, stands out deaitj
of Celsus. as a Platonist; and the boob ^'*
fidyuv (Lucian, Alex., hd.; OngP^-
i. 68, Kord futydac) do not seem to fit in with
the conception and tone of the " True Diacoune."
4e7
REIJGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oellbacy
Oelsus
Tlie latter, though usually divided into eight books,
seems to have been but one originally; and, ac-
cording to Origen (viii. 76), Celsus intended to write
another, ** in which he engaged to supply prac-
tical rules of living to those who felt disposed to
embrace his opinions/' In iv. 36 Origen mentions
t wo more books written by a Celsus whose identity
>\'ith ours he leaves uncertain; but as he seems to
know nothing of these, it is at least possible that
he has misunderstood a notice referring to the two
already mentioned. Keim, followed by P^lagaud,
places the home of Celsus in the West, probably
in Rome, where he thinks the " True Discourse "
^^as written — ^partly on the ground that the Jew
depicted by Celsus is a Roman and not an Eastern
Jew. The old view, adopted .also by Aub6, that
the book was composed in the East, probably in
Alexandria, rested upon its accurate knowledge
of Egypt; and this view might be supported by
the contention that as a matter of fact Celsus's
Jew is really not the Roman type, but belongs to
those Eastern Jewish circles in which the doctrine
of the Logos was familiar; thus in Origen, ii. 31,
the Jew of Celsus says, " If your Logos is the Son
of God, we also give our assent to the same."
After the introduction, there follow objections
against Christianity from the Jewish standpoint,
which should be compared with Justin's dialogue
with Trypho. With book ill. begins the direct
attack, which is directed not against Christianity
alone, but also against Judaism, although a slight
preference is shown for the latter. Celsus shows
a good knowledge of Genesis and Exodus; Aub^
thinks he can prove an acquaintance with the Proph-
ets and with the Psalms, and a reference to Jonah
and Daniel is indeed foimd in vii. 53. His knowl-
edge of Christianity is sitffident to be
Criticism of some value to the historian of to-day,
of and Hamack has used it in his Dog-
Celsus. mengeschichU. The manner in which
Celsus employs the New Testament
corresponds to the stage of development of the
canon which the Acts of the Martyrs of Scili show
in 180. He knew and used our Gospels, showing
a preference for the synoptic type; his acquaint-
ance with the Acts is disputed, while familiarity
with Pauline ideas, though not with the epistles
themselves, is generally admitted. Gnosticism
he knew well; his relation to Marcion needs further
investigation. His whole criticism is not irre-
ligious; it is that of a pious pagan of Platonic
tendencies, though his Platonism is that of his age,
as we meet with it, for example, in Plutarch. It
is the religion of well-to-do, self-confident people,
and shows no conception of those crying needs of
the time which helped Christianity to spread so
rapidly, of the reasons why it was welcomed by the
poor and oppressed. Again, he fails to appreciate
the significance of the church idea, though he under-
stands the relation of the local communities to the
Church at large (v. 59, 61), and knows that all
Christians do not belong to the latter (iii. 12).
But it presents itself to him rather in its oppo-
sition to the Gnostic sects than as a great bond of
unity, whose importance he undervalues while
seeing in the conflict of sects a sign of weakness.
Still, Christianity seems to him important enough
to make him desirous of winning bade its adherents;
and he closes, not, as he began (i. 1), with the ac-
cusation of secret and illegal association, but with
the hope that an understanding may be reached.
The book had no influence on the attitude of the
Roman government, and SQarcely a trace of ac-
quaintance with it can be found in classical litera-
ture. Such traces have been seen,
Later on the other hand, in Minucius Felix
Histoiy and in the Apologeticum of Tertullian;
of His but Origen was the first to call gen-
Work, eral attention to it. The Neopla-
tonic controversialists naturally went
back to it; certain fundamental thoughts reappear
in Porphyry, whom Julian follows, and the Adyo*
<^hi7Jidcii ("Truth-loving Discourses") of Hiero-
cles point to it in their very title. Meantime,
however, the canon of the New Testament had
been completed, and it was possible for assaults on
Christianity to take the form of assaults on its
sacred writings. Later Christian antiquity saw
the typical literary attack from the pagan side not
in Celsus but in Porphyry; Theodosius II. ordered
the books of Porphyiy, not those of Celsus or of
Julian, to be burned in 448. (K 1. Neumann.)
According to the account of Origen, the principal
charges brought by Celsus against Christianity
were as follows. The Christians were members of
illegal secret associations which were necessary to
them because they would suffer death if their
practises were known. The origins of Christianity
were derived from secondary sources, some of these
even barbarous, and Moses himself simply borrowed
the ordinances which he promulgated. The al-
leged divinity of Jesus can not be proved from his
miracles, since they were the mere tricks of a
juggler, while the indications of his life and charac-
ter are equally against the doctrine. Jewish con-
verts to Christianity were ipso facto renegades,
since the new religion was no improvement upon
the old. Both the Jewish and the Christian religions
were really rebellious against the state. The
alleged theophanies were really the appearances
of demons, and the Christian eschatology is ir-
rational and incredible.
Bibliography: The best edition of Origen's Contra CtUum
ia by P. Koetschau, Leiprie, 1899, and the trauBUtion is
meet accessible in ANF, iv. 396 sqq. T. Keim, CtUnu' Wok-
rea Worl^ Zurich. 1893, puts together in German the quota-
tions by Origen and so reconstructs the original text. Con-
sult: K. R. Jachmann. />« CeUo philotapko, KOnigsberg,
1836; B. Aub^. La PoUmiqiie palenne hla/lndu deuxiime
Biieie, Paris, 1878; E. Pelagaud, Un contervateur au 9eoond
•i^de. £tude sur CeUe, Lyons, 1878; C. Bigg, Chrutian
PUUoniHM of Alexandria, pp. 254-268. Oxford. 1886;
idem. Neoplatonitm, pp. 98-118. London. 1895; K. J.
Neumann, Der rdmiBche Stoat und die alloemeine KirtJie^
i. 58-59. 256-273. Leipsic. 1890; J. A. Robinson, On the
Text of Origen contra Celeum, in Journal of PhilolooVt
zviii. (1890) 288-296; P. Koetschau. Die Oliederung dee
AUthee Logoe dee Celeue, in JPT, xviii. (1892) 604-632; J.
Patrick, Apology of Origen, Edinburgh. 1892; F. M. MQIIer,
Die wahre Oeeehichte dee COeue, in Deuteche Runde(kau,
Ixxxiv. (1895) 7^-97; Harnack. Hietory of Dogma, vols.
i.-ii., paanm, Boston, 1895-97; idem. Litteratur, II. L
314-315; A. C. MeOiffert. in his edition of Eusebitti,
NPNP, L 278-279; Moeller. ChrieHan Chwi%, i. 169-170;
Neander, ChrtuHan Church, vol. i., passim; flchaff, Ckrie*
Han Chwxh, iL 8(^-93; DCB, i. 435-436.
0«ltio Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
468
CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
L Origin and Early History, to e. 500.
1. In Britain.
HereuM (i 1).
2> In Ireland.
Native Tradition of Origin (i 1).
The Tradition Unreliable (i 2).
Proeper's Palladium the Same as
Patrick (i 3).
True Origin of the Iriah Church
(14).
St. Patrick (i 6).
3. In North Britain (Alba).
n. Development and Full Maturity,
600-800.
1. In Britain.
The Churdi in Wales (i 1).
The British Church and Augustine
(§2).
2. In Ireland and North Britain.
The Irish Church not Revived from
Wales in the Sixth Century (i 1).
Learning of the Irish Monks (i 2).
Travels and Missionary Labors
(18).
North Britain Christianised (§ 4).
Relations with Rome (i 5).
The Patrick Legend (i 6).
Conforms to Roman Uaage (i 7).
III. Complete Assimilation to the Ro-
man Church, 800-1200.
1. In Wales.
2. In Ireland.
Incursioiis of the No
Irish Monks oi
(*2).
Rise of Armach (| 3).
The Cukiees (| 4).
Final Subjection to Rome (f 5>.
3. In North Britain.
IV. Some General Consideratiaiia.
Reason for the Divetgences iram
Rome (I 1).
Consecration by a Singie Kibop
(«2).
Monastic Character of the hak
Church (f 3).
The Celtic and Bocnan Spirit (S 4..
(« 5).
By the Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland is
meant the Christian Church which existed in parts
of Great Britain and Ireland before the mission of
Augustine (597), and which for some time thereafter
maintained its independence by the side of the new
An^o-Roman Chureh. It comprises two branches,
one in Roman Britain and a continuation of it in
Wales, the other in Ireland and Alba (Scotland).
L Originand Early Hi8toxy,toc.500.—l. In Brit-
ain: There is no trustworthy account of the intro-
duction of Christianity into Britain. That the
British Chureh of the first half of the sixth century
had no knowledge or tradition of the time or man-
ner may be inferred from the silence of GQdas.
The Lucius story may be dismissed at once as
fabulous (see EixirrHERnB; Chxtr, BmHOPRic of).
Foreign writers give no more reliable infonnation
than the native sources. The arguments of Warren
(pp. 46-62) for the introduction of Christianity
into Britain from Greek churches in Lyons and
A^enne as a consequence of the persecutions under
Marcus Aurelius are not convincing [cf. F. Haver-
field, Early British Christianity , in The English
Historical Review, xi. (1896) 418, n. 2]. It is more
probable that the Gospel came to the island by
ordinary intercourse with other 4X)imtrie8, and Gaul
and the Lower Rhine lands are those of which it is
most natural to think. Had there been organised
or individual missionaiy effort, tradition would
have preserved names. That Christianity was
widely spread in Britain by the beginning of the
third century can hardly be inf ened from the
notices in Tertullian and Origen (Haddan and
Stubbs, i. 3-^), which are too rhetorical to be safe
testimonies. It does seem certain, however, that
much progress was made during the third century.
This rests, not upon the sixth-century tradition
of martyra in Britain during the Diocletian perse-
cution, which probably did not have any note-
worthy extension into Britain (cf. Haddan and
Stubbs, i. 5-6), but upon the fact that three
bishops, a presbyter, and a deacon from York,
Lincoln [according to others Colchester or Carieon-
on-Usk], and London took part in the Synod of
Aries in 816 (Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7). The
towns from which they came as well as the localities
assigned for the martyrdoms mentioned by Gildas
rSt. Albans, Carleon-on-Usk) show distinctly that
Christianity first took firm foothold in the cities
and stations of the Roman highways.
The records are sufficient to show that thiougjlK>ut
the fourth century there was a weU-organued
Church in Britain which stood in constant touct
with the rest of the Church, particulariy in GM
and considered itself an active member of that
body (Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7-12). Britisii
bishops attended the synod summoned at Ariminnin
(Rimioi) by Constantius in 359 [Haddan and Stubbs.
i. 9-10], and their presence shows that their Church
was ditiwn into general doctrinal disputes. Gikls£
maintains that it was much injured by Arianks
(p. 32, 11. 20-25). His testimony is controverted
by that of Hilary of Poitters (c 35S]
1. Heresies, and Athanasius (363; both in Had-
dan and Stubbs, L 7, 9). But it must
be admitted that Arian views found acceptance in
Britain during the second half of the fourth oentuiy,
and as the Roman power was waning there from
that time on, it is conceivable that such views may
have lingered and foimd expression as late as GOQ,
possibly in the bi4>tismal formula (cf. F. C. Cocy-
beare. The Character of the Heresy of the E<jHy
British Church, in the Transactions of the Society
of Cymmrodarian, 1897-98, pp. 84-117). It is
noteworthy that a life of GUdas written in the
eleventh century, but based upon materials taksi
from the sixth century, and a life of Patrick of
the second half of the seventh century lay stress
on their devotion to the Holy Trinity (Chronica
minora, iii. 95, U. 8-9; TripartiU lAfe, ii 273,
U. 12-13; 286, U. 6-7); and Gregory the Great
is said to have suspected Columba of not being
quite sound in the doctrine (Benuird and AtkiD-
son, i. 64, ii. 25). It is certain that Pelagianian
appeared in Britain during the 'fifth century (see
Aqricola). Germanus (q.v.), bishop of Auxerre,
was sent thither in 429, and " overthrew the her-
etics and directed the Britons to the Catholic
faith" (Prosper of Aquitaine, C^onicfe, anno 429).
Some years later, on a second mission, he com-
pleted the extirpation of Pelagianism in the island
(Vita Germani, used by Bede, i. 17, 21). Gildas»
writing a century later, does not mention the heresy.
For a hundred years after the mission of Germanus
nothing is heard of the Church in Britain. Tbe
land was abandoned by the Romans, and the Anglo*
Saxon conquest caused Christianity to disappesr
completely from the East With those Britcsis
who kept their independence it found a refuge in
the mountaios of the West, whence it gradual]/
469
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oeltlo Ohnroh
comes again into view in the sixth century (see
below, II., 1).
2. In Ireland: There is native tradition of the
introduction of Christianity into Ireland, the two
oldest records of which can scarcely
irS«^* be dated earlier than the last quar-
Tirramuon ^^ ^^ ^^^ seventh century. They
Origin. ^^ W ^h® ^o of Patrick, written
by M uirchu Maccu-Machtheni at the
wish of Bishop Aed of Sletty (d. 698), and (2) the
collections of a certain Tirechan, a pupil of Ultan
of Ardbrechan (d. 656), based upon information
about Patrick which his teacher had communi-
cated to him personally or had left in his papers.
Both records, but with additions and amplificar
tioDs, are in the Book of Armagh {Liber ArdriKP-
chaniu)f the several parts of which were written be-
tween 807 and 846. In brief this native tradition
is as follows: In 431 Ireland was entirely heathen.
In that year Pope Celestine I. sent a certain Pal-
ladius to preach to the people, but he turned back
and died in Britain. His place was at once (c.
432) taken by a Briton, Patrick, who in his youth
had been a prisoner in Ireland. He evangelized
the entire land, founded churches everywhere,
ordained bishops and presbyters, and died (450)
universally revered as the head of the Chureh, in
which he held a sort of metropolitan rank, with his
see at Armagh in Ulster.
Eveiything discredits the authenticity of this
tradition. (1) It represents Patrick as a person-
ality comparable to Martin of Tours or Columba,
the apostle to the Picts; such men do not fail to
find a biographer among their admirers and asso-
ciates; their fame grows and is spread
2. The 1^ ^jjg jjgj^ generation. But the name
'^^^^ of Patrick does not appear tiU the
aWaT' second third of the seventh century,
and then it is in the letter of Cum-
mian (q.v.) to the abbot Seghine of lona, in con-
nection with the introduction of the Dionysian (I)
paschal computation, which is ascribed to him.
He is not mentioned in the full report of the Synod
of Whitby (664), although the arguments were
historical and the Irish referred to the traditions
of their forefathers and to Columba (Bede, iii. 25).
Bede must have been well informed concerning the
Chureh in North Ireland and his interest in the
beginnings of Christianity in the British Isles was
keen; yet he says nothing about Patrick in his
Historia ecduiasHca. It seems impossible that
there can have existed in the North of Ireland in
the seventh century a tradition of a founder of the
Irish Chureh called Patrick. And yet it is in
the North (at Armagh) that the tradition (the first
reports of which come from the South) represents
Patrick as having his see and ending his days.
(2) The tradition describes the Irish Church as
epitcopal, dependent on Patrick's see of Armagh.
But as a matter of fact the Church of Colimiba
and of Finnian of Gonard, i.e., from the
end of the fifth century, is a numasHc church
without central organization and with no traces
of such a past as the tradition presupposes.
How intensely the Irish cUng to the customs of
their fathers was shown at Whitby; it took four
hundred years to transform this monastic chureh
of the sixth and seventh centuries even after the
theoretical acceptance of an episcopal constitution.
If, then, the organisation was so fundamentally
changed within one generation, as it must have been
if the tradition be correct, an explanation is needed.
And none b forthcoming. (3) There ia good
reason to believe that Irehmd was not entirely
heathen in 431. The island is easily accessible from
Britain; and active intercourse, particularly be-
tween the Southwest of Britain and the Southeast
of Ireland, existed as eariy as the third and fourth
centuries (cf. Zimmer, Nenniua vindicatus, pp. 85-
93, Beriin, 1893; Euno Meyer, Early Relationa
Between Gael and Brython, m the Tranaaetione of
the Society of Cymmrodorion, 1895-96, pp. 55-^).
As has been seen, there was a well-organised
British Church in the fourth century. It is natural
to assume, then, that Christianity was carried to
Ireland from Britain before the time assigned to
Patrick. And the assumption is corroborated by
certain saints' lives, particulariy those of Dedan,
Ailbe, Ibhar, Ciaran, and Abban (ASB, July, y.
590-608; Sept, iv. 26-31; Apr., iii. 173; Mar.,
i. 389-^99; Oct., xii. 270-293; cf. also Ussher,
Aniiquitates, ed. of 1687, pp. 408 sqq.). In all these
lives Patrick figures as "Archbishop of Ireland,"
but this is due to the time of redaction. These
same men are not only Patrick's contemporaries,
but older contemporaries, independent of him, and
recognised as the apostles of their districts. Their
locality is the Southeast, the coast counties of
Wicklow, Wexford, and Waterford, and the ad-
joining inland counties of Kilkenny and Tipperaiy,
where local testimonies to their cult still survive.
Further evidence may be found in the fact that
the two lives of Patrick, mentioned above, limit
his activity to the North. The Patrick legend
originated in the South and was forced upon the
North from the time of Cununian's letter, the ob-
ject being to win over the North Irish to conformity
with the Roman Church. But this alone does not
explain the silence of the lives concerning the South.
It must be that, while the Southemere were willing
to acknowledge Patrick theoretically as apostle
of the North with his see at Armagh, hoping there-
by to win over the mainstay of the opposing party,
the abbot-bishop of Armagh, the traditions in the
South concerning the founders of the monasteries
there were too well known to admit of a description
of Patrick as the apostle of the South. A third
testimony is the fact that Ireland cherished the
memoiy of the heredaroh Pelagius and was weU
acquainted with his writings (cf. Bede, ii. 19). In
the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, the Irish
Church possessed the original unmutilated com-
mentary of Pelagius (when it had disappeared
everywhere else in the West) and knew that Pela-
gius was the author. Pelagius may himself have
been an Irishman (cf. Jerome, in MPL, xxiv. 682a,
758b). He was a sincere and earnest thinker and
did not adopt heretical views until he went to
Rome (c. 400). His learning was great and would,
naturally gratify the pride of his oountiymen. If he
Ottltio Ohoroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
47C'
came from a monastery of southeastern Ireland,
it is easy to understand how his books were brought
thither and how they came to be preserved. But,
whatever may have been the nationality of Pela-
gius, his celebrity in Ireland is incompatible with
the Patrick legend. Felagianism was annihilated
in the Roman State and See by Honorius and
Zosimus in 418. In 429 Germanus successfully
combated it in Britain. If, then, Ireland was wholly
heathen in 431 and Patrick Christianised the land
and organised its Church, he must himself have
carried Pelagianism thither — ^which is, of course,
absurd. But if the South was already Christian
in the first quarter of the fifth century, it is quite
comprehensible how Felagianism found its wav to
ihe island. (4) Linguistic facts prove that Chris-
tianity came to Ireland from Britain. British
and Irish are Celtic tongues, but certain diCFerences
of sound had developed by the fourth century.
Ecclesiastical and other loan-words, introduced into
Irish from Latin with the Christian religion, show
forms hard to explain if they came directly from
the Latin, but quite comprehensible if they came,
through the medium of British (cf. GUterbock,
Lateiniache Lehnworter im Iri9cken, pp. 01 sqq.
Leipsic, 1882). Patrick himself was a Briton, it is
true; but he is said to have studied on the Conti-
nent, and his associates are represented as of Ro-
mance origin (Tripartite Life, ii. 273, 305; Haddaa
and Stubbs, ii. 292). (5) Among the writings attrib-
uted to the supposed apostle of Ireland are two,
the so-called '* Confession " and the ** Epistle Con-
cerning Coroticus,'' which are undoubtedly authen-
tic. They are tbs work of a man " unlearned and
rustic, not at all such a one as later times extolled
with the highest praises " (SchOll, p. 71; cf. p. 68), or
one who could have founded in the fifth century
the Irish Church — a Church in which from the
sixth to the ninth century Christian and classical
learning were united as nowhere else in the West.
Moreover, the ** Confession " is the work of a man
looking back upon a long life, complaining bitterly
of ingratitude, trying to defend himself from the
reprcMbch of having presumed to undertake a calling
above his capabilities, and threatening to turn his
back on Ireland because he recognises the failure of
his life's work there. And he makes not the slight-
est mention of ever having consecrated a bishop or
established a single church in the island. (6)
Finally there is the definite statement of Prosper
of Aquitaine (Chron., anno 431) that Pope Celestine
" ordained Palladius and sent him as their first
bishop to the Irish believers in Christ." Prosper
was probably in Rome in 431 and issued the first
edition of his " Chronicle,'' which contains the
statement quoted, in 433. Here then is a record,
as certain and credible as may be, which con*
firms the supposition that the Irish, in part at any
rate, were Christians in 431. The meaning of
Prosper 's expression " first bishop " is dear, bear-
ing in mind the organization of the Irish Church.
Palladius was the first bishop canonically ordained
according to Proeper's view, in distinction from
the missionary and monastic bishops of the Irish
Church during the fifth century. In his later
Jjiber contra coUatorem (written probably about
437), in the course of a fulsome eulpgy of CeieEtinr
Proe^)er states that " while he [Celestine] endeav-
ored to keep the Roman island [Britain] CsthoL-:
he made also the barbarous island [Ireland] Chn*-
tian" (in AfPL, Ii. 271b-c). But a rfietork£
statement of this sort does not impair the vahje
of the careful entry in the " Chronide." More-
over, the supposition that Celestine ordjuned i
simple deacon — ^for such Palladius still was in 431—
as bishop of a land considered wholly heathen is in
itself untenable. It was not customaiy to eoo-
secrate " bishops " for lands where there were no
Christians. Augustine was sent by Gregory to
preach to the Angles; but he was not eonsecratea
till he had made converts among them.
Before attempting to reconstruct the eariy hi-^
tory of Christianity in Ireland, it must be noted ttax
the historical Patrick and Prosper.*
8. ProflpeT*s PaUadius are the same. Various
f!*T?*^'** reasons may be mentioned: (1) Pal-
the Same ... • »^ » » -
as Pat- 1*^"^ ^^'^^ ^'^'^ Rome to the Irti
2^q]^ Christians in 431; Patrick appearec
in Ireland in 432. In view of xht
difficulties of travel of the time, it is hardly ood-
ceivable that two different persons should have bees
despatched to Ireland within the space c^ one year
(2) Palladius went as the ordained bishop of tlie
Irish Christians; Patrick (in the first sentence of
the " Epistle ") calls himself with emphasis the
appointed bishop for Ireland. (3) Palladius is fii^.
mentioned by Prosper under the year 429 as in-
stigating the mission of Germanus against Pela-
gianism, from which it may be inferred that
Palladius was a Briton and stood in somewhai
intimate relations with Germanus. This is true ai
Patrick according to his own testimony and state-
ments of the lives (" Confession," Haddan and
Stubbs, ii. 309, U. 1-4; Tripartite Life, iL 370. U
9-14; fives, ib. ii. 272, U. 4-5; 302, U. 19-23)
(4) If Palladius was a Briton, his Romanised name,
according to the general custom of the time, shoulJ
be a translation of his native name. Hence t:ie
latter should have some such signification as *' war-
like " or " having to do with war." Patrick's
British name was Sucat (Muirchu, Tripartite Life, ti.
494, 1. 6; Tirechan, ibid. 302, I. 5; Fiacc's Hymiu
ibid. 404-405), composed of «u, " good," and orf.
" war," a word still in use in modem Welsh in the
form hygad, signifying " warlike." If, as was but
natural, he resumed his native name on reaching
Ireland and the name Palladius first became knowii
there from Prosper's work, it is easy to understacu
how the idea of two persons arose. As for the name
Patrick, it is not improbable that Sucat-Palb-
dius assumed it himself. He was especiaUy procd
of his alleged aristocratic descent (cf . his words in
Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 316, U. 15-17; 306, IL 26-
27; rrtportito Li/e, ii. 377, U. 19-22; 368, U. 1-J .
which, however, was not so distinguished as be
would make out. In Rome at that time the title I
Patrtctiis was often conferred upon high offioAU I
of the empire to indicate rank. The somewhat
narrow-minded Sucat, applying Roman conditiocs
to the little British country town of BannavcnU,
where his father had been senator or mayor, nuj
have taken to himself the title Pofricitis. and so
471
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Celtic Church
4. Tme
Origin
of the
Irish
figured in Ireland as Sucat Patricius, and in his
writings merely as Patridus. If this name entered
into the Irish vernacular of the fifth century, ac-
cording to linguistic laws it should appear in Irish
of the seventh century as Cathrige or Cothrige.
And it is a fact that a number of sources (Tirechim,
Fiacc's Hymn, and others) state that Patrick was
also called Cothrige.
As a result of the foregoing argument, the origin
and early history of the Celtic Church in Irehmd
seems to be as follows: Christianity was brought
to Ireland from Britain during the
fourth century as a natural outcome
of the dose intercourse between south-
west Britain and southeast Ireland.
Ohnroh. The actual foundation of a Church, ex-
tending over large parts of the island,
must be regarded as a result of that first great
wave of monasticism which swept over Gaul and
Britain from the middle of the fourth century and
carried a number of half-Romanised Christian
Britons to Ireland. Two facts confirm this view:
(1) The great repute of Martin of Tours in Ire-
land, so great that in the ninth century it
was thought dedrable to bring the new apostle,
Patrick, into dose relations with Martin, and he
was even accounted the latter's nephew. (2) The
difference between the organization of the Irish
Church and that of the British Church from which
it sprang. Just how fast and how far Christianity
spread can not be ascertained, but it seems safe
to say that the northeast coast was Christian about
400. It is noteworthy that Patrick, in the two
passages of the " Confession " where he speaks of
his six years' captivity in North Ireland (Haddan and
Stubbs, ii. 296, 11. 5 sqq.; 300, 11. 16 sqq.; TrvpartUe
Life, ii. 367, 11. 7 sqq.; 361, U. 10 sqq.), does not
intimate by a single word that the Irish with whom
he lived were heathen. This is the more remark-
able since he dwells with horror on the paganism
of the pirates into whose hands he fell when he
made his escape (Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 301, 1. 16-
303, 1. 2; THvartiU Life, ii. 362, 1. 19-363, 1. 34). No
doubt the Saxons drove a number of Christian
Britons into Ireland, as well as to the Armorican
coast of Gaul, during the fifth century.
A Briton named Sucat played a prominent part
in the Irish Church during the second third of the
fifth century. The following out-
riok **" ^*^® ^' ^** ^^® *® based upon Ids own
statements in the "Confession," and
the notices of Prosper, interpreted as above. He
was bom about 386 in the borough of Bannaventa
in central Britain, probably near the modem
Daventry in Northamptonshire. His family pos-
sessed some wealth and had been Christian for
generations. He led an easy worldly life until the
age of sixteen (402), when plimdering Irish carried
him off as a slave to North Ireland. For six years
(402-408) he was a swineherd. Reflection and
changed drcumstances made him a new man. He
practised austerities, saw visions, and heard voices
which counseled him to flee. He reached the
coast and fell in there with heathen (doubtless
Saxons), who took him to Britain and led him
•bout the country for sixty days. Then he escaped
and finally arrived at his home (408 or 409). There
he became a deacon. His visions continued, and
eventually he came to believe himself called to be
the bishop of Ireland. In his native place, where
he was looked upon as an enthusiast, narrow-
minded, and of defective education, obstacles
arose to his consecration. His parents and friends
were against it. So he left home at the age of
thirty-eight (c. 424), and followed the old road
by way of Auxerre (where he stayed some time
with Germanus), through the Rhone valley, by
way of Aries, along the coast of Provence and the
Lerinian islands, through Upper Italy, to Rome.
If Ultan may be believed (Tirechan, Tripartite Life,
ii. 302, 11. 19-23), he spent seven years wandering
through Gaul and Italy. His barbarian name was
Latinized into Palladius. At Rome he gained in-
fluence, probably the more readily since for twenty
years Britain had been separated from the em-
pire and the connection between the British Church
and Rome had become difficult. Perhaps also
he exaggerated his family's position and influence
to the leading ecclesiastical circles. In 429 he
was instrumental in sending Germanus of Auxerre
to Britain, and in 431 he attained his heart's desire
and was consecrated epiecojms for Ireland. He
reached Ireland in 432, dropped the Roman trans-
lation of his name, and assimied in its stead the
title Patridus. There are no trustworthy details
of his activity in Ireland. But he was never recog-
nized as its '' appointed bishop." In the letter on
Coroticus he says oomplainingly ''although now
I am despised by some," and in the " Confession,"
written near the end of his life, he characterizes
himself as " despised by most." His very limited
literary education may well have aroused the scorn
and derision of his more cultured assodates. How
far he extended his misdonary efforts in Connaught
and the Northwest, where there must still have
been opportunity for such work, can hardly be
ascertained from the " Confesdon," the only source
of any authority. Its words are those of a monk-
ish ascetic to whom convertere ad deum is identical
with " to enter a monastery," and definite infer-
ences can not be drawn from its statements.
There are some indications of the locality where
the historical Patrick lived. Muirchu ( Tripartite Life,
ii. 275, 1. 13) says that the legendary Patrick landed
at a port called Hostium Dee, near the present
Wicklow. As the tendency of the legend required
Patrick to settle in the North as soon as posdble,
it is probable that an item of true tradition is pre-
served here. Muirchu was himself from 0)unty
Wicklow and used the " CSonfesdon " and " Epistle "
of Sucat as sources of his life. Aed, at whose re-
quest Muirchu wrote, was bishop of Sletty in
Queen's Coimty, near Carlow. Cummian, who was
the first to mention the legendary Patrick, was
also a native of the South. Therefore the South
of Ireland possessed the material left by the his-
torical Patrick (the Confeeeio and the Epistold) as
well as notices of his life. Hence it is probable
that Patrick settled somewhere in County Wicklow.
He died Mar. 17, 459, according to the statement
in the Luxeuil Calendar and the most trustworthy
entries of the Annals. He was soon forgotten,
OeltioOhuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
472
save in the district of his special activity; and
bere, in the seventh century, under the influence
of a specific tendency, he was resurrected and made
the apostle of the Irish, as Augustine was the
BpoBtle of the Saxons and Columba of the Picts.
It is not possible to say definitely why Patrick
does not mention his consecration by Pope Celes-
tine in the " Confession." But it may be recalled
that for three hundred years the Roman Empire
was a standing menace to the liberty of the Irish.
Without doubt bitter feelings and hatred were
Btill alive in 432, and the Irish were not likely to
distinguish carefully between spiritual and tem-
poral Rome. If, therefore, when Patrick arrived
in Ireland he tried to impress the Christian Irish
with his ordination by Celestine, he must soon have
found out his mistake. With his religious feelings
and views, Patrick would look upon Celestine
merely as the instrument of God, who had himself
appeiu:«d to him in visions and dreams and ap-
pointed him apostle to the Irish. And it was only
natural that to the old man on the brink of the
grave Celestine's slight and casual intervention in
his life should fade away before the image of God
Almighty, whose chosen one he was. (For other
views concerning St. Patrick, see the article Pat-
BicK, Saint.)
8. In North Britain (Alba): From statements by
Bede (iii. 4) we know that a Briton named Nynia
(St. Ninian, q.v.) founded a monastery on the
peninsula of Wigtown, in the extreme Southwest
of Scotland, about 400, and thence spread Chris-
tianity among the Picts south of the Grampians.
The germs of the young faith seem to have been
destroyed in the confusion which arose in North
Britain early in the fifth century. In two passages
of his letter concerning Coroticus Patrick with
evident anger calls the Picts " apostates ** (Haddan
and Stubbs, ii. 314, L 13; 318, 1. 5; TripartUe Life,
ii. 375, 1. 26; 379, 1. 7). Coroticus was probably
a king of the Strathclyde Britons, ruling near the
modem Dumbarton between 420 and 450. His
subjects were Christians; and as Patrick does not
reproach the Irish {ScoUi), living to the northwest,
with paganism, it may be that they also, like their
countrymen on the opposite coast of Antrim, were
Christians.
IL Development and Full ICaturity, 500--800.
—1. In Britain: The British Church reappears in
Wales in the second third of the sixth century,
and is the direct continuation of the Church of the
fourth century. That the latter consisted mainly
of Roman residents of the towns while
Qj*' ^?_ the Britons in the oountiy remained
Wales, ^^^^^^y ^^'^ ^^^ the Celtic Chiirch
first arose after the withdrawal of
the Romans, is an opinion based upon defective
knowledge of conditions in Roman and post-
Roman Britain and is disproved by the fact that
the Christian missionaries to Ireland in the fourth
century and the Christians who settled in Armorica
in the fifth spoke British, i.e., they were native
Britons , not Roman occupants of the country. The
external organization of the sixth century, how-
ever, is not an imintemipted development from
the fourth. When the Britons fled from the Saxons
to the thinly populated hill-regions of the West,
they foimd there no cities to serve as centers d.
ecclesiastical organization. But monastidsxn, wfakh
had flourished in Britain from the end of t\m
fourth century, soon created new oenteis. Dio-
ceses were formed, each based on the mooasterj
of a clan and comprising the territory beLoogii^
to the dan. In time these were oambined into
larger organisms, and during the seventh oentuij
the ecclesiastical organization of Wales was defini-
tively fixed by the constitution of four Inshof)-
rics, corresponding to the four political diviskȣ,
viz.: Bangor on Menai Straits in Gwynedd; St
Asaph in the Northeast in Powys; Menevia (St
David's) in the Southwest in Dyfed; and TJand^
in the Southeast in Gwent They were inde-
pendent of one another and based on the disd
monasteries of the territories named. Abbo4
and bishop were generally the same. According
to the Annales Cambria^ the foxmders of the
four bishoprics died in 584 (Daniel of Bangorl
601 (David of Menevia), and 612 (Dubridus ol
Llandaff and Kentigem of St. Asaph).
The result of Gregory's mission to the Saxocs
(see Anqlo-Saxonb, Conversion of the; Augc^
TINE, Saint, of Canterbury) was to intensify and
perpetuate the isolation from which the Britidi
Church already suffered. Two conferences were
held between its representatives and Augustine
(602 or 603), but the Britons rejected
2. The tbo proposals of the Roman mis-
Britlsh sionary and refused to have him for
Ohnroh and archbishop (Bede, ii. 2; cf. Bright, pp.
Auffustine. 86-03). Augustine's unskilful man-
agement may have contributed to the
result — ^he is said to have offended the Britons bj
not rising to meet them — ^but he offered to overiook
all other differences if the Britons on their part
would accept the Roman computation for Easter,
would remove divergences from Roman practise in
the baptismal rite, and would join him in preaching
the Gospel to the Saxons. The third requirement
was probably the chief obstacle, and union was not
effected because the Britons regarded the miaaon-
ary as the representative of their hated foes. In
his disappointment Augustine is said to have
threatened the obstinate Celts with death at Uie
hands of the Eng^h if they would not preach to
them the way of life. Eight, or perhaps twdve,
years after Augustine's death Ethelfrid, the heathen
king of Northumbria, massacred a large company
of British priests and the monJks of Bangor at
Chester, and the prophepy was thought to be ful-
filled.
When the South Irish C^iurch conformed to
Rome, about 630, the Welsh Church was cut <^
on both sides, and this isolation proved fatal to its
spiritual culture. Its most eminent representative
in the sixth century is Gildas, and after him there
is no one of greater literary merit than Nennius
at the end of the eighth century. According to the
Annales Cambria, Elbodug, bishop of Bangor,
adopted the Roman Easter computation in 768:
the Chronicle of Welsh Princes gives the date as
755 and says that South Wales followed in 777
(Haddan and Stubbs, L 203-204). But opposition
4T8
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oaltio Ohuroh
d.id not oease at that time, for the same source
says that when Elbodug died in 809 " a great con-
troversy arose because of Easter."
8. In Ireland and North Britain: The earliest
native and foreign sources show a flourishing church
in Ireland in the sixth century. Its type is that
of a mission-church, resting not on the labors
of a single man, but growing, without central
organization, in a land divided among many
clans, through the constant activity of a mis-
sionary monkhood. It is the natural develop-
ment of the seed sown in southeastern Ireland
by British missionaries from the middle of the
fourth century, springing up and increasing un-
disturbed by outside influences. This view is
quite different from the prevalent one, which as-
Btunes, on the one hand, a complete collapse of the
Irish Church at the end of the fifth
1. The Irish century, and, on the other hand, a
^^t Sh ^^^^ ^ *^® ""^ century due to the
vived^m "*^"®°^ ^^ *^® Welsh Church, and
"Walesln P&>^cul&i^ly of such men as Gildas,
the Sixth Cadoc, and David. A collapse about
Centary. 500 is inexplicable, and is assumed
only because necessitated by the
Patrick legend and the hypothesis of a revival
from Britain in the sixth century. This hypoth-
esis rests upon: (1) statements concerning the
activity of Gildas in Ireland, made in his life writ-
ten at Ruys in Brittany in the eleventh century;
(2) the view of the Irish Church of the fifth and
sixth centuries found in the eighth century CaU>-
logua aanctarum Hibemice >; and (3) notes of cer-
tain saints' lives [such as that of St. Disibod, q.v.],
certainly not older than the eleventh or twelfth
centuiy (cf. Haddan and Stubbs, i. 115, n.a.).
On the other hand, a mere enumeration of dates
shows that the Irish Church was in no need of
revival. Finnian of Clonard, the father of the
" twelve apostles of Ireland," died in 648. Co-
1 ThiB doeument is Um source of the familiar divisioii of
Irish saints into three ** orders." It sUtes that the first
order belonged to the time of Patrick. They were all bish-
ops, 350 in nmnber, founders of churches. They had one
head, Christ, and one lord, Patrick; they observed one mass,
one celebration, and one tonsure from ear to ear; they kept
one Easter, on the fourteenth day of the moon after the
vernal equinox; and what was excommunicated by one
ehuroh all excommunicated. They did not reject the serv-
ices and society of women, because, founded oa the rock
of Christ, they feared not the blast of temptation. This
order lasted through four reigns, and its members' wete all
bishops, from the Romans, the Franks, the Britons, and
the Irish (5esffi).
In the second order bishops were few and presbyters many,
300 in number. They had one head, our Lord; they cele-
brated different tneiiwes and had different rules, but their
Easter and tonsure were as in the first order. They re-
jected the services of women, separating them'^from Um
monasteries. They lasted through four reigns, and received
a mass from Bishop David, and Gildas, and Docus, the
Britons.
The members of the third order were holy presbyters and
a few bishops, 100 in all. They dwelt in solitary places,
and lived on herbs and water and alms, shunning private
property. Their rules, masses, tonsure, and Easter were
all different, and they lived through four reigns.
The first order was sanclisMmiw; the second, »anetu9
9anetorum: the third, §anetua. They were like the sun,
the moon, the dawn. These three orders were foreseen by
Patrick in a vision from on high. Consult w^H^w and
Stubbs, iL 292-294.
lumba founded the monastery of Deny about 546
and Durrow before 560. Ciaran founded Clon-
macnoise 541 and died 548. Comgall founded
Bangor in Ulster 554 or 558. Brendan founded
Clonfert in Longford 552. In 563 Columba went
to lona. The authority of an eleventh-century
monk of Ruys is not to be put above such evidence
as this. Nor can the statements of ignorant
authors of saints' lives, who confuse different
centuries, furnish the basis for a historical con-
struction at variance with all fixed dates. There
is no evidence of British influence in Ireland apart
from the visit of Gildas there in 566 (cf . Mommsen,
Chronica minora, iii. 6, 11. 3-23). [This visit is
considered doubtful by some; see Gildas.] The
Church of Gildas, Cadoc, and David, it may be
noted, was epiaeapal ; if then these men, and men
like them, revived the dying Irish episcopal Church,
why did they substitute another entirely monasti6
with no trace of an episcopal character? Further-
more, the Church in Britain at this time was in no
condition to infuse fresh life into the Irish Church.
In the trouble and turmoil of the fifth century it
had lost all organization, and Gildas himself draws
a gloomy picture of the state of things in Britain
before 547. Ireland, however, did not suffer from
barbarian attacks, and her Church was able to
develop undisturbed. Hence the natural suppo-
sition is that at this time the Irish Church was the
giver and the British Church the recipient. And
we know that from the very beginning of the sixth
centuiy Irish clerics went to southwest Britain
and to Brittany, giving and spreading knowledge
not receiving it. The foundation of new monaa-
teries in Ireland by Finnian of Clonard and men
regarded as his disciples between 520 and 560 can
not be considered a restoration or reformation of
the Irish Church. There was already a large num-
ber of older monasteries, such as Exnly in Munster
and Armagh in Ulster, which for centuries played
a greater rdle in the entire life of the Irish Church
than any of these new foundations. Finnian was
a sort of Irish Benedict of Nursia; he established
his new house at Clonard by the side of the older
institutions — rather mission-stations than monas-
teries— ^with stricter rules, and through the influence
on Comgall and Columba it became the model of
the Irish monasteries in North Britain and on the
Continent.*
* Irish monasticism of the sixth eentury was very different
from that of a later period. It lias been characterised as
the transition from the hermit life to the religious orders of
the Middle Ages — a transition that was soon made in the
East, but in Ireland proceeded more slowly and lasted till
the subjection to Rome. The primitive Irish monasteries
were of the same tsrpe as those of Egypt and Syria. Thm
nucleus was a church or oratory, always oblong (from tea
to forty feet in length, rarely sixty), and without chancel,
aisles, or apse. No rteoains have been found showing any
approach to the basilica form or anything of Roman type.
Round the church were grouped " beehive " huts or cells,
each for a single occupant, and the whole was surrounded
by a wall or rampart, with a ditch, and a hedge or palisade
on top. There is mention of kitchens and the " great house "
(refectory); and there were also guest houses, storehouses
and bams, workshops, and the like. The so-called " Round
Towers " are always connected with ecclesiastical founda-
tions, and belong for the most part to the ninth and tenth
centuries. They probably served as bell-towers, for refuge
or defense in case of attack, and as beacons and lichthniisos
Oaltlo Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
474
The Irish Church of the sixth, seventh, and
eighth centuries, then, was the natural develop-
ment of the Church of the fourth and
^^?S" ^^^^ centuries, without interference
j^j^ * from outside. This freedom accounts
Honks. ^^^ ^^® ^^h standard of learning main-
tained by the Irish monasteries till
the ninth century. They kept the knowledge and
culture received with Christianity, and cherished
it at a time when everywhere else, in Britain, Gaul,
and Italy, barbarian hordes came near to stamping
it out. The erudition of the Irish monks in the sixth
century — surely not derived from a Church whose
greatest scholar was Gildas — surpassed on the
whole that of Italy. Greek was studied at Bangor
when Gregory the Great probably had no knowl-
edge of the language. In the seventh century
Aldhelm, writing to a young friend returning home
The whole eatobliohmnit wm called a " dty " (eivtiat),
and the deasnatioo ie not inapt for the larger oommunitiea,
with two or three thonwand members, eaeh havinc hie own
house, and its oomplez of public or common buildincs. The
first step in the foundation was to obtain a site, which was
frequently given by the chieftain when he was converted,
and sometimes was his fortress. It was often necessarily
in the forest, as the extent of cleared land was very limited.
The building material was most commonly wood or wattles
and day. but stone sometimes was used; the earliest stone
structures are without mortar. As the first building opera-
tion was ooomionly the driving of stakes, *' to drive " came
to be the usual expression to designate the founding of a
monastery. Each monastery had its own rules, followed
also by the affiliated bouses, which were governed by a local
head under the abbot. The abbot was not chosen by the
monks, but was appointed by the chieftain, generally from
his own famUy or that of the founder, and hence was known
as the ooar6 or heir of the founder. He was seldom a bishop,
but there were always one or more bishops in each commu-
nity, always subject, however, to the abbot. Poverty,
chastity, and obedience were considered essential. The
rule of St. Columban (q.v.) no doubt represenU the life and
practise of the Irish monasteries, particularly that at Bangor,
of which Columban had been a member. Adamnan also
gives many interesting details of the life at lona in Columba's
time, and this monastery, doubtless, did not differ materi-
ally from the others. Divine service and private devotion,
study, and manual labor occupied the time of the brethren.
Sundays and saints' days were marked by celebration of the
Eucharist, rest from toil, and an allowance of better food.
Easter was the chief festival and during the Pnwrhaln Diet
(from Easter to Whitsunday) there was some relaxation
in the severity of disdpline. Christmas was the other great
festival. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast-days except
during the Pa9chale9 Diet. Lent was strictly kept, and the
forty days before Christmas were observed by some in a
like manner. Holy Scripture was the chief object of study
and the Psalms were learned by heart. Much effort was
spent in the copying of books and there are two Irish manu-
scripts of the Vulgate, known respectively as the Book of
KeU9 and the Book of Durrow and dating from the seventh
century, which are among the finest extant specimens of
illuminated work. It is a question where such work was
done, as it must have besn impossible in the poorly lighted
cells; perhaps it was executed in the open air, and we read
of the monks writing " on thdr knees." Be!a<ie8 writing,
the production and preparation of food was tae chief labor.
Htrangere were hospitably received and fasts were relaxed
in their honor. Consult: Reeves's Adamnan, pp. 339-8dD.
Dublin, 1867; J. T. Fowler's Adamnan, pp. xxxvii.-!.
Oxford, 1804; J. Lanigan. EecUaiaatical History, iv. 348 sqq.
Dublin, 1820; F. E. Warren, Liturov and Riiwd, chap, ii.',
Oxford, 1881; O. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celiic Chvreh,
lectures ix. and xi.; Q. Petrie, Eecleeiaetieal Arehiteeture of
Ireland, Dublin, 1846; Margaret Stokes, Early Chriatian
Art in Ireland, London, 1887; J. Anderson, Scotland in
Early ChriaHan Timee, 2 vols.. Edinburgh, 1881; J. Healy,
Inaula eanetorum, pp. 144-150, Dublin, 1800.
from the Irish schools {MPL, Izxzix. Ok-d;,
reluctantly admits the superiority of Irish scfaobr-
ship. And in the eighth century Bede speaks
with admiration of Irish learning (iiL 7, 27; [d
Plummer's note to iii. 27, p. 192]). Besides tbdr
seal for learning, a noteworthy love of wandering
characterised the Irish monks. Singly or in groups
they went forth from the great monk-colonies—
for such the monasteries really were-
®' ^|J*J*^* to seek a form of the anchorite^s life.
^oniurT T'**®^ ^^^ content at first with the
lAbora. ^^^ ^^ their own lakes and rivers;
then they betook themselves to tbe
many islands of the Irish coast; then to the Heb-
rides, the Orkneys, and the Shetland Islands, and
before 800 they had reached Iceland. At the sant
time others went to Britain — ^where many Chiis-
tian inscriptions of the fifth, sixth, and seventh
centuries with Irish names and written in Ogham
bear witness to their presence north and south of
the Severn estuaiy — ^and to Brittany, and tbeo
through the land of the Franks to the Alps
and across the Alps, so that Bobbie (periiaps Tarra-
tum; see Gataldus; Ck>LUMBAN) became the south-
ern, as Iceland was the northern, limit of tbdr
wanderings. Their primary puzpoae was not mis-
sionaiy work; but circumstances made them mis-
sionaries and teachers of the people among whom
they settled to lead the contemplative life.
The greatest achievement of the Irish Qiurcfa
and its monks in the sixth and seventh centuries,
the Christianiaation of North Britain,
^!lJiI^T? ^^^ ** regarded from the same point
of view. With twelve oompanioni
Columba (q.v.) left Ireland in 563.
" wishing to go into exile for Christ "
(Adanman's Life of Columba, p. 9). They settled
on the little island of lona (Eo, lo. Hi), bdon^g
to the Irish (Christian) state nortii of the Clyde,
took up missionaiy work among the heathen Picts
of the neighborhood and rapidly extended it, so
that when Columba died (597), the mainland north
of Glasgow and Edinburi^, as wdl as the westen
blands, was studded with monasteries, whose in-
mates looked after the spiritual wdf are of the ndgh-
boring population, all of them dependent on the
mother monastery at lona (q.v.)- A generation
later Oswald, king of Northumbria, who hsd been
converted to Christianity during a seventeen yeai^
exile in Ireland, applied to Columba's successor for
missionaries to introduce Christianity in his realm.
Aidan (q.v.) was sent (635) and under his lead and
that of his successors, Finan (652--661) and Col-
man (661-664), with the earnest support of Oswald
and his brother Oswy, the Gospel made rapid and
splendid progress. Monasteries were founded,
such as Mailros (Old Melrose) by Aidan, tbe first
nunnery by Heiu at Hartlepool, the double naonas-
tery for both men and women at Coldingfaam
by Oswald's half-sister, Ebba, the monastery at
Whitby by Hilda, and others. Christianity and the
Irish Church reached to the Angles living south of
the Humber.
This flourishing state of the Irish Church was
disturbed by the Roman mission to the Saxons in
597. Like the British Church, that of Ireland
Britain
Ohristian-
476
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oeltlo Ohumll
differed in some respects from the Roman Church
of Gregory's time, the most important divergen-
ces being the form of the tonsure and
tioka with *^® method of computing Easter [cf .
Rome. Plummer's Bede, ii. 348^54; Bright,
pp. 86-93, 224-225]. In 604 Augustine's
Buccessor, Laiirence, with his fellow bishops, Mel-
litus and Justus, sent a letter to Ireland exhorting
to conformity to Roman usage, but without success
(Bede, ii. 4). A party favorable to conformity
gradually arose through visits of Irish clerics to
Gaul and Rome, and partly perhaps through in-
fluence of the Anglo-Roman Church, but in 627
it was still in the minority, for the exhortation of
Pope Honorius I. to conform in 628 was again un-
successful (Bede, ii. 10). Honorius then excom-
municated Ireland (Cummian's letter, 977, 11. 6-6)
and in 629 the Southeast generally observed the Ro-
man date. Farther west opinions wavered, but in
630 the abbots met in a synod at Mag Lena near
Tullamore, and decided to celebrate Easter the
next year with the Roman Church. Opposition,
however, made another meeting necessary and the
Roman party failed to win a decisive victoiy.
They sent an embassy to Rome, which returned
in 633. Through the influence of this embassy
and the death (636) of Fintan, abbot of Taghmon
in County Weidford (see Fintan, Saint), leader of
the opposition, the Roman party finally prevailed
in the South. The North held out stubbornly for
sixty years longer. Cummian's letter to Seghine,
abbot of lona (634), and a letter from Pope John
IV. (partly preserved by Bede, ii. 19) in 640 to the
prominent abbots of the North were ineffectual.
The details of the struggle are not known, but it
may be assumed that the Patrick legend was not
the least important of the expedients resorted to
to work upon the North Irish.
It was natural for the Irish to seek for an apostle
who should be to them what Columba was to the
Picts and Augustine to the Saxons.
In the neighborhood of Wicklow a
certain Patridus was remembered
who had called himself the " appointed
bishop of Ireland." Is it imreasonable to assume
that about 625 it came to be believed in the South-
east that the apostle was found in this man? The
scanty history of Patrick was filled out by analogy
with that of Columba and Augustine. The Irish
were supposed to have been all heathen in 432 as
the Picts had been in 563 and the Saxons in 597.
Patrick converted the land in a brief time, estab-
lished a Christian Church, and won the favor of
King Laeghaire as Columba had that of King Brude
and Augustine that of Ethelbert of Kent. This
legend was at once utilized, if not invented, by the
Roman party, as is evident from the first mention
of it in Cummian's letter. He attributes to Patrick
the introduction of the Dionysian cycle in Ire-
land, although it was not introduced in Rome till
the sixth century (col. 975c).
The legend was also useful in winning over the
bishop of Armagh. As the presumed successor of
St. Patrick he was acknowledged in the South as
metropolitan (cf. Tripartite Life, iL 346, 11. 21-24).
The claims of Armagh, however, met with violent
6. The
Patrick
I«effend.
opposition in the eighth and ninth centuries both
in Connaught and Munster. Northumbria con-
formed to Rome after the Synod of
formal Whitby (q.v.) in 664, whereupon the
Boman ^'^^ returned to their native land (see
jj^a^gs, CoLMAN, Saint). Adamnan, ninth
abbot of lona (679-704), was persuaded
to yield while visiting the court of Aldfrid in North-
umbria in 686 or 687-688, but was unable to control
the abbots of the dependent monasteries or his
own monks at lona when he returned home (Bede,
V. 15). Then he went to North Ireland and with
an Angle, Egbert (see Egbert, Saint), took the
lead in efforts to win over the Irish party. The
bishop of Armagh yielded in 697. . The 0)lumban
monasteries continued obstinate. In 713 Naiton,
king of the Picts, enlisted the services of Ceolfrid
(q.v.), the distinguished abbot of Wearmouth and
Jarrow; the latter wrote a long letter on the Easter
question, which Naiton sqpt in copy to all clerics in
his dominion with an order to obey (Bede, v. 21).
Those who continued recalcitrant were expelled from
the country in 717. In 716 Egbert persuaded the
abbot and monks of lona to celebrate Easter at the
Roman date. Their compliance, however, came
too late to save the position of lona as the center
of a great monastic church. It was reduced to a
mere parent monastery with a few affiliated houses
on the west coast of North Britain and belonging
to the Irish state. Armagh, on the other hand,
by timely yielding and a skilful use of the Patrick
legend had prepared the way for becoming the
head of an episcopal chureh comprising all Ireland.
HL Complete ABsimilation to the Roman Church,
8OO-X20O. — 1. In Wales: The Chureh in Wales,
having been episcopal from the first, differed from
the Roman Chureh only in subordinate points
after it had conformed in respect to Easter and the
tonsure. Political conditions hastened its com-
plete assimilation to the Roman-Saxon Church.
From the time of Egbert of Wessex (d. 836) the
weaker Welsh chieftains sought the protection of
the English kings against their more powerful
countrymen. The attacks of the Northmen also,
which from 853 on were felt more and more severely
in Wales, promoted friendly feelings and relations
between the two nations. That the culture of its
clergy was higher after the isolation of the Welsh
Church was ended is evident from the appointment
and position of Asser (q.v.), a nephew of Bishop
Novis of Menevia, aa teacher, counselor, and friend
of Alfred. At the end of the tenth and beginning
of the eleventh century, consecration of bishops of
Llandaff by the archbishop of Canterbury seems
to have been the rule, and there is some reason to
believe that an earlier bishop, Cyfeiliawc (d. 927),
was so consecrated. The Anglo-Norman areh-
bishops Lanfranc (1070-^9) and Ansehn (1093-
1109) repeatedly interfered in Welsh matters as if
the Welsh bishops stood legally under the primate
of England. Disputes concerning the boundaries
of the Welsh dioceses of St. David's and Llandaff
and the English diocese of Hereford between 1119
and 1133 were referred to Rome. About this time
the bishop of St. David's began to set up the daim
to metropolitan rank, After 1187, when Aroh-
Celtic Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOO
476
bishop Baldwin of Canteibuiy as papal legate held
a visitation in parts of Wales and preached the
Crusade, the yfeXaih Church may be regarded as
part of the English Church, although as late as
1284 the bishop of St. David's formally protested
against the visitation of Archbishop Peckham of
Canteibury. [Welsh tradition and the rapidity
with which the Lollard movement in the fourteenth
century spread among the English-speaking people
on the borders of Wales favor the theory that the
ancient British fonn of Christianity persisted in
Wales throughout the Middle Agr^^ side by side
with the Roman Catholic estabushment. The
mountainous character of the country and the
character of the language, which Englishmen rarely
acquired, were favorable to the perpetuation of
evangelical dissent. A. H. N.]
8. In Ireland: A systematic sketch of the devel-
opment of the Irish branch of the Celtic Church
in this period is not yet possible owing to the de-
fective character of the special investigations. A
factor deserving more attention than it has com-
monly received is the influence of the incursions
and settlements of the Norsemen.
I. Xnoor- rj^^ Viking period— beginning in 795
tholTonio- ^"^^ lasting more than 150 years—
^^^^ " brought indescribable wo to all Brit-
ain and particularly to Christian Ire-
land. Churohes and monasteries, as the centers
of civilisation and the Christian religion, were
marked for destruction by the heathen Norwegians
and Danes. Certain of the Irish monasteries
(such as lona, Bangor in Ulster, and many others)
lay temptingly exposed to seafaring robbers. The
rivers gave them easy access to the heart of the
land from both the east and the west coast. The
wooden structures of the monasteries were an easy
prey to the flames, in which both books and monks
perished. If any manuscripts escaped biuning
they were thrown into the water. A heathen
Vildng state in Armagh between 832 and 845 com-
pelled the abbot-bishop, Forindan, to flee to Mun-
ster. At the same time the Norwegian heathen
were settling in the interior, but they were either
ultimately expelled or absorbed by the native
population and became Christian. In 852, how-
ever, a Viking kingdom was set up at Dublin, which
remained heathen and plundered Ireland and all the
coasts of the Irish S^ for more than a century.
Under such conditions it is not surprising that the
exodus of Irish monks to the Conti-
8. Ush ngnij continued and increased from
Se OontU ^^ ^^' ^^ *^® ninth century they
nent. * ^^^ teachers in the monastic schools
everywhere in the land of the Franks,
at St. Denis, Pavia, and on the Upper and Lower
Rhine, and they spread the repute of Irish learn-
ing so that it is almost a truism to say: Whoever
knew Greek on the Continent in the days of Charies
the Bald was an Irishman or had learned it from
an Irishman (cf. H. Zimmer, Ueber die Bedeutung
dea vrischen Elements fur miUelaUerliche KuUur, in
PreueHeche JahrbUcher, lix., 1887, pp. 27-59; L.
Traube, 0 Roma nohilia, in Ahhandlungen der pMUh
sophiech-phUologischen KUuse der kdniglich-bayeri-
Mchen Akademie, xix., 1892, pp. 332^363) . They took
their manuscripts with theih in audi numben that
no fewer than 117 Irish manuscripts, or fragmeDts
of such, older than the eleventh century are still
extant in Continental libraries, not counting those
in the Vatican or the Biblioth^ue Nationale(cf.
W. Schultse, Die Bedeutung der iraeehoiHKhen
MOnche, in CentralblaU fur Biblicthekewesen, 6th
year, 1889, pp. 287-298). But if this was the Con-
tinent's gain, it was Ireland's loss. King Biun
(1002-13) had to send across the sea " to buj
books " (J. H. Todd, The War of the GaedhU viA
the Oaiil, RoUe Seriee, no. 48, p. 138, London, 1867).
The standard of education in the monasteries sank
with each generation, and the new and inferior
priesthood had less power to resist the forces which
were substituting for the native monastic chuith
an episcopal church with metropolitan head. The
Irish chieftains and princes also, instead of uniting
against the common foe, thou^t the time moEt
fitting to fight out their domestic feuds. The
monasteries were involved in these quarrels, not to
mention fierce and bloody disputes between moo-
asteries themselves when their interests happened
to dash. Thus the old organization was wnkkened
and broken up. Furthennore, the Patrick legend
became a sort of dogma during the eighth century;
and its view of the Christianisation of Irehind ssd
the position of the episcopue in church govemmeat
was an additional force shaking the firmly built
edifice of the monastic church of the sixth and
seventh centuries. It can be shown from the
Annals of Ulster that the abbot-bishop of Aima^
making free use of his opportunities,
8. Blse of between 730 and 850 att^ed to some
Armagh, extent to that primacy in the Irish
Church which was the logical outcome
of the Patrick legend. The year 805 was decia?e
for Meath, 824 for Connaught, and 822, as weU as
Forindan's stay in Munster from 841 to 845. for
South Ireland; thenceforth the see of Armagh had
its tax-gatherers for Patrick's pence in all Ireland,
excluding of course the Viking state whose ruler
resided at Dublin. In 943 this ruler, Amlaib mac
Sitricca (Norse, Olafr Sigtriggvasonr), became a
Christian in England and was bi^tixed by Wulf-
helm, archbishop of Canteri>uiy, Edmund, king of
EIngland, standing as his godfather. As Christi-
anity spread among his subjects they natuiallj
looked toward Canterbury and drew their derics
from England. The incumbents of newly estab-
lished Norse bishoprics of Dublin, Waterford. and
Limerick were consecrated at Canteifouiy. This
was not satisfactory to the bishop of Armagh, who
desired revenues from the rich Norse settlements
in Dublin. He again had recourse to the Patnck
legend, utilizing a detail of it which had already
become current; namely, that Patrick had coo-
verted the Vikings. One of his adherents, vii-
tmg about 1000, tells how the saint had ooDverted
the heathen Norse of Dublin, and consequently
asserts that the successor of " Patrick of Armagh
with the great revenues" had a right to an
ounce of gold " from each nose " in the Dublin
Viking state (cf. H. Zimmer, KeUieche Beiirage. E,
in Zeitechrift fur deulachee AUerthum, xxxv., lS9l,
pp. 54-85).
477
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oeltlo Ohnrch
Another phenomenon in the inner development
of the Irish Church in this period which deserves
attention is the appearance of the
4. The so-called Culdees (Irish, cd/id^; Latin,
ChUdees. colidei). It is difficult to define ex-
actly the origin and position of these
men. The Irish name does not furnish a trust-
worthy clue. It meant originally one who enters
God's service and devotes himself to him to death,
and could be applied, like vir dei in Latin, to monks
and anchorites in general. Hector Boece, the
Scottish historian of the sixteenth century, started
the theory that the Culdei, as he calls them, were
the direct continuation of Irish monastidsm of the
cdxth, seventh, and eighth centuries, or even of
Celtic monastidsm in general. But Bishop Reeves
has shown that the term as used from the ninth
to the twelfth century was applied to members
of spiritual associations whose existence can not
with certainty be traced earlier than about 800.
Hence the associations of the Cclidei must have
been formed in Ireland about this time and an ex-
isting term of general application was given a more
limited signification to designate their members.
Apparently Chrodegang's monastic rule (749),
designed originally for Meti, was brought to Ire-
land in the eighth century, and Irish anchorites,
who were not under regular monastic rule, were
first associated in accordance with it. The Culdees
were never of great importance in Ireland. They
are mentioned in nine places, often in connection
with monasteries to which the house of the Culdees
forms a sort of annex. The care of the sick and
the poor was their chief charge, and they also seem
to have been entrusted with the choral part of the
service. In North Britain, however, whither they
went from Ireland, they attained to greater im-
portance. Naiton's expulsion of the refractory
monks of lona in 717 left gaps in the clergy which
the new associations of the Colidsi helped to fill.
They appear in Scotland as a mixture of secular
clergy and anchorites organized after monastic
pattern; at a later time they resemble the regular
canons of the Continent. There was a want of
connection between different oonvente due to the
lack of a common head and fixed forms. Hence
there were wide divergences, and contemporary
descriptions and opinions differ greatly. They
were ultimately absorbed in the Roman orders,
which were introduced in Ireland and Scotland
during the twelfth century.
The full subjection of the Celtic Church of Ireland
to that of Rome was accomplished after 1050.
Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury
6. Final found opportunity to interfere in Ire-
SuhJeotlon land in 1074 and sent a letter to the
to Borne, king, Toriogh O'Brian, through Gil-
patrick, the Norse bishop of Dublin.
In^igated by both, Gregory VII. sent a letter to
Ireland and appointed Gilbert, the Norse bishop of
Limerick, papal legato for Ireland. As in the
seventh century, so now, the bishop of Armagh
resisted. But in the end Gilbert found a man who
fell in with his views, when in 1106 Celsus succeeded
to the see of Armagh. At the Synod of Rath-
breasail in 1120 it was decided to divide Ireland
into twenty-foiu- dioceses, all except Dublin sub-
ordinate to Armagh. In 1152 a synod was held at
Kells, under the presidency of the papal legato,
Paparo, and Ireland was divided into four prov-
inces, Armagh was selected as the see of the pri-
mate, and the bishops of Dublin, Cashel, and Timm
were promoted to archbishops and received pallia
brought from Rome. The complete Romanization
of the Irish Church in internal affairs was effected
in furtherance of the political interests of the Anglo-
Normans at a synod held at Cashel in 1172 by com-
mand of Henry II.
8. In North Britain: In 844 Eeimeth mac Alpin,
ruler of the Irish state in North Britain, mounted
the throne of the united North and South Picte,
and thereby created a united kingdom of Alba,
later known as Scotland. In 850 Kenneth had
the bones of Columba removed from lona (which,
because of constant attacks from the VUdngs, had
fallen into complete decay) and deposited at Dun-
keld, in the land of the South Picto, the mainstay
of his power. At the same time he established a
bishopric at Dunkeld, apparently aiming to form
here a center for a national church like lona in the
seventh century, with a different basis, however,
the abbot-bishop of Dunkeld being at the head of
the church government as bishop and not as abbot.
In 865 Kenneth's son, Constantine, removed the
see of the bishopric to Abemethy, leaving Dunkeld
with an abbot only. In 008 the see of the primato
was transferred to St. Andrews and a pariiament
of the same year exempted the Church from taxar
tion. Margaret, grandniece of Edward the Con-
fessor and queen of Scotland 1069-03, took ener-
getically in hand the reformation of the Scottish
Church according to Roman rules and usages.
She received efficient support from her confessor,
Turgot, abbot of Durham (see Tuboot). Her sons,
Edgar (1097-1107), Alexander (1107-24), and
David (1124-53) continued and completed their
mother's reforms. In 1107 Turgot was appointed
to the see of St. Andrews and was consecrated at
York. His successor, Eadmer, a Canterbury monk,
at the desire of King Alexander was chosen and con-
secrated by Ralph, archbishop of Canterbury
(1115). By 1188 the outward and inward trans-
formation of ecclesiastical Scotland into a Roman
province was complete. It was then declared in-
dependent of Canterbury and, like the Irish Church,
came directly under the sovereignty of Rome
through a bull of Clement III. (cf. Haddan and
Stubbs, ii. 273-274). The land was divided into
nine dioceses with strictly defined boundaries, and
Augustinian, Benedictine, and Cistercian monks
were introduced and absorbed the renmant of
the national Celtic monastidsm.
IV. Some General Considerations: Concerning
institutions and doctrine, neither tradition nor his-
tory offers any support to the view that the Celtic
Church in ite prime almost reproduced the Church
of the Apostolic Age. The British Church of the
fourth century was a part of the Catholic Church
of the West, just as Britain was a part of the Ro-
man Empire. And the Irish Church was an off-
shoot of the British Church. The divergences from
Rome which both branches of the Celtic Church
CMtlo Ohuroh
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
478
■howed at the beginning of the seventh century
are easily explicable. It must not be forgotten
that the position of the bishop of
1. Season Rome in the time of Leo the Great
for the (440-461) was different from that of
Diverven- Pope Gregory the Great (590-604);
oee flfom that the fourth century knew nothing
**"*•• of that rigid uniformity of institutions
which at the beginning of the seventh
century was looked upon as an essential reqiiirement
of the unitoB eaiholica; and that innovations
domesticated themselves slowly in the more dis-
tant members of the Church. About 400 the
British branch of the Catholic Church was cut off
because political Rome lost its hold on Britain.
A series of events of the eariy fifth century is in-
structive for the inunediate consequences. The
popes Innocent, Zosimus, and Boniface (401-422)
energetically opposed the teaching of Pelagius,
and the emperor, Honorius, supported them by
issuing a rescript (Apr. 30, 418) threatening ban-
ishment to every Pelagian. The suppression of
the heresy in the empire was thus due to the civil
power. But the arm of the emperor did not reach
to Britain and in 429 Pope Celestine could only
send Germanus of Auxerre thither to eradicate the
heresy by moral suasion. Later all connection
between the Celtic Church and Rome was broken
for 150 years by a double and threefold wall of
barbarians — ^Burgundians, Visigoths, Franks, and
Saxons. The development of the Western Church
during all this time left no impress on the Celtic;
and local conditions could not fail to influence the
latter. This explains how a Columban of Luxeuil
presumes to address the pope in a way which two
hundred years earlier would not have been remark-
able in a bishop of North Africa or Alexandria. It
explains why the Welsh Church of the sixth cen-
tury knew only of independent bishops without
metropolitan; the British Church in 400 knew
nothing of this institution. The difference in the
date of Easter is due to the fact that in 600 the
Celtic Church still used the older mpputaHo Ro-
mana, which had been followed by Rome till 343,
but was then superseded by the younger mpputaHo
Romana. Other changes — the paschal table of
Zeitz in 447, the nineteen-jrear cyde of Victorius
in 501, the cycle of Dionysius about 550 — ^were all
unknown to the Celtic Church.
The representatives of Britain at the Synod of
Aries subscribed the canon that when possible
seven, and in any case three, bishops
2. Oonae- should take part in the consecration
oration by of a bishop. Yet consecration could
a Slnffla be performed by a single bishop in
Bishop, both the British and Irish Churches
long after their contact with Rome.
This is not as surprising as it has been thought (cf.
Warren, pp. 68-69). In the nature of things, partic-
ulariy in the earlier period, consecration often had
to be by one bishop if it took place at all. Gregory
the Great recognized the necessity and gave Au-
gustine permission to consecrate alone with the re-
mark, " Since you are the only bishop in the English
Church you can not ordain otherwise than without
other bishops " (Bede, i. 27). Boniface V. gave the
same permission to Justus, Augustine's third suc-
cessor, "when the occasion made it necessary"
(Bede, ii. 8). Custom with the English makes lav
without specific enactment. Hence it is oompreben-
sible how consecration by a single bishop became
first established usage and then law. In re^»ect
to the markedly monastic character of the Irish
Church and the position of the bishop in it unlike
that in the Western Church, it must
8. SConaatlo \^ noted that in the older monastenes
^^^*t^^ (such as Armagh in the North and
^* j^ Emly in Tipperary) the abbots were
Churoh. ^^^ bishops; that is, the beads of the
dioceses were abbots and bishops in
one person, but their power of church government
rested on their position as abbots. This is ex-
plained by the political and social conditions of the
Celts and the time and manner of their conversion.
The first step was the establishment of a monastic
missionary station with a clan. A member of the
chief's family inevitably became the head of such
a station. In some cases the right of succession
to the abbacy remained hereditary in the chiefs
family for centuries. The necessity for some one
to perform episcopal fimctions would not be felt
immediately. When it did arise an original lay
abbot may have received consecration, but, living
as he did far from the sight and influence of an
episcopal church, it was only natural that he should
continue to perform the duties of church govern-
ment in the church of the clan by virtue of his
position as abbot and member of the chiers family
It is not advisable to attempt a complete picture
of the doctrines and institutions of the Celtic Church
in its prime. The material at hand is not sufficient,
although it is adequate to support the conclusion
that the Celtic Church of the sixth and seventh
centuries was a reproduction of the Western Church
of the fourth century, modified only in special
points. An important difference, however, must
be noted. The spirit of the Roman and Celtic
Churches when they first came in conflict was not
the same. The representatives of the former were
intolerant and uncharitable, as Augustine toward
the British bishops (Bede, ii. 2), Wil'
4. The frid toward Cohnan (ib. iii. 25), AW-
<^o •»* heUn in his letter to Geraint {MGH,
^Jjj^ Epist., iii. 231-235). The Irish, on the
other hand, such as Columban on the
Continent and Aidan and the rest in Northumbria,
only asked that they be allowed quietly to foUov
the customs of their fathers. As soon, however,
as an Irishman went over to the Roman party a
new spirit entered into him. Ronan, an IrishxnaD
who had been in Gaul and Italy, began the quarrd
in Northumbria with the gentle Finan (Bede, iii.
25). Cummian in his famous letter express^ the
pious wish that God would '' strike " Fintan (his
chief opponent) " as he would " (ool. 977b), al-
though four or five years earlier he had himself
kept Easter at the Celtic date. Again, the spirit
of deliberate falsification to serve church interesti
does not appear in the Irish Church before its con-
tact with Rome. That it appears immediately
thereafter is abimdantly shown by the history of
the Patrick legend. Lastly, the new ^irit which
470
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Celtic Ohureh
begins to pervade the Irish Church in the seventh
century is indicated by the unprecedented ex-
tension of the cult of relics. Ireland had no mar-
tyrs. There is no reason to believe that relics
were known or honored in any part of
6. Selice. the Irish Church before contact with
Rome. In 633 the embassy sent to
Rome because of the Easter contest (see above,
p. 475) returned laden with books and relics. And
the next jrear Cummian writes to Seghine: " And
-we have proof that the virtue of God is in the relics
of holy martyrs and the writings which they have
brought. We have seen with our own eyes a girl
totally blind open her eyes before these relics and
a paralytic walk and many demons cast out "
(col. 978b). Everything here, even to the word-
ing (rdiquice), is Roman, not Irish. Muirchu
Maccu-Machtheni's life of Patrick witnesses the
progress of the cult of relics in South Ireland dur-
ing the seventh century. Speaking for his own
time (before 697), the author mentions with em-
phasis that in three different places in the Roman-
Irish territory relics are worshiped and he even
makes Patrick prophesy such worship (Tripartite
Life, ii. 281, U. 1-2; 283, 11. 3-5; 497, U. 14-19).
To Adamnan, writing his life of Columba in North
Ireland at the same time and before he had joined
the Roman party, relics are utteriy unknown.
But no sooner did Roman influence find entrance
in the North through the yielding of Armagh (697)
and lona (716) on the Easter question than the
same change of attitude took place which had
occurred seventy years earlier in the South. The
Annals of Ulster give much information on the
history of the Church, but in the sixth and seventh
centuries they contain not a single entry respecting
relics. In 726, however, occurs the first of a long
series of entries recording the transference or en-
shrining of relics, and a little later Armagh ex-
hibited at the great fairs of Ireland the relics of
Patrick, supposed to have been found at Down-
patrick in 733, and took them to Connaught and
Munster.
Enough has been said to show that the spirit
which animated the Celtic Church about 600 was
quite different from that which the emissaries of
the Roman Church brought to the British Isles.
Both had the same dogmas. But on the one side
was a striving after individual freedom and per-
sonal CJhristianity, on the other side a bigoted zeal
for rigid uniformity and systematizing. The Olt
emphasized a Christianity manifesting itself in
word and deed, the Roman Catholic valued a
formal Christianity above all else. As has been
said, there is no reason to believe that the Celtic
Church greatly resembled the Apostolic Church in
institutions or doctrines. But the practical results
of its teaching as seen in the life of such men as
Aidan and Finan (cf. Bede, in. 17) unquestionably
oome nearer the popular conception of the Apos-
tolic Age than does the spirit manifested by the
representatives of Rome.
(H. ZimoBB.)
Ribuoobapbt: A. W. Haddan and W. Btubbs, CouneiU and
SedMiaHical DoeumenU RdoHnp to Qrtat Britain and Ire-
land, a eonTvnient ooUectioo of the BOttrora with valuable
iiotes. vol. i., Oxford. 1860. dealins with the Biitiah Chureh
in Roman times and the period of Anglo-Saxon eonqueat,
the Church in Walea and Cornwall; vol. ii., part i., 1878,
with the Church in Cumbria or Str«tbclyde, branches of
the British Church in Armorica and Gallida, the Church
of Scotland till declared independent of York; vol. ii.,
part ii., 1878, with the Church in Ireland and the memo-
rials of Patrick; vol. iii., 1871. with the English Chureh
during the Anglo-Saxon period. Adamnan 's Lt/« of St.
Columba, ed. W. Reeves. Dublin, 1857, Edinburgh, 1874
(see Adamnan). Bede, HiMtoria eedmaatica gontU An-
gUtrum^ ed. A. Holder, Freiburg, 1800, ed. G. Plununer,
2 vols., Oxford, 1806. Cummian's letter to Seghine,
abbot of lona, in MPL, Ixxxvii. 060-078. Gikias and
Nennius, [Historia Britonum, ed. T. Mommsen, in MOH,
AucLarU., xiii., Chronica mtfuira »(Beuhrum tv.-vti., iii.,
1808. Prosper of Aquitaine, Chronicon, ed. idem, ib. i.
Auet. ant,, ix., 1802. The Tripartite Life of Patrick with
Other Docwnenta BeloHng to That Saint, ed. Whitley Stokes,
in RoOe Seriee, no. 80, 2 vols., 1887 (see Patrick. Saint).
The Livee of the Cambro-Britieh Sainta of the Fifth and
Immediate Succeeding Centuriea, ed. W. J. Rees, Llando-
very, 1853, dating from the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies, which is also true in part of the material in the so-
called Liber Landaveneie (" Book of LlandaflT," ed. W. J.
Rees. Llandovery, 1840; ed. J. G. Evans, Oxford, 1803).
The ilcia eanetorum Hibemiee ex eodiee Salmanticenei, ed!
G. de Smedt and J. de Backer, Edinburgh, 1888, and Livee
of Sainie from the Bo€.k of Liemore, ed. Whitley Stokes,
in Anecdota Oxonieneia, 1800. also present only relatively
late material. The various annalistic works give impor-
tant data for ecclesiastical history, vis.: for the British
and Welsh Church, the Annalee Cambrice, ed. J. W. ab
Ithel, in RoUe Seriee, no. 20, 1860; the oldest part also
in Y Cymmrodor, ix., 1888; for the Irish-Scotch branch,
the Annate of Tigemach, ed. Whitley Stokes, in Revue
CelHque, xvi.-xviii., 1805-07; the Annale of Uleter, ed.
W. M. Hennessy and B. MacCarthy. 4 vols., Dublin, 1887-
1001; the Chronicon Scotorum, ed. W. M. Hennessy, in
RoUe Seriee, no. 46, 1866; Annale of Ireland, Three F^oq-
mente, ed. J. O'Donovan, Dublin, 1860; Annale of (he
Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Maetere, ed. idem, 7 vols.,
1848-51 ; Annale of Clonmaenoiae, ed. D. Murphy, Dublin,
1806; Chronidee of the PicU and ScoU, ed. W. F. Skene,
Edinburgh, 1867. The oldest of the Irish collections is
that of Tigemach (d. 1088). Since the sources upon
which they are based are all lost, and the sources them-
selves appear in part to have been compilations of the
eighth, ninth, and tenth oenturies from older monastic
annals, it is clear that statements concerning Irish diuroh
history of the fifth century have no decisive value when
they coincide with the views concerning the earlier period
current after 750. In using the collections of Welsh and
of Irish laws (Ancient Lowe and InetihUee of Walee, Lon-
don, 1841; Ancient Lawe of Ireland, 6 vols., Dublin, 1865-
1002) it must be remembered that the former dates from
the tenth century and the latter can not be mudi older.
Other sources are: the Stowe Mieeal, ed. F. E. Warren,
in The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celiie Church, pp. 106-268,
Oxford. 1881 ; the AnHphonary of Bangor, ed. idem, and the
Irieh Liber Hymnorum, ed. J. H. Bernard and R. Atkin-
son for Hehry Bradshaw Society, iv., x. and xiii., xiv.,
1803-08; F. W. H. Wasserschleben, Die Bueeordnungen
der abfiTuUAndiedien Kirche, Halle, 1851 ; idem. Die vieehe
Kanoneneammlung, Leipsic, 1885; the Filire of Oengue,
ed. Whitley Stokes, Dublin. 1881; the Martyr^ogy of
Tatlat^, ed. M. Kelly, Dublin, 1857; the Martyrology of
Donegal, ed. J. H. Todd and W. Reeves, Dublin. 1864;
the Martyrology of German, ed. Whitley Stokes, for Henry
Bradshaw Society, ix., 1805.
The father of Oltio church history was Arehbiahop
Ussher, whose work, Britanniearum ecdeeiarum antigui-
taiee, Dublin, 1630; 2d ed.. enlarged, London, 1687.
however, has now only historic interest. The mono-
graph of G. SchfiU, De eedeeiaetica Britonum Scotontmque
hietoria fontibue, Berlin and London, 1851, and the intro-
duction and notes of Reeves's Adamnan, u.8., were pio-
neer work in the critical investigation and appreciation
of the sources; it is to be regretted that not all their sue-
cessors have continued in the same spirit. The legends of the
Celtic Chureh are briefly but fully toki in Cardinal Newman's
Life of 8L Auguetine, ohaps. i.-v., London, 1845. Works
dealing with the Celtic (Thurch in both Britain and Irelai>d
are: J. H. A. Ebrard. Die iroeehottieche Mieeienakirrhe
dee eeektten, eiebenten und achten Jahrhunderto, Gaten|lo^
Oeltio Ohuroh
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
480
1873; F. E. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual, u.a.; F. Loofi,
Antiiqu9 Britonum Scotcrumque eedsaiw quale» fueruni
mare§, Leipaio and London, 1882; W. Cathcart, The Aneienl
Britiah and Iriah Churchs; Philadelphia. 1894 (advene to
Roman Catholic claims); H. Zimmer, Ths Cdtic Church in
Britainand Irtiand, London, 1902. For the British branch
noteworthy works are: R. Rees, An EBtay on <lb« Wtiah
Sainia, London, 1836; J. H. Overton, The Churth in
England, i.. The National Churehea, 2 vols., London, 1891;
H. Williams, Some Aepeete of the ChrieUan Church in
Walee during the Fifth and Sixth Centuriee (London, 1895.
reprinted from the TraneacUcne of the Society of Cymm-
rodorion, 1893HM, pp. 6&-132); E. J. NeweU, A'Hietory of
the WOeh Church to the Dieeolution of the Monaeteriee,
London, 1895; J. W. W. Bund, The Cdtie Church of
Walee, ib. 1897; W. Bright, Chapter* of Early Bn^iiieh
Church Hietory, Oxford, 1897; J. W. W. Bund, The
Celtie Church of Walee, London, 1897; W. £. Collins.
The Beginning* of Engli$h Chrietiani^, ufith epedal Ref-
erence to the Coming of St. Auguetine, London, 1898; W.
Hunt, The Bngliah Church from Ita Foundation to the
Norman Conqueet, London, 1899. For Ireland: J. Lan-
igan. An Bcdeeiaetieal Hietory of Ireland to Oie TMrteenlh
Century, 4 vols.. Dublin, 1829; R. King, A Primer of
Ou Hietory of the Holy Catholic Church in Ireland to the
Formation [of the Modem Branch of the Church of Rome, 2
vols, and supplement. Dublin, 1851; idem, A Memoir
Introductory to the Early Hietory of the Frimaey of Armagh,
Armagh, 1854; C. J. Greith, OeeAidUe der ofitnit&a
Kirehe, Freiburg, 1867; W. D. Killen. The EedaieAed
Hietory of IreUtnd, 2 vols.. London, 1875; G. T. Stoko^ Irt-
iand and the CeUie Church, Oth ed.. London. 1907:ideci,
Some Worthiee of Ote IriehXhurck, ib. 1900; J. Hesly. /v
•Ilia eandorumetdoetorum or Irdand'e AndeniSdudie^
Seht^are, Dublin, 1890; A. Belledbetm, Geedddtk 6e
kathaliechen Kirehe in Irland, 3 vols.. Mains. ISOHl.
T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, in The NaUomd Chedu,
London, 1892; J. Heron, The Celtic Chunk is /raba^
London, 1898; Eleanor Hall, Early ChriiHan Iniad,
Dublin, 1905. For Scotland: W. F. Skene, Cd&c Sot-
land, iL, Church and Culture, 3 vola., EdinboTKb. ISST:
A. Belleeheim, QeeAiehle der katkoUechmn Kirdie iii StU^
land, 2 vols.. Mains, 1883. Eng. trans!., with additkc*
and notes, by D. O. H. Blair. 4 vols., Edinboigh. ISST-
1890; H. M. Luckoek, The Church in Scotland, in The S>
Honal Churdkee, London, 1893; J. Dowden, The C^Hk
Church in Scotland, London, 1894; W. Stephen, Hiilmjti
the Seottieh Church, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1894-96; Dm
Columba Evans, The Early Seottieh Chunk, Lofidot,
1900 (claims original Roman supremacy). For the Cb-
dees: W. Reeves. TheCuideeeof theBritiakIaiand»aMThii
Appear in Hietory, Dublin, 1864; Skene, u.8., pp. 226-57:
J. von Pflugk-Hartung. Die Kuldeer, in ZKG, xiv. am
169-192. Fuller bibliographies may be found in Wvm.
U.S., pp. ziiL-ziz.; Bellesheim, IrUmd, pp. xix.-ixB.;
SckiMand, pp. vii.-zv.; and Olden, pp. 430-<32.
I. Names Used in Early Times.
II. Christian Burial and IBurial-Flaees
in General.
1. Fundamental Ideas.
2. Predecessors of the Cemeteries.
8. Development of ^Cemeteries and
Their Types.
Origin of the General Cemetery
(ID.
Period of the Catacombs (f 2).
Burial in Mausoleums and Churches
(13).
4. Establishment and Administration
of Cemeteries.
Foesores (| 1).
Administrative Officials (| 2).
5. Acquisition, Use, and Protection
of Graves.
Purchase of Graves (i 1).
Hie Same Clrave Used for Several
Bodies (i 2).
Violation of Graves (| 3).
6. Commemoration of the Dead in
the Ometeries.
CEMBTERIBS./
Various Commemorations (I 1). a. Plan and Construction.
Ceremonies of Commemoration In the Open Air (| 1).
III.
(§2).
Arrangement, Structure,
Grave-Formation of the
teries.
1. Subterranean Burial-Plaoea.
A. The Oriental Group.
Palestine (| 1).
Syria (I 2).
Mesopotamia (| 8).
Asia Minor (I 4).
Egypt (I 5). .
Cyrenaica (| 6). v.
b. The Western Group.
North Africa (| 1).
Sicily (I 2). -.
MalU (I 3). ^
Melos (i 4). )
Apulia (I 6).
Naples (i 6). -.
Castellamare (| 7).
Rome (I 8).
2. Cemeteries Above Ground.
Cemeteries is a tenn used to designate the burial-
places of the eariy Christians, including the sub-
terranean buiying-grounds oonunonly known as
catacombs.
L Hames Used in Early Times : Among the vari-
ous titles by which the Christians of the first few
centuries designated the burial-places of their dead,
the most frequent and probably the oldest is the
Greek koimStSrion or the equivalent Latin ccbtm-
terium. It is not found in the Septuagint or in the
New Testament, but the verb koimaMai, " to lie
down to pest," " to sleep," occurs in both the literal
and the metaphorical sense, usually the latter in
the New Testament (metaphorical: Matt, xxvii.
62; Acts vii. 60, xiii. 36; I Cor. vii. 39, xv. 6, 18,
20, 51; I Thess. iv. 13; II Peter iii. 4; literal:
Matt, xxviii. 13; Luke xxii. 45; Acts xii. 6).
While the word koim&erian is oi rare occurrence in
classical Greek (it was applied by the Cretans,
according to Athensus, to a room for the enter-
tainment of guests), it was constantly used by
both Christians and Jews for single and family
l^ves and for larger burying-grounds, whether
Memorial BuiWings (i 2).
Ground-Plan and Fonn (| 3).
Cemeteries Connected with Chunaa
(§4).
b. Types of Graves.
The Ordinary Grave (i 1).
The Coverinc of the Grave (i 2).
Saroophaci (i 3).
Other Receptacles (i 4).
rV. Equipment and Deoontioo d
Tombs.
1. The Grave Itself.
a. The Interior.
Objects Pertaininc to the Gape
(ID.
Disposition of the ConMe (1 2).
Gifts to the Dead (i 3).
b. The Exterior.
Vessels for Licht and InoeDse [\ V..
' Marks of Identification (| 2).
- Inscriptions and Paintinp (1 3L
2. The Chambers and Paas&ca.
above groimd or under ground. On thfi other
hand, there is only one doubtful case of its use ic i
heathen inscription for a burial-place (CIL, tjL
7543), against thousands in which other terms ut
used. That the expression was recognised as %
distinctly Christian and Jewish term is evident f roD
the way in which it is used as an unfamiliar tern
in the edicts of the Roman emperors (Eusebii&
Hist, ecd,, VII. xi. 13). Latin-speaking Christiaos
also occasionally employed the term oKubUorixiM.
which originally meant (from the Roman habit d
reclining at table) a dining-room. These words
show their connection with the Christian hope*
which saw in death only a sleep. Besides these
specifically Christian expressions, the ioacriptioo^
give a number of others, of a more general oaturt
Besides some of minor importance, there is, for
example, hypogceum (or in one place Gk. katagaip^)
to designate small underground burial-plaoes amoog
both Christians and pagans. Modem scholars in-
quently employ this term to designate uodfr-
ground burial-places, no matter what their siie
or arrangements. Tlie word <xrea is also fouou
4ei
RELIGIOUS ENCYCIX)PEDIA
Oeltio Oliiiroh
OemeteriM
axnong the Latin-speaking races, especially in
North Africa, and it has become customary, fol-
lomring De Rossi, to use it for all surface burying-
groimds of the primitive Church. The name
" catacomb " is more recent than any of the above-
xiamed, but has come into more general use to desig-
nate not only the subterranean burial-places of the
primitive Christians but frequently also those of the
Jeiws and other races. It is first met with in con-
nection with the circus of Maxentius near the
A^ppian Way outside of Rome, in an inscription
Tnrhich has the phrase fecU et circum in eaiecumbas,
A3 relating to a Christian burial-place, it is not
clemonstrable before the year 354, when it appears
as a specific designation of the cemetery of St.
Sebastian on the Appian Way, to which it was
limited for centuries. Johannes Diaconus is the
eaxliest evidence for its application to other Chris-
tian cemeteries, outside of Rome as well as within.
Familiar as the word now is, however, there is no
certainty as to its original signification. The most
probable theory is t^t of De Waal, followed by
Schultze, that the circus of Maxentius and the
cemetery of St. Sebastian were called in cataewnbas
(Gk. kaia kumbas, " in the ravine ") because of the
sudden dip which the land, including the Appian
^Way, takes at that point into a deep hollow.
IL Christian Burial and Burial-Places in GeneraL
— 1. Fnndamental Ideas: The burial of Christ in
the garden was taken as the model for that of his
disciples. The fact that never in the oldest Chris-
tian literature (including the New Testament) and
not often later is a prohibition of cremation found,
and the absence of traces of cremation, cinerary
urns, and the like, demonstrate that burial in the
earth was the unwritten law. Based originally
upon the example of Christ, it was supported later
by reasoning which connected the resurrection of
the body more or less with its burial. Minucius
Felix, however, prefers burial to cremation merely
as " the older and better custom " (OctaviuSf xxxiv.
11). Augustine (De civitate Dei, i. 22; De cura
pro mortuis, iii., etc.) takes burial for granted,
and so does Origen in the East (Contra Celsum, v.
23, viii. 49; De principiie, ii. 10). It is impossible
to decide how far Christians of the Apostolic Age
were buried in Jewish and pagan graveyards; but
later a strict line of demarcation was drawn, at
least as early as Tertullian. The Christian graves
were not required to be at a great distance, but
there was to be a distinct interval between them
and the heathen, and the burial of individual Chris-
tians in heathen graveyards was strictly forbidden,
and vice versa. Primitive Christianity was thus
as exclusive in death as in its worship during life.
2. PredaoaMors of the Oemeteriea: While Chris-
tian antiquity agreed in condemning cremation, it
made no attempt at enforcing uniformity in the
manner of buriid. Both of the earlier methods of
sepulture, under and above the ground, were em-
ployed. The choice between the two was deter-
mined partly by the geological conformation of the
place, though perhaps not as largely as has been
usually assumed. Other prevailing reasons are to
be sought in the customs of pre-Christian times in
regard to the disposal of corpses. That the eariy
II.— 31
Christians should have undertaken, in the absence
of any definite prescription, to strike out wholly
new lines for themselves in this matter is unlikely,
especially since they did not attempt this in the
analogous matter of the construction of their houses
and dhurches. Naturally, therefore, they adopted
in each place the prevailing local custom — ^the
Hebrew Christians of Palestine following the Jewish
mode, and the Gentile Christians of Sicily that of
their pagan neighbors. The fuller our kaowledge
grows of both ancient Christian and ancient pagan
burial-places, the more clearly is this theory de-
monstrated, not only in regard to the choice men-
tioned above, but equally in regard to the shape,
decoration, and equipment of the sepulchers. Thus
it may be remarked, without anticipating too much
what will be said later, that private vaults, holding
but a small number of bodies, are characteristic of
the earliest period of Christian burial. As far as
inscriptions and other indications go, these were
restricted to the members of one family, its friends,
etc., with, it is true, the addition (as in the famiiia
of the imperial period) of Christian freedmen and
their Christian offspring. It is not yet certain
whether so early as this (on the analogy of the older
Roman and later Christian custom) individuals
joined together in associations for the purpose of
providing a common burial-place. In a word, it is
safe to say that the primitive Christians followed
Jewish modek in Palestine and pagan elsewhere,
almost without exception.
8. Development of Oemeteries and Their Types:
As in other things, so here Christianity proved itself
a religion of development; and, once more follow-
ing the general rule, this development was more
rapid in the West than in the East. To take but a
single important point, the development from the
family vault to the general cemetery, the East
never went beyond a few experiments, and bury-
ing-grounds for the whole of a local church re-
mained exceptional, even at a much later period.
The West, on the other hand, while it began with
the family vault, and examples of this form persist
through the whole of Christian antiquity, was not
long in adopting the large common cemetery. The
development was not everywhere equally rapid;
Sicily was least affected by it, and Rome most.
By the third century the common cemetery was
the rule here.
The Roman catacombs mark the highest point
reached in the development of ancient ChriBtian
burial, the greatest and most speedy advance upon
its pre-Christian prototypes and upon its own begin-
nings. The most strildng feature of this is not the
immense extent attained by the wonderful under-
ground city, but the motive power which created it
— the spirit of brotheriy love and esprit de corpe.
As neariy as the obscure beginnings can be traced,
this, rather than practical oonsidera-
^' ^^'S* tio^w or needs, was responsible for the
^^C ^"^ extension of the system. Before
•^^^J^y^*' the advent of Christianity, it was not
uncommon for philanthropists to pro-
vide either individuals or whole classes, principally
among the poor, with burial-places, and there
was nothing in itself remarkable about Christiana
0«m«t«ria«
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
4sa
being inspired with the same benevolent idea.
But the earlier jnat-ft^ftftw were the product of mere
Idndnefls of heart, while the motive of the Christian
benefactions was distinctly the spirit of brotherhood.
The most famous among those who thus endowed
the oldest Ronum church was a member of the im-
perial family, Flavia Domitilla, who possessed an
estate on the Via Ardeatina, of which she allowed
portions to be used for burial. The largest com-
mon cemetery of Rome, the catacomb wbdch bears
her name, was constructed on this spot, and some
of her own relations buried in it. Other Christians
followed her example, and the Church as a whole,
so renowned for its spirit of charity, can not have
been idle in this good work.
These beginnings date from the second century;
the third is the great epoch of subterranean burial
in Rome; and the new development ceased there
first, as it had begun there. It is true that new
catacombs were established in the fourth century,
such as that of St. Felix on the Yi& Aurelia, but
their number and extent were comparatively insig-
nificant. Burial on the surface, previously rare,
increased in frequency with the cessa-
8. Period tion of persecution, and by the begin-
of the ning of the fifth century became the
OataoomlMi. nde. The dated inscriptions give an
accurate view of the change: if their
proportion may be taken, on&-third of the burials
between 338 and 360, half between 364 and 369,
two-thirds between 373 and 400, and after 450
all those who died were buried outside the cata-
combs. This striking change is not sufficiently
explained by the recognition of Christianity; the
decisive change does not coincide with the date of
the Edict of Milan (313), and both in Sicily and in
Palestine burial continued to be as before — ^in the
former on the surface, in the latter underground.
It may perhaps be better taken as merely an ex-
pression of the general consciousness of the change
in the Church's position during the century, cor-
responding to the change which has been noticed
in the ideal portrait of Christ in the same period
(see Jesus Christ, Pictureb and Imaoib ofX
After the Roman catacombs ceased to be burial-
places, they were by no means deserted, but re-
mained the destination of pious pilgrimages. The
veneration of the martyrs and their relics received
a great extension in the fourth century, and the use
of the ancient burial-places in this way was fur-
thered by the restoration of the passages and cham-
bers and the opening of new approaches by Pope
Damasus. A number of fifth and sixth-century
popes followed his example. The old chambers
were enlarged into chapek, or regular basilicas
were established in the catacombs (Sanf Agnete,
San Lorenso fuori le Mura, Santi Nereo ed Acl^eo).
While burial either in catacombs or in the open
ground was the common practise of primitive Chris-
tianity, it sometimes took place in mausoleums or
churches. The construction of churches to mark
the sepulchers of the martyrs and render them
accessible to large numbers of the faithful began
soon after the recognition of Christianity. In
churches of this kind burial was practised, either
by graves dug in the earth or by sarcophagi. The
principal churches used in this way in Rome vere
those of St. Peter and St. Paul, St. Laurence asd Sl
Agnes without the Walls, and St. Rmms, in aad
aroimd which large numbers of Christiaos vee
buried until late in the sixth oentoiy.
8. Bozialin ^ ^ ^^ fi«^ **"^ centuries the
Mauso- Christians had respected the dii
leums and ordinance which required boxiai oil'
Ohorohes. side the walls of cities, the fourtli wit-
nessed a tendency to break down these
restrictions. In Constantinople this took plaee
about 381; in the mean while the relics of inaityn
had been translated to the churches witiiin the
dty, and promoted the desire of others to be boiied
in their neighborhood, so that an imperui edid
was required which strictly prohibited such intrsr
mural burial. Chrysostom, however, who fasd
sanctioned this restriction, was himsdf buiied in %
church in Constantinople in 438, and near him &
number of persons of prominence. The indeasai
prevalence of the practise gradually broke thioogh
the law; in Rome there were intramural buisl-
places in the sixth century — a oemetoy on the
Esquiline and a number of places in and aroimd the
churches of the city, though the solemn translatioa
of the relics of martyrs from the cemeteries ootnk
to the dty churches did not begin -till the eigbth
and ninth centuries.
4. Bstablishment and Administration of 0«t-
teries: The same spirit of love ^4iich watched ore
not onJy the poor and the sick but also the dead ia
the primitive Church must have had before it tJie
problem of the setting i^art of definite officers for
the care of this part of its work. It seems probabte
that as eariy as Cjrprian's day qpedal persons wee
offidally charged with the care of funerals. Wboe
vaults were hewn out of the rock or built up is
masonry, spedal grave-diggers were not requiied:
but the laying out of the larger catacombs requiied
the services of technical knowledge. Thus it iap-
pens that next to nothing is heard about the orpn-
izers of cemeteries before the reign of ConstantiDe.
and in and after that rdgn more in the East thao
in the West. The Roman Church had no spedal
offidals in the middle of the second century, but at
Cirta in North Africa as eariy as the begiimiDg d
the persecution of Diocletian fos^orf appear as tbe
lowest of the derical orders (see Foss-utuxs).
Acoordin^y they came to be reekooed
1. Posaores. among the derics between 250 and
350. Outride of Africa the /«««
are sometimes named before the ostiorii. 1^
function was to dig the graves and act as custo-
dians of the cemeteries. In the catacombs there
are a number of pictures which show them at tlxir
work; here they are evidently of a higher class than
mere laborers. In view of the complicated nature
of their task, they are rather to be compared «ith
architects. They seem to have been supported at
first, like other church ofiidals, from thA free-will
offerings of the faithful ; but a number of fourth wd
fifth-century inscriptions imply that they recaw
condderable sums from the sale of graves. 'Hue
sort of traffic probably led to abuses, and so ulti-
mately to the decline of the order as an order. It
seems to have been definitely suppreased in Raoe
483
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
0«meteriea
in the fint half of the fifth oentuiy. GonBtanti-
nople abo had its official grave-diggera, though
here they were not reckoned among the clergy.
As a class established by Constantino and added to
by Anastaaius, they attended to burials without
charge, but received immunity from taxation and
other privileges, so that their position was a desir-
able one, and coveted even by well-to-do trades-
men. It is learned from Ambrose {MPL, xvii. 745)
that in the church of Milan the whole charge of
burials was in the hands of the clergy, but he gives
no details.
Earlier and fuller information is extant in regard
to the officials who had the administration of the
cemeteries. With the development from private
vaults to burial-grounds for the whole local church,
this naturally came within the bishop's sphere of
influence. He would of course deputise some of
his clergy to assist him, and in Rome from the third
century the names of such clerics
2. Admin- appear as administrators of the oom-
istrative mon burying-ground; the first who
OflLolaU. can be positively identified was in
deacon's orders. The Liber porUifi'
calls, in its account of Pope Dionysius (259-268),
implies that each of the titular or parish churches
of Rome had 'one cemetery specially assigned to it,
and that the priest of each church had the oversight
of the corresponding cemetery. At the beginning
of the fourth century, the growth of the local
church required an exilargement of the number,
and a redistribution was made (again according to
the Ldher pontificalia) by Pope Marcellus (308-309).
Assistants of the parish priest in this matter were
those called from the end of the fifth century pree-
ponft, who had charge of the more important
cemeteries, and the manHonarii, who had charge of
the less important burial-places. The prcBpanH
of the catacomb of St. Calixtus, which was not
classed with the others, and of St. Peter's, St.
Paul's, and St. Laurence's, were subject not to
parish priests but directly to the pope.
6. AoqnUltion, Use, and Protaotion of Oraves:
In Christian antiquity graves were acquired and
prepared as in pre-Christian times, either by pur-
chaJae or gift, and in the lifetime of the destined
occupant or at death. People provided their rel-
atives, friends, and servants with graves by their
wills or by deed of gift. The only innovation is
that which has been already remarked, that local
churches provided burial-places for the poor out
of the common funds. Both single graves and
family vaults were frequently purchased, and the
^ p^ records of the transaction sometimes
ohase'of ^^®^Py nioro space than the fimeral
Graves, inscription proper, giving the names
of buyer, seller, and witnesses, the
price and location of the grave. In some of the
Roman inscriptions, probably relating only to par-
ticular churches, the permission of the pope is
mentioned. In cases where the purchase-price is
mentioned, though it may have included the cost of
construction, it seems in some instances to be ex-
cessive, and the fosaores are likely to have driven a
good bargain, especially for places near the tombs
of the martyrs, for wUch there was an increasing
demand. Gregory the Great set his face against
the selling of graves, but after his death the system
seems to have revived. Though the question can
not be positively decided, it seems that in Chris-
tian antiquity the practise of providing a burial-
place during life was more common in the East
than in the West, and during the period after Con-
stantino than that before.
A passage in Tertullian (De animaj li.) and the
decrees of certain councils against the crowding of
bodies on top of one another or dose together has
led many archeologists to believe that in the primi^
tive Church each Christian had a grave to himself.
But this view is untenable, as is shown especially
by the excavations of Paolo Orsi in the cemeteries
of Sicily, where he frequently found more than one
body in a grave, and in one case as many as eighteen.
Even in Rome, where more respect
^' Sr ^*" P*^^ ^ *^® dead, the inscriptions
~**7™^*not seldom show that an old grave
Several' ^^ ^^^^ again for fresh interments,
Bodies. ^^® original tablet being reversed and
made to bear the name of the new
tenant. The practise seems to have originated
and to have been carried on with the least scruple
in the East, where as early as the third century
measures had to be taken against the violators of
graves, not merely those who opened them for the
purpose of interring more corpses, but some even
who did not shrink from robbing them.
The custom of putting an inscription on a tomb
to guard it from profanation is very old, and on
the other hand was common in the Middle Ages.
The Christian inscriptions of this kind warn those
who read them most frequently and expressly
against the use of the grave for burial by imau-
thorized persons; but the writings of fourth-cen-
tury Fathers and the edicts of Christian emper-
ors in the same period show that this was not
the only danger feared. Gregory Nazianzen has
left more than eighty epigrams directed against
grave-robbers, and John Chrysostom was obliged to
_. ^^ scourge this abuse again and again in
tlon^of ^° sermons. A startling fact is that
Ghaves. ^^® Christian inscriptions affixed to
graves as a protection seem to be
addressed miunly to Christians, if one may judge
from their appeals to God and the last judgment.
In all the principal sections of the ancient Church
numerous inscriptions are found which threaten
violators of tombs either with secular or with
divine penalties, or with both; but they are no-
where so numerous as in Phrygia and the adjoining
provinces of Asia Minor. This frequency may be
explained partly by the open and comparatively
unprotected natiure of the cemeteries there, al-
though such inscriptions are foimd also in the
Roman and Sicilian catacombs; but it is probably
due more largely to the pre-Christian tradition in
Asia Minor, where pagan inscriptions of the kind
were very numerous — while in Rome, on the other
hand, they are equally rare among pagans and
Christians. Secular rulers imposed heavy penal-
ties upon violators of graves; they were excluded
from profiting by the usual Easter indulgences, and
their wives were allowed to get a divorce from them.
Ocmetortos
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
484
Nor was the Church behindhand in warning and
punishing offenders. But the evil was so deeply
rooted thkt in spite of all these measures it lasted
much longer than Christian antiquity.
6. Oommeiiioratlon of the Deadin the Oemeteriee:
Besides the solenmitiea of interment, the primitive
Church had a niunber of arrangements for the sub-
sequent commemoration of the dead. The eailiest
recorded is the annual oonmiemoration at the grave
of Polycarp on the day of his martyrdom (Marty-
Hum Polyoarpi, xviii.). In the time of Tertullian
it was customary in Africa to celebrate the anni-
versary of the death of other Christians (Z>e coronaj
iii.; De monogamia, x.; cf. also Apostolic Con-
stifuKons, viii. 42; Qsrprian, EpisLj xzziz.3). Other
commemorations took place on the
1. VATious third, seventh, ninth, thirtieth, and
Oommemo- fortieth days after death or burial,
rations. As has been seen in regard to the mode
of burial, so here also these variations
may be referred to the influence of pre-Christian
local customs, whether Jewish or pagan. Thus
Ambrose {De cbitu Theodonif in.) ascribes the cele-
bration of the thirtieth day to the example of
Deut. xzziv. 8 and of the fortieth to Gen. 1. 3; and
Augustine (QuautUmea in Heptateuchum, i. 172)
shows the pagan origin of the ninth by objecting
to it as reminding people of the Roman nensendial
and being without Biblical precedent.
The place of these commemorations is not always
mentioned in the eariy authorities. Those de-
scribed in the Martipium Polycarpi and the eariy
Gnostic Acta Joannia took place at the sepulcher.
What may be inferred from the latter to have been
the practise of the Christians of Asia Minor is
shown by Tertullian and Qyprian to have pre-
vailed also in Africa — the celebration of the Eucha-
rist in connection with these observances. By
this sacred feast, which consolingly united the
living with those who had gone before, the memorial
ceremonies acquired a specifically Christian char-
acter. Later it came to be surrounded
?*'*\ by a number of other ceremonies. Of
Oommemo- ^^^"^ ^^® ^^ ^ come up was a meal,
ration. ^^^ ^^® ancient offape but one par-
taken of in the ordinary way as simple
nourishment. These feasts on the anniversaries
of the saints led to abuses and excesses which are
frequently rebuked by the Fathers, especially in
Africa, but also at Milan and in Rome. Offenses
not merely against temperance but against morality
seem to have taken place on these occasions in the
East, according to Chrysostom, and also at the
beginning of the fourth century in Spain, where a
council legislates against them. In fact, the influ-
ence of the pagan dies parentalea and femoroKa
continued to be felt, as was clearly the view of
Ambrose and Augustine when they endeavored
to regulate such customs, and especially to abolish
anything which could seem like the heathen custom
of offering food and drink to the dead (Augustine,
De moribue eccksicB caJthoUca, i. 34; Confeeaionee,
vi. 2; and a canon of the Second Synod of Tours,
667). These authorities, however, do not raise
any objection to other survivals of pie-Christian
customs, such as the offering of balsam and other
sweet-smeUing spices, which were frequently poured
into the grave in liquid form, through spedaliy pie-
pared openings such as are still to be seen in one of
Orsi's discoveries in the catacombs of Syracuse, and
at San Paolo f uori le Mura in Rome. Incense was
also used. It was a conmion practise to dedc the
graves with flowers, and li^ts were sometiiiMs
burned, though this was forbidden by the Synod
of Elvira on the singular ground that " the spirits
of the saints are not to be disturbed." This custcHn
is evidenced by the large numbers of small lan^is
found in the catacombs, either placed in nicies or
fastened to the walls, which can hardly have been
intended merely for lighting the dark passages.
IIL Arrangement, Structure, and GraTe-Forma-
tion of the Cemeteries: In the considnation cl
these points, the geographical divisi<m is evidently
the right one; but lack of space will allow it to be
carried out only in the description of the subter-
ranean burial-places, while a generic dassification
will have to be adopted for those above grouiML
1. Subterranean Bazial-Plao«i.—«. The Oziantal
Chronp (Asia Minor, the Crimea, Lower £!gypt, and
Qyrenaica): Palestine is rich in tombs holloved
out of the rock, more or less reminding the beholder
of the sepulcher of Abraham (Gen. xxiiL, xxv. 9).
There has not been suflident scientific investiga-
tion into their origin and age to enable an accurate
distinction to be drawn between Jewish and Chris-
tian tombs in the individual instances. Elitber
naturally perpendicular or artificially fiDed-ouk
walls of rock were dug into horiiontally, or, where
such were difllcult of attairmient, an excavation ,
was made downward in suitable rocky gromui
into which a flight of steps or a ladder led down. I
Places for single or family graves were excavated
horiiontally, with a low and narrow door to eadi,
closed with a stone, often cylindrical
^^ae**" in foim. In the single graves a sort
of niche, or sometimes two, were
chiseled out, at the base of which, on the semblanGe
of a couch, the corpse was laid, wrapped in doths
without a ooflin. A variant or development of this
was the hollowed-out grave, corresponding to the
arcoaolium of the Roman catacombs, allowing the
body to be laid in an excavation resembling a coffin.
The best-known sin^e graves in Palestine are thoae
called the tombs of Absalom and of Zechariah &t
Jerusalem and a number of tombs on the south
side of the Valley of Hiimom. The family tombs
present the same forms, and later frequent instanoei
are found of another kind, in which the excavation
in the walls is shaped so as to allow the body to be '
pushed in head or feet foremost; of these a Urge I
number have been found in Palestine. This latter j
class may be taken to be exdusively Jewish in
origin, and, where they are found in connection
with indisputably Christian graves, it is commoolf
assumed that the Christians merdy appropriated
them. There is no doubt that the Jewish Christians
also used the hollowed-out and the vertically sunk
graves. An interesting burial-place with the latter
type of grave is that on the Mount of Olives, whidi
in more than one particular differs from the normal
arrangement in Palestine, and probably bdongs to
a comparatively late period of Christian antiquity-
485
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Cemeteriaa
E^lsewhere in the country, even down to the fifth
and sixth centuries, the original character of both
single and family tombs was preserved.
Syria offers a considerable number both of an-
cient church buildings and of ancient cemeteries,
both above and below ground, and a type which is
a combination of the two, at once hollowed out in
the rock and built over above. The openings to
the subterranean burial-places are either vertical
or horizontal. In the former case they are covered
by a stone like the lid of a sarcophagus, or some-
times by a roof with columns or a
8. Syria, complete chamber; in the latter, a
door leads directly into them by a
flight of steps, or one passes first through a portico
or anteroom. The inner space, usually rectangu-
lar, has in most cases two or three hoUowed-out
and vaulted graves, each along one wall; six is the
largest number cited by De VogQ^. The coflin-
shaped place for the body is generally covered, not
by a slab, but by a heavy stone shaped like the
arched sarcophagus-lids. The principal difference
between the known Christian burial-places of
Syria (mostly fifth century, to judge from the
inscriptions) and their pagan prototypes is the
almost universal choice of the arcosolium form
among those used in pre-Christian times.
The cemeteries of Mesopotamia seem to corre-
spond in their main features to those of central
Syria, including structures wholly or partially
above groimd and excavations in the rock. An
important necropolis is that outside the walls of
Constantina in northern Mesopotamia, above
ground, containing nearly 2,000 graves. The
subterranean burial-places seem to
' have been mostly connected with
ancient stone-quarries, and some of
them are more extensive than the similar ones
in Syria, though numerous smaller ones have
been foimd.
The best-known early Christian cemeteries
in Asia Minor are in the extreme southeast-
em provinces of Isauria and Cilida, of which
the former had the good fortune to be explored by
L. Duchesne. Near the ancient Seleucia (now
Selefkeh) are numerous rectangular chambers at
irregular distances from each other, excavated in
soft limestone and entered by doors. They con-
tain from three to ten graves apiece, somewhat
like arcosolia, but standing out further from the
walls. Rock-chambers and isolated aroosolia are
also foimd near the village of Libas, and many
isolated coffins were scattered around three basil-
icas at Mout, the ancient Claudiopolis, as well as
graves dug straight down and covered with stone
slabs. Anazarbe in Cilida has a
*lA"^* large necropolis dating from a late
^'* period of Christian antiquity, in which
both roek-chambers and rock-coffins are found, as
also at Elsussa. A still larger cemetery was
probably that of Corykos (now Ghorigos), where
chambers are excavated in the rock, sometimes in
several lines one above another. These seem to
have been all for families or small groups. All
about the neighboring hills are large isolated sar-
cophagi with saddle-back covers. In Pisidia, at
S. SCesopo- I
Termessos, there are burial-chambers which the
crosses show to have been Christian. Since Arme-
nia has Christian rock-tombs at Arabissos (now
Yarpua), it is not unlikely that the intervening
province of Cappadoda will yet furnish some ex-
amples. It is possible that the lack of interest hith-
erto shown in the Christian cemeteries of Asia Minor
is due to the close resemblance between them and
the pagan burial-places; and evidence is not lack-
ing to support the theory that a considerable
number which have heretofore been classed as
pagan will, upon further investigation, be proved
to be Christian.
Accurate modem sdentific investigation of the
Christian sepulchral remains of Egypt has borne
no proportion to the importance of the northern part
of that country in the early Church, and the ques-
tion must be here discussed prindpally from the
evidences to be found in Alexandria. Among the
catacombs to which access was gained in the nine-
teenth century the best known is that discovered
in 1858, lying near the Serapeum in the south-
western part of the andent dty. A ffight of steps
leads down into a square anteroom, with a semi-
drcular niche adjoining it on the west dde, and
two burial-chambers extending out from it. One
of these is long and narrow, vaulted above, and
containing thirty-two tombs of the
6. Sffypt. kind into which the body is pushed
head or feet first. The other, smaller
and square, has three hollowed-out graves, one on
each side, and another sunk in the floor. That
these were used by Christians is demonstrated by
paintings and inscriptions, though more recent in
date than the construction. N^routsos, the most
thorough student of the Alexandrian catacombs,
mentions another, discovered in 1876, which he
believes to be Christian. In this the anteroom
resembles a Greek or Roman OBdieula, though the
capitals of the columns are decorated with lotus-
flowers instead of acanthus-leaves. The oblong
burial-chamber leading out of this has on three
sides rows of graves of the kind described, at right
angles with tibe wall, one above another, to the
number of fifty-four. These cemeteries were
probably family burial-places, serving for more
than one generation. The pagans and Jews of
Alexandria undoubtedly began with this system,
but there is reason to believe that the Christians
did not always adhere to it.
Cyrenaica contains a great number of burial-
places hollowed out in the rock, both pagan and
Christian, espedally in the old capital dty; but
they have not been explored with suffident com-
pleteness and accuracy to allow the formation of
definite conclusions. As far as can be determined,
most of the burial-places of Cyrene are excavated
in the dde of perpendicular cliffs near the dty.
Only a few of them give podtive evidence of Chris-
tian use, though there is reason to think that these
are not all. A great variety of methods appears,
g Q including movable and immovable
naloaT" stone sarcophagi, arcasolia, toculi,
graves sunk in the floor, and long,
narrow holes in the cliff in which the dead were laid
one above another^ separated by horizontal slabs.
OMn«teri««
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
486
The aroosolia show oonmderable artistic feeling,
and where the vaulted roof occurs it resembles not
a little the vaulting of the apse in early churches,
like which, again, it is often painted. In these
catacombs several chambers are sometimes united
to form a larger whole, evidently serving for more
than one family, and in one case it is possible to
conclude with certainty that it was a common
burial-place for the Christian community. In this
particidar alone the Christians of Cyrenaica devel-
oped beyond their predecessors, whom they followed
only in the variety of shapes used for the graves.
b. The Western Oroup: Even if the assiunption
frequently made that there were no subterranean
cemeteries in North Africa is abandoned, it is true,
at least, that they have but little significance com-
pared with the large number in the open air or in
and near buildings above grotmd. There seem
really to be but two subterranean burial-places to
consider. One at Tipasa has ten adjoining cham-
bers dug out of the rock of the foot-
1. North hills. The chamber, trapezoid in
Africa, form, approximately ten feet by
nine, has an arcoaolium on each of
three sides and three graves dug in the floor, ap-
parently covered with flat sli^. Gavault, its
discoverer, compares it with some chambers in the
Roman catacombs, but it is more analogous to
the Oriental and Sicilian. The other cemetery,
discovered in 1885, is at Arch-Zara. The accessible
portion is elliptical in shape, tenninating in a sort
of apse. Four parallel passages, the longest about
eighty-eight yards, crossed by others at right
an^es, are found in it. In the walls of these gal-
leries are placed loctdi, closed by slabs of brick. It
is quite possible that the place extends further in,
or even that there is a second level below the one
which has been excavated.
The cemeteries of Sicily surpass in number those
of any other province of the Roman Empire, and
show more varied forms than even Rome itself can
offer. Each of the races which successively ruled
the island brought its own customs with it, while
none was strong enough to enforce them to the
exclusion of the old. In dealing with the problem
of sepulture, Christianity had a number of methods,
both aboriginal and mixed, to choose
8. Sloily. from, and needed only to adopt or
adapt. Nor was it limited to Sicilian
types; the many ties which connected the island,
even in Christian times, with Asia Minor, Syria,
Egypt, North Africa, and Rome rendered it pos-
sible for still other architectural types to find an
entrance. The geological formation of the island
favored the excavation of subterranean burial-
places. Limestone and tufa abound, the latter
usually of firmer substance than the tufa ffranu-
lare of the neighborhood of Rome.
The first stage in the development is formed by
the family vaults, of which the simplest show a
square, oblong, or trapezoid form with graves in
the walls, usually of the arooiolium or loculua type.
Next, the small vault developed into a hall, from
which recesses ran off on each side, usually shaped
like a bell or a flower-pot, though sometimes square,
with an opening at the top for light and air. Struc-
tures based upon older cisterns are confined to the
vicinity of Girgenti, and tombs with a bald&chin
covering, to eastern Sicily and Malta. Some of
these stand free from the walls with the ooveiing
supported by pillars on all sides, like the ciboiium
of an altar; others are supported from one ade
on pillars, and from the other connect with the
wall. In the eastern part are some with deooratiTe
facades in front either of a single grave or of &
group, furnished with doors and windows.
The main differences in structure depend upoo
the sise of the cemetery. The galleries of the lai^ger
catacombs were laid out with one or more main
alleys and a number of smaller ones running acrasB
or parallel to them. The passages are as a rule
comparatively wide, much wider than in Rome
Occupying an intermediate position between pas-
sages and chambers are the recesses, as wide as or
wider than the corridors, but shorter. These are
met with frequently in Sicily, and often contain
(besides other types of graves) sarcophagi, some-
times arranged in terraces. Where chambers occur
in the large catacombs, they are connected with
the galleries, and are in shape square, oblong, trap-
esoid, or circular, the last being especially pi«-
ferred in the principal catacombs of Syracuse.
The rectangular ones have either a fiat or a vaulted
roof,, the circular are often covered with a cupola.
with an opening in the top for light and air. Where
the size was sufficiently great to admit the pos-
sibility of a fall of the roof, this was guarded against
by the construction of pillars out of the solid rock
or by the erection of columns. The corridors and
chambers are sometimes all on one level, some-
times in different stories.
The variety of grave-forms is even greater than
that of the general structure. In most places the
commonest type is the arcoiolium, sometimes
double, one above another. Single graves are
foimd relatively seldom; usually severaJ occur in
a row (up to fifteen or even more) under the same
vaulted roof. In Sicily loctdi are much less com-
mon than arcoaolia, and where they are numerous
certain corridors contain them almost exclusively
for children. The " table-tomb " and the graw at
right angles with the wall are rare. Sarcophagi,
on the other hand, were oonmion, either cut out of
the natural stone, built up with masonwork, or
made of better material, such as marble; and so
were graves simk in the floor of chambers, recess©,
and galleries, to the extent of forming a character-
istic of the Sicilian cemeteries. The most impor-
tant of all the Sicilian catacombs was that of San
Giovanni near Syracuse, which in extent and skil-
ful laying out surpasses even the Roman.
In Malta most of the ancient cemeteries lie near
the capital, in the neighborhood of Carthaginian
burial-places. Where the sides of rocky diffs
were accessible, the excavations were horiiontal,
vertical in the flat coimtry. Some of these h&y^
nothing but galleries, others nothing but chambers.
As a rule, the galleries are few and short, their
height that of a man. Among the grave-fonD5 15
one which so far has not been found outside of
Malta, known for convenience as the " oven-grsv^"
This is an opening in the wall at a greater or les^
<B7
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oem«teri«B
<li8tanoe from the floor, with the bottom and sides
straight, and the top in the shape of either an arch
or a shell, or sometimes straight. These external
parts are carefully constructed and decorated, often
^th pilasters in the front; at the back ia a reo-
langular opening which gives access to the length
of a grave usually for two, less often for one or three
bodies. These graves are generally arranged in
a row; in the catacomb of Tal-Liebru
8- Malta, there are two rows, one above the
other. This peculiar form can hardly
be of Christian origm, but is rather, as Mayr has
shown, the development of a type used by the
Phenician population of the island. In a niunber
of burial-places it is the only form used, in others
it appears concurrently with the more usual types,
among which the arcowlium is the most frequent.
Both in the oven-graves and in the others a head-
rest with a semicircular depression is common.
The Maltese cemeteries, most of which date from
the fourth and fifth centuries, are as a rule small,
and must have served for families or other small
groups. Only a single catacomb is known on the
neighboring island of Gozzo.
Near the village of Trypiti in Melos, surrounded
by pagan tombs, is a Christian necropolis unques-
tionably used as early as the fourth century, com-
posed originally of five separate catacombs, four
of which were afterward connected; and it is prob-
able that others still lie concealed in the vicinity.
The oldest, that in the middle, consists of a broad
main gallery and several side corri-
4. scales, dors. The width of the galleries
varies from 3 ft. 3 in. to 16 ft. 4 in.,
the height from 4 ft. 7 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. The walls
contain arcosolia with semicircular arches and a
few loctili, and there are graves sunk in the floor
of all the passages, usually in pairs. The three
undoubtedly Christian catacombs have no cham-
bers, but the other two, which are probably Chris-
tian, have them. Bayet coimted 150 arcosolia
and sixty-six sunk graves in the whole five.
Far as Melos and Apulia are from each other,
it would be difllcult to find a closer affinity between
types of catacombs than exists between these just
described and those of Venosa, of which the one
most fully studied \a apparently of Jewish origin.
Here again one finds the same unusual breadth of
galleries, in spite of the friable nature of the tufa,
the arcoBoUum is the predominant
6. Apvdla. form, at least in the main galleries,
and the floor is full of sunk graves,
while chambers are once more lacking. The prin-
cipal difference is in the form of the carcosolia, which
in Melos are of only one kind, in Venosa of several,
answering to the Sicilian variety; and in fact the
Jewish catacomb of Venosa offers to a certain ex-
tent the intennediate step between Melos on one
side and Sicily and southern Italy on the other.
The catacombs of Naples are the most impor-
tant among those of Campania; and of these the
largest and oldest are those of San Gezmaro dei
Poveri, whose beginnings apparently go back to
the first century. Four are enumerated nowadays;
but there is reason to suppose that there were
originally more. The oldest is trapezoid in ground-
plan, with a maximum width of thirty-three feet
and length somewhat more. Other smaller rooms
open from it to left and right, the latter of which
was later remodeled into a churoh. At the back
of the laige hall are the entrances to
6. Naples, two parallel galleries nearly 100 yards
long, connected by numerous trans-
verse passages. From the outer side of each of
these stretch out other chambers and galleries,
which in their turn ramify still further, though to
a much less extent than in the Roman catacombs.
The second catacomb is less important, and the
other two still less. They exhibit three types of
graves — ctrcowlia, loculi, and sunk graves. The
first are the most numerous in the halls and cham-
bers, as well as in the oldest and most important
galleries; unlike the Roman, but like those of
Melos and Sicily, they are sometimes in two rows,
one above the other. From the irregular dispo-
sition of the loculh which look as if they had been
crowded in, it is safe to attribute a later date to
them. They form, however, an actual majority of
the total number of graves.
At Castellamare there is a later but not uninter-
esting catacomb, named after St. Blasius. Besides
a nearly square entrance-hall, it contains a main
gallery nearly twenty-two yards long, with an
average breadth of 9 ft. 10 in., lined with arcoaolia.
On the left of it three side galleries
7. Oastella- branch out, and at its further end is
mare, a chamber from which further galler-
ies continue. The weight of evidence
is in favor of a Christian origin. The arrange-
ment of the graves in the chambers at Castellsr
mare and Sorrento is peculiar; they are placed in
rows one above another so as to resemble a honey-
comb, a form which is lacking in the older cata-
combs, though it ia impossible to say whether it
originated with the Christians of these places.
The history of the immense and widely known
catacombs of Rome begins, as is the case else-
where, with the family plot. In the first two cen-
turies, and even later, individual Christiahs picked
out places for the interment of themselves and
their families, including in some cases their freed-
men. The arrangement of the first
8. Borne, cemeteries is not demonstrably derived
from pagan models, since there were
many Jews in Rome and in the primitive Church
there, and these also buried their dead in subter-
ranean cemeteries. But there is reason to believe
that, while it would be too much to say that Jewish
traditions had no influence on the early develop-
ment, the first beginnings of the Christian burial
system in Rome were derived rather from pagan
prototypes.
With the extension of the family plot into the
common cemetery for the faithful, underground
Rome became apparently a labyrinth, though really
its plan is more simple and intelligible than that of
some of the larger catacombs outside of Rome.
Since the ground was either flat or slightly rolling,
the excavation was begun by digging down at an
angle into the earth, the descent being furnished
with steps, usually covered with brick or marble.
After it had reached the required depth (averaging
OemetariM
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
488
about twenty feet), the excavation continued
hoiuontally in a main gallery and others roughly
parallel with it, connected by cross passages into
a regular network. The dead were interred usually
in the walls, less often in the floor of the passages.
Here and there, at the side, end, or intersection of
passages, doors were cut which led to one or more
chambers (cubieula). The shape of these was as a
rule nearly rectangular, less often polygonal, semi-
circular, or circular; the roof nearly or quite flat
or cross-vaulted in the rectangular ones, and of
the nature of a cupola in the polygonal or circular.
The later catacombs usually have smaller cham-
bers, sometimes not more than about four square
yards in extent.
As to the form of the tombs, the loculu» here is
the most frequent, laiger than necessary in the
oldest cases, but later dosely following the shape
of the body. Sometimes they were dug in deep
enough to afford room for several bodies. Above
the arcoeolia there was usually a neariy or quite
semicircular arch. If two bodies were to be buried
together in these, a loculus was cut at the back of
the hollowed-out space, or sometimes the arch was
carried further back and two spaces hollowed out
side by side; or again locuH were cut, especially
for children, in the lunette of the arch. A com-
bination of the loculua and the arcosoltum is the
so-called loculua a merua or "table-tomb." The
grave dug in the floor is found less often than in
southern Italy and Sicily, and most of those which
exist probably date from a time when the walls
were already full. Sarcophagi were also used,
made of marble in most cases; these were placed
mostly in the cubieula and galleries, but sometimes
on the side of the stairs. When the wall-space of
a catacomb was filled, the /oMores gained more
room by digging the floor of the passages deeper.
When this had gone so far as to threaten the sta-
bility of the walls, a second shaft or gallery was
begun at a downward an^e from the first, and the
whole process repeated. Thus in the catacombs
of St. Calixtus and St. Domitilla five different levels
are found, the lowest more than eighty feet be-
neath the surface. An i^proximate conception
of the vast extent of the Roman catacombs may
be gained from the calculations of Michele Stefano
de Rossi and of Marchi. The former estimated the
total length of the passages at 550 miles, the latter
at 750. The number of bodies buried there is
variously given as from three and a half to six
millions.
The catacombs of the towns around Rome and in
Etruria resemble the Roman, it is true, more than
the Sicilian; but there are striking differences, as
in the typical ones of Bolsena, Chiusi, and Soriano,
which, when examined in detail, lead to the con-
clusion that the influence of the ancient Etruscan
burial-customs had much to do with them. It
extended, in fact, very nearly to the gates of Rome,
and some of its cluu'acteristics are foimd in the
catacombs of Rignano and at the twentieth mile-
stone on the Via Flaminia.
2. Cemeteries Above Qronnd.— a. Plan and
Oonatraotion: The simplest form of cemeteries in the
open air is found in Upper Egypt, where, in order
to save the soil available for agriculture and at the
same time to protect the graves from inundaticio.
the Christians laid their dead to rest
1. In the on the border of the desert, in lai^e
Open Air. cemeteries used by a oonaiderable d^
trict. TTiey seldom used woodea
coffins, but tied the corpse, mummified with as-
phalt or natron, to a sycamore board, then wr^yped
cloths around it and buried it in an ordinary grave.
The discovery in 1S73 of a cemetery dadng from
the fourth and fifth centiuies at Portogruaro, the
ancient Julia Concordia, gives an accurate idea of
other vanished burying-groimds, especially in
northern Italy. Several hundred sarcophagi of
Istrian limestone rest either directly on tl^ ground
or on large square bases. They are carved out of
a single block of stone, usually without anything
on their sides except inscriptions, and covered
with heavy roof-shaped covers. The cemeteries
of Aries, Vienne, and Treves were sioiilarly l^
out. At Aries five layers of graves ultimatdy
existed, one above another, separated only by a
layer of earth — ^the lowest heathen, the upper
ones Christian. Much the same was the arrange-
ment at Vienne and at Treves, except that in the
latter there are both sarcophagi and graves lined
with masonry or brick and covered with slabs of
brick, limestone, or sandstone. Here again Uie
lowest layer contains a number of pagan inscrip-
tions and sarcophagi, the most probable inference
being that the Christians in Gaul and the Rhine
country occupied former pagan burial-places. The
arecB of northern Africa attained a certain celebrity
even during the epoch of peraecutiony and weie
carefully investigated by French scholars during
the nineteenth century. One at Lambdse, about
sixty-five by fifty-three yards in extent, was sur-
rounded by a sli^t wall, and apparently contained
nothing but ordinary graves. Elsewhere, in ad-
dition to these, small vaulted structures w&e
erected over the bodies, as at Csaarea (modem
Cherchel) in Mauretania. Two important open-
air cemeteries existed at Tipasa; in the center of
one was a basilica erected over the body of the
martyr Salsa.
The word *' mausoleum," now usually restricted
to large and imposing monuments, was used in
ancient times for less important tombs, and memona
is also frequently employed. These small memo-
rial buildings have mostly disappeared. They
must have been particularly numerous in r^ons
where the small family burial-place was
riS*^ ^^® "^®' *"*^ where the custom of
Bnildlnffs* ^'^^^^ them had been prevalent in
pre-Christian times. Syria and Meso-
potamia have supplied a considerable proportion
of them, and Asia Blinor probably had as many;
but they existed also in countries where the com-
mon burying-ground was the rule. Borne stood
among graves in the open air, as above the Cata-
comb of St. Calixtus in Rome; others near or
attached to churches, as at Tipasa and two that
adjoined the old St. Peter's in'Rome; others, again,
were isolated, like the tomb of Galla PUddia and
that of Theodoric at Ravenna.
The frequency of neariy or quite rectangular
489
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oemeterlflfl
grave-chambers in the underground cemeteries
^virould lead to the expectation of finding the same
structure above ground; and as a matter of fact
it is the rule in Syria and Mesopotamia, while the
eaxly existence of numerous examples of this class
may be inferred from paintings and sculptiues
representing the raising of Lazarus, which nearly
always depict an oblong tomb like a house or
temple. Actual examples from the West are one
built like a tower above the Catacomb of St. Calix-
tus in Rome, another vaulted one at Tropea, two
adjoining ones by the side of a basilica at Morsott,
and another at Tipasa in North Africa. Occa-
sionally to the rectangular ground-
s' Ground- plan was added a semicircular ter-
Plan and mination at the rear, as in the group
JFoTm. of tombs in the cemetery of Manas-
tirine near Salona, of the fourth
century or earlier, and other examples at Tipasa
and Anoona. The rotimda shape, however, was
also of frequent occurrence from the earliest times.
Two large mausoleums of this shape, Santa Petro-
nilla and Santa Maria della Febbre, stand near
St. Peter's in Rome, and the church of St. George
at Salonica was probably sepulchral in origin.
The tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna is externally
a decagon, on the groimd floor within a Greek
cross, and circular above. After semicircular
additions to an original rectangular plan became
common, suggesting the form of a cross, the idea
received further development at the hands of
Christians. The most prominent representative
of this was the mausoleum of the firet Christian
emperors, the church of the Apostles at Constan-
tinople, of whose sumptuous structiue, unhappily,
little more is known now than that it had the shape
of a Greek cross. The tomb of Galla Pladdia at
Ravenna also deserves study from this point of
view. Probably earlier than the time of Constan-
tine is the original construction of the two mausole-
ums above the catacombs of St. Calixtus, which
later received the names of St. Sixtus and St. Soter.
When, after the cessation of persecution, the
erection of churches over or near the graves of the
saints was carried out on a large scale, the develop-
ment of cemeteries in connection with them fol-
lowed as a consequence of the desire of Christians
to be buried near the resting-place of the martyrs.
In spite of the ancient law forbidding burial within
the walls of the city, such burials continued after
the relics of the martyrs were brought in to the
principal churches of various places (see Church-
tard). Burial within the church itself was not
everywhere approved. In Spain and Gaul, par-
ticulariy, it was even a subject of adverse oonciliar
legislation, although this barrier did not suffice
to keep back the flowing tide of popu-
4. Geme- ^ piety. Both literary and monu-
teries Oon- mental evidence attests the existence
neoted with in the most widely separated portions
Ohurohea. of the primitive Church of buildings
used both for worship and for inter-
ment. A large number of them arose outside the
walls of Rome. Unfortunately many smaller build-
ingpi of this class sank into decay or oblivion
during and after the Middle Ages, while the larger
ones were so transformed in course of time that
to-day they have scarcely a trace of their original
use. It is thus easier to examine the extant ruins
in order to form an idea of the construction adopted
in the first instance. Of these undoubtedly the
most significant is that discovered and explored
by Delattre at Damous-el-Karita near Carthage.
Here, in the church proper and atrium as well as
in the immediate neighborhood, more than 14,000
inscriptions or fragments of inscriptions were
brought to light. The dead were buried in ordi-
nary sunk graves, lined and covered with slabs,
though some were constructed of masonry, fre-
quently covered with stone slabs, and a number
of sarcophagi were found, these latter sunk flush
with the floor. Of the great biuial-churches in
Rome, the best example was imtil recently fur-
nished by that of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo, the floor
of which was literally crowded with graves and
sarcophagi. The church of St. Paul without the
Walls, a^ at Rome, which from the fourth cen-
tury was a favorite burial-place, was siurounded
by a space intended especially for interment,
covered by a roof supported on columns, and
adorned with paintings; and that of St. Balbina,
also outside the city, had a teglata under which the
dead were buried.
b. Types of Qravea: In the primitive age, the
simple grave dug in the earth was the commonest
form for cemeteries above groimd. It was ordi-
narily not so deep as the graves of to-day, and was
frequently lined with slabs of stone, with brick, or
with masonry. This custom led to the enlarge-
ment of the simple grave into a vault capable of
holding several bodies. Of these vaults none have
been so thoroughly investigated as were those of the
upper cemetery of St. Calixtus and the churohes
of St. Laurence and St. Paul without the Walls
by De Rossi. In the first-named large holes were
dug, and then divided off by partitions into spaces
^ -^ each large enough for one body.
pJiiwJty "^^^ materials urod in construction
Orave. ^^^ ^^^' brick, marble, and thick
layers of mortar. In these compart-
ments the corpses were placed one above another,
a slab covering the one first buried and serving as
a support for the next. The place of the slab was
occasionally taken by an arched covering of brick
or by a layer of masonry. In this particiidar ceme-
tery the excavation was carried deep enough to
contain ten or even more bodies thus superim-
posed; the average is between eight and nine.
The same system is found at Ostia, Porto, and
Tropea in Calabria, as well as in North Africa and
at Athens. In other cases, as in the same ceme-
tery of St. Calixtus, the oorpsea were laid side by
side and separated by an upright slab. While
the usual shape of all these graves was rectangular,
some occur in North Africa which correspond
roughly to the shape of the body, and are rounded
off at the head and foot. They were frequently
also wider at the head than at the foot, giving a
bell-shaped type which corresponds to examples
found in the Sicilian catacombs. In both cases
this type is a survival of native pre-Christian usage.
The closing of the graves, whichever of these
THE NEW 8CHAFF-HERZ0G
400
forms they took, was done in various ways. In
Upper £!gypt commonly, but elsewhere as well, the
eaurth removed in excavation was heaped over the
grave. In other cases slabs were laid either flat
on the ground or on the top of the sides where an
artificial lining was placed in the
*^^^^ grave. These slabs were frequently
^J^J^ decorated in the fifth century with
Q^rt^^^, mosaic, including an inscription and
various pictorial representations, some-
times the portrait of the deceased or sjrmbolic
designs. Instead of slabs, large heavy stones cut
into a rough shape were used in some places, espe-
cially in ^ East, and in North Africa, where it
was an inheritance from Carthaginian custom.
The term sarcophagus was originally used by
the ancients in connection with a kind of stone
found near Assos in Asia Minor, which was sup-
posed to have the property of consuming the flesh
of the corpse in a short time (Pliny, Hiat, not.,
XXXVI. xvii. 27), but it was often employed for
receptacles made out of other stone. The early
Christians, taking over both name and things,
used the stone they found at hand.
8. Bar- For relief decorations, however, the
oophaffl. porous and often flawed limestone
was ill adapted, and marble was gen-
erally selected where these were desired. The
most usual form was that of a parallelepiped,
hollowed out to receive the body. The shape of
the body was sometimes partially reproduced on
the outside, especially in North Africa, or at least
the head was semicircular; while at Rome the
head and foot were alike. Sarcophagi for children
seldom occur, because they were usually buried with
their parents in the larger ones. When more than
one body was to be placed in the same sarcoph-
agus, stone partitions were sometimes placed in
the interior. Christian sarcophagi were frequently
adorned with more or less elaborate decorations,
usually in relief, though the taste of the North
African Christians for mosaic led them to employ
it in some cases.
Wooden coffins were also used, either endoeed
in the sarcophagi or buried in the earth; but on
account of their perishable material they have
almost disappeared. A coffin of cypress was found
in the marble sarcophagus of St.
4. Other Cecilia, and Gsell found others of oak
Beoepta- and pine in sarcophagi at Tipasa. A
oles. plain rectangular chest of cedar, but
richly decorated with plates of gold
and silver, received the remains of St. Paulinus at
Treves, and was afterward enclosed in a large
sandstone sarcophagus. Coffins of lead were also
known; but the most peculiar receptacles were
those in the shape of an amphora or large water-
vessel. These easily held the corpses of little
children; when they were used for full-grown
persons, they were sometimes taken apart and
lengthened by the addition of cylindri(»d pieces
taken from other amphoras, and then cemented
together.
IV. £(iuipment and Decoration of Tombs: Cor-
responding to the great variety of arrangement
and structure noticed above is a still greater wealth
of objects pertaining to the equipment and decora-
tion of the resting-pUces of tt^ dead. Many of
these objects seem natural and intdligible to^y,
but others appear peculiar, especially the pro-
vision of household utensils. The furnishing of
tombs with inscriptions and with painted or carved
images is but an inheritance of the traditions of
earlier civilised peoples, especially the Greeks and
Romans; and it seems on the face of it not unlikely
that the provision of these various other objects
was similariy a following of ancient custom. It is in-
disputable that these pre-Christian pec^les regarded
the grave as a house, and gave it corresponding
arrangements and decorations. Roman tombs
sometimes accurately resemble dwelling-houses, with
atrium, tridiniaf and the like. Nim:ierous pagan
inscriptions designate either a burial-vault or a
single grave as a house, the eternal house, etc
These same designations and an analogous fonn
of construction are not uncommon in eariy Chris-
tian usage, as might be shown, did space pennit,
from monuments, inscriptions, and the writings
of the Fathers. This conception of the grave as
a house offers the only satisfactoiy explanation
of what would otherwise be so mysterious, the
character of the objects in the tombs as gifts to
the dead. In themselves unnecessary if not sense-
less additions, they merely demonstrate the power
of long custom, from which even medieval Chris-
tianity was not able wholly to emancipate itself.
1. The QrtLve Itself.— a. The Interior: Proper
clothing for the corpse was universal, no matter
what form of grave was used. Even those who
died of the plague in Alexandria had their seemly
vesture (Eusebius, Hiat, ecd., vii. 22). Linen seems
to have been the usual material, and white the
color, though costly stuffs, such as silk and purple
and gold brocade were sometimes used. Ambrose,
Chr^^ostom, and Jerome protested against the use
of gold-embroidered garments, and the first and
last also against silk. At a later period synods
even found it necessary to legislate against luxury
in grave-dothes, e.g., that of Auxme in 578. In
the same century Gregory of Tours relates that a
kinswoman of IQng Childebert was buried " with
great ornaments and much gold,"
1. OhJects which, however, were aocm stolen.
Pertaininff The indications thus given in the
to the literature of the period are oonfiimed
Corpse, by numerous discoveries, the largest
number of which have been in Upper
Egypt. Here the garments are mostly of linen, less
often of pure wool or silk. As to mere ornaments,
though Gregory of Nyassa says that the body of
his sister Macrina was stripped before burial of
rings and necklaces, the discoveries show that tbis
was not the common practise. On the contrary,
the number of such objects found leads to the con-
clusion that many bodies were more richly adorned
in death than in life. Among them are rings, ear-
rings, bracelets and anklets, necklaces, combs and
hairpins, fibula, etc., made of various t»r^«i<i
and frequently bearing Christian emblems, such
as the monogram of Christ, the Good Shepherds
the dove, fish, and cross. With these oraaments
it is easy to confuse the amulets sometimes founds
491
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
OcBMtaritts
sinoe many of them were made in the shi^M of
iing8, bracelets, or pendants for the neck (see
Amulet).
Where the grave-diggers of the catacombs, or
the stone-cutters who made sarcophagi, designed
the space for the corpse, as was often the case, so
that its head was higher than its feet, there was
no need for any support for the head But in
other cases such supports were placed in the tomb,
the most primitive sort being of one or more stones.
In Upper Egypt rich leather cushions stuffed with
tow have been found, so sumptuously
2. Dlspo- decorated as to deserve the name of
■Ition of works of art. Vessels of day served
the Corpse, the same purpose in North Africa.
Sometimes supports were provided
for the whole body — ^in North Africa a layer of
beton, here and elsewhere simple arrangements
of flat bricks, in Catania perforated brick supports
on low feet, like benches. On sanitaiy grounds
the grave was often lined with unslacked lime,
which was also sprinkled over the corpse. Traces
of this custom have been found in the Roman
catacombs and elsewhere, as in North Africa.
The dead were also laid in some places on a bed
of laurel leaves.
While the Christians of the primitive age usu-
ally contemned the use of perfumed oils and waters,
they used such things for the dead in considerable
quantities. The dead were anointed before they
were dressed for burial, and then sprinkled with
perfumes or regulariy embalmed with spices,
though this latter practise seems to have been com-
paratively rare in Rome. Anything like mtmmu-
fying was still more uncommon, outside of Egypt.
Usually cloths wet with perfumes were laid upon
the body, especially the face, and vessels of the
most diverse shapes filled with perfumery were
set near it. It is practically certain that some of
the vessels known as AmpullcB (q.v.) contained
these perfumes, and others wine. As
3. Gifts to food and drink were set out for the
the I>ead. martyrs and other saints at the com-
memorative feasts, it is safe to say
that this took place also at burials. There is also
the often-discuissed possibility that such vessels
contained the elements of the Eucharist, or at
least the consecrated wine, in connection with the
practise condemned at the Third Council of Car-
thage and often later, of making the dead partakers
in the communion.
Another dass is formed by the large number of
domestic utensils of every sort which have been
found in the graves. These comprise vessels of all
kinds, mostly of clay but sometimes of glass or
more costly materials, knives, forks, spoons, wri-
ting-tablets, styluses, ink-stands, hammers, nails,
spinning-wheels, chisels, and tools of many different
Idnds. Other objects of daily use pertain less to
mere utility than to iuxury and adornment. A
varied collection of artides such as served the
women of those days for tlie toilet have been
discovered in and near the tombs of the catacombs,
made of metal, mosaio, ivory, glass, enamel, and
mother-of-pearl. The grave being conceived, in a
certain sense, as the house or chamber of the
departed, there is nothing surpriong in the dis-
covery that parents, for example, placed near the
bodies of the children they had lost even the trifles
which had been dear to them in life— dolls, smalls
figures of men and animals, small lamps, spoons,
etc., savings-banks, and ivory letters of the kind
used in the schools. Even things relating to the
amusements of grown-up people — ^boards for games,
dice, and the like — ^are occasionally found. Pieces
of money are of frequent occurrence. Since there
is evidence that the old pagan custom of providing
the dead with money to pay Charon for the ferriage
persisted among Christians in Greece and else-
where, there is no doubt that at least some of these
coins were placed there from that point of view.
b. The Bzterior: After the burial was finished,
it was a common practise to fix in the still wet
mortar with which the loadi and arcoBciia of the
subterranean cemeteries were dosed small vessels,
usually of glass, sometimes shells, for the same
purpose as the vessels inside the grave. A repeated
renewal of these is evidenced by the
^* '^•■" tomb of one Peregrina (d. 462) in the
Lirht (Mid ^**^°^^ ^^ S"* Giovanni at Syra-
^^cemse. ^^^^^^' several glasses must have been
broken and replaced, and there was
also a clay censer still containing coals and some
grains of incense. The lamps similarly afiixed to
the outside of the graves were intended to be lighted
at the funeral and on memorial days. Semicircular
niches were made in the adjacent walls to hold them.
From the reign of Constantine the lamps burning
at the graves of the martyrs were kept up with
special reverence; the oil from them was credited
with miraculous power, and pilgrims often took a
small quantity of it home with them.
Many of the objects mentioned above (a, | 3)
are found embedded in the mortar outside the
graves, sometimes as gifts, but in other cases un-
doubtedly as means of identification among the
thousands of graves in the large oata-
8. Xarks combs, the majority of which had no
of Identi- inscriptions, possibly owing to the
floation. poverty of the survivors. Some of
these substitutes for the regular in-
deed blocks of marble or other stone are letters,
numbers, etc., embedded or scratched in or above
the place where the tomb is closed; others are
small objects of great variety, rings, buttons,
glasses, bits of mosaic, animals' teeth, shells, coins,
stones of fruit and leaves of plants, fixed in the
mortar before it dried.
In thdr use of sepulchral inscriptions the early
Christians merely continued the tradition of still
older dvilisations. Outside of the family vaults,
on or over the door of which the name of the occu-
pants or owners appeared, the inscriptions were
placed on or at least near the graves. The most
peculiar exception to the general
8. Insozip. usage is formed by those which have
tionsand the inscriptions inside the graves,
Paintings, where thqr can not have been visible
to passers-by. Kari Schmidt dis-
covered a number of inscribed gravestones in the
necropolis of Antinoe in Egypt which seemed to
have been laid originally well down in the graves,
0«met«rlea
Oensus
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
492
at the foot, with the writing underneath. The
inacriptions were either cut with a chijsel or other
sharp tool, scratched with a sharp point, painted
with a brush, or composed in mosaic. These
inscriptions offer most trustworthy and striking
evidence of the mode of thought, faith, and hope of
the primitive Christians, especially in regard to
death, the grave, and the resurrection (see In-
BCRipnoNs; Paimtino).
8. The Chambers and PrnMa^ee: In these the
presence has already been noted of tables, benches,
and chairs for the observance of the commemora-
tions of the dead. The dimensions of such tables
as have been discovered imply that the number of
participants was small. While such furniture is
practiciedly absent from the Roman Catacombs,
where wood must accordingly have been used,
several tables of more durable material have been
found in North African burial-places. The gal-
leries and chambers of the catacombs also contained
receptacles for the materials used in mixing mortar
for closing up the tombs. Those which have been
preserved, niade usually of clay, with incrustations
of mortar and lime still upon them, may have been
used either for this purpose or on sanitary grounds,
to counteract the effluvia of the place. Lighting
arrangements are found here too, although the
galleries must have been in comparative darkness,
to judge from the way in which Jerome quotes Ps.
Iv. 15 and Vergil, ^neid, ii. 755 in connection with
the memory of his visit to the Roman Catacombs.
As the arcoaolia were frequently ornamented with
paintings in their vaults and lunettes, and the locuU
on their exterior side, so also the chambers and less
frequently the galleries of the catacombs were dec-
orated in the same way. No doubt the structures
above ground connected with the cemeteries were
painted in much more numerous cases than the
scanty remains extant at the present day would
lead one to suppose.
(NiKOLAUS MtLLER.)
Bibuoorapht: J. Towiuhend« Caialooue cf Bo6k» RdaHng
io the DUpomd of Bodies New York, 1887. On the gen-
ermi question oonsolt: F. Piper, Bifdntung in d%» monti^
m^nUde Theologie, Ootha, 1867; J. Wilpert, Principien^
fraoen der dkrMtftdk«n Arckdologie, Frsibuis. 1889; F. X.
Kr»UB, Vtber Begriff, Umfang und GetcftMAte der cAriaf-
Udten Arehdologis, Freibuis. 1879; idem, Rml-Bneyklopii^
die der duieUidien AUerthUmer, 2 vola.. ib. 1880-«6; V.
Sehultie, Arehdologiaehe Studien, Vienna, 1880; Die Kata-
komben, die alldurieaiehen OrabataUen, Leipoie, 1882;
R. Orounet, 6hule ewr Vhitloire dee earcopkegea cAr^fiefM,
Athena, 1885; L. Wagner, Mannera, Cuetoma and Obeerv-
aneee^ London, 188fi; A. Haaenolever, Der aUt^rieUidie
Gmberadifnuck, Brunswiok, 1886; H. Maruochi, £limenU
d*arcMolooU thriHenne, Paria, 1900; Neander. Chrietian
Chwch, vols. L-iy., oonsult Index. b.y. *' Burial "; Sohaff,
Cftrufian Cikurcft. iL 286-310, 380-385; Moellet, ChritHan
Church, I 279-283.
For burial in Palestine oonsult: T. Tobler, GoiifaAa,
pp. 201 sqq., et paanm. St. Gall. 1851; idem, Zwei BlUker
Tapographie von Jerutalem, ii. 227 sqq., Berlin, 1854;
J. N. Sepp, Jeruealem und doe heUige Land, i. 273 sqq.,
Behaflhauaen, 1873; Survey of Weetem PaieaUne, London,
1881 sqq.; Mittheilungen und Naehriehlen dee deutaehen
PalMtinorVereina, Leipsio. 1895 sqq.; Paleatine Explora-
tion Fund Quarterly Statement, paasiro; C. Mommert,
Oolgotha und doe heilige Orab mu Jeruealem, Leipsic, 1900.
For Syrian burial consult: F. E. C. Dietrich, Zvoei aide-
niadia Inackriften, pp. 11 sqq., Marbuig, 1855; C. J. M. de
Voga^ Notice archSdogiqua awr lea monumente encore
exiatanta en Terra Sainte, Paris, 1870; idem, Syrie centrale,
Paris, 1866-77.
For North Africa eonsult: A. L. Delattre, Inaeripfum
ekrUiennea provenant de la baaiUQue de Damoma el Kariii
d Carthage, Gonstantine, 18G3; idem. Lea Taetbeeia
puniquea de Carthage, Lyons, 1890; idon. Antiguiiia (Are>
tiennea, Paris. 1900; R. M. Smith and E. A. Porcfaer. Hia-
tory of the Recent Diacoveriea at Cyrene, London, 1864;
N^routsoe-Bey, Notice awr lea fouiUae rieeniae . . . . pp^
26 sqq., 48, Alexandria, 1875; idem. VAneiamme Alaat^
drie, pp. 38 sqq., 53-64, 61, Paris. 1888; Pierre GaTsah,
in BibtiotKbiiue d'ardUologia Afrieaine, part 2. 18»7:
S. GselU Reeherchea arehSologiquea en Algirim, Phria. 18»:
idem. Lea Monumente antiguee de VAlgSria, ib. 18B9:
M. de Bock, MaUriaux pour eervir d VarekMogie dc
VAnfPte chritienna, St. Petersburg, 1901.
For Asia Minor consult: J. T. Wood, Dieeoveriaa et
Epheeua, pp. 12 sqq., London, 1877; F. Gomont, MiJaega
d'arehMogieetd'hietoire, TV. (1995) 2i5e€in.i W.lLBaiD-
say, CiOaa and Biahoprica of Phn/giA, toL L, parts 1, 2.
Oxford, 1895-47; idem, in Journal ef HeUeme Stmdua,
On the Greek Islands consult: L. Roea, Reiaen amf de»
griechiechen Ineeln, in. 145-151. Stuttgart, 1S45; L. P. di
Gesnola, Cyprua, New York, 1877; C. B«y«t, in BvEetiM
de eorreepondanee HalUnigua, ii. 847-359, Plaria, 1878.
On the cataoomba at Rome the literature is eoormooa.
The following is a selection: O. B. de Roaai, Roma aaatr-
tanea, 3 Tola., Rome, 1864-77 (the one great boc^ laifeiy
reproduced in English in J. 8. Northcota and W. R. Bron-
low, Roma eotlerranea, 2 vols., London, 1870, an anthorusd
summary); with De Rossi's monumental work sfaookl
be mentioned the periodical edited by him, BoOeltine d%
anheologia eriatiana, Rome, 1863 sqq. (tfaa repooitonr d
reports of discovery and decipherment); F. X. Kiaits
Roma Sotterranea, Freiburg, 1879 (baaed on De Rosa sad
Northoote and Brownlow); S. d'Aginoourt, Hiakfirr dt
Vart par lea mumumenia, 6 Tols.. Paris, 1800-23; W. Rot-
tell, in E. Z. Platner et al., BeedureSbung der Sladt Roet,
i. 855-416. Stuttgart. 1830; O. Marti, ArAitettum dOa,
Roma eotlerranea criMtiana, Home, 1844; O. IfaitlazMi
Church in Ote Calacombe, London, 1847; L. Penvt. La
Cataeombea de-Rome, 6 Tola., Paris, 1861-tt (piatcs an
valuable, the text ia auperaeded); W. I. Kip, Cataoomba ei
Rente, New York, 1854; D. de Riefaemont, Lea CeUt-
eombea de Rome, P^ria, 1870; P. Allard, Rome eouterraint.
Paris, 1874; J. H. Parker, Arckaolegy of Roaae, parts ix..
X., xii., London, 1877 (a standard work); T. Roller. Lm
Cataeombea de Rome, Paris. 1881; W. R. Brownk3>w.
Cemetery of SL Priedtta and Recent Diaeoveriee, Loodoc.
1892; M. Armellini, Le Cataeombe romane, Rome. 1880;
idem, OU antidn dmiteri erietiam tU Rcana e d'ltalia,
ib. 1893; R. I^ndani, Ruina and Excavatione of Aneiemi
Rome, Index '* cemeteries," Boston, 1897; A. Weber. I>i$
rOmiaehen Kaiakomben, Regensburg, 190a
For cemeteries in Italy outside Romeeonault: G. B. Ps»-
quini, Un anOeo dmilaro. Sienna, 1831; idem, Retaaieme d»
un antieo dmitero . . . , Montipulciano. 1833; C. F. Bel-
lermaim, Dia tUteeten ehrietUehen BegriOmiaetatten, Ham-
burg, 1839 (at Naples); G. ScheriUo, Le Calaoombe Napo-
Utane, Naples, 1870; F. livrrani. Le Cotecom&e . . . di
Chiuei, Sieima, 1872; T. Roller, DieKatakoenbenvomScm
Oennaro ... in NeapO, Jena, 1877; V. Schultxe. Die
Kaiakomben von San Oennaro, ib. 1877; F. Cokmna.
Seoperto di anOdUtk in Napoli, 1876-1897, Naples. 1898.
For Sicily, Malta, and Sardinia consult: G. P. Badger.
DetcKplion of Malta and Sardinia, pp. 256-280^ Malta.
1838; A. A. (}aniana, IZseenl Z>i«eo0m6s ol AToteftOe. Uaha.
1881: idem, A Hypogeum .... ib. 1884; B. Lnpos.
Die Stadt Syraeua im Alterthum, pp. 271, 275. 323-3'J7.
Straaburg, 1887; V. Straasulla, inArekivio etoneeSinlia»o.
xxL 104-188. Palermo. 1896; J. Filhrer. in AM A, I
Klaaae. xx. (1897). part 3; idem, Forechungen awe- SiciHe
aotterranea, Munidi, 1897 (a work of the fiiat impor-
tance).
For England: Oaroline B. Southey. Ckaptera on Ckmrk-
yarda, London. 1870; E. E. Jarrett. Laseoas on the Ckmch-
yard, ib. 1880; Mrs. B. Holmes, London Burial Grotuela,
ib. 1896.
Gonault alao: J. B. D. Oochet, La Nommniia eoeter-
raina ou NoHeaa eur dee eimetiiree romaine et dee eime-
tiiraa franca, Dieppe. 1855; idem, SipuUmee gauLnaei,
romainea, franquea et narmandee, 2 Tola!, ib. 1857.
The original article by Mailer, in Hanok-Hersog. RE, x.
794-877f. ia a learned treatise and sboufcl be oonadtcd by
advanced atudenta.
493
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Oemeteries
Census
CBNSER OR THURIBLE: The vessel in which
incenae is burned during divine service in the East-
em, Roman Catholic, and of late years many
Anglican churches. The usual shape is that of a
small metal bowl, with a base on which to stand it
^when not in use, and fitting over it a high conical
cover in which are perforations to let the smoke out.
The 'whole is carried by three chains, on which the
cover slides up and down, when it is raised to
allow^ incense to be thrown upon the live coals
contained in the lower part. In connection with
the censer another smaller vessel, called the incense-
boat, is used to carry the supply of incense; as its
name implies, it is shaped like a small boat, but
with a lid and a base on which to stand it.
CENSORSHIP AND PROHIBITION OF BOOKS:
By censorship is meant the provision that no pub-
lication shall be issued without preliminary exam-
ination and permission by the authorities, either
ecclesiastical or secular. The prohibition of books
as dangerous to religion, to morals, or to the State
dates back to an early period. Thus all works on
magic were ordered to be destroyed by the later
Roman Empire. Constantine issued
Early an edict that the works of Arius should
Jnmtmru^^m. bo bumcd, sud numcTous like edicts
against books of other heretics fol-
lowed. Those who used or possessed such books
were threatened with death. The Church forbade,
on its own account, the reading of pagan and he-
retical books {Apostolic ConMutums, i. 6, vi. 16;
canon xvi. of the Council of Carthage, 308). Dur-
ing the Bfiddle Ages, both Church and State ad-
hered firmly to the same principles; a salient in-
stance is the decree of the Council of Constance
against the writings of John Huss and its execution.
After the printing-press was invented and used
to advance the cause of the Refonnation, measures
for its regulation were introduoed by the Church,
which first established a formal censorship of books.
In a letter addressed to the archbishops of Cologne,
Mains, Treves, and Magdeburg, Alexander VI. or-
dered (1501) that no b(x»k shoidd be printed with-
out special authorisation. The Lateran Council
of 1515 sanctioned the constitution of LeoX., which
provided that no book should be printed without
having been examined in Rome by
Censor- the papal vicar and the master of the
■hip by the sacred palace, in other countries by
Church* the bishop of the diocese or his deputy
and the inquisitor of heresies. Further
and more detailed legislation followed, and the
CouncQ of Trent decreed (session iv.): "It shall
not be lawful to print, or cause to be printed, any
books relating to religion without the name of the
author; neither shall any one hereafter sell any
such books, or even retain them in his possession,
unless they have been first examined and approved
by the ordinary, on pain of anathema and the
pecuniary fine imposed by the canon of the recent
Lateran Council." On these regulations are based
a number of enactments in different dioceses which
are still in force. The Council decreed also that no
theological book should be printed without first
receiving the approbation of the bishop of the dio-
cese; and this rule is extended in the monastic
orders so far as to require the permission of supe-
riors for the publication of a book on any subject.
The Council of Trent left the further provision
concerning the whole subject to a special commis-
sion, which was to report to the pope. In accord-
ance with its findings, Pius IV. promulgated the
rule submitted to him and a list of prohibited books
in the constitution Domtnici gregU custoditB of Mar.
24, 15d4. Extensions and expositions of this ru-
ling were issued by Clement VIII., Six-
Present tus v., Alexander VII., and other popes.
Practise. The present practise is based upon the
constitution SoUicUa ac provida of
Benedict XIV. (July 10, 1753). The oudntenance
and extension of the Index Hbrorwn prokibilorum
was entrusted to a special standing committee of
cardinals, the Congregation of the Index (see
Curia), which from time to time publishes new
editions (the latest, Turin, 1805). There is also an
Index Itbrorum expurgatorum, containing books
which are tolerated after the excision of certain
passages, and another Itbrorum expurgandorum, of
those which' are still in need of such partial expur-
gation. The prohibition to read or possess books
thus forbidden is binding upon all Roman Catho-
lics, though in special cases dispensations from it
may be (Stained. The most recent regulation of
the whole matter was made by the bull Officiorum
ac munerum of Leo XIII., Jan. 25, 1807.
The State in many cases for its own purposes ap-
proved the principle of censorship until compara-
tively recent times. In Germany it was abolished
only in 1848. In En^^and after the Reformation
the licensing power was in the hands of the aroh-
bidiop of Canterbury; after Milton's famous on-
slaught upon it in the AreopagUica (1643), it came
to an end by the refusal of the House of (Commons
in 1605 to renew the Licensing Act. The Reformed
Churoh of Germany maintained similar regulations
in some places, where the synodal form of organiza-
tion prevailed. Among the Lutherans, the matter
was as a rule left in the hands of the State.
(E. Frixdberg.)
Bduoobapbt: E. O. Fdgnot, Diefionnatrt . . . dM prin-
eipaux livrM eonda$nni§ au feu, Paris, 1806; H. Arndt,
J>« UbrU prokibiiU, Resensbuis. 1865; J. Feasler. Die
kirtkiidiM BUdunmbot, VMnna, 1850; F. Baehae. Dm
ilfi/ftfVt der BnAenenaur in DeuUdUani, Leifwie, 1870;
£«ppr«Mid and Cenaund Book; in Edinbuirgh Review, vol.
szzziv., July. 1871; T. Wiedamana, Dm kirdUidts BUdter-
Meneur in der BrwdiOeeee Wien, Vienna, 1873; F. H.
Bmseh, Der Index der eerhoienen Budur, Bonn. 1883 aqq.;
O. H. Putnam. Centorthip of ihe CAurcA and He Influenot
, . LUerature, 2 vola.. 1006; JE. iii. 642-652.
CENSUS.
I. In the Old TMtamant.
II. In the New Testament.
The Roman Census of Citiiens (| 1).
Provindal Census to Regulate Tribute (| 2).
Cases and Methods of Roman Census (| 3).
Palestinian Census of 6 a.d. Quirinius (| 4).
Luke iL 2 in Error. Jesus not Bom Under Quirinius
(§6).
No General Census Under Augustus (| 6).
Solution, a Census by Herod (| 7).
Census is a term used to designate an enumera-
tion of the people, generally for purposes of taxa-
tion or for service in the army.
Census
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
494
[L In tlis Old Testament: Of oenBuaes of the
whole population there are recorded in the Old
Testament ten caaee: (1-2) under Moaes (Ex.
zxzviii. 20, cf. Num. i.; Num. xxvi.); (3) under
David (II Sam. zxiv. 1-9; aee Datid); (4) under
Solomon (II Ohron. ii. 17-18); (5) under Reho-
boam (I Kin^pB xii. 21); (6) under Jehoshaphat
(II Chion. xvii. 14-19); (7) under Amasiah (II
Chron. xzv. 5-6); (8) under Usaiah (II Ohron.
xxvi. 12-13); (9-10) under Zerubbabei (T) and
Eara (Exra ii. 64, viii. 1-14). There are other
enumerations given, but they concern merely the
strength of the aimy, as in II Chron. xiii. 3.
n. In the New Testament: The subject here is
of interest principally in its relation to the censiis
mentioned Luke ii. 2 and Acts v. 37, and in con-
nection with the birth of Jesus.]
Originally the Romans made a census of Roman
dtisens only, the primaiy object being the adjust-
ment of their quota in the taxes for the costs of
war. This census was intended to exhibit not only
the pecuniary but the total effective utility of the
individual toward the State. So it
I. The included attestation of personal cir-
Roman cumstances, capacity for service, civil
Census of and militaiy, and the moral worthi-
Citizens. ness of those enumerated. Gradually
this census of Roman citisens lost
significance. While in earlier times it was repeated
every five yeans in connection with a religious
festivity (fu^trum), during the civil wars it lapsed.
Augustus, it is true, consistently with his general
policy of bringing about an ostensible restoration
of the republican order (T. Mommsen, Rdmi»ches
StaaUnehi, ii. 337, Leipsic, 1893), adopted the
census anew. He put on record that he had thrice
held a complete census of citisens, vis., in the years
29 B.C., 8 B.C., and 14 a.d. A census of this kind
was made for the last time under the Emperor
Vespasian.
The census of the Roman provinces, introduced
much later, was quite distinct from this censiis
of dtisens, the difference corresponding to that
between the Roman people as conqueror and the
provinces as conquered. Since in this light the
provindal census was designed to regulate not the
rights but the obligations of those enumerated, it
served only to define military service
a. Frovin- and tribute. The forms of the latter
cial Census in the various provinces showed great
to Regulate diversity. There was doubtless every-
Tribttte. where some sort of ground tax (faibu-
tum 9(di), usually in the form of a
definite tribute, partly in money, partly in luttural
products, which could also be levied as communal
tithes, except that if in case of a defective harvest
the amount of the requisite tribute was not realised,
the tithes were made good through other taxes.
The real-estate tax was everywhere supplemented
by a personal tax (tributum capitis), wldch might
be levied as a uniform capitation tax for all, or
(as in Egypt) as a graduated poll-tax; or as prop-
erty or income tax. In all forms, however, it was
let by contract to tax farmers. These taxes, which
in the main came down from the republican era,
were in the earlier period regulated partly b^ means
of a census. But only from the time of the gov-
ernment of Augustus were they organised on a
more extendve basis. Espedally in the provinces
incorporated by Ceesar and the emperors into the
Roman Empire were the fiscal relations thus regu-
lated.
According to literary records well known, this
was done three times in Gaul under Augustus, then
under Nero and Domitian; in Syria, Judea, and
Spain under Augustus; among the Clitie under
Tiberius; in Britain under Claudius ; in Dada un-
der Trajan. Besides these provinces, the following
are named in inscriptions as subjected to a census
in imperial times: Aquitania, Bel-
3. Cases and giimi, Lugdunensis, Lower Germany,
Methods of Macedonia, Thrace, Paphlagonia,
Roman Africa, and liauritania. In the re-
Census, publican era the administration of
these provincial censuses had been
combined with the office of provincial governor;
but in imperial times it was transferred to the
emperor. Augustus personally executed this office
in Gaul, in other cases the emperor was represented
by men of the highest rank; for entire provinces,
as a rule, persons of senatorial station were ap-
pointed; for smaller districts, knights. At the
outset in the imperial provinces, the census was
delegated only occasionally (Mommsen, ut sup., ii.
410, a, 4) to the provincial governor. The essen-
tial uiiiformity of organization of taxes and assess-
ments throughout the empire, such as is proved
for the later imperial times by the classic legal
sources, although no traces are apparent of a sudden
reorganisation in relation to the provinces under the
earlier period, was early anticipated by the census
regulations of Augustus. As to the detailed con-
stitution of this provincial census, which later
became universal, there is still some debate; it is
fairly certain, however, that it regulated a real-
estate tax for proprietors and a personal tax for
the landless; that it included the taxpayera' per-
sonal assessment; that its organization was not
communal but provincial; and that the formal
declaration took place in the principal centers of
the fiscal districts. Of the interval between cen-
suses there IB certain knowledge only in relation to
Egypt, through the new discoveries of Egyptian
papyri (U. Wilcken, Oriechische Ostraka, in Archiv
fUr Papyntaforschung, vol. i., 1899), according to
which in that country two kinds of assessments
(apoffraphai) were executed at stated times: a
popular enumeration every fourteen years, and a
declaration of movable property annually.
In Palestine, at all events, a census quite in the
Roman manner was executed in the year 6 a.d.,
though only in the southern part of the country,
which in that year came under immediate Roman
jurisdiction. The Syrian legate Quiri-
4. Palestin- nius was at that time entrusted with
ian Census the extraordinary imperial commission
of 6 A.D. of undertaking a census not only in
Quirinius. the newly annexed coimtry but also
throughout Syria (cf. also CILy iii..
supplement, no. 6687). The vehement opposition
which the regulation provoked among the Jewish
population and especially with a faction whose
495
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Census
leader was Judas of Galilee (q.v.) shows that in that
form it was new to the region. This censiu, as the
mention of Judas of Galilee implies, is referred to
in the words of Acts v. 37, " in the days of the en-
rolment."
More difficult of solution is the other New Testa-
ment passage, in which mention ia made of a cen-
sus decreed from Rome (Luke ii. 2). It is here
distinctly stated that this census, oonunanded by
CsBsar Augustus for the whole Roman Empire, was
the first which took place in Palestine (as decreed
by Augustus) when Quiiinius was governor of
Syria; and that by it Joseph was obligated to go
with Mary to Bethlehem, his place of enrolment,
where the birth of Jesus came to pass.
5. Luke IL a From the starting-point of Acts v. 37,
in Error, it were most plausible to bring the
Jesus not birth of Christ, according to Luke ii.,
Bom Under down to the time of the census of the
Quiiiniua. year 6 a.d. This is antagonised by
the chronology of Luke iii. 23, also
by the fact that both Blatthew and Luke pre-
suppose the birth of Jesus during the reign of
Herod the Great, who died in the year 4 b.c.
of the Dionysian era (see Herod and His Family);
that IB, the birth of Christ would have occurred in
the last preceding> years. But in those years
Quiriniua could not have been governor of Syria,
because Sentius Satuminus was governor in the
years 8-6 b.c. (Josephus, Ant., XVI. ix. 1), and
from 6 B.C. until after Herod's death the governor
was Quintilius Varus (Josephus, Ant., XVII. v. 2,
X. 1 ). It has been therefore proposed on exegetical
grounds to set aside the synchronism between the
governorship of Quirinius and the birth of Jesus.
But these attempts are impossible artifices. It
has also been affirmed on the strength of the later
governorship of Quirinius in the year 6 a.d., that
he served an earlier preceding term (T. Mommsen,
Res gestcB divi Augustif Berlin, 1865). But the
evidences of this are quite uncertain. And since
in no case can an earlier term of Quirinius as gov-
ernor coincide with the reign of Herod the Great,
it would not elucidate Luke ii. 2. If it be assumed
that the census of the year of Christ's birth was
begun by Satuminus, continued by Varus, and com-
pleted by Quirinius (Zumpt), against this in Luke
ii. 2, the governorship of Quirinius is evidently
intended to indicate the time when the event
recorded there took place; and a census by a
Roman officer in Judea before the annexation of
that country is improbable. Accordingly Zahn
assumes that only one Roman census took place
in Palestine, namely, under Quirinius, which is
meant both in Luke ii. and in Acts v.; save that
this occurred not in the year 6 a.d., but in the year
4 B.C., several months after the death of Herod.
But the particularity of the data in Josephus con-
tradicts this hypothesis, which at all events does
not clear the Gospel of Luke of error. On this
accoimt it is to be assumed that the governorship
of Quirinius, Luke ii. 2, has been erroneously
traniqx)sed from the census of the year 6 to the
year of Christ's birth.
Still again, the report in Luke ii. of a general Ro-
man imperial census is not historically warrantable
according to the literal text. Disregarding later
untrustworthy accounts, there are no literary or
epigraphic traces of an imperial census
6. No Gen- in the time of Augustus, and such an
eral Census event could not have occurred with-
Under out leaving some traces. And from
Augustus, the moniunent of Ancyra it is evi-
dent that Augustus did not hold a
census of Roman citizens in the period from 8
B.C. to 14 A.D. Only in the emperor's financial
reform projects with reference to the whole empire,
and in the assessments held by him in many parts
of the empire, appears a certain nucleus of truth
for that statement in Luke ii.
If then in the light of Luke ii. the governorship
of Quirinius and the Roman imperial census can not
be verified, this report is not to be rejected as un-
historical in all other respects. That Herod at
that time received orders from Augustus to imder-
take a census in his country is not an impossi-
bility. Highly as Herod was esteemed even by
the emperor, he nevertheless remained the emper-
or's subject. This is manifest from the words of
Augustus, that he would henceforth
7. Solution^ treat him not as his friend but as his
a Census subject (Josephus, Ant., XVI. ix. 3);
by Herod, as likewise from his rating in the num-
ber of the Syrian procurators {^ArU.,
XV. X. 3). Consequently, since the Jews of Pales-
tine from Pompey's time forth had been obliged
to pay tribute in various forms to the Romans,
Herod was also bound to the payment of tribute
promptly after his appointment as king (Appian,
BeUa civUia, v. 75). It is, therefore, arbitrary to
doubt (SchOrer) that he also paid such dues con-
tinually (cf. Wieseler, T8K, 1875, pp. 541 sqq.).
Nevertheless he was not deprived of the right of
imposing and increasing taxes in his own name
(cf. Josephus, ArU., XV. x. 4; XVII. ii. 1, xi. 2).
It is accordingly to be assumed that he had to
furnish tribute to a prescribed amoimt at Rome
the collection of which was generally left to him
out of Jewish revenues. Where, however, the
Roman interest required it, the emperor, as a
matter of course, could intervene for raising the
necessary taxes to make up the tribute. T^ is
apparent from a similar case, wherein Augustus
oonmianded Archelaus to remit one-fourth of the
Samaritans' taxes (Josephus, Ant.i XVII. xi. 4).
It is then conceivable that he commanded Herod
to regulate the taxes necessary for the Roman
tribute by means of a census by virtue of the forms
already in vogue. For that Augustus did not at
that time order a specifically Roman census in
Palestine, but adhered to the Jewish practises, is
borne out by other analogies in Roman procedure
(Tacitus, Annales, iv. 72), by the operations of the
Roman census of the year 6 a.d., and by indica-
tions afforded by the Gospel of Luke, according
to which the census in question was decreed con-
formably to Jewish tribal enrolments. [For reply
to above see Quirinius.] F. Sisffbbt.
BiBuooaAniT: The older literature on II. is given in TSK,
1862, pp. 663 sqq. P. E. Husehke, UAer dm cur Zmi dtr
Geburi ChritH gehatUnen Centua, Breelau, 1840; idem,
Utber d€n Cenaua und di§ Steuervarfaamng der . . . JCoimt-
mii, ib. 1847; C. Wieeeler, ChnmoloQiteht Bynopm der
Central Amerloa
CiiAloadon
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOa
Aoe
vier BvantfdUn, Hambuxi, 1843; idem. BeUriiQe tur
fidUio^n, WikrdiaufiQ der Evanifelien, Ctotha, 18d0; idem,
in TSK, 1875. pp. 435 sqq.; J. von Gumpach« in TSK,
1852, pp. 663 eqq.; A. W. Zwnpt, CommenUMiionet epi-
orapkica, ii. 73-74, Berlin, 1854; idem. Dot GtHnarUfohr
ChriaU, pp. 20 iqq., Leipae, 1860; Aberle, in TQ, 1866.
pp. 108 aqq., 1868, pp. 20 sqq.; A. Hilgenfeld. in ZWT,
1865, pp. 406 0qq., 1870, pp. 151 iqq.; H. Qerlaeh, Die
rOmiaeUn Statthaiier in Syrian und Judda, pp. 22 sqq.
Berlin, 1865; T. Lewin. FiuH Saeri, London. 1865; H.
Lutteroth, L§ Reoenaement da Quiriniua an Judia, Paris,
1865; C. E. Caspiui. Chronolooiaeh-ifaographiaeha Ein-
laiiuno in daa Leban CkriaU, Hamburg, 1860; J. Mar-
quardt, ROmiaeha SiaaiavanDoUung, vol. i., ii. 204 iqq.,
Leipaie, 1881-84; P. Schegg. Daa Todaajahr daa . . ,
Harodaa und daa Gaburtajahr Chriati, pp. 37 aqq., Munich,
1882; F. Rieaa, Nochmala daa Gahurtaiahr CkriaU, Frei-
burg, 1883; T. Zahn, in NKZ, 1803. pp. 633 sqq.; W. M.
Ramsay, in Expoaitor, 1807, pp. 274 sqq., 425 sqq.; idem,
Waa Chriat Born at BaOUaham, London. 1808; SehOxer,
Gaachiehta, i, 506 sqq.. Eng. transl., I. i. 357, ii 80, 105-
143; Hayerfield, in Claaaical Raviaw, July. 1000, pp. 300
sqq.; DB, iv. 183; SB, iv. 3004-06; also the oommen-
taries on the passages in Luke and Aots, and the works
cm the Life of Christ.
CENTRAL AMERICA: The extreme southern
portion of the continent of North America, including
aeven independent .states, as follows, enumerated in
geographicial order from north to south:
Area. Popula-
Square miles. tion.
Colony of British Honduras 7.562 40.000
Republio of Guatemala 46.774 1,800.000
RepubUc of Honduras 42.658 775.000
HepublieofBalYador 8.130 1,000,000
Republic of Nicaracua. 61.560 400.000
HepubUe of Costa Rica. 23.000 331.000
RepubUc of Panama 81,800 330,000
The population is overwhelmingly Indian, negro,
and mixed. In British Honduras in 1891 there were
only 400 whites. In Guatemala 60 per cent of the
people are Indians and 28 per cent mixed. About
one-twentieth of the popidation of Salvador and
one-fifth of that of Nicaragua are classed as white.
In Costa Rica there are 8,000 Indians, and the
remainder is almost entirely creole. The Indians
in many localities retain their native language and
live in almost primitive conditions; where classed
as Roman Catholic converts their relation to the
Church is often little more than nominal. But
few of the colored population still persist in heath-
enism.
The republic of Panama was formed by revolu-
tion from Colombia in 1903. Religious statistics
for this state are not available, but it may be said,
in general, that conditions are the same as in the
rest of Central America and the mother country
(see Colombia). The five older Central American
republics, after the disruption from Spain, formed
from 1821 to 1839 the " United States of Central
America." Their present independent status was
attained gradually, often after internal dissension
and warfare. During the revolutionaiy and form-
ative period the Church sufifered much. Its
property was confiscated, monasteries were abol-
ished, monks were banished, and the secular clergy
were persecuted. Poverty has also been a heavy
burden to the Church. Ecclesiastical a£Fairs were
regulated by a series of concordats with Pope
Pius IX. between 1852 and 1863 (see Concordatb
AND Delimftino Bullb, VI., 6).
The religion is everywhere Roman Catholic, but
toleration is now legally assured in all states. The
diocese of Quatemala was founded in 1534 and raiseti
to archiepiscopal rank in 1743. The suffra^as
bishoprics are Nicaragua (1534), Comayagus ifor
Honduras, 1561), San Salvador (1842), and Ssn
Jos^ of Costa Rica (1850). A vicar apostolic hag
resided at Beliie in British Honduras sinoe 1893.
An Ang^can diocese of Honduras and Central
America was founded in 1883. The bishop resdes at
Belise. Guatemala has approximately 4,500 Protee-
tants representing T<^gti«h and American chureiiAs
and including a congregation of about 1,000 Gennans
resident in the capital. Protestants in Hondursa
number about 1 ,000 and in Costa Rica 3,200. They
are barely represented in Salvador. In Nicaragua
are fifteen " stations " of the Moravians.
All the states have public schools, colleges, and
universities, and progress is being made in bodi
elementaiy and the higher education. As migtt
be expected, however, tiie majority of the popob-
tion is illiterate. Attendance at the elementary
schools is compulsory in Costa Rica, Guatemala,
and Honduras. Wumkum. Gocn.
Biblioobapht: In general: T. Child, Spaniak Amerimm Ra-
pubiica, London. 1892; Etnoiogia Canin>-Amerioana, Madiid,
1803; C. Sapper. Daa nOrdUeka MiUei Amerika, Bnwsviek,
1897; idem, MiUalamerika, Raiaan und Siuditn, ib. 19(S:
C. Haebler. Dm Ralioion daa MiUiaran Amahka, IfOzBlec.
1880. On Britiah HonduniK A. R. Gibbe. Brikak Handana,
London, 1883; BriHak Hondutaa Almanac, annual, Befiae^
On Quatemala: O. Stoll. Raiaan und fidkOdenrntfrm mk
Oualamakt, 1886; T. Brisham, Ouaiemaia, New YaA,
1887; A. C. Ifaudaley. A G/tmfMe at Ouaiemaia, Loodoe,
1800; Miaaionary Review af the World, xiv. (1001) 188 mm.
CBOLFRID, chdHrid, SAIRT: Abbot of Wear-
mouth and Jarrow; b. of noble parents in Northum-
bria c. 642; d. at Langres, France, while on his
way to Rome, Sept. 24, 716. He became a monk
at the age of eighteen, and was made prior br
Benedict Biscop (q.v.) of his new abbey of St
Peter at Wearmouth, which was begun in 674;
accompanied Biscop to Rome in 678; becaine
abbot of his second monastery founded at Jairov
in 681 or 682 (where he had Bede among his pupib),
and in 688 abbot of both Wearmouth and Jamnr.
He was a good manager and increased and enriched
his monasteries, at the same time making them
centers of learning and industry. He took special
pains to learn the Roman methods of reading and
singing the services and influenced the Irish in
Scotland to adopt the Roman date for Blaster.
BiBUOoaAPHT: Bede, HiaAoria Mtaium; abo BiaL trdL,
iv. 18, ▼. 21 (where Ceolfrid'a letter toNaiton (Necbun).
king of the Piots, on the Easter queetion. is given), v. 24:
also the anonymous Hiatoria abbatumt by a nMMik of Wear*
mouth, contemporary with Ceolfrid, in Flnmmer's Beda,
i. 888-404; W. Bright, BaHy BngHak Ckmrtk Bidor^ I
pp. 808-800, Oxford. 1887.
CERDO (CERD05): A Syrian Gnostie, who, i
according to Irensus (I. xxvii. 1, HI. iv. 3) and '
Eusebius {Chrcn., ed. Schoene, i. 168), lived in
Rome in the time of the bishop Hyginus (c. 13&- |
140). Epiphanius (xli. 1) connects him with
Satuminus. He is of importance chiefly as having
been the teacher of Mardon (q.v.). O. EBtosR. i
CERIMTUUS: Qnostio teacher of Asia Ifinor, <
about 100 A.D. According to IrensBUS (I. xxvi. \i \
he taught that the worid was not created by the
first God, but by a subordinate power. Jesus ?raa
497
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Central Amerioa
Ohaloadon
a son of Joseph and Mary, but was wiser and more
righteous than other men. After his baptism the
spirit of the all-sublime power of God descended
upon him in the form of a dove. From now on he
preached the unknown Father and performed
miracles. Finally the " Christ " forsook him, but
"Jesus" sufifered and rose again, whereas the
spiritual Christ did not suffer. John directed his
Gospel especially against Cerinthus (III. xi. l),and
in proof of the aversion which the apostle felt
toward this heretic Irensus (III. iii. 4) tells a stoiy
from Folycarp that the two met once in the baths
at Ephesus, whereupon the apostle fled, " lest
even the bath-house fall down because Cerinthus
is inside." In the main the story is credible, but
the later story (cf. Epiphanius, Hear., zxviii. and
others) of the Judaism of Cerinthus is an invention.
The assertion of the Roman Caius that Cerinthus
is the author of the Apocalypse is certainly erro-
neous. G. KBtQER.
Biblioohapht: R. A. Liprius, Zur QwHenkriHk dM Evir
phaniu; pp. 116-122. Vienna, 1806; A. Hilgenfeld. Ketzer-
gemehidUe dM UrdtrigteTUum*, pp. 411-421. Leipmc. 1884;
A. Harnack, Doomenoetehiehie, i. 234-236, Freibuis, 1894.
Ens. trans]., iii. 14-10, Boston. 1897; T. Zahn. GeachichU
dem neuiuiamenUxdun KanonM, 2 vols.. Erlanffen, 1888-92;
KrOser. Historyt p. 68 and literature given there.
CESARIia,ch6''sa-ii'ni, GIULXAHO (JULIAN CE-
SARINI) : Cardinal. He belonged to a distinguished
family of Rome and attracted the attention of the
curia as a humanist and teacher of law at Padua.
Pope Martin V. made him cardinal (1426) and
Eugenius IV. promoted him to cardinal bishop of
Frascati. His knowledge of law and ability as a
diplomatist fitted him for delicate missions. The
Hussite question was entrusted to him and he en-
tered Bohemia with a crusading army, but the army
was defeated and the cardinal fled ignominiously
(1431). From 1431 to 1438 he presided at the
Council of Basel with marked ability.* In 1438 and
1439 he was active in Ferrara and Florence, and
shortly after went to Hungary to incite King
yiadislav to war against the Turks. He succeeded,
and war broke out in 1443, but Vladislav was
defeated and slain at Varna, Nov. 10, 1444, and
Cesarini also perished while trying to escape;
he was probably assassinated and robbed while
endeavoring to cross the Danube.
Paul Tschackbrt.
Bibuographt: The older aooounts are in A. Chacon, Vita
. . . vonHfiewm et . , , oardinalium, ii. 861 sqq.. 4 vols.,
Rome. 1677; and E. Baluse. Miaeellanea, vol. iii.. 4 vols.,
Lucca, 1761-64. Consult also: F. von BeioIdL, KdrUg
Siomund und die Reidukriege gegen die Htuiten, 3 parts,
Munich. 1872-77; Creighton. Pavacy, ii. 163-165, 104
sqq.; Hefele, ConcUiengeediidUe, vol. vii. paaaim; XL,
iii. 26-28.
CHAD, SAIHT. See Geadda, Saint.
CHADERT05, LAUREITCE: Puritan; b. near
Oldham (8 m. n.e. of Manchester), Lancashire,
Sept. 14, 1536 or 1538; d. at Cambridge Nov. 13,
1640. He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge
(B.A., 1567; B.D., 1578; D.D., 1613), and there
• At the Council of Basel Ceearini's attitude toward the
Hussites was highly oonciliatory; and he ui^ed a thorough
reformation of ecclesiastical abuses as the only safeguard
against further schisms. — A. H. N.
II.— 32
embraced the Protestant religion, for which his
father threatened to disinherit him. He became
fellow, dean, tutor, and lecturer of his college, and
as afternoon lecturer of St. Clement's Church,
Cambridge, for nearly fifty years acquired fame
as a preacher and exerted a far-reaching influence.
When Sir Walter Mildmay founded Emmanuel
College in 1584 he insisted on Chaderton's becoming
master, and the latter filled the office with much
ability and success till 1622, when he resigned.
From 1598 to 1640 he was prebendary of Lincoln.
Though a Puritan he was moderate in views and
oonciliatory in manners. He was a member of the
Hampton Court Conference (q.v.), and was one of
the Cambridge committee of Bible translators.
He appears to have published nothing except an
anonymous tract, De juatificatione, and a single
sermon.
Bibuoorapht: W. Dillingham, Viia Chadertoni, ed. J. Dil-
lingham, Cambridge, 1700, Eng. transl. by E. 8. Schuck-
buigh, ib. 1884; DNB, ix. 430^132.
CHADWICK, JOHN WHITE: American Uni-
tarian; b. at Marblehead, Mass., Oct. 19, 1840;
d. in Brooklyn Dec. 11, 1904. His father was a
seafaring man, and he was apprenticed to a shoe-
maker. But in 1857 he entered the State Normal
School at Bridgewater, Mass., and while there
determined to become a minister. From the Nor-
mal School he passed to Phillips Exeter Academy
and the Divinity School of Harvard University,
from which latter institution he was graduated in
1864. He was inunediately asked to supply for
three months the pulpit of the Second Unitarian
Church of Brooklyn, N. Y., but made so favorable
an impression that his relation became a permanent
one and he was its pastor at the time of his death.
Besides being well known as a preacher and lec-
turer and highly esteemed as a man, he won dis-
tinction as an author both in prose and poetry.
He described himself as a " radical Unitarian," but
he was heard with respect by those who most
dififered from him. Besides many other contributions
to the press, he published: Life of Nathaniel Alexanr
derStaplea (Boston, 1870); A Book of Poenu (1876,
now in its 10th ed.); The Bible of To-day (New
York, 1878) ; The Faith of Reaeon, a Series of Dw-
courees on Leading Topics of Religion (Boston, 1879,
2ded., 1880); Some Aspects of Religion (New York,
1879); Belief and Life (1881); The Man Jesus
(Boston, 1881, 2d ed., 1882); Origin and Destiny
(1883); In Nazareth Town : a Christmas Fantasy,
and Other Poems (1883); A Daring Faith (1885);
The Good Voices, poems (Troy, N. Y., 1885);
Charles Robert Darwin (Boston, 1889); Evolution
and Social Reform (1890) ; Evolution of Architecture
(New York, 1891); Evolution as Related to Citizen-
ship (1892) ; Oeorge William Curtis : an Address
(1893) ; TheOldandthe New Unitarian Belief (Bos-
ton, 1894); Theodore Parker (1900); William Ellery
Channing (1903); and Later Poems (1905).
CHATTANYA, choi^'tCl-nra: Brahman fonnu-
latorof the doctrine of B^^/t. See India, I., 3, | 3.
CHALCEDOIT, kal'se-den: A city of Bithynia,
on the Bosporus, near Constantinople, the scene
of the Fourth General Council (451), at which
Chaldea
Ohamberlain
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
498
Eutycbianism was oondemned and the so-called
Creed of Chalcedon adopted. See Chbistologt,
IV; EUTYCHIANISM.
CHALDEA. See Babtlonia, VI, 7.
CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS. See Nxbtobians.
CHALICE. See Vesselb, Sacbed, | 1.
CHALLONER, RICHARD: English Roman Cath-
olic prelate; b. at Lewes (50 m. s. of London),
Sussex, Sept. 29, 1691; d. in London Jan. 12, 1781.
His father was a Protestant, but died soon after
his son's birth, and the latter was brought up by
Roman Catholics and embraced their religion at
about the age of thirteen. In 1704 he was sent to
Douai and remained there as student, professor,
and vice-president for twenty-six years (B.D.,
1719; D.D., 1727; oidained priest 1716). In 1730
he joined the London mission, and in 1741 was con-
secrated coadjutor to Dr. Benjamin Petre, vicar
apostolic of the London district; he became vicar
apostolic on Dr. Petre's death in 1758. He was a
learned and pious man, and perfonned his duties
with faithfulness and ability, in the midst of perse-
cution from the penal laws and the fanaticism of
the English popidaoe. He wrote upward of forty
different works, controversial, devotional, histor-
ical, etc. His Memoira of Missionary Priests . . .
and of other Caiholics . . . that have suffered death
in England on rdigums accounts from the year 1677
to 1684 (2 vols., London, 1741-42; many later eds.)
is the Roman Catholic "Book of Martyrs"; The
Oarden of the Soul (1740) is still the most popular
prayer-book with English Roman Catholics; and
The Rheims New Testament and the Douay Bible,
with annotations (5 vols., London, 1749-50; 3d
ed., revised, 1752), prepared by Challoner and
under his direction, is the best-known version of
the Douai Bible. His Life was written by J. Bar-
nard (London, 1784), and by Dr. John Milner
(in the 5th ed. of his Grounds of ihe Old Religion,
1798).
Bibuoobapbt: J. Banuutl, Life of ... R. ChaUofm',
London. 1784; John Milner. Brief Aeeount of ike Life of
Ridiard ChaUoner, imfixed to the 0th ed. of Challoner'e
Chvunde of the Old Relioion, ib. 1796; J. Gillow, BibUo-
Oraphioal Dictionary of En(Hieh CaiKoliee, i. 447-467, Lon-
don (1886); DJ^B. iz. 440-443.
CHALMERS, JAMBS: London Mlssionaiy So-
ciety missionaiy; b. at Ardrishaig, Argyleshire,
Scotland (45 m. w. by n. from Glasgow), Aug. 4,
1841; d. at Risk Point, Goaribari Island, Gulf of
Papua, New Guinea, April 8, 1901. Converted at
the age of fourteen, he was soon after called to the
foreign mission field and after study at Cheshunt
College and at Highgate, an institution conducted
by the London Missionary Society, he was sent by
that Society to Raratonga, one of the group of Cook
Islands in the Southern Pacific, where he arrived
in 1867. The island had been partially Christianized,
but he did a good work in education and evan-
gelisation. In 1877 he removed to New Guinea,
where he encountered cannibals and did a memo-
rable work at the constant risk of life. It was on
one of these many journeys that he was killed. He
takes his place beside Williams and Patterson as a
missionaiy hero in the South Seas.
Biblioorapht: Contult his own Pioneer Life and Work in
New Guinea, 1877-1894, London 1895; and the biogra-
phies by W. Robaon. ib. 1901; C. Lennox, ib. 1902; and
R. Lovett, ib. 1902 (the last-named oontaining Chalmers's
Autobioffnjthy and Lettere).
CHALMERS, THOMAS: The leader of the Free
Church of Scotland; b. in East Anstruther, Fife-
shire, Mar. 17, 1780; d. in Edinburgh May 30, 1847.
The family to which he belonged was composed of
middle-class people of the strictest type of Cal-
vinism; and hence in his opening years, he received
thorough indoctrination. He entered St. Andrews
University when only eleven years old, and con-
fined his attention almost exclusively to mathe-
matics, but did not give up his original intention
of becoming a preacher, and accordingly was
licensed by the presbytery of St. Andrews Jan.,
1799. His character eariy developed into maturity.
Instead of beginning his professional work, he con-
tinued the study of mathematics and natural
sdenoe; and during the winter of 1802-03 he acted
as assistant to the professor of mathematics at St.
Andrews. He showed an extraordinary power to
awaken enthusiasm in almost any topic he took
up; although it was this veiy fact whidi at that
time cost him his place, the authorities disliking
the novelty of his methods. He settled as minister
of Kilmeny, nine miles from St. Andrews, May,
1803, and in the following winter, while preaching
regularly, opened voluntaiy and independent classes
in mathematics at the university, which were largely
attended, although vigorously discouraged by the
authorities. He was a faithful pastor at Kil-
meny, and his preaching attracted
Ministry wide attention, but his heart was not
at in his work. He was traomieled by
Kilmeny. the prevailing moderatism, which put
culture above piety, and state support
above independence. In 1808 evidence of the
trend of his thinking appeared in his Inquiry into
the Extent and Stainlity of National Besotarcea.
The supply of man's physical and social needs
was uppermost in his mind. In the midst of such
work he was visited with severe domestic afl9ic-
tions, and a serious illness brought him to death's
door; but he recovered after a year. David Brew-
ster asked him to contribute to his Edinburgh
Encyclopedia. He at first chose " Trigonometry,"
but at length took ** Christianity " ' (separately
published, 1813). And as he examined the doc-
trines of this religion, and went deeper into its
mysteries, he realised its importance, and by study-
ing about Christianity he became a Christian. The
parishioners quickly became aware that he had
really not so much resumed his work among them
as begun it. His whole soul was on fire, and his
culture was now used to make the saving truth of
saving power. He cut loose from the moorings of
moderatism, and became a decided Evangelical.
His eloquence was expended in new channels, and
with great results.
In July, 1815, he was formally admitted as
minister of the Tron Church, GUu^w. In 1816
he delivered on week-days the famous series of seven
Discourses on ihe Christian BevdaHon, Viewed in
Connection with Modem Astronomy. In Sept.,
1819, he removed from the Tron parish to that of
499
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ohaldea
Ohamberlaln
St. John's, in order that he might, in a newly
constituted parish, have an opportunity of testing
the practicability in a large dty of the old Scottish
scheme of providing for the poor. In
In the parish there were two thousand
Glasgow, families. These he distributed into
twenty-five divisions; and over each
such district he put an elder and a deacon — ^the
former to attend to their spiritual, the latter to
their temporal needs. Two commodious school-
houses were built; four competent teachers were
employed, and by school-fees of two and three
ahiUings each a quarter, seven hundred children
were educated; while on Simday the forty or fifty
local schools supplied religious instruction. Dr.
Chalmers not only presided over all this system
of work, but made himself familiar with all the
details, even visiting personally every two years
each family of the parish, and holding evening
meetings. lie also assumed complete charge of
the poor; and by thorough system, and consequent
weeding-out of unworthy cases, he reduced the
cost of maintaining them from fourteen hundred
to two hundred and eighty pounds per annum.
This efficient sjrstem, however, in 1837 was given
up; and the " English " plan of compulsory assess-
ments, which requires much less trouble, and
probably does much less good, was substituted.
In Nov., 1823, Dr. Chalmers became professor
of moral philosophy in St. Andrews University,
and in Nov., 1828, professor of theology in Edin-
burgh. In 1833 he issued his Bridgewater Treatise,
On the Adaptation of External Natwre to the Moral and
Intellectual Constitution of Man, This work made
a great sensation; and his biographer, Rev. Will-
iam Hanna, says that, in consequence, he received
" literary honors such as were never united pre-
viously in the person of any Scottish ecclesiastic."
In 1834 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, and soon after one of its vice-presi-
dents, in the same year a corresponding member of
the Institute of France; and in 1835 the Univer-
sity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L.
Up to this time he had taken little part in church
government; from then on he was destined to have
more to do with it than any other man of the century.
The friction between Church and State in Scotland
was rapidly producing trouble. The attempt to settle
ministers who were obnoxious to the congregations
was the commonest oomplamt.* The historic case
is that of Mamoch. Here only one
The Organ- person in the parish signed the call;
ization of and yet the presbytery of Strathbogie
the Free decided, by a vote of seven to three, to
Church, proceed with the ordination, and did,
although these seven were suspended.
In so doing they were upheld by the dvil authority,
which annulled their suspension. But this case
was only an aggravation of a common ill. Matters
became so serious in all parts of Scotland that a
convocation was held in Nov., 1842, to consider the
matter; and a large number of ministers resolved
that, if relief was not afforded, they would with-
*The point at issue was lay patronage, British law having
eonferred upon landowners the right to nominate to pa»>
iorates in their possessions. — A. H. N.
draw from the Establishment. No help came;
and accordingly, on May 18, 1843, four hundred
and seventy clergymen withdrew from the Gen-
eral Assembly, and constituted themselves into
the Free Church of Scotland, electing Dr. Qial-
mers as their first moderator. He had foreseen
the separation, and drawn up a scheme for the
support of the outgoing ministers. But, after he
had safely piloted the new church through the
stormy waters, he gave himself up more exclu-
sively to professional work, espedsilly in connec-
tion with the New College, Edinburgh, of which
he was principal, and to the composition of his
Inetituiea of Theology, He died suddenly.
Dr. Chalmers is to-day a molding influence.
All the churches of Scotland unite to do him rev-
erence. He was a greater worker than writer,
and a greater man than either. It was surely
enough honor for one life to inspire spiritual life
throughout an entire land; and as the tireless
and practical reformer, as the Christian philan-
thropist, and, above all, as the founder of the
Free Church of Scotland, he will live.
Bibuoobapht: The principal Life is by his son-in-law,
W. Hanna, Memoin of ihe Life and Writinga cf TKotnaa
Ckalmen, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1849>52. Consult also:
A. J. 8[ymington], TlumM Chalmer9, the Man, kU Time;
and hie Work, Ardrossan, 1878; D. Eraser, Thomae Chat-
mere, London, 1881; J. L. Watson. The Life of Thomae
Chalmere, Edinbuigh, 1881; J. Dodds, Thomae ChaJmsre,
ib. 1802; W. G. Blaikie. Thomae Chabn^re, ib. 189e (in
Famoue Seote Seriee); Mrs. Oliphant, Thomae Chalmere,
Preadur, Philoeopher, and Staieeman, London, 1896;
DNB, ix. 440^64.
CHAMBERLAIN, JACOB: Reformed (Dutch)
missionary; b. at Sharon, Conn., Apr. 13, 1835; d.
at Madanapalli, Madras, India, March 2, 1908. He
was educated at Western Reserve College, O. (B.A.y
1856), the Reformed Theological Seminary, New
Brunswick, N. J., and the CoUege of Physicians and
Surgeons, New York. In 1859 he went as a medical
missionary to the Arcot Mission, Madras, and was
stationed successively at Palmaner, Madras (1860-
1863), and at Madanapalli, Madras (1863-1901).
From 1891 he was lector in Biblical languages and
prophecy and acting principal of the Theological
Seminary in the Arcot Mission, Palmaner. He was
chairman of a committee for the translation of the
Bible into Telugu, 1873-94; member of the Telugu
Revision Committee of the Madras Tract Society in
1873-i80, and in 1878 was elected vice-president
of the American Tract Society for India. In 1901
he was first moderator of the South India United
Church Synod, and since engaged in literary work
in Tamil and Telugu. He translated the litui^
of the Reformed Dutch Church into Telugu (Ma-
dras, 1873), and also prepared a Telugu version of
the Hymns for Pvblic and Social Worship (1884),
as well as other devotional works in the same lan-
guage. His English works include: The Bible Tested
(New York, 1878); Native Churches and Foreign
Missionary Societies (Madras, 1879); The Religions
oftheOrieni (Clifton Springs, N. Y., 1896); Inthe Tiger
Jungle (Chicago, 1896); The Cobra's Den, and Other
Stories of Missionary Work Among the Tdugus
of India (1900); and The Kingdom inlndia, with
introductory biographical sketch by Henry N. Cobb
(1908).
Ohamberlain
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
5oa
CHAMBERLAIN, LEANDER TROWBRmOE:
American Presbyterian; b. at West Brookfield,
Mass., Sept. 26, 1837. He was graduated at Yale
in 1863, and from 1863 to 1867 was attached to the
Pacific Squadron of the United States Navy. Dur-
ing this period he made explorations in the Inca
civilization of ancient Peru. He studied theology
at Andover 1867-69, and was pastor of the New
England Congregational Church, Chicago, 1869-76,
of the Broadway Congregational Church, Norwich,
Conn., 1876-^, and of the Classon Avenue Presby-
terian Church, Brooklyn, 1883-90. Since 1890 he has
had no charge. He was the first United States repre-
sentative secretary of the McCall Bfission of France, a
delegate to the Centennial of Sunday-schools in Lon-
don in 1880, and a delegate of the General Assembly
of the United States to the Pan-Presbyterian
Council in the same city in 1888, a founder of the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, a repre-
sentative of the United States Evangelical Alliance
to the General Conference of Evangelical Alliances
in Florence, Italy, in 1891. He is also president
of the Evangelical Alliance for the United States,
of the Philafrican Liberator's League, and of the
Thessalonica Agricultural and Industrial Institute,
Macedonia; secretary and treasurer of the Ameri-
can and Foreign Christian Union; vice-chairman
of the national committee on arbitration between
the United States and other countries; custodian
and patron of the collection of gems in the National
Museum, Washington; and curator of Eocene mol-
lusca in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila-
delphia. In theology he is a Calvinistic Pres-
byterian. He has written: A Short History of the
English BibU (Norwich. Conn., 1881); Citusen'a
Manual (New York, 1898); The State, Its Origin,
Nature, and Functions (1898); The Colonial Policy
of the United States (1899); Patriotism and the
Moral Law (1900); Evolutionary Philosophy (1901);
Oovemment not Founded in Force (1904); The Suf-
frage and Majority Rule (1904); and The True
Doctrine of Prayer (1906).
CHAMBERS, TALBOT WILSON: Reformed
(Duteh); b. at Carlisle, Pa., Feb. 25, 1819; d.
in New York Feb. 3, 1896. He was graduated at
Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J., 1834. He
studied at New Brunswick and Princeton Theo-
logical seminaries, became minister of the Secoad
Reformed (Duteh) Church of Raritan, at Somer-
ville, N. J., 1839, and one of the ministers of the
Collegiate Reformed (Duteh) Church of New York
in 1849 and continued there till his death. He was
a leader in his denomination, was president of its
General Sjmod in 1863, and for the eight years
preceding his death was president of ite Board of
Foreign Missions; he was one of the organisers of
the Presbyterian Alliance (q.v.) and chosen its
president in 1892 and expected to preside over its
sixth general council (1896). He was a mem-
ber (from 1881) and president (from 1892) of the
Executive Committee of the American Tract
Society; chairman of the Committee on Ver-
sions of the American Bible Society; and mem-
ber of the Old Testament company of the
American Bible Revision Committee, being the
only pastor in the Old Testament company. Be-
sides many sermons, addresses, and miscellaneous
articles, he published: The Noon Prayer Meeting,
Fulton Street, New York (New York, 1858); Mem-
oir of the Hon, Theodore Frdinghuysen (1863);
The Psalter : a Witness to the Divine Origin of the
Bible, Vedder lectures at New Brunswick, 1876
( 1876) ; and A Companion to the Revised Old Testament
(1885). He was editor of The Presbyterian and
Reformed Review and of the eariier Princeton Re-
view ; translated and edited SchmoUer on the Book
of Amos and prepared the Book of Zechariah for
the Schaff-Lange conunentaiy (1874); edited the
American edition of Meyer's commentary on I
and II Corinthians (1884), and the hoinilies of
Chrysostom on the same books for The Post--
Nicene Fathers, vol. xii. (1889); suggested and
with the Rev. Frank Hugh Foster contributed
to the Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowl-
edge (1889), edited by the Rev. Samuel Macauley
Jackson.
Bibuoo&apbt: E. B. Coe, Commemomtvte Diaeourm, New
York. 189e.
END OF VOL. n.
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