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THE    NEW 

SCHAFF-HERZOG  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Of 

RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


KDITCDBY 

SAMUEL  MAOAULEY  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

iEditor-inrChief) 

WITH  THB  ASSISTANCB  Of 

CHARLES  COLEBROOE  SHERMAN 

AMD 

GEORGE  WILLIAM  GILMORE,  M.A. 

(^Asmndate  Ediian) 

AND  THE  POU.OWINQ  DKPARTMCNT  KDITOIIS 


CLARENCE  AUeVSTINE  BECKWITH,  D  J). 
{Ikparlmeni  of  SyttematUs  Theology) 

HENfiT  EINGf  CA&BOLL,  LL.D. 

{Ikpartmeni  of  Minor  Denominatumi) 
JAMES  FRASGIS  DKISCOLL,  D.D. 

{D^artmeni  of  lAtwrgict  and  Rdigioui  Orden) 


JAMES  FREDERIC  McCURDT,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

{Department  of  the  Old  TeetamerUi 

HENRY  STLVESTER  NASH,  DJ). 
{Department  of  the  New  Tetiament) 

ALBERT  HENRY  NEWKAN,  DJ)^  LLD. 
(Dgxirftnori  <^  Chxureh  fltKory) 


FRANK  HORACE  YIZETELLT,  F.SJL. 
{DtpartmeiU  of  Prommaalion  and  ZVpoyreg^Ay) 


Complete  in  Zv^lve  IDolumes 


FUNK  AND  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 


/  ' 


COPYBIQHT,   1908,   BY 

FUNK    &    WAGNALLS   COMPANY 


Beglstered  at  Statlonen*  Hall,  Londoiu  Bnglaod 


IPrinted  in  the  United  Stales  of  Ameried] 
PublUhed  December,  1906 


117238 


EDITORS 


BAKXTEL  MAGAX7LEY  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

(Editor-in-Chief.  ) 
Pratenor  of  Cbarcli  Hlstoi7«  New  York  UnlTenity. 


ASSOCL\TE  EDITORS 


0HABLB8  OOLSBBOOK  SHEBKAN 

IdltortD  BUdlal  Critlclani  and  Theology  on  ''The  New  Inter- 
nAdooal  KncjdopedJa,*^  New  York. 


OEOBGE  WILLIAM  OILMOEE,  M.A. 

New  York,  Formerly  Professor  of  Biblical  Hiatory  and  Lecturer 
on  Comparative  Bellfflon,  Banffor  Theological  Seminary. 


DEPARTMENT  EDITORS,  VOLUME  II. 


OLABEVOE  AXTOTJSTINE  BEOKWITH,  D.D. 

{Department  of  Sustematic  Tkeologu.) 

Profeaor  of  Syatematio  Theology,  Chicago   Theological 

Seminary. 

EEHBT  KINO  GABBOLL,  LL.D. 

{JkpartmerU  of  Minor  DenomituUions.) 
On  o(  the  Correaponding  Secretartea  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 
3llfllooB  of  tlie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  New  York. 

JAKES  FBANGIS  DBISOOLL,  D.D. 

CDeparffMnt  of  LUwrgie*  and  RetigUnui  Orders.) 
Frartlent  of  St.  Joseph^s  Seminary,  Yonkera,  N.  Y. 

HUBEBT  EVANS,   Fh.D. 

(Q^lce  Editor.) 
ftonMriyof  the  Editnrial  Staff  of  the  *' Bnoyclopndia  Brltan- 
nlea**  Company,  New  York  City. 


JAMES  FBEDEBIGK  McOUBBT,  Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

(Department  of  the  Old  Testament.) 
Professor  of  Oriental  lAnguages,  University  College,  Toronto. 

HENBT  SYLVESTEB  NASH,  D.D. 

{Department  of  the  New  TeMament.) 
Professor  of  the  Literature  and  Interpretation  of  the  Now  Tes- 
tament, Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Moss. 

ALBEBT  HENBT  NEWMAN,  D.B.,  LL.D. 

{Department  of  Church  Htetory.) 

Professor   of   Church  History,  Baylor  Theological  Seminary 

(Baylor  University),  Waco,  Tex. 

FBANB  HOBAGE  VIZETELLT,  F.S.A. 

{Department  of  PronuneicUion  and  Tupography.) 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Standard  Dictionary,  etc. 

New  York  City. 


CONTRIBUTOES  AND  COLLABOBATORS,  VOLUME  II. 


SBNST  OHBISTIAN  AGHELIS, 
Th.D., 

Profeaor  of  Practical  Theology,  University  of  Marburg. 

8AXUEL  JAMES  ANDBEWS  (f),  D.D., 

Late  Pistar  of  tlie  Catliolle  Apostolic  Church,  Hartford,  Conn. 

CABL  FBANKI4N  ABNOLD,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

PTDfesMiraC  Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological  Faculty, 
University  of  Breslau. 

7EBEN0Z  BALOOH, 

Profcaor  of  Church  History,  Reformed  Theological  Academy, 
Debreczln,  Hungary* 

EDTJABD  BABDE  (f), 
Ute  iTofeaMT  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  School  of  Theology, 
Geneva. 

HEBMANN  BABGE,  Ph.D., 

Gymnaslal  Professor  in  Leipslc 

BAXUEL  JUNE  BABBOWS,  D.D., 

Qiiomuttdlug  Seerstary  of  the  Prison  Association  of  New  York. 

JOSUOTNES  BELSHEIM, 

P<wtor  Emerttos  in  Chrlstlanla,  Norway. 


EABL  BENBATH,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  University  of  K6nlg8berg. 

IliMANTTEL  GUSTAP  ADOLP  BENZIN- 

OEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.Llc, 

Formerly  Prlvat-dooent  in  Old  Testament  Theology,  University 

of  Berlin,  Member  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 

German  Society  for  the  Exploration  of 

Palestine,  Jerusalem. 

SAMX7EL  BEBGEB  (f),  D.D., 
Late  Librarian  to  the  Faculty  of  Protestant  Theology,  P«ir1s. 

GABL  ALBBEGHT  BEBN0X7LLI,  Th.Lic, 

Professor  in  Berlin. 
GABL  BEBTHEAU,  Th.D., 

President  of  the  Society  for  Innere  Mlsfllun,  and  Pastor  of 
St.  MichaePs  Church,  Hamburg. 

WILLIBALD  BEYSGHLAG(t),  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Theology,  University  of  Halle. 

AMY  GASTON  BONET-MATTBT,  D.D., 
LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Independent  School  of  Divinity, 
Paris. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  IL 


OOTTIJEB  KATEAJr AJBL  BOITWBTSOH, 
Th.D., 

PrateHor  of  drareh  Hlftory,  Unlrenity  of  GOtttogen. 

7BIBDBI0H  BOSSE,  Ph.D.,  Th-Lic, 

IxtnordlnaiT  ProfteMr  of  Theology*  UnlTeraitr  of  GraUkwild. 

GTJBTA7  BOBBE&T,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

PBfltor  Emeritus,  Btattgut. 

JOHANNES    FBZEDBIOH  THEODOB 
BBIEOEE,  Ph.D.y  T1l.D., 

Profenorof  Gharcli  HlitoiT,  UnlTenttj  of  Leipiio. 

0HABLE8  ATJGTJBTUS  BBIGGS,  D.D., 
XiiU-D., 

Protenor  of  Tlieolofciflal  Kncyclopedla  mmI  BymboUoi,  Union 
Tbeologloal  8einimu7i  New  Tork. 

FBANTB  PEDEE  WZLLIAK  BUHL,  Ph.D.y 
Th.D.y 

Piofeaor  of  Ortental  Langoagei,  Unlventtj  of  Oopenlniren. 

EABL  BUBOEE  (t)»  Th-D., 

Late  Supreme  Oonatatortal  GouncUor,  Munlota. 

WALTEB  0A8PABI,Pli.D.,  Th.Lic., 

Prof  enor  of  Practical  Theology*  Pedagogloi,  and  Dldactto,  and 
UnlTeralty  Preacher,  Unlyerrity  of  Kriangen. 

JAOaiTEB  EUGENE  OHOIST,  ThJ)., 

Paator  In  Genera,  Swttaerland. 

FEBDINAND  OOHEB,  Tli.Iiiay 

Oonalstoilal  Councilor,  Ilf  Old,  HanoTer. 


AL] 


LEXIS  IBiNfiE  DTI  PONT  COLEMAN, 
X.A., 

Instnictor  In  EngUah,  College  of  the  City  oC  New  Toik. 

aXJSTAP  HEBMAN  DALKAN,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Profenor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTerstty  of  Lelpelc, 

and  President  of  the  German  Brangelloal  Archeo- 

loglcal  Institute,  Jerusalem. 

SAXUEL  MABTIN  DEUTSCH,  Th.D., 

PRrfesBor  of  Church  History,  UnlTenlty  of  Berlin. 

FBANZ  WILHELM  DIBELIUB,Ph.D.,Tli.D., 

Supreme  Conslstorlal  CouncUor,  City  Superintendent,  and  Pas- 
tor (tf  the  Kreuskliche,  Dresden. 

JAMES  7BAN0IS  DBISOOLL,  D.D., 

President  of  St.  Joseph*s  Seminary,  Tonkers,  N.  T. 

HENBT  OTIS  DWIOHT,  LL.D., 

Recording  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  Coedltor 
of  the ''  Encyclopedia  of  Missions.**  New  Toife. 

EMIL  EGU,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlyerBity  of  Zn^kdi. 

DAVTD  EBDMANN  (t),  T1l.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  Evangelical  Theological 

Faculty,  Unl?er8ity  of  Breslau. 

ALFBED  EBIGHSON  (f),  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Theology,  Unlyersity  of  Strasbnig. 

OABL  FEY,  Ph.D., 

Pastor  at  COsseln,  near  Halle. 

JOHN  FOX,  D.D., 

Oomspondlng  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Sode^,  New 
York. 

EMDL  ALBEBT  FBIEDBEBQ,  I>r.Jur., 

Prat easor  of  Ecclesiastical,  Public  and  German  Law,  Dnlyenlty 
ofJjBlpslo. 


THEODOB  GEBOLD,  Th-D., 

President  of  the  Consistory,  Stiasbnrg. 

OEOBGE  WILLIAM  GILMOBE,  X-A., 

Fbrmeriy  Lecturer  on  Compai«tl?e  Religion,  Bangor  Tlieoki- 

leal  Seminary*  Associate  Editor  of  the  Scbafp- 

HBRZOO  EKCTCLOPIDIA. 

WILHELM  GLAMANN, 

Pastor  at  Siebeneichen,  near  LOwenberg,  Pmasla. 

WILHELM  OOETZ,  PI1.D., 

Honorary  Professor  of  Geography,  Technlsche  Hochschule,  aal 
Professor,  MUltary  Academy,  Munich. 

OASPABBENl!  GBEOOBT,  PI1.D.,  Dr.Jur., 
T1L.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTenfty  of  Leipsic 

PAUL  GBUENBEBG,  Th^Lic, 

Pastor  In  Strssburg. 

GEOBG  GBTJETZMAOHEB,  PhJ3.,  Th-Lic, 

Extraotdlnary  Professor  of  Chnroh  History  and  of  the  Kei 
Testament,  UnlTsnity  of  Heidelberg. 

BEINHOIiD  OBUNDEMANN,  P1l.D., 
TI1.D., 

Pastor  at  MOn,  near  BelJdg,  Prussia. 

HERMANN  OX7THE,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTenlty  of  Lelprfc 

ADOLF  HABNAOX,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  T1l.D., 

Protessor  of  Churoh  History,  UnlTerslty  of  BerUn,  and  Genenl 
Dhector  of  the  Boyal  Library,  Berlin. 

ALBEBT  HAUOK,  PhJ>.,  Dr.Jur.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlTerslty  of  Leipsic,  Edltor-ift 
Chief  of  the  Hauok-Hxbzoo  Biauknctklopadik.         j 

HEBMAN  HAXTPT,  PIlD., 

Professor  and  Director  of  the  UnlTerslty  Library,  Giesieii. 

JOHANNES  HATJBSLEITEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 
Professor  of  the  New  Testament,  UnlTerrity  of  GreUSiwaM. 

OABL  FBIEDBIOH   GEOBG  HEINBICI, 
Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTerslty  of  Lelp*. 

EDGAB  SONNEOKE,  Th.Lic., 

Pastor  at  Betheln,  HanuTer. 

HERMANN  HEBING,  Th.D., 

Professor  of  Practical  Theology,  UnlTerrtty  of  Halle. 

MAX  HEBOLD,  Th.D., 

Dean,  Neustadtpan-der-Alsoh,  BaTarta,  Editor  of  Slona. 

JOHANN  JAKOB  HEBZOG  (f),  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Batormed  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Erlsngv, 
Vouader  of  the  Hauok-Hessoo  BiAuni  ctklopaoix. 

ALFRED  HEGLEB  (f),  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 
Lste  Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlTerslty  of  T&biiigeD> 

JOHANNES  HESSE, 

lofmer  Editor  of  the  EvangeUKhet  Miations-MagoiBin  aod 
President  of  the  Publishing  Soototy  at  Calw,  WOrttemberi. 

PAT7L  HDrSOHUrS  (t),  LL.D., 

Late  Professor  of  EcdeslasUcal  Law,  UnlTerslty  of  Bertls. 

HEBMANN  WILHELM  HEINBICH  HOSI^ 
SOHEB,  Th.D., 

Pastor  of  the  Nlkolaiklrehe,  Lelpsio,  Editor  of  the  ^n0efM<"< 
JEvanaeUMJt-lAUhmiaehe  KinhenzeUMng  and  of 
the  ZTksoIogisehM  I4toftitiirt4att. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  IL 


loi 


HOI«Ly     Ph.D.y    Tll.D.y 

Proiewor  of  Gbnreh  HlitoiT,  Untrenitj  of  Berlin. 

AL7BBD  JKHKMTAB,  PI1.D.,  Th^Lic, 

Putor  of  the  Lattierklrelie,  Lelpilo. 

MABLTZS  XASHIiSBy  ThJD., 

Profanr  of  DognuUloi  and  New  Testament  Izegeiif,  UnlTer- 
sltyof  HaUe. 

ADOIiF  KAMPHATJBEK,  Th.D., 

rwlMKir  of  Old  Teitainent  Sxegeiif,  UnlTeralty  of  Bonn. 

PETE&  OI7BTA7  KAWEBATJ,  Th.D.y 

Oooalitortal  Councilor,  ProfeHor  of  PractlGal  Theology,  and 
Untreralty  Preacher,  Vntrenlty  of  Braalaa. 

BXJI>OLF  XITTELy  Ph.D., 

Prof—ir  of  Old  Teatament  Bxegeais,  Unlrenlty  of  Leiptlc. 

FBISDBIOH  HBBXANV  THEODOB 

XGIiDSy  Ph.D.,  Th.D.y 

ProfeaMT  of  Gbnrch  History,  Uulieiilty  of  Kilangen. 

HBBMANV  GX78TA7  EDTJABD  EBUSOEK, 
PI1.D.9  T1l.D., 

Prafeaor  of  Church  Hlitoiy,  UnlTerrity  of  Olenen. 

J0HAHNB8  WTTiHKTJg  KUNZXy  Ph.D., 

Profeaorof  ByatemAlle  and  Praettoal  Theology«  VniTerslty  of 

GrellnrakL 

L.  A.  VAV  LAVGBBAAD,  PliJ3., 

Lekkerterk,  Holland. 

LT7DWIO  TiKMMKy  Th.D.y 

Profeaor  of  Syatematte  Theology,  UnlTenlty  of  Heidalheig. 

EDTJABD  lABEPPy  Ph^D.^ 

BuperlnteDdent  of  the  Boyal  Orphan  Aiylum,  Stuttgart 

ATJ017ST  I1E8BZBII',  Pli.D.y 

PgpliMor  of  BtakTonle  Langnagea,  UnlTenlty  of  Lefpalo. 

FBIBDBIOH  ABMZN  LOOPS,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Profeawff  of  Church  History,  Unlvenlty  of  Halle. 

ANDEB8  HBBXAVLUVDSTBOX,  TI1.D., 

PruftMM*  of  Church    History,  Boyal  UnlTerslty  of  Vpsala, 
Sweden. 

JAXEB  PBEDEBZOK  XcCXrEDT,  PI1.D., 
LL.D., 

Profeaorof  Oriental  Languages,  Unlrerslty  College,  Toronto. 


PHTTiTPP  MEYEB,  Th.D., 

Saprene  Oonslstortel  ConncUor  and  Member  of  the  Boyal 
Consistory,  Hanorer. 

OABL  THEODOB  XIBBT,  Th.D.y 
ProiesKMr  of  Chnrch  History,  UnlTenlty  of  Martnng. 

IBVBT  FBIBDBIOH  XABL  XUELLEB. 
Th.D., 

Pniesnr  of  Beformed  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Krlangen. 

OEOBG  mjELLEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

Councilor  for  Schools,  Lelpslc 

JOSEF  KUELIiEBy  Th.D., 

Pastor  In  EberKlorf ,  Benss. 

HIK0LAT7S  KUELLEB,  Ph.D.,  Th.D., 

KdnofdJnary  PioftMsar  of  Christian  Archeology,  UnlTenlty  of 


0HBI8TOF  EBEBHABD  NESTLE,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Pntenr  hi  the  Theologloal  Seminary  at  Blaalhronn,  WQrttem- 
berg. 


XABL  JOHANNES  NEXTKANN,  PhJ3., 

ProfesBorof  the  History  of  Art,  UnlTerslty  of  KleL 

ALBEBT  HENBT  NEWXAN,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Baylor  Theological  Seminary  (Bay- 
lor UnlTerslty),  Waoo,  Tez. 

JT7LIX7S  NET,  Th.D., 

Supreme  Conalstorial  Councilor  in  Bpeyer,  BaTaria. 

FBEDEBIK  OHBISTIAN  NIELSEN  (f), 
Th.D., 

Late  Bishop  of  Aalboig,  Denmark. 

FBIEDBIOH  ATJGTJST    NITZSOH   (f), 
Ph.D., 

Late  Prof essor  of  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Kiel. 

HANS    OONBAD  VON  OBELU,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  and  History  of  Beligion, 
UniTersity  of  J 


KABQABET  BLOODOOOD  PEEBE, 

Inspectress  ■General  of  the  Maitlnlst  Order  for  America. 

OHABLES   PFENDEB, 

Pastor  of  the  Brangellcal  Lutheran  Church,  Paris. 

BEBNHABD  PIOK,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 

Pastor  of  the  Phst  Gennan  Brangellcal  Lutheran  Church, 
Newark,  N.J. 

FBEDEBIOK  DT7NOLIS0N  POWEB,  LL.D., 

Pastor  of  the  Garfield  Memorial  Church,  Washington,  D.  C. 

WILUAX  PBIOE, 

Pormeriy  Instructor  in  French,  Tale  College  and  Sheflleld  Soiea- 
tiflo  School,  New  HaTen,  Conn. 

FBANZ  PBAETOBIUS,  PhJ3., 

Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  UnlTerslty  of  Halle. 

GEOBG  OHBISTIAN   BIETSOHEL,  Th.D., 

PrQ(^sK>r  of  Practical  Theology  and  UnlTerslty  Preacher,  Unl- 
Terslty of  Leipsic 

SIEOFBIED  BIETSOHEL,  Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  German  Law,  Unlvenlty  of  TAhingen. 

HENDBIK  OOBNELIUS  BOGGECf),  Th.D., 
Late  Professor  of  History,  UniTersity  of  Amsterdam. 

EUOEN  SAOHSSE,  Th.D., 

UnlTerslty  Preacher  and  Professor  of  Practical  Theology  In  the 
iTangeUcal  Theological  Faculty,  UnlTenlty  of  Bonn. 

DAVID  SOHLEY  SOHAFF,  D.D., 

Professor  of  Church  History,  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Pa. 

PHUJP  SOHAFF  (t),  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  Hhitofy,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  Torfc,  Feunder  of  the  Schaft-Hibzoo  Emctclopidia. 

BEINHOLD  SOHBID,  Th.Lic., 

pastor  at  Oberholahelm,  WQrttemberg. 

BIOHABD  XABL  BEBNHABD  SOHBIDT, 
Dr.Jur., 

Professor  of  Jurisprudence  and  ClTll  and  Criminal  Procedure, 
UniTersity  of  Freiburg. 

JOHANN  SOHNEIDEB, 

Pastor  at  Neckarflteinach,  Hesse. 

THEODOB  SOHOTT  (f),  PhJ>.,  Th.D., 

Late  Llhrarian  and  Profeswr  of  Theology,  UnlTerslty  of  Stutt- 

SBTt 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  COLLABORATORS,  VOLUME  U. 


JOHAKir  FBIBDBIOH  BITTBR  VON 
SOHULTEy  Z>r.Jur.y 

rrofcwor  of  Gemutn  Eocletlasttoal  Law  and  of  the  Hlitory  of 
Law,  UnlTenltr  of  Bonn. 

VZOTOB  SOHUIiTZB,  TlL.D.y 

Profenor  of  Chnroh  History  and  Christian  Archeology,  Unlyei^ 
sltyof  OreU^ald. 

HANS  SOHULZ,  Fh.D., 

Oymnaslal  Professor  at  SteirUts,  near  Beilln. 

LUDWIO  SOHULZE,  Ph.D.,  Th.D.y 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  UnlTersity  of  Bostook. 

OTTO  SBEBASS,  Ph.D., 

Educator  In  Lelpsto,  Germany. 

BEINHOLD   SEBBEBQ,  Th.D.y 

Professor  of  Systematic  Theology,  Uniyersfty  of  Berlin. 

EMIL  SEHLING,  Z>r.Jur.y 

Professor  of  Eodeslasttcal  and  Commercial  Law,  Unlyenlty  of 
Srlangen. 


FBIEDBIOH  ANTON  EMIL  SDSXTEBT, 
PI1.D.,  TI1.D.9 

Professor  of  Dogmatics  and  New  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTer- 
sity of  Bonn. 

EMTL  ElilAS  STEXNUETEB,  Fh.D.y 

Professor  of  German  Language  and  Literature,  Unlyerslty  of 
Erlangen. 

GEO&G  EDUABD  STEITZ  (f),  Th.D., 
Late  Pastor  Un  Frankfortron-the-Main. 

ALFRED  STOEOXIUS,  Ph.D., 

Astor  Ubrary,  New  Tork. 

HEBKANN  LEBEBEOHT  8TBA0K,  Ph.D., 
Th.D., 

Bxtraordlnaiy  Profenor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  and  Semitic 
Languages,  UnlTersity  of  Berlin.  • 


PAX7L  TSOHAOKEBT,  PhJ}.,  ThJ>.9 

{Professor  of  Church  History,  Unirersity  of  OAttlngesi. 

JOHANN  GEBHABB  T7HLH0BN  (f),  TIl JD., 
Late  Oonslstorlal  Councilor,  HaaoTer. 

MABVIN  BIOHABDSON  VINOENT,  1>J>., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Crttldsm,  Unloa 
Theological  Seminary,  New  Tork. 

WILHEUC  VOOT  (f),  PI1.D.,  Th.D., 

Late  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  UnlTersity  of  Ros- 
tock. 

8TA0Y  BEUBEN  WABBUBTON, 

Assistant  Editor  of  The  BaptUl  MiuUmary  Ma/oasine^  Boatoo. 

BENJAMIN  BBEOKINBEDOE  WABFIKLD, 
D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  of  Didactic  and  Polemical  Theology,  Princeton  Tbeo- 
logioal  Seminary. 

AXJOTJ8T  WILHELM  WEBNEB,  T1i.I>., 

Pastor  Primarius,  Guben,  Prussia. 

FBANOIS  METHEBALL  WHITLOOX, 

Pastorof  the  Bethlehem  Congregational  Church,  dereiaiuU  a 

BIOHABD  PAT7L  WUELXEB,  PluB., 

ProftMsor  of  English,  UniTenrity  of  Leipsio. 

AXJOTJBT  wuisNSOHE,  Ph.D.9  ThJD., 

Titular  Professor  in  Dresden. 

THEODOB  ZAHN,  Th.D.,  LiU.3>., 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  and  Introductloa,  Uni- 
Terelty  of  Erlangen. 

HEINBIOH  ZIHMEBy  Pli.D.y 

Professor  of  Celtic  Philology,  UnlTendty  of  Berlin. 

OTTO  ZOEOXLEB  (f ),  Ph.D.,  Th.I>., 

Late  Professor  of  Church  History,  UnlTersity  of  GreUswald. 


BIBUOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX-VOLS.  I  AND  H 


Tbe  following  list  of  books  is  supplementary  to  the  bibliographies  given  at  the  end  of  the  articles 
contained  in  Tolumes  I  and  II,  and  brings  the  literature  down  to  November,  1908.  In  this  list  each 
title  entry  is  printed  in  capital  letters. 


Absaham:  F.  Wilke,  Wtsr  Abraham  eine  kitionsche 
PendfdichkeU  t  Leipsic,  1907. 

Abultaraj:  Bar  Hebraeus,  Buck  der  Strahlen.  Die 
yrdssere  Gratntnatik  des  Barhebraeus,  Ueber- 
$eUufkg  nach  einem  kriiitch  berichti^en  Texte 
mii  textkritischem  Apparai  und  einem  An- 
hang:  Zttr  Terminolome,  by  A.  Mobeig.  Ein- 
leiiuna  and  vol.  ii.,  Leipsic,  1907  (the  first 
part  has  not  yet  appeared). 

Africa:  J.  D.  Mullens,  The  Wandmful  Story  of 
Uganda,  London,  1908. 

A.  H.  Baynes,  South  Africa,  London,  1908. 

R.  H.  MiUigan,  The  Jungle  Folk  of  Africa,  New 
York,  1W8. 

Agnobticibm:  H.  G.  Sheklon,  Unbdufin  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  New  York,  1907. 

Aqrafba:  C.  R.  Gr^ry.  Daa  Freer-Logion,  Leip- 
sic,  1908  (on  tne  Logia-fragments  possessed 
by  C.  L.  Freer,  of  Detroit). 

B.  Pick,  Paralipomena:  Remains  ofGoepeU  and 
Sayings  of  ChriO.  Chicago,  1908. 

Alexander  IV.:    F.  Tenckhoff,  Papst  Alexander 

IV.,  Paderbom,  1907. 
Alexander  of  Hales:  K.  Heim,  Das  Wesen  der 
Gnade  und  ihr  VerhOUnis  tu  den  natUrlichen 
Funktionen    des    Menschen    bei    Alexander 
Haknsis,  Leipsic,  1907. 
Altar:  R.  Kittel,  Studien  zur  hebrdischen  Areh&dfr 

ogie,  i.l  18-168,  Leipsic,  1906. 
Ambrose,  Saint,  of  Milan:  J.  E.  Niederhuber, 
Die    EsehaUdogie    des    heUigen    Ambrosius, 
Paderbom,  1907. 
P.  de  Labriolle,  S.  Ambroise,  Paris,  1906. 
Angelb:  R.  W.  Britton,  Angds,  their  Nature  and 

Service,  London.  1906. 

Apocrtfha:  L.  Couara,  Die  reUgidsen  und  sUtUehen 

Anschauungen  der  aUtestamentUchen  Apak- 

rytfien  und  Pseudepiqraphen,  Gtltersloh,  1907. 

A.  Fuchs,    Textkritische   Untiarsuchungen  turn 

hdnttiachen  Ekklesiastikus,  Freiburg,  1907. 
R.  Smend,  GrieckischrsyrischrhebrdisSher  Index 

zur  Weiskeit  des  Jesus  Sirach,  Berlin,  1907. 
F.  Steinmetser  Neue  Unterstichungen  Ober  die 
GesekiMUckkeU  der  JudOhertdhlung,  Leipsic, 
1907. 
J.  Mailer,  BeitrOge  zur  ErklOrung  und  KritOc 
des  Buekes  TobiL  Giessen,  1906. 
Apologbtigb:  W.  H.  Turton.  The  Truth  of  Chris- 
tiamiy:    a  Manual  of  Christian  Evidences, 
London,  1906. 
E.  F.  Scott,  The  Apologetie  of  the  New  Testa^ 

ment.  New  York,  1906. 
H.  E^rton,    The  Liberal   Theology  and  tke 
Ground  of  Faitk;  being  Essays  towards  a  eon- 
servoHve  Restatement  of  Apologetic,  London, 
1908. 


Apostolic  CoNSTiTunoNs:  F.  X.  Funk,  DidascaKa 

et  constUuHonesapostolorum  I, -I I, ,Faderhom, 

1906. 
Arabia:  R.  Dussiaud,  Z^es  Arabes  enSyrie  avant 

VIslam,  Paris,  1907. 
Archeoloot,  Bibucal:    I.  Benzinger,  Hebrdische 

ArchOologie,  Ttlbingen,  1907. 
Architecture:  A.  K.  Porter,  Medieval  Arckiteo- 

ture.  New  York,  1908. 
Arianism:  S.  Rogala.  Die  AnfUnge  des  arianischen 

Streites,  Paderoom,  1907. 
Art:  S.  F.  H.  Robinson,  CeUic  Illuminative  Art  in 

the  Gospel  Books  of  Durrow,  Lindisfame  and 

Kdls,  London,  1906. 
J.  R.  AUen.  CeUic  Art  in  Pagan  and  Christian 

Times,  Philadelphia,  1908. 
Margaret  E.  Tabor,  The  SainU  in  AH,  New 

York,  1906. 
Asceticism:  Bibliotheca  Franciseana  ascetica  medii 

aevi,  vol.  iv.,  Quarrachi,  1907. 
Abherah:  F,  Limdffreen,  Die  BentUzung  der  Pflan- 

zenwelt   in   aer    aUtestamentUchen   Rehgion, 

Giessen,  1906. 
Asia    Minor:  F.    St&helin,    Geschichte   der  kleit^ 

asiatischen  Galater,  2d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1907. 
Assyria:  A.  T.  Ohnstead,  Western  Asia  in  the  Days 

of  Sargon  of  Assyria,  B.C.  7t»-706,  New  York, 

1908. 
AuosBURO,  Bishopric  of:  A.  Steichle,  Das  Bist- 

kum    Augsburq,    kistorisck    und    statistisck 

besehrieben,  vol.  vii.,  Augsburg,  1906  sqq. 
AnosBURo  Confession  and  its  Apology:  Ada 

oomiciorum  Augustas  ex  Ktteris  PhUipfi  Jonas 

et  dUomm  ad  M.  Luther,  ed.  G.  Berbig,  Leip- 
sic, 1907. 
Auoustinb,  Saint,  of  Hippo:  B.  Dombart,  Zur 

Textgesckickte  der  CivUas  Dei  Augustins  seit 

dem  Entstehen  der  ersten  Drucke,  Leipsic,  1907. 
O.  Blank,  Die  Lehre  des  heUigen  Augustinus  vom 

Sakramente  der  Eucharistie,  Paderbom,  1906. 
F.  X.  Eggersdorfer,  Der  heilige  Augiutinus  als 

Pddagoge  und  seine  Bedeutung  fOr  die  Ge- 

sckickte  der  Bildung,  Freiburg,  1907. 
P.  Friedrich,  Die  Maridogie  des  heUigen  Augus- 
tinus. Cologne,  1907. 
O.  Z&nker,  Der  Primal  des  Wittens  vor  dem 

InieOect  bei  Augustin,  Gtltersloh,  1907. 
Seripta  eontra  Donatistas,  part  i.,  ed.  Petschenig, 

Leipsic,  1908. 
Saint  Augustine  of  Hippo,  with  Introduction  by 

the  Bishop  oj  Southampton  (The  Library  of 

the  Soul),  London,  1906. 
H.  Becker,  Augustin.    Studien  zu  seiner  gei^ 

tigen  Entwiekdung,  Leipsic,  1908. 
Augustinians:  Codex    diptonuOieus    Ord.    E.    S. 

Augustini,  vol.  iii.,  Papiae  (Rome),  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX— VOLUMES  I  AND  H 


Babylonia:  M.  Jastrow,  Die  Religion  BabyUmiens 
und  Aesyrienef  Giessen,  1907. 
Early  Sumerian  Paalnu;   Texts  in  Tranditerti' 
turn  toith  Trand.,  Critical  Commentary  and 
Introduction^  Leipsic,  1908. 
O.  A.  Toffteen,   Keeearchee  in  Aaeyrian  and 
Babylonian  Geography,  part  1,  ChicagOi  1908. 
H.  Radau,  Bd,  the  Chnet  of  Ancient  Times, 
Chicago,  1908. 

Bach,J.S.:  H.  Perry,  Life  of  Johann  Sebadian 
Boc*.  New  York,  1908. 

Bamberg,  Bishopric  of:  H.  T.  von  Kohlhafen, 
Das  Domkapitel  des  aUen  Bisthum  Bamberg 
und  seine  Canoniker,  Bambeig,  1907. 
J.  KOrber,  Lose  Blatter  aus  meines  Bruders 
Ltben  und  Skrijptsn,  Bin  StUck  Bamberger 
Geschichte  als  Scherflein  lum  9.  Bisthum^ 
centenar,  Bambeig,  1907. 
J.  Looehom,  Die  QeschichU  des  Bisthums  Bam^ 
berg,  Naeh  den  QueUen  heofbeUelf  vol.  vii., 
Das  Bisthum  Bamberg  17t9-1808,  Bambeig, 
1907  sqq. 

Banks,  L.  A.:  Sermons  vohidk  have  Won  Souls,  New 
York,  1908. 

Baptism:  J.  T.  Christian,  The  Form  o/  Baptism  in 
Sculpture  and  Art,  Loiusville,  Kv,,  1907. 
J.  M.  Lupton,  De  baptismo,  Cambria^,  1908. 

Baptists:  J.  S.  Flory,  Literary  Activity  of  the 
German  Baptist  Brethren  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  Elgin,  111.,  1908. 
£.  Y.  Mullens,  The  Axioms  of  Rdigion;  a  New 
Interpretation  of  the  Baptist  Faith,  Philadel- 
phia, 1908. 

Barlaam  and  Josophat:  Gui  von  Cambrai  und 
Josophas,  nach  dem  Handschriften  von  Paris 
und  Monte  Cassino,  ed.  Carl  Appel,  Halle, 
1907. 

Barnabas:  "  Epistle,"  ed.  Jos.  Vixsini,  Rome, 
1907. 

BsscHER,  H.  W.:  S.  M.  Griswold,  Sixty  Years  with 
Plymouth  Church,  Ifew  York,  1907. 

Beschbr,  W.  J.:  The  tkOed  Events  of  the  OH  Tes- 
tament: being  a  Presentation  of  Old  Tettor 
ment  Chronology,  Philadelphia,  1908. 

Best,  J.  A.:    The  Church,  the  Churches,  and  the 
Sacraments,  London,  1907. 
A  Shorter  Manual  of  Theology,  London,  1908. 

Behaism:  Les  Lemons  de  SaitU-Jeanrd'Acre  d'Ad- 
Oul-B^ha,  recueilliis  par  Laura  Clifford 
Barney,  traduit  du  person  par  Hippolyte 
Dreyfus,  Paris,  1908. 
Abdu'T  Baha,  Some  answered  Questions:  Col- 
lected and  Translated  from  the  Persian  by 
Laura  Clifford,  Philadelphia,  1908. 

Benedict  of  Nursia:  L.  Delisle,  Le  Livre  de  Jean 
de  Stavdat  sur  S.  BenoU,  Paris,  1908. 
Studien  und  Mitteilungen  aus  dem  Benedietiner' 
und  dem   Cistercienser-Orden,  28  Jahrgang, 
Rajgen,  1907. 
Die  Kegel  des  heUigen  Benedictus  erkldri  in 
ihrem  geschichtlidien  Zusammenhang  und  mit 
besonderer  Rucksichtattf  das  geisUiche  Leben, 
Freiburg,  1907. 
G.  Meier,  Der  hnUge  Benedikt  und  sein  Orden, 
R^gensbuiv,  1907. 

Benediction:  wT  H.  Dolbeer,  The  Benediction, 
Philadelphia,  1908. 

Bennett,  W.  H.:    The  Rdigion  of  the  Post-Exilic 
Prophets,  Edinburgh,  1907. 
The  Life  of  Christ  according  to  St.  Mark,  Lon- 
don, 1907. 

Bentley,  Richard:  A.  T.  Bartholomew,  Richard 
BerUley,  a  Bibliography  of  his  Works,  London, 
1908. 


Berkeley,  G.  :  The  Principle  of  Human  Knowledge^ 
new  ed.,  London,  1907. 
The  Querist;  containing  Several  Queries  pro- 
posed to  the  Consideration  cf  the  Public,  parts 
1^,  Dublin,  1735-37,  reprinted  Baltimore, 
1908. 

Bernard,  Saint,  of  Clair vaux:  On  Consideraiion. 
Translated  by  George  Lewis,  London,  1908. 

Besant.  a.  :  London  Lectures  of  1907,  London,  1 907. 

Beza,  T.:  A  Tragedie  ^  Abraham's  Saarifiee,  transL 
bv  Arthur  Gokling,  ed.  M.  W.  Wallace, 
Toronto,  1906. 

Bible  Societies:  J.  Fox,  Bound  the  World  for  the 
American  Bible  Society,  New  York,  1908. 

Bible  Versions,  A,  III.:    F.   C.  Burkitt.  Early 
Eastern  Christianity,  lect.  2,  New  York,  1904. 
The  Four  Gospds  from  the  Codex  Corbei^ngis 
London,  1908. 

Bible  Versions,  B,  IV.:  A.  F.  Gasquet,  The  Old 
English  Bible,  and  Other  Essays,  New  York, 
1908. 
M.  B.  Riddle,  The  Story  o/  the  Revised  New 

Testament,  Philadelphia,  1908. 
J.  I.  Mombert,  Handbook,  2d  ed.  London,  1907. 
M.  W.  Jacobus,  ed.,  Roman  Catholic  and  Prater 
tant  Bibles  Compared:  the  Gould  Prite  Essctue, 
2d  ed.,  New  Yorkj  1908. 
F.  Viffoiux>ux,  Dictumnaire  de  la  Bible,   fasc 
sonoii.  cols.  1549-51,  Paris,  1906. 

Biblical  Criticism:  J.  R.  Cohn,  The  Old  Testament 
in  the  Light  of  Modem  Research,  London, 
1908. 

Biblical  Introduction:  A.  Schub,  Btbhsche 
Studien,  ed.  O.  Bardenhewer,  vol.  zii.,  part  1, 
Doppdberichte  im  Pentateuch.  Ein  Beiirag 
zwr  ainleitung  in  das  AUe  Testament,  Frei- 
burg, 1908. 
C.  Rfiech,  Die  heQigen  Schriften  des  AUen  Tes- 
taments; ausfiihrlich/s  InhaUsHbersichi  mii 
kurtg^asster  jipesieller  Einleitung,  MOnster, 
1908. 
F.  Barth.  Einleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament, 

Gtltersloh,  1908. 
C.  F.  G.  Heinrid,  Der  Utterarische  Charakter 
derneutestamentUchenSchr^ten,  Leipsic,  1908. 

BiBUCAL  Theoloqt:  R.  S.  Franks,  The  New  Testa- 
ment Doctrines  of  Man,  Sin,  and  SalvaHon, 
London,  1908. 

Black,  H.:  Christ's  Service  of  Love  [Communion 
sermons  and  meditations],  New  York,  1907. 

Blavatbkt,  H.  v.:  F.  S.  Hoffman,  The  Sphere  of 
Rdigion,  New  York,  1908. 

Bu88,£.M.:  The  Missionary  Enterprise,  New  York, 

IvOo. 
BoEHME,  J.:    The  Supersensual  Life,  or  the  Life 

which  is  above  Sense,  Eng.  transl.  by  W.  Law, 

new  ed.,  London,  1907. 
Bobtrius:  In  Isaaogen  PorpJwrii  commenta,   ed. 

S.  Brandt,  Vienna  and  Leipsic,  1906. 
Bonet-Maurt,  G.:   France,  chriAianisme  el   dvi- 

ligation  Paris  1907. 
Booth,  W.:    The  Seven  SpiriU:   or,  What  I  teach 

my  Officers,  London^  1907. 
BoRROiCEO,  C:  Die  NuntuOur  von  Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco Bonhomini  1679-1681,    Documente  vol. 

ly  Die  NuntiatwberichU  Bonhomini  und  sdne 

Correspondenz  mil  Carlo  Borromeo  aus  dem 

Jahre  1679,  Solothum,  1906. 
Boston,  T.:    A  General  Account  of  my  Life,  ed. 

G.  D.  Low,  London,  1908. 
BoussET,  W.:   What  is  Rdigion?  London,  1907. 
Boyd,  A.  K.  H.:  Sermons  and  StrayPapers.    WiA 

Biographical  Sketch  by  Rev.  W.  W.  TuUodi, 

London,  1907. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX— VOLUMES  I  AND  U 


zi 


Brabmanism:  J.  C.  Oman,  The  Brahmins,  TheisU, 

and  MtuUnu  of  India,  London,  1907. 
L.  D.  Bamett,  BrahmorKnowMge,  an  Outline 

qf  the  Philoaophy  of  the  Vedanta,  set  forth  by 

the   Upaniehada  and  by  Sankaara,  London, 

1907. 
M.  Bloomfield,  The  ReUaian  ^  ihe  Veda,  the 

Andeni  Retiffion  of  India.  New  York,  1908. 
Bbent,  C.  H.:    Leadertkip:    The  WiUiam  Bdden 

Noble   Lecturee  .  .  .  at  ,  ,  .  Harvard,    New 

York,  1908. 
Bbbblau,  Bishopbic  of:   Oeackiehte  dee  Breelauer 

Domee  und  Seine  Wiederheratdlung,  Breslau, 

1907. 
Verdfi^eniHehunffen  otM   dem  fOretbiachoJliehen 

DidMeaanrArckiv  su  Bredau,  Breslau,   1905 

sqq. 
Breviabt:  a.  Schulte,  Die  Paalmen  dee  Breviere 

nebai  den  Caniiea  sum  praktischen  Gebraudie, 

Paderbom,  1907. 
Budget,   Saint,   of  Kildarb:    J.   A.   Knowles, 

St.  Brigid,  Patroness  (^Ireland,  London,  1907. 
Bridget,  Saikt,  of  Swbdbn:   K.  Krqgb-Tonning, 

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Brookb,  S.  A.:  The  Sea  Charm  <^  Venice,  London, 

1907. 
Studies  in  Poetru,  London,  1907. 
Brown,  A.  J.:  The  Foreign  Missionary,  An  Ineamch 

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Browne,  R.:    C.  Burrue.  The  "Retractation"  of 

Robert  Browne,  Father  af  Congregationalism, 

London,  1907. 
Brownb,  Sir  Thomab:  Works,  ed.  C.  Sayle,  3  vols., 

Edinbufgh,  1907. 
BuDDHiBic:  Jataka,  by  £.  B.  Cowell,  vol.  vi.,  New 

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P.  L.  Narasu,  The  Essence  of  Buddhism,  Lon- 
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D.  T.  Susuki,  Outlines  of  Mahayana  Buddhism, 

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Soyen  Sbaku,  Sermons  €f  a  Buddhist  Abbot, 

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Taba  Kanai,   The  Praises  of  Amida.    Seven 

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H.  F.  Hall,  The  Inward  Light,  2d  impression, 

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Burnet,  G.:  T.  E.  S.  Clarke  and  (Miss)  H.  C.  Fox- 
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Cambridge  Platonibtb:  E.  A.  George,  The  Seven^ 
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Campbell,  R.  J.:  Christianity  and  the  Social  Order, 
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Thursday  Mornings  at  the  City  Temple,  London, 
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Cafuchinb:  Verdffentlichungen  aus  dem  Archiv  der 
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Cabmeuteb:  MonumentahistorieaCarmeUtana,Yoh 
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Cabtrage,  Stnodb  of:  A.  Alcais,  Figures  et  ricits 
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Cathabinb  of  Sienna:  The  Dialoaue,  transl.  by 
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LIST  OF  ABBREVIATIONS 


[Abbfeviatioos  in  common  use  or  self-evident  are  not  included  here.     For  additional  information  cou* 
ceming  the  works  listed,  see  vol.  i.,  pp.  viii.-xx.,  and  the  appropriate  articles  in  the  body  of  the  work.] 


ADB.. 
Adw... 
AJP.. 

AJT.. 


jABoemeine  dmiaehe  BiooraphUt 
'  1      1876  ■qq..  voL  63,  1007 


Leipne, 


'acainst 
\  Amerioan   Jowmal 
'  I     more.  1880  aqq. 


ALKO. 

Am.... 
AM  A.. 


ANF.. 


ASB.. 
ASM.. 


of   PhUology,    B«1U- 

)  American  Journal  of  Thoology,  Chioaco. 
1897  sqq. 
jjrp  \Arthiv     likr     kaiKoliadiea     Kirehenrochi, 

'*^* j     Innabruck,  1857-61.  Mains.  1872  aqq. 

iArtMv    fikr    lAtteratur-    und    Kirdtengo- 
{     aehidUo     dea     MUUlaUera,     Freibuxis. 
(     1885  aqq. 
Axnerican 

AlfhantUunoen  der  MUndtensr  AkadomiOt 
•  1     Munieh.  1763  aqq. 

AnU-NioenB   FaUiera,    American   edition 
by  A.  Qeyeland  Coxe.  8  Tola,  and  in- 
dex. Buffalo.  1887:    vol.  ix.,  ed.  Allan  t 
.     Menaiea,  New  York.  1807 

Apoe Apocrypha,  apocryplial 

Apol Apologia,  Apology 

Arab Arabic 

Aram Aramaic 

art article 

Art.8chmal Schmalkald  Articlea 

I  Acta  aandorum,  ed.  J.  Holland  and  others, 
'  t     Antwerp,  1643  saq. 

{Ada  aandorum  ordinU  S.  Benodidi,  ed. 
J.  MabiUon,  9  vols.,  I'aris,  1668-1701 

Assyr Assyrian 

A.  T AlUa  TeMlammt,  "  Old  TesUment  " 

Aun.  Con AugsbuTK  Confession 

A.  V Authorised  Version  (of  the  English  Bible) 

AZ AUgemeinc  ZeUung,  Augsburg,  TObingen, 

Stuttgart,  and  TQbingen,   1708  sqq. 
^.  M.  Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philotophy 
and  PgycKology,  3  vols,  in  4,  New  Yoric, 
1001-05 


Baldwin. 
iKdioaafy 

Benzingsr, 
ArdkAologit 

Beitholdt, 
BinleUiuig. , 


J  I.     Bensinger,     HebrikiBdie    ArchAologie, 
.  1  _  2d  ed-TFrsibuiis,  1007 


- 

r 


L.    Beriholdt,    HiatoriadtrKritiMehe   Bin- 
Uitung  .  .  .  dea  AUen  und  Ncuen  Tea- 
^„^^  «      iamonU,  6  vols..  Erlangen.   1812-10 

BPfiS British  and  Forei^  Bible  Society 

BiB^k^.  iJ.    Bingham.    Ortginea    eecleaiaaticm,    10 

flglifli^  <     vols.,     London,     1708-22;     new    ed., 

"^"^ I     Oxford,  1856 

(If.    Bouquet.   Roeueil  dea  hiatoriena  dea 

Booqnst.  Roeuea<     GauUa  at  do  la  France,  continued  by 

(     Tarious  hands.  23  vols.,  Paris,  1738-76 

-.  (Archibald  Bower.   Hiatory  of  tha  Pqpaa 

Bowsr,  Popss.  ..<     ...  to   1768,  conHnuedlnf  S.  H.  Cox, 

\     8  Tola..  Philadelphia.  1846-47 
BOB  SBapOet  Quarterly  Renew,   Philadelphia, 

„T" \     1867  sqq. 

BRO See  Jaff6 

(^t Gantades,  Song  of  Solomon 

**!» caput,  "  cliApter  " 

C^Uicr    AafaMTs  S  ^  Ceillier.  Hiatoira  dea  auleura  aaeria  at 
aocil     -—"J     eeeUeiaatiguea,    16  vols,   in   17,    Paris, 

^r^ I     1858-60 

V^?* Chronicon,  **  Chronicle  " 

\f^ I  Chronicles 

"Chroa IlChroniclea 

CIO  \Corpua  inacripHdmum  Oraearum,  Berlin, 

1825sqq. 

CIL ^Corpua  inaeriptUmum  Latinarum,  Berlin, 

Corpua  inaeriptionum  SemUiearum,  Paris, 
1881  sqq. 


CIS 

«d 

"^•D eodsr  Beaa 

^Z'^"^^ eodex  Theodoaianua 

rj- -:  • Epistle  to  the  Colossiasa 

P*". '("^ column,  columns 

V^r Confaeaionea,  "  Confessions  '' 

First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthiasa 


i&:. 


II  Cor Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthiasa 

COT See  Schrader 

rno  SThe  Church  Quarterly  Review,    London, 

^^* 1      1875  sqq. 

\  Corpua   reformatorum,    begun   at    Halle, 
CR <     1834.  vol.  Ixxxix.,  Berlin  and  Leipsio, 

(      1005  sqq. 

f  M.  Creigfaton,  A  Hiatory  of  As  Papacy 


Crsighton, 
Papacy. 


.i'5 


DB. 


from  tha  Oreat  Schiam  to  the  Sack  of 
Rome,  new  ed.,  6  vols.,  New  York  ana 
^     London,  1807 
rQKT  S  Corpua  acriptorum  ecdeeiaeHcorum  Lati- 

^^^^ 1     norum,  Vienna.  1867  sqq. 

r^un  \  Corpua    acriptorum    hiatorue    ByaanHnm, 

^^"^ 1     40  vols..  Bonn,  1828-78 

Currier,  Rtiioioua  j  C.  W.  Currier,  Hietory  of  Raligioua  Ordera, 

Ordera 1      New  York,  1806 

D Deuteronomist 

nATT  i  P*  Cabrol.  Dictionnaire  d*arehSologie  dir^- 

^^^^ 1     Hanna  et  de  liturgie,  Paria.  1003  aqq. 

Dan Daniel 

J.  Hastings,    Dictionary  of  the  Bible,   4 
vols,  and  extra  vol.,  Edinburgh  and 
New  York.  1808-1004 
W.  Smith  and  S.  Cheetham.  Dictionary 
of  Christian  Anti^Uiea,  2  vols.,  London, 
1875-80 
W.  Smith  and  H.  Wace.  Dictionary  of 
Chriatian  Biography,  4  vols.,  Boston, 
1877-87 
J.  Hastinn,  J.  A.  Selbie,  and  J.  C.  Lam- 
bert, A  Dictionary  of  Chriat  and  the  Ooe- 
pe2«,Edinburgh  and  New  York.  1006  sqq. 

.Deuteronomy 

Da  vir.  HI Da  viria  iUuatribua 

De  Wette-  ( W.  M.  L.  de  Wette,  Lchrhuch  der  hie- 

Schrader,  Ein^<      toriach4aritiachen     Einleitung     in     die 

leitung (     Bibel,  ed.  R  Schrader,  Berlin,  1860 

DQQ See  Wattenbach 

'  L.   Stephen  and   S.   Lee,   Dictionary  of 
National    Biography,     63     vols,     ana 


DC  A. 


DCB. 


DCQ. 
Deut. 


DNB. 


supplement  3  vols., 


V.     63 
London. 


1886-1001 


lVtv»fl>    7«*«wf«i^  \  8'  1^  Driver,  Introduction  to  the  Literature 
Lmver.  IfitrodWS^)         -    ^    ^^    T^tnnutnL    J(th    -d       Naw 


tion. 


,     of  the  Old   Teatament,   6th   ed.,    New 

(     York,  1804 
E Rlohist 

j  T.  K.  Cheyne  and  J.  S.  Black,  Encydo- 
SB -{     poadia   Bibliea,   4   vols.,    London   and 

I     New  York.  1800-1003 
Bed Ecdeaia,  *'  Church  ";    eodssioslicus.  "  ec- 
clesiastical " 

Eodes Ecclesiastes 

Ecdus Ecclesiasticus 

ed edition:  edidiLj*  edited  by  " 

Eph Epistle  to  the  Ephesians 

Epiet Epiatola,  Epiatolea,  "  Epistle,"  "  Epistles  " 

Ersch  and  Gni-  I  J.  S.  Kne/ti  and  J.  G.  Gruber,  AUgemeine 
ber,     Encyklo-{     EncykiopiUlie  der    Wiaaenachaften   und 

pAdie f     KUnate,  Leipsic,  1818  sqq. 

E.V English  versions  (of  the  Bible) 

Ex Exodus 

Esek Esekiel 

ftuc faaciculue 


Friedrich,  KD.. 

Fritssche,  Exe- 
oetiachea  Hand- 
ouch 


J.    Friedrich,   Kirchengeachichte  Deutad^ 

landa,2  vols..  Bamberg.  1867-69 
O.   F.  Fritssche  and  C.  L.  W.  Grimm, 
Kurtgefaaatea     exegetiachea     Handbuch 
tu  den   Apoeryphen  dea   AUen    Taata- 
^     merUa,  6  parts,  Zurich,  1851-60 
.Epistle  to  the  Galatians 


Gal 

riMk  ««iH  TT*rriv  i  "•  Gee   and    W.    J.    Hardy,    Documenta 

Gen Genesis 

Germ German 

QQj^  S  Oottinaiache  gdehrle  Anzeigen,  G5ttingen, 


xiv 


LIST  OF  ABBREVUnONS 


Lireaory, 
Textkritik.. 


^^  ^^ (     Bury.  V  Tols.,  London.  1896-1900 

Gk Greek,  Gredied 

C.  R.  Grefory,  TesUeHHkdsM  N^u&n  Teaia- 

menU,2  vole..  Leipsie.  1901-02 
C.  GroBB,  The  Sourof  and  lAtBrahm  of 
BnoUMk  Hialory  ,  ,  ,  to  1486,  London. 

Habakkuk 

A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Stubbe.  CauneilM 
and  BeeUmoMtieaL  Doeumenia  Relating 
to  Ormi  BriUUn  and  Ireland,  8  rob., 
.     Oxford.  1860-78 

Rafera  to  patrisiie  works  on  hereeiee  or 
heretics,  TertulUan's  De  vrmearipi' 
the    Froe   kaireeeie    of    Irensus, 
Panaritm  of  Epiphanius,  ete. 


Gross,  Soweee,, 

Hab 

Haddanand 
Stubbs,  Coun- 
eUe 


Bar. 


Hag 

Harduin.  Con- 
cilia  


the 


Hamack,  Dogma 
Hamack,  LiUera- 


Hauok,  KD. 


Hauok-Heraog. 

RB vr.. 

Heb. 


J.  Harduin.  ConeUionm  eeOeeHo  regia 
maxima,  12  vols.,  Paris,  1716 

A.  Hamaek,  Hietory  of  Dogma  .  .  .  from 
As  Sd  German  eintion,  7  vols..  Boston, 
1895-1900 

A.  Hamaok,  Oeeehiekto  der  aUekriei- 
IMienUur  bie  Bueebwe,  2  vols. 


in  3,  Leipsick  1898-1904 
Kirdiiengeeek\ 


Heiele,ConeUief^ 
geechidUe 

Heimbuoher,  Ot' 
den  und  Kon- 
grtgunonen,. , , 

Helyot.  Ordree 
Henderson.  Doc- 


auck.     

lande,  vol.  i.,  Leipsie  1904;  vol.  ii. 
1900;  vol.  iii..  1906;  vol.  iv..  1903 
ReaiencukiopHdie  fUr  protoetonHeehe  The- 
ologie  und  Kvrehe,  founded  by  J.  J. 
Heraog,  Sd  ed.  by  A.  Hauek,  Leipsie, 
,     1896  sqq. 

Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

Hebr Hebrew 

,  C.  J.  von  Hefele,  ConeiUengeeekUkto,  oon- 
tinued   by  J.   HergenrSther,  9  vols., 
Freiburg.  1883-«3 
If.  Heimbuoher.  Die  Orden  und  Kangre- 
goHionen   der    kaikolieeken    Kirdie,    2 
vols.,  Paderbom.  1896-97 
P.    Helyot.    Hietoire  dee  ordree  meiMie- 
li^uss.  rdigieux  ei  mUiiairee,   8  vols.. 
Pans.  1714-19;  new  ed.,  1839-42 
E.  F.  Henderson.  Select  HietoriocA  Doeth- 

menu  of  the  Middle  Agee,  London,  1892 

Hist History,  Aislotre,  hietona 

HiMi   m^i  jHietorta  ecdeeiaeUea,  eedeeim,  '*  Chureh 

If  Ml.  eoet ^     History" 

Horn HomiUa,  homiliai,  "homily,   homilies" 

Hos Hosea    ' 

Isa Isaiah 

Ital ItaUan 

J Jahvist  (Yahwist) 

J  A Jowrnal  AeiaHque,  Paris,  1822  sqq. 

jP.    Jaff«.    Biblio^eca    rerum    Oermani- 

sorum,  6  vols.,  Berlin.  1864-73 

P.  Jaffd,  Begeela  ponUficum  Ramanorum 

.  .  .  ai   annum    1168,  BerUn,     1861; 

2d  ed.,  Leipsie.  1881-88 

Jammal  ef  the  American  OrienkU  Sodetg, 

New  Haven.  1849  sqq. 
Journal  ef  Biblioal  lAlerature  and  Bxege- 
first  appMred  _a8  Journal  of  the 


Jntt^BRO. 
Jaff«. 


JAOa 


JBL. 


JB.. 

JE.. 


Sodeiy  of  BiUieal  Lileraiure  and  Bxe- 
0Mis.  liiddletown.  1882-88,  then  Boe- 
ton.  1890  sqq. 
The  Jewiek  Bneudopeiia,  12  vols..  New 

York.  1901-06^ 
The  combined  narrative  of  the  Jahvist 
)     (Yahwist)  and  Etohist 

Jer Jeremiah 

Jo«phu^^«l...|"5;ij;;..'<>-«*"*  "Antiqultt-  of  the 

Josephus,  Ajrion..  .Flavius  Josephos,  '*  Against  Apion  " 
Josephus,  Life,. . . .Life  of  Flavius  Jossphus 
Josephus.  War. 


Josh 
JPT, 

JQR. 

JTS, 


Flavins  Josephus,  *'  The  Jewish  War  " 

Joshua 

JahHHkker  Hir  proteakmHeehe  Theologie, 
Leipsie.  1876  sqq. 

The  Jeufieh  Quarlerly  Review,    London. 
,      1888  sqa. 
j  Journal  of  Theotogical  Studiee,  London, 


Julian.  Hymr- 
nology 


:i^ 


1899  sqq. 
.  Julian.   A   Dictionary  of  Hymnology, 

i     revised  edition,London,  1907 
Jaarboeken  voor  WeteneehavpelUke  Theo- 
logie, Utrecht.  1845  sqq. 

KAT SeeSchrader 

KB See  Schrader 

KD See  Friedrieh,  Hauek.  Rettberg 

Wetter  und  WeUe*»  Kirehenlexikon,  2d 
ed.,  by  J.  HergenrOther  and  F.  Kaulen, 
12  vobi..  Freiburg.  1882-1903 
G.  Kr6ger.  Hietory  of  Bwrly  ChriaUan 
Literature  in  the  FiirsC  Three  CsnfuHss, 
New  YoriE,  1897 


KL, 


KrUter,    Hietory 


Krumbaeher. 


..) 


K.    Krumbaeher, 
tiniee 
1897 


CfeechidUe   der    bysan- 
2d    ed..    Munich, 


Labbe,    ConeUia< 


Tianigan.  Bed, 

nsn 


Liehtenbeiger. 
BSR 


fcrtptorum 
vols.,  Bon 


Borne,  1826-88 


Mann.  Popss. . . . 

Mansi.  ConeOia.. 

Matt 

MoCUntoek    and 
Strong,  Cydo" 


P.    Labbe. 
el  amplieeima  coUectio,  31  vols.,   Fkar- 
enoe  and  Venice,  1759-96 
Lamentations 

J.  lAnigan.     iPoelsfiosiical     Hietory     of 
Ireland  to  Ote  ISth  Century,  4    voIsl. 
,     Dubtin.  1829 

Lat Latin.  Latinised 

Leg Jjspss  Legum 

Lev Levitieus 

F.  Liehtenbeiger,  Bneyeiopidie  dam  eei- 
encee  rdigieueee,  18  vols..  Puis.  1877- 
1882 

T.nr— !■  fvan  }0.  Lorena.  Deuiwehlande  Qetehidttaguei- 
Lorena.lX#V...{  Isa  imMiUelaltar,  8d.  ed..  BertinTlSS? 
LXX The  Septuagint 

I  Mace IMaooabese 

II  Maee II  Maccabees 

Mai,    Nova    so^-IA..  Mai.  jScKp 

Mai !!'.!!!.  .Maiaeu 

R.  C.  Mann.  Liess  ef  the  Popm  %ti  dhs 
Bariy  Middle  Agee,  London,  1902  sqq. 

G.  D.  Mansi.  aandtorum  condUarum 
eotteetio  nova,  81  vols.,  Florenoe  and 
Venice,  1728 

Matthew 

J.  MoClintock  and  J.  Strong.  Cudopeedia 
of  BiUieal,  TVksob^coL  andSSni^ 
aetical  Literature,  10  vols,  and  supple- 
.     ment  2  vols..  New  York.  1869-87 

MeiMMNsnfa  Oermanim  hieloriea,  ed.  O.  H. 
Ferts  and  others.  Hanover  and  Ber- 
lin. 1826  sqq.  The  following  abbrevia- 
tions are  used  for  the  sections  and  sub- 
sections of  this  work:  AnL,  Aniiuui- 
fates.  **  Antiquities  ";  AueL  anL,Aue' 
form  osifijiMUsiiiM.  **  Oldest  Writers  "; 
Chron,  una..  Chroniea  minora,  **  Lesser 
Chronicles  '';  Dip.,  Diptomata,  **  Di- 
ptomas,  Doeuments";  BpieL,  Bpie- 
lola/**  Letters  ";  OeeL  ponL  Rom,, 
Oeeta  pontiflcum  Rotnanorum,  **  Deeds 
of  the  Popes  of  Rome  ";  Leg.,  Legee, 
*'  Laws ":  Lib.  de  Ute,  LibeUi  da  Hte 
inter  reonum  el  eacerdotium  eieculorum 
xietsit  fionecripti,  **  Books  eonceming 
the  Strife  between  the  Civil  and  Eccle- 
siastical Authorities  in  the  Eleventh 
and  Twelfth  Centuries":  Nee,  Ne- 
erologia  OermaniiB,  **  Necrology  of 
Germany":  Poet,  LaL  ttvi  Car., 
PoekTLaUni  avi  CaroHni,  "Latin 
Poets  of  the  Caroline  Time";  PoeL 
Lot,  med.  cBvi.  Posto  Latini  medii  tevi, 
"Latin  Poets  of  the  Middle  A«s ": 
Script,  Scriptoree,  "  Writers  ";  Script 
rer.  Oerm.,  Scriptoree  rerum  Oermam- 
carum.  "  Writers  on  German  8ub- 
iects  ":  Scrivt  rer.  Langob.,  Scriptarm 
rerum  Langobardicarum  et  itaUcarwm, 
"Writers  on  Lombard  and  Italian 
Subjects";  Script  rer.  Merov.^Scrip- 
toree  rerum  Merovingiearum,  '*  Writers 
on  Merovingian  Subjects  " 


MGH, 


Mie 

Maman,Lalif» 
Chrietiamty,. 


Mirbt,QusBsfi... 
Moellsr.Cftrie. 

MPO 

MPL 

MS..  M8S. 


H.  H.  Mifanan.  Hietory  of  LaHn  Chrie- 
tianitu,  Induding  that  of  Uie  Popee  te 
.  .  .  Nicholae  V.,  8  vols..  London. 
1860-61 

C.  Mirb  t.  OmsBsm  mw  Geeekichte  dee  Papdr 
tame  und  dee  riSmieehen  JCoMolicisMM. 
Tabingsn.  1901  ^^ 

W.  MoeUer,  Hidory  of  ike  Ckriotiae 
Churdi,  3  vols..  London.  1802-1900 

J.  P.  Mine.  Patridogia  cureue  eompUtee, 

,  eerieeOraea,  162  vols..  Pktfis,  1857-66 

.J.  P.  Migne.  Patrologia  cureue  eompUtu*. 

^eerieeLattna,  221  vols..  Paris,  1844-64 

Manuscript,  Manuscripts 

L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  ItaUearum  serin- 
Cores.  28  vols.,  1723-51 

^suss  Ardwv  der  OeeeUedtaft  f^  Altars 
deulsdks  GeeehidUekunde,  Hanow, 
1876  sqq. 

Nahum 
n.d no  date  of  publication 

Neander.  Chrie-i^J^^*^*.^^^'^  S}**^  4  ^  ^^^r**- 
fSsOkiiw*  1  ^  Rdigion  and  Church,  6  vols,  and 
Mm  uauroi. . .  i     ^^^  Boston.  1872-«1 

Neh Nehemiah 


Muratori,  Scrip- 


NA 

Nah 


Nieeron,    MS- 


NKZ„ 


R.  P.  Ni( 


vols..  Pteis,  r^  ::  -  •  •  .  « 

i^sMs  kirehUAe  Zmtodurift,  Lstpaie.  1880 


tr.  Miceron.  MAiiotriBS  pour 
\*h%etoire  dee  hommm  iUuairee  . 
rols..  Pteis,  172tl--t5 


LIST   OPABBREVUTIONS 


XV 


Nowmck,    Archa-iW.    Nowsek.    LeKrbueh   der   h^Aiaehen 

oloffie \      ArckOoloaie,  2  vols.,  Freiburg,  1894  - 

D.p no  place  of  publication 

1  The  Nioene  and  Posi-Nicene  FatKera,  Ist 
NPNF i     series.  14  vols..  New  York.  1887-92;  2d 

(     series.  14  vols..  New  York.  1890-1900 
M   ^  (New   Testament.    Novum    TeHameniumt 

f     Nouveau    TutamttU,  Neu§9  TMiamerU 

Num Numbers 

Ob Obadiah 

( J.  Wordsworth,  H.  J.  White,  and  others. 
OLBT •{     Old-LaHn  BtkUoal  TexU,  6zford,  18^ 

r    BQQ. 

0  n  n.  iOrdo   aancH   BwnedieH,    "Order    of    St. 
"•^"- 1     Benedict" 

O.  T Old  Testament 

OTJC See  Smith 

P Priestly  document 

L.  Pastor.  The  Hielory  of  the  Popee  from 

the  Cloee  of  Ike  Middle  Agee,  6  vob.. 

London.  1891-1902 
^^  ^  i  Patree  ecdeeia  Anolieanm,  ed.  J.  A.  Qiles, 

'^*'* I     34  vols..  Ix>ndon.  1838-46 

PEP P^estine  Exploration  Fund 

1  Pfet First  Epistle  of  Peter 

II  Pet Second  Epistle  of  Peter 

Pliny,    HieL    nai.  .Fhny,  Hieioria  ruUuralia 

iv«f*k*««L      jVm%.\^'   Potthast.  BMiotheea  hiaioriea  wtedii 
*^*22^      ^^i     avi,     Weoioeieer  durdi  die  OeediichU- 

"•••^ {     werke,  BerUn.  1896 

Prov Proverbs 

Pa Psalms 


Ptetor,  Popes. 
PEA, 


DOB  J  )  Fn»o0e(lin0*    of    ffte    Society    of 

^^^^ I     Arefceoto^.  London.  1880  sc^^. 


BibHcal 


i 


I.T.. 


of  ffte  Popss, 


qq.T 9}*^  (que)  vide, 

Redactor 

n.iv^    i>^MM       JL.    von    Ranke,    Hietory 
Ranks.  Popee. . .  (     3  ^^y^    London.  1896 

RDM Re»ue  dee  deux  mondee,  Paris,  1831  sqq. 

RB See  Hauok'Hersog 

Reich.  Awu-         \  E.  Reich  SeUtA  DoeumetUe  lUuelraiing  Me- 

mtenia |  diavol  and  Modem  Hieiory^  London.  1906 

RSJ Revue  dee  Hudee  Juivee,  Paris,  1880  sqq. 

R^ttlMnr   KD       » F.  W.  Rettberg. /Ctrc^^noescfctcWe  Deutocfc- 
KetttMfS.  AV. . .  ^     ,^^  2  ^^^  Gottingen,  1846-48 

Rev Book  of  Revelation 


Ricfater.  JTtrtAeiH 
redU 


RobinBOii,  Re- 
eeartkee,  and 
Later       Re- 


Robineon,    EurO' 

peanHiatory. . 

Rom 


jtrtR  iRe9ue  de    Vhittoire  dee  religiona,  Paris, 

A,  L.  Riehter,  LihHnteh  dee  kaOtoUeehen 
Ufuf  tvanoflinihrn  Kirehenrechtet  8th 
ed.  hv  W.  KiLhl.  l^eipsic.  1886 
K,  JlobiD^on,  Bildieal  Reeearehee  in 
FaleMint.  Ho^ivju  1841.  and  Later 
Biblicai  BeKarcJir*  in  PaUaUne^  3d  ed. 
of  the  whole,  3  veils..  1867 
J.  H.  lldbiuson,  Haadinot  in  European 
MiMiory.  2  voh.,  L^oston,  1904-06 

.Epi*tle  lo  the  Uomims 

pop  SRetrwt  dc*  tcisncet  *cdiaiaaiique9t  Arras, 

*"* 1      18fiO-74.  Aum-r      1876  sqq. 

Pf»p  SHrvue    de    Ot.      ,       el    de    philoeophiet 

'^''^ 1     Lausanne,  IHJH 

R.  Y Revised  Verrion  (of  the  English  Bible) 

•oe atteutum,  '*  oentury  " 

I  Sam I  Samuel 

II  Sam II  Samuel 

SitKunoaberithte  der  Berliner    Akademie, 

B«iflnri882  sqq. 
F.  Max  MOller  and  others.  The  Sacred 

Booke  of  tike  Eaat,  Oxford,  1879  sqq., 

vol.  xlvUi.,  1904 
airrerJ  Ba&ktiff  ih€  Old  TeMtament  ("  Rain- 

Imiw    Bible    >,    Lcipnic!.    London,    nad 

P.  Stbaflf.  Hiatory  of  £^e  Christutn  CAurdl. 
vols.  iHv.,  vi,  vii,.  New  York,  li&ia  2-^2, 
vol.  v.,  part  1.  by  D.  8.  SchafF.  1907 
r.    Sch&ff,    The   Cr&dM   of    Chriatertdam, 

3  vol*.  New  York.  1877  g4 

E.  ScLradef.^  Cuneiform  itiMeriptiona  and 

the   Old    Teatamenl,    2   vols,,    London, 

1HS6-SS 

E.  8chr»der,   Die  KciHn*thTiften  und  daa 

Alt«  Teatammt.  2  vols..  BerUn,  1902-08 

E.   Sfjhrader.  KtilinjichrifnicAa  Bililittth4^, 

6  vol?-.  Berlin,  lS^B-1901 
E.     Schtlfier,     OfMcfiichSe     rfet     iHditchtn 
lolkes  im  ZeiStil^er  Jetu  Christi,  3  vols,, 
Lcipwe.    180^1901;     En^*    tratLsl.,    5 
vola..  New  York.  1891 

-     -..- ScripU/rea,  *'  writers  ** 

Scriveuy.   ^  iF.H.  A.EmvvnerJnirodutHonioNewTei' 

Introduehan . .  \     tam^nt  Cntid^^m.  4th  ed.»  I^tidou,  1894 

Sant ,  .8mtr7ttia;  ' '  Spnteneea  " 

B-  J AVrif  ttij  Jftu,  "  Society  of  Jr«us  " 

SK  )  ThtMoi/UKhe  Studien  und  Kritik^n,  Ham- 

'' ]      hufic.  1S26  Miq. 

*-■  ^-  •  • J  Biisunaalierit^te     dtr     MUnchener     Aka- 

1     detiw,  Htmich,  1800  sqq. 


SB  A  . 
SBB. 


SBOT. 

Schaff.  Cftfisliaii 
Ckurda 

Behaff.  Crwis. . 

8dinder,C07. 

BdmKSer.iTAr. 
SefanKfar,  KB,,. 

BchOrer. 
GesdUeftte. 


Rmi«h   K'««A]kv«    j  W.  R.  Smith,  /Cins&ip  and  Marriaoe  in 
Smith.  /Ctnefttp. .  j      ^^^^^  ^^^^  London.  1903  ^^ 

RmUK  n7*^^       j  W.  R.  Smith,  The  Old  Teatament  in  the 
BmitH.  OTJL  ....<     j^^^^^  Church,  London,  1892 

flmif k    i>..r>«>&..«.    I  W.  R.  Smith,  Propheta  of  laroA  .  ,  .  to 
Smith.  PropheU..  {     ^  g.^^  (Jsnhi^rLondon,.  189JS 


Smith. 
iScm 


ReL 


S.  P.  C.  K. . 
8.  P.  G 


of\W.   R.   Smith.   Religion  of  the  Semitea, 
. .  1     London.  1894 

i  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Knowledge 
Sodety  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
-  in  Foreign  Parts 

sq.,  sqq and  following 

Strom Stromata,  "Miscellanies  " 

S.V sub  voce,  or  sub  verbo 

Swete,  Introdue-  S  H.  B.  Swete.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Tee- 

tion (     tament  in  Oreek,  London.  1900 

Syr Syriac 

TBS Trinitarian  Bible  Society 

Thatcher  and        (O.  J.  Thatcher  and  E.   H.  McNeal, 


Mediaval 


McNeal.  &niro0'{     Source    Book    for 
Book (     New  York.  1906 

I  Thess First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 

II  Thess §5^?<i  ^R"^!S  ^  ^^'^  Thessalonians 

ThT  -.....- 


A 
Hietory, 


TiUemont. 
fnoirea.. 

I  Tim 


MS- 


TheoUmadte  Tijdaehrift,  Amsterdam  and 

Leyden.  1867  sqq. 
L.  S.   le  Nain  de  TiUemont,   MSmoirea 

.  .  .  eoct^ttosfi^iies    dea    aix    premiere 

aOdee,  16  vols..  Paris.  1693-1712 
First  Epistle  to  Timothy 

II  Tim Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Theologiadur  Jahreabericht,  Leipsic.  1882- 

1887.  Freiburg,  1888,  Brunswick.  1889- 

1897.  BerUn.  1898  sqq. 
Theotogiachea  LitteratwWatt,  Bonn.   1866 


TJB. 


TheMogieihe 


TLB. 


^^ \      187tfsqq. 

Tob Tobit 

Theologiadie 


TQ 

TS 


TSBA. 
TSK,,. 


TV. 


Wattenbaeh, 
DQQ 

Wellhausen. 
Heidentum,. 

Wellhausen. 
Prdtagomiana. 

ZA 

Zahn,  Einln- 
tung 


lAtteraJturaeitungt     Leipnc, 


Tabingen, 


QuartaUdirifty 
1819  sqq. 
J.    A.     Robinson.     Texta    and    Studiee, 

Cambridge.  1891  sqq. 
Tranaactiona   of   the   Society   of   Biblical 

Archaeology,  London.  1872  sqq. 
TheologietJie  Studien  und  KritUeen,  Ham- 
burg, 1826  sqq. 
Texte  und  Unterauckungen  eur  Geadtiehte 
der  aliehriatlichen  Litterofur,  ed.  O.  von 
Gebhardt   and   A.    Hamack,    Leipsic, 
I     1882  sqq. 
m^m  STUbinger   Zeitachrift  fUr  Theologie,    TQ- 

^^^ i     bin«m,  1838-40  '— i^ 

Ugolini.  Theaaw-\B.     tJgolinus,     Theaaurua    antiquitatum 

rue 1     aaerarumt  34  vols.,  Venice.  1744-60 

V,  T VetuaTeatamentum,  Vieux  Teatament,  "Oki 

Testament " 
W.  Wattenbaeh,  Deutaeklanda  Geaehichta- 
queUan^  5th  ed..  2  vols.,  Berlin.  1885; 
dth  ed..  1893-94 
J.  Wellhausen,  Reate  arabiaehen  Heiden- 

tuma.  Berlin.  1887 
J.  Wellhausen,  Prolegomena  aur  Oeaehichte 
faraela.    fith    ed  ,    Rerlin,     1905.    Eng. 

Zeit4chrift      fUr      Atat/rujiogit,      Leipsie, 

1885-88,  Berlin.  IS8^  E*qq. 
T.  Zahn.  Einleituno  in  titti  Ncue  Teata^ 

ment,  3d  ©iJ^,  LeipHic^  1007 
T.    Z»iin,    Geachiekte    dea    neuieakunent' 

lichen  Kanoru,  2  vtilf,.  Lftip-Hic.  1888-92 
Zeitschrift   fQr   die   alttiikimenUiiAe   Wia- 

»enMchafl,  Giessen.  1881  ^^q. 
Z€itsckrifi  f  Or  denjUachet  AUerthumunddeut' 

trhtLttemtuT,  Merlin,   1870  Bqq. 
ZeiUchrift  dtr  d^niUchen  mftrQenl^ndiadun 


Zahn,  Kanon., 

ZATW 

ZDAL 


ZDMQ, 

ZDP.... 
ZDPV,. 


Zech.. 
Zeph.. 

ZHT.. 

ZKO  . 
ZKR  . 
ZKT.. 
ZKW. 
ZPK., 


ZWT,, 


GeM^llarhaft,  Leipnic.  1847  mq. 
ZeiiarAriH  far  deutache  Philttlogie,  Halle, 

1869  iqq. 
ZeiUchrift  d^  dftUadun   PaUUtinthVer' 

dnj;  Leiptiie,  1878  sqq. 
ZeobAnAh 

ZtiUdirift  fiir   die  hiaturiafhe   Theologie, 

pull]  shed     HUG^Eu4vety     at     Leipsic^ 

HaiiiburK.  and  Gothik.  1832-76 
ZtitMrhrifi    fikr   Kirckengeachv^it,    Gotha, 

187li  H4q. 
ZeitacJiriii  Jiir  Kirehenretht,    B«rlin,  Ttt- 

btDg£Mi»  f  neibuTigH  1861  »Qq. 
Ztiisfhrift  fiir  katholi^:he  Thealoeia,  Inna- 

brurk.  1877  aqcj. 
Zciltchrxft  fUr  kirchlitfie  Wiasrnachaft  und 

kirtrhtichrJt  l^i}€tt,  Ijejpaic,  1880^9 
ZtviMrhrift  fiir  I^iiUMtafUiamuf!  und Kir€ke, 

ErlsJigen,  1S38  76 
Ztittchrift  /fir  tritMenacKaftliche  Theotogie, 

Jeoa.  lE5aH}0.  UaUe.  l«^l-67,  Leipsie. 

1868  sqq. 


SYSTEM  OF  TRANSLITERATION 


The  foUowing  system  of  transliteration  has  been  used  for  Hebrew : 

IC  =  '  or  omitted  at  the 

beginning  of  a  word. 

a  =  b 

3  =  bh  or  b 

j  =  gh  or  g 

ti  =  d 

*1  =  dh  or  d 


n  =  h 

1  =  w 


3  =  k 

3  =  kh  or  k 

^  =  1 

D  =  m 

3  =  n 

D  =  s 


B  =  p 

B  =  ph  or  p 

V  =  ? 

1  =  r 

B^  =  sh 

n  =  t 

n  =  th  or  t 


The  vowels  are  transcribed  by  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  without  attempt  io  indicate  quantity  or  quality.  Arabic 
and  other  Semitic  languages  are  transliterated  according  to  the  same  system  as  Hebrew.  Greek  Is 
written  with  Roman  characters,  the  common  equivalents  being  used. 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


When  the  pronunciation  is  self-evident  the  titles  are  not  respelled ;  when  by  mere  division  and  accen- 
tuation it  can  be  shown  sufficiently  clearly  the  titles  have  been  divided  into  syllables,  and  the  accented 
syllables  indicated. 

o   as   in   not  iu        as  in  duration 

c  =  k    "    "    cat 

ch         "    "   church 

cw  =  qu  as  in  ^een 

dh  (th)    "  "  the 

f  "  "  /anoy 

g  (hard)  "  "  go 

H  "  "  loch  (Scotch) 

hw  (iDfc)  "  "  tofey 

i  "   "/aw 

<  In  aooentod  ayllsblM  only ;  in  onaoeentod  syllables  it  approzimateB  the  sound  of  e  in  over.  Silent  n  (aa  In  Frenca 
words)  is  rendered  d. 

*  In  German  and  French  names  Q  approximates  the  sound  of  u  in  dune. 


as  in 

sofa 

tt  ti 

arm 

M    « 

at 

it    U 

fars 

tt    tt 

pen* 

tt    tt 

fate 

U    tt 

tin 

tt    tt 

tt    tt 

obey 

5 

tt    U 

no 

S 

tt 

tt 

nor 

u 

tt 

u 

fidl« 

a 

it 

tt 

rule 

V 

u 

tt 

but 

0 

tt 

tt 

bum 

oi 

u 

tt 

pthe 

ou 

tt 

tt 

out 

ei 

tt 

tt 

oil 

ia 

tt 

<f 

few 

THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 

ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  RELIGIOUS  KNOWLEDGE 


BASILICA:  1.  Legal  codes.  Since  the  great 
codification  of  the  Roman  law  by  Justinian,  the 
Carpus  juris  civilis,  was  written  in  Latin,  it  could 
not  meet  the  needs  of  the  East,  and  required  Greek 
translations.  To  do  away  with  the  uncertainty 
which  had  arisen  from  such  versions,  in  878  the 
emperor  Basil  the  Macedonian  had  a  handbook 
put  together,  covering  forty  titles,  and  put  out  a 
revision  in  885.  A  further  revision  and  codifica^ 
tion  of  the  older  laws,  edited  once  more  under  Leo 
the  Wise  (886),  bears  the  Greek  name  of  to  baailika. 
It  is  in  sixty  books,  based  on  Justinian's  compila- 
tion from  the  older  versions  and  commentaries, 
with  extracts  from  his  later  constitutions  known 
as  the  NovdUB,  and  from  Basil's  handbook  men- 
tioned above.  (E.  Friedberq.) 

2.  Early  form  of  Christian  churches.  See  Archi- 

TECTUttE,  ECCLESIABTICAL. 

Biblioobapht:  C.  E.  ZachariA,  HisloruB  juria  Oraeo-Romani 
delineatio,  pp.  35-36.  Heidelberg,  1839;  Mortreuil,  HU- 
Mn  du  droit  BytanHn,  iMit  ii,  pp.  1  sqq..  part  iii,  pp.  230 
■qq..  Pferu,  1843-46;  Knimbacher,  OMchiekte,  pp.  171, 
257-258.  606.  607.  609,  610,  977. 

BASILIDES,  bas-i-ldi'dtz,  AFD   THE  BASILID- 
lAHS:    Basilides,  a  famous  Gnostic,  was  a  pupil 
of  an  alleged  interpreter  of  St.  Peter,  Glaucias  by 
name,  and  taught  at  Alexandria  during  the  reign  of 
Hadrian  (117-138).    He  may  have  been  previously 
a  disciple  of  Menander  at  Antioch,  together  with 
Satumilus.     The  Acta  Archelai  state  that  for  a  time 
he   tau^t    among    the    Persians.    He    composed 
twenty-four  books  on  the  Gospel,  which,  according 
to  Qanent  of  Alexandria  {Stromata,  iv,  12),  were 
entitled  "  Exegetics."    Fragments  of  xiii  and  xxiii, 
preserved  by  Clement  and  in  the  Acta  Archelai, 
supplement  the  knowledge  of  Basilides  furnished 
by  his  opponents.    Origen  is  certainly  wrong  in 
ascribing  to  him  a  Gospel.  The  oldest 
BsBlidei.    refutation  of  the  teacWgs  of  Basili- 
des, by  Agrippa  Castor  (q.v.),  is  lost, 
and  we  are  dependent  upon  the  later  accounts  of 
liemeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Hippolytus. 
The  latter,  in  his  PhilosophutMna,  gives  a  presen- 
tation entirely  different  from  the  other  sources. 
It  either  rests  on  corrupt  accounts,  or,  more  prob- 
ably, on  those  of  a  later,  post-Basilidian  phase 
of  the  system.    Hippolytus  describes  a  monistic 
■ystem,  in  which  Hellenic,  or  rather  Stoic,  concep- 
tions stand  in  the  foreground,  whereas  the  genuine 
XL— 1 


Basilides  is  an  Oriental  through  and  throu^,  who 
stands  in  closer  relationship  to  Zoroaster  than  to 
Aristotle. 

The  fundamental  theme  of  the  Basilidian  specu- 
lation is  the  question  concerning  the  origin  of  evil 
and  how  to  overcome  it.  The  answer  is  given 
entirely  in  the  forms  of  Oriental  gnosis,  evidently 
influenced  by  Parseeism.  There  are  two  principles, 
uncreated  and  self-existent,  light  and  darkness, 
originally  separated  and  without  knowledge  of 
each  other.     At  the  head  of  the  "  kingdom  of  light " 

stands  "  the  uncreated,  unnamable 
His  System.  God."    From  him  divine  life  imfolds 

in  successive  steps.  Seven  such  reve- 
lations form  the  first  ogdoad,  from  which  issued  the 
rest  of  the  spirit-world,  till  three  himdred  and  sixty- 
five  spirit-realms  had  originated.  These  are  com- 
prised under  the  mystic  name  Abrasax  (q.v.),  whose 
numerical  value  answers  to  the  number  of  the 
heavens  and  days.  Being  seized  with  a  longing 
for  light,  darkness  now  interferes.  A  struggle  of  the 
principles  commences,  in  which  originated  our 
system  of  the  world  as  copy  of  the  last  stage  of  the 
spirit-world,  having  an  archon  and  angel  at  its 
head.  The  earthly  life  is  only  a  moment  of  the 
general  purification-process  which  now  takes  place 
to  deliver  the  world  of  light  from  darkness.  Hence 
eversrthing  which  is  bad  and  evil  in  this  system 
of  the  world  becomes  intelligible  when  regarded  in 
its  proper  relations.  Gradually  the  rays  of  light 
find  their  way  through  the  mineral  kingdom, 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  animal  kingdom.  Man 
has  two  souls  in  his  breast,  of  which  the  rational 
soul  tries  to  master  the  material  or  animal.  For 
the  consummation  of  the  process  an  intervention 
from  above  is  necessary,  however.  The  Christian 
idea  of  the  manifestation  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ 
is  the  historical  fact  which  Basilides  subjects  to  his 
general  thoughts.  God's  "  mind "  (Gk.  nous) 
descended  upon  Jesus  as  dove  at  the  Jordan,  and  he 
proclaimed  salvation  to  the  Jews,  the  chosen  people 
of  the  archon.  The  suffering  of  Jesus,  Baisilides 
admitted  as  a  historical  fact,  but  he  did  not  imder- 
stand  how  to  utilize  it  religiously.  The  Spirit  of 
God  is  the  redeemer,  not  the  crucified  one.  Jesus 
suffered  as  man,  whose  light-nature  was  also  con- 
taminated through  the  matter  of  evil.  But  the 
belief  in  the  redemption  which  came  from  above 
lifts  man  beyond  himself  to  a  higher  degree  of  exist- 


Basnaere 
Bathlziff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


2 


ence.  How  far  the  individual  can  attain  it 
depends  on  the  degree  of  pure  entanglement  in 
former  degrees  of  the  spirit-world.  In  the  per- 
fected spirit-world  the  place  will  be  assigned  to 
each  which  belongs  to  him  according  to  the  degree 
of  his  faith. 

Among  the  Basilidians,  Basilides'  son,  Isidore, 
occupies  a  prominent  place.  Of  his  writings  ("  On 
the  Excrescent  Soul,"  "  Exegetics,"  "  Ethics  ") 
some  fragments  are  extant.  The  sect  does  not  seem 
to  have  spread  beyond  Lower  Egypt. 
The  Basi-     In  opposition  to  the  rigid  ethics  of 

iidians.  their  master,  the  Basilidians  seem 
often  to  have  advocated  libertinism. 
According  to  Clement  of  Alexandria  they  cele- 
brated the  sixth  or  the  tenth  of  January  as  the  day 
of  the  baptism  of  Jesus.  On  the  importance  of 
this  fact  for  the  origin  of  the  ecclesiastical  festival 
of  the  Epiphany,  cf.  H.  Usener,  Rdigionageschicht- 
liche  Untersuckungen,  i  (Bonn,  1889). 

G.  KRt^GER. 

Bxblioorapht:  The  fragmenta  of  Baailides  are  ooUeoted  in 
J.  E.  Grabe,  S-pieOegium  88.  Patrum,  ii,  36-43.  Oxford. 
1690;  in  A.  Stieren's  edition  of  Irenseus,  i,  001-003,  007- 
000,  Leipaic,  1853;  and  in  A.  Hilgenfeld,  Keiaergeachichte 
de9  UrehrUteniumM,  pp.  207-217.  Leipsic,  1884.  The 
sources  are  Irenseus  (Hcer.,  I.  xxiv,  1;  cf.  ii,  16  et  passim), 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom.,  ii,  8;  iii.  1;  iv,  12.  24,  26; 
V,  1),  Origen  (Hom.  i  on  Luke;  com.  on  Romans,  v)»  £u- 
sebius  (Chron.,  an.  133;  HtMt.  eccL,  IV.  vii,  7),  the  Acta 
Arehelai  (Iv),  Epiphaniua  (Hctr.,  xxiii,  1;  xxiv;  xxxii.  3), 
and  HippolytuB  {PhiloBophumenat  vii,  2-15).  Consult  A. 
Neander,  Oenetiaehe  Sniwickluno  der  vomehmaten  (^luxiv- 
adten  Syateme,  Berlin,  1818  (the  most  exhaustive  treat- 
ment); F.  C.  Baur,  Die  chrisdiche  Gnona,  TQbinsen.  1835; 
J.  L.  JBxx>hi,Baailidiaphilo9oph\  gnoatici  aerUerUiaa  ex  Hip- 
polyti  Ixbri,  Berlin.  1852  (valuable);  G.  Uklhom.  Daa 
baeilidtaniache  Syatem,  Gfittingen,  1855;  H.  L.  Mansel, 
Onoatie  Hereaiea,  London,  1876  (has  able  lecture  on  Bas- 
iUdcs);  Hort,  in  DCB,  i,  268-281  (very  thorough); 
A.  Hilgenfeld.  in  ZWT,  xxi  (1878).  228-250;  idem.  Die 
KetBergeaehiehte  dea  Urdirietentuma,  pp.  207-218.  Leipsic, 
1884;  G.  Salmon,  The  Croaa^erencea  in  the  Philoaophou- 
WMTia.  in  Hermalhena,  xi  (1885).  380-402;  H.  St&belin.  Die 
gnoatiachen  QueUen  Hippoltfta,  in  TU,  vi,  3,  Leipsic.  1800; 
Schaff.  Chriatian  Church,  ii,  466-472;  fiarnack.  Lit- 
teratur,  i,  167-161;  u.  1,  280-207:  KrQger,  Hxatory,  pp. 
70-71;  MoeUer.  CftrislianCAurc^,  i,  141-144;  J.  Kennedy,  in 
the  Journal  of  (he  Royal  Aaiatic  Society,  1002,  pp.  377-416. 

BASNA6E,  ba^'nOzh':  The  name  of  a  family  of 
Normandy  which  has  produced  several  men  prom- 
inent in  the  history  of  French  Protestantism. 

1.  Benjamin  Basnage  was  for  fifty-one  years 
pastor  at  Sainte-Mdre-£glise,  near  Carentan  (27 
m.  B.e.  of  Cherbourg),  where  he  was  bom  in  1580 
and  died  in  1652.  During  the  religious  wars  he 
was  repeatedly  chosen  by  his  coreligionists,  on 
account  of  the  constancy  of  his  character  and  his 
great  learning,  to  represent  them  in  political  and 
ecclesiastical  assemblies.  He  was  president  of  the 
general  synod  at  Alengon  in  1637,  and  as  deputy 
at  Charenton  in  1644  he  did  much  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  Protestants  and  to  reconcile  the  theo- 
logians. In  the  year  of  his  death  he  was  ennobled 
by  the  government  of  Louis  XIV.  Of  the  many 
polemical  tractates  which  he  wrote,  the  best  known 
is  De  Vital  visible  et  invisible  ^  V6glise  et  de  la 
parfaite  eatief action  de  Jisus  Christ,  centre  la  fable 
du  purgatoire  (La  Rochelle,  1612). 

2.  Henri  Basnage,  younger  son  of  Benjamin, 
was  bom  at  Sainte-M^re-£glise  Oct.  16,  1615;  d. 


at  Rouen  Oct.  20,  1695.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  advocates  in  the  parliament  of  Rouen 
and  one  of  the  most  famous  jurists  of  his  time. 
He  defended  the  cause  of  the  Reformed  Church 
courageously,  and  his  reputation  was  such  that  after 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  he  was  almost 
the  only  Protestant  who  could  follow  the  profession 
of  law  in  Rouen. 

8.  Samuel  Basnage,  son  of  Antoine,  younger 
son  of  Benjamin,  was  bom  at  Bayeux  1638;  d.  at 
Ziltphen  1721.  He  was  first  pastor  at  Vauxcelles, 
then  at  Bayeux  till  1685.  He  went  with  his  father 
to  the  Netherlands  and  became  pastor  there  of  the 
Walloon  congregation  at  Zatphen.  Of  his  theo- 
logical writings  the  most  important  are:  Morcde 
thiologique  et  politique  sur  Us  vertus  et  les  vices  des 
hommes  (2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1703);  and  Annules 
poUtico-ecclesiastici  (3  vols.,   Rotterdam,   1706). 

4.  Jacques  Basnage  (de  Beauval),  son  of  Henri, 
was  bom  at  Rouen  Aug.  8,  1653;  d.  at  The  Hague 
Dec.  22,  1723.  He  first  studied  the  classical  lan- 
guages at  Saumur  under  Tanneguy,  father  of  the 
famous  Mme.  Dacier,  afterward  theology  at  Geneva 
under  Turretin  and  Tronchin,  finally  at  S^dan 
under  Jurieu.  In  1676  he  was  chosen  pastor  at 
Rouen;  after  the  suppression  of  the  church  at 
Rouen  in  1685,  Louis  XIV  granted  him  permission 
to  retire  to  Holland.  In  1691  he  was  made  pastor 
of  the  Walloon  congregation  at  Rotterdam,  and  in 
1709  of  the  French  congregation  at  The  Hague. 
The  prime  minister  Heinsius  respected  him  highly 
and  employed  him  in  different  diplomatic  missions. 
The  fame  of  his  diplomatic  ability  reached  the 
court  at  Versailles,  and  when,  in  1716,  the  Abb^ 
Dubois  was  sent  to  The  Hague  by  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  then  regent,  in  behalf  of  the  triple  alliance, 
he  was  instmcted  to  associate  with  Basnage. 
When  an  insurrection  of  the  Camisards  in  the 
C^vennes  was  feared,  the  regent  applied  to  Basnage. 
He  supported  energetically  the  zealous  Antoine 
Court,  then  twenty  years  old,  in  restoring  the 
Protestant  Church  in  Southern  France,  but,  partial 
to  the  principles  of  passive  obedience,  as  preached 
by  Calvin,  he  severely  condemned  the  insurrection 
of  the  Camisards  and  even  blamed  the  first  preachers 
in  the  Desert.  About  this  time  the  States  General 
of  the  Netherlands  appointed  him  historiographer. 
His  numerous  works  are  partly  dogmatic  or  polemic, 
partly  historical.  The  former  include  especially 
his  writings  against  Bossuet:  Examen  des  nUthodes 
proposies  par  Messieurs  de  VassembUe  du  dergl  de 
France,  en  1682,  pour  la  reunion  des  Protestants  a 
VEglise  romaine  (Cologne,  1682);  lUponse  A  M. 
VMque  de  Meaux  sur  la  leUre  pastorale  (1686). 
His  historical  works  are:  Histoire  de  la  religion 
des  iglises  rifomUes  (2  vols.,  Rotterdam,  1690: 
1725);  Histoire  de  VEglise  depuis  J^sus  Christ 
jusqu'h  present  (1699);  Histoires  du  Vieux  et  du 
Nouveau  Testament,  representees  par  des  figures 
gravies  en  taiUe-douce  par  R.  de  Hooge  (Amsterdam, 
1704);  Histoire  des  Juifs  depuis  Jisus  Christ 
jusqu'd,  present   (1706).  G.   Bonbt-Maury. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Aymon,  Toua  lea  eynodea  noHonaux  dea 
tgliaea  riformSea,  The  Hague,  1710;  P.  Bayle,  Diction^ 
naire  hiatorupie  et  critique,  Amsterdam,  1740;  D.  Houard, 
DicOonnaire  de  la  coutume  de  Normandie,  Rouen,  1780: 
Lamory,  Eloife  de  Baenaoe,  in  BuUsUnd'hietoire  du  proie*- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Basnaere 
Bathing 


tatUigme  fran^au,  vol.  z,  p.  42;  xiii.  pp.  41-48;  E.  and  ]6. 
Haac.  ^  France  protettante,  2d  ed.  by  M.  Bordier,  5  vols., 
Pfths*  1877-86;  F.  Puaux,  Lea  JPricureeura  fran^aie  de  la 
toUranee,  ib.  1881;  J.  BianquiB,  La  Rivoeation  de  I'Mit 
de  Naniee,  Rouen,  1885. 

BASSERMAIIN,  HEINRICH  GUSTAV:  German 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  July  12, 
1S49.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Jena, 
Zurich,  and  Heidelberg  in  1868-73,  but  interrupted 
his  studies  to  serve  in  the  campaign  of  1870-71 
in  the  First  Baden  Dragoons.  He  was  assistant 
pastor  at  Arolsen,  Waldeck,  from  1873  to  1876, 
when  he  became  privat-docent  of  New  Testament 
exegesis  at  the  University  of  Jena.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  prac- 
tical theology  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  was  made 
full  professor  and  university  preacher  in  1880.  He 
has  written:  Dreissig  ckristliche  Predigten  (Leipsic, 
1875);  De  loco  MaUhcei  r,  17-SO  (Jena,  1876); 
Handbuch  der  geisilichen  Beredaamkeit  (Stuttgart, 
1885);  Akademiache  Predigten  (1886);  System  der 
Liturgik  (1888);  GeschichU  der  badiachen  Gottes- 
diemtordnung  (1891);  Sine  ira  et  studio  (Tttbingen, 
1894);  Der  badische  Katechismus  erkldH  (1896-97); 
Richard  Rothe  aU  praktischer  Theolog  (1899);  Zur 
Frage  des  Unionskateckismxis  (1901);  Ueber  Reform 
des  AbendmaJds  (1904);  Wie  studiert  man  evange- 
lische  Theoloffie  f  (Stuttgart,  1905);  and  Goti  : 
Funf  Predigten  (G6ttingen,  1905).  Since  1879 
he  has  also  edited  the  Zeiischrift  fur  fraktische 
Theoiogie  in  collaboration  with  Rudolf  Ehlers. 

BASTHOLH,  CHRISTIAN:  Danish  court  preach- 
er, and  an  influential  representative  of  the  prev- 
alent rationalism  of  his  time;  b.  at  Copenhagen 
Nov.  2,  1740;  d.  there  Jan.  25,  1819.  He  had  a 
varied  education,  and  was  specially  attracted  to 
philosophy  and  natural  science,  but  was  persuaded 
by  his  father  to  embrace  a  clerical  career  without 
any  real  love  for  Christian  doctrine  or  the  Church. 
He  was  preacher  to  the  German  congregation  at 
Smyrna  from  1768  to  1771.  His  renown  as  a  great 
orator  won  him  in  1778  the  position  of  court 
preacher,  to  which  other  court  offices  were  subse- 
quently added.  Full  of  the  ideas  of  the  "  Enlight- 
enment," he  felt  called  upon  to  be  a  missionary 
in  their  cause  to  his  coimtrymen,  and  published 
a  number  of  works  in  popular  religious  philosophy 
and  history  which  have  long  since  fallen  into  obliv- 
ion. His  greatest  success  was  his  text-book  of 
sacred  oratory  (1775),  which  so  impressed  Joseph  II 
that  he  introduced  it  into  all  the  higher  educational 
institutions  of  the  empire,  though  its  recommenda- 
tions seem  laughable  to-day.  He  published  a  history 
of  the  Jews  (1777-82),  attempting  to  "  rationalize  " 
it  after  Michaelis,  and  a  translation  'of  the  New 
Testament  with  notes  (1780).  A  small  treatise 
on  improvements  in  the  liturgy  (1785)  aroused  a 
storai  of  controversy;  his  idea  was  to  make  the 
service  "  interesting  and  diversified,"  after  the 
model  of  balls  and  concerts;  to  exclude  from 
hymnody  not  only  everything  dogmatic  but  all 
that  was  not  joyous;  and  to  eliminate  from  the 
sacramental  rit^  whatever  was  contrary  to  soimd 
reason.  In  the  days  of  the  French  Revolution, 
he  offered  so  many  concessions  to  the  antireligious 
spirit  that  he  made  himself  ridiculous  even  in  the 


eyes  of  freethinkers;  and  his  book  on  '*  Wisdom 
and  Happiness "  (1794)  taught  a  Stoicism  only 
colored  by  Christianity.  In  1795  he  lost  his  library 
by  fire,  and  with  the  new  century  withdrew  from 
public  life  and  authorship  to  live  quietly  with  his 
son,  a  pastor  at  Slagelse,  absorbed  in  the  study  of 
philosophy  and  science.  (F.  Nielsen.) 

BATES,  WILLIAM:  English  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
London  Nov.,  1625;  d.  at  Hackney  July  14,  1699. 
He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge  1647,  and  was 
vicar  of  St.  Dunstan's-in-the-West,  London,  until 
1662,  when  he  lost  the  benefice  for  non-conformity; 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference (q.v.)  in  1661  and  represented  the  non- 
conformists on  other  occasions  in  negotiations 
with  the  Churehmen;  was  chaplain  to  Charles  II 
and  had  influence  in  high  places  both  imder  Charles 
and  his  successors.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a 
polished  preacher  and  a  sound  scholar.  Perhaps 
the  best  known  of  his  works  is  The  Harmony  of 
the  Divine  AUribvies  in  the  Contrivance  and  Accom- 
plishment of  Man*s  Redemption  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1675).  A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  with 
memoir  by  W.  Farmer,  was  published  in  four  vol- 
umes at  London  in  1815. 

BATHING:  The  bath  in  the  East,  because  of 
the  heat  and  the  dust,  is  constantly  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  health,  and  to  prevent  skin- 
diseases.  The  bathing  of  the  newly  bom  is  men- 
tioned in  Ezek.  xvi,  4;  bathing  as  part  of  the 
toilet  in  Ruth  iii,  3;  II  Sam.  xii,  20;  Ezek.  xxiii, 
40,  and  elsewhere.  As  the  Law  attached  great 
religious  value  to  the  purity  of  the  body,  it  pre- 
scribed bathing  and  ablutions  for  cases  in  which  it 
was  apparently  impaired  (see  Defilement  and 
Purification,  Ceremonial).  Ablution  was  re- 
quired when  one  approached  the  deity  (cf.  Gen. 
XXXV,  2;  Exod.  xix,  10;  Lev.  xvi,  4,  for  the  high 
priest  on  the  Day  of  Atonement).  Bathing  in 
"  living"  (i.e.,  running)  water  was  regarded  as  most 
effective  in  every  respect  (Exod.  ii,  5;  II  King?  v, 
10;  Lev.  xv,  13).  More  accessible  and  convenient 
were  the  baths  arranged  in  the  houses.  To  a  well- 
furnished  house  belonged  a  courtyard,  in  which  was 
a  bath — ^according  to  II  Sam.  xi,  2,  an  open  basin. 
Susannah  (verses  15  sqq.)  bathes  in  a  hedged  garden 
and  uses  oil  and  some  kind  of  soap;  the  Hebrew 
women  used  bran  in  the  bath,  or  to  dry  themselves 
(Mishnah  Peaahim  ii,  7).  The  feet,  being  pro- 
tected by  sandals  only,  were  exposed  to  dust  and 
dirt,  and  no  attentive  host  omitted  to  give  to  his 
guests  water  for  their  feet  before  he  entertained 
them  (Gen.  xviii,  4;  xix,  2;  I  Sam.  xxv,  41;  cf. 
Luke  vii,  44;  John  xiii,  1-10).  The  washing  of 
hands  before  meals  was  customary  for  obvious 
reasons;  but  it  is  not  expressly  attested  before 
New  Testament  time,  and  then  as  a  religious  enact- 
ment which  the  Pharisees  rigidly  observed  (Matt. 
XV,  2;  Luke  xi,  38);  so  in  general  with  reference 
to  washings  and  bathing?  the  pimctilious  were  at 
that  time  more  exacting.  The  efficacy  of  warm 
springs  was  recognized  at  a  very  early  period  (cf. 
Gen.  xxxvi,  24,  R.  V.,  and  the  name  Hammath, 
Josh,  xix,  35;  xxi,  32).  They  were  found  near 
Tiberias     (Josephus,     War,    II,     xxi,     6;     Ant., 


Bath  Kol 
BauzB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


XVIII,  ii,  3;  Life,  xvi ;  Pliny,  v,  15),  Gadara,  the 
capital  of  Penea,  and  Callirrho^,  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Josephus,  War,  I,  xxxiii,  5;  Pliny,  v,  16). 
Public  baths  are  mentioned    in  Josephus,    Ant,, 

XIX,  vii,  5,  but  their  existence  in  Palestine  can 
not  be  proved  before  the  Greco-Roman  time. 

C.  VON  Orelu. 
Abuses  connected  with  the  public  baths  in  early 
Christian  times  called  forth  protests  from  many 
of  the  heathen  and  led  some  of  the  emperors 
to  attempt  restrictive  precautions.  The  Church 
Fathers  also  raised  their  voices,  but  it  is  noteworthy 
that  though  there  was  public  censure  (e.g.,  of  women, 
particularly  of  virgins  who  were  immodest  in  the 
bath),  there  was  no  formal,  ecclesiastical  prohibition 
of  the  public  baths.  The  use  of  the  bath  was  re- 
mitted during  public  calamities,  penance.  Lent, 
and  for  the  first  week  after  baptism.  From  the 
time  of  Constantine  it  was  usual  to  build  baths 
near  the  basilicas,  partly  for  the  use  of  the  clergy, 
and  partly  for  other  ecclesiastical  purposes. 

Bibuoorapht:  For  Hebr.  cuatom  consult  DB,  i,  257-258. 
On  the  Christian.  DC  A,  i.  182-183;  the  article  "  Baden  " 
in  KL,  i.  1843-46,  covers  both  subjects. 

BATH  KOL:  Literally  "daughter  of  the  voice," 
an  expression  which  signifies  in  itself  nothing 
more  than  a  call  or  echo,  for  which  it  is  also 
used.  When  the  term  is  applied  to  a  divine 
manifestation,  it  implies  that  it  was  audible  to  the 
human  hearing  without  a  personal  theophany. 
In  the  Old  Testament  the  notion  is  found  in  Dan. 
iv,  28  (A.  V.  31),  "  a  voice  fell  from  heaven."  In 
the  New  Testament  similar  ideas  are  the  heavenly 
voice  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus  (Matt,  iii,  17;  Mark 
i,  11;  Luke  iii,  22),  at  his  transfiguration  (Matt, 
xvii,  5;  Mark  ix,  7;  Luke  ix,  35),  before  his  passion 
(John  xii,  28),  and  the  voices  from  heaven  heard 
by  Paul  and  Peter  (Acts  ix,  4;  cf.  xxii,  7  and  xxvi, 
14;  X,  13,  15).  A  voice  from  the  sanctuary  is 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant.,  XIII,  x,  3;  cf.  Bab. 
So^ah  33a;  Jerus.  Sofak  24b),  and  was  called  ha^  kol 
by  the  rabbis,  who  were  of  opinion  that  such  heav- 
enly voices  were  heard  during  all  the  tune  of  Israel's 
history,  even  in  their  own  time.  According  to 
Bab.  Sotah  4Sb;  Yomah  9a,  this  "voice"  was  the 
only  divine  means  of  revelation  after  the  extinction 
of  prophecy.  They  narrate  legendary  stories  of 
such  divine  voices  which  settled  religious  difficulties. 
Different  from  the  bath  kol  proper  is  the  idea  that 
natural  sounds  or  words  heard  by  accident 
are  significant  heavenly  voices.  This  superstition 
was  not  uncommon,  as  Jems.  Shabhat  8c  shows. 
Rabbi  Joshua  was  of  the  opinion  that  such  things 
must  not  influence  any  legal  decision  (Bab, 
Baba  Me^*a  59b;  Berakot  51b).  Rabbi  Johanan 
lays  down  as  general  rule  that  that  which  was 
heard  in  the  city  must  be  the  voice  of  a  man,  in  the 
desert  that  of  a  woman,  and  that  either  a  twofold 
"Yea "  or  twofold  "  Nay"  is  heard  (Bab.  Megillah 
32a).  (G.  Dalman.) 

Bibuoorapht:  F.  Weber,  SyaUm  der  alUvnaoooaisn  poidstt- 
niUchmi  ThsoUoU,  PP.  187.  194.  Leipaic,  188C;  W.  Bacher, 
Agada  der  Tannaiten,  i,  88.  note  3,  Straaburs.  1884;  idem, 
Agada  der  palOetiniedten  AmorOer,  i,  351,  note  3,  ii,  26, 
ib.  1892-M;  S.  Louia,  Ancient  TradiHone  of  Supernatural 
Vaiee»:  Bath  Kol,  in  TSBA,  ix.  18;  JE,  ii,  588-602. 


BATIFFOL,  PIERRE  HENRI:  French  RomAn 
Catholic;  b.  at  Toulouse  Jan.  27,  1861.  He  waa 
educated  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpioe,  Paris 
(1878-82),  and  the  University  of  Paris  (1882-S6; 
Docteur  6s  lettres,  1802),  and  since  1898  has  been 
rector  of  the  Institut  Catholique  at  Toulouse. 
He  was  created  a  domestic  prelate  to  the  Pope 
in  1899,  and  in  theology  is  an  orthodox  Roman 
Catholic,  inclining  toward  the  critical  school  in 
matters  of  history.  Since  1896  he  has  been  the 
editor  of  the  BtUiothtque  de  Venseignement  de  Vhis- 
toire  eccUsiaslique,  foimded  by  him  in  that  year, 
and  since  1899  has  also  edited  the  monthly  Bulletin 
de  UtUrature  eccUaiastiqite.  He  has  written  L'Ab- 
baye  de  Roseano,  contribution  d,  Vhistoire  de  la  VfMti- 
cane  (Paris,  1892);  Histoire  du  hrevikre  ronuxin 
(1893);  Six  lemons  sur  lea  Svangilee  (1897);  Trac- 
tatue  Orwenie  in  libros  eanctarum  scripturarum 
(1900);  Etudee  d'histoire  et  de  tfUoloffie  positive 
(1902);  and  L'Enseignement  de  Jieus  (1905). 

BATTEN,  LORING  WOART:  Protestant  Gpis- 
copalian ;  b.  in  Gloucester  Coimty,  N.  J.,  Nov. 
12,  1859.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School,  and 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1886  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year,  and  was  instructor  and  professor  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  Philadelphia  Divinity  School  from 
1888  to  1899,  when  he  became  rector  of  St.  Mark's, 
New  York  CSty.  He  is  also  lecturer  on  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  General  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City.  In  addition  to  numerous  briefer 
studies,  he  has  written  The  Old  Teetament  from 
the  Modem  Point  of  View  (New  York,  1889)  and 
The  Hebrew  Prophet  (London,  1905). 

BATTERSOn,     HERMON    6RISW0LD:    Protr 

estant  Episcopalian;  b.  at  Marbledale,  Conn., 
May  27,  1827;  d.  in  New  York  City  Mar.  9, 
1903.  He  was  educated  privately,  was  rector  at 
San  Antonio,  Texas.  1860-61,  and  at  Wabasha, 
Minn.,  1862-66.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Philadelphia 
and  was  rector  of  St.  Clement's  Church  there  1869- 
1872,  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation  1880-^89; 
became  rector  of  the  Church  of  the  Redeemer, 
New  York,  1891,  but  soon  retired.  He  published 
The  Missionary  Tune  Book  (Philadelphia,  1867); 
The  Churchman's  Hymn  Book  (1870);  A  Sketch 
Book  of  the  American  Episcopate  (1878;  3d  ed., 
enlarged,  1891);  Christmas  Carols  and  Other  Verses 
(1877);  Gregorian  Music,  a  manual  of  plain  song 
for  the  offices  of  the  American  Church  (New  York, 
1884;  7th  ed.,  1890);  Vesper  BeUs  and  Other  Verses 
(1895). 

BAUDISSIN,  WOLF  WILHELM,  GRAF  VON: 
Gennan  Protestant;  b.  at  Sophienhof,  near  Kiel, 
Germany,  Sept.  26,  1847.  He  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Erlangen,  Berlin,  Leipsic  (Ph.D., 
1870),  and  Kiel  from  1866  to  1872,  and  was  privat- 
docent  at  Leipsic  in  1874-76,  when  he  accepted 
a  call  to  the  University  of  Strasburg  as  associate 
professor  of  theology.  Four  yeafs  later  he  was 
promoted  to  full  professor,  but  in  the  following 
year  went  to  Marburg  as  professor  of  Old  Testament 
exegesis.    He   remained   at    Marburg,    where    he 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bath  Kol 
Baum 


t  rector  in  1893-94,  until  1900,  when  he  went  to 
Berlin  as  professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis,  a 
chair  which  he  still  holds.  In  theology  he  is  an 
adherent  of  the  historical  school  of  investigation, 
and  seeks  to  elucidate  the  religion  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment by  other  Semitic  faiths.  He  has  written: 
Tranalatwnis  aniiqwB  arabica  libri  Jobi  qua  super- 
9uni  nunc  primum  edita  (Leipsic,  1870);  Euiogius 
und  Alvar,  ein  AbaehniU  spaniacher  Kirchenge- 
tekidUe  aus  der  Zeit  der  Maurenherrachaft  (1872); 
Jahve  et  Moloeh,  Hve  de  ratione  inter  deum  Israeli- 
tarum  et  Molockum  intercedente  (1874);  Studien 
zur  aemUUchen  Rdigionegeechichte  (2  vols.,  1876- 
1878);  Die  Geechichte  dee  aUtestamenUichen  Priester- 
thume  untereucht  (1889);  August  DiUmann  (1895); 
Einleitung  in  die  Bucher  des  Alien  Testaments 
(1901);  and  Esmun-Asklepias  (Giessen,  1906). 

BAU^R,  BRUNO:  A  modem  Biblical  critic, 
of  the  most  extreme  radicalism;  b.  at  Eisenberg 
(36  m.  8.  of  Halle),  in  the  duchy  of  Altenburg,  Sept. 
6,  1809;  d.  at  Rixdorf,  near  Berlin,  Apr.  15,  1882. 
He  was  educated  in  Berlin  precisely  in  HegePs 
most  brilliant  period.  He  took  his  place  at  first 
in  the  conservative  wing  of  the  Hegelian  school, 
of  which  his  teacher  Marheineke  was  the  leader, 
and  reviewed  the  Leben  Jesu  of  David  Friedrich 
Strauss,  who  had  been  his  fellow  student,  unfavor- 
ably, accusing  Strauss  of  "  entire  ignorance  of  what 
criticism  means."  He  imdertook  also  to  defend 
Marbeineke's  position  by  issuing  (1836-38)  the 
Zeitsehrift  fur  spekulative  Theologie,  In  1838 
he  published  the  Kritik  der  Geschichte  der  Offen- 
banmg  (2  vols.,  Berlin).  A  year  later  Altenstein, 
minister  of  public  worship  and  instruction,  ap- 
pointed him  to  a  position  in  the  University  of  Bonn, 
and  his  prospects  seemed  promising.  But  he  was 
already  in  a  fair  way  to  break  with  his  past,  as 
shortly  appeared  in  his  Kritik  der  evangelischen 
Gesehiehle  dee  Johannes  (Bremen,  1840)  and  Kritik  der 
evangeUschen  Geschichte  der  Synoptiker  (3  vols.,  Leip- 
sic, 1841 ),  which  went  beyond  Strauss,  and,  adopting 
the  theory  of  WiUce  that  Mark  is  the  original  gos- 
pel, derived  the  whole  story,  not,  with  Strauss, 
from  the  imagination  of  the  primitive  Christian 
community,  but  from  that  of  a  single  mind.  This 
extreme  carrying  out  of  Hegelian  principles  nat- 
urally aroused  wide-spread  excitement.  Eichhom, 
who  had  succeeded  Altenstein  as  minister,  put  the 
question  to  the  Prussian  imiversities  whether  the 
holder  of  such  views  could  be  allowed  to  teach.  The 
answers  were  not  unanimous;  but  Bauer  injiu^d 
his  own  cause  by  a  still  more  amazing  and  reckless 
onslaught  on  traditional  theology  (Theologische 
Schamloeigkeitenf  in  the  HaUische  Jahrbucher  fur 
deutache  Wissenschaft,  Nov.,  1841),  and  was  de- 
prived of  his  academic  post  in  March,  1842. 
His  literary  activity  continued  incessant.  Living 
on  his  small  estate  at  Rixdorf,  he  poured  forth  a 
sucoeasion  of  volumes  on  the  history  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  centuries  between  1843  and 
1849.  In  1850  he  came  back  to  his  old  field,  and 
in  the  next  three  years  had  renewed  his  attack  on 
the  gospels  and  included  the  Acts  and  the  Pauline 
epistles,  considering  even  the  four  admitted  by  the 
Tilbingen  school  as  second-century  Western  prod- 


ucts. In  the  place  of  Ohrist  and  Paul,  to  him 
Philo,  Seneca,  and  the  Gnostics  appeared  the  real 
creative  forces  in  the  evolution  of  Christian  concep- 
tions. He  continued  his  attempts  to  prove  the 
connection  between  Greco-Roman  philosophy  and 
Christianity  in  Christus  und  die  Casaren  (Berlin, 
1877).  Here  he  places  the  genesis  of  the  Christian 
religion  practically  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  and  the  original  gospel  in  that  of  Hadrian, 
after  which  "  clever  men  "  were  busy  for  some  forty 
years  in  the  composition  of  the  Pauline  epistles. 
Only  the  framework  of  the  new  religion  was  Jewish; 
its  spirit  came  from  further  west;  Christianity 
is  really  ''  Stoicism  becoming  dominant  in  a  Jewish 
metamorphosis."  Bauer  left  practically  no  fol- 
lowers in  Germany  for  such  remarkable  theories. 
His  fantastic  hypercriticism  found  a  home  for  a 
time  in  Holland  with  AUard  Pierson,  Naber,  and 
'Lom&n;  and  still  later  it  made  some  attempts 
to  gain  a  foothold  in  Switzerland  with  Steck's 
assault  upon  Galatians.  (J.  Haubsleiter.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Holtsmann,  in  Prote9tanti$ehe  Kirchtmeit- 
ung,  1882.  pp.  640-545;  F.  C.  Bsur,  Ktrehenoeachichle  df 
neunwehrden  Jahrhunderta,  Leipsic,  1862;  O.  Pfleiderer,  Die 
Entuncklung  der  proteatarUtBehen  Thedogie  in  DeuUdUand 
eeii  Kant,  pp.  295-297,  Freibuis,  1891.  On  the  teaohinc 
of  Bauer  and  the  opposition  it  aroused  consult  E.  Bauer, 
Bruno  Bauer  und  aeine  Oegner,  Berlin,  1842;  O.  F.  Gruppe, 
Bruno  Bauer  und  die  akademieche  Ldtrfreiheit,  ib.  1842. 

BAUER,  WALTER  FELIX:  German  Protestant; 
b.  at  K6nigsberg  Aug.  8,  1877.  From  1895  to 
1900  he  studied  at  the  universities  of  Marburg, 
Berlin,  and  Strasburg,  and  since  1903  has  been 
privat-docent  for  church  history  at  the  University 
of  Marburg.  He  has  written  Mundige  und  Unmun- 
dige  bei  dem  AposteL  Paulus  (Marburg,  1902)  and 
Der  Apostdos  der  Syrer  in  der  ZeU  von  der  Mitte 
des  vierten  Jahrhunderts  bis  zur  SpaUung  der  syri- 
schen  Kirche  (Giessen,  1903). 

BAUM,  baum,  HENRY  MASON:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  East  Schuyler,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  24, 
1848.  He  was  educated  at  the  Hudson  River 
Institute,  Claverack,  N.  Y.,  but  did  not  attend  a 
college.  He  received  his  theological  training  at 
De  Lancey  Divinity  School,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1870.  He  was 
successively  rector  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  East 
Bloomfield,  N.  Y.  (1870-71),  missionary  to  Allen's 
Hill,  Victor,  Lima,  and  Honeoye  Falls,  N.  Y.  (1871- 
1872),  rector  of  St.  Matthew's  Church,  Laramie  City, 
Wyo.  (1872-73),  in  charge  of  St.  James's  Church, 
Paulsborough,  N.  J.  (1873-74),  rector  of  St.  Mat- 
thew's Church,  Lambertville,  N.  J.  (1875-76), 
and  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Easton,  Pa.  (1876-80). 
From  1880  to  1892  he  was  editor  of  The  Church 
Review,  and  in  1901  foimded  the  Records  of  the 
Past,  which  he  edited  until  1905.  He  has  taken  a 
keen  interest  in  the  preservation  of  the  antiquities 
of  the  United  States,  and  was  the  author  of  the  act 
passed  by  the  Senate  in  1904  for  the  protection  of 
these  archeological  remains.  In  that  year  he  also 
founded  the  Institute  of  Historical  Research  at 
Washington,  and  has  since  been  its  president. 
In  theology  he  is  a  firm  believer  in  the  historical 
accuracy  of  the  Bible.  He  has  written  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Rectors,  Church  Wardens,  and  Vestrymen  in 


Bamn 
Baor 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


the  American  Church  (Philadelphia,  1879)  and  The 
Law  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1886). 

BAUM,  JOHAim  WILHELM:  Protestant  Ger- 
man theologian;  b.  at  Flonheim  (17  m.  b.8.w. 
of  mainz)  Dec.  7,  1809;  d.  at  Strasburg  Nov.  28, 
1878.  When  he  was  thirteen  years  of  age,  he  was 
sent  to  Strasburg  to  the  house  of  his  uncle,  where 
he  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry.  Having  com- 
pleted his  studies,  he  was  made  teacher  at  the  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Strasburg  in  1835.  This  posi- 
tion he  resigned  in  1844  and  accepted  the  position 
of  vicar  of  St.  Thomas's  in  that  city,  whose  first 
preacher  he  became  in  1847.  At  the  close  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  war,  the  German  government 
appointed  him  professor  in  the  University  of  Stras- 
burg. He  belonged  to  the  liberal  Protestant 
party  of  his  country,  and  made  himself  known  by 
his  writings  on  the  history  of  the  Reformation,  as 
well  as  that  of  his  own  time,  including  Franz 
Lambert  von  Avignon  (Strasburg  and  Paris,  1840); 
Theodor  Beta  nach  handschriftlichen  Quellen  darge- 
etelU  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1843-45);  Johann  Georg 
StubeTf  der  Vorgdnger  Oberlins  im  StevrUhale  und 
Vorkdmpfer  einer  neuen  Zeit  in  Straaeburg  (Stras- 
burg, 1846);  Die  Memoiren  d*Avbign^^8  dee  Huge- 
notten  von  altem  SchroU  und  Kom  (Leipsic,  1854); 
Capito  und  Butzer,  Straseburge  Reformaloren  (Elber- 
feld,  1860),  being  the  third  part  of  Le6en  und 
ausgewdhUe  Schriften  der  Vdter  und  Begrunder 
der  reformirten  Kirche.  Besides  these  works 
written  in  German,  he  published  in  French  Les 
^glisut  riformiee  de  France  sous  la  croix  (Strasburg, 
1869);  Les  MHn(nres  de  P.  Carrihe  dit  Corteis 
(Strasburg,  1871);  Le  Proems  de  Baudichon  de  la 
Maison-Neuve  (Geneva,  1873).  For  a  number 
of  years  Baum  assisted  his  colleagues  Reuss  and 
Cunitz  in  the  edition  of  Calvin's  works  published  in 
the  Corpus  reformaiorum. 

Biblioorapht:  Zur  Erinnerung  an  J.  W,  Baum,  Reden, 
Btraaburg,  1878;  M.  Baum,  J.  W.  Baum,  einprotettantiteheM 
Charakterbild  aua  dem  ElaasB,  Bremen,  1880. 

BAUMGARTEN,  MICHAEL:  German  theolo- 
gian and  active  promoter  of  free  church  life; 
b.  at  Haseldorf,  near  Hamburg,  Mar.  25,  1812; 
d.  at  Rostock  July  21,  1889.  He  was  educated  at 
Altona,  Kiel,  and  Berlin,  becoming  in  the  last-named 
place  an  outspoken  adherent  of  Hengstenberg. 
But  the  study  of  Domer  during  a  period  of  seven 
years  (1839-46)  spent  at  Kiel  as  a  teacher  con- 
vinced him  that  the  traditional  orthodox  view 
of  the  person  of  Christ  was  inadequate  to  explain 
the  mystery  of  redemption;  he  passed  from  Heng- 
stenberg to  Schleiermacher,  with  his  principle  that 
Christianity  is  not  a  doctrine  but  a  life,  and  then  to 
Hofmann,  in  whose  Weissagung  und  ErfOUung 
he  saw  a  theology  that  could  lead  him  further  on 
his  road.  In  his  treatise  LUurgie  und  Predigt 
(Kiel,  1843)  he  lays  down  his  ph>granmie,  to  which 
as  an  old  man  he  was  still  proud  of  having  adhered. 
Here  he  classes  as  stumbling-blocks  in  the  Church's 
way  a  variety  of  ancient  institutions,  laws,  and 
customs,  viz.:  the  misleading  notion  of  a  "  Chris- 
tian State " ;  the  use  of  compulsion  in  the  Church 
(as  in  the  case  of  baptism);  the  power  of  civil 


rulers  within  the  Church,  in  allowing  which  the 
Reformers  had  brought  back  a  B3rzantine  system; 
the  diversity  of  teaching  among  Protestants;  and 
the  failure  to  recognize  the  menace  of  the  Roman 
errors.  About  the  same  time  (1843-44)  appeared 
his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  to  which 
Delitzsch  appealed  when  in  1850  he  reconunended 
his  friend  to  succeed  him  in  the  Rostock  professor- 
ship, but  which  none  the  less  he  sliarply  criticized 
in  some  points.  In  the  eventful  years  1846-50 
he  was  pastor  of  St.  Michael's  church  at  Sleswick, 
and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  clergy  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein  in  their  struggle  for  the  German  right 
to  the  duchies.  After  the  battle  of  Idstedt,  he 
was  obliged  to  escape  from  Sleswick  with  his 
family  to  Hobtein,  where  his  call  to  Rostock  found 
him.  Here  he  was  expected  to  take  part  in  the 
upbuilding  of  the  Church  of  the  duchy,  which  was 
under  Kliefoth's  leadership;  but  two  men  more 
diametrically  opposed  in  their  whole  way  of  looking 
at  things  could  scarcely  have  been  foimd.  Baum- 
garten  frankly  expressed  his  own  view  of  the  eaiiiest 
history  of  the  Church  in  his  Apostelgeschichte  (2 
vols.,  Halle,  1852),  and  of  its  modem  needs  in  his 
Nachtgesichie  Sacharjas  (Brunswick,  1854).  It 
was  not  difficult  to  make  a  collection  of  heretical 
propositions  from  the  writings  of  a  man  who  cared 
so  little  to  express  himself  in  time-honored  formulas, 
and  who  was  wrestling  with  such  modem  problems; 
and  the  attempt  was  soon  made.  The  Grand  Duke 
dismissed  him  from  the  theological  commission  in 
1856;  the  consistory  examined  his  works,  it  must 
be  admitted  without  strict  adherence  to  constitu- 
tional rules  or  to  the  principles  of  fairness,  foimd 
a  whole  series  of  departures  from  the  received 
doctrine,  and  deprived  him  of  his  position.  He 
declined  an  invitation  to  go  to  India  as  a  missionaiy, 
preferring  to  remain  and  carry  on  the  struggle  for 
a  complete  reconstruction  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
in  Germany.  With  this  aim  he  was  for  thirteen 
years  a  zealous  member  of  the  Protestant  Union 
from  1863  to  1876,  but  left  it  when  it  showed 
intolerance  in  the  Heidelberg  case.  His  life  grew 
more  and  more  lonely,  though  he  could  always  count 
on  a  few  faithful  friends,  like  Studt,  Ziegler,  and 
Pestalozzi.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Reichstag 
from  1874  to  1881,  in  which  he  showed  himself  a 
determined  opponent  of  St6cker  and  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  stood  for  his  principles  of  religious  liberty 
and  complete  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  natural  endowment,  fitted 
for  useful  constructive  work  in  theology,  if  the  un- 
fortunate circumstances  in  his  career  had  not  forced 
him  to  expend  his  energy  in  the  combat  to  which 
most  of  his  niunerous  later  writings  have  reference. 

(J.  HAU88LEITER.) 

Biblioorapht:  His  autobiosraphy  was  edited   and   pub- 
lished posthumously  by  K.  H.  Studt,  2  vols.,  Kiel.  1801. 

BAUMGARTEN,  OTTO:  German  Protestant; 
b.  at  Munich  Jan.  29,  1858.  He  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Strasburg,  Gottingen,  Zurich, 
and  Heidelberg,  and  from  1882  to  1887  was  pastor 
at  Baden-Baden  and  Waldkirch,  while  from  1888 
to  1890  he  was  chaplain  to  the  orphan  asylum  at 
Berlin-Rununebburg.      In  1890  he  became  privat- 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baiun 
Baur 


docent  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  called  to  Jena  as  associate  professor  of 
practical  theology,  where  he  remained  until  1894, 
when  he  went  to  Kiel  as  full  professor  of  the  same 
subject.  He  is  also  university  preacher  and  chap- 
lain of  the  academic  sanitarium  at  the  same  institu- 
tion of  learning.  He  has  written:  Volksschtde  und 
Kirche  (Leipsic,  1890);  Der  Seelsorger  unserer 
Tage  (1891);  Predigten  aus  der  GegenwaH  (Tu- 
bingen (1902);  Neue  Bahnen  :  Der  Religions-UrUer- 
richi  vom  StandptmkU  der  tnodemen  Theologie  aus 
(1903);  Prtdig^PrMeme,  Hauptfragen  der  moder- 
nen  Evangdiume'Verkundigungen  (1903);  and  Die 
Voraueadtun^loeigkeit  der  'proiestantischen  Theo- 
logie (Kiel,  1903). 

BAUHGARTEN,  SIEGMUND  JAKOB:  German 
theologian;  b.  at  WoUmirst&dt  (8  m.  n.  of  Magde- 
burg), Saxony,  Mar.  14,  1706;  d.  at  Halle  July 
4,  1757.  He  studied  at  the  Halle  Orphan  Asylum, 
of  which  his  father  had  been  first  inspector,  and 
at  the  University  of  Halle.  He  became  inspector 
of  the  Halle  Latin  School  in  1726,  assistant  preacher 
to  the  younger  G.  A.  Franke  in  1728,  associate  on 
the  theological  faculty  in  1730,  and  ordinary  pro- 
fessor in  1743.  He  was  a  good  teacher  and  his 
lectures  were  usually  attended  by  from  300  to  400 
hearers.  His  learning  was  vast  and  he  was  an 
industrious  writer,  publishing  voluminous  works 
on  exegesis,  hermeneutics,  morals,  dogmatics,  and 
history,  such  as  Auszug  der  Kirchengeschichie  (4 
vols.,  Halle,  1743-62);  Evangdiache  Glavbenalehre 
(3  vols.,  1759-60);  Geschichte  der  Religiansparteien 
(1760);  Nachriehl  von  merkwUrdigen  Buchem  (12 
vols.,  1752-57);  and  the  first  sixteen  volumes  in 
the  AUgemeine  WeUhisiorie  (1744  sqq.).  By  adopt- 
ing the  formal  scheme  of  the  philosophy  of  Wolff 
and  applying  it  to  the  theological  ideas  in  which 
he  was  educated,  Baumgarten  came  to  form  a 
transition  from  the  Pietism  of  Spener  and  Francke 
to  the  modem  rationalism.  His  enthusiastic  dis- 
ciple, J.  S.  Sen:iler,  who  was  called  from  Altdorf 
to  Halle  on  his  reconmiendation,  edited  many  of 
his  works  and  wrote  his  biography  (Halle,  1758). 

(F.  BOBSE.) 

BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS,  LUDWIG  FRIED- 
RICH  OTTO:  (xerman  theologian;  b.  at  Merseburg 
(56  m.  s.s.e.  of  Magdeburg),  Prussian  Saxony, 
July  31, 1788;  d.  at  Jena  May  31, 1843.  He  studied 
theology  and  philology  at  Leipsic  and  became 
university  preacher  there  in  1810;  in  1812  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  theology  at  Jena,  ordinary 
professor,  1817.  He  gave  lecttues  on  all  branches 
of  so-called  theoretic  theology  except  church  his- 
tory, especially  New  Testament  exegesis.  Biblical 
theology,  dogmatics,  ethics,  and  history  of  doctrine. 
Gentle  and  sympathetic,  and  shrinking  from 
theological  strife,  he  was  misunderstood  in  his  time. 
His  exegesis  was  painstaking,  free  from  prejudice, 
and  acute;  as  historian  of  dogma  he  imderstood 
the  origin  and  development  of  religious  ideas  and 
doctrines  as  few  others  have  done;  and  as  system- 
atic theologian  he  was  prof oimd  and  truly  evangel- 
ical. His  principal  works  were:  EirUeitung  in  das 
Studium  der  Dogmatik  (Leipsic,  1820);  Lehrbuch 
der   chngtlieh€n    DogmengesMchte    (Jena,     1832); 


Compendium  der  christlichen  Dogmengeechichte  (Leip- 
sic, 1840),  completed  by  K.  A.  Hase  (1846);  Theolo- 
gische  Audegung  der  johanneischen  Schrifien  (2 vols., 
Jena,  1843-15).  (F.  Bosse.) 

Biblioorapht:  H.  C.  A.  EiehBt&dt,  Memoria  L.  F.  O.  Baum- 
gartenii-CnuHi,  Jena,  1843;  K.  A.  Hase's  preface  to  his 
completion  of  the  Kompendium  der  DoifmengeachiehU, 
Leipme,  1846;  ADB,  ii,  161  sqq. 

BAUR,     FERDINAND    CHRISTIAN,    AND    THE 
LATER  TUBINGEN  SCHOOL. 

I.  The  Period  of  the  Hiatory  of  Dogma. 
Baiir's  Early  Life  and  Activity  (8  1). 
Baur's  Relation  to  Schleiermacher  and  Hegel  (S  2). 
1 1.  The  Period  of  Biblical  Criticism. 

Historioo-Critical  Study  of  the  New  Testament  ({  1). 
Applied  to  the  Writings  of  Paul  (8  2). 
The  Fundamental  Assumption  of  the  School  (S  3). 
Applied  to  the  Gospels  (8  4). 
Deyeloped  by  Schwegler  (S  5). 
III.  The  Period  of  Church  History. 
Political  Complications  (8  1). 
Baur's  Works  on  Church  History  (S  2). 
His  Theories  and  Conclusions  (S  3). 
Their  Weakness  and  Decline  (8  4). 

The  treatment  of  both  Ferdinand  Christian 
Baur  and  the  Later  Tubingen  School  in  the  same 
article  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  period  of 
distinctive  theological  and  philosophical  views 
which  characterized  the  school  in  its  palmy  days 
really  ceased  with  the  death  of  its  foimder,  or  at 
least  lost  the  former  local  identification.  Con- 
sidering the  Ttlbingen  School  in  this  strictly  limited 
sense,  its  history,  together  with  that  of  Baur  him- 
self, may  be  divided  into  three  periods — that  of 
preparation,  or  of  the  history  of  dogma,  before  1835; 
that  of  prosperity,  or  of  Biblical  criticism,  1835- 
1848;  and  that  of  disintegration,  or  of  church  his- 
tory, after  the  latter  date. 

I.  The  Period  of  the  History  of  Dogma:  Baur 
was  bom  at  Schmiden,  near  Cannstatt  (4  m.  n.e. 
of  Stuttgart),  June  21,  1792;  he  died  at  Ttibingen 
Dec.  2,  1860.  He  was  the  son  of  a  WQrttemberg 
pastor  and  was  educated  first  at  Blaubeuren  and 
then  (1809-14)  at  Tubingen.  Here,  besides  fol- 
lowing the  usual  thorough  course  in  philology,  he 
was  strongly  attracted  by  the  study  of  philosophy. 
Fichte  and  Schelling  were  then  at  the  height  of  their 
influence;  but  that  it  did  not  draw  the  yoimg 
student  away  from  the  standpoint  of  the  older 
Tubingen  School  (q.v.),  in  which  he  had  been 
brought  up,  may  be  seen  from  his  first  published 
writing,  a  review  of  Kaiser's  Biblische  Theologie 
in  1817,  which  condemned  rationalistic 

z.  Baur's  caprice  in  the  treatment  of  the 
Early  Life  Old  Testament.    After  a  short  em-  ' 

and  Ac-  ployment  as  tutor  in  the  Tubingen 
tivity.  seminary  during  the  same  year,  he 
was  named  professor  in  the  lower 
seminary  which  had  grown  out  of  his  old  school  at 
Blaubeuren.  The  nine  years  of  his  stay  here  were 
active  and  happy  ones.  Though  his  work  was  mainly 
philological  and  historical,  he  showed  his  interest 
in  the  philosophical  and  theological  movements 
of  the  time.  The  doctrines  of  Schleiermacher 
received  his  attention,  and  found  an  echo  in  his 
three-volume  work  Symbolik  und  Mgthologie  (Stutt- 
gart, 1824-25).  In  this  book,  remarkable  for  its 
time,  he  indicated  his  future  course  in  the  phrase, 


Baur 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


**  Without  philosophy,  history  seems  to  me  dumb 
and  dead."  The  attention  it  attracted  won  Baur 
a  place  in  the  theological  faculty  of  Tubingen  on 
its  reorganization  (1826)  after  the  death  of  his  old 
teacher  Bengel.  His  impressive  and  inspiring 
personality  at  once  drew  the  yoimg  men  to  him, 
and  his  influence  in  tho  faculty  was  contested  only 
by  Dr.  Steudel,  the  solo  survivor  of  the  old  school 
body. 

The  fact  that  in  the  course  of  his  further  intel- 
lectual  development   Baur  gradually   came   into 
conflict  with  the  theology  of  Schleier- 
3.  Haul's    macher  may  be  partly  explained  by 

Relation  to  the  difference  in  the  mental  constitu- 
Schleier-    tions   of  the  two  men.    There  was 

macher  and  no  trace  in  Baur's  method  of  the  fusion 
HegeL  of  sentiment  and  reason  which  char- 
acterized the  other;  only  the  intel- 
lectual side  was  allowed  to  be  heard.  His 
strong  point  was  his  faculty  of  conceiving 
historical  phenomena  objectively,  amid  the  sur- 
roundings and  from  the  standpoint  of  their 
age.  His  relation  to  the  philosophy  of  Hegel  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  determine  exactly;  but  it 
may  be  safely  asserted  that  his  fundamental  views 
on  the  essence  of  religion  and  the  course  of  history 
were  taken  from  the  Hegelian  system.  The  transi- 
tion from  Schleiermacher  to  Hegel  was  a  gradual 
process  which  took  place  between  1826  and  1835, 
in  the  nine  years  which  have  been  called  the  period 
of  preparation.  It  is  probable  that  at  first  Baur 
was  unconscious  of  its  extent,  and  it  was  not  until 
he  applied  the  Hegelian  principles  to  the  canon 
that  they  brought,  him  into  sharp  conflict  with 
traditional  orthodoxy.  His  SyrnboUk  was  logically 
followed  by  his  works  on  Manicheanism  and 
Gnosticism  (TQbingen,  1831  and  1832)— phe- 
nomena lying  on  the  border  between  theology  and 
philosophy,  between  Christianity  and  paganism. 
In  his  tractate  on  the  opposition  between  Roman 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  in  answer  to  Mdhler 
(TQbingen,  1834),  Hegelian  terminology  begins  to 
appear  distinctly,  though  the  foundation  still  rests 
on  Schleiermacher.  The  influence  of  the  Hegelian 
system  on  Baur  was  a  very  fructifying  one.  No 
department  of  history  had  suffered  more  from  the 
leveling  tendency  of  rationalism  than  the  history 
of  dogma.  Since  Hegel  had  taught  the  application 
of  the  iron  rule  of  development  to  the  phenomena 
of  the  intellectual  life  as  well  as  to  other  phenomena, 
he  pointed  the  way  to  a  profounder  understanding 
of  the  beliefs  which  appeared  frequently  so  hap- 
hazard and  so  arbitraiy,  to  a  knowledge  of  laws 
which  prevailed  over  individual  will.  Thus,  when 
Baur  went  on  from  the  philosophy  of  religion  to 
Christian  dogma,  and  in  that  to  the  most  important 
parts  (the  Atonement,  Ttibingen,  1838,  the  Trinity 
and  the  Incarnation,  1841-43),  he  became  a  pioneer 
of  the  history  of  dogma  in  the  modem  sense.  Even 
though  the  Hegelian  categories  proved  a  bed  of  Pro- 
crustes for  Christian  dogmas,  and  though  the  under- 
standing of  these  suffered  from  the  defects  of  the 
Hegelian  conception  of  religion,  the  impulse  had 
none  the  less  been  given  to  a  profoimder  study. 
More  recent  historians  of  dogma  have  felt  them- 
selves entitled  to  correct  Baur's  views,  as  set  forth 


in  the  above-mentioned  works,  in  almost  every 
point;  but  these  views  had  won  him,  by  the  end 
of  this  first  period,  a  prominent  place  in  the  raziks 
of  those  who  were  trying  to  strike  out  new  lines  in 
the  study  of  Christian  history;  and  when  Schleier- 
macher's  chair  at  Berlin  waa  vacant  in  1834,  the 
Prussian  minister  Altenstein  thought  for  a  time 
of  appointing  Baur  to  it. 

n.  The  Period  of  Biblical  Criticism:  The  second 
period,  however,  is  the  one  which  comes  to  mind 
when  the  TQbingen  School  is  mentioned.  Though 
certain  books  already  named  are  of  later  date,  tne 
period  may  be  properly  begun  with  1835,  in  which 
year  Strauss's  Le6en  Jesu  drew  general  attention  to 
the  questions  to  which  Baur  was  already  inclined  to 
turn.  The  application  to  the  canon  of  Scripture 
of  the  HegeUan  laws  of  historical  development 
was  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  place  in  which 
Baur  carried  on  his  work,  since  the  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  older  Tnbingen  School  had  been  a 
Biblical  supematuralism,  for  which  dogma  was 
nothing  more  than  the  teachings  of  Scripture, 
arrived  at  by  means  of  exegesis.  He  felt  himself 
driven  to  a  consideration  of  this  question  by  the 
need  of  a  settlement  with  the  school  from  which 
he  had  sprung  and  with  his  own  past;  by  his  studies 
in  the  history  of  dogma,  since  the  source  of  dogma, 
in  the  last  resort,  unless  it  is  a  mere  collection  of 
irresponsible  opinions,  is  the  Bible;  and  by  his 
investigation  of  Gnosticism,  which  could  not  fail 
to  raise  the  question  of  the  canon. 

In  1835  appeared  (at  Stuttgart  and  TQbingen) 
Baur's  work  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles.  According 
to  his  own  account  of  this  and  of  his  article  on  the 
Corinthian  parties  {TZT,  1831),  it  was  his  lectures  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  which  first  opened  up 
the  vista  of  more  far-reaching  lustorico-critical 
investigation  into  the  controversies  of  the  apostolic 
age,  and  led  him  to  follow  out,  by  means  of  New 
Testament  and  patristic  studies,  his  independent 
conception  of  the  clash  of  heterogeneous  elements 
in  the  apostohc  and  subapostolic  days,  their 
parties  and  tendencies,  their  conflicts  and  com- 
promises— ^to  demonstrate  the  growth  of  a  catholic 
Chiuch  as  nothing  but  the  result  of  a  previous 
historical  process.  Dealing  with  Schleiennacher's 
treatment  of  I  Timothy,  he  considered 
X.  Historico-  the  three  pastoral  epistles  from  the 

Critical  same  historical  standpoint,  and  defined 
Study  of  the  the  task  of  New  Testament  criticism 
New  Testa-  by  asserting  that  the  origin  of  such 

ment  writings  (as  to  the  authenticity  of 
which  more  evidence  was  needed 
than  the  accepted  name  of  an  author  on  their  face 
and  a  vague,  uncertain,  and  late  tradition)  could 
only  be  explained  by  a  complete  view  of  the  whole 
range  of  historical  circumstances  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  definite  data,  they  were  to  be  placed.  With 
this  character  of  historic  objectivity,  the  new 
criticism,  which  naturally  could  not  but  seem 
merely  negative  and  destructive  in  contrast  with 
the  unfounded  assumptions  that  it  controverted, 
intended  to  meet  the  arbitrary  subjectivity  of  the 
hypotheses  which  had,  up  to  that  time,  played 
so  large  a  part  in  New  Testament  critidsm.  The 
above    statement,    substantially    in    Baur's   own 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baur 


vordfi,  expreoaes  fully  the  guiding  principle  of  the 
Tfibingen  School.     In  the  name  of  fidelity  to  fact, 
Baur  was  conducting  a  regular  cdege  of  the  forti- 
fications which  had  been  thrown  up  by  his  own 
predecessors  around  the  Christian  doctrines,  when 
Strauss's  assault  upon  the  central  bastion  attracted 
general  attention.     It  was  not  without  value  to  him 
as  a  diversion,  under  cover  of  which  he  was  able 
to  pursue  undisturbed  for  a  while  longer  his  critical 
work.     During  the  next  decade  the  Ttlbingen  School 
acquired  an  importance  which  seemed  to  threaten 
the  foundations  of  dogma  from  a  new  quarter, 
relentlessly  contrasting  the  accepted  image  of  Christ, 
as  drawn  according  to  the  subjective  Christian  mind 
by  Schleieimacher,  with  the  results  of  objective 
historical  criticism.    The  main  part  of  the  task 
seemed  to  be  left  to  Baur  himself;  he  was  not  so 
fortunate  as  the  leaders  of  the  old  TObingen  School, 
who  had  their  allies  in  the  other  theological  chairs. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  had  with  him  a  large  number 
of  young  and  enthusiastic  disciples,  such  as  the  tal- 
ented Eduard  Zeller,  later  his  son-in-law,  the  still 
bolder  and  braver  Schwegler,  Kdstlin  and  Planck, 
Ritschl  and  HOgenfeld,  the  last  two  the  most  prom- 
inent allies  who  came  from  outside  of  Wdrttemberg. 
Baur  had  begun  his  critical    work  with   Paul, 
and  the  same  apostle  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
school  in  its  later  publications.    Searching  inves- 
tigations of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  appeared  in 
the  TZT  in  1836,  and  aroused  alarm  and  opposition. 
These,  together  with  considerable  ma- 
2.  Applied  to  terial  which  he  had  published  in  the 
the  Writings  Theologiache  JahrbUcher,  begun  in  1842 
ofPsnL      by  Zeller  and  edited  from   1847  to 
1857  by  himself   and  Zeller  jointly, 
which  became  the  organ  of  the  new  school,  he  put 
together  in  1845  (Stuttgart)  into  a  monograph  on 
Paul.    The  result  reached  by  this  part  of  his  work 
was  the  denial  of  the  authenticity  of  all  the  letters 
passing  under  the  apostle's  name,  except  Galatians, 
I  and  II  Corinthians,  and  Romans,  of  which  last 
also  the  two  concluding  chapters  were  questioned. 
Finally,  in  agreement  with  Schneckenburger  but 
still  more  radically,  the  postapostolic  origin  of  the 
kds  was  asserted.    It  was  not  difficult  to  conjec- 
ture what  would  happen  to  the  Gospels  when  they 
were  thrown  into  the  same  crucible. 

The  theory  of  the  "  objective  criticism,"  as  it 
devdoped,  was  that  the  older  apostles,  with  their 
origiDiJ  body  of  disciples,  were  differentiated  from 
the  other  Jews  only  by  their  belief  that  the  cruci- 
fied Jesus  was  the  Messiah.    All  the  elements  of  a 
new  religion  contained  in  his  life  and  teaching  were 
forgotten,  or  lay  undeveloped  in  the 
3*TheFim-  apostles'  memoiy,  though  a  Stephen 
dsmental    attempted  to  enforce  them  and  sealed 
Afsomption  his  testimony  by  his  death.    When 
of  the       Paul,  by  a  wonderful  divination,  by 
SchooL      a  train  of  reasoning  from  the  cross 
and    the    resurrection,    rediscovered 
these  dements  of  universality  and  freedom,  the 
Church  stood  suspiciously  aloof.    The  older  apos- 
tles, indeed,  with  a  liberality  difficult  to  under- 
stand in  the  premises,  accepted  Paul  as  an  equal 
fellow  laborer  and  admitted  his  right  to  the  mission 
to  the  Gentiles.    But  a  section  of  the  Church  re- 


mained obstinately  hostile.  Paul  appears,  there- 
fore, constantly  prepared  for  combat,  and  when  an 
epistle  presents  him  in  any  other  mood,  it  is  ipso 
facto  unauthentic.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  became 
all  the  more  necessary  for  the  next  age  to  emphasise 
the  unity  of  the  Church;  when,  accordingly,  there 
is  perceived  a  conciliatory  tone  in  an  epistle,  when 
it  speaks  much  of  the  Church  and  its  unity  of  belief, 
no  further  mark  of  a  postapostolic  origin  is  needed. 
The  school  believed  itself  able  to  prove  from  the 
Apocalypse,  considered  as  a  product  not  merely 
of  Judaic  narrowness  but  of  positive  opposition  to 
Paulinism,  and  still  more  from  the  pseudo-Clem- 
entine homilies,  that  no  acconunodation  took  place 
in  the  apostles'  lifetime. 

These  views,  for  all  their  possible  usefulness  as 
against  an  exaggerated  notion  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, still  left  one  question  unanswered — what 
really  was  the  Christianity  of  Christ?  This  led 
inevitably  to  the  question,  burning  since  Strauss, 
of  the  status  of  the  Gospels;  but  it  was  nearly 
ten  years  before  Baur  brought  his  disciples  to  that. 
In  the  Jakrbuch  for  1844  he  attempted  to  use  his 
critical  principles  to  disprove  the  authenticity  of 
the  Gospel  of  John.  This  treatment  he  supple- 
mented by  further  investigations  on  the  canonical 
gospels,  and  published  the  whole  result  in  sub- 
stantive form  in  1847  (Tubingen). 
4.  AppUed  In  a  certain  sense  it  was  favorable 
to  the  to  the  traditional  view.  The  order 
Gospels,  of  the  canon  was  approximately 
that  of  their  composition.  Biatthew, 
in  whom  the  Judaic  tendency  is  strongest,  would 
then  be  nearest  to  the  source;  Mark  would  show  a 
tendency  to  accommodation  and  minimizing  of 
differences;  and  this  would  show  all  the  more 
cleariy  the  Pauline  tendency  of  Luke.  The  fourth 
Gospel,  finally,  was  supposed  to  display  in  eveiy 
feature  the  tendency  to  sink  these  differences  in  a 
higher  unity,  and  to  take  a  stand  for  the  conflicts 
of  the  second  century.  Gnosticism,  Montanism, 
and  the  nascent  Trinitarian  controversy.  This 
work  of  Baur's  marks  the  close  of  the  great  period 
of  the  school.  His  disciples  were  now  ready  to 
come  to  his  aid.  Schwegler's  book  on  Montanism 
(Tubingen,  1841),  Ritschl 's  on  Luke  and  the  Gospel 
of  Marcion  (Tubingen,  1846)  and  on  the  origin  of 
the  primitive  catholic  Church  (Bonn,  1850), 
KOstUn's  on  the  Johannine  system  (Berlin,  1843), 
were  all  important;  but  the  most  significant  was 
Schwegler's  on  the  subapostolic  age  (Tubingen, 
1846),  which  attempted  constructive  reasoning, 
using  the  writings  which  had  been  declared  unau- 
thentic as  memorials  of  the  development  of  Judaism 
and  Paulinism  into  what  came  later. 

According  to  Schwegler,  Judaism  had  no  need  of 
further  development;  the  impulse  came  from  Paulin- 
ism, in  such  a  way  that  the  Judaic  party 
5.  Devel-    decided,  in  order  to  preserve  the  unity 
oped  by     of  the  Church  (Gk.  monorchia),  to  make 
Schwegler.  some  concessions,   requiring  things  of 
similar  import  with  those  demanded  by 
the   paeudadelphoi   of   the   New   Testament,    but 
more  easily  fulfilled  by  the  Gentiles.     If  circum- 
cision had  to  be  abandoned,  so  much  the  more 
weight  was  laid  upon  baptism  as  the  (Christian 


Baur 
Bauslln 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


1.0 


equivalent;  if  the  works  of  the  Law  were 
dropped,  works  were  still  required;  Israel's  pri- 
macy vanished,  but  a  general  aristocratic  tend- 
ency could  be  maintained  in  the  episcopate; 
Paul  could  not  be  cast  out,  but  he  could  be  sub- 
ordinated to  Peter.  Schwegler  then  watches  this 
development  and  compromise  in  two  places,  Rome 
and  Asia  Minor.  In  Rome  he  traces  the  succession 
of  writings  of  Judaistic  origin  thus:  first  the 
Shepherd  of  Hermas  and  Hegesippus;  then  Justin, 
the  Clementine  Homilies,  and  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions; then  James,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Clem- 
ent, Mark,  the  Clementine  Recognitions,  and  II 
Peter.  On  the  Pauline  side  he  finds  the  concilia- 
tory writings  to  begin  under  Trajan  with  I  Peter; 
then  follow  Luke  and  Acts;  then  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  and  the  letters  of  Ignatius.  Montanism 
being  in  his  view  only  an  offshoot  of  Judaism,  the 
Pauline  victory  falls  in  the  pontificate  of  Victor 
(189-199),  under  whom  Montanism  was  condemned 
at  Rome.  The  Pauline  party,  indeed,  had  already 
made  no  slight  concessions,  in  order  to  ward  off 
Gnosticism — though  the  Gnostics  and  especially  the 
Marcionites  ultimately  were  of  great  service  to  Paul- 
inism  in  securing  the  universality  of  Christianity. 

He  sees  the  process  as  somewhat  different  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  the  opponents  of  Paul  rallied, 
not  as  in  Rome  around  Peter,  but  around  John; 
here  the  solution  was  the  formation  of  a  body  of 
Christian  dogma,  while  in  Rome  it  had  been  a 
unity  of  organization  with  a  Roman  primacy. 
While  at  Rome  the  supposed  Ebionite  works  are 
more  numerous  than  the  Pauline,  it  is  the  contrary 
in  Asia  Minor;  the  Apocalypse  is  here  the  single 
Ebionite  memorial,  while  on  the  other  side  Gala- 
tians,  Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  the  Johannine 
Gospel  form  an  imposing  series  of  steps  in  the 
development.  Bold,  however,  and  fascinating  as 
are  the  combinations  set  forth  in  this  work,  and 
brilliant  as  is  its  execution,  it  may  be  pointed  out 
(though  space  does  not  permit  of  illustration)  that 
there  is  scarcely  a  theologian  to-day  who  is  disposed 
to  accept  this  train  of  reasoning  as  even  an  approxi- 
mately satisfactory  solution  of  the  problems  sug- 
gested. And  even  in  those  days,  the  starting-point 
of  the  whole  process  of  development  still  remained 
to  be  discussed.  It  was  already  obvious  that  with- 
out tracing  it  back  to  the  person  and  teaching  of 
Christ,  the  question  of  how  the  primitive  catholic 
Church  came  into  existence  was  insoluble.  At- 
tempts in  the  direction  of  establishing  the  entire 
critical  position  by  showing  a  genetic  development 
of  the  earliest  organization  and  dogma  out  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ  himself  marked  a  third  period  in 
the  history  of  the  Tubingen  School. 

m.  The  Period  of  Church  History :  The  political 
upheaval  of  1S48  had  its  influence  on  the  future  of 
the  school.  The  attempts  made  here  and  there  to 
introduce  its  conclusions,  under  cover  of  the  polit- 
ical movements  of  the  time,  into  the  genersJ  life 
of  the  Church  could  not  fail  to  bring  up  the  question 
whether  ecclesiastical  activity  was  possible  for 
adherents  of  the  school.  It  was  answered  in  the 
negative  not  only  by  opponents;  some  of  Baur's 
own  disciples  felt  that  they  must  either  modify 
the    scientific  conclusions  they  had  learned  from 


him,  or  seek  a  secular  calling,  as  M&rklin,  whose 
life   was   written   by  Strauss,  had  done   in    1840. 

It  was  not  surprising,  then,  that  the 

X.  Political  German  governments  thought  twice  be- 

Complica-   fore  appointing  to  academic  positions 

tions.      men  whose  influence  was  so  distiub- 

ing,  and  that  the  younger  generation 
hesitated  to  follow  Baur  further,  after  his  most 
important  disciple,  Zeller,  was  obliged  in  1849  to 
exchange  a  theological  chair  for  that  of  philosophy 
at  Marburg.  Baur, felt  the  isolation  in  which  he 
thus  began  to  find  himself;  but  his  temperament 
allowed  him  to  hold  fast  longer  than  others  to  the 
illusion  of  the  identity  of  church  teaching  and 
Hegelian  speculation.  He  relaxed  nothing  of  his 
zeal  for  the  solution  of  the  important  problem  ^which 
still  remained,  the  estabUshment  on  a  critical 
foundation  of  a  positive  story  of  the  development  of 
Christianity  from  its  origin  down  through  the 
centiu^. 

In  1852  Baur  published  a  book  (Leipsic)  on  the 
epochs  of  church  history  as  a  preliminary,  con- 
taining brilliant  and  frequently  sharp  criticism 
of  earlier  historians.  His  own  efforts  in  this  direc- 
tion began  with  the  work  Das  ChrieterUhum  und 

die  chrisUiche  Kirche  der  drei  ersten 

3.  Baur's    Jahrhunderte  (Leipsic,  1853),  and  was 

Works  on    continued    in   Die   chrisUiche   Kirche 

Church     vam  Anfang  dee  A-  bis  Ausgang  des  6. 

History.     Jahrhunderts    (Leipsic,    1859).     After 

his  death  appeared  (Leipsic,  1861) 
the  third  part,  completed  by  himself.  Die  christ' 
liche  Kirche  des  MittelaUers  in  den  HauptmomerUen 
ihrer  Entwicklung ;  and  two  further  volumes  were 
published  from  his  carefully  prepared  lecture- 
notes — Kirchengeschichte  des  19.  Jahrhunderts,  ed- 
ited by  Zeller  (Leipsic,  1862),  and  Kirchenge- 
schichte der  neueren  Zeit  van  der  Reformation  bis 
zum  Ende  des  18.  Jahrhunderts^  edited  by  his  son 
Ferdinand  (Leipsic,  1863),  thus  completing  the 
entire  survey. 

If  there  is  sought  in  these  books  an  answer  to  the 
question  as  to  the  real  primitive  Christianity  which 
lay  back  of  Paul  and  back  of  Ebionitism,  as  to  the 
person  of  Christ  himself,  it  may  be  put,  once  more 
substantially  in  Baur's  own  words  (from  the  im- 
portant controversial  pamphlet  against  Uhlhom.. 
Die  Ttibingen  Schule  und  ihre  SteUung  zur  Geqen- 
wart,  Leipsic,  1859),  as  follows:  The  real  inward- 
ness  of  Christianity,  its  essential  center  point,  may 
be  found  in  what  belongs  to  the  strictly  ethical 
content  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  in  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount,  the  parables,  and  similar  utterances; 
in  his  doctrine  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  and  the  con- 
ditions of  membership  in   it,   designed  to  place 

men  in  the  right  ethical  relation  to 

3.  HisTheo-  God.    This  is  the  really  divine,   the 

riesand     universally  human  element  in  it,  the 

Conclusions,  part  of  its  content  which  is  eternal  and 

absolute.  What  raises  Christianity 
above  all  other  religions  is  nothing  but  the  purely 
ethical  character  of  its  acts,  teachings,  and  require- 
ments. If  this  is  the  essential  content  of  the  con- 
sciousness of  Jesus,  it  is  one  of  the  two  factors  which 
compose  his  personality;  it  must  have  a  corre- 
sponding form,  in  order  to  enter,  in  the  way  of 


11 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baur 
BftimHn 


hiMorical  development,  into  the  general  conscious- 
ness of  humanity;  and  this  fonn  is  the  Jewish 
conception  of  the  Messiah,  the  point  of  contact 
between  the  mind  of  Jesus  and  the  world  that  was 
to  believe  in  him,  the  basis  on  which  alone  a  relig- 
ious community  destined  to  broaden  into  a  Church 
could  be  built.  We  can,  therefore,  have  no  clear 
and  definite  conception  of  the  personality  of  Jesus 
if  we  do  not  distinguish  these  two  sides  of  it  and 
consider  them,  so  to  speak,  under  the  aspect  of  an 
antinomy,  of  a  process  which  develops  itself  grad- 
ually. 

If  we  try  to  get  at  the  heart  of  Baur's  whole 
view  of  the  subject,  stripping  his  presentation  of 
its  somew^hat  pathetic  enthusiasm,  it  will  appear 
not  so  very  different  from  Kant's  expression,  that 
the  faith  of  pure  reason  came  in  with  Christ,  indeed, 
but  was  so  overlaid  in  the  subsequent  history  that 
if  the  question  were  asked  which  was  the  best  period 
in  the  entire  course  of  church  history,  it  might  be 
unhesitatingly  answered  by  the  choice  of  the  pres- 
ent, in  which  a  nearer  approach  than  ever  before  is 
made  to  pure  religious  doctrine.     As  long  as  Baur 
had  gone  no  further  into  the  really  primitive  essen- 
tial import  of  Christianity  than   to   consider  the 
Pauline  dogmatics  as'  representing  it,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Chureh  could  perfectly  well  seem  to 
him  to  have  proceeded  in  a  wholly  rational  manner. 
The  dogmatic  and  ecclesiastical  decisions  of  the 
eariy  ages  could,  in  their  context,  appear  "  reason- 
able," and  Baur  himself,  in  contrast 
4.  Their     with  a  writer  like  Gottfried  Arnold 
WeaknesB    or    with   the   imhistoric    rationalism, 
and  Decline,  almost  an  orthodox  historian,  always 
in  harmony  with  the  course  of  events 
as  it  proceeded.     Not  only  Athanasius  and  Augus- 
tine, but  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III  had  full 
justice  at  his  hands.     But  this  involved  an  equally 
tolerant  acknowledgment  of  the  claims  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.     If  the  humanitarianism  of  Goethe 
and  Schiller  seemed  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
educated  men  in  this  age  than  the  Chureh  in  its 
older  form,  here  also  the  living  must  take  prece- 
dence; and  suddenly  the  place  of  the  old  Chureh 
was  taken  by  a  broad  "  conmnmion  "  in  which  all 
the  heroes  of  the  intellect,  even  the  most  modem, 
took  their  place  as  saints.    But  when  the  question 
came  to  be  asked  what  this  prevalent  humanism 
had  in  common  with  ancient  Christianity,  it  became 
apparent  that  the  whole  long   process  of    devel- 
opment was  really  a  totally  unnecessary  d^Umr, 
whose  purpose   it   was   difficult   to   discover.     It 
could  scarcely  be  denied  that  a  historical  method 
which  saw  the  essence  of  Christianity  in  ethics 
exclusively,  which  knew  nothing  of  the  need  of 
redemption,  and  which  was  unable  to  give  any 
positive  aocoimt  of  the  person  of  Christ,  was  one 
in  which  the  Hegelian  conception  of  development 
practically   disappeared.    Yet    the    distinguishing 
mark  of  the  school  of  Baur  had  been  the  application 
of  this  very  conception  to  Christian  history,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  primitive  age — the  attempt  to 
show  the  course  of  history  as  rational  and  necessary; 
and  thus,  in  the  person  of  its  head,  the  Tilbingen 
School  deserted  the  fundamental  principle  which 
to  its  palmy  days  it  had  sought  to  enforee.     It 


was,  then,  not  surprising  that  uncertainty  showed 
itself  among  the  members  of  the  school  on  the 
question  of  the  Gospels.  The  less  a  definite  tend- 
ency could  be  proved  in  the  synoptics,  the  more 
they  were  shown  to  offer  at  least  a  substratum  of 
purely  historical  matter,  so  much  the  more  pressing 
became  the  question  how  the  school's  view  of  his- 
tory could  be  reconciled  with  the  actual  course  of 
events.  When  the  attempt  to  construct  the  latter 
a  priori  failed,  an  advantage  was  given  to  the 
"  literary-historical  "  method  with  which  Hilgen- 
feld  imdertook  to  replace  the  criticism  of  tendency. 
In  his  Hiatorischrkritische  EinltUung  in  das  neue 
TeatamerU  (Leipsic,  1875)  the  TQbingen  views  were 
modified  in  a  large  number  of  points.  Thus  the 
results  supposed  to  have  been  attained  by  the 
"  objective  criticism  "  of  Baur  were  called  in  ques- 
tion by  his  own  fellow  workers;  and  when  he  died, 
it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  his  school,  at  least 
in  the  narrower  sense,  died  with  him. 

(J.  Hausbletter.) 

Bxbuookapbt:  Two  of  Ferdinand  Christian  Baur's  books 
are  accessible  in  English  translation:  Paul,  the  Apoatle  of 
J€SUB  ChriH,  2  vols.,  London.  1873-75;  The  Chureh  Uietory 
of  the  Firet  Three  Ceniuriee,  2  vols.,  ib.  1878-79. 
Consult:  A.  B.  Bruce,  F.  C.  Baur  and  hie  Theory  of 
the  Origin  of  Chrietianity,  New  York,  1886;  Worte  der 
Srinnerung  an  Ferdinand  Chrietian  Baur,  TQbingen,  1861; 
U.  Beokh,  Die  TUbinger  hiatoriache  Schule,  kritieeh  be- 
UuehM,  in  ZPiC,xlviii  (1864),  1-67.  69-96;  C.  Weizs&cker. 
Ferdinand  ChrieHan  von  Baur.  Rede  eur  akademieehen  Feier 
eeinM  100.  Oeburtetagee,  Stuttgart.  1892;  O.  Ffleiderer. 
Z«  F.  C.  Bourse  OedddUniee,  in  Proteetantieche  Kirchen- 
eeitung,  1892.  No.  25;  R.  W.  Mackay.  The  TUHngen 
School,  and  ita  Anteeedente,  London,  1863;  S.  Berger.  F. 
C.  Baur,  Lee  Originee  de  Vieole  de  Tubingii^  et  eee  principea, 
Strasburg.  1867;  C.  U.  Toy,  The  ToHnoen  Hiatorical 
School,  in  BQR,  iii  (1869),  210  sqq.  Works  on  N.  T.  In- 
troduction usually  discuss  the  TQbingen  School,  as  do 
those  on  the  church  history  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

BAUR,  GUSTAV  ADOLF  LUDWIG:  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Hammelbach  (17  m.  n.e.  of  Heidelberg),  in 
the  Odenwald,  June  14,  1816;  d.  at  Leipsic  May 
22,  1889.  He  studied  at  Giessen,  where  he  became 
docent  in  1841,  professor  extraordinary,  1847, 
ordinary,  1849;  he  became  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
1861,  and  professor  of  practical  theology  at  Leipsic, 
1870.  He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  for 
revising  Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible.  Besides 
numerous  sermons  he  'vaaiiodErkldrungdes  Propheten 
Amos  (Giessen,  1847);  Grundzuge  der  HomUetik 
(1848);  Geschichte  der  alitestamentlichen  Weissagung 
(first  part,  1861);  Boetius  und  Dante  (Leipsic, 
1874);  Grundzuge  der  Erziehungslehre  (4th  ed., 
Giessen,  1887);  he  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the 
first  volume  of  Schmid's  Geschichte  der  Erziehung 
(Stuttgart,  1884),  and  Die  christliche  Erziehung 
in  ikrem  Verhdltnisse  zum  Judenthum  und  zur 
aniiken  Welt  (2  vols.,  1892). 

Bibliographt:  Q.  A.  Baur.  Trauerfeier  bei  dem  BegrObniaa 
G.  A.  L.  Baure,  Leipsic,  1889. 

BAUSLIN,  DAVID  HENRY:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Winchester,  Va.,  Jan.  21,  1854.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg  College  (B.A.,  1876)  and  Theological 
Seminary,  Springfield,  O.  (1878),  and  held  pastor- 
ates at  Tippecanoe  CSty,  O.  (1878-81),  Bucyrus, 
O.  (1881-88),  Second  Lutheran  Church,  Spring- 
field, O.  (188^-93),  and  Trinity  Church,  Canton, 
O.  (1893-96).     In  1896  he  was  appointed  professor 


BavarianB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


12 


of  historical  and  practical  theology  in  the  Witten- 
berg Theological  Seminary.  He  has  been  for  several 
years  a  member  of  the  "  common  service  "  com- 
mittee for  the  General  Synod  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  and  was  president  of  the  General  Synod 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States  190&-07.  He  has  written  /«  the  Ministry 
an  Attractive  VocaHon  r  (Philadelphia,  1001),  and 
has  been  editor  of  The  Lutheran  World  since 
1901. 

BAUSMAN,  BENJAMIN:  Reformed  (German); 
b.  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  Jan.  28,  1824.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Marshall  College  (B.A.,  1851)  and  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Mercersburg,  Pa.  (1852). 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Reformed  ministry  in  1853, 
and  held  successive  pastorates  at  Lewisburg,  Pa. 
(1853-61),  Chambersburg,  Pa.  (1861-63),  First 
Reformed  Church,  Reading,  Pa.  (1863-73),  and 
St.  Paul's  Reformed  Church,  Reading,  which  he 
foimded  in  1873.  He  was  president  of  the  General 
Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Baltimore  in 
1884.  He  was  editor  of  The  Reformed  Messenger 
in  1858  and  of  The  Guardian  from  1867  to  1882. 
In  the  year  1867  he  foimded  Der  reformiaie 
Hausfreund,  of  which  he  is  stiU  the  editor.  He 
has  written  Sinai  and  Zion  (Philadelphia,  1860); 
Wayside  Gleanings  in  Europe  (Reading,  1878); 
Bible  Characters  (1893);  and  Precept  and  Practice 
(Philadelphia,  1901);  in  addition  to  editing  Har- 
baugh's  Harfe,  a  collection  of  poems  in  Pennsyl- 
vania Dutch  (Reading,  1870). 

BAUSSET,  b6"86',  LOUIS  FRANCOIS  DE:  Car- 
dinal; b.  at  Pondicherry  Dec.  'l4,  1748;  d.  at 
Paris  June  21,  1824.  He  studied  in  the  Seminary 
of  St.  Sulpice;  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Alais, 
1784;  emigrated  in  1791,  but  returned  in  1792 
to  Paris,  and  supported  himself,  after  a  short 
imprisonment,  by  literary  labor.  In  1806  he  was 
made  canon  of  St.  Denys,  and  in  1815,  after  the 
second  return  of  Louis  XVIII,  director  of  the 
council  of  the  University  of  Paris,  peer  of  France, 
and  cardinal  1817.  He  wrote  the  Histoire  de 
FeneUm  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1808)  and  Histoire  de 
Bossuet  (4  vols.,  Versailles,  1814). 

BAUTAIN,  bd^'tan',  LOUIS  EUGENE  MARIE: 
French  philosopher;  b.  at  Paris  Feb.  17,  1796; 
d.  at  Viroflay,  near  VersaiUes,  Oct.  16,  1867.  He 
became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Strasburg  in 
1819.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Cousin  and  a  student  of 
German  philosophy,  and,  his  teaching  not  being 
acceptable  to  the  church  authorities,  he  was  sus- 
pended in  1822.  He  modified  his  views  and  took 
holy  orders  in  1828,  and  resumed  teaching.  In 
1834  he  again  fell  into  difficulty  with  the  Bishop 
of  Strasburg  because  of  his  teachings  concerning 
the  relation  of  reason  and  faith;  in  1838  he  went 
to  Rome  and  sought  in  vain  to  have  his  views 
approved  there.  In  1840  he  submitted,  became 
vicar-general  of  Paris  in  1849,  and  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne  in  1853.  He  held  that  the  human 
reason  can  not  prove  such  facts  as  the  existence  of 
God  and  the  inmiortality  of  the  soul,  and  that  the 
truths  of  religion  are  communicated  purely  by 
divine    revelation.     His    most    important    works 


were:  Philosophic  du  Christianisme  (2  vols.,  Stras- 
burg, 1835);  Psyehdogie  expMmentale  (2  vob., 
1839;  new  ed.,  with  title  Esprit  humain  et  u» 
faculUs,  Paris,  1859);  Philosoj^ie  morale  (2  vok., 
Paris,  1842);  La  morale  de  V^vangUe  comparie 
auz  divers  systhnesde  morale  (1855).  He  had  much 
repute  as  an  orator  and  published  an  £tude  sur 
Vart  de  parler  en  public  (1856;  Eng.  tranal..  The 
Art  of  Extempore  Speaking,  London,  1858). 

Bibuooeapht:  E.  de  R6gny,  L*AbbS  BoMlain,  Paris.  1884. 

BAUTZ,  JOSEF:  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Keeken 
(near  Cleves)  Nov.  11,  1843.  He  was  educated  at 
Monster,  where  he  became  privat-docent  of  apcio- 
getics  and  dogmatics  in  1877,  being  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  associate  professor  in  1892.  He  has 
written  Die  Lehre  vom  Auferstehungsleibe  (Pader- 
bom,  1877);  Der  Himmel,  spehdativ  dargesteUt 
(Mainz,  1881);  Die  HdUe,  im  Anschluss  an  die 
ScholoHik  (1882);  Das  Fegfeuer.  Im  Ansddiui 
an  die  Scholastik  (1883);  Weltgericht  und  WeUende. 
Im  Anschluss  an  die  Scholastik  (1886);  Grundzuffe 
der  christlichen  Apologetik  (1887);  and  Grundzuge 
der  katholisehen  Dogmatik  (4  vols.,  1888-93). 

BAVARIA:  A  kingdom  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  German  Empire,  and,  next  to  Prussia,  the 
largest  of  the  states  of  the  Empire;  area,  29,282 
square  miles;  population  (1900),  6,176,057,  of 
whom  4,357,133  (70.5  per  cent.)  are  Roman 
Catholics;  1,749,206  (28.3  per  cent.)  Protestants: 
5,430  Old  Catholics;  3,170  Mennonites;  54,928 
(.9  per  cent.)  Jews;  and  4,142  of  various  faiths. 

The  division  of  the  chief  confessions  is  based  in 
great  part  on  the  historic  conditions  prevailing 
in  1624  and  1648,  although  the  development  of  the 
cities  has  been  the  cause  of  many  changes,  the 
proportion  of  Protestants  having  increased  in 
Munich  and  that  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Nurem- 
berg. The  old  Bavarian  circles  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Bavaria,  as  well  as  the  Upper  Palatinate, 
have  always  been  essentially  Roman 
Protestant-  Catholic.  Upper  Bavaria  received  its 
ism  in      first  Protestant  citizens  in  the  eariy 

Bavaria,  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but 
in  consequence  of  the  rapid  growth 
of  Munich  in  recent  years  the  Protestants  of  that 
city  alone  numbered  78,000  in  1900.  Six  pastor- 
ates and  six  immovable  vicariates  are  also  contained 
in  the  district,  and  seven  small  churches  have  been 
built  in  market-towns  and  villages.  Since  the  six- 
teenth century  Lower  Bavaria  has  possessed  the 
Protestant  enclave  of  Ortenburg  with  certain 
neighboring  places,  while  more  recently  commu- 
nities have  been  established  in  the  larger  cities, 
especially  Passau.  The  Upper  Palatinate  was  not 
completely  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism  in 
1622-28,  since  the  duchy  of  Sukbach  and  the  im- 
perial city  of  Regensburg  retained  congregations 
of  both  confessions,  who  used  the  same  churches; 
but  with  the  increase  in  population  the  proportion 
of  Protestants  steadily  declined.  The  district 
now  has  four  deaneries  with  forty-eight  pastorates. 
In  the  three  old  Bavarian  districts  provision  i* 
made  for  the  Protestant  Diaspora  by  itinerant 
preachers,  four  of  whom  work  in  Upper  Bavaria 


18 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bau«man 
Bavarians 


and  two  in  Lower  Bavaria  and  the  Upper  Palatinate 
combined.  Since  1805  Swabia  has  belonged  in 
great  part  to  Bavaria.  It  consisted  originally  of  a 
gioiqp  of  territories  belonging  to  free  cities,  the 
derfy,  and  knights  of  the  empire.  Only  the  first 
categoiy  was  predominantly  Protestant,  and  even 
here  Roman  Catholicism  has  gained  steadily. 
Swabia  contains  the  following  Protestant  dean- 
eries: Augsburg,  Ebermergen,  Kempten  (including 
Lindau  and  Kaufbeuren),  Leipheim,  Memmingen, 
N6rdlingen,  and  Oettingen. 

FranUah  North  Bavaria  is  composed,  on  the  one 
hand,  of  the  episcopal  territories  of  the  bishoprics 
of  Eichst&tt,  Bamberg,  Wdnsburg,  and  a  portion  of 
the  electorate  of  Mains,  and,  on  the  other,  of  the 
Protestant  principalities  of  Ansbach  and  Bai- 
reuth,  Nuremberg,  Rothenburg,  and  other  free 
cities,  and  enclaves  of  the  orders.  This  entire  region 
is  stron^y  Roman  Catholic,  although  Lower  Fran- 
conia  has  a  considerable  number  of  Protestant 
communitieB  (116  pastorates,  exclusive  of  Wtirz- 
burg,  Schweinfurt,  and  Aschaffenburg).  In  the 
larger  section  of  Bavaria  the  historical  divisions 
between  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic,  at  least 
in  the  smaller  towns,  are  stiU  maintained,  but  in 
the  minor  portion,  the  Rhine  Palatinate,  there  are 
few  political  communities  which  do  not  have  a 
considerable  minority  of  adherents  of  one  or  the 
other  creed.  In  Speyer  the  proportions  are  almost 
equal,  Roman  Catholics  numbering  about  9,000 
and  the  Protestants  8,000. 

The  legal  position  of  the  Protestant  Chiut^h  in 
Bavaria  is  regulated  by  an  edict  of  Sept.  8, 1809,  while 
its  foreign  rdations  are  governed  by  the  constitution 
of  1818.  Both  Protestantism  and  Roman  Catholi- 
cism are  officially  recognized,  and  controversies 
seldom  arise  between  the  two,  except  in  regard  to 
the  creed  in  which  children  shall  be  brought  up, 
methods  of  conversion,  particularly  in  the  Evan- 
gelical Diaspora,  and  the  use  of  burial-grounds  in 
Roman  Catholic  communities.  In  1824  the  official 
designation  of  the  Protestants  was  declared  to  be 
"  Protestant  Church." 

The  Reformed  Church  in  the  Palatinate  first 
regained  official  recognition  together  with  the 
Lutherans  at  the  general  consistory  at  Worms  in 
1815,  and  the  Bavarian  government  created  a  con- 
sistory at  Speyer  on  Dec.  15, 1818,  for  the  "Prot- 
estant Churches  of  the  Palatinate,"  a  presbyterial 
and  synodical  constitution  being  introduced  at  the 
same  time.  In  1848  the  Protestant  Chiut^h  of 
the  Palatinate  and  the  consistoiy  of  Speyer  were 
placed  directly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ministry 
of  state.  The  attempt  to  create  a  more  definite 
confessional  status  led,  in  the  sixth  decade  of  the 
last  century,  to  a  victorious  agitation  on  the  part 
of  the  liberal  element.  Since  1879  the  presbyteries 
have  had  the  right  to  propose  candidates  for  vacant 
pastorates.  In  Bavaria  proper  diocesan  synods 
are  held  annually,  and  general  83mods  eveiy  four 
yeare. 

There  are  few  Protestants  in  Bavaria,  except 
those  who  belong  to  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church,  nor  are  the  professed  adherents  of  sects 
numerous.  A  distinct  organization  was  granted 
the  Reformed  in  Bavaria  proper  in  1853,  although 


they  are  stiU  under  the  control  of  the  Supreme 
Consistoiy.  The  Greek  Church  was  recognized 
in  1826,  but  the  Anglican  Church  is  officially  ignored 
like  the  Mennonites.  The  last-named  have  six 
communities  in  the  Palatinate  and  four  in  Bavaria 
proper.  Until  1887  the  Old  Catholics  were  reckoned 
as  Roman  Catholics,  but  are  now  declared  to  be  a 
separate  body,  though  full  recognition  has  not  been 
granted  them. 

,  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria  is  highly 

organized  and  extremely  active,  while  its  wealth 

and  political  influence  are  constantly 

Roman      increasing.    The  kingdom  is  divided 

Catholicism  into    two    archdioceses    with    eight 

in  Bavaria,  dioceses.  The  archdiocese  of  Munich- 
Freising  comprises  the  su£fragan  dio- 
ceses of  Augsburg,  Passau,  and  Regensburg;  and 
the  archdiocese  of  Bamberg  includes  the  dioceses 
of  Eichstatt,  WQrzburg,  and  Speyer.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  clergy,  in  agreement  with  the  concordat 
of  1817,  is  entrusted  to  the  bishops.  The  develop- 
ment of  orders  has  been  very  rapid,  especially  in 
the  sisterhoods  for  the  education  and  the  care  of 
the  sick.  The  number  of  cloisters  has  also  increased 
rapidly,  with  a  corresponding  gain  in  real  estate, 
and  this  development  is  aided  by  the  generous 
gifts  and  foundations  of  the  Roman  Catholic  popu- 
lation, the  property  of  the  8,600  institutions  being 
valued  at  more  than  150,000,000  marks;  while 
that  of  the  1,800  Protestant  institutions  is  worth 
only  19,600,000  marks.  The  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  in  Bavaria  number  some  4,900,  or  a  pro- 
portion of  one  to  816  of  the  laity,  while  the  Protes- 
tants have  but  about  1,300  clergymen,  or  one  to 
1,200  laymen.  Wilhelm  Goetz. 

BiBLXoaRAPBT:  V.  A.  Winter,  OuehiehU  der  Sehickaale  dtr 
tvangelUeken  Lehre  in  und  dtwchBayem^  2  vols.,  Munich, 
1809-10;  E.  F.  H.  Medicus,  OttehiehU  der  evangdiachen 
Kirche  im  KOnigreieh  Bayem^  E^langen,  1803;  J.  M. 
Mayer,  Oeaehichte  Bayenu,  Rat'sbon,  1874;  J.  Hergen- 
rOther,  Handbueh  der  KirchenifeMchidUe,  3  vols.,  Freiburg, 
187&-80  (literature  of  the  subject  is  given,  iii,  183); 
8.  Riexler,  OeeehichU  Bayenu,  4  vols.,  Gotha,  1878-99; 
Wand,  Handbueh  der  Verfaeeung  und  VerwaUung  der  pro- 
teBtantUch-ev.-chritUiehen  Kirche  der  PfaU,  1880;  Bei' 
irdge  tur  StaUaUk  dee  KUnigreiehM  Bayem,  Munich,  1892; 
StaUatiadte  MiUeUungen  aua  den  deutadien  evangeli§ehen 
LandeakircKen,  Stuttgart.  1880-96. 

BAVARIANS,    CONVERSION    OF    THE:     The 

origin  of  the  race  later  known  as  the  Bavarians 
is  imcertain.  The  older  hypothesis  that  they  came 
of  Celtic  stock  is  now  generally  abandoned.  For 
a  time  it  was  thought  that  they  were  a  conglomerate 
of  the  remains  of  several  tribes  belonging  to  the 
Gothic  family;  but  the  view  put  forward  by  Zeuss 
(Die  Herkunft  der  Bayem,  Munich,  1857)  that  they 
are  to  be  identified  with  the  Marcomanni  is  now 
almost  universally  accepted,  and  has  strong  sup- 
port in  the  facts. 

The  Marcomanni  are  first  mentioned  by  Csesar 
{Bel.  Gal.,  i,  51).  In  his  time  th^  lived  on  the 
upper  Main.  Tacitus  knows  of  them  as  inhabiting 
what  is  now  Bohemia  {Germ.,  xlii;  cf.  Annal., 
ii,  26  sqq.).  Here  they  maintained  their  position 
for  centuries,  and  here  they  took  the  name  of 
Baiowarii  or  Baioarii.  During  this  period,  Chris- 
tianity foimd  an  entrance  among  them.  Paulinus, 
in  his  life  of  Ambrose  (xxxvi),  tells  of  a  queen 


Bavarians 
Baxter 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


14 


of  the  Marcomanni  named  Fritigil  who  was  con- 
verted by  a  wandering  Italian  Christian,  and  asked 
Ambrose  for  written  instructions  in 
FiiBt  Ac-    the   faith,  which  he  gave  in  modum 
qnaintance  cateehiami.    The  account  goes  on  to 
with  ChrlB-  say  that  she  thereupon  came  to  Milan, 
tianity.     but  found  the  bishop  dead.    As  Am- 
brose  died   Apr.    4,    397,  she    must 
have  crossed  the  Alps  in  the  summer  of  that  year. 
If  the  queen  was  a  Christian,  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  her  religion  would  have  been  unknown  to  her 
people.    That  Arianism  also  reached  the  Marco- 
manni through  Gothic  influences  is  not  improbable. 
However  that  may  be,  the  bulk  of  the  people  were 
pagan  when  they  settled  in  488  on  the  strip  of 
territory  granted  them  by  the  Romans  between 
the  Lech  and  the  Enns. 

The  name  of  Bavarians  is  first  applied  in  the 
Prankish  list  of  tribes  belonging  to  the  first  quarter 
of  the  sixth  century.  The  territory  which  they 
occupied  was  no  desolate  wilderness.  In  the  val- 
leys and  around  the  lakes  there  was  a  thin  agri- 
cultural population  which  held  to  the  Latin  tongue 
and  doubtless  also  to  the  Christian  faith.  Not 
all  the  cities  were  destroyed;  Juvavmn  and  Lau- 
riacmn  lay  in  ruins;  but  neither  Castra  Batava 
nor  Castra  Regina  was  without  inhabiteuits,  and 
here  also  Christianity  undoubtedly  held  its  own 
with  the  Romanic  population.  Christians  and 
heathens  thus  living  as  neighbors,  a  starting-point 
was  afforded  for  missionary  efforts.  The  ecclesias- 
tical organization  had,  it  is  true,  been  broken  up; 
only  in  southern  Bavaria  a  bishopric  foimded  in 
Roman  times  maintained  its  existence  at  Seben, 
and  the  diocese  of  Augsburg  stretched  over  a  part 
of  the  Bavarian  territory.  Under  these  circmn- 
stances  the  fact  was  of  decisive  importance  that 
the  Bavarians  no  sooner  occupied  their  new  home 
than  they  came  into  a  position  of  dependence  on 
the  Frankish  kingdom.  The  first  ducal  family, 
that  of  the  Agilulfings,  was  of  Frankish  origin  and 
professed  Christianity,  and  the  first 
Labors  outsiders  who  labored  for  the  spread 
of  Mis-  of  the  faith  in  Bavaria  came  from  the 
sionaries.  Frankish  kingdom.  Eustasius  of  Lux- 
euil  (q.v.),  the  successor  of  Columban, 
worked  there,  and  left  missionaries  trained  by 
him  when  he  returned  to  Burgundy.  Later, 
Rupert,  bishop  of  Worms,  found  a  wide  field  here 
for  his  activity;  Emmeram  and  Corbinian  (qq.v.) 
were  Franks.  Side  by  side  with  them  there  seem 
to  have  been  at  a  very  early  period  some  Scoto- 
Irish  monks,  but  there  is  no  record  of  their  labors. 
The  result  of  the  combined  operation  of  these 
imperfectly  known  factors  was  the  acceptance  of 
Christianity  by  the  Bavarian  race  as  a  whole, 
which  was  completed  in  the  course  of  the  seventh 
century.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  it  was  not 
accompanied  by  the  organization  of  a  local  epis- 
copate; as  far  as  can  be  told  the  direction  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  the  dukes; 
it  is  Theodo  who  invites  Rupert  thither,  and  who 
treats  with  the  pope  in  regard  to  church  institutions. 
From  this  fact  it  would  appear  that  the  Christian 
profession  of  the  dukes  played  a  decisive  part  in 
the  conversion  of  the  people  at  large.    The  exist- 


ence of  the  Church  without  diocesan  bishops  was 
made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  wandering 
monks  and  missionaries  were  frequently  in  episcopal 
orders,  and  could  thus  perform  the  strictly  episcopal 
functions. 

The  above-mentioned  Duke  Theodo,  acting  in 
concert  with  the  pope,  endeavored  to  introduce 
a  more  regular  organization.  With  this  end  m 
view,  he  visited  Rome  in  716,  and  had  an  agree- 
ment with  Pope  Gregory  II  as  to  the  measures  to 
be  taken.  At  least  four  dioceses  were  to  be  fotmded 
corresponding  to  the  divisions  of  the  secular  juris- 
diction.    The    bishop    of    the    most 

Organiza-   important   place  was   to   be     set  as 
tion  of      metropolitan    at    the    head     of    the 

Bishoprics.  Bavarian  Church,  the  pope  reserving 
the  right  to  consecrate  him,  and  if 
necessary  to  name  an  Italian.  Order  was  to  be 
brought  into  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  by  a  general 
visitation;  the  Roman  use  was  to  be  taken  as  the 
model  in  liturgical  matters.  But  these  plans 
were  never  carried  into  execution,  apparently  by 
reason  of  the  death  of  Theodo.  The  organization 
of  the  Bavarian  bishoprics,  involving  the  termina- 
tion of  the  missionary  period,  was  only  accomplished 
by  Boniface  (q.v.),  who  paid  a  short  visit  to  the 
country  in  719,  and  returned  in  735  or  736  to  make 
a  formal  visitation  by  virtue  of  what  was  practically 
a  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of 
Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  full  infor- 
mation as  to  the  prevailing  conditions.  His 
definite  organizing  work  is  introduced  by  a  brief 
(738  or  739)  from  Gregory  III  to  the  bishops  of 
Bavaria  and  Alemannia,  enjoining  them  to  receive 
Boniface  with  fitting  honors  as  his  representative, 
and  to  attend  a  synod  to  be  held  by  him.  In  739 
Boniface  undertook  the  settlement  of  diocesan 
boundaries  and  institutions,  and  provided  three 
of  the  four  bishoprics  of  Bavaria  with  bishopa 
consecrated  by  himself — Erembrecht,  brother  of 
Corbinian,  at  Freising,  Gavibald  at  Regensbuig, 
and  John,  a  newcomer  from  England,  at  Salzbui^— 
while  Vivilo,  who  had  been  consecrated  by  the  pope, 
remained  at  Passau.  Gregory  III  confirmed  these 
arrangements  on  Oct.  29,  and  the  subordinate 
divisions  of  archdeaconries  and  parishes  were 
soon  organized.  The  decisions  of  the  Synod  of 
Reisbach  (799)  show  the  parochial  system  in  full 
operation.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Hauek«  KD,  vol.  i;  S.   Riealer.   Ge»diidde 

BauernM,   vol.   i,   Gotha,    1873;  Rettbeis,   KD,    2  vols.; 

Friedrioh,  KD,  2  vols. 

BAVmCK,  HERMAN:  Dutch  Reformed;  b. 
at  Hoogeveen  (35  m.  s.  of  Groningen),  Holland, 
Dec.  13,  1854.  He  was  educated  at  the  gymnasium 
of  Zwolle,  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Reformed 
Church  at  Kampen,  and  the  University  of  Leyden 
(D.D.,  1880);  he  was  then  pastor  at  Franeker. 
Friesland  (1881-^2),  and  professor  of  dogmatic 
theology  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Kampen 
(1882-1903).  Since  1903  he  has  been  professor 
of  dogmatics  and  apologetics  at  the  Free  Uni- 
versity, Amsterdam.  In  theology  he  adheres  to  the 
principles  of  the  Heidelberg  Confession  and  the 
canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  He  has  written 
De  Ethiek  van  H.   Zunngli  (Kampen,    1880);  De 


15 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bavarians 
Baxter 


Wetenadiap  der  heUige  Godgeleerdheid  (1883);  De 
Theologie  van  Prof.  Dr.  D,  CharUepie  de  la  Saussaye 
(Leyden,  1884);  De  KaiholicUeit  van  Christendom 
en  Kerk  (Kampen,  1888);  De  algemeene  Oenade 
(1894);  Gereformeerde  Dogmatiek  (4  vols.,  1895- 
1901);  BeginseUn  der  Psychologie  (1897);  De  Of- 
ferande  dee  Lofe  (The  Hague,  1901);  De  Lebenheid 
dee  Geioofs  (Kampen,  1901);  Hedendaagache  Moraal 
(1902);  Roeping  en  WedergthoarU  (1902);  Gode- 
dienst  en  Godgeleerdheid  (Wageningen,  1902); 
Christelijke  Wetenschap  (Kampen,  1904);  Chris- 
telijke  Wertldbeechouwing  (1904);  Pcedagogische  Be- 
gineelen  (1904);  and  Bilderdijk  aU  Denker  en 
Diekber  (1906). 

BAXTER,  RICHARD:  One  of  the  greatest  of 
English  theologians;  b.  at  Rowton  (42  m.  n.e. 
of  Shrewsbuiy),  Shropsliire,  Nov.  12,  1615;  d.  in 
London  Dec.  8,  1691.  Though  without  a  university 
education,  and  always  sickly,  he  acquired  great 
learning.  In  1633  he  had  a  brief  experience  of 
court  life  at  Whitehall  (London),  but  turned  from 
the  court  in  disgust  and  studied  theology.  In 
1638  he  was  ordained  by  the  bishop  of  Worcester 
and  preached  in  various  places  till  1641,  when  he 
began  his  ministiy  at  Kidderminster 

Ministry  (18  m.  s.w.  of  Birmingham),  as 
at  Kidder-    "  teacher."    There    he   labored    with 

minster,  wonderful  success  so  that  the  place 
was  utterly  transformed.  When  the 
C^ivil  War  broke  out  (1642)  he  retired  temporarily 
to  Gloucester  and  then  to  Coventry  because  he 
sided  with  the  parliament,  while  all  in  and  about 
Kidderminster  sided  with  the  king.  He  was, 
however;  no  blind  partisan  and  boldly  spoke  out 
for  moderation  and  fairness.  After  acting  as  an 
army  chaplain  he  separated  from  the  army,  partly 
on  account  of  illness,  and  returned  to  Kidder- 
minster. 

In  the  spring  of  1660  he  left  Kidderminster  and 
went  to  London.  He  preached  before  the  House 
of  Commons  at  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  Apr. 
30,  1660,  and  before  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen 
at  St.  Paul's,  May  10,  and  was  among  those  to  give 
Charles  II  welcome  to  his  kingdom.  Charles 
made  him  one  of  his  chaplains  and  offered  him 
the  bishopric  of  Hereford,  which  he 
In  London,  declined.  He  was  a  leader  on  the  Non- 
conformist side  in  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference (1661)  and  presented  a  revision  of  the 
Prayer-book  which  could  be  used  by  the  Non- 
conformists. He  also  preached  frequently  in 
different  ptdpits.  Seeing  how  things  were  going, 
he  desired  permission  to  return  to  Kidderminster 
as  curate,  but  was  refused.  On  May  16,  1662, 
three  days  before  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed, 
he  took  formal  farewell  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  retired  to  Acton,  a  west  suburb  of  London. 
From  this  time  on  he  had  no  regular  charge  and 
until  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1688 
be  suffered,  like  other  Non-conformist  preachers, 
from  repressive  laws  often  rigorously  and  harshly 
enforced.  On  Sept.  10,  1662,  he  married  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Francis  Charlton,  of  Shropshire,  twenty- 
four  years  his  junior,  who  possessed  wealth  and 
social  position,  and  made  him  a  devoted  helpmeet. 


cheerfully  going  with  him  into  exile  and  prison  and 
spending  her  money  lavishly  in  the  relief  of  their 
less  fortunate  fellow  sufferers.  She  died  June  14, 
1681,  and  Baxter  has  perpetuated  her  memory  in  a 
singularly  artless  but  engaging  memoir  (London, 
1681). 

During  all  these  years  on  the  verge  of  trouble 
because  he  persisted  in  preaching,  he  was  actually 
imprisoned  only  twice,  once  for  a  short  period, 
and  again  from  Feb.  28,  1685,  to  Nov.  24,  1686. 
The  judge  who  condemned  him  the  second  time 
was  George  Jeffreys,  who  treated  him 

Imprison-  with  characteristic  brutality.  The 
ment  charge  was  that  in  his  Paraphrase 
of  the  New  Testament  (1685)  Baxter 
had  libeled  the  Church  of  England.  But  insult, 
heavy  and  indeed  ruinous  fines,  enforced  wander- 
ings, anxiety  as  to  personal  safety,  and  imprison- 
ment had  no  power  to  daimt  Baxter's  spirit.  He 
preached  constantly  to  great  multitudes,  and  ad- 
dressed through  his  writings  a  still  vaster  throng. 
The  Toleration  Act  of  1688  ended  his  sufferings 
and  he  died  in  peace. 

Baxter  was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  of  Eng- 
lish authors,  and  one  of  the  best.  But  there  is  no 
complete  edition  of  liis  1G8  treatises,  only  of  his  prac- 
tical works.  A  few  of  his  works  are  in  verse  {Poet- 
ical Fragments f  reprinted,  London,  1821),  though 
he  has  small  claim  to  be  called  a  poet,  and  one 
familiar  hymn  ("  Lord,  it  belongs  not  to  my  care  ") 
has  been  manufactured  out  of  a  longer  one  of  his. 
The  after-world  knows  him  by  reputation  as  the 
author  of  The  Reformed  Pastor  (1656), 
Writings,  a  treatise  on  pastoral  theology  still 
usable;  A  Call  to  the  Unconverted  to 
turn  and  live  and  accept  of  mercy  while  mercy  may 
he  had,  as  even  they  woidd  find  mercy  in  the  day  of 
their  extremity  ;  from  the  Living  God  (1657),  uttered 
as  a  dying  man  to  dying  men  and  impressive  to-day; 
but  chiefly  because  of  The  Saints*  Everlasting  Rest  : 
or  a  treatise  of  the  blessed  state  of  the  Saints  in  their 
enjoyment  of  God  in  glory.  Wherein  is  shewed  its 
excellency  and  certainty;  the  misery  of  those  that 
lose  it,  the  way  to  attain  it,  and  assurance  of  it ;  and 
how  to  live  in  the  continual  delightful  foretaste  of  it, 
by  the  help  of  meditation.  Written  by  the  author 
for  his  own  v^e,  in  the  time  of  his  languishing,  when 
God  took  him  off  from  all  publike  imployment ;  and 
afterwards  preached  in  his  weekly  lecture  (1650). 
The  "Saints*  Rest "  gained  a  reputation  it  has  never 
lost,  but  the  648  pages  of  the  original  edition  have 
proved  too  many  for  posterity  and  the  work  is 
read  nowadays,  if  at  all,  only  in  an  abridgment 
of  an  abridgment.  The  best  brief  characterization 
of  this  faithful,  fearless,  and  gifted  religious  teacher 
is  on  his  monument  at  Kidderminster,  erected  by 
Churchmen  and  Non-conformists,  and  unveiled 
July  28,  1875:  "  Between  the  years  1641  and  1660 
this  town  was  the  scene  of  the  labours  of  Richard 
Baxter,  renowned  equally  for  his  Christian  learning 
and  his  pastoral  fidelity.  In  a  stormy  and  divided 
age  he  advocated  unity  and  comprehension,  point- 
ing the  way  to  everlasting  rest."  In  many  re- 
spects Baxter  was  a  modem  man. 

Baxter's  theology  was  set  forth  most  elaborately 
in  his  Latin  Methodus  theologicB  ChristiancB  (London, 


Baxter 
Beaoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


16 


1681);  the  Christian  Directory  (1673)  contains 
the  practical  part  of  his  system;  and  Catholic 
Theology  (1675)  is  an  English  expo- 
His  rition.  His  theology  made  Baxter 
Theology,  very  mipopular  among  his  contempo- 
raries and  caused  a  split  among  the  Dis- 
senters of  the  eighteenth  century.  As  summarized 
by  Thomas  W.  Jenkyn,  it  differed  from  the  Calvinism 
of  Baxter's  day  on  four  points:  (1)  The  atonement 
of  Christ  did  not  consist  in  his  suffering  the  identical 
but  the  equivalent  punishment  (i.e.,  one  which  would 
have  the  same  effect  in  moral  government)  as  that 
deserved  by  mankind  because  of  offended  law. 
Christ  died  for  sins,  not  persons.  While  the  bene- 
fits of  substitutionary  atonement  are  accessible 
and  available  to  all  men  for  their  salvation,  they 
have  in  the  divine  appointment  a  special  reference 
to  the  subjects  of  personal  election.  (2)  The  elect 
were  a  certain  fixed  number  determined  by  the 
decree  without  any  reference  to  their  faith  as  the 
ground  of  their  election;  which  decree  contemplates 
no  reprobation  but  rather  the  redemption  of  all 
who  will  accept  Christ  as  their  Savior.  (3)  What 
is  imputed  to  the.  sinner  in  the  work  of  justification 
is  not  the  righteousness  of  (Christ  but  the  faith  of 
the  sinner  himself  in  the  righteousness  of  Christ. 
(4)  Eveiy  sinner  has  a  distinct  agency  of  his  own 
to  exert  in  the  process  of  his  conversion.  The  Bax- 
terian  theory,  with  modifications,  was  adopted  by 
many  later  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  America  (Isaac  Watts, 
Philip  Doddridge,  and  many  others). 

Bibuooeapbt:  Baxter's  Praetieal  Work*  were  collected  by  W. 
Orme  and  published  in  23  vols.,  London,  1830;  vol.  i  con- 
tains Orme's  Li/«  avd  Timm  of  Richard  Baxter^  published 
separately  in  2  vols.,  the  same  year;  a  table  of  the  con- 
tents of  this  edition  of  Baxter's  works  is  found  in  Darling's 
Cydopadia  Biblioaraphioa,  pp.  20&-206,  London,  1854; 
the  PracHeal  Work9  appeared  also  in  4  vols.,  ib.  1847; 
and  SeUci  Practical  WritingM,  ed.  L.  Bacon.  2  vols.,  New 
Haven,  1844.  An  AnnoUUed  Liat  of  th€  WriHnga  of  R. 
Baxter  is  appended  to  the  ed.  of  What  Miut  we  do  io  be 
Saved  f  by  A.  B.Qrosart,  London,  1868.  The  chief  source 
for  a  life  is  the  autobiographical  material  left  to  M.  Syl- 
vester, who  published  it  as  ReliguuB  Baxteriana,  London, 
1006,  abrid^  by  £.  Galamy,  1702,  this  enlarged  and  re- 
published in  2  vols.,  1713.  A  notable  paper  on  Baxter 
by  Sir  James  Stephen,  originally  published  in  the  Edin- 
biargh  RevieWf  is  to  be  found  in  his  Eeaaye,  vol.  ii,  Lon- 
don, 1860.  Among  the  biographies  may  be  mentioned 
A.  B.  Grosart,  Reffreeentaiive  NoftcowformiatM,  II,  Riduard 
Baxter,  ib.  1879;  0.  D.  Boyle,  Men  Worth  Remembering, 
Richard  Barter,  ib.  1883;  J.  Stalker,  Riduard  Baxter,  Edin- 
burgh, 1883;  DNB,  iii.  429-437;  J.  H.  Davies.  Life 
of  Riduud  Baxter,  London,  1887.  The  account  of  his  trial 
is  given  by  Maeaulay  in  his  Hietory  of  England,  vol.  ii. 
Consult  also  Baxter'e  Making  Light  of  Chriet,  mih  an 
Beeay  on  hie  Life,  Minietry  and  Theology,  by  T.  W.  Jen- 
kyn,  London.  1846. 

BAYLE,  b6l,  PIERRE:  French  Protestant;  b. 
at  Carla  (11  m.  w.  of  Pamiers),  department  of 
Aridge,  Nov.  18,  1647;  d.  at  Rotterdam  Dec.  28, 
1706.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Calvinist  clergyman, 
and,  in  1666,  began  his  studies  at  the  Protestant 
Academy  at  Puylanrens,  whence  he  went  to  the 
University  of  Toulouse  in  1669.  Not  satisfied 
with  the  objections  of  the  Reformed  against  the 
dogma  of  a  divinely  appointed  judge  in  matters  of 
faith,  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  spent 
eighteen  months  at  the  Jesuits'  College  in  Toulouse, 


and  then  returned  to  Protestantism  and  went  to 
Geneva  (1670),  where,  living  as  a  tutor  in  private 
families,  he  studied  theology  as  well  as  the  Car- 
tesian philosophy.    His  friendship   with  Jacques 
Basnage  and  Minutoli  began  there.    Later  he  accom- 
panied pupils  to  Rouen  and  in  1675  to  Paris.     Then 
he  spent  several  years  as  a  lecturer  on  philosophy 
at  S^dan;  when  that  academy  was  closed  by  order 
of  the  king  (1681),  he  accepted  an  appointment 
as  lecturer  on  philosophy  at  the  "  £oole  iUuatre  " 
of  Rotterdam.     In  this  refuge  of  liberty,    Ba^de 
wrote  most  of  his  works.  The  revocation  of  the  Exlict 
of  Nantes  raised  his  indignation,  and  several  of  the 
best  Protestant  works  called  forth  by  that  disgraceful 
piece  of  policy  proceeded  from  the  pen  of  Bayle. 
The  conclusion  at  which  he  arrives  by  his  dose 
reasoning   is:  that   matters    of   belief   should    be 
outside  the  sphere  of  the  State  as  such — a   dan- 
gerous principle  for  Catholicism,  and  the  book  was 
at  once  put  on  the  Index.    Even  among  Protes- 
tants Bayle  had  adversaries.     Jurieu,  his  jealous 
and  violent  opponent  at  Rotterdam,   considered 
toleration  equal  to  indifference,  and  reproached 
Bayle  with  dangerous  skepticism,  which  made  his 
position  very  difficult.    He  tried  for  an  appoint- 
ment in  Berlin.    But  the  realization  of  this  wish 
was  prevented  by  the  death  of  the  great  Klector 
Frederick  William.    Jurieu  continued  his  attacks 
and  even  went  so  far  as  to  represent  Bayle  as  the 
head  of  a  paity. -working  into  the  hands  of  Louis 
XIV  by  aiming  at  a  split  between  the  princes  allied 
against  France.    William  III  gave  credence  to  this 
and  influenced  the  magistrate  of  Rotterdam   to 
remove   Bayle   from   his   position    (1693).     From 
that  time  he  lived  for  his  literary  work,  chiefly 
bearing  on  philosophy  and  the  histoiy  of  literature. 
His    Dictionnaire  hiatorique  et  critique  [(2  vols,  in 
three  parts  Rotterdam,  1697;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1702; 
11th  ed.,  16  vols.,  Paris,  1820-24;  Eng.  transl.,  5 
vols.,  London,   1734-38)]  was  most  favorably  re- 
ceived by  all  the  learned  men  of  Europe,  though 
it    brought  on  him  a  revival  of  the  reproach   of 
skepticism,  of  want  of  respect  for  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, even  of  Manicheism.    Called  to  j  ustif y  himself 
before  a  commission  appointed  by   the  presbytery 
of  Rotterdam,  he  was  treated  with   great  mod- 
eration, and  consented  to  change  some  of  the  ofFen- 
sive  articles,  which  appeared  in  their  new  form  in 
the  second  edition  of  his  Dictionnaire.    Accusations 
against  him  came  up  again  from  time  to  time, 
and  he  tried  to  refute  them  in  minor  philosophical 
works.     Besides  the  Dictionnaire  his  works  include: 
LeUrea  d,  M.  L.  Z>.  A.  C,  docteur  en  Sorbonne,  oit  il 
est  prouv4  que  lea  comHea  ne  aont  point  le  pr^aage 
d*avcun  malheur  (Cologne,  1682);  Critique  g^nfrale 
de    VHistoire   du    Calviniame   de   M.   Maimbourg 
(Amsterdam,  1682);  RecueU  de  quelquea  pieces  eon- 
cemant  la  philoaophie  de  M.  Deacartea  (Amsterdam, 
1684);  Nouvellea  de  la  R^publique  dea  leUree  (16S4r- 
1687);  Ce  que  c'eat  quela France  toute  catholique  aous 
le  rhgne  de  Louia4e-Orand  (St.  Omer,  1685);  Comr- 
mentaire  philoaophique  aur  cea  parolea  de  J.  C: 
"Contraina-lead'enirer"  (Amsterdam,  1686) ;  R&ponee 
de  Vauieur  dea  Nouvellea  de  la  R&puJUique  dee  lettrea 
en  faveur  du  P.  Malebranche  aur  lea  pkneirs  dea 
aena  (Rotterdam,  1686);  Avia  important  auz  rifu- 


17 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baxter 
Beaoh 


gt/9  9wr  leur  prochain  reUmren  France  (Amsterdam, 
1690;  1709) ;  Ltttres  choiaies  avec  des  remarques  (Rot- 
terdam, 1714);  NouvelkaUUres  (The  Hague,  1739). 

G.  Bonet-Maurt. 

Bibuoobapht:  B.  de  la  Monnoye  (pseudonym  for  Du  Re- 
rest),  Hiatoire  du  Mr.  Bayle  ei  BeM  ouvrage;  Amsterdam, 
1716;  P.  dee Maiseaux.  ViedeP.  Bayle,  The  Haffue.  1730,  re- 
printed frook  the  3d  ed.  of  the  i>iclumfiair», Amsterdam,  1 730, 
reproduficd  in  the  Ens*  transl.  of  the  "  Dictionary," ut  sup.; 

E.  and  E.  Haas.  La  France  proteakmle,  ii,  60-63,  9  vols., 
Paria,  1846-50;  L.  Feuerbach,  P.  BayU,  tin  Beitrag  nw 
G€9ekidUm  der  PhiloeophiB  und  der  Meneehheii,  Leipsic, 
1848;  J.  P.  Damiron,  Mhnoire  »ur  Bayle  et  eee  doctrinee, 
Paris,  1850;  C.  A.  St.  Beuve,  in  Lundie,  vol.  ix,  ib.  1852; 

F.  Bouillier,  Hieioire  de  la  jjiiloeophie  eartieienne,ii,  476, 
ib.  1854;  C.  Lenient,  £tude  eur  Bayle,  ib.  1865;  E.  Jean- 
maire.  Eeaai  eur  la  erUique  religieuee  de  Bayle,  Stras- 
hurg,  1862;  Voltaire,  Sitels  de  Louie  XIV,  chap.  36; 
A.  Deachamps,  La  Oeniee  du  eceptieieme  irudii  ehee 
Boyle,  Bruasels,  1870;  J.  Denis,  BayU  et  Jurieu,  Caen, 
1886;  P.  Janet,  Hieioire  de  la  ecienee  politique  dane  eee 
rapparU  aree  la  morale,  Paris,  1887. 

BATLET,  JAMES  ROOSEVELT:  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishop  of  Baltimore;  b.  at  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Aug. 
23.  1814;  d.  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3,  1877.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Elisabeth  (Bayley)  Seton  (**  Mother 
Seton  ")»  founder  of  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Charity 
in  America;  was  graduated  at  Washington  (Trinity) 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1835;  rector  of  St. 
Peter's  church,  Harlem,  New  York,  1840^1; 
received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  Rome, 
1842;  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  New  York,  1843;  was  professor  in  St. 
John's  College,  Fordham,  New  York,  and  its  acting 
president,  1845-46;  became  secretary  to  Bishop 
Hughes  of  New  York,  1846,  bishop  of  Newark, 
1853,  archbishop  of  Baltimore  and  primate  of 
America,  1872.  He  published  a  volume  of  pas- 
toral letters;  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  an  the  Island  of  New  York  (New  York,  1853); 
Memoirs  of  Simon  Gabriel  BmU,  First  Bishop  of 
Vineennes  (1S61). 

BATLY,    LEWIS:     Anglican  bishop;  b.  perhaps 
at  Carmiuthen,  Wales,  perhaps  at   Lamington  (6 
m.  s.w.  of  Biggar),  Scotland,  year  unknown;  d. 
at  Bangor,  Wales,  Oct.  26,  1631.   He  was  educated 
at  Oxford;  became  vicar  of  Evesham,  Worcester- 
shire, and  in  1604,  probably,  rector  of  St.  Matthew's, 
Friday  street,  London;  was  then  chaplain  to  Henry 
Prince  of  Wales  (d.  1612),  later  chaplain  to  King 
James  I,  who,  in  1616,  appointed  him  bishop  of 
Bangor.     He  was  an  ardent  Puritan.    His  fame 
rests  on  The  Practice  of  Piety,  directing  a  Christian 
how  to  walk  that  he  may  please  God  (date  of  first 
ed.  unknown;  3d  ed.,  London,  1613).     It  reached 
its  74th  edition  in  1821  and  has  been  translated 
into  French,  German,  Italian,  Polish,  Romansch, 
Welsh,  and  into  the  language  of  the  Massachusetts 
Indians.    It  was  one  of  the  two  books  which  John 
Bunyan's  wife  brought  with  her — the  other  one 
being    Arthur  Dent's    Plain  Man's    Pathway   to 
Heaven — and  it  was  by  reading  it  that  Bunyan 
was  first  spiritually  awakened. 

BiBUOQaarar:  A  bioKraphical  preface  by  Grace  Webster 
is  prefised  to  the  PraeHee  of  Piety,  London,  1842;  con- 
Mih  also  A.  k  Wood,  Athenm  Oxonieneee,  ed.  P.  Bliss,  ii, 
625-531.  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20. 

XL— 2 


BAY  PSALM  BOOK:  A  metrical  translation 
of  the  Psalms,  published  by  Stephen  Daye  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  in  1640  and  the  first  book  printed 
in  America.  The  work  of  translation  was  begun 
in  1636,  the  principal  collaborators  being  Thomas 
Welde,  Richard  Mather,  emd  John  Eliot,  the  mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians.  The  rendering,  as  the 
translators  themselves  recognized  in  their  quaint 
preface  to  the  book,  was  a  crude  specimen  of  Eng- 
lish, and  carxying  to  the  extreme  their  belief  in 
the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  they  tortured  their 
version  into  what  they  conceived  to  be  fidelity  to 
the  original.  The  meter,  moreover,  is  irregular, 
and  the  rimes  are  frequently  ludicrous.  The 
general  spirit  and  form  of  the  translation  may 
be  represented  by  the  following  rendering  of  Ps. 
xviii,  6-9: 

6.  "  I  in  my  streights,  cal'd  on  the  Lord, 

and  to  my  God  cry'd:  he  did  heare 
from  his  temple  my  voyoe,  my  crye, 
before  him  came,  unto  his  eare. 

7.  **  Then  th'  earth  shooke,  A  quak't,  A  moQtaines 

roots  mov'd,  A  were  stird  at  his  ire, 

8.  **  Vp  from  his  nostrils  went  a  smoak, 

and  from  his  mouth  devouring  fire; 
By  it  the  coales  inkindled  were. 

0.  **  Likewise  the  heavens  he  downe-bow'd, 
And  he  descended.  A  there  was 
under  his  feet  a  gloomy  cloud." 

Of  the  first  edition  of  the  Bay  Psalm  Book  only 
eleven  copies  are  known  to  exist.  In  1647  a  second 
edition,  better  printed  and  with  the  spelling  and 
punctuation  corrected,  was  published  either  by 
Stephen  Daye  or  possibly  by  Matthew  Daye  or 
even  in  England,  and  this  edition  long  remained 
in  general  use  among  the  Puritans  of  New  England. 
A  reprint  of  the  first  edition  (71  copies)  was  issued 
privately  at  Cambridge  in  1862. 

Biblioobapht:   R.  F.  Roden,  The  Cambridge  Preee,  New 
York.  1006. 

BDELLIUM,  del'i-um  (Hebr.  hedhoM):  One 
of  the  products  of  the  land  of  Havilah,  mentioned 
with  gold  and  the  a^^m-stone  (E.  V.  "  onyx  ") 
in  Gen.  ii,  11-12.  In  Num.  xi,  7,  manna  is  said 
to  have  resembled  it.  It  was,  therefore,  some- 
thing well  known  to  the  Hebrews,  but  the 
exact  meaning  is  uncertain.  Some  have  thought 
that  it  was  a  precious  stone,  perhaps  the  pearl; 
others  identify  it  with  myrrh  or  with  musk.  The 
most  probable  and  generally  accepted  explanation 
is  that  it  was  the  gum  of  a  tree,  much  prized  in 
antiquity  and  used  in  religious  ceremonies.  Pliny 
(Hist,  not,,  xii,  35)  describes  it  as  transparent, 
waxy,  fragrant,  oily  to  the  touch,  and  bitter;  the 
tree  was  black,  of  the  size  of  the  olive,  with  leaves 
like  the  ilex,  and  fruit  like  the  wild  fig;  he  desig- 
nates Bactria  as  its  home,  but  states  that  it  grew 
also  in  Arabia,  India,  Media,  and  Babylonia.  It 
probably  belonged  to  the  balsamodendra  and  was 
allied  to  the  myrrh.  I.  Benzinoer. 

BEACH,  HARLAN  PAGE:  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  Apr.  4,  1854.    He  was 


Beard 

Bebb 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


18 


educated  at  Yale  College  (B.A.,  1878)  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  (1883).  He  was 
instructor  in  Phillips  Andover  Academy  1878-80, 
and  was  ordained  in  1883.  He  was  missionary 
in  China  for  seven  years,  and  from  1892  to  1895 
was  instructor  and  later  superintendent  of  the 
School  for  Christian  Workers,  Springfield,  Mass. 
He  was  appointed  educational  secretary  of  the 
Student  Volunteer  Movement  for  Foreign  Missions 
in  1895,  and  held  this  position  until  1906,  when  he 
was  chosen  professor  of  the  theory  and  practise  of 
.  missions  in  the  Yale  Divinity  School.  He  has  been  a 
corporate  member  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions  since  1895  and  of 
the  cooperating  committee  of  the  same  organi- 
zation since  1906,  as  well  as  chairman  of  the  ex- 
hibit committee  and  executive  committee  of  the 
Ecumenical  Conference  in  1900,  member  of  the 
Bureau  of  Missions  Trustees  since  1901,  member 
of  the  executive  conmiittee  of  the  Yale  Foreign 
Missionary  Society  since  1903,  member  of  the  advi- 
sory board  of  Canton  Christian  College  and  trustee 
of  the  Hartford  School  of  Religious  Pedagogy  since 
1905.  In  theology  he  is  a  moderate  conservative. 
He  has  written  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 
(New  York,  1895);  Knights  of  the  Labarum  (1896); 
New  Testament  Studies  in  Missions  (1898);  Davm 
on  the  Hills  of  T'ang  :  or,  Missions  in  China  (1898); 
Protestant  Missions  in  South  America  (1900); 
Geography  and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions  (2  vols., 
1901-03);  Two  Hundred  Years  of  Christian  Activity 
in  Yale  (New  Haven,  1902);  Princely  Men  of  the 
Heavenly  Kingdom  (New  York,  1903);  and  India 
and  Christian  Opportunity  (1904). 

BEARDy  CHARLES:  English  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Higher  Broughton,  Manchester,  July  27,  1827, 
son  of  John  Relly  Beard,  also  a  well-known  Uni- 
tarian minister  and  educator  (b.  1800;  d.  1876); 
d.  at  Liverpool  Apr.  9,  1888.  He  studied  at  Blan- 
chester  New  College  1843-48,  was  graduated  B.A. 
at  London  University  1847,  and  continued  his 
studies  at  Berlin  1848-49;  became  assistant  min- 
ister at  Hyde  Chapel,  Gee  Cross,  Cheshire,  1850, 
minister  1854,  minister  at  Renshaw  Street  Chapel, 
Liverpool,  1867.  From  1864  to  1879  he  edited  The 
Theological  Review,  Besides  sermons,  addresses, 
etc.,  he  published  Port  Royals  a  Contribution  to 
the  History  of  Religion  and  Literature  in  France 
(2  vols.,  London,  1861);  The  Reformation  in  its 
Relation  to  Modem  Thought  (Hibbert  lectures  for 
1883);  and  Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  untU  the  Close  of  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(ed.  J.  F.  Smith,  1889). 

BEARD,  RICHARD:  Cumberland  Presbyterian; 
b.  in  Sumner  County,  Tenn.,  Nov.  27,  1799;  d.  at 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  Nov.  6,  1880.  He  was  licensed 
in  1820;  graduated  at  Cumberland  College,  Prince- 
ton, Ky.,  1832,  and  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
there  1832-38,  and  in  Sharon  College,  Sharon,  Miss., 
1838-43;  president  of  Cumberland  College  1843-54; 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  Cumberland 
University,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  after  1854.  He  pub- 
lished the  following  k>ooks.  Why  am  I  a  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  r  (Nashville,  1872);  Lectures  on  The- 


ology (3  vols.,  1873-75);  Brief  Biographical  Sketches 
of  Some  of  the  Early  Ministers  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  (1874). 

BEARDSLEE,  CLARK  SMITH:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Coventry,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  1,  1850.  He 
was  educated  at  Amherst  College  (B.A.,  1876), 
Hartford  Theological  Seminary  (1879),  and  the 
University  of  Berlin.  He  was  instructor  in  He- 
brew at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary  from  1878 
to  1881,  and  then  held  successive  pastorates  at  Le 
Mars,  la.  (1882-85),  Prescott,  Ariz.  (1885-86), 
and  West  Springfield,  Mass.  (1886-88).  In  1888 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  systematic 
theology  at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  and 
four  years  later  was  made  professor  of  Biblical 
dogmatics  and  ethics,  a  position  which  he  still 
holds.  In  theology  he  is  a  BibUcal  Evangelical. 
He  is  the  author  of  Christ* s  Estimate  of  Himself 
(Hartford,  1899);  Teacher-Training  with  the  Master 
Teacher  (Philadelphia,  1903);  and  Jesus  the  King 
of  Truth  (Hartford,  1905). 

BEATIFICATION:  An  intermediate  stage  in 
the  process  of  canonization.  It  is  in  modem  usage 
itself  the  result  of  a  lengthy  course  of  inquiry  into 
the  life  of  the  person  under  consideration,  and  is 
solemnly  declared  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  By 
it  the  title  of  "  Blessed  "  is  attributed  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  a  limited  and  partial  cultus  of  him  per- 
mitted, as  in  a  certain  country  or  order.  See 
Canonization. 

BEATIFIC  VISION:  The  direct  and  unhindered 
vision  of  God,  which  is  part  of  the  reserved  blessed- 
ness of  the  redeemed  (I  Cor.  xiii,  12;  I  John  iii,  2; 
Rev.  xxii,  3,  4 ).  The  conception  of  its  nature 
must  necessarily  be  very  vague,  but  belief  in  its 
existence  is  said  to  be  founded  upon  Scripture  and 
reason.  The  only  question  concerns  its  time. 
This  has  been  much  disputed.  The  Greek  Church 
and  many  Protestants,  especially  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists,  put  the  vision  after  the  judgment  day 
(so  Dr.  Hodge,  Systematic  Theology ,  iii,  860).  A(>- 
cording  to  the  view  prevalent  among  Roman  Catho- 
lic theologians,  the  vision,  though  essentially  com- 
plete before  the  resurrection,  is  not  integrally  so 
until  the  soul  is  reunited  to  the  glorified  b<xiy  (con- 
sult H.  Hurter,  Theologice  dogmatica  compendium, 
vol.  iii,  De  Deo  consummatore,  chap,  v,  10th  ed., 
Innsbruck,  1900). 

BEATON,  bi'tan  (BETHUNE),  be-thOn'  or 
be-tan',  DAVID:  Cardinal-archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews;  b.  1494;  assassinated  at  St.  Andrews 
May  29, 1546.  He  was  the  third  son  of  John  Beaton 
of  Auchmuty,  Fifeshire;  studied  at  the  universities 
of  St.  Andrews  and  Glasgow,  and  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  went  to  Paris  and  studied  law;  became  abbot 
of  Arbroath  in  1523;  bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  Langue- 
doc  1537;  cardinal  Dec.,  1538.  He  was  made 
lord  privy  seal  in  1528;  succeeded  his  uncle,  James 
Beaton,  as  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1539; 
was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Glasgow  at  Rome  in 
1552;  became  chancellor  and  prothonotary  apos- 
tolic and  legate  a  latere  in  1543.  He  served  his 
country  in  many  important  diplomatic  missions. 


19 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beard 
Bebb 


In  the  bitter  political  contests  of  the  time  between 
the  French  and  English  parties  he  sided  with  the 
former,  and  fought  with  energy  and  courage  for 
the  independence  of  Scotland  against  the  plans  of 
Henry  VIII.  In  the  religious  contests  between 
Romanists  and  Reformers  he  took  as  decidedly  the 
part  of  the  hierarchy  and  did  not  scruple  to  use 
intrigue  and  force  when  argument  and  persuasion 
failed.  His  memory  has  been  darkened  by  his 
severity  against  heretics  and  his  inunoral  life. 
The  case  of  George  Wishart  (q.v.)  is  adduced  as  a 
particulariy  flagrant  piece  of  religious  persecution; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  lived  in  a  rude 
country  in  turbulent  times,  and  the  Reformers  were 
implicated  in  political  intrigues  and  treasonable 
plots.  The  execution  of  Wishart  was  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  a  conspiracy  to  put  Beaton  out  of 
the  way,  and  certain  members  of  the  Reform 
party  murdered  him  in  his  bedchamber. 

Bibuoobapht:  R.  Chambers,  Livet  of  lUuatriouM  Scotchmen, 
ed.  T.  Thoauon.  5  vols..  Edinbursh.  1835;  C.  R.  Rogers, 
Life  of  Georoe  Wishart,  ib.  1876;  DNB,  iv.  17-18;  J.  Herk- 
len.  Cardinal  Beaton,  Prieet  and  Politician,  London,  1891. 

BEATTIE,  FRAlfCIS  ROBERT:  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Guelph,  Ont.,  Mar.  31,1848;  d.  at  Louisville, 
Ky.,  Sept.  4,  1906.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Toronto  (B.A.,  1875),  Knox  Theo- 
logical College,  Toronto  (1878),  Illinois  Wesleyan 
University  (Ph.D.,  1884),  and  Presbyterian  Theo- 
logical College,  Montreal  (D.D.,  1887).  He  was 
tutor  in  Knox  College  in  1876-78,  and  held  Cana- 
dian pastorates  at  Baltimore  and  Coldsprings 
(1878-82)  and  Brantford  (1882-88),  in  addition 
to  being  examiner  to  Toronto  University  in  1884- 
1 .  -  >.  In  t he  latter  year  he  entered  the  Presbyterian 
Cliurch,  South,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
apologetics  in  Columbia  Seminary,  Columbia,  S.  C, 
remaining  there  until  1893,  when  he  became 
professes  of  apologetics  and  systematic  theology  in 
the  Presbyterian  Theologicsd  Seminary  of  Ken- 
tucky at  Louisville.  He  published  Utilitarian 
Theory  of  Morals  (Brantford,  Ont.,  1884);  Methods 
of  Theism  (1887);  Radical  Criticism  (Chicago,  1894); 
PreAyterian  Standards  (Richmond,  Va.,  1896);  and 
Apologeiux  (vol.  i,  1903).  He  also  edited  the  Afe- 
marial  Volume  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  CeUbror 
tion  at  Chartatte,  N.  C.  (Riclunond,  Va.,  1897),  and 
was  associate  editor  of  the  Christian  Observer 
from  1893  and  of  The  Presbyterian  Quarterly  from 
1895. 

BEATTIE,  JAICES:  Scotch  poet;  b.  at  Laurence- 
kirk (70  m.  n.n.e.  of  Edinburgh),  Kincardineshire, 
Oct.  25,  1735;  d.  at  Aberdeen  Aug.  18,  1803.  He 
studied  at  the  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen  (M.A., 
1753),  and,  after  seven  years  as  a  school-teacher, 
became  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  logic 
at  that  institution  in  1760.  In  reply  to  Hume  he 
wrote  An  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Immutability 
of  Truth  (London,  1770),  which  was  popular  and 
successful,  but  has  little  value  as  a  philosophical 
work.  Other  works  of  his  were:  Dissertations , 
Moral  and  Critical  (1783) ;  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1786);  and  Elements 
of  Moral  Science  (2  vols.,  1790-93).  His  poems, 
of  which  the  chief  is  The  Minstrel  (books  i-ii,  1771- 


1774),  are  much  better  than  his  philosophical  wri- 
tings; and  it  is  for  them  that  he  is  remembered. 

Bibuoorapht:  Sir  William  Forbes,  An  Account  of  the  Life 
and  WrtHnge  of  Jamee  Beattie,  Edinbursh,  1806;  DNB, 
iv,  22-25. 

BEAUSOBRE,  b0"s5'br,  ISAAC  DE:  One  of 
the  most  distinguished  preachers  of  the  French 
Protestant  Church;  b.  at  Niort  (220  m.  s.w.  of 
Paris),  in  the  present  department  of  Deux-S6vres, 
Mar.  8,  1659;  d.  in  Berlin  June  5,  1738.  He  was 
descended  from  a  Protestant  family  of  Gascogne, 
whose  head  took  refuge  in  Geneva  in  1578.  He 
began  his  theological  studies  at  the  celebrated 
academy  of  Saumur,  was  ordained  at  the  last 
synod  of  Loudun,  and  was  called  to  bd  minister 
of  the  church  at  Chatillon,  department  of  Indre, 
1683.  During  the  religious  persecution,  he  fled 
in  Nov.,  1685,  to  Rotterdam,  where  he  was  wel- 
comed at  the  house  of  the  princess  of  Orange  and, 
through  her,  was  appointed  chaplain  to  her  daughter, 
princess  of  Anhalt-Dessau.  In  1694  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick 
III,  and  was  called  to  Berlin  as  minister  of  the 
French  Church.  He  stayed  there  for  thirty-six 
years,  preaching  with  much  success,  and  was 
loaded  with  favors  by  King  Frederick  II.  Among 
other  honorable  missions,  he  was  sent  in  1704  to 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  and,  in  1713,  to  the 
conunissioners  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  to  ask  for 
the  exchange  of  Huguenot  galley-slaves  for  French 
prisoners.  He  was  privy  councilor  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  director  of  the  French  House  and  of 
the  French  schools,  and  superintendent  of  all  the 
French  churches  in  Berlin. 

His  works  are:  Defense  de  la  doctrine  des  Ri- 
formis  sur  la  Providence^  la  pridestination,  la  grdce, 
et  VEucharistie  (Magdeburg,  1693);  Les  Psaumes 
de  David  mis  en  rime  frangaise  (Berlin,  1701);  Le 
NouveaurTestament  de  J.  C,  traduU  en  frangais 
sur  Voriginal  grec,  avec  des  notes  litt&ales  (Amster- 
dam, 1718);  Histoire  crUiqus  de  Manichie  et  du 
Manich&isme  (1739);  Sermons  (4  vols.,  Lausanne, 
1755);  Histoire  de  la  Reformation  ou  origine  et  pro- 
gr^s  du  Luthdranisme  dans  V  Empire  de  1617  d,  1636 
(4  vols.,  Berlin,  1785-86).        G.  Bonet-Maury. 

Biblioqrapht:  A  life  is  prefixed  by  A.  B.  de  la  Chapelle 
to  Beaueobre'a  Remarguee  .  .  .  eur  le  Nouveau  Testament, 
2  vols..  The  Hacue.  1742.  Consult  J.  H.  S.  Formey,  £loge 
dee  aeadimiciene  de  Berlin,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1757;  E.  and 
"k.  Haag,  La  France  protestante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  ii,  1 27, 
Paris,  1877;  C.  J.  G.  Bartholmeas.  Le  Grand  Beaueobre, 
in  BvUOin  de  la  aociiti  d'hietoire  du  proteetantieme  frangaia, 
ib.  1876. 

BEBB,  LLEWELLYN  JOHN  MONTFORT: 
Church  of  England;  b.  at  Cape  Town  Feb.  16, 1862. 
He  was  educated  at  New  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1885),  and  was  fellow  (1885-98),  tutor  (1889-98), 
and  librarian  (1892-98)  of  Brasenose  College. 
He  was  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Salis- 
buiy  from  1893  to  1898,  and  to  the  bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  from  1898  to  1902,  and  was  also  curator  of 
the  botanical  garden,  Oxford,  in  1896-98  and  Grin- 
feld  lecturer  on  the  Septuagint  in  the  University 
of  Oxford  in  1897-1901.  From  1892  to  1896  he 
was  vice-principal  of  Brasenose  Collegei  Oxford, 
and  since  1898  has  been  principal  of  St.  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  Wales.    He  was  select  preacher 


Bebanbiuv 
Beoket 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


20 


at  Cambridge  in  1904,  and  has  written  Evidence 
of  the  Early  Versions  and  Patristic  Quotations  on 
ihe  Text  of  the  New  Testament,  in  Studia  Biblica, 
ii  (Oxford,  1890),  and  lias  edited  Sermons  Preached 
before  the  University  of  Oxford  (1901)  and  U.  Z. 
Rule's  Cfraduated  Lessons  from  the  Old  Testament 
(1902). 

BEBEITBURG,  LUPOLD  VON:  Bishop  of 
Bamberg,  best  known  for  his  writings  on  eccle- 
siastico-political  subjects;  d.  1363.  He  came  of 
a  knightly  Prankish  family,  and  studied  canon 
law  at  Bologna.  From  1338  to  1352  he  was  a 
member  of  the  chapters  of  WQrzburg  and  Mainz 
and  dean  of  St.  Severus  at  Erfurt.  In  1353  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Bamberg,  and  remained  there 
till  his  death.  In  the  strug^e  between  Louis  the 
Bavarian  and  Popes  John  XXII,  Benedict  XII, 
and  Clement  VI,  he  was  among  the  jurists  who 
took  the  emperor's  side.  His  treatise  De  juribus 
regni  et  imperii  Romanorum  (ed.  J.  Wimpfeling, 
Strasburg,  1508;  S.  Schard,  in  De  jurisdictionef 
avetoritate,  et  prceeminentia  imperiali  oc  potestate 
ecdesiastica  variis  auctoribus  scripta,  Basel,  1566, 
and  often),  dedicated  to  Louis'  supporter,  the 
elector  Baldwin  of  Treves,  deals  less  with  abstract 
ideas  and  Aristotelian  politics  than  with  historical 
considerations.  Two  minor  works  of  his  have  also 
been  preserved,  one  in  praise  of  the  devotion  of  the 
old  German  princes  to  the  Church  (in  Schard,  ut 
sup.),  the  other  a  lament  over  the  condition  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  (ed.  Peter,  Wiirzburg,  1842). 

(E.  Friedberq.) 

Bibuooeapht:  J.  Looshom,  Die  QfchiehU  dea  BUihuma 
Bambero,  iii.  346-306,  Biachof  Lupoid  III  von  Bthenbvay, 
Munich,  1891;  A.  Ussermann,  ETpUctypahM  BambergentUt 
pp.  176-180,  San  Bias,  1802;  S.  Rieiler.  Dm  liierariachen 
Widertadur  der  PApHe,  pp.  107-114,  180-192,  Leipaio, 
1874;  F.  Joel,  Lupoid  III  von  Btbenhurg,  vol.  i,  Sein  Leben, 
Halle,  1891  (the  result  of  diligent  research). 

EEC,  ABBEY  OF:  Benedictine  abbey  of  Nor- 
mandy, situated  at  the  present  village  of  Le  Bee- 
Hellouin  (7  m.  s.w.  of  Rouen).  It  was  foimded 
about  1034  by  Herluin,  a  noble  Norman,  who  was 
first  abbot.  Mainly  because  of  its  great  teachers, 
Lanfranc  (who  came  to  the  abbey  about  1042 
and  was  prior  1045  or  1046-66)  and  Anselm  (en- 
tered the  abbey  1060;  prior  1063-78;  abbot  1078-93; 
see  Anselm,  Saint,  op  Canterbury),  it  became 
a  famous  center  of  learning  for  Normandy  and,  after 
the  Conquest,  for  England.  Among  those  who 
studied  there  were:  Anselm  of  Lucca,  afterward 
Pope  Alexemder  II;  Anselm  of  Laon;  Gilbert 
Crispin,  abbot  of  Westminster,  author  of  the  life 
of  Herluin;  Milo  Crispin,  biographer  of  Lanfranc 
and  certain  of  the  early  abbots;  Amulf  and  Gun- 
dulf,  bishops  of  Rochester;  Ivo  of  Chartres;  Gut- 
mund,  archbishop  of  Aversa;  and  William,  arch- 
bishop of  Rouen.  Its  fifth  abbot,  Theobald, 
became  archbishop  of  Canterbuiy  (1139);  and  the 
seventh  abbot  was  Vacarius,  who  about  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century  introduced  the  study  of  the 
Roman  law  into  England.  The  abbey  was  des- 
troyed during  the  French  Revolution 

BiBUOaKAFBT:  The  Chronieon  Beeeenait  dbbaHa^  with  the 
lives  by  the  Crispins  above  referred  to,  are  in  D'Ach^ry's 
•dition  ol  tha  works  of  Lanfranc,  Paris,  16i8;  reprinted 


in  MPL^  cl;  and  the  Gesia  of  seven  Abbots  of  Bee,  by 
Peter  the  Monk,  written  11 50,  are  in  MPL,  dxxzL 

BEGAN  (VERBEECE,  VAN  DER  BEECK), 
MARTIN:  Jesuit;  b.  at  Hilvarenbeeck  (35m.  n.e.  of 
Antwerp),  in  Brabant,  Jan.  6,  1563;  d.  in  Vienna 
Jan.  24,  1624.  He  joined  the  JesuiU  in  1583; 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  schools  of  the 
order  in  Cologne,  Wdrzbuig,  Mainz,  and  Vienna; 
and  became  oonfessor  to  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II. 
in  1620.  He  engaged  in  controversy  with  Lutherans, 
Calvinists  and  Anabaptists,  and  in  particular  at- 
tacked the  Church  of  England.  In  his  Contro- 
versia  Anglicana  de  potestate  pontifids  et  regis  (Mainz, 
1613)  he  defended  the  morality  of  assassinating  a 
heretic  king;  and  in  Qu<sstiones  de  fide  hca-eticis 
servanda  (1609)  he  declared  that  no  promise  or 
oath  given  to  a  heretic  was  binding.  The  former 
work  was  condemned  at  Rome.  His  collected 
works  were  published  in  two  volumes  at  Mainz, 
1630-31. 

BECK,  JOHANN  TOBIAS:  German  theologian; 
b.  at  Balingen  (40  m.  s.s.w.  of  Stuttgart),  WOrt- 
temberg,  Feb.  22,  1804;  d.  at  Tflbingen  Dec.  28, 
1878.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  1822-26,  was  pastor 
at  Waldthann  and  Mergentheim,  went  to  Basel  as 
extraordinary  professor  in  1836,  and  in  1843  to 
Tilbingen,  where  he  remained  as  professor  and 
morning  preacher  till  his  death.  He  has  been  char- 
acterized as  the  most  important  representative  of 
the  strictly  Biblical  school  of  theology  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  He  aimed  to  base  all  doctrine  on 
the  Bible,  and  allowed  value  to  Church  teaching? 
only  as  interpretations  of  the  Bible.  He  held  an 
extreme  view  of  revelation  and  inspiration,  and 
hardly  entered  into  critico-historical  questions. 
His  life  was  plain  and  simple,  and  his  kind  heart 
won  general  affection.  He  published,  besides 
several  collections  of  sermons,  the  following  works: 
Einleitung  in  das  System  der  christlichen  Lekre 
(Stuttgart,  1838,  2d  ed.,  1870);  Die GebuHdes christ- 
lichen Lebens,  sein  Wesen  tmd  sein  Gesetx  (Basel, 
1839);  Die  {^ristliche  Lehnrissenschaft  nach  den 
biblischen  Urkunden,  i,  Logik  (Stutt^urt,  1841,  2d 
ed.,  1875);  Die  christHche  Menschenliebe,  das  Wort 
und  die  Gemeinde  Christi  (Basel,  1842);  Umriss  der 
biblischen  SedenUhre  (Stuttgart,  1843,  3d  ed, 
1873;  Eng.  transL,  Biblical  Psychology,  Edinburgh, 
1877);  Leiifaden  der  christlichen  Glaubenslehre  fur 
Kirche,  Schule  und  Haus  (Stuttgart,  1862,  2d  ed., 
1869) ;  Gedanken  aus  und  riach  der  Schrift  fUr  christ- 
liches  Leben  und  geistliches  Ami  (Frankfort,  1859; 
2d  ed.,  1878).  After  his  death  were  published 
commentaries  on  the  epistles  to  Timothy  (GQtersloh, 
1879)  and  the  Romans  (2  vols.,  1884),  and  on  Rev. 
i-xii  (1883);  PastoraUehren  des  Neuen  Testaments 
(1880;  Eng.  transL,  Pastoral  Theology,  Edinburgh, 
1882);  Vorlesungen  aber  chrisUiche  Ethik  (3  vols., 
1882-^);  Brief e  und  Kemworte  (1885);  Vorlesungen 
aber  chrisUiche  Glaubenslehre  (2  vols.,  1886-87); 
VoUendung  des  Reiches  Gottes  (1887).  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxblxogeapht:  For  hie  life  consult:  Worte  der  Erinntryng, 
Tabinsen,  1879  (the  part  by  Weissftcker  is  esped&lly  val- 
uable); B.  J.  BjgKenbach,  7.  Beck,  ein  SduriftffMrter 
gum  Himmelreieht  Basel,  1888.  On  his  theology  consult: 
F.  liebetrut,  J.  7.  Seek  und  miim  StOlung  sur   Kirekt, 


21 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bebanbiuv 
Beoket 


Berlin.  1858;  C.  Sturhahn,  Die  Reehtfwrtigungriehre  nach 
BmI  mii  BtrHeknehiiouno  wm  Ebrard'9  Sda,  Leipaio,  1890. 
On  bis  work  aa  a  preacher:  A.  Brdmel,  HomiUUaehe  Charak- 
terhikUr,  2  Tola.,  ib.  1874;  A.  Nebe.  Gead^iehU  der  Predigt, 
rol  m,  Wieebaden,  1870. 

BECKET,  THOMAS  (oommoDly  called  Thomas 
a  Becket) :  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1162-70, 
the  moat  determined  English  champion  of  the 
rif^ta  and  liberties  of  the  Church  in  his  day; 
b.  in  London  between  1110  and  1120;  assassinated 
at  Canterbury  I>ec.  29,  1170.  His  parents  were  of 
the  middle  class.  He  received  an  excellent  edu- 
cation, which  he  completed  at  the  University  of 
Paris.  Returning  to  England,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who  entrusted  him  with  several  important  missions 
to  Rome,  and  finally  made  him  archdeacon  of 
Canierbuiy  and  provost  of  Beverley.  He  so  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  zeal  and  efficiency  that 
Theobald  commended  him  to  King  Henry  II  when 
the  important  office  of  chancellor  was  vacant. 
Henry,  like  all  the  Norman  kings,  desired  to  be 
absolute  mAster  of  his  dominions,  in  both  Church 
and  State,  and  could  well  appeal  to  the  traditions 
of  his  house  when  he  planned  to  do 
Life  before  away  with  the  special  privileges  of 
his  Conae-  the  English  clergy,  which  he  regarded 
cratioii.  as  so  many  fetters  on  his  authority. 
Becket  struck  lum  as  an  instrument 
well  adapted  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  designs; 
the  young  man  showed  himself  an  accomplished 
courtier,  a  cheerful  companion  in  the  king's  pleas- 
ures, and  devoted  to  his  master's  interests  with 
such  a  firm  and  yet  diplomatic  thoroughness  that 
scarcely  any  one,  unless  perhaps  it  was  John  of 
Salisbury,  could  have  doubted  that  he  had  gone 
over  completely  to  the  royal  side.  Archbishop 
Theobald  died  Apr.  18,  1161,  and  the  chapter 
learned  with  some  indignation  that  the  king  ex- 
pected them  to  choose  Thomas  his  successor. 
The  election  was,  however,  consummated  in  May, 
and  Thomas  was  consecrated  on  June  3,  1162. 

At  once  there  took  place  before  the  eyes  of  the 
astonished  king  and  country  an  unexpected  trans- 
formaticm  in  the  character  of  the  new  primate. 
Instead  of  a  gay,  pleasure-loving  courtier,  he  stood 
forth  an  ascetic  prelate  in  simple  monastic  garb, 
ready  to  contend  to  the  uttermost  for  the  cause 
of  the  hierarchy.  In  the  schism  which  at  that  time 
divided  the  Church,  he  declared  for 
Archbishopy  Alexander  III  (q.v.),  a  man  whose 
1 163.  devotion  to  the  same  strict  hierarch- 
ical principles  appealed  to  him;  and 
from  Alexander  he  received  the  pallium  at  the 
Council  of  Tours.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
proceeded  at  once  to  put  into  execution  the  project 
he  had  formed  for  the  liberation  of  the  Church  of 
En^and  from  the  very  limitations  which  he  had 
formerly  helped  to  enforce.  His  aim  was  twofold: 
the  complete  exemption  of  the  Church  from  all 
civfl  jurisdiction,  with  undivided  control  of  the 
clergy,  freedom  of  appeal,  etc.,  and  the  acquisition 
and  security  of  an  independent  fund  of  church 
property.  The  king  was  not  slow  to  perceive  the 
inevitable  outcome  of  the  archbishop's  attitude, 
and  called  a  meeting  of  the  clergy  at  Westminster 


(Oct.  1,  1163)  at  which  he  demanded  that  they 
should  renounce  all  claim  to  exemption  from  civil 
jurisdiction  and  acknowledge  the  equality  of  all 
subjects  before  the  law.  The  others  were  inclined 
to  yield,  but  the  archbishop  stood  firm.  Henry  was 
not  ready  for  an  open  breach,  and  offered  to  be 
content  with  a  more  general  acknowledgment  and 
recognition  of  the  "  customs  of  his  ancestors." 
Thomas  was  willing  to  agree  to  this,  with  the  sig- 
nificemt  reservation  "  saving  the  rights  of  the 
Church."  But  this  involved  the  whole  question 
at  issue,  and  Henry  left  London  in  anger. 

Henry  called  another  assembly  at  Clarendon  for 
Jan.  30,  1164,  at  which  he  presented  his  demands 
in  sixteen  constitutions.    What  he  asked  involved 

the  abandonment  of  the  clergy's  in- 
The  Con-    dependence  and  of  their  direct  con- 
stitutions of  nection  with  Rome;  he  employed  all  his 
Clarendon,    arts  to  induce  their  consent,  and  was 

apparently  successful  with  all  but  the 
primate.  Finally  even  Becket  expressed  his  will- 
ingness to  agree  to  the  constitutions;  but  when  it 
came  to  the  actual  signature  he  definitely  refused. 
This  meant  war  between  the  two  powers.  Henry 
endeavored  to  rid  himself  of  his  antagonist  by  ju- 
dicial process  and  summoned  him  to  appear  before 
a  great  coimcil  at  Northampton  on  Oct.  8,  1164,  to 
answer  charges  of  contempt  of  royal  authority  and 
maladministration  of  the  chemcellor's  office. 

Becket  denied  the  right  of  the  assembly  to 
judge  him,  appealed  to  the  pope,  and,  feeling  that 
his  life  was  too  valuable  to  the  Church  to  be  risked, 
went  into  voluntary  exile  on  Nov.  2,  embarking  in 
a  fishing-boat  which  landed  him  in  France.  He 
went  to  Sens,  where  Pope  Alexander  was,  while 
envoys  from  the  king  hastened  to  work  against 

him,  requesting  that  a  legate  should 
Becket      be  sent  to  England  with  plenary  au- 
Leaves      thority  to  settle  the  dispute.     Alex- 
England,    ander  decHned,   and  when,  the  next 

day,  Becket  arrived  and  gave  him  a 
full  account  of  the  proceedings,  he  was  still  more 
confirmed  in  his  aversion  to  the  king.  Heiury 
pursued  the  fugitive  archbishop  with  a  series  of 
edicts,  aimed  at  all  his  friends  and  supporters  as 
well  as  himself;  but  Louis  VII  of  France  received 
him  with  respect  and  offered  him  protection.  He 
spent  nearly  two  years  in  the  Cistercian  abbey  of 
Pontigny,  until  Henry's  threats  against  the  order 
obliged  him  to  move  to  Sens  again.  He  regarded 
himself  as  in  full  possession  of  all  his  prerogatives, 
and  desired  to  see  his  position  enforced  by  the 
weapons  of  excommunication  and  interdict.  But 
Alexander,  though  sympathizing  with  him  in  theory, 
was  for  a  milder  and  more  diplomatic  way  of  reach- 
ing his  ends.  Differences  thus  arose  between  pope 
and  archbishop,  which  were  all  the  more  embit- 
tered when  legates  were  sent  in  1167  with  authority 
to  act  as  arbitrators.  Disregarding  this  limita- 
tion of  his  jurisdiction,  and  steadfast  in  his  prin- 
ciples, Thomas  treated  with  the  legates  at  great 
length,  still  conditioning  his  obedience  to  the  king 
by  the  rights  of  his  order.  His  firmness  seemed 
about  to  meet  with  its  reward  when  at  last  (1170) 
the  pope  was  on  the  point  of  fulfilling  his  threats 
and  exconununicating  the  king,  and  Henry,  alarmed 


Baoket 
Beeoher 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


22 


by  the  prospect,  held  out  hopes  of  an  agreement 
which  should  allow  Thomas  to  return  to  England 
and  resume  his  place.  But  both  parties  were 
really  stiU  holding  to  their  former  ground,  and  the 
desire  for  a  reconciliation  was  only  apparent. 
Both,  however,  seem  for  the  moment  to  have  be- 
lieved in  its  possibility;  and  the  contrast  was  all 
the  sharper  when  it  became  evident  that  the  old 
irreconcilable  opposition  was  still  there.  Henry, 
incited  by  his  partisans,  refused  to  restore  the  ec- 
clesiastical property  which  he  had  seized,  and 
Thomas  prepared  to  issue  the  pope's  sentence 
against  the  despoilers  of  the  Church  and  the  bishops 
who  had  abetted  them.  It  had  been  already  sent 
to  England  for  promulgation  when  he  himself 
landed  at  Sandwich  on  Dec.  3,  1170,  and  two  days 
later  entered  Canterbiuy. 

The  tension  was  now  too  great  to  be  endured, 
and  the  catastrophe  which  relieved  it  was  not  long 
in  coming.  A  passionate  word  of  the  angry  king 
was  taken  as  authority  by  four  knights,  who  imme- 
diately plotted  the  murder  of  the  archbishop,  and 
accomplished  it  in  his  own  cathedral 
Becket  As-  on  Dec,  29.  The  crime  brought  its 
own  revenge.  Becket  was  revered  by 
the  faithful  throughout  Europe  as  a 
martyr,  and  canonized  by  Alexander  in  1173;  while 
on  July  12  of  the  following  year  Henry  humbled 
himself  to  do  public  penance  at  the  tomb  of  his 
enemy,  which  remained  one  of  the  most  popular 
places  of  pilgrimage  in  England  until  it  was  des- 
troyed at  the  Reformation  (see  Canterbury). 

(Carl  Mirbt.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Boorees  for  a  life  were  collected  by  J. 
C.  Robertson  in  MaieriaU  fwr  the  HUL  of  Thoma»  Becket, 
8  vols.,  in  RoUa  Seriet,  London,  187&-85  (contains  all  the 
known  contemporary  lives,  others  of  later  date,  the  Epis- 
ties,  and  other  material);  cf.  the  Vila,  tpiatoltB  et  religuice, 
ed.  J.  A.  Giles  in  PEA,  8  vols.,  Oxford,  1845-46,  and 
J.  A.  Giles,  Lift  and  Letters  of  ThomaM  &  Becket,  2  vols., 
London,  1846.  For  later  discussions  and  lives  consult: 
M.  Coumier,  L'Archevtque  de  CarUorMry,  2  vols.,  Paris, 
1845:  J.  C.  Robertson,  Beckei,  London,  1859;  W.  F. 
Hook,  JAvea  of  the  ArchUthops  of  Canterbury,  ii.  354-507. 
ib.  1862;  B.  A.  Freeman,  in  Historical  Essay;  series  2, 
ib.  1880;  idem,  in  Contemporary  Review,  Mar.- Apr..  1878; 
J.  A.  Froude,  Life  and  Times  of  Becket,  in  Short  Studies, 
vol.  jv,  ib.  1883;  idem,  in  Nineteenth  Century,  ii  (1877), 
15-27.  217-229,  389-410,  669-691;  C.  P.  Stanley,  Histor- 
ical Memorials  of  Canterbury,  pp.  59-125, 189-302,  London, 
1883;  W.  H.  Hutton,  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  ib.  1889 
(from  contemporary  lives);  J.  Morris,  Life  and  Martyr- 
dom of  St,  Thomas  Becket,  ib.  1891  (Roman  Catholic,  deals 
with  monasteries  and  churches  associated  with  Becket); 
M.  Schmiti,  Die  politischen  Ideen  des  Thomas  Becket,  Cre- 
feld.  1893;  E.  A.  Abbott.  SL  Thomas  of  Canterbury:  his 
Death  and  Mirades,  2  vols..  London.  1898  (travernes  the 
earlier  accounts  in  a  critical  examination);  DNB,  Ivi, 
165-173. 

BECKWITH,       CHARLES       MINNIGERODE: 

Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  Alabama;  b.  in 
Prince  George  Co.,  Va.,  June  3,  1851.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  Georgia  (B.A.,  1873),  was  mas- 
ter of  the  Sewanee  Grammar  School,  University  of 
the  South  (Sewanee,  Tenn.),  1873-79,  and  was 
graduated  from  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  in  1881.  He  was  oixlered  deacon  and 
advanced  to  the  priesthood  in  the  same  year,  and 
was  rector  of  St.  Luke's,  Atlanta,  Ga.  (1881-86), 
Christ    Church,    Houston,    Tex.    (1886-92),    and 


Trinity,  Galveston,  Tex.  (1892-1902).  In  1902  he 
was  consecrated  fourth  bishop  of  Alabama.  He 
has  written  The  Trinity  Course  of  Church  Instruc- 
tion (New  York,  1898)  and  The  Teacher'a  Comr 
panion  to  the  Trinity  Course  (1901). 


BECKWITH,  CLARENCE  AUGUSTINE:  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Charlemont,  Mass.,  July 
21,  1849.  He  studied  at  Olivet  College,  Olivet, 
Mich.  (B.A.,  1874),  Yale  Divinity  School  (1874-76), 
and  Bangor  Theological  Seminary,  from  which 
he  was  graduated  in  1877.  He  became  pastor  of 
the  First  Congregational  Church,  Brewer,  Me.,  in 
1877,  of  the  South  Evangelical  Congregational 
Church,  West  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1882,  professor 
of  Christian  theology  at  Bangor  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1892,  and  professor  of  systematic  theolog}' 
at  Chicago  Theological  Seminary  in  1905.  Ho 
holds  that  "  the  realities  of  the  Christian  religion 
and  the  facts  of  Christian  experience  which  wc 
share  with  Christians  of  all  ages  are  to  be  inter- 
preted by  us  in  terms  of  modem  thought."  He 
has  written  Realities  of  Christian  Theology  (New 
York,  1906). 

BECKX,  PIERP^  JEAN:  Generalof  the  Jesuit.<; 
b.  at  Sichem  (33  m.  s.e.  of  Antwerp)  Feb.  8,  1795: 
d.  at  Rome  Mar.  4,  1887.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  at  Hildesheim  in  1819,  and  was  professed 
in  1830.  He  was  active  as  a  pastor  at  Hamburg, 
Hildesheim,  and  Brunswick,  and  in  1826  was  sta- 
tioned at  Kdthen  as  the  confessor  of  the  newly  con- 
verted duke  and  duchess  of  Anhalt-Kothen.  From 
1830  to  1848  he  was  in  Vienna,  where  he  exercised 
much  influence,  especially  over  Mettemich,  and 
was  made  procurator  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  that 
country  in  1847;  when  his  Order  was  expelled 
from  Austria  in  1848,  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  University  of  Ix>uvain.  Four  years  later,  how- 
ever, the  Jesuit*  were  readmitted  to  Austria,  largely 
through  his  unceasing  activity,  and  in  1852  he  re- 
turned to  Vienna  as  provincial  of  the  Society.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  elected  general,  and  held 
this  oflace  until  1883,  when,  on  account  of  his  ad- 
vancing years,  the  vicar-general  Antoine  M.  Ander- 
ledy  was  appointed  to  assist  him.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  Beckx  resigned  the  generalship  in  favor  of 
Anderledy.  The  successful  fortunes  of  the  Jesuits 
dtuing  the  attacks  upon  them  both  in  Austria  and 
Germany  were  due  in  great  part  to  his  ability  and 
tact,  and  in  his  administration  the  numbers  of  the 
Society  were  almost  doubled.  He  was  the  founder 
and  editor  of  the  famous  CiviUd  Cattolica,  and  sdso 
wrote  the  anonymous  Der  Monat  Marid  (Vienna. 
1838;  Eng.  transl.  by  Mrs.  Edward  Hazeland, 
London,  1884). 

Biblioobapht:  A.   M.  Verstraeten,   Leven  van  den  hoogerr- 
vaarden  Pater  Petrus  Beckx,  Antwerp,  1889. 

BEDE  or  BJEDA  (called  '*  the  Venerable "): 
The  first  great  English  scholar;  b.  in  Northumbria 
(according  to  tradition,  at  Monkton,  Durham,  5 
m.  e.  of  Newcastle)  672  or  673;  d.  at  the  monas- 
tery of  Jarrow  (6  m.  e.  of  Newcastle)  May  25,  7:55. 
Almost  all  that  is  known  of  his  life  is  contain<Ml  in 
a  notice  added  by  himself  to  YuaHistoria  ecclejiiastira 
(v,  24).  which  states  that  he  was  placed  in  the  moiia"^- 
tery  at  Wearmouth  at  the  age  of  seven,  that  he  became 


23 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beoket 
Beeoher 


deacon  in  his  nineteenth  year,  and  priest  in  his 
thirtieth.  He  was  trained  by  the  abbots  Benedict 
Biscop  and  Ceolfrid  (qq.v.),  and  probably  accom- 
panied the  latter  to  Jarrow  in  682.  There  he  spent 
his  life,  finding  his  chief  pleasure  in  being  always 
occupied  in  learning,  teaching,  or  writing,  and  zeal- 
ous in  the  performance  of  monastic  duties.  His 
works  show  that  he  had  at  his  command  all  the 
learning  of  his  time.  He  was  proficient  in  patris- 
tic literature,  and  quotes  from  Pliny  the  Younger, 
Vergil,  Lucretius,  Ovid,  Horace,  and  other  classical 
writers,  but  with  some  disapproval.  He  knew 
Greek  and  a  little  Hebrew.  His  Latin  is  clear  and 
without  affectation,  and  he  is  a  skilful  story-teller. 
Like  all  men  of  his  time  he  was  devoted  to  the  alle- 
gorical method  of  interpretation,  and  was  credu- 
lous concerning  the  miraculous;  but  in  most  things 
bis  good  sense  is  conspicuous,  and  his  kindly  and 
broad  sympathies,  his  love  of  truth  and  fairness, 
his  unfeigned  piety,  and  his  devotion  to  the  service 
of  others  combine  to  make  him  an  exceedingly 
attractive  character.  His  works  were  so  widely 
spread  throughout  Europe  and  so  much  esteemed 
that  he  won  the  name  of ''  the  teacher  of  the  Middle 
Ages." 

Bede's  writings  are  classed  as  scientific,  historical, 
and  theological.  The  scientific  include  treatises 
on  grammar  (written  for  his  pupils),  a  work  on 
natural  phenomena  (De  rerum  natura),  and  two 
on  chronology  (De  temporibus  and  De  temporum 
ratione).  The  most  important  and  best  known 
of  his  works  is  the  Histona  ecdeaiastica  gentis 
Anglorum,  giving  in  five  books  the  history  of 
England,  ecclesiastical  and  poUtical,  from  the  tune 
of  Capsar  to  the  date  of  completion  (731).  The 
first  twenty-one  chapters,  treating  of  the  period 
before  the  mission  of  Augustine,  are  compiled 
from  earlier  writers  such  as  Orosius,  Gildas,  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine,  and  others,  with  the  insertion  of 
legend  and  tradition.  After  596,  documentary 
sources,  which  Bede  took  pains  to  obtain,  are  used, 
and  oral  testimony,  which  he  employed  not  without 
critical  consideration  of  its  value.  His  other  his- 
torical works  were  lives  of  the  abbots  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow,  and  lives  in  verse  and  prose  of 
St.  Chithbert.  The  most  numerous  of  his  writings 
are  theological,  and  consist  of  commentaries  on 
the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  homi- 
lies, and  treatises  on  detached  portions  of  Scripture. 
His  last  work,  completed  on  his  death-bed,  was 
a  translation  into  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  Gospel  of 
John. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  collected  editions  of  Bede's  works 
(rach  aa  by  J.  A.  Giles,  with  Eng.  transl.  of  the  historical 
works  and  life,  PairM  ecdeaia  Anglicana,  12  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1843-^44;  in  MPL,  xc-xcv)  leave  much  to  be  desired. 
Good  editions  of  the  historical  works,  particularly  of  the 
Hiabft-iu  eeelenaaHeaf  have  been  issued  by  J.  Smith,  Cam- 
bridce.  1722;  J.  Stevenson,  HiaL  ted.,  London,  1838. 
Opcro  hiaioriea  minora,  1841;  G.  H.  Moberly,  Oxford. 
1869;  J  £.  B.  Mayor  and  J.  R.  Lumby,  HUL  eed.,  books 
iii  and  ir,  Ckmbridse.  1881;  A.  Holder,  Freiburg,  1890; 
C.  Fluouner,  2  vols.,  Oxford.  1896;  Bed.  HUt.,  transl., 
introduction,  life,  and  notes,  by  A.  M.  Sellar,  London, 
1907.  The  two  works  on  chronology  have  been  edited  by 
T.  Mommsen  in  MOH,  Chron.  min.,  iii  (1898).  There 
are  Fjiglwh  versions  of  the  Bedsnaatical  Hiatory  by  Ste- 
rm»,  1723,  revised  by  J.  A.  Giles,  London,  1840;  J. 
StereoKm,  ib.  1853;  and  L.  Gridley.  Oxford,  187a    The 


old  Eng.  version  of  the  Hiat.  ecd.,  with  transl.  and  in- 
troduction, was  ed.  by  T.  Miller,  in  4  |>arts,  ib.  1870. 
For  Bede's  life  consult  the  introductions  and  notes  to  the 
editions  mentioned,  particularly  those  of  Stevenson  and 
Plummer;  Q.  F.  Browne,  The  Vanerable  Bede,  in  The 
FaiheraforBngliahReadera,  London,  1879,  New  York,  1891; 
K.  Werner.  Beda  der  Eknanrdige  und  aeine  Zeit,  Vienna. 
1881;  J.  B.  Lightfoot,  in  Leadera  of  the  Northern  Church, 
London,  1890  (biographical  sermons);  F.  Phillips,  in 
Faihera  of  the  Engliah  Church,  vol.  i.  London,  1891.  (sim- 
ple, scholarly,  fair);  W.  Bright,  Early  Engliah  Church 
Hiatory,  pp.  367-371  et  passim,  Oxford,  1897. 

BEDELL,  WILLIAM:  Irish  bishop;  b.  at  Black 
Notley,  near  Braintree  (50  m.  n.e.  of  London), 
Essex,  England,  on  or  near  Christmas  day,  1571; 
d.  at  Drum  Corr,  near  Kilmore,  County  Cavan, 
Ireland,  Feb.  7,  1642.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1588;  M.A.,  1592;  B.D., 
1599),  was  ordained  priest  Jan.  10, 1597,  and  settled 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  in  1602.  In  1607 
he  went  to  Venice  as  chaplain  to  Sir  Henry  Wotton, 
British  ambassador  at  that  city,  and  there  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  a  number  of  noteworthy  men, 
including  Marco  Antonio  de  Dominis  and  Father 
Paolo  Sarpi,  author  of  the  Hiatory  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  last  two  books  of  which,  as  well  as 
Sarpi's  History  of  the  Venetian  Interdict,  he  after- 
ward translated  into  Latin.  He  retiuned  to  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  in  1610,  and  removed  to  Homings- 
heath,  a  neighboring  parish,  in  1616.  In  1627 
he  was  appointed  provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 
in  1629  he  became  bishop  of  the  united  dio- 
ceses of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  (County  Longford); 
in  1633  he  resigned  the  latter  see  owing  to  con- 
scientious objections  to  pluralities,  and  the  belief 
that  the  proper  administration  of  the  diocese  re- 
quired a  separate  bishop .  His  position  was  difficult ; 
the  dioceses  were  in  wretched  condition,  and  his 
earnest  efforts  to  effect  improvement  stirred  up 
opposition.  Nevertheless  he  reformed  many  abuses 
and  enjoyed  great  esteem  among  the  people.  He 
wrote  a  short  simmiary  of  Christian  doctrine  in 
English  and  Irish  (published,  Dublin,  1631),  and 
a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Irish  was 
made  xmder  his  supervision  (published,  London, 
1685).  When  the  rebellion  of  1641  broke  out,  he 
refused  to  leave  his  diocese,  and,  after  suffering 
many  hardships,  died  of  fever  brought  on  by  the 
privations  which  he  had  undergone.  His  Life 
vnth  the  Letters  between  Waddestoorth  and  Bedell 
was  published  by  Bishop  Burnet  (London,  1685), 
and  has  been  rewritten  several  times.  The  best 
biography  is  one  by  his  son  (ed.  for  the  Camden 
Society  T.  W.  Jones,  London,  1872). 

BEECHER,  CHARLES:  Congregationalist,  fifth 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn., 
Oct.  7,  1815;  d.  at  Georgetown,  Mass.,  Apr.  21, 
1900.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  1834 
and  at  Lane  Theological  Seminary  1836;  became 
pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  1844;  of  the  First  Congregational 
Church,  Newark,  N.  J.,  1851;  of  the  First  Church, 
Georgetown,  Mass.,  1857.  He  lived  in  Florida  1870- 
1877,  and  for  two  years  was  State  superintendent 
of  schools.  He  published:  The  Incarnation  (New 
York,  1849);  A  Review  of  the  Spirittud  Manifested 
tions  (1853) ;  David  and  his  Throne  (1855);  Redeemer 


Beeoher  ^ 
BeelasebaD 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


24 


and  Redeemed  (Boston,  1864);  and  SpiritudL  Manv- 
festatians  (1879).  With  John  Zundel  he  edited  the 
music  for  The  Plymouth  Collection  of  Hymns  and 
Tunes  (New  York,  1855),  and,  alone,  the  Auto- 
hiographyf  Correspondence,  etc,  of  his  father  (2  vols., 
1865). 

BEECHER,  EDWARD:  Congregationalist,  sec- 
ond son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  East  Hampton, 
L.  I.,  Aug.  27.  1803;  d.  in  Brooklyn  July  28,  1895. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1822;  began  his  theo- 
logical studies  at  Andover  and  continued  them 
while  acting  as  tutor  at  Yale  1825-26;  was  pastor 
of  the  Park  Street  Church,  Boston,  1826-30; 
president  of  Blinois  College,  Jacksonville,  111., 
1830-44;  pastor  of  the  Salem  Street  Church,  Boston, 
1844r-55,  and  editor  of  The  Congregationalist  1849- 
1853;  pastor  at  Galesburg,  HI.,  1855-71;  after  1871 
resided  in  Brooklyn.  He  was  lecturer  on  church 
institutions  at  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary 
(Congregational)  185^-66.  In  1837  he  defended 
the  freedom  of  the  press  in  the  case  of  Elijah  P. 
Lovejoy,  an  antislavery  agitator  at  Alton,  111. 
When  Lovejoy 's  presses  were  destroyed  by  the 
mob,  Beecher  helped  to  obtain  and  secrete  a  new 
one,  and  was  with  Lovejoy  and  his  brother,  Owen, 
the  night  before  the  former  was  killed  (Nov.  7, 
1837).  To  resist  the  mob  spirit  he  aided  in  found- 
ing the  Illinois  State  Antislavery  Society,  drew 
up  its  constitution,  and  issued  a  Statement  of  Anti- 
slavery  Principles,  and  Address  to  the  People  of 
Illinois.  He  published  a  Narrative  of  Riots  at 
Alton  (Cincinnati,  1838).  His  views  as  to  the  nature 
and  cause  of  sin  and  on  the  atonement  were  set 
forth  in  two  works,  The  Conflict  of  Ages,  or  the 
Great  Debate  on  the  Moral  Relations  of  God  and  Man 
(Boston,  1853)  and  The  Concord  of  Ages,  or  the 
Individual  and  Organic  Harmony  of  God  and  Man 
(New  York,  1860),  in  which  he  expressed  the  belief 
that  the  present  life  is  a  continuation  of  a  preceding 
existence  as  well  as  a  preparation  for  a  future  one; 
that  the  material  system  is  adapted  to  regenerate 
men,  who  have  made  themselves  sinful  in  the  pre- 
vious state;  and  that  ultimately  the  conflict  be- 
tween good  and  evil  will  disappear,  and  harmony 
be  established.  The  doctrine  of  divine  suffering 
he  held  to  present  the  character  of  God  in  its  most 
affecting  and  powerful  aspects,  and  to  be  essential 
to  a  true  view  of  the  atonement.  He  also  published . 
On  the  Kingdom  of  God  (Boston,  1827);  Baptism 
with  Reference  to  its  Import  and  Modes  (New  York, 
1849);  The  Papal  Conspiracy  Exposed  and  Protes- 
tantism Defended  in  the  Light  of  Reason,  History, 
and  Scripture  (New  York,  1855) ;  History  of  Opinions 
on  the  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  RdrHnttion  (1878). 

BEECHER,  HENRY  WARD:  Congregation- 
alist, fourth  son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  June  24,  1813;  d.  in  Brooklyn  Mar. 
8,  1887.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  1834, 
and  at  Lane  Theological  Seminary  1837;  became 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Lawrenceburg, 
Ind.,  1837,  at  Indianapolis  1839,  and  of  Plymouth 
Church  (Congregational),  Brooklyn,  1847.  The 
congregation  was  newly  formed  at  that  time,  but 
soon  became  famed  for  its  numbers  and  its  influence, 
while  Beecher  attained  to  the  position  of  the  most 


popular  and  widely  known  preacher  in  America. 
As  a  public  lecturer  he  was  no  less  successful. 
In  his  sermons  he  disregarded  conventionalities 
both  in  subject  and  manner.  His  wit  and  humor 
appeared  in  his  preaching,  which,  nevertheless, 
was  earnest  and  edifying,  and  revealed  a  great 
character,  sincere  and  reverent;  his  public  prayers 
in  particular  were  truly  devotional  (cf.  Prayers 
from  Plymouth  Pulpit,  New  York,  1867).  No 
slight  dramatic  power,  robust  health  and  physical 
strength,  and  a  striking  personal  appearance  added 
to  the  effect  of  his  eloquence.  Personally  he  was 
a  most  estimable  and  attractive  man,  of  generous 
instincts,  of  rare  humanity,  and  catholic  sympar 
thies.  He  was  active  in  the  antislavery  coDt«st, 
but  deprecated  revolutionary  measures.  In  1863 
he  publicly  advocated  the  Union  cause  in  a  series 
of  addresses  in  the  cities  of  England  at  a  time  when 
the  sympathies  of  the  people  of  England  were 
strongly  with  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  his 
success  at  this  time  before  bitterly  hostile  audiences 
is  one  of  the  greatest  feats  of  intellectual  and  ora- 
torical achievement  (these  addresses  were  published 
as  The  American  Rd)ellion  :  Report  of  the  Speeches 
delivered  in  Manchester,  etc.,  Manchester,  1864, 
and  are  reprinted  in  Patriotic  Addresses  from  1850 
to  1885  by  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  edited,  with  a 
review  of  Mr.  Beecher*s  personality  and  influence 
in  public  affairs,  by  John  R.  Howard,  New  York, 
1889). 

In  later  life  the  development  of  Beecher's  mind 
led  him  to  desire  a  freedom  which  he  thought  could 
not  be  attained  within  strictly  denominational 
lines,  and,  actuated  also  by  the  wish  not  to  com- 
promise his  brethren  by  alleged  heresies,  in  1882, 
with  his  church,  he  withdrew  from  the  Congrega- 
tional Association  to  which  he  belonged.  The 
chief  points  of  his  divergence  from  the  orthodox 
position  of  the  time  related  to  the  person  of  Christ, 
whom  he  considered  to  be  the  Divine  Spirit  under 
the  limitations  of  time,  space,  and  flesh;  to  miracles, 
which  he  considered  divine  uses  of  natural  laws; 
and  to  future  punishment,  the  endlessness  of  which 
he  denied,  inclining  to  a  modification  of  the  anni- 
hilation theory. 

Beecher  was  a  regular  contributor  to  The  Inde- 
pendent from  its  foundation  in  1848  to  1870,  and 
its  editor  for  not  quite  two  years  (1861-63).  He 
was  editor  of  The  Christian  Union  (since  1893  known 
as  The  Outlook),  1870-81,  and  made  it  the  pioneer 
non-denominational  religious  paper.  He  also 
wrote  much  for  The  New  York  Ledger.  His  ser- 
mons were  published  weekly  after  1859  (under  the 
title  The  Plymouth  Pulpit),  and  have  appeared  in 
book-form  in  numerous  volumes.  Sermons  .  .  . 
selected  from  published  and  unpublished  discourses 
and  revised  by  their  author,  edited  by  Lyman  Abbott 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1868),  is  a  representative  col- 
lection. His  addresses,  lectures,  and  articles  were 
also  gathered  into  many  books,  such  as  Lectures 
to  Young  Men  (Indianapolis,  1844;  rev.  eds.,  New 
York,  Boston,  1850  and  1873);  the  Star  Papers, 
or  experiences  of  art  and  nature  (selections  from 
The  Independent;  so  called  from  his  signature,  *; 
2  vols.,  New  York,  1855-58);  Eyes  and  Ears  (re- 
printed from  The  New  York  Ledger,  Boston,  1862); 


25 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beeoher 
Beelsebab 


Ledure-Room  Talks  (New  York,  1870);  A  Summer 
Parish  (1875);  Evolution  and  Religion  (1885). 
His  books  of  most  permanent  value  were  The  Life 
of  Jesus  the  Christ  (i,  New  York,  1871 ;  ii,  left  incom- 
plete at  his  death  and  supplemented  by  extracts 
from  his  sermons,  1891),  and  the  Yale  Lectures  on 
Preaching  (Lyman  Beecher  lectures  before  the 
Yale  Divinity  School,  1872-74;  3  vols.,  also  col- 
lected edition  in  one  volume,  New  York,  1881). 
He  compiled  The  Plymouth  Collection  of  Hymns 
and  Tunes  (1855),  and  wrote  Norwood^  or  Village 
Life  in  New  England,  a  novel  (1867). 

Bibliookapht:  Lyman  Abbott  and  8.  B.  Halliday,  Henry 
Ward  BMcker,  Hartford,  1887;  tbe  Biography  by  his  eon 
William  C.  Beecher  and  Samuel  Booville,  assisted  by  his 
wife.  1888;  John  Henry  Barrows,  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
the  Shakmpeare  of  the  Pulpit,  New  York,  1893;  the  Auto- 
biographical Reminieeenoee  edited  by  T.  J.  Ellinwood,  his 
prirmte  stenographer  for  thirty  years,  1808;  Lyman 
Abbott,  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  Boston.  1903;  N.  L.  Thomp- 
son, The  Hietory  of  Plymouth  Church,  New  York,  1873. 

BEECHER,  LYMAH :  Presbyterian;  b.  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1775;  d.  at  Brooklyn  Jan. 
10,  1863.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1797; 
studied  theology  under  President  Dwight  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and,  after  preaching  on  probation  for 
a  year  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  was  ordained  as 
pastor  there,  1799;  in  1810  he  removed  to  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  and  in  1826  to  Boston,  as  pastor  of 
the  Hanover  Street  Church  (Congregational).  In 
1832  he  became  president  and  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  newly  formed  Lane  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Cincinnati,  where  for  the  first  ten  years 
he  also  served  as  pastor  of  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church.  In  1851  he  returned  to  Boston, 
and  after  1856  lived  in  Brooklyn.  He  was  a  pro- 
found student  of  theology,  but  eminently  practical 
in  his  preaching,  which  was  marked  by  an  imcom- 
mon  union  of  imagination,  fervor,  and  logic.  His 
convictions  were  strong,  his  courage  great,  and 
he  acted  with  an  impulsive  energy  which  generally 
succeeded  in  accomplishing  what  he  thought  should 
be  done.  The  death  of  Alexander  Hamilton  called 
forth  a  sermon  on  dueling  (preached  before  the 
Presbytery  of  Long  Island,  Apr.  16,  1806;  pub- 
lished in  several  editions)  which  did  much  to 
awaken  the  popular  conscience  on  the  subjept. 
At  Litchfield  he  took  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of 
a  general  reformation  of  public  morals,  and  in 
particular  against  the  convivial  habits  of  the  time. 
During  his  Boston  pastorate  he  was  a  leader  on 
the  conservative  side  in  the  Unitarian  controversy. 
In  Cincinnati  hard  feelings  evoked  by  the  anti- 
Flavery  contest,  and  certain  problems  inevitable 
during  the  formative  period  of  the  seminary  and 
in  a  new  society,  made  his  career  a  stormy  one; 
but  he  worked  with  characteristic  energy  and 
retired  with  honor.  During  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  differences  which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  1837  he  was  charged  with 
holding  heretical  views  on  the  atonement,  and  was 
tried  and  acquitted  by  both  presbytery  and  synod  in 
1835;  throughout  the  entire  contest  he  was  one  of 
tbe  New  School  leaders.  His  seven  sons  all  became 
clergymen  and  his  daughters,  Catherine  Esther 
Beecher,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  and  Isabella 
Beecher  Hooker,  became  well  known  for  literary 


and  philanthropic  work.  During  his  second  resi- 
dence in  Boston  Lyman  Beecher  prepared  a  col- 
lected edition  of  his  Works  (i,  Lectures  on  Political 
Atheism  and  Kindred  Subjects;  Six  Lectures  on 
Intemperance,  Boston,  1852;  ii,  Sermons,  1852; 
iii,  Vieu>s  of  Theology  as  Developed  in  Three  Ser- 
mons and  on  his  Tnals,  1853). 

Bibuoobapbt:  His  Autobiography,  Correepondenee,  etc 
WM  edited  by  his  son  Charles  Beecher,  rev.  ed.,  2  vols., 
New  York,  1865;  consult  also  D.  H.  Allen,  The  Life  and 
Servicee  of  Lyman  Beecher,  a  Commemorative  Diecouree, 
Cincinnati,  18G3;  J.  C.  White,  Pereonal  Reminiecencee  of 
Lyman  Beecher,  New  York,  1882;  E.  F.  Haywood,  Lyman 
Beecher,  Boston.  1904. 

BEECHER,  THOMAS  KIimiCUTT:  Congre- 
gationalist,  sixth  son  of  Lyman  Beecher;  b.  at 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  Feb.  10, 1824;  d.  at  Ehnira,  N.  Y., 
Mar.  14,  1900.  He  was  graduated  at  Illinois 
College,  Jacksonville,  111.,  1843;  became  school 
principal  at  Philadelphia,  1846,  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
1848;  pastor  at  Williamsburg  (Brooklyn),  L.  L, 
1852,  of  the  Independent  Church  (afterward 
called  the  Park  Church),  Elmira,  1854,  where  he 
served  a  long  pastorate  and  became  widely  known 
for  his  eccentricities,  but  still  more  esteemed  for 
his  charities  and  respected  for  the  practical  good 
sense  of  many  of  his  plans  and  ideas.  He  developed 
one  of  the  first  "  institutional  "  churches,  and  his 
Sunday-school  was  a  model  one.  His  chief  publica- 
tion was  Our  Seven  Churches  (New  York,  1870), 
a  volume  of  discourses  upon  the  different  denomi- 
nations in  Elmira.  In  Time  with  the  Stars,  a  book 
of  children's  stories,  appeared  posthumously  (1902). 

BEECHER,  WILLIS  JUDSON:  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Hampden,  O.,  Apr.  29,  1838.  He  studied  at 
Hamilton  College  (B.A.,  1858)  and  Auburn  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1864),  and  was  ordained  to  the 
ministry  in  1864.  After  a  pastorate  at  Ovid,  N.  Y., 
1864-65,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
science  and  belles-lettres  in  Knox  College,  Gales- 
burg,  HI.  In  1869  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  of  Christ  in  the  same  city.  Two  years 
later  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Hebrew 
language  and  literatuie  in  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1902  he  delivered  the  Stone  Lec- 
tures at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Assembly's  Committee  on  the  Re- 
vision of  the  Confession  of  Faith  (1890-92),  and 
in  theology  is  a  progressive  conservative.  Besides 
preparing  the  Old  Testament  Sunday-school  lessons 
for  the  Sunday  School  Times  since  1893,  he  has 
written  Farmer  Tompkins  and  his  Bibles  (Philadel- 
phia, 1874);  General  Catalogue  of  Auburn  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (Auburn,  1883);  DriU  Lessons  in 
Hebrew  (1883);  Index  of  Presbyterian  Ministers, 
1706^1881  (Philadelphia,  1883;  in  collaboration 
with  his  sister  Mary  A.  Beecher);  The  Prophets  and 
the  Promise  (New  York,  1905);  and  The  Teaching 
of  Jesus  concerning  the  Future  Life  (1906). 

BEELZEBUB,  be-erze-bub  (properly,  in  all  the 
New  Testament  passages — Matt,  x,  25;  xii,  24, 
27;  Mark  iii,  22;  Luke  xi,  15,  18,  l^^Beelzfhind)i 
The  name  of  the  prince  of  the  demons;  i.e.,  of 
Satan.  The  reading  BeeUebovl  has  also  this  in  its 
favor  that  the  Greek  oUcodespotis,  "  master  of  the 


Be«lsebub 
Beg-hards 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


26 


house ''  (Matt,  n,  25),  seemB  to  play  upon  be'd  zebtU 
(Jbe^el  being  the  Aramaic  fonn  for  the  Hebrew  ha'al). 
Nothing  more  than  a  play  upon  the  word  is  to  be 
sought  in  oikodespoUs,  which  is  not  a  translation 
of  the  Aramaic;  "  master  of  the  (Satanic)  king- 
dom "  would  be  a  meaningless  designation  of  the 
prince  of  hell.  In  spite  of  the  correctness  of  the 
reading  Beelz^HnU,  it  is  justifiable  to  trace  this  name 
to  the  much  older  name  Baal-zebub,  which  is  found 
in  the  Old  Testament  as  that  of  an  idol. 

Baal-zebub  was  honored  in  Ekron,  where  he  had 
a  temple  and  an  oracle,  which-  w^as  consulted  by 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel  (II  Kings  i,  2,  3,  16).  The 
name  as  it  stands  means  "  lord  of  flies  **;  the  Sep- 
tuagint  calls  the  god  directly  "  fly  ";  so  also  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.,  IX,  ii,  1).  In  classical  mythology,  there 
was  a  god  who  protected  from  flies.  It  is  related 
that  Hercules  banished  the  flies  from  Olympia  by 
erecting  a  shrine  to  Zeus  Apomuios  ("  averter  of 
flies  ");  and  the  Romans  called  Hercules  Apomuios. 
A  similar  deity  is  mentioned  as  acting  and  honored 
in  different  places,  the  excuse  for  such  worship 
being  the  plague  which  flies  cause  in  those  warm 
countries.  Both  the  sending  of  flies  and  the  dri- 
ving them  away  were  referred  to  the  same  divinity. 
As  may  be  inferred  from  the  name  Baal,  the  Baal- 
zebub  of  the  Philistines  was  essentially  identical 
with  the  principal  god  or  gods  of  the  Phenicians. 
He  may  have  been  lord  of  flies  as  sun-god,  because 
flies  are  most  numerous  in  midsummer,  when  the 
sun  is  hottest.  And  that  he  had  an  oracle  is  to  be 
explained  by  a  substitution  of  effect  for  cause. 
Flies  come  obedient  to  certain  atmospheric  condi- 
tions^ hence  the  god  was  considered  to  have  caused 
these  conditions,  and  so  at  length  his  control  was 
extended  to  other  events,  and  accordingly  he  was 
consulted  (see  Baal). 

Beelzebul  was  early  identified  with  Baal-zebub, 
and,  as  was  so  often  the  case,  was  turned  into  a  bad 
demon,  in  accordance  with  later  Jewish  ideas. 
Since  lightfoot  (flora  Heb.,  s.v.),  it  has  been  com- 
mon to  say  that  the  name  of  the  demon  Beelzebul 
was  purposely  made  out  of  Beel-zebub,  in  order  to 
express  contempt  and  horror;  i.e.,  "  lord  of  dung," 
instead  of  "  lonl  of  flies."  But,  inasmuch  as  such 
a  name  for  Satan  does  not  occur  outside  of  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  better  to  seek  its  derivation  in  the 
old  Ekronic  v/orship,  which  might,  in  New  Testa- 
ment times,  have  still  existed.  Beelzebul  may 
therefore  be  looked  upon  as  the  same  name  as 
Beel-zebub,  and  therefore  as  ha\'ing  the  same 
meaning. 

Biblioobapbt:  E.  C.  A.  Riehm.  Handw&rierbuch  dea  hi- 
tdiBchen  AUerthutnM,  B.y.,  Bielefeld,  1893-04  (revives  the 
theory  that  the  Syriac  form  may  have  meant  simply  "  an 
enemy,"  cf.  KAT,  p.  461);  J.  Selden.  De  dia  Syru,  Lon- 
don, 1617;  J.  Lightfoot.  HorcB  }iebraica  on  Matt.  xii.  24, 
and  Luke  xi,  15.  ib.  1675;  F.  C.  Movers.  Die  Phdnisier 
i.  260-261,  Bonn.  1841;  idem,  in  J  A,  1878,  pp.  220-225; 
P.  Schols,  GOUendienst  und  Zatd)erweaen  hei  den  alien 
HebrAem,  pp.  170-173.  Regensburg.  1877;  Nowack.  ilr- 
chOohgie.  ii,  304-306;  EB,  l  614-^16;  JE,  ii.  62fMS30. 

BEER,  b6r,  6E0RG:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Schwcidiiitz  (31  m.  s.w.  of  Breslau)  Nov.  12,  1865. 
He  studied  in  Berlin  and  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1887), 
taught  in  Erbaeh  1889-91,  and  became  privat-docent 
at  Breslau  in  1892.    Two  years  later  he  went  in  the 


same  capacity  to  Halle,  and  in  1900  to  Strasburg 
as  associate  professor  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
has  written  AKrozzdWs  Ma/pAfid  al^faldsifat,  t,  die 
Logik  (Leyden,  1888);  Individual-  und  Gemeinde- 
paalmen  (Marburg,  1894);  and  Der  Text  des  Bucku 
Hiob  unUrsuchi  (1897);  besides  preparing  the 
translation  of  the  Martyrdom  of  Isaiah  and  of  the 
Book  of  Enoch  for  E.  Kautzsch's  Apokryphen  und 
Pseudepigraphen  des  AUen  Testaments  (Tubingen, 
1900). 

BEER,  RUDOLF:  German  Protestant;  b.  at 
Bielitz  (40  m.  w.s.w.  of  Cracow)  Dec.  5,  1863. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Vienna  and 
Bonn,  and  since  1893  has  been  reader  in  Spanish 
at  the  latter  university,  as  well  as  a  custodian  at  the 
Imperial  and  Royal  Library  at  Vienna  since  1888. 
He  is  a  collaborator  on  the  Vienna  Corpuf 
paJtrum  ecdesiasticorum  laHnorum.  In  theology 
he  advocates  "  the  scientific  investigation  of  Chris- 
tian revelation."  Among  his  works  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  Die  Anecdota  Bordertana 
Avgustineischer  Sermonen  (Vienna,  1887);  HeUige 
Hohen  der  Griechen  und  Rdmer  (1891);  Die  Quel- 
len  far  den  liber  diumus  concilii  BasUiensis  des 
Petrus  Bruneti  (1891);  and  Urkundliche  Beitrdge 
tu  Johannes  de  Segovia  (1896);  in  addition  to 
editions  of  Wydif's  De  composUione  hominis 
(London,  1887);  and  De  enie  prcBdicamentali 
qua:stiones  tredecim  (1891),  and  of  the  Monu- 
menta  conciliorum  generalium  (3  vols.,  Vienna, 
1892-96). 

BEET,  bit,  JOSEPH  AGAR:  English  Wesleyan; 
b.  at  Sheffield  Sept.  27,  1840.  He  attended  Wesley 
College,  Sheffield  (1851-56),  and  took  up  mining 
engineering,  but  afterward  studied  theology  at  the 
Wesleyan  College,  Richmond  (1862-64).  He  was 
pastor  1864-85  and  professor  of  systematic  the- 
ology in  Wesleyan  College,  Richmond,  1885-1905. 
He  was  also  a  member  of  the  faculty  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  London  1901-05.  He  de- 
livered the  Femley  Lecture  on  The  Credentials  of 
the  Gospels  in  1889,  and  lectured  in  America  in  1896. 
Though  long  recognized  as  one  of  the  ablest  theo- 
logians and  exegetes  of  his  denomination,  his 
sympathy  with  the  modem  critical  school  of  inter- 
pretation and  particularly  his  views  on  eschatology 
have  occasioned  much  criticism.  In  The  Lest 
Things  (London,  1897;  2d  ed.,  1905)  he  opposed 
the  belief  that  the  essential  and  endless  permanence 
of  the  soul  is  taught  in  the  Bible  and  denied  that 
eternal  punishment  necessarily  means  endless  to^ 
ment,  holding  that  Ihe  sinner  may  suffer  a  relative 
annihilation  of  his  mental  and  moral  faculties  and 
sink  into  a  dehumanized  state.  He  reiterated  the:« 
views  in  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul  ( 1901 ).  ChaiigBS 
of  heresy  were  brought  against  him  at  the  Confer- 
ence of  1902,  but  he  was  reelected  to  his  professor- 
ship on  condition  that  he  refrain  from  expressing 
his  opinions  on  immortality  and  future  punish- 
ment. To  regain  liberty  of  speech  in  1904  he  gave 
notice  that  he  would  retire  from  his  chair  in  twelve 
months.  His  other  works  are:  Comm^entary  on 
Romans  (London,  1877);  Holiness  as  Understood 
by  the  Critics  of  the  Bible  (1880);  Commentary  on 
Corinthians     (1881);     Commentary     on     Galatiant 


27 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beelasebub 
Beff hards 


(1883);  Commentary  on  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Co- 
iossians,  and  Philemon  (1890);  Through  Christ  to 
God  (1892);  The  Firm  Foundation  of  the  Christian 
Faith  (1892);  The  New  Life  in  Christ  (1895); 
Xature  and  Christ  (New  York,  1896);  Key  to  Un- 
lock the  Bible  (1901);  Transfiguration  of  Jesus 
(1905);   and  Manual  of  Theology  (1906). 

BEETS,  b^tz,  HEIIRY:  Christian  Reformed;  b. 
at  Koedijk  (a  village  near  Alkmaar,  20  m.  n.w. 
of  Amiiterdam),  Holland,  Jan.  5,  1869.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  at  an  early  age,  and  studied 
at  John  Calvin  0)llege  and  Theological  Seminary 
of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church,  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.  After  graduation  in  1895,  he  was  pastor  at 
Sioux  Center,  la.,  until  1899,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  pastor  of  the  Lagrave  Street  Chris- 
tian Reformed  Church,  Grand  Rapids.  He  has 
been  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Heathen  Missions 
of  his  Church  since  1900,  stated  clerk  of  its  synod 
since  1902,  and  a  member  of  the  joint  commit- 
tee of  American  and  Canadian  Churches  for  the 
revision  of  the  Psalms  in  meter  since  1902.  In 
theology  he  is  a  firm  Calvinist,  adhering  strictly 
to  the  creeds  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  and  the  Webt- 
minster  Standards.  He  has  been  associate  editor 
of  De  Oereformeerde  Amerikaan^  a  monthly,  since 
1898  and  editor-in-chief  of  The  Banner,  a  weekly, 
since  1904.  He  has  written  Het  Leven  van  Fres. 
McKinley  (Holland,  Mich.,  1901);  Sacred  History  for 
Juniors  (Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  1901);  Sacred  His- 
tory  far  Seniors  (1902);  Compendium  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion  (1903);  Primer  of  Bible  Truths 
(1903;  in  collaboration  with  M.  J.  Bosma);  and 
Kerkenarde  der  Christelijke  Gereformeerde  Kerk 
(1905;  in  collaboration  with  W.  Heyns  and  G. 
K.  Hemkes). 

BEGG,  JAMES:  Minister  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  New  Monkland,  near  Airdrie 
(10  m.  e.  of  Glasgow),  Lanarkshire,  Oct.  31,  1808; 
d.  in  Edinburgh  Sept.  29,  1883.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  was  ordained  muiister 
at  Maxwelltown,  Dumfries,  May,  1830;  became 
colleague  at  Lady  Glenorchy's  Chapel,  Edinburgh. 
Dec.,  1830,  minister  in  Paisley  1831,  at  Liberton, 
near  Edinburgh,  1835,  and,  after  the  Disruption  in 
1843,  at  Newington,  a  suburb  of  Edinburgh.  In 
1865  he  was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Free  Chinch.  He  began  his  career  as  an 
ardent  supporter  of  evangelical  \iew8  and  a  decided 
opponent  of  the  "  moderate  "•  party  in  the  Church. 
He  was  strongly  opposed  to  lay  patronage  and  to 
voluntaryism.  He  strenuously  resisted  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  dvil  courts  on  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Churdi  and  was  disposed  to  continue  the  fight 
within  the  Establishment;  but  in  May,  1843,  he 
left  with  his  brethren.  (See  the  section  on  the 
Free  CSiurch  of  Scotland  in  the  article  Prebby- 
TEBiAHs.)  In  the  Free  Church  he  became  the 
leader  of  a  minority  opposed  to  all  change  and 
when  he  was  charged  with  standing  in  the  way  of 
piugicas  he  ^oried  in  his  steadfast  adherence  to  the 
ideas  of  his  youth;  his  followers  were  most  numer- 
ous in  the  Highlands.  He  was  an  advocate  and 
suj^rter  of  popular  education  and  was  interested 


in  a  movement  to  secure  better  homes  for  the 
working  classes.  He  wrote  much  for  periodicals 
and  edited  several  journals  at  different  times  (The 
Bulwark,  for  the  maintenance  of  Protestantism; 
The  Watchvjord,  against  the  union  with  the  United 
Presbyterians;  The  Signal,  against  instrumental 
music  in  worship).  Among  his  larger  publica- 
tions were  A  Handbook  of  Popery  (Edinburgh. 
1852);  Happy  Homes  for  Workingmen  and  How  to 
Get  Them  (London,  1866);  Free  Church  Principles 
(Edinburgh,  1869),  and  The  Principles,  Posi- 
tion ^  and  Prospects  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
(1875). 

Uibliogbapht:  T.  Smith,  Mmnoir9  of  Jame»  Begg,  2  vols.. 
Edioburgh,  1885-88;  DNB,  iv.  127-128. 

BEGHARDS,  BEGUINES. 

Origin  («  1). 

The  Early  Communities  (§  2). 

Extension  during  the  Twelfth  Centiuy  (§3). 

Relation  to  the  Mendicant  Orders  (§  4). 

The  Male  Communities  (§  6). 

Persecution  as  Heretics  (§  6). 

Surviving  Beguinages  in  the  Netherlands  (|  7). 

Beghards  and  Beguines  are  the  names  applied 
to  certain  religious  communities  which  flourished 
especially  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  Beguines  were 
women  and  earlier  in  origin  than  the  male  associar 
tions,  the  Beghards  (also  called  in  France  Biguins). 
As  early  as  the  thirteenth  century  the  authentic  tra- 
dition as  to  the  origin  of  the  Beguines  had  been 
lost,  so  that  it  was  possible  in  the  fifteenth  for  the 
belief  to  gain  acceptance  that  they  had  been  founded 
by  Begga,  the  canonized  daughter  of  Pepin  of  Lan- 
den  and  mother  of  Pepin  of  Heristal. 

I.  Origia.  This  behef  was  supported  by  several 
scholars  in  the  early  seventeenth 
century,  and  approved  at  Mechlin  and  at  Rome. 
In  1630  Puteanus  (van  Putte),  a  Louvain  professor, 
produced  three  documents  supposed  to  date  from 
1065,  1129,  and  1151,  relating  to  a  convent  of  Beg- 
uines at  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels.  The  view  as  to 
the  date  of  their  origin  which  these  documents 
supported  was  prevalent  for  two  centuries,  and  is 
presupposed  in  the  modem  works  of  Mosheim  and 
of  Lea;  but  the  researches  of  Kallmann  proved 
finally  in  1843  that  Puteanus's  documents  were 
forgeries,  probably  belonging  to  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  origin  of  these  com- 
munities is  now,  accordingly,  almost  universally 
placed  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  attributed  to  a 
priest  of  Li6ge,  Lambert  le  Bdgue  (q.v.). 

The  scarcity  of  information  about  the  earUest 
period  has  caused  the  significance  of  the  move- 
ment to  be  underestimated  or  misconceived.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  career  of  Lambert  has  many 
points  of  affinity  with  those  of  his  younger  con- 
temporaries Peter  Waldo  and  Francis  of  Assisi. 
Like  them,  he  renounced  his  property,  to  endow 
with  it  the  hospital  of  St.  Christopher  at  Li^ge 
and  the  new  convent  of  Beguines  there.  He  felt 
his  special  mission  to  be  the  preaching  of  repentance, 
which  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities  when  he  attacked  the  vices  of  the 
clergy,  but  had  an  enduring  influence  especially 
on  the  women  of  Li6ge.    By  1210  there  is  con- 


Baffbards 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


28 


temporary  testimony  to  the  existenoe  there  of 
"  whole  troops  of  holy  maidens  ";  the  ascetic  spirit 
took  hold  also  of  the  married  women, 
a.  The  Early  who  frequently  made  vows  of  oonti- 
Communi-  nence.  Religious  excitement  did  not 
ties.  fail  to  produce  pathological  phenom- 
ena; stories  are  told  of  visions,  proph- 
ecies, convulsions,  incessant  tears,  loss  of  speech, 
and  the  like.  Probably  between  1170  and  1180 
some  of  Lambert's  followers,  to  whom  his  opponents 
gave  the  name  of  Beguines  in  mockery,  had  formed 
a  sort  of  conventual  association  on  a  suburban 
estate  belonging  to  him.  By  the  analogy  of  the 
later  Beguinages,  they  probably  inhabited  a  num- 
ber of  small  houses  grouped  about  the  church  and 
hospital  of  St.  Christopher,  and  shut  off  by  a  wall 
from  the  outer  world.  The  first  inmates  were 
mostly  women  of  position,  who  renounced  their 
property  and  supported  themselves  by  their  own 
labors. 

The  religious  impulse  given  by  Lambert  contin- 
ued active  after  his  death  (probably  1187),  and 
familiarized  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  with 
the  idea  of  ascetic  following  of  Christ  long  before 
the  advent  of  the  mendicant  orders.  Throughout 
the  next  century,  the  need  of  founding  similar  in- 
stitutions for  the  large  numbers  of 
3.  Extension  Beguines  was  felt,  first  in  Flanders 
during  the  and  then  in  the  neighboring  French 
Twelfth  and  German  districts.  In  France  St. 
Century.  Louis  showed  them  special  favor,  and 
erected  a  large  Beguinage  in  Paris, 
modeled  after  the  Flemish,  in  1264;  others  sprang 
up,  large  or  small,  in  all  parts  of  France  during  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  system  in  the  other  Latin  countries  was 
probably  considerable,  but  exact  data  are  wanting. 
In  Germany  only  a  few  towns  on  the  lower  Rhine, 
such  as  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Wesel,  had  Beguinages 
in  the  strict  sense.  Here  the  usual  rule  was  for 
women  who  wished  to  renounce  the  world  at  first 
to  live  separately  in  their  own  houses  or  in  solitary 
places;  as  time  went  on,  they  came  together  in 
larger  or  smaller  houses  put  at  their  disposal  by 
pious  gifts,  and  formed  communities  of  a  monastic 
type.  The  growth  of  these  convents  was  remark- 
able, and  continued  from  the  first  third  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  to  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth, 
by  which  time  the  majority  of  German  towns  had 
their  convents  of  Beguines.  The  statutes  varied 
much  in  the  different  houses;  the  number  of  inmates 
was  between  ten  and  twenty  on  an  average.  There 
was  no  imiform  dress,  but  most  of  the  members  wore 
hoods  and  scapulars  resembling  a  religious  habit. 
Sometimes  those  who  had  property  retained  full 
control  of  it;  in  other  cases  a  portion  fell  to  the 
convent  when  they  died  or  left.  Celibacy  was  re- 
quired as  long  as  they  stayed,  but  they  were  always 
free  to  leave  and  marry. 

The  name  of  "  voluntary  poor,"  which  many 
convents  bore,  and  the  regulations  of  such  houses, 
show  the  continuance  of  Lambert's  influence  in 
favor  of  desertion  of  the  world  and  penitential  as- 
ceticism; but  the  Franciscan  ideas,  very  similar  in 
their  tendency,  which  were  widely  spread  not  long 
after,  found  here  a  fruitful  soil.    As  early  as  the 


thirteenth  century  a  large  proportion  of  the  Beg- 
hards  or  Beguines  of  France,  Germany,  and  north- 
em  Italy  were  imder  the  direction  of  Franciscans 
or  Dominicans,  and  so  closely  related 
4.  Relation  with  the  penitential  confraternities 
to  the  Men-  attached  to  both  these  orders  that  the 
dicant  Or-  members  of  these  (tertiaries)  were 
ders.  commonly  known  in  the  Latin  coun- 
tries as  beffuini  and  beguincB — a  fact 
which  has  caused  much  confusion  in  the  study  of 
the  history  of  the  real  Beguines.  The  disapproval 
of  these  latter  by  the  papal  authorities  brought 
about,  when  it  came,  a  still  closer  identification 
with  the  tertiaries;  many  joined  these  for  pro- 
tection, and  in  the  fifteenth  century  numerous 
Beguinages  were  transferred  to  the  Augustinian 
order.  While  the  original  Beguines  abstained  from 
begging,  it  became  more  common  among  them  in 
France  and  Germany  by  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  As  in  the  Latin  countries  the  Beg- 
uines are  found  among  the  extreme  defenders  of 
the  Franciscan  ideal  of  poverty,  so  we  find  fre- 
quently among  those  of  Germany  the  belief  that 
their  strict  poverty  designated  them  as  the  true 
followers  of  Christ.  In  accordance  with  this  view, 
they  were  apt  to  withdraw  themselves  from  the 
teaching  of  the  clergy  and  listen  rather  to  the  ex- 
citing exhortations  of  their  "  mistresses "  or  of 
wandering  preachers  in  sympathy  with  their  be- 
liefs. They  developed  a  system  of  extreme  cor- 
poral austerity,  and  lost  themselves  in  mystic 
speculations  which  increased  their  tendency  to  see 
visions  and  to  condenm  the  ordinary  means  of 
grace;  even  the  moral  law  seems  at  times  to  have 
been  regarded  as  not  binding  upon  them.  The 
impulse  of  apocalyptic  enthusiasm,  given  by  Jos- 
chun  of  Fiore  (q.v.)  and  spread  by  the  "  spiritual " 
Franciscans  among  the  laity,  as  well  as  the  quietis- 
tic  mysticism  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit 
(q.v.),  found  an.  entrance  into  their  houses  before 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Early  in  the 
next  century,  the  influx  of  women  of  high  social 
position  declined  more  and  more,  and  the  new 
foundations  took  on  more  of  the  modem  character 
of  benevolent  institutions.  By  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  in  Germany  at  least,  they  had 
almost  completely  lost  their  first  religious  fervor 
and  had  forfeited  much  of  the  popular  respect  they 
had  formerly  enjoyed. 

As  to  the  Beghards  or  male  communities,  the 
question  whether  the  first  associations  known  by 
this  name  can  be  directly  connected  with  Lambert 
le  B^gue,  or  sprang  up  after  his  death  in  imitation 
of  the  Flemish  Beguinages,  can  not  be  decided  with 
our  present  knowledge.    They  are  first  met  with 
in  Louvain  (c.  1220)  and  Antwerp  (1228).     The 
names  heguin  and  begard  (Flemish  usually  hogard; 
Middle  High  German  begehart  and  Megger)  were  given 
in  mockery  and  are  of  Walloon  origin;  other  names 
are  Lollards  (probably  from  the  Mid- 
5.  The       die    Dutch    IdUerif   to   murmur;    see 
Male  Com-    Lollards),    "voluntary   poor,**  boni 
munittes.     pueri,  boni  valetif  etc.    In  the  course 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies they  spread  throughout  Germany,  into  Po- 
land and  the  Alpine  districts,  and  even  into  the 


29 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beff hards 


Latin  countries;  but  their  numbers  were  much 
smaller  than  those  of  the  Beguines.  As  early  as 
the  thirteenth  century  a  number  of  their  houses, 
too,  connected  themselves  with  the  tertiaries  of 
the  two  great  mendicant  orders.  Like  the  Beg- 
uines, many  of  them  were  partizans  of  the  views  of 
the  "  spiritual "  Franciscans  and  Fraticelli.  They 
practised  begging  ostentatiously,  frequently  had  no 
fixed  abode,  and  wandered  about  in  small  groups, 
begging  and  winning  adherents  for  their  cause. 
They  did  not  abandon  this  mode  of  life  even  after 
papal  prohibitions  were  directed  against  them,  but 
strengthened  themselves  by  the  adhesion  of  sym- 
pathisers who  were  expelled  from  the  convents, 
and  remained  in  close  relations  with  the  Beguines, 
by  whom  they  were  regarded  as  martyrs  to  the 
Franciscan  ideal  of  poverty  and  channels  of  mys- 
tical revelations.  In  the  Netherlands  the  fifteenth- 
century  Beghards  appear  for  the  most  part  as  reg- 
ular Franciscan  tertiaries,  organized  from  1443  as 
a  separate  Ccngregatio  Zepperensia  beghardorum 
teriieB  regulcs  S,  Francisci,  with  the  convent  of  Zep- 
peren,  near  Hasselt,  as  their  mother  house.  In- 
ternal dissensions  later  split  them  into  two  branches. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  they  were  united  with 
the  Lombard  congregation  of  regular  tertiaries, 
and  did  not  survive  the  Revolution.  The  internal 
organization  of  their  houses  corresponded  generally 
to  that  of  the  Beguines.  The  earliest  Dutch  Beg- 
hards were  mostly  weavers,  who  continued  to  fol- 
low their  trade;  later  they  frequently  copied  and 
sold  manuscripts.  The  German  Beghards  followed 
a  variety  of  occupations;  but  at  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  begging  was  their  main  source  of 
revenue.  A  special  inner  group  was  that  of  the 
"  Voluntary  Poor  "  (also  called  Poor  Brothers,  Cel- 
lites,  Alezians;  in  the  Netherlands  Lollards,  Mate- 
nuxruy  Cdlebroeden ;  see  Alexianb),  who  required 
the  entire  abandonment  of  property  by  their  mem- 
bers and  bound  them  by  permanent  vows.  Their 
strict  organization,  their  enthusiasm  for  poverty, 
their  zealous  devotion  to  charitable  duties,  all  point 
to  a  tradition  reaching  back  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Begfaard  system.  They  are  further  contrasted  with 
the  ordinary  Begirds  by  the  fact  that  they  held 
aloof  for  the  most  part  from  the  Franciscan  affilia- 
tions which  have  been  seen  to  be  so  common.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  they  associated  themselves 
with  the  Augustinians.  Public  opinion,  by  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  even  more  unfavorable  to 
the  Beghards  than  to  the  Beguines;  popular  sat- 
irists and  preachers  alike  speak  of  them  as  hypocrit- 
ical beggars  with  a  tendency  to  deceit  and  inuno- 
rality;  and  the  Reformation  swept  away  the  last 
renmants  of  them,  in  Germany  at  least. 

The  persecution  of  Beghards  and  Beguines  as  a 
heretical  sect  began  in  the  second  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  probably  as  a  consequence  of  their  re- 
lation to  the  "spiritual"  Franciscans  (see  Francis, 

S.UKT,  OF  AflSIBI,  AND  THE  FRANCISCAN  OrDER).    By 

1300  the  name  beguinitt  was  commonly  used  in  the 
Latm  countries  as  the  accepted  designation  for  the 
heretical  "  spiritual "  party  and  Fraticelli,  which 
natmaUy  prejudiced  the  general  opinion  of  the  ortho- 
dox convents  of  Beghards  and  Beguines.  Still  more 
<lamaging  was  the  fact  that  the  German  bishops, 


about  the  same  time,  assumed  that  the  panthe- 
istic heresy  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit  (q.v.) 
found  its  chief  support  in  their  houses.    Though, 

as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  was  probably 

6.  Persecu-  true  only  of  a  small  section,  the  name 

tion  as      of  Beghards  was  conmionly  adopted 

Heretics,    in  Germany  for  the  adherents  of  that 

heresy.  During  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  belief  spread  that  in  some  convents  of 
Beghards  and  Beguines  there  existed  an  iimer  circle 
of  "  the  perfect  "  who  were  alien  from  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  and  the  laws  of  morality,  to 
which  the  younger  members  were  admitted  only 
after  years  of  probation.  Whether  or  not  these 
accusations  were  true,  which  it  is  now  next  to  im- 
possible to  determine,  the  bitter  hostility  shown 
against  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  probably  finds 
its  simplest  explanation  in  the  conflicts  which  arose 
at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  between  the 
episcopate  and  the  secular  clergy,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  mendicant  orders,  especially  the  Francis- 
cans, on  the  other,  since  these  latter  gained  their 
lay  following  largely  through  the  numerous  houses 
of  Beghards  and  Beguines.  Several  German  pro- 
vincial coimcils  (Cologne  1306,  Mainz  1310,  Treves 
1310)  passed  strong  measures  against  them,  and 
the  Council  of  Vieime  (1311)  struck  at  them  even 
harder,  imdertaking  to  suppress  them  entirely  on 
the  charge  of  spreading  heretical  doctrines  under  a 
cloak  of  piety.  The  execution  of  these  decrees  of 
suppression,  which  took  place  under  John  XXII, 
caused  great  confusion  in  the  Church  of  Germany, 
the  mendicants  and  sometimes  the  magistrates  at- 
tempting to  defend  the  Beguines.  Since  their  total 
suppression  appeared  impracticable,  John  XXII 
compromised  by  making  a  distinction  and  granting 
toleration  to  the  orthodox  Beguines.  Persecution 
did  not,  however,  cease;  and  with  the  powerful 
support  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV,  it  was  taken 
up  once  more  by  Urban  V  and  Gregory  XI.  With- 
out regard  to  the  varying  senses  of  the  names,  all 
Beghards  and  Beguines  alike  were  condemned  as 
heretics,  excommunicated,  and  outlawed.  Their 
property  was  to  serve  for  pious  purposes,  for  the 
support  of  the  inquisitors,  or  for  repairing  city 
walls  and  roads.  Between  1366  and  1378  remorse- 
less persecution  raged  against  them  throughout 
Germany;  but  even  then  they  found  advocates, 
especially  among  the  secular  magistrates,  and  Greg- 
ory XI  was  finally  prevailed  upon  to  repeat  the 
distinction  between  orthodox  and  heretical  Beg- 
uines and  Beghards,  and  to  tolerate  the  former. 
About  1400  another  storm  broke  out,  aroused  by 
the  attacks  which  the  clergy  of  Basel,  especially 
the  Dominican  Johaimes  Miilberg  made  upon  the 
Beguines  of  that  city.  By  1410  the  Beguines  in  the 
dioceses  of  Constance,  Basel,  and  Strasburg  were 
driven  from  their  convents.  At  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  (1414-18),  which  showed 
itself  well  disposed  toward  them,  they  won  a  vic- 
tory of  some  importance  when  they  secured  the 
condemnation  as  heretical  of  a  treatise  directed 
both  against  them  and  against  the  Brethren  of  the 
Conunon  Life  by  the  Dominican  Matthseus  Grabo. 
Attacks  were  still  made  upon  them,  none  the  less, 
and  that  a  general  feeling  inspired  such  attacks  is 


iSf' 


hards 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HEHZCKi 


80 


shown  by  the  fact  that  the  name  **  Beghard  "  con- 
tinued through  the  hfteenth  century  to  be  applied 
to  the  most  various  heretics,  imtil  it  adhered  per- 
manently to  the  Bohemian  Brethren  or  Picards. 

In  what  is  now  Belgium  and  Holland,  the  ex- 
ample of  Lambert's  first  followers  was  widely  fol- 
lowed, as  has  been  seen;  here  the  Beguines  flour- 
ished most,  and  here  they  have  maintained  their 
existence  to  the  present  day.  A  long  series  of 
accounts  of  mystical  visions,  hysterico- 
7.  Surviving  ecstatic  phenomena,  and  extreme 
Beguinages  austerities  shows  that  the  strong 
in  the  religious  impulse  of  the  beginning 
Hefheilands.  remained  operative  imtil  after  the 
Reformation.  Heretical  mysticism 
was  not  without  its  adherents:  in  1310  Margareta 
Porete,  a  Beguine  of  Hainault  and  the  author  of  a 
book  of  apparently  pantheistic  libertinism,  was 
executed  in  Paris,  and  the  mystic  Hadewich  Blom- 
maerdine  (q.v.)  of  Brussels  (d.  1336)  found  adherents 
among  the  Beguines  of  Brabant  and  Zeeland. 
The  bishops  and  princes,  however,  protected  the 
communities  in  times  of  persecution.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  contemplative  life  was  largely 
given  up  in  favor  of  diligent  work  for  the  sick  and 
poor,  and  later  for  the  education  of  girls.  The 
French  Revolution  deprived  these  institutions  of 
their  religious  character,  which  they  regained  in 
1814.  At  present  there  are  fifteen  Beguinages  in 
Belgium,  only  two  of  which  are  of  any  size,  both  at 
Ghent,  numbering  869  inmates  in  1896.  The 
larger  one,  transferred  in  1874  to  St.  Amandsberg 
just  outside  the  city,  is  a  complete  model  of  a  small 
town,  with  walls,  gates,  streets,  and  gardens.  The 
total  number  of  Beguines  in  Belgiiun  was  1,790 
in  1825,  1,480  in  1866,  and  about  1,230  in  1896. 
In  Holland  two  houses  have  survived,  one  at  Am- 
sterdam with  thirteen  inmates  and  one  at  Breda 
with  fortyndx.  (Herman  Haupt.) 

Bibuoorapht:  E.  Hallmaiin,  Die  OeeehiefUe  dea  Urrprunga 
der  hdoiKken  Bephinen,  Berlin,  1843  (perhaps  the  best 
book  on  the  subject );  J.  L.  von  Mosheim,  De  BeghardxM 
dt  Bs^ttimfrus,  Leipsic,  1790;  F.  von  Biedenfeld,  Ur- 
aprung  .  .  .  §OmUieher  MOncka-  und  KloaUrfrauanrOrden^ 
Weimar.  1837;  O.  Uhlhom,  Die  chrietliehe  lAateethAtio- 
keiiimMiUelaUer,  Stuttgart.  1884;  H.  Haupt,  BeUrOge  eur 
Oeeehiehte  der  Stkte  von  freiem  OeUte  und  dee  Beoharden^- 
fums,  In  Zeiteehrift  fmr  KircKengtechichte,  vii  (1884),  503 
■qq.;  H.  C.  Lea.  Hietory  of  the  Inquieitum,  ii,  350-517, 
Philadelphia.  1888;  P.  Fr^d^rioq.  Lee  DocumenU  de  Qlaegovo 
eencemafU  Lambert  de  Bkgue,  in  Bulleiine  de  Vacadimie  de 
Belgique,  third  series,  udx  (1895).  148-165,  990-1006; 
"ReimbuebaTtOrdenundKongregationen,  i.  501,  ii,  422-425; 
A.  Neander,  ChrieHan  Church,  iv,  pa^iHim,  ▼,  passim; 
W.  MoeUer,  Chrietian  Church,  ii,  475-478. 

BEGIN,  b6''gah^  LOUIS  NAZAIRE:  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Quebec;  b.  at  L^vis,  Quebec, 
Jan.  10,  1S40.  He  was  educated  at  the  Seminary 
of  Quebec  (1857-62)  and  Laval  University  (B.A., 
1863).  He  then  began  the  study  of  theology  at 
the  Grand  Seminary  of  Quebec,  but  was  chosen 
to  fill  a  chair  in  the  newly  established  faculty  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Laval,  and  was 
sent  to  Rome  to  study.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1865,  and  returned  to  Quebec  in 
1868,  where  he  taught  dogmatic  theology  and 
ecclesiastical  history  at  Laval  University  until 
1884,  in  addition  to  being  prefect  of  the   Little 


Seminary  and  having  charge  of  the  pupils  of  the 
University  during  the  last  few  years  of  this  period. 
In  1884  he  accompanied  the  archbishop  of  Quebec 
to  Rome  to  defend  the  rights  of  Laval  University, 
and  on  his  return  was  appointed  principal  of  the 
Normal  School,  remaining  there  imtil  1888.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  C3ii- 
coutimi,  and  three  years  later  was  appointed 
coadjutor,  with  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Gyrene, 
to  Cardinal  Taschereau.  On  the  death  of  the 
Cardinal  in  1898,  he  became  archbishop  of  Quebec. 
He  has  written  La  PrimauU  et  VinfcnllUnliU  des 
Bouverains  porUifea  (Quebec,  1873);  La  Sainte 
Venture  et  la  rhgle  de  la  foi  (1874;  EngJish  trans- 
lation by  G.  M.  Ward,  London,  1875);  Le  CviU 
catholique  (1875);  Aide-^m^maire,  ou  ckronoloffie 
de  Vhistoire  du  Canada  (1886);  and  CaUehieme  de 
eoniroverse  (1902).         « 

BEHAISM:  A  development  of  Babism  (q.v.). 
The  Bab  had  taught  that  the  greatest  and  last  of 
all  manifestations  of  divinity  was  to  appear  and, 
through  his  teachings,  wipe  out  all  distinctions  of 
sects.  In  1862,  twelve  years  after  the  Bab's  exe- 
cution, Beha  Lllah,  a  high-bom  Persian  and  Babite 
leader,  claimed  to  be  the  fulfilment  of  this  teaching. 
He  was  imprisoned  and  exiled  and  died  in  Acre, 
Syria,  in  1892.  His  son,  Abdul  Beha  Abbas,  then 
became  the  leader  and  "  Center  of  the  Covenant/' 
from  his  residence  in  Acre,  where  he  lives  under 
government  surveillance,  a  far-reaching  propaganda 
has  gone  forth  and  pilgrims  find  their  way  thither 
even  from  distant  America. 

Behaist  missionaries  are  not  allowed  to  accept 
money,  though  they  may  be  entertained  by  con- 
verts or  others  interested.  Their  message  consists 
in  a  recital  of  the  history  of  their  religion  and  the 
lives  of  the  Bab  and  Beha  Ullah.  The  Old  and 
New  Testament  prophecies  and  the  sacred  books  of 
ethnic  religions  are  studied  in  the  belief  that  they 
establish  the  Behaist  doctrines.  Their  sacred  wri- 
tings are  the  works  of  Beha  Lllah,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  Book  of  Ighan.  They  are  mostly 
short  sentences  called  "  communes,"  consisting  of 
prayers  or  truths  for  the  guidance  of  life.  The 
explanation  of  the  Book  of  Ighan  and  the  "  Hidden 
Words  "  in  Arabic  and  Persian  is  a  part  of  the 
regular  preaching.  The  beauty  of  service  to  the 
poor  and  suffering  is  a  cardinal  precept.  Sim- 
plicity in  food  and  dress  is  another,  and  herein 
Abdul  Beha  is  an  example  to  his  followers.  Polyg- 
amy is  not  allowed  and  all  goods  are  held  in  com- 
mon. It  is  believed  that  God  has  manifested  him- 
self at  different  times  according  to  the  needK 
of  the  race,  the  chief  manifestations  having  been 
three  in  number;  via.,  Jesus — ^whose  life  and  teach- 
ings are  commended, — ^the  Bab,  and  Beha  Ullah, 
who  is  the  greatest  and  last;  after  him  there  will  be 
no  other  manifestation,  and  whosoever  does  not 
believe  on  him  after  having  heard  his  words  will 
not  have  another  chance  to  enter  the  kingdom. 
Certain  feasts  are  observed  commemorating  events 
in  the  life  of  Beha  UUah,  and  one  which  was  in- 
stituted by  the  Bab  consists  in  a  simple  repast 
such  as  fruits,  nuts,  and  cool  water,  held  at  the 
home  of  a  believer  eveiy  nineteen  days;    a  vacant 


31 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


^' 


Ixards 


seat  is  left  at  the  head  of  the  table  for  the  absent 
master,  and  passages  from  the  "  Hidden  Words  " 
are  read  as  the  food  is  passed. 

Behaist  congregations  are  known  as  "  assemblies." 
The  first  in  America  was  established  in  Chicago  by 
a  Syrian,  Ibrahim  Kheirallah,  in  1894.  There  are 
now  thirty-five  in  America,  each  independent  of 
the  others  and  ow^ning  no  authority  but  that  of 
Abdul  Beba.  It  is  churned  that  the  mission  of 
Behaism  is  to  unify  the  worid  and  bring  all  religions 
into  ooe.^  BIargabet  B.  Peeke. 

BiBLiooKArinr:  Coiuult  the  UteratuTB  siven  under  Babbm; 
E.  D.  RooB,  BabUm,  in  Great  Rdiffion$  of  the  Worlds  Lon- 
don, 1901;  Mirsa  Husain  AH,  Le  Litre  de  la  certitude  .  .  . 
UaduU  .  .  .  par  H.  Dreufna,  Paris,  1004;  Le  Bet/an  arabet 
U  livre  mcri  du  Babytme,  tranfll.  by  A.  Nicolas,  Paris,  1906; 
BehaUUah,  Lee  Preeeptea  du  Behaieme:  lee  omemente — 
lee  paroUe  du  paraditt  lee  eplendeure,  lee  revilalione,  transl. 
by  H.  Dreyfus  and  U.  Chirasi.  Paris.  1906. 

BEHMEH,  JACOB.     See  Boehme. 

BEISSEL,  JOHlf  CONRAD.  See  Communism, 
II.  5;  DuNKEBS,  I,  2. 

BEISSEL,  STEPHAN:  German  Jesuit;  b.  at 
.Vachen  Apr.  21,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  the 
univeraitiea  of  Bonn  and  Mtlnster  and  at  the  semi- 
nary at  Cologne.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood in  1871  and  lived  two  years  in  France,  three 
in  England,  fifteen  in  Holland,  and  four  in  Luxem- 
burg, passing  the  remainder  of  his  time  at  Aachen 
and  Oologne.  He  has  written  Baugeschichle  der 
Kirche  de»  heiligen  Viktor  zu  Xanten  (Freiburg, 
1$S3);  Geldweri  und  Arbeitalohn  im  MiUelalter 
(1884);  Verekrung  der  Heiligen  in  Deutschland  bis 
rum  Beginn  de»  dreizehnlen  Jahrhunderts  (1885); 
Bilder  der  Handschrift  dee  Kaisers  Otto  im  MUnster 
za  Aachen  (Aachen,  1886);  Geschichte  der  Ausstat- 
t^.ig  der  Kirehe  dea  heiligen  Viktor  zu  Xanlen  (Frei- 
burg, 1887);  Geschichte  der  trierschen  Kitchen  und 
Ihrer  ReUquien  (2  parts,  Treves,  1889);  Evange- 
lienbuch  des  heiligen  Bemward  von  HUdesheim 
(llildesheim,  1891);  Verekrung  der  Heiligen  und 
ihrrr  Reliquien  in  Deutschland  wdhrend  der  zweiten 
HalfU  des  Mittelallers  (Freiburg,  1893);  Vatikanin 
sche  Miniaturen  (1893);  Der  heilige  Bemward 
mm  HUdesheim  als  Kunstler  (Hildesheim,  1895); 
Fra  Giawmni  Angelico  da  Fiesole,  sein  Leben  und 
seine  Werke  (Freiburg,  1895);  Die  Verekrung 
Utiserer  Lieben  Frau  in  Deutschland  wdhrend  des 
MiUelaUers  (1895);  Bilder  aua  der  Geschichte  der 
aUchriaUiehen  Kunst  und  Liturgie  in  Italien  (1899); 
Das  LAen  Jesu  Christif  geschildert  auf  den  Flugeln 
des  HochdUars  eu  Kalkar  (in  collaboration  with 
J.  Joest,  Gladbach,  1900);  Das  Evangelienbuch 
Heinrieha  III  und  die  Dome  zu  Goslar  in  der  Biblio- 
thek  £U  Upsala  (DOsseldorf,  1900);  Die  Aachen- 
fdhri  (1902);  Betrachtungspunkte  fur  alle  Tags  des 
Kvrthenjakres  (10  vols.,  1904-05) ;  and  GeschichU  der 
EvanQeUenbUcher  in  der  ersten  Hdlfte  des  Mittel- 
aUers  (Freiburg,  1906);  in  addition  to  two  vol- 
mneB  of  the  Zur  Kenntnis  und  WUrdigung  der 
miUelalterlichen  AltOre  Deutschlands  (Frankfort, 
1895-1905)  begun  by  E.  F.  A.  MQnzenberger. 

'  ReqoMte  for  literature  may  be  addressed  to  Mr.  John 
Meson  Ramey,  Corcoran  Building,  Washington,  t).  C. 


BEKKER,  BALTHASAR:  Dutch  precursor  of 
rationalism;  b.  at  Metslawier  (4  m.  n.e.  of  Dok- 
kum)  Mar.  30,  1634;  d.  in  Friesland  June  11, 1698. 
He  studied  at  Groningen  under  J.  Alting  and  in 
Franeker,  where  he  was  rector  of  the  Latin  school, 
was  made  doctor  of  theology,  and  preacher  in  1666. 
Being  an  enthusiastic  follower  of  the  Cartesian 
philosophy,  he  published  at  Wesel  in  1668  an 
Admonitio  sincera  et  Candida  de  phUosophia  Car" 
tesiana^  and  gave  greater  offense  by  his  catechisms 
in  1668  and  1670.  He  was  accused  of  Socinianism, 
although  Alting  and  other  theologians  pronounced 
him  to  be  orthodox.  After  many  controversies, 
he  accepted  a  call  as  preacher  to  Weesp,  and,  in 
1679,  to  Amsterdam.  The  appearance  of  a  large 
comet  in  1680  induced  him  to  issue  a  work  against 
popular  superstition,  which  stirred  up  more  com- 
motion; and,  in  1691,  in  De  betoverde  Wereld, 
published  at  Leeuwarden,  he  denied  the  existence 
of  sorcery,  magic,  possessions  by  the  devil,  and  of 
the  devil  himself.  The  consistory  of  Amsterdam 
instituted  a  formal  process  against  him,  and  he  was 
deposed  July  30,  1692.  He  went  to  Friesland, 
where  he  edited  the  last  two  books  of  his  work. 

H.  C.  RoooEf. 

Biblioorapbt:  A  complete  list  of  Bekker's  writinss  and 
of  the  opposing  works  called  out  is  given  in  A.  van  der 
Linden,  B.  Bekker,  Bibliooraphie,  The  HaEtM.  1889.  For 
his  life  consult  J.  G.  Walch,  Einleitung  indie  R^iffioneatni 
tigkeUen  atieeerhaU>  der  lutheriechen  Kirche,  vol.  iii,  part  3, 
490  sqq.,  Jena,  1734;  M.  Schwager.  Beitrag  eur  Oeediiehte 
der  IfUolerane,  oder  Leben,  .  .  .  B.  Bekkere,  mil  einer  For- 
rede  SemUre,  Leipsic.  1780;  J.  M.  SchrGckh,  iCtreAsntfis* 
eekichte  eeU  der  Reformation,  viii.  713-722.  ib.  1808;  D. 
Lorgion,  B.  Bekker  in  Franeker,  The  Hague,  1848;  idem, 

B.  Bekker  in  Ameterdam,  2  vols.,  Groningen,  1860;  W.  P. 

C.  Knuttel.  Balthaear  Bekker,  The  Hague,  1906. 

BEKKOS,  JOHAITNES.  See  John  (Johannbs) 
Bekkob. 

BEL:  A  great  Babylonian  god,  whose  name, 
like  the  equivalent  Hebrew  Ba'al,  originally  and 
all  through  the  history  of  the  language  was  also 
used  in  the  sense  of  "  lord  "  or  "  owner  "  (see  Baal). 
The  usage  of  the  two  words  as  names  of  deities 
also  ran  through  parallel  courses;  for  Bel  at  one 
time  in  Babylonia  was  a  local  deity  like  each  of  the 
Baals  of  the  Canaanites.  He  was  the  patron 
deity  of  the  city  of  Nippur  in  central  Babylonia 
(the  modem  NufTar),  where  his  temple,  of  great 
antiquity,  has  been  imearthed  by  the  Pennsyl- 
vania expedition.  The  reason  why  there  were  not 
many  Bels  in  Babylonia  was  that  political  union 
on  a  large  scale  was  very  early  effected  in  that 
country,  while  it  was  always  impossible  among  the 
Canaanites;  and  Nippur  was  the  center  of  an 
extensive  community  in  very  remote  times. 

When,  under  priestly  influence,  Babylonian  the- 
ology was  systematized,  to  this  great  god  Bel  was 
assigned  sovereignty  of  the  earth,  while  Anu  ruled 
in  the  highest  heaven,  and  Ea  over  the  deep.  These 
formed  the  chief  trinity  with  primary  and  uni- 
versal dominion. 

But  it  is  not  the  Bel  of  Nippur  whose  name  ap- 
pears in  the  Bible  and  Apocrypha.  On  account  of 
the  rise  and  supremacy  of  the  city  of  Babylon  under 
Hammurabi  (2250  B.C.),  Marduk  (Merodach),  the 
god  of  that  city,  was  invested  with  the  prerogatives 


Bel 
Bellamy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


32 


and  even  with  the  name  of  Bel,  so  that  in  the  com- 
paratively modem  Old  Testament  times  "Bel" 
stands  for  "  Merodaeh  "  and  for  him  only  (so  in  Isa. 
xlvi,  1;  Jer.  li,  44;  in  Jer.  1,  2  both  names  occur 
together,  meaning  practically  "Bel-Merodach")* 

The  Babylonian  Bel  was  not  only  adopted  by  the 
Assyrians  as  one  of  their  chief  gods  (of  course  lower 
than  Asshur),  but  like  Ishtar  (see  Ashtoreth), 
Sin,  and  Nebo,  he  seems  to  have  obtained  wor- 
shipers in  the  West-land.  Such,  at  least,  is  an 
inference  which  has  been  drawn  from  the  proper 
names  Bildad  ("Bel  loves"),  Ashbel  ("man  of 
Bel "),  and  Balaam.  Moreover, "  Bel "  is  found  as  an 
element  in  several  Phenician  and  Palmyrene  names. 
See  Babylonia,  VII.  J.  F.  McCurdy. 

BiBLiooRAPHT :  A.  H.  Sayoe,  ReLigion  of  tht  Ancient  Babv- 
loniana,  London,  1887;  idem,  Rdigion  of  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Bt^lonia,  Edinburgh,  1002;  M.  Jaatrow.  Rdiffion  of 
Babylonia,  Boston,  1808;  idem,  in  DB^  extra  vol.,  pp. 
638-639,  545;  Schrader,  KAT,  pp.  354-358. 

BEL  AlfD  THE  DRAGON.  See  Apocrypha,  A, 
IV,  3. 

BELGIC  CONFESSIOH:  A  statement  of  belief 
written  in  French  in  1561  by  Guy  de  Br^s  (q.v.) 
aided  by  H.  Saravia  (professor  of  theology  in 
Leyden,  afterward  in  Cambridge,  where  he  died 
161 S),  H.  Modetus  (for  some  time  chaplain  of 
William  of  Orange),  and  G.  Wingen.  It  was 
revised  by  Francis  Junius  of  Bourges  (1545-1602), 
a  student  of  Calvin,  pastor  of  a  Walloon  congre- 
gation at  Antwerp,  and  afterward  professor  of 
theology  at  Leyden,  who  abridged  the  sixteenth 
article  and  sent  a  copy  to  Geneva  and  other 
churches  for  approval.  It  was  probably  printed 
in  1562,  or  at  all  events  in  1566,  and  afterward 
translated  into  Dutch,  German,  and  Latin.  It 
was  presented  to  Philip  II  in  1562,  with  the  vain 
hope  of  securing  toleration.  It  was  formally 
adopted  by  synods  at  Antwerp  (1566),  Wesel 
(1568),  Emden  (1571),  Dort  (1574),  Middleburg 
(1581),  and  again  by  the  great  ^nod  of  Dort,  April 
29,  1619.  Inasmuch  as  the  Anninians  had  de- 
manded partial  changes,  and  the  text  had  become 
corrupt,  the  Synod  of  Dort  submitted  the  French, 
Latin,  and  Dutch  texts  to  a  careful  revision.  Since 
that  time  the  Belgic  Confession,  together  with  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  has  been  the  recognized 
Bjrmbol  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  Holland  and 
Belgium,  and  of  the  Refonned  (Dutch)  Church  in 
America. 

The  Confession  contains  thirty-seven  articles, 
and  follows  the  order  of  the  Gallican  Confession, 
but  is  less  polemical,  full,  and  elaborate,  especially 
on  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  Church,  and 
the  Sacraments.  It  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  best 
Bjrmbolical  statement  of  the  Calvinistic  system 
of  doctrine,  with  the  exception  of  the  Westminster 
Confession. 

The  French  text  must  be  considered  as  the 
original.  Of  the  first  edition  of  1561  or  1562  no 
copies  are  known.  The  Synod  of  Antwerp,  in 
September,  1580,  ordered  a  precise  parchment 
copy  of  the  revised  text  of  Jimius  td  be  made  for 
its  archives,  which  copy  had  to  be  signed  by  eveiy 


new  minister.  This  manuscript  has  always  been 
regarded  in  the  Belgic  churches  as  the  authentic 
document.  The  first  Latin  translation  was  made 
from  Junius's  text  by  Beza,  or  under  his  direction, 
for  the  Harmonia  Confessionum  (Geneva,  1581). 
The  same  passed  into  the  first  edition  of  the  Corpus 
et  Syntagma  Confesnanum  (Geneva,  1612).  A 
second  Latin  translation  was  prepared  by  Festus 
Hommius  for  the  Synod  of  Dort,  1618,  revised  and 
approved  1619;  and  from  it  was  made  the  English 
translation  in  use  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
in  America.  It  appeared  in  Greek  1623,  1653,  and 
1660,  at  Utrecht. 

Biblioobaphy:  An  excellent  description  and  short  history 
is  given  by  Schaff  in  CreetU,  i,  502-508,  with  the  text  in 
iii,  383-436,  where  the  literature  is  given. 

BELGIUM:  A  kingdom  of  northwestern  Europe; 
area,  11,373  square  miles;  population,  6,800,000. 
After  a  revolt  from  Holland  in  1830,  Belgium  was 
recognized  with  its  present  boundaries  by  the 
Powers  in  1839,  when  it  was  declared  to  be  neutral 
territory.  The  population  belongs  to  two  nation- 
alities, the  northern  portion,  wl^ch  is  the  larger, 
being  Flemish  (Low  German),  and  the  southern 
Walloon  (French);  the  vernacular  of  forty-one 
per  cent,  is  French.  The  boundary  between  these 
two  components  may  be  defined  as  running 
from  Maestricht  west  to  the  French  department 
Nord. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  since 
the  Dutch  Protestants,  who  were  numerous  from 
1815  to  1830  have,  for  the  most  part,  emigrated. 
[The  Protestants  constitute  less  than  one-half 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population.]  The 
Evangelical  confessions  are  represented  in  many 
cities,  however,  by  immigrants  from  Germany  in 
recent  decades,  as  well  as  by  Anglicans  and  Meth- 
odists and  converts  to  Protestantism.  The  most 
numerous  of  these  Protestant  communions  is  the 
Union  dea  ^glises  J6vangdiqite8  Protestantes  de  la 
BelgiquCf  which  was  founded  in  1839  and  consists 
of  French,  Dutch,  and  German  congregations, 
being  represented  in  Li6ge,  Venders,  Seraing, 
Brussels,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  La  Bouverie,  Dour, 
Paturages,  Jolimont,  and  Toumai. 
Protestants.  The  permanent  bond  of  the  Union 
is  a  board  of  directors,  chosen  at  the 
annual  synod  of  the  congregations  interested. 
Recognition  by  the  State  as  a  legal  ecclesiastical 
body  assures  state  aid  to  its  clergy,  the  usual  salary 
being  2,220  francs,  although  it  occasionally  runs 
as  high  as  4,000  and  6,000.  An  "evangelization 
conunittee  "  of  the  Union  cares  for  scattered  mem- 
bers, and  especially  for  the  religious  education 
of  children  by  "  evangelists "  where  Protestant 
schools  do  not  exist.  The  Union  has  between 
16,000  and  18,000  members.  The  SocUU  J^van- 
gdique  or  Sgliae  Chritienne  Missionnaire  Bdge  is 
a  free  church  consisting  of  converts  from  Roman 
Catholicism  or  their  children.  It  is  strongest  in 
the  Walloon  districts  and  haa  numerous  places  of 
worship,  imited  into  three  districts,  whose  repre- 
sentatives (Conseila  Sedionnaires)  meet  four  times 
annually.  Over  these  three  councils,  to  which 
each  ooDgregation  sends  a  pastor  and  a  layman, 


83 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bel 
Bellamy 


is  the  synod,  of  which  the  permanent  executive  body 
Is  the  Camiti  Administrateur.  The  clergy  are 
trained  chiefly  in  Switzerland  and  are  subordinate 
to  the  sjmod.  This  Church  possesses  few  schools 
of  its  own,  but  in  public  schools  of  one  class  with 
twenty  Protestant  children  and  in  those  of  several 
dasaes  with  forty  children  it  is  entitled  to  give 
religious  instruction  through  its  own  clergy.  It 
has  now  about  11,000  members.  There  are  Eng- 
lish churches  at  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Brussels,  and 
Ostend,  and  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  there  are 
Presbyterian  congregations;  in  the  first-named  city 
an  agent  of  the  American  Seamen's  Friend  Society 
is  also  active.  The  Dutch  Reformed  and  the 
Swedish  Lutherans  have  small  congregations  in 
Brussels  and  Antwerp  respectively. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  Belgium  was 
organised  in  1561,  when  the  authority  of  the 
foreign  bishops  was  abrogated,  and  in  1839  the 
Bjrstem  was  readjusted  to  harmonize  with  the  new 
boundaries.  The  most  of  the  clergy  receive  their 
training  at  the  episcopal  seminaries  and  a  small 
proportion  at  the  University  of  Louvain.  The 
State  has  no  control  over  the  appointment  of 
priests,  who  are  subject  only  to  their  bishops. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  however, 
Roman  receives  from  the  State  an  annual 
Catholic  stipend  of  more  than  4,800,000  francs. 
Chinch,  although  it  does  not  enjoy  any  eccle- 
siastical prerogative.  Its  influence 
on  the  life  of  the  people  is  exerted  chiefly  through 
the  monasteries,  of  which  there  are  more  than  220 
for  monks,  with  some  5,000  members,  and  about 
1,500  nmmeries,  with  over  27,000  sisters.  The 
members  are  employed  in  large  numbers  in  the  pub- 
lic schools,  the  right  being  given  the  communities 
by  the  law  of  1884  to  "  adopt "  private  schools, 
or  schools  conducted  by  the  religious  organizations. 
A  number  of  intermediate  schools  are  also  imder 
ecclesiastical  control,  as  well  as  the  University  of 
Louvain.  Academic  training  is  also  provided  for 
by  the  state  universities  of  Ghent  and  Li^ge,  and 
by  the  free  university  of  Brussels. 

In  its  hierarchic  organization,  Belgium   consti- 
tutes the  province  of  Mechlin,  and  its  dioceses 
are  divided  according  to  the  political  boundaries 
of  the  country.     The  archdiocese  of  Mechlin  on  the 
Dyle  was  created  by  a  papal  enactment  of  1559, 
which  first  came  into  full  operation  in  1561.     It 
contains  fifty-five  parishes  and  over  600  chapels 
of  ease  in  the  provinces  of  Brabant  and  Antwerp. 
The  suffragan    bishoprics    are    those    of    Bruges, 
Ghent,   Li^,    Namur,    and   Toumal    (Doomik). 
Bruges,  founded  in  1559,  has  forty  parishes  and 
245  chapels   of   ease;  Ghent,   established   in   the 
same  year,   also    has   forty   parishes 
Diocesan    and  310  chapels  of  ease;  Li^ge,  dating 
OrgBaoMi"  from  the  fourth  century,  has  an  equal 
tion.        number  of  parishes  and  570  chapels 
of     ease;  Namur,    created    in     1559 
(1561),  has  the  same  number  of  parishes  and  700 
chapels  of  ease;  and  Doomik,  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
since  1146,  controls  thirty-three  parishes  and  445 
chapels  of  ease,  its  see  comprising  the  Hennegau, 
with  the  exception  of  five  parishes  belonging  to 
the  French  diocese  of  Cambrai. 


The  Jews  of  Belgium,  who  nimiber  about  5,000, 
are  divided  into  twelve  rabbinical  districts. 

WiLHEUC  GOBTTK. 

BxauoGRAPHT:  Balan,  Hi^ovre  ooyUemporainB  ds  la  BtL- 
ifique,  LyoDB,  1891;  Ardiive»  BelffM,  revue  erUique  d'hie- 
toriographie  nationale,  Ldttieh,  1890  sqq.;  Z^i  BHffique  et 
le  Vatican.  DocumenU  et  travatuc  UgielaHfet  3  vob.,  Bnu- 
sels,  1880-81;  G.  Venpeyen,  Le  Parti  eaiholique  beige, 
Ghent,  1893;  J.  Hoyois,  La  Politique  caOtolique  en  Bd- 
gique  dejniie  1814,  Louyain,  1895;  O.  Goppin,  L' Union 
eaeerdotale,  ton  Aiaiotre,  eon  eeprit  et  eee  conetitutione, 
Namur,  1896;  U.  Berli^ra,  Monaetieon  belge^  vol.  i,  Paris, 
1897;  La  Beige  eccUeiaetique  (an  annual). 

BELIAL,  WU-ol  ("worthlessness"):  A  word  which 
occiu^  once  in  the  New  Testament  (II  Cor.  vi, 
15;  better  reading  Beliar)  as  the  name  of  Satan, 
hardly  as  that  of  Antichrist;  the  Peshito  has  "  Sa- 
tan.'' In  the  Old  Testament  beliyya*al  is  not  used 
as  a  designation  of  Satan,  or  of  a  bad  angel;  it  is 
an  appellation,  ''  worthlessness  "  or  "  wickedness  " 
in  an  ethical  sense,  and  is  almost  always  foimd 
in  connection  with  a  word  denoting  the  person  or 
thing  whose  worthlessness  or  wickedness  is  spoken 
of;  as,  "  man  of  Belial,"  "  son  of  Belial,"  "  daugh- 
ter of  Belial,"  "  thoughts  of  Belial,"  etc.  In  a  few 
instances  heliyya^al  denotes  physical  destruction;  so 
probably  Ps.  xviii,  4  (II  Sam.  xxii,  5),  "  floods  of 
destruction"  (A.  V.  ''ungodly  men";  R.  V.  "un- 
godliness"). To  imderstand  this  passage  to 
refer  to  the  prince  of  hell  is  against  Old  Testa- 
ment usage.  Occasionally  the  adjimct  is  omit- 
ted, as  in  II  Sam.  xxiii,  6;  Job  xxxiv,  18; 
Nahiun  i,  15,  where  the  word  means  the ''  bad,"  the 
"  destroyer,"  the  "  wicked."  Although  thus  orig- 
inally not  a  proper  name,  but  an  appellation,  in 
the  later  Jewish  and  Christian  literature  it  passed 
over  into  a  name  for  Satan,  not  as  the  "  worthless," 
but  as  the  "  destroyer."  It  is  so  used  in  II  Cor. 
vi,  15,  where  Paul  asks:  "  What  harmony  is  there 
between  Christ  and  Belial?"  "Belial  '  stands  for 
'  Satan  "  also  in  Jewish  epigrapha  and  apocalyptic 
writings,  such  as  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  the  Book  of  Jubilees,  and  the  Jewish  in- 
terpolations in  the  Sibylline  Oracles.  In  the  Syriac, 
hdiyya*al  is  translated  by  "  lord  of  the  air,"  as 
though  the  word  were  composed  of  hel  and  the 
Syriac  o'ar  (-Gk.  (Or;  cf.  Eph.  ii,  2). 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  J.  Hamburger,  s.v.,  in  Real^Encyklopddis 
fUr  Bibel  und  Talmud,  vol.  i.  Leipsic,  1891;  W.  Bouaset. 
Der  Antichriet,  pp.  86-87.  99-101.  Gdttingen.  1896;  T.  K. 
Chesme,  in  Expoeitor,  1895,  pp.  435-439;  F.  Hommel.  in 
Expoeitory  Timee,  viii.  472;  EB,  i.  525-527. 

BELLAMY,  JOSEPH:  Congregationalist;  b.  at 
New  Cheshire,  Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1719;  d.  at  Bethle- 
hem, Conn.,  Mar.  6,  1790.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale,  1735,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  at  the  age 
of  eighteen;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Bethlehem  Apr.  2,  1740.  During  the  Great  Awa- 
kening he  preached  with  much  zeal  as  an  itinerating 
evangelist;  later  he  established  a  divinity  school 
in  his  house,  where  many  prominent  New  England 
clergjrmen  were  trained,  as  well  as  some  not  in- 
tended for  the  ministry  (among  them  Aaron  Burr). 
He  was  a  disciple  and  personal  friend  of  Jonathan 
Edwards,  and  the  most  gifted  preacher  among  his 
followers,  being  thought  by  some  to  be  equal  to 
Whitefield.    In  his  True  ReligUm  Delineated  (Bos- 


Bellannine 
BeUs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


34 


ton,  1750)  he  sets  forth  in  spirited  style  the  plan  of 
salvation  and  of  the  Christian  life  after  the  Ed- 
wardean  conception,  and  he  explicitly  advocates 
the  doctrine  of  a  general  atonement.  In  the  Wis- 
dom of  God  in  the  Permission  of  Sin  (1768)  he  argues 
that,  while  sin  is  a  terrible  evil,  God  permits  it  as  a 
necessary  means  of  the  best  good,  and  the  universe 
is  **  more  holy  and  happy  than  if  sin  and  misery 
had  never  entered."  God  could  have  prevented 
sin  without  violating  free  will.  On  the  whole  his 
work  was  more  general  than  specific,  modifying 
the  prevalent  conceptions  in  the  direction  of  greater 
simplicity  and  reasonableness.  He  sometimes  ap- 
proaches quite  near  subsequent  forms  of  expres- 
sion. A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared  at 
New  York  (3  vols.,  1811),  and  another  (and  better) 
at  Boston,  with  memoir  by  Tryon  Edwards  (2  vols., 
1850). 

BELLARMINE,  bel"lar-min'. 

In  Louvain  (§1).   In  Rome.     The  Di»putatione»  (|  2). 
New  Duties  after  1589.     Controversial  Writings  (|  3). 

Roberto  Francesco  Romolo  Bellarmino,  the  fa- 
mous Roman  Catholic  controversialist,  was  bom 
at  Montepulciano  (26  m.  s.w.  of  Arezzo),  in  Tus- 
cany, Oct.  4,  1542;  d.  in  Rome  Sept.  17,  1621.  He 
was  a  nephew  of  Pope  Marcellus  II,  and  came  of 
a  noble  though  impoverished  family.  His  abilities 
showed  themselves  early;  as  a  boy  he  knew  Vergil 
by  heart,  and  composed  a  number  of  poems  in 
Italian  and  Latin;  one  of  his  hymns,  on  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, is  included  in  the  Roman  breviary.  His 
father  destined  him  for  a  political  career,  hoping 
that  he  might  restore  the  fallen  glories  of  the  house; 
but  his  mother  wished  him  to  enter  the  Jesuit  order, 
and  her  influence  prevailed.  He  entered  the  Ro- 
man novitiate  in  1560,  remained  in  Rome  three 
years,  and  then  went  to  a  Jesuit  house  at  Mondovi 
in  Piedmont.  Here  he  learned  Greek,  and  taught 
it  afl  faflt  as  he  learned  it.  His  systematic  study 
of  theology  began  at  Padua  in  1567  and  1568,  where 
his  teachers  were  Thomists,  the  Jesuits  not  yet  hav- 
ing had  time  to  develop  a  theology  of  their  own. 

After  a  visit  to  Venice,  where  he  increased  his 
renown  as  a  public  speaker,  Bellannine  was  sent  by 
the  general,  Francis  Borgia,  in  1569,  to  Louvain, 
then  the  most  famous  Roman  Catholic  university. 
He  was  ordained  priest  at  Ghent  on  Palm  Sunday, 
1570,  by  the  elder  Jansenius.  A  strict  Augustin- 
ian  theology  prevailed  among  the  teachers  at  Lou- 
vain, represented  by  Bajus,  the  precursor  of  Jan- 
senism (see  Bajus,  Michel).  Bellarmine  had  not 
enough  deep  knowledge  of  his  own  nature  or  Chris- 
tian experience  to  be  able  to  appreciate  the  Augus- 
tinian  doctrines  of  the  corruption  of  man  and  the 
necessity  of  divine  grace  to  any  good  movement 
of  the  will.  He  contended  accordingly  against 
the  propositions  of  Bajus,  though 
z.  In       his    own  views    and  expressions    in 

LouvauL  the  great  controversy  on  grace  were 
always  a  little  imcertain.  He  was 
the  first  Jesuit  to  teach  at  the  university,  where 
the  subject  of  his  course  was  the  Summa  of  St. 
Thomas;  he  also  made  extensive  studies  in  the 
Fathers  and  medieval  theologians,  which  gave  him 
the  material  for  his  book  De  scriptoribus  ecclesias- 


Hcis  (Rome,  1613),  which  was  later  revised  and  en- 
larged by  Sirmond,  Labbeus,  and  Oudin.  In  the 
Netherlands  he  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  great 
controversy  with  the  Protestants  which  he  could 
hardly  have  got  in  Italy,  though  he  seems  never  to 
have  come  into  personal  contact  with  the  evangel- 
ical leaders.  Finally  he  learned  Hebrew,  and  wrote 
his  often  reprinted  grammar.  His  genius  for  teach- 
ing, clearness  of  thought,  and  adroitness  in  contro- 
versy were  indisputable. 

Bellarmine's  residence  in  Louvain  lasted  seven 
years.  His  health  was  undermined  by  study  and 
asceticism,  and  in  1576  he  made  a  journey  to  Italy 
to  restore  it.  Here  he  was  detained  by  the  com- 
mission given  him  by  Gregory  XIII  to  lecture  on 
polemical  theology  in  the  new  Roman  Ck)llege. 
He  devoted  eleven  years  to  this  work,  out  of  whose 
activities  grew  his  celebrated  DisptUationes  de 
eoniroversiis    Christiana    fidei,    first    published   at 

Ingolstadt,  4  vols.,  1581-93.  It  occu- 
2.  In  Rome,  pies  in  the  field  of  dogmatics  the  same 
The  **Dis-  place  as  the  Annales  of  Baronius  in 
putationeB."  the  field  of  history.    Both  were  the 

fruits  of  the  great  revival  in  religion 
and  learning  which  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
had  witnessed  since  1540.  Both  bear  the  stamp 
of  their  period;  the  effort  for  literary  el^ance, 
which  was  considered  the  prindpal  thing  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  given  place 
to  a  desire  to  pile  up  as  much  material  as  possible, 
to  embrace  the  whole  field  of  human  knowledge, 
and  incorporate  it  into  theology.  Bellarmine's 
exposition  of  the  views  and  arguments  of  the  Prot- 
estants is  surprisingly  full  and  accurate,  so  much 
BO  that  the  circulation  of  the  book  in  Italy  was 
for  a  time  not  encouraged.  He  fails,  like  most  of 
his  contemporaries,  in  imderstanding  the  principle 
of  historical  development,  and  his  belief  in  author- 
ity, pressed  to  an  extreme,  injured  his  sense  of 
truth  and  allowed  him  to  handle  both  the  Bible 
and  history  in  an  arbitrary  manner.  The  first 
volume  treats  of  the  Word  of  God,  of  Christ,  and 
of  the  pope;  the  second  of  the  authority  of  councils, 
and  of  the  Church,  whether  militant,  expectant, 
or  triumphant;  the  third  of  the  sacraments;  and 
the  fourth  of  grace,  free  will,  justification,  and  good 
works.  The  most  important  part  of  the  work 
is  contained  in  the  five  books  on  the  Roman  pontif . 
In  these,  after  a  speculative  introduction  on  forms 
of  govenmient  in  general,  holding  monarchy  to 
be  relatively  the  best,  he  says  that  a  monarchical 
government  is  necessary  for  the  Church,  to  preser>'e 
unity  and  order  in  it.  Such  power  he  considers  to 
have  been  established  by  the  commission  of  Christ 
to  Peter.  He  then  proceeds  to  demonstrate  that 
this  power  has  been  transmitted  to  the  successors 
of  Peter,  admitting  that  a  heretical  pope  may 
be  freely  judged  and  deposed  by  the  Church  since 
by  the  very  fact  of  his  heresy  he  would  cease  to  be 
pope,  or  even  a  member  of  the  Church;  this  is 
almost  like  an  echo  of  the  great  coimcils  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  third  section  discusses 
Antichrist;  Bellarmine  gives  in  full  the  theory 
set  forth  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers,  of  a 
personal  Antichrist  to  come  just  before  the  end  of 
the  world  and  to  be  accepted  by  the  Jews  and 


35 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bellarmine 
Bells 


enthroned  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem — thus  en- 
deavoring to  dispose  of  the  Protestant  exposition 
which  saw  Antichrist  in  the  pope.  The  fourth 
section  sets  forth  the  pope  as  the  supreme  judge 
in  matters  of  faith  and  morals,  though  making  the 
concessions  (confirmed  indeed  by  the  Vatican 
Council)  that  the  pope  may  err  in  questions  of  fact 
which  may  be  known  by  ordinary  human  knowl- 
edge^ and  also  when  he  speaks  as  a  mere  unofficial 
theologian,  doctor  privaHu.  His  assertions  are  much 
more  unbounded  in  the  last  part,  which  treats  of 
the  pope's  power  in  secular  matters.  While  he 
says  that  the  pope  has  no  direct  jurisdiction  in 
such  things,  he  yet  stoutly  contends  for  the  power 
of  deposing  kixigs,  absolving  subjects  from  their 
allegiance,  and  altering  civil  laws,  when  these  actions 
are  necessary  for  the  good  of  the  souls  oonunitted 
to  the  charge  of  the  chief  pastor. 

Until  1589  Bellarmine  was  occupied  altogether 
as  professor  of  theology,  but  that  date  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  his  life  and  of  new 
dignities.  After  the  murder  of  Henry  III  of  France 
Sixtus  V  sent  Gaetano  as  legate  to  Paris  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  League,  and  chose  Bellarmine  to 
accompany  him  as  theologian;  he  was  in  the  city 
during  its  siege  by  Henry  of  Navarre.  The  next 
pope,  Clement  VIII  (1591-1605),  set  great  store 
by  him.  He  wrote  the  preface  to  the  new  edition 
of  the  Vulgate,  and  w^  made  rector  of  the  Roman 

College  in  1592,  examiner  of  bishops 

3.  5ew  Du-  in  1598,  cardinal  in  1599,  and  in  1602 

ties  after    archbishop  of  Capua.     He  had  written 

1589.  Cos-  strongly  against  pluralism  and  non- 

troyersial     residence,  and  he  set  a  good  example 

WritxngB.     himself  by  leaving  within  four  days 

for  his  diocese,  where  he  devoted 
himself  zealously  to  his  episcopal  duties,  and  firmly 
executed  the  reforming  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Under  Paul  V  (1605-21)  arose  the  great 
conflict  between  Venice  and  the  papacy,  in  which 
Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  was  the  spokesman  of  the  Republic, 
protesting  against  the  papal  interdict,  reasserting 
the  principles  of  Constance  and  Basel,  and  denying 
the  pope's  authority  in  matters  secular.  Bellar- 
mine wrote  three  rejoinders  to  the  Venetian  theo- 
logians, and  at  the  same  time  possibly  saved  Sarpi's 
life  by  giving  him  warning  of  an  impending  mur- 
derous attack.  He  soon  had  occasion  to  cross 
swords  with  a  more  prominent  antagonist,  James  I 
of  England,  who  prided  himself  on  his  theological 
attainments.  Bellarmine  had  written  a  letter  to 
the  English  archpriest  Blackwell,  reproaching  him 
for  having  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  apparent 
disregard  of  his  duty  to  the  pope.  James  attacked . 
him  in  1608  in  a  Latin  treatise,  which  the  scholarly 
cardinal  answered  at  once,  making  merry  with 
delicate  humor  over  the  defects  of  the  royal  Latinity . 
James  replied  with  a  second  attack  in  more  cateful 
style,  dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II  and 
all  the  monarchs  of  Christendom,  in  which  he  posed 
as  the  defender  of  primitive  and  truly  Catholic 
Christianity.  Bellarmine's  answer  to  this  covers 
more  or  less  the  whole  controversy.  In  reply  to 
a  posthumous  treatise  of  William  Barclay,  the 
celebrated  Scottish  jurist,  he  wrote  another  Trao- 
iahu  de  potettaie  summi  potUificia  in  rebus  tem- 


poralibus,  which  reiterated  his  strong  assertions 
on  the  subject,  and  was  therefore  prohibited  in 
France,  where  it  agreed  with  the  sentiments  of 
neither  the  king  npr  the  bishops.  He  was  among 
the  theologians  consulted  on  the  teaching  of  Galileo 
when  it  first  made  a  stir  at  Rome.  In  his  old  age 
he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  old  home,  Monte- 
pulciano,  as  its  bishop  for  four  years,  after  which 
he  retired  to  the  Jesuit  college  of  St.  Andrew  in 
Rome.  He  received  some  votes  in  the  conclaves 
which  elected  Leo  XI,  Paul  V,  and  Gregory  XV, 
but  only  in  the  second  case  had  he  any  prospect 
of  election.  Since  his  death  the  members  of  his 
order  have  more  than  once  attempted  to  prociu^ 
his  canonization,  but  without  success.  The  best 
of  the  older  editions  of  his  works  is  that  in  seven 
vols.,  O>logne,  1617;  recent  ones  are  those  of  Paris, 
1870-74,  and  Naples,   1872.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliographt:  A  list  of  the  worka  of  Bellarmine  is  given 
in  H.  Hurter,  Nomendator  literariiu,  i,  273  sqq..  Inns- 
bruck, 1802.  His  autobiography,  written  in  1613,  was 
issued  in  Lat.  at  Rome,  1675,  at  Louvain,  1753,  and  in 
Lat.  and  Germ.,  ed.  J.  J.  I.  von  Ddllinger  and  F.  H. 
Beusch,  Bonn,  1887;  it  was  used  in  MS.  by  J.  Fuligatti. 
Vita  del  Cardinale  R.  BeUarmino,  Rome,  1624.  The 
lives  by  D.  Bartoli,  Rome,  1677,  N.  Prison,  Nantes.  1708, 
and  F.  Hense,  Paderbom,  1868,  are  mere  eulogies  and 
add  nothing  of  value;  indeed  it  is  said  that  the  auto- 
biography and  the  works  founded  upon  it  have  done 
much  to  prevent  Bellarmine's  canonisation.  Consult 
Niceron,  Af  ^moires,  zxzi,  1  sqq.;  J.  B.  Couderc,  Le  V6- 
n^rable  Cardinal  Bellarmin,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1803. 

BELLOWS,  HEIIRY  WHITNEY:  American 
Unitarian;  b.  in  Boston  June  11,  1814;  d.  in  New 
York  Jan.  30,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
1832,  and  at  the  Cambridge  Divinity  School  1837; 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
Society  (Unitarian),  Chambers  Street,  New  York, 
Jan.  2,  1838,  and  remained  there  till  death;  during 
his  pastorate  the  church  was  twice  moved,  to 
Broadway  between  Spring  and  Prince  Streets  and 
the  name  changed  to  the  Church  of  the  Divine 
Unity,  and  again  to  4th  Avenue  and  20th  Street, 
where  it  took  the  name  of  All  Souls'  Church.  Dr. 
Bellows  was  the  organizer,  president,  and  chief  ad- 
ministrator of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Com- 
mission (1862-78),  and  during  the  Civil  War  he 
superintended  with  rare  efficiency  the  distribution 
of  supplies  valued  at  $15,000,000  and  $5,000,000 
in  money;  at  a  later  period  he  was  president  of 
the  first  civil  service  reform  association  organized 
in  the  coimtry.  He  was  president  of  the  Nar 
tional  Unitarian  Conference  1865-79.  He  wrote 
much  for  the  periodicals  of  his  denomination  and 
was  the  chief  originator  of  The  Christian  In- 
quirer (New  York,  1846)  and  for  five  years  its 
principal  contributor.  He  also  published  a  number 
of  books,  of  merely  personal  and  transient  interest. 

BELLS:  The  use  of  bells  as  adjimcts  to  Chris- 
tian worship  was  not  without  precedent  in  pre- 
Christian  times.  Among  the  Jews  the  vestment 
of  the  high  priest  was  adorned  with  little  bells 
(Ex.  xxviii,  33);  and  among  the  pagans  the 
priests  of  Proserpine  annoimoed  the  beginning  of 
the  sacrifice  by  ringing  bells.  There  is  no  evidence 
of  early  Christian  use  of  them  to  siunmon  people 
to  prayer;  this  seems  to  have  been  done  by  word 
of  mouth,  even  as  late  as  TertuUian  and  Jerome. 


BeUs 
B«mbo 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


36 


In  the  Egyptian  monafiteries  the  Old  Testament 
use  of  trumpets  still  survived,  and  the  soimd  made 
by  knocking,  pieces  of  wood  together  served  the 
same  purpose;  this  custom  is  still  sometimes  used 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on  the  last  three 
days  of  Holy  Week,  when  the  ringing  of  bells  is 

forbidden    [and    survives    in     some 
Early  Use.  places  in  the  East].    The  first  positive 

evidence  of  the  use  of  bells  in  con- 
nection with  Christian  worship  is  foimd  in  Gregory 
of  Tours  (d.  595),  who  speaks  of  them  as  being 
rung  at  the  beginning  of  the  liturgy  and  the  canon- 
ical hours.  From  the  seventh  century  on,  bells 
are  often  mentioned  in  the  inventories  of  Western 
churches,  and  by  800  they  were  so  common  as  to  be 
found  even  in  village  churches.  A  capitulary  of 
.  Chariemagne  (801)  prescribes  that  priests  shall 
ring  their  bells  at  the  accustomed  hours  of  the  day 
and  night.  In  the  ninth  century  some  Eastern 
instances  occur;  thus  Orso  I,  Doge  of  Venice,  pre- 
sented twelve  bells  to  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
who  placed  them  in  a  tower  near  St.  Sophia.  But 
outside  of  Russia  they  never  attained  the  same 
importance  as  in  the  West.  The  Mohanunedans 
usually  removed  them  in  the  countries  they  con- 
quered; and  Zwingli  attempted  to  abolish  their 
use  in  Switzerland,  though  most  of  the  Reformers 
only  protested  against  superstition  in  the  use  of 
them,  especially  their  consecration. 

Walafrid  Strabo  distinguishes  two  classes  of 
bells  in  his  time,  vasa  productUia  and  fusilia, 
wrought  and  cast.  Of  the  now  rare  examples  of 
the  former  class  the  best  known  is  the  **  Saufang  " 

at   Cologne,    so    called    because    the 

Haterial     legend  ran  that  it  had  been  dug  up 

and  Form,  by  pigs  about  613;  it  is  made  of  three 

plates  of  iron  fastened  together  with 
copper  nails.  Similar  and  perhaps  older  examples 
are  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum.  For  the  casting 
of  bells  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin  was  employed 
in  the  Middle  Ages;  ofterv/ard  lead,  zinc,  iron, 
and  antimony  were  used  with  copper.  At  present 
the  best  bell-metal  is  supposed  to  be  a  mixture  of  77 
to  80  per  cent,  of  good  copper  with  20  to  23  per  cent, 
of  pure  tin.  The  earliest  cast  bells  resemble  cow-bells 
in  form,  though  there  are  some  shaped  more  like 
a  beehive  or  a  pear.  Their  dimensions  are  small. 
As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  extant  examples, 
the  custom  of  putting  inscriptions  on  beUs  does 
not  go  fmther  back  than  the  twelfth  century,  and  is 
by  no  means  general  even  then.  On  cast  bells 
the  inscriptions  are  rarely  incised;  where  this 
occurs,  it  is  a  sign  of  antiquity.  Later  they  are 
more  oonmionly  raised,  and  in  either  Roman  or 

Gothic  capitals  down  to  the  end  of 
iDicriptions.  the    fourteenth    century;  then    small 

letters  were  used  imtil  about  1550, 
and  since  then  more  modem  types  of  letters  have 
been  usual,  except  in  recent  deliberate  imitations 
of  the  old  style.  Until  well  into  the  fourteenth 
eentury  Latin  was  the  regular  language;  then  the 
reraacular  came  into  use.  The  earliest  inscriptions 
w«re  slu^rt;  from  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
tfnu^h  Umger  ones  became  usual,  frequently  almost 
ftJiifig  tlie  surface  of  the  bell.  They  are  mostly 
I^U^m  d4KUcatiooi  or  prayers,  or  declarations  of  the 


purpose  of  the  bell,  such  as  Funera  pUmgo, 
fulffura  frangoy  sahbata  pango;  excUo  len09, 
dissipo  ventoSf  paco  cmentM.  Besides  inscriptions, 
the  sides  of  bells  were  adorned  with  pictures, 
coats  of  arms,  seals,  and  various  symbols,  among 
the  oldest  being,  besides  the  cross,  the  dove  with 
the  olive-branch,  and  the  Agnu9  Dei. 

As  early  as  the  Frankish  sacramentaries  and  the 
Pontifical  of  Egbert  special  formulas  for  the  bene- 
diction of  bells  are  mentioned.  This  practise  was 
connected  in  those  days  with  superstitious  notions, 
so  that  Chariemagne  was  obliged  to  regulate  it  in 
789.    But  the  formulas  of  benediction  themselves 

attributed  a  quasimagical  effect  to 
Bene-  the  bells  thus  consecrated.  Accord- 
diction,      ing  to  present  Roman  Catholic  usage, 

the  blessing  of  bells  is  an  episcopal 
prerogative,  though  priests  may  exercise  it  in  case 
of  necessity  with  the  pope's  permission.  The  cero 
monies  somewhat  resemble  those  of  baptism, 
which  has  given  rise  to  the  practise  of  naming  bells, 
and  in  the  Middle  Ages  of  appointing  sponsors 
for  them,  from  whom  rich  christening  gifts  were 
expected.  The  Schmalkald  Articles  declared  bit- 
terly against  these  practises  as  "  popish  jugglery  " 
and  "  a  mockery  of  holy  baptism." 

The  main  use  of  bells  has  always  been  to  an- 
nounce the  time  of  public  worship.  It  is  also  a 
common  Roman  Catholic  practise  to  ring  the  church 
bell  at  the  consecration  in  the  mass,  as  in  some 
Protestant  localities  at  the  Lord's  Prayer  after  the 
sermon,  that  those  who  are  absent  may  unite 
themselves  in  spirit  with  the  congregation.  During 
the  mass,  moreover,  a  small  bell  (called  the  "  Sane- 

tus"  or  "sacring"  bell)  is  rung  at 

Present     the  specially  solemn  parts — ^the  Sane- 

Use.       ius,  the  beginning  of  the  canon,  the 

consecration,  and  the  Dtmdne,  rum 
sum  dignu9.  Bells  have  been  rung  also  at  certain 
regular  times  to  call  to  mind  some  mystery,  as 
the  passion  and  death  or  the  incarnation  of  Christ 
(see  Anoelub),  or  to  bid  to  prayer  for  sinners,  for 
the  faithful  departed,  or  for  peace.  The  ringing 
of  joyous  peals  at  marriages,  and  the  announcement 
of  a  death  by  solenm  tolling  (originally  intended  to 
move  the  hearers  to  prayer  for  the  soul,  either 
before  or  after  death)  are  ancient  practises;  the 
latter  existed,  at  least  in  the  monasteries,  in  the 
time  of  Bede.  In  some  parts  of  En^and  a  special 
bell  was  tolled  with  a  similar  intention  before  the 
execution  of  a  criminal.      (Nikoiaub  MOixer.) 

Biblioorapbt:  Literature  on  the  subjeet  ia  siTen  in  H.  T. 
EUaoombe,  PraeUoal  Remark9  on  Btljrua  and  Ringert, 
wiih  an  Appendix  on  Chimino,  London.  1861^-60:  H.  Ott«, 
Qlodeenkunds,  pp.  1-^  Leipsio,  1884;  and  F.  W.  Scfau- 
bart,  Dii  Qloeken  im  HenogOium  AnhaU,  pp.  xiv-zvii, 
Deoeau,  1896.  H.  T.  EUaoombe  has  a  series  of  works 
treating  of  English  bells,  among  which  are:  Sundry  Words 
AboutBeUa,  Exeter.  1864;  Chtm^  BeUaof  Devon,  ib.  1872; 
Churdi  BeUe  of  Somereel,  1875;  Churdi  BeUe  of  GUntctater- 
ehixe,  1881.  Consult  also:  Joseph  Anderson.  Scotland  m 
Early  Timee,  1st  series,  pp.  167-216.  Edinburgh.  1881; 
F.  W.  Warren,  Lituryy  and  RUudl  of  the  Celtic  Churdi,  p. 
92,  Oxford,  1881;  Margaret  Stokes.  Early  Chrie^an  AH 
in  Ireland,  pp.  60  sqq..  London,  1887:  J.  T.  Fowler, 
Adamnani  Vita  S.  Columbae,  pp.  xliii-xHv,  Oxford.  1894; 
K.  H.  Bergner,  Zur  Olockenkunde  ThUtringene,  Jena,  1896; 
Eneydopadia  Brilannioa,  k.v..  contains  interesting  mate' 
rial  not  easily  found  elsewhere;  DC  A,  i,  184-186. 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bells 
Bemli 


ibo 


BELSHAH,  THOMAS:  English  Umtaiian;  b. 
at  Bedford  Apr.  26,  1750;  d.  at  Hampstead  Nov. 
1 1 ,  1829.  He  finished  his  studies  at  the  Dissenting 
Academy  of  Daventry  and  in  1770  became  teacher 
there;  in  1778  he  became  minister  of  an  independ- 
ent chapel  at  Worcester,  but  returned  to  Daventry 
as  teacher  and  preacher  in  1781.  Having  adopted 
Unitarian  views  he  resigned  in  1789,  and  was 
professor  of  divinity  at  the  college  of  Hackney 
until  it  ceased  to  exist  in  1796.  In  1794  he  succeeded 
Dr.  Priestley  as  minister  of  the  Gravel  Pit  Unitarian 
Chapel  at  Hackney,  and  in  1805  became  minister 
of  the  Essex  Street  Chapel,  London.  He  published 
much,  sermons,  controversial  writings,  and  general 
theological  works,  including  Elements  of  the  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Mind  and  of  Moral  Philosophy  (Lon- 
don, 1801);  Letters  to  the  Bishop  of  London  in 
Vindication  of  Unitarians  (1815);  The  Epistles 
of  St,  Paul  Translatedf  with  an  Exposition  and 
Notes  (2  vols.,  1822);  he  was  principal  editor  of 
The  New  Testament  in  an  Improved  Version  upon 
the  Basis  of  Archbishop  Newcomers  New  Translation  ; 
with  a  critical  text  and  notes  critical  and  explanatory 
(1808).  American  Unitarianism  (4th  ed.,  Boston, 
1315)  is  extracted  from  his  Memoirs  of  the  Revd. 
T,  Lindsey  (London,  1812). 

BzBLicmaAPRT:  J.  Williams,  Menunn  of  Thotnaa  Bdaham, 
London,  1833;  DNB,  iv.  202-203. 

BELSHAZZAR.  See  Babtlonia,  VI,  7,  { 3; 
Persia. 

BELSHEIM,  JOHARlfES:  Norwegian  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Valders  (about  100  m.  n.w.  of  Chris- 
tisknia)  Jan.  21,  1829.  He  received  only  an  ele- 
mentary education  in  his  early  years,  and  from 
1851  was  a  teacher  in  village  schools  until  1858, 
when  he  was  enabled  to  enter  the  University  of 
Christiania,  from  which  he  was  graduated  three 
years  later.  He  was  tutor  at  a  teachers'  seminary 
in  1863-64,  and  was  then  appointed  pastor  of  a 
small  parish  in  Finmarken  near  the  Russian  fron- 
tier. Six  years  later  he  was  called  to  a  larger 
pariah  in  Bjelland,  in  the  extreme  south  of  Nor- 
way, but  resigned  his  pastorate  in  1875  and  settled 
at  Christiania,  where  he  was  enabled  to  continue 
his  studies  by  his  pension  and  a  small  additional 
stipend,  while  a  government  subvention  later  ren- 
dered it  possible  for  him  to  visit  foreign  libraries. 
He  has  written  Om  Bibelen,  dens  Opbevaring,  Over- 
sattdse,  og  Udbredelse  (3d  ed.,  Christiania,  1884); 
TU  Forsvar  for  nogle  omtvistede  Steder  i  det  Nye 
TestamenU  (1876);  Veiledning  i  BibeUns  Historie, 
med  udf&rligeTe  Oplysninger  om  det  Ny^Testamentes 
Bogtr  (ChriBtiania,  1880);  Den  evangdiske  His- 
tories Trovcerdighed  og  de  Nytestamentlige  Skrifters 
Oprinddse  (1891);  De  GammeUestamentiige  Skrif- 
iers  TrowBrdighed  og  Oprindelse  (1892);  Om  Mose- 
bogeme  og  nogle  andre  Gammeltestamentlige  Skrif- 
ter :  Et  Indlag  imod  den  modeme  Kritik  (1896). 
He  likewise  edited  Codex  aureus^  sive  quatuor  Evan- 
gelia  ex  eodice  pwrpureo  aureoque  in  Bibliotheca  Re- 
gia  Halmensi  asservata  (Christiania,  1879);  Die 
Aposjelgeschichte  und  die  Offenbarung  Johannes  aus 
dan  Oigas  Librorum  auf  der  koniglichen  Btbliothek 
ftt  Stockholm  (1879);  Das  Evangelium  des  Mat^ 
thausausdsmlateinischen  Cod.  ff  1  Carbiensis  auf  der 


kaiserlichen  Btbliothek  eu  St.  Petersburg,  nebst  dem 
Briefs  Jacobi  (1881);  Der  Brief  des  Jacobus  in  dUer 
lateinischer  Udtersetzungnaehdem  Cod.  ff  1  Carbien- 
sis in  St.  Petersburg  (1884);  Palimpsestus  Vindobo- 
nensis  :  Antiquissima  Veteris  Testamenti  fragmenta 
(1885);  EpistvloB  Paulina  e  Cod.  Sangermaniense 
Petropolitano  (1885);  Evangelium  des  Marcus  nach 
dem  griechischen  Codex  Theodorce  purpureus  Petro- 
politanus  (1885);  Codex  Vindobonensis  purpureus 
antiquissimv>s :  Evangeliorum  Luca  et  Marci  irans- 
lationis  Latincs  fragmenta  (Leipaic,  1885);  Frag- 
menta Vindobonensia :  Brudistiicke  der  Apostelge- 
sMchte,  des  Briefes  Jacobi  und  ersten  Briefes  Petri 
nach  einem  Palimpsest  auf  der  kaiserlichen  Hofbib- 
liothek  zu  Wien  (Christiania,  1886);  Codex  ff  2  Car- 
biensis, sive  quatuor  Evangelia  .  .  .  Latina  trans- 
latio  e  eodice  in  Bibliotheca  Nationali  Parisiensi 
asservata  (1 887 ) ;  A  ppendix  epistularum  Paulinarum 
e  eodice  Gtrmanensi  (1887);  Codex  Cotbertinus 
Parisiensis  :  Quatuor  Evangelia  .  .  •  Latina  trans- 
latio  post  editionem  Petri  Sabatarii  cum  isto  eodice 
coUata  (1888);  Evangelium  secundum  Matthomm 
.  .  .  Latina  transUUio  e  eodice  olim  Claramontano, 
nunc  Vaticano  (1892);  Libri  Tobit,  Judit,  Ester  .  .  . 
Latina  transUxtione  eodice  olim  Freisingensi,  nunc 
Monachensi  (Trondhjem,  1893);  Acta  Apostdorum. 
.  .  .  Latina  translatio  e  codiee  Latino-Grceco  Lavr 
diano  Oxoniensi  (Christiania,  1893);  Codex  VerceU 
lensis:  Quatuor  Evangelia  ex  reliquiis  codicis  Ver- 
ceUensis  .  .  .  etex  editions  Juliana  principi  (1894); 
Evangelium  Palatinum:  Reliquia  quatuor  Evan- 
geliorum cum  Laiina  translations  e  eodice  purpurea 
Vindobonensi  et  ex  editions  TischendorfUma  (1896); 
Fragmenta  Novi  Testamenti  in  translatione  Latina 
ex  libra  qui  vacatur  Speculum  (1899);  and  Codex 
Veronensis :  Quatuor  Evangelia  e  eodice  in  biblio- 
theca episcopali  Veronensi  asservata  et  ex  editions 
Blanchini  (Prague,  1904).  Of  these  the  first,  sec- 
ond, fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  fourteenth  are  editiones  principes.  Of  his 
numerous  translations,  special  mention  may  be 
made  of  versions  of  the  catechism  of  Cyril 
(Christiania,  1882)  and  the  De  Imitations  Christi 
of  Thomas  k  Kempis  (1890). 

BEMA:  In  classical  literature  a  semicircular 
platform  at  the  end  of  a  basilica,  which  supported 
the  official  seat  of  the  judge.  When  the  basilican 
style  was  adapted  to  Christian  use  (see  Architec- 
ture, Ecclesiastical),  the  apse,  or  similar  semi- 
circular termination  of  the  building,  was  reserved 
for  the  seats  of  the  bishop  and  clergy,  and  the  same 
name  was  sometimes  applied  to  it.  In  a  more  re- 
stricted sense  it  signifies  any  elevated  place  in  the 
church,  such  as  that  from  which  the  gospel  was 
read,  and  is  thus  synonymous  with  ambo  (q.v.). 

BEMBO,  PIETRO:  Cardinal  aud  humanist; 
b.  in  Venice  May  20,  1470;  d.  in  Rome  Jan.  18, 
1547.  He  was  the  son  of  a  senator,  and  studied  at 
Padua  and  Ferrara,  in  the  latter  place  attracting 
the  attention  of  Alfonso  d'Este  and  his  wife,  Lu- 
crezia  Borgia.  He  spent  six  years  at  the  court  of 
Urbino,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Raffael. 
He  then  went  to  Rome,  where  Leo  X  recognized 
his  ability  as  a  Latinist  by  making  him  Iris  si^cre- 
tary.     As  he  held  this  office  to  the  death  uf  the 


Benatah 
Benedict 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


38 


pope  (1521),  the  sixteen  books  of  Latin  letters  of 
Leo  X  are  practically,  as  to  their  form,  of  Bembo's 
composition.  Returning  to  Padua,  Bembo  made 
his  house  the  meeting-place  of  humanist  circles. 
In  1530  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Venetian  sen- 
ate to  complete  the  history  of  the  republic  begun 
by  Marcantonio  Sabellico.  His  part  of  the  work, 
covering  the  years  1487-1513,  has  been  justly  criti- 
cized as  to  historic  accuracy  by  Justus  Lipsius 
(PolUicaf  i,  Leyden,  1589,  9,  note).  On  the  other 
hand,  not  only  in  the  /2tm«,  but  also  in  his  letters, 
there  is  a  regrettable  tendency  to  a  loose  frivolity 
strongly  bordering  on  pagan  morals.  This  tend- 
ency, shown  also  in  his  manner  of  life — ^he  was 
the  father  of  several  illegitimate  children — was  no 
obstacle  to  his  being  made  a  cardinal  (1539).  From 
that  time  on  (he  was  now  sixty-nine),  he  is  said  to 
have  changed  his  life.  He  held  two  bishoprics, 
Gubbio  and  Bergamo,  but  he  lived  in  Rome  till  his 
death.  His  Opera  were  published  in  three  vols,  at 
Basel,  1567;  Strasburg,  1611-52;  four  vols.,  Venice, 
1729.  His  Rime  (Venice,  1530)  have  often  been  re- 
printed; as  has  his  Gli  Aaolani  (1505),  a  dialogue 
on  the  nature  of  love.  K.  Benrath. 

Bibuookapht:  The  first  VUa  was  issued  by  Giovanni  della 
Casa  at  Florence*  1667,  a  second  is  found  in  the  Venice 
edition  of  his  works,  ut  sup.,  while  a  third  was  published 
by  L.  Beceadelli  in  Monutnenti  di  varia  lettenUura^  vol.  i, 
Bologna,  1799,  and  also  by  W.  P.  Oreswell,  Memoira  of 
.  .  .  P€inu  Bembu9,  Manchester.  1801.  Consult  also  V. 
(^BO,  Un  D€cennio  deUa  vita  di  M.  P.  Bembo,  ISHSl, 
Turin,  1886;  J.  P.  Niceron,  Mfmoirf,  xi,  368.  xx,  32.  43 
vols.,  Paris,  1729-15;  W.  W.  Westoott,  Tabula  Bembina; 
The  leiac  Tablet  of  Cardinal  Bembo,  iU  Hietory  and  Sionifi' 
cance,  Bath,  1887. 

BEHAIAH  ("  whom  Yahweh  built ") :  The  name 
of  several  Israelites.  The  most  important  of  them 
is  the  valorous  son  of  Jehoiada  of  Kabzeel,  a  city  in 
the  south  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  21).  He  is  honorably 
mentioned  (II  Sam.  xxiii,  20  ff.;  cf .  I  Ghron.  xi,  22  ff.) 
among  the  mighty  men  of  David,  to  whom  he  always 
faithfully  adhered.  Three  heroic  exploits  of  his 
are  mentioned  in  justification  of  his  rank:  he  slew 
the  two  sons  of  Ariel  (according  to  the  LXX),  either 
a  distinguished  Moabite  (so  Josephus,  Ant.,  VII,  xii, 
4)  or  the  king  of  Moab,  in  the  war  with  that  people 
(II  Sam.  viii,  2);  he  killed  a  lion  which  had  fallen 
into  a  pit  in  time  of  snow;  and,  finally,  he  overcame 
an  Egyptian  giant,  who  carried  a  spear  so  large 
that  it  seemed  like  a  tree  thrown  across  a  ravine 
(according  to  an  addition  of  the  LXX),  or  like  a 
weaver's  beam  (according  to  I  Chron.  xi,  23); 
Benaiah  disarmed  his  opponent  and  killed  him 
with  his  own  weapon.  Being  prominent  among 
David's  "  thirty  heroes,"  Benaiah  was  set  over 
the  Cherethites  and  Pelethites,  David's  body- 
guard (II  Sam.  viii,  18;  xx,  23).  In  the  beginning 
of  Solomon's  reign,  to  whom  he  became  devoted 
at  once  (I  Kings  i,  8),  Benaiah  still  held  this  office 
and  executed  the  judgment  of  the  king  upon 
Adonijah  and  Joab  (I  Kings  ii,  25,  30,  34),  and 
became  Joab's  successor  as  commander-in-chief 
(I  Kings  ii,  35).  When,  under  David,  the  army 
was  organized,  besides  his  regular  office  he  had 
command  over  one  of  the  twelve  divisions  of  24,000 
men  (I  Chron.  xxvii,  5, 6,  where  his  father,  Jehoiada, 
strange  to  say,  is  called  *'  the  priest,"  which  is  no 


doubt   a  mistaken  gloss  founded   upon  I  Chron. 
xii,  27).  C.  VON  Orelli. 

BENDER,  WILHELM  (FRIEDRICH):  German 
Protestant;  b.  at  MUnzenberg  ( 10  m.s.e. of  Giessen), 
Hesse,  Jan.  15,  1845;  d.  at  Bonn  Apr.  8,  1901.  He 
studied  at  Gdttingen  and  Giessen,  1863-^,  and 
at  the  theological  seminary  at  Friedberg,  186&-67; 
became  teacher  of  religion  and  assistant  preacher 
at  Worms,  1868;  ordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Bonn,  1876;  was  transferred  to  the  philosophical 
faculty,  1888.  He  belonged  to  the  extreme  Ritsch- 
lian  school,  and  published  Der  Wunderbegriff 
de8  Neum  TestamenU  (Frankfort,  1871);  ScUeier- 
machers  Theologie  mit  ihren  phUosophischen  Grund- 
lagen  (2  vols.,  NOrdlingen,  1876-78);  Friedrich 
Schleiermacher  und  die  Frage  nach  dem  Wesen  der 
Religion  (Bonn,  1877);  Johann  Konrad  Dippd. 
Der  Freigeist  aue  dem  Pietismus  (1882);  Refor- 
mation  und  Kirchenthum,  eine  akademische  Fest- 
rede  zur  Feier  dee  vierhundertjdhrigen  Geburts- 
tage  Martin  Luihers  (1883),  which  caused  a  great 
stir  and  many  protests  against  Bender;  Das  Wesen 
der  Religion  und  die  Grundgesetze  der  Kirchenbildung 
(1886);  Der  Kampf  urn  die  Seligkeit  (1888);  Mytho- 
logie  und  Metaphysik,  Grundlinien  einer  GeechichU 
der  Weltanschauungen  (Stuttgart,  1899). 

BENEDICITE:  The  name  given,  from  its  first 
word  in  the  Latin,  to  the  canticle  which  stands  io 
the  Anglican  Prayer-book  as  an  alternative  to 
the  Te  Deum,  commonly  used  in  Advent  and  Lent, 
and  in  the  Roman  breviary  as  a  part  of  the  priest's 
thanksgiving  after  celebrating  mass.  It  is  taken 
from  the  apocryphal  fragment  of  the  Song  of  the 
Three  Holy  Children  (verses  35-65),  which  supple- 
ments the  narrative  of  Dan.  iii,  and  seems  to  have 
been  used  in  public  worship  in  the  postexilie 
Jewish  Church,  and  in  the  Christian  at  least  from 
the  fourth  century. 

BENEDICT:  The  name  of  fourteen  popes  and 
one  antipope. 

Benedict  I:  Pope  574-578.  He  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  the  son  of  Boniface,  and  succeeded 
John  III,  who  died  July  13,  573,  but  was  unable 
to  be  consecrated  before  June  3,  574,  because  the 
Lombards  had  cut  off  communication  with  Con- 
stantinople and  the  imperial  confirmation  could 
not  be  obtained.  Owing  to  the  troubles  of  the 
barbarian  invasion  and  a  great  famine,  which 
occupied  his  mind,  the  Liber  ponHficalis  (ed.  Du- 
chesne, i,  Paris,  1886,  308)  finds  scarcely  anything 
to  say  of  his  acts.  He  died  July  30  or  31,  578, 
during  the  siege  of  Rome  by  the  first  Lombard 
Duke  of  Spoleto.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxoobaprt:  Paulus  Diaconus,  Hietoria  Lanifobardorvm, 
ii,  10.  iii,  11.  in  MOH,  Script,  rer.  Lanoob.,  pp.  12-187. 
ed.  Waits.  Hanovar.  1878;  Jaff^,  Regesta,  i,  137:  Bower. 
Popee,  i.  380-382;  F.  GrasoroviuB,  OeeehidUe  der  Sladt 
Rom,  u,  19-20,  Stuttgart,  1876.  Ens.  trand..  London. 
1805;  L.  M.  Hartmann,  OeechicKte  Italiene,  ii.  48.  165. 
Gotha,  1003. 

Benedict  II:  Pope  683-685.  He  was  elected 
after  the  death  of  Leo  II,  which  took  place  on  July 
3,  683,  though  the  imperial  confirmation  was  de- 
layed for  almost  a  year.   The  Liber  pontificalis  (ed. 


89 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benalfth 
Benedict 


Ducheflne,  i,  Paris,  1S86,  363)  asserts  that  the  em- 
l>eror  Constantine  Pogonatus  conceded  the  right 
to  piYHseed  at  once  to  consecration  for  the  future; 
but  this  is  very  doubtful,  as  it  would  amount  to 
a  total  renunciation  of  the  right  of  confirmation, 
and  it  is  certain  that  several  successors  of  Benedict 
waited  to  obtain  it  either  from  the  emperor  himself 
or  his  representative,  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna. 
During  the  interval  intervening  before  his  conse- 
cration, Benedict  signed  himself  with  the  desig- 
nation presbffter  et  in  Dei  nomine  electus  sanctte 
sedis  apoHdica.  Like  his  predecessor,  he  had  at 
heart  the  complete  recognition  by  the  Western 
Church  of  the  sixth  ecumenical  council  (Third  Con- 
stantinople, 680).  With  this  end  in  view,  Leo  II 
had  sent  the  notary  Peter  to  Spain,  and  imme- 
diately after  his  election  Benedict  wrote  to  Peter 
to  carry  out  his  commission.  His  wish  was  grati- 
fied by  the  condemnation  of  monothelitism  in  the 
fourteenth  Council  of  Toledo  (Nov.,  684).  Even 
before  his  consecration,  which  finally  took  place 
June  26,  684,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Wilfrid  of 
Yoric  (q.v.)  and  wrote  in  recognition  of  his  innocence 
and  his  rights.     Benedict  died  May  8,  685. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Vita  ia  in  ASB,  7th  May,  ii.  197-198. 
Consalt  Vita  WUfridi,  chap,  xlii  aqq.,  in  T.  Gale,  His- 
ior%<B  Ant^ioante  Bcripioret  quinque,  i,  74  eqq.,  Oxford, 
1691;  Mann.  Popec,  vol.  i.  part  2,  pp.  54-^,  Lond.,  1902; 
JuS4,  Hegeaia,  i,  241;  J.  Langen,  Oetchichte  der  riHniachen 
Kirdtevan  Leo  I  hi*  Nikolaua  l,  p.  579,  Bonn.  1885;  Hefele. 
Coneilienoesehichte,  iii.  322,  Ens.  transl.,  v.  215;  Bower. 
Pape&.  i.  487-489;  L.  M.  Hartmann.  Geachichte  Italiena,  ii. 
262-263.  Gotha.  1903. 

Benedict  m:  Pope  855-858.  He  was  chosen 
immediately  after  the  death  of  Leo  IV  by  the  clergy 
and  people  of  Rome,  but  owing  to  the  setting  up 
of  an  antipope,  Anastasius,  by  the  emperor  Lothair 
and  his  son  Louis  II,  was  not  consecrated  for  more 
than  two  months  (Sept.  29).  Soon  afterward  the 
Saxon  king,  Ethelwulf,  and  his  son  Alfred,  visited 
Rome  and  made  liberal  gifts  to  the  Church.  In 
his  relations  with  secular  powers  and  important 
prelates,  Benedict  displayed  the  same  unbending 
principle  which  was  carried  out  by  his  famous 
successor  Nicholas  I  (q.v.),  already  a  person  of  much 
influence.  He  con  finned  the  powerful  Hincmar, 
archbishop  of  Reims,  in  his  primacy,  only  on 
condition  that  the  rights  of  the  apostolic  see  should 
be  safeguarded.  In  England  he  protested  against 
the  deposition  of  bishops  by  tyrannous  lay  nobles. 
The  strug^e  with  the  Eastern  Church  in  which 
Nicholas  was  involved  had  its  origin  in  Benedict's 
pontificate,  arising  out  of  the  case  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Syracuse,  who  was  deposed  by  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  Ignatius  (q.v.),  and  ap- 
pealed to  Leo  IV  and  after  his  death  to  Benedict. 
Before  Ignatius  was  expelled  by  a  faction  and  re- 
placed by  the  famous  Photius,  Benedict  died 
C^r.  7,  858).  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLTOOKArgT:  Liber  pontiflealit,  ed.  Duoheene,  ii,  140. 
Fans.  1892;  Epielola  Nicoiai  /,  in  Maniri,  Concilia,  vol.  xv; 
Jair^  Regeeta,  i.  339-340;  J.  HergenrOther,  PhoHue,  i. 
358  K|q..  Receoibiizs,  1867;  R.  Baxmann,  Die  Politik 
der  PApeie  von  Gregor  1  bu  aul  Oregor  VII,  i.  355  sqq., 
Bberfeia,  1868;  J.  Langen.  Oetefctc^te  <2er  rOmiechen  Kirehe 
von  Leo  I  bU  Nikolaue  /,  p.  884.  Bonn.  1885;  Hefele.  Con- 
ciHtngewehiehie,  iv.  201;  Bower,  Popee,  ii.  227-229. 


Benedict  IV:  Pope  900-903.  Owing  to  the 
scantiness  of  the  sources  for  the  history  of  the  papacy 
at  this  period,  the  chronology  is  very  uncertain; 
the  exact  date  of  Benedict's  elevation  can  not  be 
determined,  though  it  is  probably  May,  not  later 
than  June,  900.  Like  his  predecessor,  John  IX,  he 
recognized  Formosus  (q.v.),  by  whom  he  was  himself 
ordained  priest,  as  a  lawful  pope  at  a  Roman 
synod  in  August.  When  Louis  of  Burgundy 
(Louis  III)  made  his  victorious  descent  into  Italy 
and  wrested  it  from  Berengar,  Benedict  crowned 
him  as  emperor  in  Feb.,  901.  He  died  in  July  or 
Aug.,  903.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoosapht:  Liber  pontificalie,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  283, 
Paris,  1802;  JafT^.  Regeaia,  i.  443;  Hefele.  ConcUienge- 
aehicKte,  iv,  570-571;  Bower,  Popee,  ii,  304-305. 

Benedict  V  (called  Grammaticus):  Pope  964. 
At  the  end  of  963,  the  emperor  Otto  I  deposed  the 
dissolute  John  XII  in  a  synod  at  Rome  and  caused 
a  prominent  Roman  layman  to  be  put  in  his  place 
as  Leo  VIII,  taking  an  oath  of  the  people  that  they 
would  thenceforth  choose  no  pope  without  his 
consent  and  that  of  his  son.  He  had  scarcely  left 
the  city  when  John  XII  returned  and  drove  out 
and  anathematized  Leo.  The  emperor  came 
back  to  chastise  this  rebellion,  but  before  he  arrived 
John  XII  died  (May  14,  964).  A  deputation  met 
Otto  and  begged  him  not  to  replace  Leo,  but  to 
permit  a  new  election.  In  spite  of  his  refusal, 
the  Romans  chose  the  cardinal  deacon  Benedict, 
a  man  of  blameless  life  and  great  learning  who  had 
been  one  of  the  opponents  of  John's  unworthy  rule. 
He  had  pledged  fidelity  both  to  Otto  and  to  Leo, 
but  the  fear  of  imperial  domination  of  the  Church 
had  brought  him  to  support  Jolm  on  the  latter's 
return.  The  people  were  firm  in  their  intention 
to  defend  Benedict  against  the  emperor;  but  the 
pressure  of  famine  forced  them  to  give  him  up 
(June  23,  964).  He  was  brought  to  trial  before  a 
synod.  After  asking  the  pardon  of  Otto  and  of  Leo, 
and  surrendering  the  insignia  of  his  office  to  the 
latter,  he  was  deprived  of  his  episcopal  and  priestly 
functions,  though  allowed  to  retain  those  of  deacon. 
To  avoid  any  possibility  of  his  changing  his  mind, 
he  was  sent  to  Germany,  where  he  remained  prac- 
tically a  prisoner,  in  the  charge  of  the  archbishop 
of  Hamburg,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  not 
earlier  than  July  4,  966,  (A,  Hauck.) 

BiBUoasAPHT:  Liber  ponHfiealia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  151, 
Pans.  1892;  Jaff^.  Regeata,  i.  460;  J.  M.  Watterich. 
Romanorum  pontificum  .  .  .  vita,  i.  45.  Leipsic,  1862; 
A.  Ton  Reumont,  GeechichU  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii,  280.  Berlin. 
1868;  W.  von  Giesebrecht.  Geachichte  der  deutachen 
Kaieerzeil,  i,  468,  Brunswick.  1873;  F.  Gregorovius,  Go- 
ackietUe  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii.  364.  Stuttgart.  1876;  Bower, 
Popee,  ii.  320-321;  Hefele,  ConcUiengMchichU,  iv,  610. 
626;  Hauck,  KD,  iii.  235-238. 

Benedict  VI:  Pope  972-974,  He  was  elected 
immediately  after  the  death  of  John  XIII  (Sept. 
6,  972),  but  was  not  consecrated  until  the  19th  of 
the  following  January,  apparently  waiting  for  the 
emperor  Otto's  confirmation.  After  the  death  of 
Otto  I,  the  affairs  of  the  empire  fell  into  disorder. 
Crescentius,  the  son  of  Theodora,  conspired  with 
the  deacon  Boniface  to  overthrow  Benedict,  who 


Btttedlot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


40 


was  imprisoned  and,  after  Boniface  had  assumed 
the  pap«l  authority,  was  strangled  in  July,  974. 

(A,  Hauck.) 

Bxbxjogbapht:  Liber  ponlificalU,  cd.  Duchesne,  ii,  255, 
Patu,  1892;  Jaff^  Regetta,  i.  477;  J.  M.  Watterich.  Pon^ 
fi/lcum  Romanorum  .  .  .  vtlcB,  i,  65-66,  Leipsic,  1862; 
Neander,  CkriMtian  Church,  iii,  330-331  (reference  to 
a  letter  of  Benedict,  given  Mansi,  Concilia,  xix,  53); 
Hefele,  Coneilienoetchiehte,  iv,  632;  Bower,  Pope9,  ii,  324. 

Benedict  VII:  Pope  974-983.  He  was  a  Roman 
by  birth,  said  to  have  been  a  kinsman  of  the  xx)werf ul 
Roman  prince  and  senator  Alberic.  He  was  bishop 
of  Sutri  when,  on  the  flight  of  Boniface  VII,  he 
was  called  to  the  papal  throne,  and  confirmed  by 
the  emperor  Otto  II.  As  far  as  we  know,  his  first 
act  was  to  condemn  Boniface  in  a  synod  at  Rome. 
He  displayed  a  great  desire  to  maintain  friendly 
relations  with  the  German  prelates;  Archbishop 
Willigis  of  Mainz  was  appointed  papal  legate  for 
Germany  and  Gaiil,  with  the  right  of  crowning  the 
German  kings.  Benedict  showed  his  subservi- 
ency to  the  emperor  by  agreeing  to  the  suppression 
of  the  bishopric  of  Merseburg  in  a  synod  at  Rome 
(Sept.  10,  981),  without  regard  to  the  arguments 
brought  against  such  a  proceeding.  He  was  a  de- 
voted friend  of  monasticism,  as  is  shown  not  only 
by  the  numerous  privileges  bestowed  upon  monas- 
teries, but  by  the  restoration  of  that  of  Saints  Boni- 
face and  Alexius  on  the  Aventine  and  the  building 
of  the  monastic  church  of  Subiaco.  He  supported 
the  reforming  movement,  condemning  simony  at 
a  synod  in  March,  981.  That  he  upheld  the  claim 
of  the  papacy  to  universal  jurisdiction  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  fact  that  he  sought  to  establish  re- 
lations with  pl&oes  as  distant  as  Carthage  and  Da- 
mascus, giving  an  archbishop  once  more  to  the 
North  African  Church,  and  appointing  the  metro- 
politan of  Damascus,  who  had  been  driven  out  by 
the  Arabs,  abbot  of  St.  Boniface.  He  died  in  Oct., 
983.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxoobapbt:  Liber  ponHfiealia,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii,  258, 
Paris,  1892;  Jaff^,  Regeata,  i,  479;  J.  M.  Watterich. 
Romanorum  porUifieum  .  .  .  vita,  i,  66,  686,  Leipsic, 
1862;  A.  von  Reumont,  OeechicKte  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii,  294, 
Berlin,  1868;  F.  Gregoroviua.  Geechiehte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii, 
372,  Stuttgart,  1876;  Bower,  Popec,  ii.  325;  Hefele,  Con- 
dUengeeehichte,  iv,  633;  Hauck,  KD,  iii.  passim. 

Benedict  Vin  (Theophylact) :  Pope  1012-24. 
He  was  the  son  of  Count  Gregory  of  Tusculum, 
chosen  by  his  brothers'  influence,  after  they  had 
defeated,  by  force  of  arms,  the  Crescentian  party, 
who  set  up  another  Gregory  as  antipope  (see 
Greoort  VI,  antipope).  Benedict  was  conse- 
crated Apr.  20,  1012,  and  Gregory  fled  to  the 
court  of  Henry  II,  who,  however,  recognized 
Benedict,  and  was'  rewarded  by  a  promise  of 
coronation  in  St.  Peter's.  He  descended  into  Italy 
toward  the  end  of  1013,  and  was  crowned,  with  his 
wife  Cunigunde,  in  the  following  February.  Soon  aft- 
erward a  synod  was  held  in  his  presence,  at  which, 
it  is  said  at  his  suggestion,  the  Constantinopolitan 
Creed  was  made  a  part  of  the  Roman  liturgy;  after 
this  he  left  Pope  Benedict  to  contend  with  his  nu- 
merous enemies — the  Crescentian  faction,  the  Arabs, 
and  the  Greeks.  The  first  he  suppressed;  the 
Mohammedan  invaders,  who  threatened  Italy  from 


Sardinia,  were  defeated  and  driven  out  of  the  island 
in  June,  1016,  by  the  aid  of  the  Pisans  and  Genoese; 
he  supported  those  who  were  attempting  to  free 
southern  Italy  from  the  Byzantine  rule,  and  gained 
them  the  help  of  a  body  of  Norman  knights,  who 
conquered  the  Greeks,  though  only  temporarily.  He 
accepted  Henry's  invitation  to  meet  him  in  1020  at 
Bamberg,  where  the  emperor  renewed  the  "  Otto 
nian  privilege  "  to  the  Church,  and  gave  up  Ba-n- 
berg  to  ecclesiastical  rule.  In  the  following  year 
Henry  crossed  the  Alps  for  the  third  time;  Bene- 
dict met  him  at  Benevento  in  1022,  and  was  pres- 
ent when  he  conquered  the  Greek  fortress  of  Troja 
and  broke  the  power  of  Pandulf  IV  of  Capua,  an 
ally  of  the  Byzantines.  These  successes,  again 
temporary,  are  less  important  than  the  synod  heM 
by  the  pope  and  emperor  jointly  at  Pavia  Aug.  1, 
1022.  Here  Henry's  reforming  plans  were  ex- 
tended to  Italy.  After  a  strong  exhortation  from 
the  pope,  the  synod  renewed  the  condenmation  of 
clerical  marriage  and  took  measures  to  prevent  the 
alienation  of  church  property.  Henry  wished  to 
carry  his  reforms  into  France  also,»  and  with  this 
purpose  met  King  Robert  at  Ivois  in  Aug.,  1023. 
Another  synod  at  Pavia  was  projected,  but  before 
it  could  be  held  both  Benedict  and  Henry  had  died, 
the  former  Apr.  9,  1024.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bzbliooiu.pbt:  Liber  ponHficaliM,  ed.  Duoheane,  ii,  268, 
Paris.  1892;  Jaff^,  Regeeta,  i.  506;  J.  M.  Watterich. 
Romanorum  ponHficum  .  .  .  vito,  i,  69,  700,  Leipsic. 
1862;  A.  von  Reumont,  OeeehidUe  der  Stadt  Rom,  ii. 
329,  Berlin,  1868;  W.  von  Gieaebrecht,  Geadtiehte  der 
deutuKen  Kaiaeraeit^  ii,  122  sqq.,  Brunswiclc.  1S75; 
P.  F.  Sadee,  Die  Stelluno  Heinridia  il  ntr  Kirche,  Jena. 
1877;  Hefele,  CancUienifeachichte,  iv,  670;  Bower,  Pope*, 
ii,  835-837;  Hartmann.  in  Mittheilungen  dee  inaUhUe  far 
Merreiehieehe  GeechidUe,  xv  (1894).  482  sqq.;  Hauck. 
KD,  iii.  518  eqq.;  P.  G.  Wappler,  Papet  Benedikt  VIII, 
Leipaic.  1897. 

Benedict  IX  (Theophylact):  Pope  1033-48.  He 
was  the  son  of  Count  Alberic  of  Tusculum,  and 
nephew  of  Benedict  VIII  and  John  XIX,  the  latter 
of  whom  he  succeeded  by  his  father's  intrigues  and 
violence,  though  he  was  only  ten  years  old.  His 
life  was  incredibly  scandalous,  and  the  strife  of  fac- 
tions continued.  A  murderous  assault  upon  him 
and  his  expulsion  from  Rome  followed  (the  date 
can  not  be  determined).  He  owed  his  restoration 
to  the  emperor  Conrad  II,  who  came  into  Italy  in 
the  winter  of  1036.  Benedict  met  him  obsequi- 
ously at  Cremona  in  the  following  Jime,  taking  no 
notice  of  the  fact  that  he  had  broken  the  Church's 
laws  by  imprisoning  Aribert,  archbishop  of  Milan, 
and  expelling  the  bishops  of  Piaoenza,  Cremona, 
and  Vercelli  from  their  sees;  in  fact,  in  Mar.,  1038, 
he  went  so  far  as  to  excommimicate  Aribert.  By 
similar  complaisances  he  won  the  favor  of  Conrad's 
successor,  Henry  III,  for  whom,  in  1041,  he  obli- 
gingly exconununicated  the  Hungarian  nobles,  who 
had  (Mven  out  their  king,  Peter.  The  Romans  bore 
with  these  conditions  until  the  end  of  1044,  when 
they  rose  and  drove  Benedict  out,  afterward  elect- 
ing John,  bishop  of  Sabina,  in  his  stead,  under  the 
tide  of  Sylvester  III.  Benedict  succeeded  in  send- 
ing John  back  to  Sabina  inside  of  two  months;  but, 
doubting  his  own  ability  to  maintain  his  position, 
he  decided  to  abdicate,  adding  one  more  shameless 


41 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


act  of  simony  by  selling  the  papacy  (May  1, 1045)  to 
the  archpriest  John  Gratian  (who  called  himself  Greg- 
ory VI,  q.  v.)  for  the  sum  of  a  thousand  pounds  of  sil- 
ver and  the  continued  enjoyment  of  the  Peter's  pence 
from  En^and.  Henry  III  came  to  Italy  in  the 
autumn  of  1046,  and  decided  to  remove  Gregory. 
He  convened  a  synod  at  Sutri,  which  deposed  Syl- 
vester even  from  the  priesthood  and  induced  Greg- 
ory to  resign  his  claims  (Dec.  20,  1046);  a  few  days 
later,  another  synod  in  Rome  deposed  Benedict 
also,  and  Suidger  of  Bamberg  succeeded  to  an  un- 
disputed papacy  as  Clement  II.  When  he  died, 
however,  nine  months  later,  Benedict  made  an  at- 
tempt to  recover  his  see.  He  was  soon  put  down 
by  the  imperial  authority,  and  retired  to  Tusculum. 
When  and  where  he  died  is  not  known. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BiBXjoGmArar:  Jaffd,  RegeHa,  i,  519;  J.  M.  Watterich, 
Romanantm  ponHfieum  .  .  .  vi<<s,  i,  71,  711,  Leipsie, 
1862;  A.  von  Reumont,  Oetchidtte  der  Stadt  Rom^  ii, 
338,  Berlin,  1868;  O.  Lorens,  Papatwihl  und  KaUertum, 
p.  69,  Berlin,  1874;  F.  Gregoroyius,  GeMchichte  der  Stadt 
Rom,  iv,  39,  Stuttgart,  1877;  Bower.  Popet,  ii.  340-343; 
Neander.  Ckriatian  Chwreh,  iii,  375-377,  409,  445,  448; 
Hefele.  ConeUimge^chichte,  iv,  70&-707,  714;  Hauck,  KD, 
iii.  559.  509-571. 

Benedict  X  (Johannes  Mincius):  Pope  1058-59. 
He  was  bishop  of  Velletri  before,  unwillingly,  he 
was  elected  and  enthroned  in  the  night  between 
Apr.  3  and  4,  1058,  by  the  noble  factions  which  had 
6o  long  dominated  the  papacy  and  were  soon  to 
lose  their  power.  Peter  Damian  and  the  other 
rcfonning  cardinals  fled;  but  before  they  left  Rome 
they  proQoimced  an  anathema  upon  the  new  pope. 
Meantime  Hildebrand  was  on  his  way  back  from 
Germany.  At  Florence  he  heard  the  news,  and 
after  conferring  with  the  empress  Agnes,  regent 
for  her  son  Henry  IV,  arranged  for  the  election  of 
a  pope  acceptable  to  the  strict  churchmen.  At 
Sienna  in  December  Gerard,  bishop  of  Florence,  was 
chosen  and  took  the  title  of  Nicholas  II.  In  Jan- 
uary he  held  a  synod  at  Sutri  which  pronoimced 
the  deposition  and  excommunication  of  Benedict 
X.  The  latter  was  driven  from  Rome  by  the 
forces  set  in  motion  by  Hildebrand,  and  finally 
found  it  expedient  to  abdicate,  which  he  did  for- 
mally at  a  synod  in  the  Lateran,  Apr.,  1060.  He 
is  said  to  have  lived  twenty  years  longer  as  a 
prisoner  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Agnes.  Gregory 
VII,  in  whose  reign  he  died,  permitted  him  to  be 
buried  with  the  obsequies  of  a  rightful  pope,  as 
which,  indeed,  he  was  reckoned  imtil  the  fourteenth 
century.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBUocaAPfrr:  Liber  pontificalU,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii,  279, 
Parim  1802;  Jaff^,  Regetta,  i,  556;  J.  M.  Watterich.  Ro- 
wianonun  ponHfieum  .  .  .  vita,  i,  203,  738,  Leipsic,  1862; 
W.  Ton  Gieaebrecht,  Geschiehte  der  deuUehen  Kaiaer- 
ml.  iii.  24.  Brunswick,  1875;  F.  OreKorovius,  Oeachiehte 
der  Sladi  Rom,  iv,  107,  Stuttgart.  1877;  J.  Langen,  Oe- 
•ehidUe  der  r&miaehen  Kirehe  von  Nikolaue  I  hie  Oregor 
VII,  p.  500.  Bonn.  1892;  Bower,  Popea,  ii,  340-343; 
Neaoder.  ChrieUan  Church,  iii,  387;  Hefele,  Coneilienf/e- 
•dtiekte,  ir.  798,  828;  Hauck,  KD,  iii,  679-681. 

Benedict  XI  (Niccolo  Bocasini):  Pope  1303- 
1301.  He  was  bom  in  1240  at  Treviso,  entered  the 
I)ominican  order  in  1254,  and  spent  fo\u1;een  years 
in  diligent  study,  which  enabled  him  to  write  several 
Biblical  oNnmentaries.    He  became  prior  of   his 


house,  provincial  of  Lombardy,  and  in  1296  general 
of  the  order.  Boniface  VIII  made  him  a  cardinal 
priest  in  1298,  and  soon  after  cardinal  bishop  of 
Ostia  and  Velletri.  In  1302  he  went  to  Hungary 
as  papal  legate.  He  remained  true  to  Boniface 
VIII,  and  on  his  death  was  elected  (Oct.  22,  1303) 
to  succeed  him.  He  found  himself  at  once  in  dif- 
ficulties as  the  heir  to  the  policy  and  the  enemies 
of  Boniface  (see  Boniface  VIII),  but  by  a  concilia^ 
tory  prudence  he  found  his  way  out  of  them.  First 
he  won  back  the  powerful  Colonna  family,  restor- 
ing to  them  their  dignities  and  possessions  tmder 
certain  limitations  which  marked  his  sense  of  their 
misconduct.  Frederick  of  Sicily  was  brought  to  a 
sense  of  his  feudal  obligations  toward  the  papacy, 
which  he  had  thought  to  escape.  To  Tuscany, 
Benedict  sent  Nicholas  of  Prato,  his  successor  as 
cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia,  to  make  peace  between 
the  Bianchi  and  Neri  factions  in  Florence.  This 
mission  was  not  very  successful,  but  Benedict  had 
better  fortune  with  the  most  difficult  task  left  to  him 
by  his  predecessor,  the  effecting  of  a  reconciliation 
with  France.  Philip  the  Fair  was  ready  for  peace, 
but  apparently  made  the  condition  that  a  general 
council  should  be  called  to  pass  a  post-mortem  con- 
demnation on  Boniface.  Benedict  met  him  half  way, 
and  on  Mar.  25, 1304,  released  him  from  his  excom- 
munication; then  he  annulled  a  number  of  other 
measures  of  his  predecessor  which  had  been  specially 
felt  as  grievances  in  France,  and  on  May  13  withdrew 
the  sentences  passed  against  Philip  and  his  counsel- 
ors, even  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  outrage 
of  Anagni,  with  the  exception  of  the  ringleader 
William  of  Nogaret.  He,  together  with  all  the  Ital- 
ians who  had  taken  part  in  the  violence  offered  to 
Boniface,  was  excommunicated  on  June  7,  and 
summoned  to  appear  before  Benedict  to  receive 
sentence.  A  few  weeks  later,  however  (July  7), 
Benedict  died  in  Perugia,  whither  he  had  retired 
on  account  of  turbulence  in  Rome.  The  rumor 
immediately  spread  that  he  had  been  poisoned,  at 
the  instigation,  it  was  variously  asserted,  of  Philip 
the  Fair,  of  the  Colonna,  of  the  Franciscans  (who 
were  jealous  of  the  favor  shown  to  the  Dominicans), 
of  the  opposition  cardinals,  or  of  William  of  No- 
garet, who  had  most  to  gain  by  a  change,  and  who, 
in  fact,  received  his  absolution  from  Benedict's 
successor.  ^      (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Ptolenueus  of  Lucca,  Vitce  ponHfieum 
Romanorum^  in  Mtutitori,  8criptore»,  xi,  1224;  B.  Gui- 
donis.  Vita  ponHfieum  Romanorum,  ib.  iii.  672;  W. 
Drumann,  OeaehiehU  Bonifaeiua  VIII,  ii,  147,  Kdnigsberg. 
1862;  L.  Gautier,  Benott  XI,  itude  eur  la  papauU  au  com- 
mencement du  xiv.  eiMe,  Paris,  1863;  G.  Grandjean,  Benoit 
XI,  Parin,  1863;  idem.  Le  Regiatre  de  Benott  XI,  recueil  de 
huUee,  Paris,  1884-85;  P.  Funke,  Papat  Benedikt  XI, 
MOnster,  1801;  Bower,  Popea,  iii,  56-58;  Neander,  ChriaHan 
Church,  V,  10;  Hefele,  ConciliengeachichU,  vi,  375-300. 

Benedict  XH  (Jacques  Foumier):  Pope  1334- 
1342.  He  was  a  native  of  Languedoc,  of  humble 
orig^,  and  as  a  boy  entered  the  Oistercian  monas- 
tery of  Bolbonne  in  the  diocese  of  Mirepoix,  mi- 
grating later  to  that  of  Fontfroide  in  the  diocese  of 
Narbonne,  of  which  his  uncle  was  abbot.  The 
latter  sent  him  to  the  University  of  Paris.  Pope 
John  XXII  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Pamiers  and 
later  of  Mirepoix,  and  made  him  cardinal  in  1327. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


48 


He  was  rather  unexpectedly  elected  pope  Dec.  20, 
1334,  and  began  hia  reign  with  reforming  meas- 
ures. The  bishops  and  abbots  who  lingered  at  the 
eourt  of  Avignon  were  sent  home,  the  system  of 
petitions  was  regulated,  and  care  was  taken  to  se- 
lect worthy  men  for  vacant  benefices.  Benedict 
planned  to  restore  the  strict  discipline  of  the  Bene- 
dictines and  Cistercians,  as  well  as  of  the  men- 
dicant orders,  and  entirely  avoided  the  reproach 
of  nepotism.  Soon  after  his  elevation,  the  Romans 
begged  him  to  return  to  them,  and  he  promised  to 
do  so,  but  was  prevented  by  the  French  majority 
in  the  Sacred  College.  Later  he  thought  of  re- 
moving to  Bologna,  but  finally  settled  down  in 
Avignon  and  began  the  building  of  a  magnificent 
palace.  His  attitude  toward  theological  and  eccle- 
siastical controversies  was  a  pacific  one.  He  con- 
demned the  opinion  so  strongly  held  by  his  prede- 
cessor, that  the  souls  of  the  just  do  not  enjoy  the 
Beatific  Vision  until  after  the  last  judgment.  Ne- 
gotiations took  place  with  the  Eastern  Church 
looking  toward  reimion;  in  1339  the  emperor  An- 
dronicus  sent  ambassadors  to  Avignon,  really  with 
a  view  to  gaining  military  aid  against  the  Turks, 
but  holding  out  prospects  of  ecclesiastical  accom- 
modation, which,  however,  came  to  little.  He  won 
a  moral  triumph  in  Spain  by  inducing  Alfonso  XI 
of  Castile  to  break  off  his  adulterous  connection 
with  Eleonora  de  Gusman,  and  rendered  no  slight 
service  to  the  Christian  cause  in  the  peninsula  by 
making  peace  between  Castile  and  Portugal,  and 
thus  enabling  the  Christian  forces  to  unite  against 
the  Mussulmans  and  to  defeat  them  completely  at 
Tarifa.  The  most  difficult  problem  was  the  treat- 
ment of  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Benedict  showed  him« 
self  conciliatory,  and  Louis  sent  an  embassy  to 
Avignon  (1335);  but  Philip  VI,  against  whose  in- 
terests this  reconciliation  would  have  been,  pre- 
vented it  then,  and  a  second  time  in  the  autumn 
of  the  following  year.  This  gave  the  alliance  of 
Louis  to  Ekiward  III  of  England  against  France. 
The  electoral  princes  finally  asserted  their  rights;  on 
July  15, 1338,  they  swore  to  defend  the  customs  and 
liberties  of  the  empire  and  to  prevent  any  infringe- 
ment of  their  electoral  prerogative;  the  next  day 
they  declared  that  the  king  of  the  Romans  chosen 
by  them  stood  in  no  need  of  papal  confirmation, 
and  notified  Benedict  of  their  attitude.  At  the 
diet  held  in  Frankfort  (Aug.  6,  1338),  Louis  went 
even  further,  denying  any  connection  between  the 
coronation  by  the  pope  and  the  right  to  bear  the 
title  of  emperor,  at  the  same  time  asserting  the  in- 
validity of  all  the  censures  pronounced  against  him- 
self and  the  empire  by  John  XXII.  None  the  less, 
in  the  following  year  he  reopened  negotiations  with 
Benedict;  and  when  he  had  an  opportunity  of  con- 
cluding peace  with  Philip  VI,  he  deserted  his  Eng- 
lish ally,  hoping  to  gain  Philip's  support  with  the 
pope.  He  spoiled  his  own  case,  however,  by  his 
encroachments  on  the  Church's  law  of  marriage 
and  its  power  in  such  matters.  In  order  to  marry 
his  son,  Louis,  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  to  Mar- 
garet, heiress  of  the  Tyrol,  he  declared  her  previ- 
ous marriage  with  Prince  John  of  Bohemia  null  and 
void  (following  an  opinion  of  Occam's),  and  on  Feb. 
10,  1342,  in  spite  of  the  impediment  of  oonsan- 


guinity  in  the  third  degree  between  the  couple,  had 
the  marriage  performed.  Benedict  had  no  oppor- 
tunity to  pass  judgment  upon  these  acts,  as  he  died 
on  Apr.  25  of  the  same  year.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BDnjooKAPHT:  lAber  poiUifiealit,  ed.  Duchesne,  ii,  486,  527. 
PariB,  1802;  eight  accounts  of  his  life  are  collected  in  t.. 
Baluse.  Vita  paparum  Avenonenaium,  i,  107-244,  Paris, 
1003;  Muratori,  Scripton;  iii,  527  aqq.;  J.  M.  Wattericfa. 
Hiomanorum  ixm^^unim  mto,  i,  203-204,  Leipsic,  1862: 
A.  Pichler,  (TescAidUe  der  kirchlichen  Trtnnung  iirucftm 
dem  Orient  und  Occident,  i,  358.  Munich.  1864;  C.  Muller. 
Der  Kampf  Lvdwiga  .  .  .  mit  der  rdmiscAen  Cttrie,  vol.  ii. 
Ttlbinsen,  1880;  A.  Rohrmann.  Die  Proewratorien  Lud- 
trige  dee  Baiem,  Gdttingen.  1882;  Bower.  Popes,  iii,  88- 
02;  Pastor.  Popee,  i,  84-86;  Benoit  Xll,  Lettree  dotet, 
patentee  et  eurialee  ee  rapportant  d  la  France,  ed.  G.  Daa- 
met,  Paris.  1800;  Hefele.  CancUiengeediidUe,  vi.  636-663. 

Benedict  XHI:  1.  The  title  was  first  borne  by 
Pedro  de  Luna  from  1394  to  1417,  in  the  Great 
Western  Schism.  He  came  of  a  noble  family  in 
Aragon,  studied  in  France,  taught  canon  law  at  the 
University  of  Montpellier,  and  was  made  cardinal  by 
Gregory  XI.  When  the  schism  broke  out  between 
the  partisans  of  Urban  VI  and  Clement  VII,  he  took 
the  latter^s  side,  and  went  to  Spain  and  Portugal  as 
Clement's  representative  in  1379.  In 
Sides  with   1393,  again,  he  appeared  at  a  meeting 

Clement     of  English  and  French  dignitaries,  in 

Vn  in  the  the  hope  of  winning  England  away 
Great       from  the  party  of  Boniface  IX,  the 

Schism,  pope  elected  in  Rome  to  succeed  Ur- 
ban VI.  When  the  University  of  Paris 
in  1394  suggested  three  ways  to  end  the  schism— 
the  resignation  of  both  claimants,  the  submission  of 
both  to  the  decision  of  a  tribunal  agreed  upon  be- 
tween them,  or  the  calling  of  a  general  council- 
Clement  sent  him  to  Paris  to  prevent  the  choice  of 
the  first;  but  in  fact  he  declared  in  favor  of  it,  pos- 
sibly with  an  eye  to  his  own  chances.  Clement  died 
the  same  autumn,  and  the  cardinals  of  his  party 
nearly  all  agreed  that  whichever  of  them  might  be 
chosen  pope  should  do  all  in  his  power  to  end  the 
schism^  even  by  abdicating  if  necessary;  and  no 
voice  was  louder  in  this  agreement  than  Pedro  de 
Luna's.  He  was  unanimously  chosen  on  Sept.  28, 
consecrated  and  crowned  Oct.  11.  He  reiterated 
his  willingness  to  do  anything  for  peace;  but  when 
the  next  year  an  embassy  representing  the  king  of 
France,  a  national  synod,  and  the  University  of 
Paris  approached  him  to  urge  the  abdication  of 
both  popes,  he  declined,  recommending  rather  a 
personal  meeting  of  both  to  discuss  the  question. 
To  this  he  adhered  in  spite  of  the  opposite 
view  of  all  his  cardinals  but  one  and  of  the 
personal  entreaties  of  the  dtikes  of  Berry,  Bur- 
gundy, and  Orleans.  Charles  VI  held  a  second 
national  council  at  Paris  (end  of  Aug.,  1396),  and 
tried  to  gain  the  support  of  the  European  sovereigns 
for  his  plan.  In  June,  1397,  the  ambassadors  of 
France,  England,  and  Castile  pressed  the  necessity 
of  abdication  upon  Benedict,  who  declined  for 
himself  while  reconmiending  it  to  Boniface  IX. 
No  more  success  attended  a  joint  embassy  (1398) 
from  Charles  and  Wenceslaus,  king  of  the  Romans, 
headed  by  Pierre  d'Ailly,  bishop  of  Cambrai. 

Charles  held  a  third  council  in  May,  1398,  which 
decided  that  France  should  withdraw  from  Bene- 
dict's obedience.    When  this  decision  received  the 


48 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


royal  assent  and  was  promulgated  (July  27),  all  the 
cardinals  but  three  forsook  Benedict,  and  open 
warfare  broke  out.  Benedict,  practically  a  prisoner 
in  his  palace,  yielded  so  far  (Apr.,  1399)  as  to  sign 
a  solemn  undertaking  to  abdicate  whenever  his 
rival  would  do  the  same  or  should  die  or  be  expelled 
from  Rome;  but  he  secretly  protested  that  his 
promise  was  null  and  void,  as  having  been  given 
under  compulsion.  France  was  now  practically 
without  a  pope;  and  the  longer  this  anomalous 
condition  continued,  the  more  imeasi- 

Coorse  of   ness  it  caused.    Leading  churchmen, 

ETentstn  such  as  Gerson  and  Nicholas  de  C14- 
France,  manges,  began  to  write  in  favor  of  a 
return  to  Benedict  XIII.  Finally 
Charies  called  a  meeting  of  bishops  and  nobles 
(May,  1403),  to  reconsider  the  question.  Before 
they  met  Benedict  had  contrived  to  escape  from 
Avignon,  and  the  city  had  declared  for  him,  once 
be  was  free.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that 
the  assembled  magnates  dedared  for  a  restoration 
of  France  to  his  obedience,  though  on  condition  that 
he  should  renew  his  promise  in  regard  to  abdication, 
and  undertake  to  submit  the  question  how  to  end 
the  schism  to  a  general  council  within  a  year. 
This  left  things  much  as  they  had  been  in  1394  and 
1395.  Boniface  IX  died  soon  after  (Oct.  1,  1404); 
but  his  successor,  Innocent  VII,  showed  just  as 
little  inclination  to  abandon  his  claims.  Benedict, 
still  attached  to  his  own  plan  of  a  personal  confer- 
ence, undertook  a  journey  to  Genoa,  without  any 
result  except  to  produce  fresh  irritation  in  France, 
whose  clergy  were  taxed  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the 
experiment.  Another  national  oouncU  (1406)  de- 
dared  in  favor  of  withdrawing  his  right  to  present 
the  bishoprics  and  benefices;  but  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans stood  out  for  complete  obedience  and  hin- 
dered the  execution  of  this  decision.  New  hopes 
were  aroused,  on  the  death  of  Innocent  VII,  by 
the  choice  (Nov.  30,  1406)  of  Gregory  XII,  who  at 
once  dedared  himself  willing  to  take  any  measures, 
even  that  of  abdication,  to  end  the  schism.  A  meet- 
ing was  planned  between  the  rivals  for  the  autumn  of 
1407,  but  it  fell  through.  In  November  Benedict 
lost  a  powerful  friend  by  the  murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  and  was  so  unwise  in  1408  as  to  attempt 
to  enforce  the  observance  of  the  French  obedience 
by  threats  of  excommunication.  In  May  Charles 
prodaimed  France  absolutely  neutral  in  the  con- 
test. Benedict,  fearing  for  his  safety,  fled  to  his 
native  Aragon. 

The  cardinals  of  both  factions  deserted  their 

respective  popes  and  in  Jime  took  counsel  together 

with  a  view  to  calling  a  general  council.    This  met 

in  1409  at  Pisa,  sununoned  both  claimants  before  it, 

proceeded  to  hear  testimony  when  they  did  not 

appear,  and  on  June  5  declared  both, 

The  Cotui*  as    heretics,    schismatics,    and    per- 

db  of      jurers,  not  only  deposed  but  excom- 

PSaa  and  municated.  Benedict  still  asserted 
Constance,  his  claims,  and  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Scotland  adhered  to  him.  New  nego- 
tiations with  him  were  undertaken  by  the  Council 
of  Constance  in  1414,  but  he  stubbornly  refused  to 
Tidd,  even  to  the  persuasions  of  the  emperor 
Sigismund.    Finally  the  patience  of  his  own  sup- 


porters in  Spain  and  Scotland  was  worn  out,  and 
they  renoimced  him  in  the  Concordat  of  Narbonne 
(Dec,  1415).  He  entrenched  himself  in  the  moun- 
tain JfajBtness  of  PefUsoola,  near  Valencia,  which 
belonged  to  his  family,  and  proudly  told  the  envoys 
of  the  council  that  the  true  Church  was  there  only. 
On  July  26,  1417,  the  Council  of  Constance  once 
more  deposed  and  excommunicated  him;  and  he 
remained  in  his  castle,  with  a  court  of  but  four 
cardinals,  until  his  death  at  the  age  of  nearly  ninety 
in  Nov.,  1424.  (A.  Hauck.) 

2.  Benedict  Xm  was  also  the  name  borne  by 
Pietro  Francesco  d'Orsini-Oravina,  pope  1724-30. 
He  was  bom  Feb.  2,  1649,  at  Gravina  in  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  and  in  1667,  renouncing  his  rights  of 
succession  to  the  ducal  estates,  entered  the  Domini- 
can order  at  Venice,  taking  the  name  of  Vincenco 
Maria.  He  studied  theology  at  Venice  and  Bologna, 
philosophy  at  Naples.  In  1672  he  was  made  a 
cardinal  by  Clement  X,  and  archbishop  of  Bene- 
vento  in  1686.  After  administering  his  diocese 
admirably  for  thirty-eight  years,  and  spending 
his  leisure  in  the  composition  of  theological  works, 
he  was  almost  unanimously  dected  pope  (May 
29,  1724),  after  the  death  of  Innocent  XIII.  At 
first  he  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV,  but  changed 
it  to  Benedict  XIII  in  the  conviction  that  Pedro 
de  Luna  was  a  schismatic  and  not  a  legitimate  pope. 
His  pontificate  began  with  an  attempt  to  restrain 
the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  cardinals,  which  was 
as  vain  as  his  similar  attempts  to  reform  the  rest  of 
the  clergy.  Though  the  prescriptions  of  the  Lateran 
coundl  of  1725  in  this  direction  were  not  much 
heeded,  it  is  memorable  because  in  it  Benedict  con- 
firmed the  constitution  Unigenitus,  and  thus 
aided  the  Jesuits.  He  had  the  satisfaction  of 
receiving  in  1728  the  unconditional  submission  of 
De  Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  the  head  of  the 
Galilean  opposition.  Weakness  was  the  principal 
characteristic  of  his  dealings  with  the  secular  powers 
of  Europe.  He  left  such  matters  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  his  favorite  Cardinal  Coscia,  whose 
interest  it  was  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  the 
powers.  Thus  the  emperor  Charles  VI  obtained 
the  privileges  which  he  claimed  in  Sicily  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  older  rulers,  who  had  been  legati  noli 
of  the  Holy  See.  Thus  also  the  king  of  Sardinia 
got  the  best  of  a  long  contest  with  Rome;  and 
only  one  state  fouiid  the  curia  stubborn.  The 
king  of  Portugal,  John  V,  requested  the  red  hat 
for  Bichi,  the  papal  nimcio  at  Lisbon,  and  when 
it  was  refused  showed  great  hostility  to  the  pope, 
even  threatening  in  1728  to  break  off  all  relations 
between  the  Church  of  Portugal  and  Rome.  Bene- 
dict was  unpopular  in  Rome,  owing  to  the  mis- 
government  of  Coscia,  who,  when  the  pope  died 
(Feb.  21,  1730),  was  obliged  to  flee  in  disguise, 
and  later  was  imprisoned  for  ten  years  by  Clem- 
ent XII.  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBUoaRAPHT:  1.  Pedro  de  Luna:  A  Vita  ia  found  in  £. 
Baluxe,  Vita  paparum  Avenonienaium,  i,  661-568,  Paris, 
1693;  the  Eng.  transl.  of  several  orisinal  documents 
which  are  pertinent  is  given  in  Thatcher  and  McNeal, 
Source  Book,  pp.  325-329;  Theodorie  of  Nieheim,  De 
Schiemate,  ed.  G.  Erler,  ii,  33  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1890;  Char- 
tuhrium   UMveraitatie  Ports,    ed.   H.   DeniflCt    iii.    662 


Benedict 


THE  KEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


44 


■qq..  Pariji,  1894;  Kehrmann,  FmhkreicKa  innere  Kirchev- 
•politik,  Jena,  1890;  Bower.  Popet,  iii.  146-149,  162.  162- 
163,  206;  Neander.  ChrUtian  Church,  v,  66,  62-77,  84, 
106-107;  Hefele.  ConcUienoeBehiehte,  vi,  827-1031;  Pas- 
tor, Popes,  i,  166-201;  N.  Valois,  La  France  et  le  tfrand 
echieme  d^ocddevU,  2  vola..  Paris,  1896;  Creighton,  Papacy, 
i,  140-316,  374.  2.  Pi.'tro  Francesco:  His  works  were 
issued  in  3  vols..  Ravenna.  1728,  and  the  bulls  afe  in  the 
BuUarium  Romanum,  vol.  xxii,  Turin,  1871.  For  his 
life  consult  A.  Borgia.  BenedicHXlll  vUa,  Rome,  1752;  A. 
von  Reumont.  Geachichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii,  662-663,  Ber- 
lin, 1868;  Bower.  Popee,  iii,  339;  J.  Chantrel,  Ls  Pape 
Benoit  Xlir,  1724-30,  Paris,  1874;  M.  Brosch.  GeechichU 
dee  Kirehenetaate,  ii,  61  sqq.,  Gotha.  1882;  Ranke.  Popee, 
vol.  iii.  No.  158. 

Benedict  XIV  (Prosporo  Lorenzo  Lambertini) : 
Pope  1740-68.  He  was  born  [Mar.  311  1675  at 
Bologna;  at  thirteen  he  entered  the  Collegium  Vlemr- 
entinum  at  Rome,  and  after  studies  in  theology  and 
philosophy,  took  up  the  law,  practising  as  advocate 
of  the  consistory,  and  as  promotor  fidei,  in  which 
office  he  laid  the  foundations  of  his  famous  work 
on  beatification  and  canonization.  Clement  XI 
and  Innocent  XIII  gave  him  several  Roman  dig- 
nities; Benedict  XIII  made  him  archbishop  of 
Ancona  (1727)  and  cardinal  (1728);  in  1731  Clement 
XII  transferred  him  to  the  more  important  see  of 
Bologna,  where  he  found  time  to  write  his  works 
on  the  mass,  on  the  festivals,  and  Qucestiones 
canonicce.  After  the  death  of  Clement  XII  the 
conclave  was  at  a  deadlock  for  six  months  between 
the  French,  Austrian,  and  Spanish  factions,  and 
finally  agreed  on  Lambertini  as  a  compromise 
candidate  (Aug.  17,  1740). 

Benedict  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  piety, 
and  did  much  for  the  welfsu-e  of  the  Pontifical  States, 
by  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  conunerce,  and 
manufactures  and  by  a  decrease  in  taxation.  His 
expressed  principle  that  in  him  "  the  pope  must 
take  precedence  of  the  temporal  ruler  "  was  carried 
out  both  in  the  strenuous  efforts  which  he  made 
to  raise  the  tone  of  the  clergy  and  in  his  efforts 
to  remove  all  the  misimderstandings  which  had 
existed  between  the  curia  and  the  European 
powers,  even  at  the  cost  of  considerable  concessions. 
He  was  not  able  entirely  to  remove  the  antagonism 
between  the  eighteenth-century  spirit 

Friendly     and  religion,  but  he  composed  more 

Relations  than  one  difference  temporarily.  Thus 
with  Other  he  appeased  John  V  of  Portugal  by  the 

Rulers.  privilege  of  enjoying  the  revenues  of 
vacant  bishoprics  and  abbeys  in  his 
kingdom,  as  well  as  by  the  title  of  Rex  fidelissimus. 
In  a  concordat  with  Naples  (1741)  he  went  even 
beyond  the  concessions  which  Benedict  XIII  had 
made,  and  concluded  another  with  the  king  of 
Sardinia  which  was  still  less  favorable  to  the  ex- 
treme claimB  of  the  Church.  Still  another  was 
made  with  Spain  in  1753,  which  went  so  far  as  to 
allow  King  Ferdinand  VI  the  right  of  nomination 
to  all  the  ecclesiastical  benefices  in  his  kingdom 
except  fifty-two.  Friendly  relations  were  also 
maintained  with  the  empire,  and  strict  neutrality 
observed  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
although  the  contending  armies  not  seldom  crossed 
the  boundaries  of  the  Papal  States.  When  Albert 
of  Bavaria  was  elected  emperor  as  Charles  VII 
and  applied  to  Benedict  for  confirmation,  he  gave 


b.im  his  hearty  good  wishes,  but  refused  at  first 
to  recognize  his  successor,  Francis  I,  who  had 
neglect^  to  observe  this  formality.  He  aban- 
doned his  opposition,  however,  and  became  an 
active  ally  of  Austria  in  the  contest  with  Venice 
over  Aquileia.  As  a  compromise  measure,  he  finally 
divided  the  patriarchate  into  two  dioceses,  that  of 
GOrz.  which  was  to  be  Austrian,  and  that  of  Udine, 
Venetian.  Though  he  refused  to  confirm  the  guaran- 
ties which  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel,  on  be- 
coming a  Roman  Catholic,  was  obliged  to  give  for 
the  preservation  of  the  rights  of  his  evangelical 
subjects,  Benedict  showed  none  of  the  temper  of 
a  persecutor,  and  had  friendly  personal  relations 
with  many  Protestants.  He  was  the  first  pope  to 
concede  the  title  of  king  of  Prussia  to  the  ruler 
whom  the  curia  had  previously  styled  margrave 
of  Brandenburg;  and  he  yielded  to  Frederick  the 
Great's  wishes  so  far  as  to  allow  the  bishop  of  Bres- 
lau  to  decide  all  Catholic  causes  in  Prussia,  appeals 
to  the  pope  being  forbidden.  In  the  Gallican  con- 
troversy he  took  a  wise  and  tolerant  part,  reversing 
a  decision  of  De  Beaumont,  the  archbishop  of 
Paris,  which  made  formal  assent  to  the  constitution 
Unigenitus  a  condition  for  receiving  the  sacra- 
ments; in  an  encyclical  of  Oct.  16,  1756,  he  laid 
down  the  rule  that  the  ministrations  of  the  Church 
should  be  refused  only  to  those  who  had  publicly 
contenmed  the  bull. 

Benedict's  conciliatory  temper  made  him  little 
likely  to  sympathize  with  the  Jesuits,  with  whom 
he  dealt  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  in  a  way 
tliat  did  not  please  them,  deciding  against  them, 
in  the  controversy  over  the  "  Chinese  rites,"  the 
question  how  far  the  principles  of 
The  Jesuits.  Christianity  might  be  accommodated 
for  the  purpose  of  making  more  speedy 
conversions  among  the  heathen,  in  two  bulls — 
the  Ex  quo  singulari  of  1742,  and  the  Omnium 
sollicitudinum  of  1744  (see  Accommodation,  §  9). 
Though  he  was  no  partizan  of  the  Jesuits,  it  was 
not  until  shortly  before  his  death  that  he  under- 
took (1758)  the  long-planned  reform  of  the  order, 
at  least  in  Portugal,  entrusting  its  execution  to  Sal- 
danha,  the  patriarch  of  Lisbon. 

In  1750  Benedict  celebrated  a  jubilee  with  great 
pomp,  and  invited  the  Protestants  also  to  attend- 
naturally  with  no  other  result  than  to  call  out  a 
number  of  polemical  replies.  To  the  end  of  his 
life  he  found  his  chief  diversion  in  the  company 
of  learned  men,  of  whom  a  circle  assembled  round 
him  once  a  week.  During  his  pontificate  he  com- 
posed his  most  important  work,  De  aynodo  due- 
ccsana.  He  had  a  catalogue  of  the  Vatican  library 
drawn  up  by  the  learned  Assemani,  founded 
societies  for  the  study  of  Roman  and  Christian 
antiquities  and  of  church  history,  and  cooperated 
in  the  foundation  of  the  archeological  academy 
with  Winckelmann,  who  came  to  Rome  in  1755. 
He  died  as  he  had  lived,  with  cheerful,  good- 
humored  words  upon  his  lips,  May  3, 1758. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibltograprt:  His  works  were  collected  by  Asevedo  in  12 
vols..  Rome,  1747-51,  more  completely,  15  vols.,  Venice, 
17(.7.  and  in  17  vols.,  Prato,  1839-46;  vols.  15-17  of  the 
Prato  ed.  contain  the  bulls;  Brief e  Benedictt  XIV  an  Pw 


40 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 


Fnnetaeo  Peggi  h  Bologna,  1729-58,  ed.  F.  X.  Kraus. 
Freibttrs,  1888;  Opera  inedita,  ed.  F.  Heiner.  St.  Louis, 
1904.  Ooosult:  R.  de  Martinis,  Acta  Benedicti  XIV,  2 
vols.,  Naptes.  1884-85:  A.  Borgia,  Vie  de  BenoU  XIV, 
Paris,  1783:  H.  Fonnby,  Life  and  Miraclet  of  Benedict 
X/F,  London,  1858;  A.  von  Ameth,  Geechiehte  Maria 
Tkereeiae^u,  178, it, 54 sqq.,  Vienna,  1864, 1870;  M.  Brosch, 
Oeeehiekte  dee  Kirdkenetaate,  ii,  68,  Qotha,  1882;  Ranke, 
Popee,  ii,  433-443.  iii.  No.  164. 

BEREDICT  OF  A5IAIIE:  The  reformer  of  the 
Benedictine  order  in  the  Frankish  empire.  He 
was  bom  about  750  in  his  father's  county  of  Mague- 
lone  in  Languedoc;  d.  at  Inden  (13  m.  n.e.  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle)  Feb.  11,  821.  His  youth  was 
spent  at  the  court  of  Pepin  and  of  Charlemagne, 
where,  as  a  page,  he  had  opportunity  to  distin- 
guish himaelf  in  feats  of  arms.  During  Charles's  - 
first  Lombard  campaign,  Benedict  rescued  his 
brother  from  drowning  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life, 
and  the  shock  brought  to  a  head  the  resolve  which 
had  been  slowly  forming  in  him,  to  renounce  the 
world  and  give  himself  to  the  service  of  God  in  the 
monastic  life.  This  he  entered  in  773  at  Saint- 
Seine  in  the  diocese  of  Langres.  Returning  home 
in  779,  he  built  a  small  monastery  on  his  own  land 
near  the  little  river  Aniane  (where  the  town  of 
Aniane,  16  m.  w.n.w.  of  Montpellier,  later  grew 
up),  which  was  replaced  by  a  larger  one  lower 
down  when  the  number  of  his  disciples  increased, 
and  by  a  third  still  larger  about  792.  This  became 
the  center  of  Benedict's  efforts  for  the  reformation  of 
the  monastic  life  in  the  south  and  southwest  of 
France.  King  Louis  of  Aquitaine,  who  had  favored 
him  from  the  outset,  entrusted  him  with  the  over- 
sight of  all  the  monasteries  within  his  territory, 
anid  the  greatest  churchmen,  such  as  Alcuin  and 
Leidrad  of  Lyons,  sought  his  counsel.  He  had  a 
wide  knowledge  of  patristic  literature,  and  for- 
warded the  cause  of  education  with  zeal.  He  stood 
out  as  a  champion  of  the  orthodox  faith  against 
Adoptionism  (q.v.),  and  wrote  two  treatises  against 
it,  the  first  of  which  is  specially  interesting  as  show- 
ing how  dose  was  the  practical  connection  between 
Adoptionism  and  Arianism.  His  influence  became 
still  wider  with  the  accession  of  Louis  the  Pious, 
who  first  brought  him  up  to  the  Alsatian  abbey 
of  MauimOnster,  and  then,  to  have  him  nearer 
at  hand,  founded  another  for  him  at  Inden,  giving 
him  the  general  oversight  of  all  the  monasteries 
in  the  empire.  He  could  now  hope  to  accom- 
plish his  great  purpose  of  restoring  the  primitive 
strictnesB  of  the  monastic  observance  wherever 
it  had  been  relaxed  or  exchanged  for  the  less 
exacting  canonical  life.  This  purpose  was  clearly 
eeen  in  the  capitularies  drawn  up  by  an  assem- 
bly of  abbots  and  monks  at  Aix-larChapelle  in 
817,  and  enforced  by  Louis's  order  throughout  the 
empire. 

Benedict's  chief  works  are  compilations  of  the 
older  ascetic  literature.  The  first  of  them  is  called 
by  his  biographer,  Ardo,  lAber  ex  regulia  diveraorum 
patrwn  eMectu9  ;  an  enlarged  edition  of  this  was 
prepared  by  Lucas  Holsten  (published  at  Rome 
only  after  Holsten's  death,  in  1661,  with  the  title 
Codex  reguUxrum),  The  other  work,  called  Con- 
cordia reguLantm  by  Benedict  himself,  is  based  on 


the  first;  in  it  the  sections  of  the  Benedictine  rule 
(except  ix-xvi)  are  given  in  their  order,  with  paral- 
lel passages  from  the  other  rules  included  in  the 
Liber  regvlarum,  so  as  to  show  the  agreement  of 
principles  and  thus  to  enhance  the  respect  due  to 
the  Benedictine.  The  Concordia  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1638  by  H.  Menard  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  Maur,  with  valuable  notes  (reprinted  in  MPL, 
ciii).  A  third  collection  of  homilies,  to  be  read 
daily  in  the  monasteries,  has  not  been  definitely 
identified.  Benedict's  place  is  in  the  second  rank 
of  the  men  who  made  the  reigns  of  Charles  and 
Louis  glorious.  He  had  not  the  breadth  of  view 
possessed  by  Charlemagne  himself  or  by  Adalhard, 
nor  the  lofty  endeavor  for  a  fusion  of  secular  and 
spiritual  learning  of  Paulus  Diaconus  and  .Mcuin. 
He  was  primarily  an  ecclesiastic,  who  zealously 
placed  his  not  inconsiderable  theological  learning 
at  the  service  of  orthodoxy,  but  gave  the  best  thing 
he  had,  the  loving  fervor  of  an  upright  Christian 
soul,  to  the  cause  of  Benedictine  monasticism. 

(Otto  Seebass.) 

Bibliooraphy:  The  Vita  by  Ardo  Smaraffdus,  his  sucoeasor 
aa  abbot,  with  preface  by  Hensohen,  is  in  ASB,  12  Feb., 
ii,  606-620.  in  MPL,  ciii,  and  is  edited  by  Waits  in  MGH, 
Script,  XV,  108-220,  Hanover.  18S7.  There  is  a  Fr. 
transl.,  Montpellier.  1876.  P.  A.  J.  Paulinier.  St  Benoit 
d* Aniane  et  la  fondation  du  manaatire  de  ce  nom,  Mont- 
pellier, 1871;  P.  J.  Nioolai,  Der  heilige  Benedict,  OrHnder 
von  Aniane,  Cologne,  1865;  R.  Foss.  Benedikt  von  Aniane, 
Berlin.  1884;  O.  Seebass.  in  ZKO,  xv  (1895).  244-260; 
Hauck.  KD,  ii.  528-545. 

BENEDICT  BISCOP:  First  abbot  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow;  b.  of  noble  family  about  628; 
d.  at  Wearmouth  (on  the  north  side  of  the  Wear, 
opposite  Sunderland,  Durhamshire)  Jan.  12,  689  or 
690.  Biscop  was  his  Saxon  name,  his  ecclesiastical 
name  was  Benedict,  and  he  was  also  called  Baduc- 
ing  as  a  patronymic.  He  was  a  thane  and  favorite 
of  Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria  (q.v.),  but  in  663 
decided  to  abandon  the  world  and  went  to  Rome. 
He  became  a  monk  at  the  monastery  of  Lerins 
about  665,  and  was  appointed  by  Pope  Vitalian  to 
conduct  Theodore  of  Tarsus  (q.v.)  to  Canterbury 
in  668.  In  674  be  began  to  build  the  monastery 
of  St.  Peter  at  Wearmouth  on  land  given  by  Eg- 
frid,  king  of  Northumbria.  In  681  or  682  he 
founded  the  sister  house,  dedicated  to  St.  Paul,  at 
Jarrow  (5  m.  farther  north,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Tyne).  He  made  six  visits  to  Rome,  learned 
the  Roman  ecclesiastical  usages  and  the  rules  of 
monastic  life,  and  strove  faithfully  to  introduce 
them  in  England;  he  also  brought  back  a  rich  store 
of  books,  vestments,  pictures,  and  the  like.  He 
induced  John,  the  archchanter  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome,  to  accompany  him  to  England  and  instruct 
his  monks;  and  he  brought  skilled  workmen  from 
Gaul  to  build  his  monasteries,  including  the  first 
glass-makers  in  England. 

Bibuoorapbt:  The  source  for  a  biography  is  the  life  by 
his  great  scholar  Bede,  Vita  beatorum  abbatum,  chaps.  1- 
14,  best  and  most  aooessible  in  the  ed.  of  C.  Plummer.  i, 
364-37d,  with  notes,  ii.  365-866.  Oxford,  1896,  Eng. 
transl.  by  P.  Witoook,  Sunderland,  1818;  of.  also  Bede. 
Hiet.  eed.,  iv,  18,  ▼,  19;  Horn,,  xxv.  Consult  also  C.  F. 
Montalembert.  Lee  Moinee  de  Voeddent,  iv,  456-487.  Paris, 
1868;  DNB,  iv,  214-216. 


Bonadlet 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


46 


BENEDICT  OF  NURSIA  AND  THE  BENEDICTINE  ORDER. 


T.  The  Life  of  Benedict. 

The  Life  of  Benedict  by  Gregory 

the  Great  (f  1).  III. 

Early  Life  (f  2). 
Monte  Gaaeino  (f  3). 
II.  The  Rule  of  Benedict. 

General  Characteristics  (f  1). 
Moderation  (f  2).  IV. 


Organisation  and  Direction  of  the 
Monastic  Life  (|  3). 

The  Earlier  History  of  the  Bene- 
dictine Order. 

Period  of  Growth  to  the  Time  of 
Charlemagne  (I  1). 

Period  of  Decline  (|  2). 

The  History  of  the  Order  sines  the 
Ninth  Century. 


821-1200.     Ecumenical  Activity. 

New  Congregations  (|  1). 
1 200-1 563.     Decay  and  Attempts 

at  Reform  (f  2). 
1563-1800.     Tridentine  Refonn. 

New  Congregations  (|  3). 
The  Nineteenth  Century  (f  4X 


1.  The  Life  of  Benedict:  The  only  early  authority 
on  the  life  of  Benedict,  dnoe  the  VUaPlaeidi  has  been 
admitted  to  be  untrustworthy  ever  since  Mabillon, 
and  the  worthlessness  of  the  Vita  saneti  Mauri  has 
been  recently  demonstrated  by  Malnory,  is  prac- 
ticaUy  the  single  biography  written  by  Gregory  the 
Great.  But  the  expectations  aroused  by  a  life 
written  only  fifty  years  after  Benedict's  death  by 
so  distinguished  an  author  are  disappointed  when 

he  is  found,  in  the  spirit  of  his  time, 

1.  The  Life  exalting  the  greatness  of  his  hero  by 

of  Benedict  the  number  and  importance  of  his 

by€hreffory  miracles.    This  tendency  has  gone  so 

the  Ohreat.    far  that  GrQtsmacher  is  inclined  to  see 

nothing  actually  historical  in  all  this 
mass  of  legendary  details  except  the  names  of  the 
places  where  Benedict  lived  and  worked,  and  the 
names  of  his  disciples.  But  this  is  going  some- 
what too  far;  Gregory  expressly  names  four  abbots, 
themselves  among  these  disciples  and  one  of  them 
(Honoratus)  still  living  at  Subiaco,  as  witnesses  to 
the  truth  of  his  story;  and  the  tradition  must  have 
been  still  full  and  clear  among  the  monks  who  had 
migrated  from  Monte  Cassino  to  the  Lateran  when 
he  wrote. 

According,  then,  to  what  is  left  of  Gregory's 
account  after  removal  of  the  legendary  halo  around 
the  saint's  head,  Benedict  came  of  a  considerable 
family  in  the  "  province  of  Nursia,"  in  the  Um- 
brian  Apennines,  and  was  bom  toward  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century.  He  received  at  Rome  the  edu- 
cation of  his  day,  which,  however,  did  not  mean 
much  acquaintance  with  the  Roman  classical 
authors,  and  seems  to  have  included  no  Greek. 
Shocked  by  the  immorality  aroimd  him,  he  left 
both  the  school  and  his  father's  house  for  a  life  of 

solitary  mortification.    His  first  per- 

2.  Early    manent  abode  was  a  cave  by  the  Anio, 
I^e.       not  far  from  Subiaco,  where  a  monk, 

Romanus,  provided  him  with  the 
rough  monastic  garb  and  with  scanty  nourishment. 
Here  Benedict  spent  three  years  of  stubborn  con- 
flict with  his  lower  nature,  until  the  spreading  of 
his  fame  by  shepherds  brought  his  soUtude  to  an 
end.  The  monks  of  a  nei^boring  monastery  (per- 
haps at  Vicovaro),  whose  head  had  just  died, 
begged  him  to  come  and  rule  them.  He  accepted 
with  reluctance,  probably  foreseeing  what  actually 
happened  when  he  attempted  strictly  to  enforce 
their  rule.  When  their  insubordination  went  as 
far  as  an  attempt  to  poison  him,  he  discovered  the 
plot  and  gently  rebuked  them,  then  retired  to  his 
beloved  cave.  Here,  as  new  disciples  came  around 
him,  he  established  twelve  small  communities,  each 
with  twelve  inmates  and  a  *'  father  "  at  their  head. 
Gregory  does  not  say  how  long  Benedict  re- 


mained in  the  neighborhood  of  Subiaco  as  director 
of  these  pious  groups;  but  the  tradition  of  Monte 
Cassino  ascribes  his  migration  thither  to  the  op- 
position of  a  jealous  cleric  named  Florentius,  and 
places  it  in  529.  The  new  place  was  about  half- 
*way  between  Rome  and  Naples,  the  Castrum  Cati- 
num  of  the  Romans,  who  had  had  a  military  colony 
there.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain  (now 
Monte  San  Germano),  which  had  been 
8.  Konte  dedicated  to  the  wor^p  of  Apollo  by 
Oaaeino.  a  population  stiU  largely  pagan,  Bene- 
dict bmlt  two  chapels,  imder  the  in- 
vocation of  St.  John  Baptist  and  St.  Martin,  and 
then  laid  the  foundations  of  the  monastery  which 
was  to  have  such  a  long  and  renowned  history. 
Though  Gregory  does  not  say  so  definitely,  the  tradi- 
tional view  may  be  accepted  that  he  soon  drew  up 
his  rule,  the  mature  outcome  of  his  experience  in 
guiding  and  governing  aspirants  to  the  monastic 
life  of  perfection.  The  disturbances  of  the  time, 
the  wars  between  the  Goths  and  the  Byzantine  on- 
pire  from  634,  probably  helped  to  increase  the 
numbers  of  those  who  sought  a  peaceful  shelter  at 
Monte  Cassino;  and  a  daughter  house  was  estab- 
lished at  Terracina.  In  the  summer  of  542,  Totila, 
king  of  the  Goths,  on  his  way  through  Campania, 
desired  to  see  the  famous  abbot.  Gregory  relates 
that,  to  test  his  prophetic  powers,  the  king  sent  one 
of  his  officers  in  royal  array  to  Benedict,  who  per- 
ceived the  deception  instantly,  and,  when  the  young 
king  knelt  before  him,  told  him  that  he  should  enter 
Rome,  cross  the  seas,  and  reign  nine  years — which 
came  to  pass.  Gregory  mentions  Benedict's  sis- 
ter, Scholastica,  in  coimection  with  the  last  meeting 
between  the  two  in  a  house  near  the  monastery; 
she  had  been  dedicated  to  the  service  of  God  from 
her  earliest  youth.  The  date  of  Benedict's  death 
can  not  be  determined  from  any  of  the  authorities. 
His  body  was  buried  near  Scholastica's  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  John  Baptist,  and,  according  to 
Pauius  Diaconus,  was  translated  about  a  century 
later  to  the  monastery  of  Fleury  on  the  Loire. 

n.  The  Rule  of  Benedict:  Especially  since  the 
celebration  of  the  fourteen-hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  Benedict's  birth  in  1880,  his  rule  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  thoroughgoing  studies,  and 
it  is  everywhere  recognized  as  a  code  which  cor- 
responded admirably  to  its  purpose  of  regulating 
the  common  life  of  the  western  monks.  In  the 
concluding  passage  of  the  prologue,  probably  added 
later  by  Benedict,  occur  the  words  "  Canstituenda 
est  ergo  a  nchia  dornvnici  schola  servifii."  Under 
the  later  empire,  the  word  schola  was  conunonly 
employed  to  designate  the  body  of  guards  in  the 
imperial  palace  under  the  magiater  officii;  thence 
the  name  passed  to  the  garrisons  of  provinciil 


47 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedlot 


towns,  and  was  used   sometimes  for  other  bodies 
or  associations  existing  in  them.     As  these  mili- 
tary organizations  would  have  a  defi- 

1.  G«n0xml  nit«  code   of   regulations,  so    it  was 
Character-  natural   for  Benedict  (called  "  magis- 

iflties.  tor  "  in  the  first  line  of  the  prologue) 
to  lay  down  a  rule  that  should  serve 
for  all  who  were  enlisted  in  the  spiritual  army  ("  ser- 
vitium  ilominieum  ") — priests  or  laymen,  rich  or 
poor.  It  sqMLrated  the  monks  more  absolutely  from 
the  woild  them  Basil  or  Cassian  had  done.  Besides 
the  requirements  of  poverty,  silence,  and  chastity, 
others  appear  for  the  first  time;  that  of  "  stabil- 
ity "  or  a  permanent  residence  in  one  monastery 
as  opposed  to  the  wandering  life  of  the  earlier 
monks,  and  a  specially  designated  habit.  The  aim 
of  this  life  is  complete  surrender  to  the  will  of  God, 
accomplished  through  entire  obedience  to  the  ab- 
bot and  the  rule.  The  abbot  thus  appears  as  an 
absolute  ruler,  responsible  to  God  alone.  It  is  true 
that  in  weighty  matters  he  is  to  seek  the  coimsel 
of  the  brethrai,  but  the  iiltimate  decision  rests 
with  him.  Benedict  seems  to  have  hesitated  in 
placing  a  propositus  or  prior  next  to  him  as  assist- 
ant and,  if  need  were,  representative. 

In  laying  down  the  system  of  daily  prayer,  Bene- 
dict departed  somewhat  from  the  earlier  practise 
by  instituting  the  office  of  compline  as  the  seventh 
of  the  canonical  hours.  The  longest  and  fullest  of 
all  the  offices  was  the  nodtima  vigilia  (matins),  re- 
cited at  two  o'clock.  The  day  hours  were  much 
shorter — lauds  at  daybreak,  not  long  after  matins; 
prime;  terce,  with  which  at  least  on  Sundays  and 
festivals  the  Eucharist  was  connected;  sext;  none; 
vespers;  and  compline.  One  of  the  principles  on 
which  the  system  of  devotion  was  laid  out  was  the 
weekly  recitation  of  the  entire  Psalter.  When  this 
is  compared  with  the  requirement  by  Columban  of 
the  recitation  of  thew  hole  150  Psalms  in  the  night 
office  of  Saturday  and  Sunday,  a  second  principle 
is  perceived  which  governed  Benedict  not  merely 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  devotional  exercises 
but  in  aU  his  rule — a  wise  moderation 

2.  XodMm-  and  gentleness.     It  appears  especially 

tion.  in  the  regulations  for  meals,  of  which 
he  aUows  two  daily,  except  at  times 
of  fasting;  it  comes  out  in  the  rules  for  labor,  which 
show  consideration  for  the  weaker  brethren,  and 
also  in  the  system  of  punishment.  Small  offenses, 
as  unpunctuality  at  meals  or  office,  are  to  be  pun- 
ished without  harshness;  more  serious  ones  caU  for 
two  private  warning?  and  one  in  public,  after  which 
the  offender  is  cut  off  from  the  society  of  the  breth- 
ren at  meals  and  prayers.  If  he  is  still  obstinate, 
corporal  punishment  is  the  next  step,  and  finally, 
if  the  prayers  of  the  brethren  have  no  effect,  he  is 
to  be  expelled  from  the  monastery.  Penitents  may 
be  twice  taken  back,  but  on  a  third  lapse  there  is 
no  further  possibility  of  restoration. 

The  fact  that,  in  his  provision  for  the  clothing 
of  the  monks,  Benedict  took  accoimt  of  the  condi- 
tions of  more  than  one  province  has  been  made  a 
ground  for  disputing  the  authenticity  of  the  rule^ 
but  the  climatic  difference  between  the  hill-country 
of  his  first  settlement  and  the  Campanian  plain  on 
the  banks  of  the  Liris  is  sufficiently  notable  to  find 


some  reflection  in  the  rule.  Benedict  had  lived  as 
an  anchorite  and  as  a  cenobite,  in  convents  of  vary- 
ing size  and  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  at  the  head 
of  a  single  small  house  and  of  a  whole  group  of 
houses.  When,  therefore,  with  this  manifold  ex- 
perience of  what  suited  the  monastic  life  of  his 
time,  he  drew  up  a  rule  for  every 
8.  Orffani-  p^^  ^f  j^^  j^  g^jj^  ^  definite  legislative 

theMonaa-    ^  '    Cassian,    Pacbonuus,    Jerome, 

tic  liife.  Augustine — had  given  their  prescrip- 
tions, we  may  well  believe  that  he 
was  acting  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  conscious- 
ness that  he  was  giving  to  Italian  monasticism  a 
new  form,  stronger  and  more  consistent  than  had 
been  known  before.  This  is  the  special  importance 
of  Benedict's  work,  both  for  the  Chiu'ch  and  for 
the  world  at  large.  About  the  time  when  the 
Roman  See,  vindicating  and  even  increasing  its 
independence  of  Arian  kings  and  Byzantine  em- 
perors, wajB  preparing  to  erect  its  universal  empire 
on  the  ruins  of  the  old,  the  monk  appeared  who 
knew  how  to  apply  the  old  Roman  talents  of  legis- 
lation and  organization  to  the  growing  but  as  yet 
incoherent  monajsticism.  Thus  he  became  the 
foimder  of  the  great  Benedictine  Order  which  for 
centuries  concentrated  in  itself  the  extraordinary 
spiritual  force  of  the  technically  "  religious  "  life, 
and  contributed  in  so  marked  a  degree  to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Western  Church.  The  striking  in- 
fluence of  the  order  would,  however,  be  inexplicable 
if  it  had  not  early  become  the  guardian  of  learning 
and  literatiu^.  The  rule  required  the  brothers,  in 
addition  to  their  manual  labor,  to  devote  one  or 
two  hoiuv  daily  to  reading;  it  provided  for  a  con- 
sent library  from  which  the  monks  were  to  take 
certain  books  for  study  at  appointed  times;  each 
brother  was  to  have  his  tablet  and  stylus;  Bene- 
dict himself  undertook  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren' of  prominent  Romans;  and  in  at  least  one 
passage  of  the  rule  those  who  can  not  read  are 
spoken  of  as  an  inferior  class.  All  these  things 
speak  of  learned  and  literary  interests  as  belong- 
ing to  the  original  foimdation.  Cassiodorus  even 
goes  further  than  Benedict,  in  whose  lifetime  prob- 
ably he  founded  the  double  convent  of  Squillace, 
providing  expressly  for  the  study  of  classical  litera- 
ture— though  it  is  impossible  to  determine  how  far 
this  influenced  the  Benedictine  Order  after  the  in- 
fusion with  it  of  Cassiodorus's  monasteries. 

nL  The  Earlier  History  of  the  Benedictine  Order: 
The  history  of  the  early  extension  of  Benedict's 
society  is  only  scantily  told.  According  to  the 
traditions  of  Monte  Cassino,  the  third  abbot,  Sim- 
plicius,  achieved  great  success  in  this  work.  Under 
the  fifth,  Bonitus,  the  mother  house  was  destroyed 
in  589  by  the  Lombards,  the  monks  fleeing  to  Rome 
(the  imiversal  refuge  of  those  days),  carrying  with 
them  the  copy  of  the  rule  written  by 
o^^l^to  ^^®^c*'8  own  hand.  There  was 
the^n^of  P'^'^^^^^y  alJ^ady  a  monastery  there 

Oharle-      ^^^ch  followed  this  rule — ^that  of  St. 

wiayw-  Andrew,  founded  by  the  future  Pope 
Gregory  the  Great  in  675;  but  Greg- 
ory's attachment  to  the  order  was  presumably  in- 
creased by  the  coming  of  the  fugitives,  who  settled 


Benedict 
Benediotlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


48 


in  a  place  given  them  at  the  Lateran  by  Pope 
Pelagius.  The  miasion  of  Augustine  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  in 
596  (see  Anolo-Saxonb,  Conyersign  of  the) 
opened  a  new  field  to  the  order.  The  Latin 
rules  of  the  Spanish  bishops  Isidore  of  Seville 
(d,  636)  and  Fructuosus  of  Bragara  show  distinct 
traces  of  an  acquaintance  with  that  of  Benedict. 
But  more  important  was  its  introduction  into  the 
Prankish  kingdom  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh 
century,  since  the  attempt  was  there  made  to  sub- 
mit to  it  the  entire  monastic  body .  However  it  was 
introduced,  it  soon  become  predominant,  and  took 
the  place  of  the  rules  of  Columban  and  Cesarius. 
At  a  Burgundian  synod  of  670  it  was  designated,  with 
the  canons,  as  the  only  standard  for  monasteries; 
and  similarly  in  the  synods  held  under  the  auspices 
of  Carloman  and  Boniface  in  742  and  743  it  is  called 
the  norm  for  convents  both  of  monks  and  of 
nuns.  The  language  of  the  capitularies  of  811, 
implying  that  only  obscure  traces  of  the  prior 
existence  of  other  rules  remained,  shows  how 
completely  it  had  occupied  the  field  by  the  time  of 
Charlemagne. 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  supremacy,  and  of  the 
glory  reflected  on  the  order  by  such  men  as  Aid- 
helm  and  Bede,  Alcuin  and  Paulus  Diaconus,  an 
acute  observer  could  already  perceive  traces  of  de- 
cay. In  some  places  the  abbots  abused  the  power 
given  them  by  the  rule;  in  others  laxity  had  begun 

to  creep  in.    There  was  thus  room  for 

2.  Period    the  reforming  activity  of  Benedict  of 

of  Decline.  Aniane    (q.v.),    who    attempted    not 

only  to  restore  the  pristine  strictness, 
but  to  supplement  the  rule  by  special  ordinances 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  imiformity  in  the  daily^ 
life  of  the  Prankish  monasteries.  His  success, 
powerfully  seconded  as  he  was  by  the  emperor 
Louis  the  Pious,  was  not  lasting.  The  ninth  cen- 
tury saw  a  considerable  number  of  new  founda- 
tions, especially  in  Saxony,  and  the  literary  activ- 
ity promoted  by  Charlemagne  continued;  but 
there  were  many  complaints  not  only  of  the  giving 
of  monasteries  to  laymen  but  of  decay  in  morality 
and  strict  monastic  discipline.  In  addition  to 
these  things,  grievous  havoc  was  wrought  in  many 
different  quarters  by  the  irruptions  of  the  barba- 
rians— in  England  by  the  Danes,  in  northern  Ger- 
many and  France  by  the  Normans,  in  the  south  of 
Germany  and  the  north  of  Italy  by  the  Huns,  and 
on  the  Mediterranean  coast  by  the  Saracens. 

(Otto  Seebabs.) 
IV.  The  History  of  the  Order  since  the  Ninth 
Century:  The  palmy  days  of  the  order,  from  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane  to  Innocent  III  (821-1200)  may  be 
designated  as  the  time  of  ecumenical  activity. 
The  family  of  monks  which  proceeded  from  Monte 
Cassino  controlled  with  its  influence  the  civilization 
of  the  entire  Christian  West.  The  Basilian  monas- 
teries of  South  Italy  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  the  monks 
and  hermits  of  the  Celtic  Church  in  the  British 
isles,  were  able  only  for  a  time  to  maintain  the 
independence  of  their  institutions.  Patronized 
and  at  the  same  time  monopolized  by  Rome,  the 
Benedictine  monastic  character  made  itself  the 
standard  of  monasticism  throughout  Latin  Christen- 


dom. True,  from  the  ninth  century  on  there  were 
marked  departures  from  the  founder's  ideal,  in 
consequence  of  which,  even  after  the  refomi  by 
Benedict  of  Aniane  (q.v.),  a  number  of  similar 
efforts  at  reform  became  necessary;  but  the  call 
to  return  to.  the  original  vigor  of  the  rule  ever  proved 
its  purifying  power,  and  the  total  influence  of  the 
order  was  rather  enhanced  than 
ifion^^"  decreased  by  the  growing  number  of 
iS?"    ^^®^  reform  congregations.   The  most 

Aotivltv  important  of  them  after  the  tenth 
New  ConI  century  was  the  reform  of  duny  (from 
ffreffationB.  ^10),  with  which  were  gradually  blend- 
ed more  or  less  the  smaller  reforms  of 
a  like  tendency  originating  almost  simultane- 
ously in  Flanders  under  Gerard  of  Brogne 
(d.  959),  in  Lorraine  under  John  of  Gorze  (d. 
974),  in  England  under  Dunstan  of  Glaston- 
bury (d.  988),  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Benignus 
at  Dijon  (c.  990)  under  William  of  Volpiano  (d. 
1031)  and  in  southern  Italy  by  Alferius  of  Cava 
(d.  1050)  (see  Clunt,  Abbey  and  Conoreoation 
of;  John  of  Gorze;  Gerard,  Saint,  1;  Dunstan). 
More  independent  of  the  Benedictine  institutions, 
though  proceeding  from  the  order,  were  some  reform- 
ing movements  of  the  eleventh  century.  Among  these 
were  the  famous  congregation  of  Hirschau  (q.v.), 
c.  1060,  which  was  distinguished  by  the  rigor  of  its 
discipline;  that  of  Vallombrosa  (see  Gualbertu, 
Giovanni),  1038,  which,  like  Hirschau,  devel- 
oped with  especial  care  the  institution  of  lay  brothe:^ 
(Jratrea  oonversi),  thus  setting  an  important  ex- 
ample for  later  orders  (see  Monasticism);  those 
of  Camaldoli,  1000;  Grammont,  1076;  Font^vraud, 
c.  1100;  (see  Camaldolites  ;  Grammont,  Ordea 
OF ;  Fontkvraud,  Order  of)  ;  and  finally  that  of 
Ctteaux,  1098.  The  last  of  these  reforms,  the  ripest 
and  noblest  fruit  of  the  older  Benedictine  ideal,  grew 
so  rapidly,  and,  especially  under  the  influence  of  St. 
Bernard,  showed  such  power  in  the  field  of  missioiH 
ary  and  civilizing  effort  that  it  was  oblig^  to  leave 
the  Benedictine  family  and  form,  not  a  new  congre- 
gation but  a  new  order,  in  spite  of  its  adherence 
to  the  fundamental  form  of  monxustic  discipline 
as  delineated  in  the  RegtUa  Benedicti  (see  Cis- 
tercians). By  this  separation  of  the  youngest 
daughter  from  the  mother,  the  latter  ceased  to  be 
regarded  as  the  only  normal  type  for  western 
monasticism.  The  ecumenical  period  of  Bene- 
dictine history  ends  with  the  last  decades  of  the 
twelfth  century.  It  must  thenceforth  be  traced 
as  the  history  of  one  order  among  several  in  the  fife 
of  western  civilization. 

The  period  from  Innocent  III  to  the  Coundl 

of  Trent  (1200-1563)  is  a  time  of  increasing  iimer 

decay  and  of  futile  efforts  at  reform.    The  first 

attempt  to  restore  discipline  in  the  monasteries 

of  the  order,  which  had  become  very 

^o^2P^    worldly,  was    made  in  1215  by  the 

and  At  *^  Fourth  Lateran  CouncU  under  Inno- 
tempts  at   ^^^  ^^^'     ^^  ordered  that  every  three 

Beform.  years  a  general  chapter  should  be 
held,  and  that  the  visitatiox:8  pre- 
scribed by  this  chapter  should  be  made  by  Cirter- 
cian  abbots.  Under  this  regulation  the  archbisbc^ 
'^f  Canterbury  and  York  introduced  thct  trienniil 


49 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benedict 
BenediotioB 


visitations  into  the  Benedictine  monasteries  of 
I!n£:land,  and  enforced  them  in  repeated  provin- 
cial councils.  For  the  monasteries  of  the  Continent, 
special  importance  attached  to  the  edict  of 
Benedict  XII,  himself  a  Cistercian,  who,  after 
introducing  a  8tricter  discipline  into  his  own 
order  {lXio\  issiic^d  in  the  following  year  an 
edict  concerning  the  Benedictines.  This  consti- 
tution, known  as  Summa  Afagistri  or  ConstiitUio 
Btnedictina,  decrees  that  in  each  monastery  a 
general  chapter  is  to  be  held  annually.  For  each 
of  the  thirty-six  provinces  into  which  the  order  is 
divided  by  it.  triennial  provincial  chapters  are 
prescribed.  But  in  spite  of  this  measure,  which 
had  a  temporarily  beneficial  effect,  spirituality 
constantly  declined.  The  reforms  introduced  after- 
ward by  the  Council  of  Constance  (1415),  by  a 
provincial  chapter  of  the  Mainz  province  of  the  order 
held  at  Petershausen  (1417),  by  the  congregation 
of  Bursfelde  (q.v.)  organized  for  the  North-German 
territories  of  the  order,  as  well  as  by  many  Spanish 
congregations  (e.g.,  the  Observance  of  Valladolid 
under  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  1493),  brought 
about  merely  a  temporary  improvement  in  the  con- 
ditions. 

The  Tridentine  reforming  period  (1563-1800) 
was  introduced  by  the  decree  De  regularibuM  et 
monialibus  passed  in  the  twenty-fifth  session  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Dec.  3,  1563),  which  opposes  the 
mischievous  excess  of  exemptions  (q.v.),  puts  the 
female  members  of  the  order  without  exception 
and  the  male  members  for  the  most  part 
under  the  supervision  of  the  bishops,  and  insists 
upon  strict  observance  of  the  older  regulations 

concerning    the    holding    of    general 

8-  1569-     chapters,  visitations,  etc.    Several  new 

A^^    ^1"  Benedictine  congregations  sprang  up 

f*      Hew  ^'*^®''  ^^*  influence  of  the  Tridentine 

Conneca-    ^^™^I  ™   South  Germany  one   for 

tions.       Swabia  (1564  ),  one  at  Strasburg  (1601 ), 

one  at  Salzburg  (1641),  one  for 
Bavaria  (1684);  in  Flanders  the  congregation  of 
St.  Vedast  near  Arras,  foimded  about  1590;  in 
Lorraine  that  of  St.  Vanne  and  St.  Hydulph, 
which  Abbot  Didier  de  la  Cour  foimded  in  1600 
and  Pope  Clement  VIII  confirmed  in  1604.  An 
outgrowth  of  the  latter  was  the  congregation  of  St. 
^laur,  founded  in  1618  under  the  direction  of  the 
same  Abbot  Didier,  which  spread  all  over  France, 
attaining  the  number  of  180  monasteries,  and 
raised  the  work  of  the  order  in  the  direction  of 
learning  to  a  prosperity  which  it  never  had  before 
(see  St.  Maur,  Conorboation  of).  But  after 
about  1780,  first  the  forcible  secularization  under 
Joseph  II,  and  then  the  storm  of  the  Revolution 
in  France  and  the  neighboring  coimtries  to  the  south 
brought  about  the  ruin  of  the  order. 

The  epoch  of  restoration,  which  coincides  with 
the  nineteenth  century,  has    been    able   to   save 

only  about  500  houses  (with   about 

4.  The      4,300  monks),  out  of  the  37,000  houses 

Nineteenth  (abbeys  or  priories)  which  the  order 

Century,    ntimbered  before  the  catastrophes  of 

the  eighteenth  century.     Yet  in  some 
of  the  congregations  there  is  at  present  a  healthy 
tnd  vigorous  life  as  far  as  the  morals  and  discipline 
II.— 4 


are  concerned  and  also  as  to  achievements  in 
theological  learning  and  Christian  art  (painting, 
sculpture,  etc.).  In  the  latter  respect  the  South- 
German  congregation  of  Beuron  is  especially  dis- 
tinguished. The  two  other  South-German  con- 
gregations (the  Bavarian  and  the  Swabian)  and 
those  of  northern  France  and  Belgium  (especially 
in  the  monasteries  of  Solesmes  and  Maredsous) 
have  recently  produced  some  able  scholars  and 
theologians.  The  Benedictines  of  the  mother 
house  of  the  order  at  Monte  Cassino  (q.v.)  and  tlie 
American  congregations  connected  with  it  have 
also  rendered  considerable  services  in  the  same 
lines.  O.  ZOcKLBRf. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  somewhat  voluminouB  early  literatyre 
on  Benedict  in  the  shape  of  poems  and  lives  may  be  found 
in  part  in  MQH,  Poet.  Lot  mtd.  avi,  i,  36-42,  Berlin,  1881 
(the  Carmina  of  Paul  the  Deacon);  MGH,  Script.^  vol.  xv, 
parti,  pp.  480-482,  674.  Hanover,  1887  (Ex  adventu  eor^ 
poria  S.  BenedicH  in  agrwn  FlaTiacenMm)\  four  works  on 
the  Miracles  are  published  in  MOU,  Script,  vol.  xv,  part 
1.  pp.  474-500.  part  2  (1888).  8G3.  866,  ix  (1851).  374- 
376.  The  VittB  by  Gregory  and  other  writers  as  well 
as  the  poems  and  relations  of  miracles  may  be  found 
in  ASM,  snc.  i.  pp.  28, 29-35.  and  ssc.  ii.  pp.  80, 353-358, 
360-394;  in  ASB,  Mar.,  iu.  276,  288-297.  302-357;  and  in 
MPL,  Ixxx,  xcv.  cxxiv,  cxxvi,  cxxxiii,  cxxxiv,  dx.  Con- 
sult: P.  K.  Brandes,  Leben  de$  heUigen  Benedikt,  Einsie- 
deln,  1858;  P.  Lechner,  Leben  de$  heiligen  Benedict  Re- 
gensburg,  1859;  C.  de  Montalembert.  Lee  Moinee  d'Occi^ 
denl,  ii.  3-92  (on  8t.  Benedict).  7  vols.,  Paris,  1860-77, 
Eng.  transl.,  7  vols.,  London,  1861-79,  new  ed.,  with  in- 
troduction by  Dom  Gasquet  on  the  Rule,  6  vols..  1896; 
P.  HQgli,  Der  heilioe  Benedikt,  in  Studien  und  MmKeilun- 
gen  aue  dem  BenedicL-Orden,  year  VI,  vol.  i(1885),  141- 
162;  J.  H.  Newman,  Mieeion  of  St  Benediet  in  Hiatorieal 
Skelchee,  vol.  ii.  London.  1885;  F.  G.  Doyle,  Teaching  of 
St  Benedict.  London.  1887;  G.  Grfltsmacher,  Die  Bedeu- 
tung  Benedikte  .  .  .  und  eeiner  Kegel,  Berlin,  1892;  L. 
Tosti,  St  Benedict;  Hietorieal  Diecouraeon  hie  Life,  transl. 
from  the  Ital.,  London,  1896,  cf.  St  Benedict  and  Orotta^ 
ferra,  Beeaye  on  Toeti'e  Life  of  St  Benedict  ib.  1896. 

On  the  order:  Bibliographiedee  BinSdicHnede  France,  Bo- 
lesmes,  1889;  the  fundamental  work  is  J.  MabilIon,ii  nnaJes 
ordinieS.  Benedicti,6Yo\a.,  Paris,  1703-39;  Montalembert,  ut 
■up.;  Sir  Jas.  Stephens.  The  French  BenedicHnee,  in  Beeaye 
in  EedeeiaeHeal  Biography,  London,  1867;  8.  Branner,  Bin 
BenedikUnerhuch,  Wfirsburg.  1880;  Scriploree  ordinie  S, 
Bertedicti  in  itnperio  Auetriaeo-Hungarico,  Vienna,  1881; 
B.  Weldon,  Chronide  of  English  BenedieHne  Monke,  Lon- 
don, 1882  (covers  the  period  from  Mary  to  James  II); 
H.  C.  Lea,  Hietory  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  Philadelphia, 
1884,  and  cf.  his  Hietory  of  <^  inquiaiHon,  new  ed.,  New 
York,  1906;  J.  H.  Newman,  Ben0dictine  Sehoole,hi  Hie- 
torieal Sketchee,  ut  sup.;  F.  M.  Ranbek,  SainU  of  ffis  Order 
of  St  Benedict,  London,  1890;  E.  L.  Taunton.  Englieh 
Black  Monke  of  St  Benedict  2  vols.,  ib.  1897;  Heim- 
bucher,  Orden  und  Kongregatumen,  i,  92-263.  Of  the  Rule 
among  old  editions  the  best  is  by  L.  Holstenius,  Codex 
regularum  monaetioarum,  i,  111-135.  Augsburg,  1759;  an- 
other  is  by  E.  Bfart^ne  in  his  Commentariue  in  regulam 
S.  Benedieti,  Paris,  1600.  The  best  edition  is  by  E.  Woelff- 
lin.  Benedict*  regula  fnonachorutn,  Leipsio,  1895;  serv- 
ioeable  are  E.  Schmidt,  Die  Regel  dee  heiligen  Benedicte, 
Regensburg.  1891,  and  P.  K.  Brandes.  Leben  und  Regel  dee 
.  .  .  Benedikt  vols.  ii.  iii,  Einsiedeln,  1858-63.  The 
Latin  and  Anglo-Saxon  Interlinear  TratMlaiicm  was  edited 
by  H.  Logeman,  London.  1888.  The  Rule  was  published 
in  E^.  transl.,  London,  1886,  ib.  1896.  in  Thatcher  and 
MoNeal,  Source  Book,  pp.  432-485.  in  Henderson,  Doeu- 
mente,  pp.  274-313;  and  by  D.  O.  H.  Blair,  London, 
1906.  A  bibliography  of  commentaries  is  in  KL,  ii, 
324-325. 

BENEDICTINES.    See  Benedict  of  Nursia. 

BEITEDICTION;  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
a  part  of  every  liturgical  act,  belonging  to  the  class 
of    sacramentals   (q.v.)— i.e.,   things  which  were 


Ben«diotion 
Benoflce 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


50 


inBtituied,  not  by  Christ  but  by  the  hierarchic 
Church  with  divine  authority,  and  which  are  sup- 
posed, in  their  application  to  persons  and  things, 
to  communicate  qtiasi  ex  opere  operato  through  or- 
dained priests  the  grace  of  God  consisting  in  purifi- 
cation, supernatural  revivification,  and  sanctifi- 
cation.  The  higher  the  hierarchical  position  of 
him  who  bestows  the  blessing,  the  more  power- 
ful it  is.  Benediction  and  exorcism  are  always 
connected;  the  latter  breaks  demoniac  influences 
and  drives  away  the  demons,  while  the  former 
communicates  divine  powers,  not  only  positively, 
but  also  negatively  in  the  way  of  purification, 
by  blotting  out  sins  of  omission  and  the  tem- 
poral punishment  of  sins,  and  removing  satanic 
influences,  thus  having  itself  a  sort  of  exorcism 
though  not  explicit.  Where  exorcism  alone  takes 
place,  it  is  in  an  imperative  manner,  whereas  the 
benediction  is  precative,  yet  with  an  effective  di- 
vine power  quasi  ex  apere  operato  by  means  of  the 
sign  of  the  cross.  The  personal  benediction  effects 
either  a  lasting  habitus  (e.g.,  anointing  at  baptism), 
or  a  forma  gratia  actualis  for  a  passing  object  and 
condition  (e.g.,  benediction  for  travelers,  and  the 
sick);  both  kinds  work  either  in  the  main  negatively 
by  the  removal  of  satanic  influences  or  positively 
in  illumination  and  bestowal  of  supernatural 
strength  in  body  and  soul.  Benedictions  of  things 
are  idways  primarily  negative,  and  positive  only 
in  the  second  place,  that  the  use  and  enjoyment 
of  the  objects  may  conduce  to  the  welfare  of  man's 
body  and  soul.  The  supernatural  powers  are 
attached  to  the  things  by  means  of  the  benediction, 
and  in  their  effect  they  are  independent  of  the  con- 
duct of  man;  either  they  make  the  things  perma- 
nently rea  sacroe,  affecting  men  in  a  purifying  and 
sanctifying  manner  (baptismal  water,  holy  water, 
rosaries,  etc.),  or  they  are  of  transient  effect  as 
conveying  God's  grace  and  protection.  Some- 
times they  are  also  connected  with  indulgences. 
If  anointing  is  applied,  the  benediction  becomes 
a  consecration,  whereby  the  thing  is  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  God  (e.g.,  monstrances,  crosses, 
pictures,  flags,  organs,  etc.). 

Aa  to  the  Evangelical  conception  of  the  bene- 
dictions, the  words  of  Johann  Gerhard  give  the 
proper  point  of  view:  "  The  priests  [in  the  Old 
Testament]  blessed  by  praying  for  good  things; 
God  blessed  by  bestowing  the  good  things.  Their 
blessing  was  votive,  his  effective.  God  promises 
to  confirm  this  sacerdotal  blessing  on  condition 
that  it  is  given  according  to  his  word  and  will." 
Thus  it  is  only  God  who  effectively  blesses;  that  is, 
oommtmicates  divine  powers  of  his  grace  and  his 
spirit;  all  human  blessing  is  only  intercession  with 
(Uh\  for  his  blessing.  [According  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  view,  the  objective  difference  between 
lltiirgli'nl  and  extraliturgical,  ecclesiastical  and 
iirlvaU!  l)one<liction  is  that  in  the  former  the  efficacy 
uMinnritos  from  the  Church  as  a  body  by  whose 
ttiilliorliy  the  rite  was  instituted  and  in  whose  name 
if,  Im  r'on'fi^rml  and,  in  consequence,  is  supposed  to 
\fn  <(fnrtlnr  timn  in  the  latter  where  the  effect  de- 
tri.M<lH  on  iUt^  intorroHHion  of  an  individual.]  Accord- 
Uif  hi  Min  lOviuiK^'llottl  idea,  there  exists  no  objective 
illfT^rwiw  botwoon  liturgical   and  extraUturgical, 


ecclesiastical  and  private  benediction;  it  is  only 
in  a  psychological  way  that  the  former  may  be 
more  efficacious  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  subjective 
conditions  of  the  hearing  of  prayer.  Again,  only 
persons,  not  things,  can  be  blessed  with  God's 
spirit  and  grace.  If  things  are  nevertheless  blessed, 
it  means  that  they  are  set  apart  for  ritual  use;  and 
so  long  as  they  are  thus  employed,  they  will  be 
sacred,  while  they  are  desecrated  when  used  lightly 
apart  from  ritual  purposes.  The  benediction  of 
things  takes  place  only  by  metonymy;  the  things 
are  mentioned,  but  the  persons  aro  meant  who 
use  them.  Thus,  e.g.,  a  cemetery  is  dedicated  to 
its  special  use  and  handed  over  to  the  reverential 
protection  of  the  living;  a  church  edifice  is  dedicated 
by  its  being  used  and  offered  to  the  living  congre- 
gation as  a  valuable  religious  possession  because  of 
its  use.  But  the  Roman  Catholic  traditions  still 
in  many  ways  influence  the  ideas  held  even  among 
Protestants  on  the  subject  of  benediction. 

E.  C.  ACHELIS. 

Biblioqsapht:  O.  Gretser,  De  benedieiumibuM,  Ingol»tadt, 
1616;  J.  Gerhard.  De  benedictume  eceienatHea,  pp.  1252- 
1290.  Jena.  1655:  E.  Bftart^ne,  De  antiquia  ecdsna  ritibut. 
vol.  iii.  Rouen,  1700:  J.  C.  W.  Aucuati.  DenkwHrdiokeilen 
aut  der  chrisaiehen  ArchOoloifie,  iii.  302-393.  x.  165  eqq.. 
12vols..  Leipaic.  1817-31 ;  A.  J.  Bintorim,  Segenund  Flueh.  in 
DenkwHrdiokeiten,  vol.  vii.  part  2.  Mains.  1S41;  L.  Cole- 
man. Apoatolical  and  Primitive  Churd^^  chap.  ziv.  Lon- 
don. 1844;  V.  Thalhofer.  Handbuch  der  katholiachen  Lx- 
tuTffik,  ii.  523-524.  FreibuTB,  1890;  Bingham.  Origina, 
XIV.  IT.  16.  XV.  iii.  29;  DC  A,  i.  193-200  (elaborate). 

BEITEFICE. 

Meaning  of  the  Term  (|  1).  Appointment  to  a  Benefiee 
Remuneration  of  Clergy  ( |  2).        ( §  4). 

Provisions    Affecting    Bene-  Rights  of  a  Benefice  (|  5). 

fices  (I  3.)  Tenure  ((  6). 

Benefice  (beneficium  ecdesiasticum)  is  a  teitn 
which  includes  two  meanings:  the  spiritual,  relating 
to  the  ecclesiastical  duties  attached  to  it;  and  the 
temporal,  relating  to  the  income  and  other  worldly 
advantages  of  the  office.  The  latter  is  more  strict- 
ly the  meaning  of  the  word,  though  the  connection 
of  the  two  was  early  recognized  in  the  phrase 
beneficium  datur  propter  officium.  Indeed,  the  term 
henefi>cium  is  not  generally  used  where  there  is  only 

the  temporal  side,  with  no  corre- 
I.  Meaning  sponding  duties.  Such  a  case  may  be 
of  the  Term,  a  commenda,  whose  holder  has  a  right 

to  the  revenues  of  a  church  without 
any  responsibihties;  or  a  prcBstimonium,  which  is 
a  charge  for  support  on  the  revenues  of  the  church; 
or  a  pensiOf  the  use  of  a  part  of  the  revenues. 
These  relations,  however,  when  they  are  penna- 
nent  fall  under  the  general  rules  i^plicable  to 
benefices.  The  benefice  proper  is  ordinarily  per- 
manent, though  sometimes  founded  for  a  specified 
time. 

Historically  in  the  primitive  Church  all  the 
property  of  a  diocese  formed  one  whole,  admin- 
istered by  the  bishop;  its  purpose  was  primarily 
the  support  of  the  poor — ^bishop  and  clergy  lived 
as  belonging  to  that  class,  and  were  supposed,  if 
they  had  no  private  means,  to  support  themselves 
by  their  own  labors.  Those  who  had  no  other 
means  of  support  received  a  monthly  stipend  from 


51 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Banedlotion 
Benefice 


the  geDeral  fund.  With  the  recognition  of  the 
Church  under  Constantine,  and  the  consequent 
accession  of  considerable  property 
3.  Remo-  and  state  subventions,  the  ^stem 
nemtionof  changed.  But  in  law  the  episcopal 
Clergy,  church  was  still  the  unit  in  any  con- 
sideration of  diocesan  property,  and 
the  bishop  still  its  exclusive  custodian.  This 
remained  the  case  when  church  property  was 
divided  into  three  or  into  four  parts  (see  C^surch 
BuiLDiKG,  Taxation  for)  and  one  part  destined 
for  the  support  of  the  clergy.  While,  however, 
it  was  long  before  the  theory  changed,  in  practise 
there  was  a  tendency  to  decentralization,  and  the 
individual  parishes  began  to  be  recognized  as 
separate  units.  This  arose  largely  from  donations 
and  endowments  destined  by  the  donor  for  a  par- 
ticular church,  whose  clergy  were  to  be  supported 
out  of  their  returns.  After  the  fifth  century  it 
became  custonuuy  for  the  bishops,  instead  of  pay- 
ing their  clergy  out  of  a  central  fund,  to  assign 
pieces  of  land  for  their  support  and  that  of  the  poor 
and  of  public  worship.  These  assignments  became 
gradually  irrevocable,  and  thus  finally  the  diocesan 
unity  was  dissolved,  and  the  separate  churches 
came  into  permanent  possession  of  these  properties. 
The  intimate  connection  between  officium  and 
befuficium  is  shown  by  a  review  of  the  provisions 
affecting  benefices.  They  are  divided  into  regular 
and  secular,  according  as  they  are  served  by  mon- 
astic or  secular  clergy;  into  beneficia  curaia,  those 
to  which  the  cure  of  souls  is  attached,  and  rum 
cwraUif  such  as  those  of  chaplains, 
3.  Provisions  canons  of  cathedrab,  and  the  like. 
Affecting  The  Council  of  Trent  forbade  changing 
Benefices,  a  beneficium  curatum  into  a  nan 
curatum  or  simplex.  The  erection 
or  ecmiititution  of  a  benefice,  the  permanent  attach- 
ment of  certain  revenues  to  the  performance  of 
oertain  duties,  was  held  to  be  reserved  to  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities.  The  foundation  of  bishoprics 
was  originally  a  function  of  provincial  synods, 
but  later  came  to  the  pope,  who  also  had  power 
alone  to  found  collegiate  churches.  The  bishop 
has  power  to  found  other  benefices  within  his  6io- 
eese,  and  his  oflidals  decide  whether  the  endowment 
is  sufficient  and  whether  the  proposed  foundation 
will  be  useful  and  not  injure  any  other  party. 
The  founder  has  certain  rights  of  imposing  con- 
ditions for  the  tenure  of  his  benefice,  which,  once 
confinned,  are  perpetual. 

The  i^pointment  to  a  benefice  (provisio,  inatituHo 

cancniea)  includes  the  choice  of  the  person  {desig- 

natio)  and  the  conferring  of  the  benefice  (coUcUio, 

eoneeuio,  insHtuHo  in  the  narrower  sense).    The 

designation  to  the  greater  benefices 

4.  Appoint-  (bishoprics  and  the  like)  is  sometimes 

ment  to  a   by  election,  sometimes  by  nomination 

Benefica.    of   the   sovereign;  to   the  lesser,   by 

the  choice  of  the  bishop,  frequently 

on  the  ncMiiination  of  a  patron.    The  collation  is 

the  act  of  ecclesiastical  superiors — of  the  pope  to 

bishoprics  (eonfirmatio),  of  the  bishop  to  the  lesser 

beneficea. 

The  conditions  of  a  proper  canonical  appoint- 
ment to  a  benefice  are  several:     (1)  A  vacancy 


must  exist,  and  that  a  real  one,  not  such  as  would 
be  caused  by  the  forcible  expulsion  of  the  incmn- 
bent.  Thus  expectancies  (q.v.)  are  forbidden; 
but  the  election  of  a  coadjutor-bishop  cum  jure 
eucceasiania  is  allowed.  (2)  The  person  appointed 
must  be  a  persona  regularis  and  idonea,  i.e.,  properly 
qualified  to  hold  the  benefice.  Under  this  head 
comes  the  possession  of  the  qualifications  necessary 
for  ordination  (q.v.),  though,  where  it  is  required, 
a  delay  of  a  year  or  other  specified  time  may  be 
granted.  Intellectual  qualifications  are  included, 
to  be  determined,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
by  examination;  and  the  law  has  sometimes  re- 
quired native  birth  also,  other  things  being  equal. 
(3)  The  appointment  must  be  made  within  the 
legal  time,  the  rule  being  that  no  benefice  shall 
remain  vacant  more  than  six  months;  otherwise 
the  right  of  presentation  is  lost  (see  Devolution, 
Law  of).  (4)  There  must  be  no  simony  involved. 
(5)  What  are  called  subreption  and  obreption  are 
also  forbidden;  this  affects  especially  cases  where 
a  person  obtains  a  benefice  without  letting  it  be 
known  that  he  already  holds  another.  The  church 
law  forbids  plurality  of  benefices,  except,  for  ex- 
ample, in  cases  where  a  beneficium  simplex  is  held 
concurrently  with  a  beneficium  curatum,  these 
being  held  to  be  compatible.  This  rule  was  often 
violated  by  papal  dispensation,  which  caused  great 
dissatisfaction.  (6)  The  proper  forms,  both  in  the 
designation  and  in  the  collation,  must  be  observed 
(see  Bishop;  Investiture;  etc.). 

The  rights  and  duties  connected  with  a  benefice 
are  partly  matters  of  universal  law,  partly  special 
to  the  particular  case.    The  inciunbent  has  a  right 
to  the  usufruct  of  any  property  belonging  to  the 
benefice,   tithes,   fees,   oblations,  etc. 
5.  Rights    All    this   is   his   absolutely;  but    the 
of  a        view  that  he  ought  only  to  use  so 
Benefice,     much  of  it  as  will  suffice  for  his  sup- 
port, devoting  the  rest  to  ecclesiastical 
purposes  and  especially  to  the  poor,  influenced 
legislation  very  ^urly,  so  that  what  came  from  the 
Church  was  supposed  to  revert  to  the  Cihurch,  if 
it  had  not  been  used,  at  the  cleric's  death.    This 
rule,  which  at  one  time  was  positive,  has  been  very 
much  relaxed,   within  certain  limits.    Of  course 
the  incumbent's  power  over  church  property  is 
limited  by  the  rights  of  his  successor,  and  no  ar- 
rangements can  be  made  lasting  beyond  his  life- 
time, unless  by  the  concurrence  of  the  proper 
authorities. 

A  benefice  is  supposed  to  be  conferred  for  life, 
and  is  noimally  vacated  only  by  the  death  of  the 
inciunbent,  but  it  may  be  vacated  earlier  by  resig- 
nation, either  express  or  tacit.    Resignation  can 
not  be  arbitrary  with  the  incumbent,  as  he  has  by 
his  acceptance  of  it  incurred  certain  obligations 
from  which  he  must  be  released — bishops  by  the 
pope,  the  lower  clergy  by  their  bishops.    There 
must  also  be  a  valid  ground  for  it. 
6.  Tenure.  Tacit   resignation   may   come   about 
through  any  act  which  ipso  facto  dis- 
solves the  relationship:  the  taking  monastic  vows 
by  the  holder  of  a  beneficium  scBodare,  the  accept- 
ance of  a  secular  office,  marriage  (see  Ceubacy), 
the  acceptance  of  another  incompatible  benefice. 


Benefioium 
Bennett 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


52 


change  of  faith,  etc.  Vacation  as  a  penalty  may 
occur  through  deprivation  or  remotion;  this  in- 
cludes the  transfer  of  a  priest,  as  a  disciplinary 
measure,  to  a  smaller  charge. 

[The  technical  use  of  the  word  benefice  in  Protes- 
tant Churches  is  largely  confined  to  the  Church  of 
England,  where  a  great  part  of  the  prescriptions 
given  above  is  still  in  force.  In  the  statute  law 
of  England  the  term  is  practically  restricted  to 
a  benefice  with  cure  of  souls,  as  distinct  from 
cathedral  preferment.;  In  the  State  Churches  of 
Germany  also  the  distinction  between  beneficium 
and  offidum  is  still  maintained,  and  the  erection 
and  alteration  of  benefices  is  a  matter  concerning 
jointly  the  ecclesiajstical  and  secular  authorities. 
Here  the  ordinary  collator  to  a  benefice  is  the 
consistory.  The  tendency  of  the  most  modem 
legislation  is  toward  giving  the  congregation  a 
voice  in  the  selection  of  the  pastor. 

(E.  Friedbero.) 

Biblxoorapht:  Bingham,  Ongine*,  book  v;  L.  Thomassin. 
Veiiu  et  nova  eedeaia  diaciplina.  II,  iii,  13,  (  5,  Pam,  1608; 
C.  Gross,  Da9  RecfU  an  der  PfriLnde,  Gras.  1887;  Galante, 
itbeneficio  eccUnasHco,  Milan,  1805;  U.  Stuts,  OeMchiehU 
ties  kirchlichen  Benefizialioetena  von  »einen  AnfAngen  bia 
auf  die  Zeit  Alexanden  III.  Berlin,  1895. 

BENEFICIUM  COMP£T£NTL£:  The  privilege 
by  which  a  condemned  debtor  is  allowed  to  retain 
so  much  of  his  income  as  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
Lis  maintenance.  Such  a  privilege  exists  in  many 
[>laces,  in  the  interest  of  the  public  service,  for 
officials  and  also  for  clerics.  For  the  latter  the 
custom  is  usually  referred  to  the  decree  of  Gregory 
IX  (1271-76)  De  solutionibua  (iii,  23).  This  pas- 
sage, however,  only  establishes  the  principle  that 
an  unbeneficed  clerical  debtor  can  not  be  forced 
to  pay  by  spiritual  penalties,  and  that  the  creditors 
are  to  be  content  with  sufficient  security  for  pay- 
ment when  the  debtor's  circumstances  improve. 
The  glosses,  and  common  practise  following  them, 
base  the  privilege  upon  the  decree,  and  statute  law 
has  confirmed  it,  restricting  any  levy  upon  the  salary 
or  other  income  of  such  a  cleric  so  that  a  certain 
sum  is  left  to  him  as  congrua  (austentaiio).  This 
privilege  can  not  be  pleaded  in  the  case  of  debts 
arising  from  unlawful  transactions  or  of  public 
taxes.  (E.  Friedbbbg.) 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY:  A  privilege  dairoed 
by  the  medieval  Church,*  as  part  of  its  general 
plea  of  immunity  from  secular  interference.  It 
allowed  members  of  the  clergy  to  have  their  trial 
for  offenses  with  which  they  were  charged,  not 
before  any  secular  tribimal,  but  in  the  bishop's 
court.  In  England  this  covered  practically  all 
cases  of  felony  except  treason  against  the  king, 
and  by  the  reign  of  Henry  II  it  had  given  rise  to 
great  abuses.  In  many  cases  grossly  criminal 
acts  of  clerics  escaped  unpunished,  and  other 
criminals  eluded  the  penalty  of  their  acts  by  declar- 
ing themselves  clerics.  The  question  was  one  of 
those  on  which  the  quarrel  between  the  king  and 
Becket  reached  its  acute  stage;  and  by  the  Ck>n- 
stitutions  of  Clarendon  (1164;  see  Becket,  Thomas) 
Henry  attempted  to  deal  with  it  by  decreeing 
that  clerics  accused  of  crime  w^ere  to  be  first 
arraigned  in  the  king's  court,  which  might  at  its  dis- 


cretion send  them  to  an  ecclesiastical  court.  If 
convicted  here  and  degraded  (see  Degradation), 
the  clerk  was  to  lose  his  benefit  of  clergy  and  be 
amenable  to  lay  justice.  Edward  III  extended  the 
privilege  in  1330  to  include  aU  persons  who  could 
read  (see  Clerk);  and  it  was  not  imtil  the  fifteenth 
century  that  any  very  definite  regulation  of  this 
dangerous  latitude  was  arrived  at.  Later  statutes 
guarded  against  the  evasion  of  their  provisions  by 
expressly  declaring  that  their  operation  was  "  with- 
out benefit  of  clergy,"  and  the  privilege  was  finaUy 
abolished  in  1827.  There  are  a  few  early  cases  of 
its  use  in  the  American  colonies,  especially  the 
Carolinas  and  Virginia;  but  an  Act  of  Congress 
put  an  end  to  it  here  in  1790. 

BENEZET,  ben'Vzet',  ANTHONY:  Quaker 
philanthropist;  b.  at  St.  Quentin,  France,  Jan.  31, 
1714;  d.  at  Philadelphia  May  3, 1784.  He  belonged 
to  a  Huguenot  family  which  settled  in  England  in 
1715,  joined  the  Quakers  there,  and  came  to  Phila- 
delphia in  1731.  He  was  a  cooper  by  trade,  but 
gave  his  life  after  coming  to  America  to  teaching 
and  to  philanthropic  efforts,  against  slavery  and 
war,  in  behalf  of  the  American  Indians,  and  the 
total  abstinence  cause.  In  1742  he  became  Eng- 
lish master  in  the  Friends'  School  at  Philadelphia 
and  in  1755  established  a  girls'  school  there.  In 
1750  he  undertook  an  evening  school  for  slaves. 
He  wrote  many  tracts  against  the  slave  trade 
and  printed  and  distributed  them  at  his  own  ex- 
pense; he  also  published  A  Short  Account  of  the 
People  Called  Quakers  (Philadelphia,  1780);  The 
Plainnees  and  Innocent  Simplicity  of  the  Christian 
Religion  (1782);  Some  Obaervationa  on  the  SiiuaHan, 
Dispoeilion,  and  Character  of  the  Indian  Nalives 
of  this  Continent  (1784). 

Bibuoorapht:  R.  Vaux,  Memoir  of  Antiumy  Benezet,  Plul»> 
delphia.  1817,  revised  by  W.  Armistead.  Loudon,  1850. 

BEN6EL,  JOHANN  ALBRECHT:  German  Lu- 
theran; b.  at  Winnenden  (12  m.  n.e.  of  Stutt- 
gart), Warttemberg,  Jime  24,  1687;  d.  at  Stuttgart 
Nov.  2,  1752.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  de- 
voted himself  especially  to  the  sacred  text;  he  was 
also  intent  upon  philosophy,  paying  particular  at- 
tention to  Spinoza.  After  a  year  in  the  ministiy 
as  vicar  at  Metzingen,  he  became  theological  repe- 
tent  at  Ttlbingen  in  1708;  and  in  1713  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  the  cloister-school  at  Denken- 
dorf ,  a  seminary  for  the  early  training  of  candidates 
for  the  ministry.  During  this  year  he  traveled 
through  Germany,  visiting  the  schools,  including 
those  of  the  Jesuits,  to  learn  their  methods.  At 
Denkendorf  he  published  in  1719  his  first  woric,  an 
edition  of  the  EpistoUe  Ciceronia  ad  famUiares,  with 
notes;  then  Gregorii  panegyricus  grace  et  latine 
(1722),  and  Chryaoetomi  libri  vi  deeacerdatio  (1725), 
to  which  he  added  Prodromus  Novi  Testamenti  rede 
eauteque  ordinandi.  His  chief  work,  however,  was 
upon  the  New  Testament.  While  a  student*  he 
was  much  perplexed  by  the  various  readings  in  the 
text,  and  with  characteristic  energy  and  perse- 
verance he  immediately  began  to  investigate  the 
subject.  He  procured  aU  the  editions,  manuscripts, 
and  translations  possible,  and  in  1734  published 
his  text  and  an  Apparatue  crUieiu,  which  becamo 


53 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Benefieitixa 
Bennett 


the  fltarting-point  for  modem  text-criticism  of  the 
New  Testament,  fiis  famous  canon  was:  "  The 
more  difficult  reading  is  to  be  preferred/'  This 
critical  work  was  followed  by  an  exegetical  one, 
Gnomon  Novi  Testamenti  (Tubingen,  1742),  which 
has  often  been  reprinted  in  Latin,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  German  by  C.  F.  Werner  (1853,  3d  ed., 
1876)  and  into  English  in  Clark's  Library  (5  w>ls., 
Edinburgh,  1857-58)  and  in  an  improved  edition 
by  Lewis  and  Vincent  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1860- 
1861).  As  a  brief  and  suggestive  commentary  on 
the  New  Testament,  the  Gnomon  is  still  of  use. 

Bengers  chief  principle  of  interpretation,  briefly 
stated,  is  to  read  nothing  into  the  Scriptures,  but  draw 
everything  from  them,  and  suffer  nothing  to  remain 
hidden  that  is  really  in  them.  His  Gnomon  exerted 
considerable  influence  on  exegesis  in  Germany,  and 
John  Wesley  translated  most  of  its  notes  and  in- 
corporated them  into  his  AnnoUUory  Notes  upon  the 
Sew  Testament  (London,  1755).  In  1740  appeared 
Bengel's  Erkldrte  Offenbarung  Johannis,  often  re- 
printed (Eng.  transl.  by  John  Robertson,  London, 
1757);  in  1741  his  Ordo  temporum,  and  in  1745  his 
CyduB  aive  de  anno  magno  consider atio.  In  these 
chronological  works  he  endeavored  to  fix  the  "  num- 
ber of  the  beast "  and  the  date  of  the  "  millen- 
nium," which  he  placed  in  the  year  1836.  In  1741 
he  was  made  prelate  of  Herbrechtingen;  in  1749 
member  of  consistory  and  prelate  of  Alpirspach, 
with  residence  at  Stuttgart;  and  two  years  later 
Tubingen  honored  him  with  the  doctorate. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BnuooKAPKT:  The  best  life  is  by  O.  W&chter.  J.  A.  Bentfel. 
Ubenaabrim,  Stutteart.  1865;  cf.  idem,  Bengel  und  Otin^ 
gtr,  QQtenloh,  1883;  a  life  was  written  by  his  son  and 
included  in  the  Introduetion  to  the  Oitomon,  where  it  is 
nsuaUy  fomid;  in  more  complete  form  by  his  ereat-grand- 
Bon  J.  C.  F.  Bxirk.  /.  A.  BenoeU  Ltben  und  Wirken,  Stutt- 
cnrt,  1831,  Eng.  transl.  by  Walker,  London,  1837;  E. 
Nestte,  Btngel  aU  GtUhrter,  Tubingen.  1S93. 

BEHHAM,  WILLIAM:  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Westmeon  (16  m.  n.e.  of  Southampton),  Hants, 
Jan.  15,  1831.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Mark's 
College,  Chelsea,  and  King's  College,  London 
(Theological  Associate,  1857),  and  was  a  village 
achoobxiaster  from  1849  to  1852,  and  a  private 
tutor  from  1853  to  1856.  He  was  ordered  deacon 
in  1857  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year,  and 
after  acting  as  tutor  in  St.  Mark's  College  from 
1S57  to  1864,  was  editorial  secretary  of  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  from 
1864  to  1867.  and  professor  of  modem  history  in 
Queen's  0)llege,  London,  from  1864  to  1871.  He 
was  successively  curate  of  St.  Lawrence,  Jewry, 
London  (1865-67),  vicar  of  Addington  (1867-73), 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  Margate  (1873-^0),  and  Mar- 
den,  Kent  (1880-82),  as  well  as  Six-Preacher  of 
Canteibury  Cathedral  from  1872  to  1888,  and  Boyle 
lecturer  in  1897.  Since  1882  he  has  been  rector 
of  St.  Edmund's,  Lombard  Street,  and  has  also 
been  honorary  canon  of  Canterbury  since  1885. 
He  has  likewise  been  rural  dean  of  East  City  since 
1903.  In  theology  he  is  a  Broad-church  disciple 
of  F.  D.  Maurice.  He  has  published  the  following 
works:  The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  wUh  Notes  and  a 
Commentary  (London,  1862);  English  BaliadSf  tnth 


Introduction  and  Notes  (1863);  The  Epistles  for  the 
Christian  Year,  vnth  Notes  and  Commentary  (1864); 
The  Church  of  the  Patriarchs  (1867);  Companion 
to  the  Lectionary  (1872);  A  New  Translation  of 
Thomas  A  Kempis'  "  Imitatio  Christi"  (1874); 
Readings  on  the  Life  of  our  Lord  and  His  Apostles 
(1880);  How  to  Teach  the  Old  Testament  (1881); 
Annals  of  the  Diocese  of  Winchester  (1884);  A  Short 
History  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  America  (1884); 
The  Dictionary  of  Religion  (1887);  and  Old  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  (1902).  He  coUaboratod  with 
R.  P.  Davidson  and  with  C.  Welsh  in  Medicrval 
London  (1901);  and  etiitcd  the  Life  of  Archbishop 
Tail  (London,  1891);  The  Writings  of  St.  John,  in 
the  Temple  Bible  (1902),  and  the  Ancient  and  Mod- 
em Library  of  Theological  Literature. 

BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA  (a  town  of  Navarre, 
on  the  Ebro,  160  miles  n.e.  of  Madrid):  Property 
Benjamin  ben  Jonah,  a  Spanish  rabbi,  who  in  1160 
(or  1165;  cf.  Gr&tz,  Geschichte  der  Judcn,  vi,  note 
10)  left  home  and  traveled  through  Catalonia, 
southern  France,  Italy,  Greece,  the  islands  of  the 
Levant,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia  to  Bag- 
dad; thence  he  proceeded  to  Egypt  by  way  of 
Khuzistan,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Yemen;  and 
finally  returned  to  Spain  in  1173.  The  informa- 
tion which  he  gathered  with  great  diligence  not 
only  concerning  the  places  visited,  but  also  of  ad- 
joining lands,  was  written  down  in  a  Hebrew  work 
(Massa'oth  shd  rabbi  Binyamin,  "  Itinerary  of  the 
Rabbi  Benjamin  "),  which  is  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous of  early  books  of  travel.  Benjamin  was  credu- 
lous, perhaps  deficient  in  general  information,  and 
interested  primarily  in  things  Jewish;  his  book 
aboimds  in  errors  and  absurdities,  but  it  does  not 
justify  the  charge  of  deliberate  falsification,  and  it 
contains  much  that  is  true  and  valuable  not  only 
concerning  the  numbers,  status,  and  dispersion  of 
the  Jews  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  also  concern- 
ing general  history,  political  conditions,  trade,  de- 
scriptions of  places,  and  the  like. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  "  Itinerary "  waa  first  publiBhed  at 
Constantinople  in  1543;  then  Ferrara,  1556;  Freiburg, 
1683;  and  many  times  subsequently.  Arias  Montanus 
and  C.  TEmpereur  issued  the  text  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion, the  former  at  Antwerp,  1575;  the  latter  at  Ley- 
den,  1633.  An  English  translation  (from  the  Latin  of 
Arias  Montanus)  was  published  in  PttrcAos's  PUarinu, 
London,  1625,  and  is  given  in  Bohn's  Early  TraveU  in 
Palutine,  London,  1848.  Others  (with  text)  are  by  A. 
Asher.  2  vols.,  London,  1840-41.  and  M.  N.  Adler,  Lon- 
don, 1907,  the  latter  based  on  a  British  Museum  MS.  whioh 
differs  considerably  from  other  copies.  A  Oerm.  transl., 
with  text,  notes,  etc.,  by  L.  Orflnhut  and  M.  N.  Adlcr,  was 
published  at  Frankfort,  2  vols..  1903-04.  Consult  also  M. 
N.  Adler,  in  the  Palestine  Ebtploration  Fund  Qwsrterly 
Statement,  Oct.,  1894. 

BEIVIIETT,  JAMES:  Congregationalist;  b.  in 
London  May  22,  1774;  d.  there  Dec.  4,  1862.  He 
studied  for  the  ministry  at  Gosport  under  the  Rev. 
David  Bogue;  was  ordained  at  Romsey,  Ham- 
shire,  1797,  and  was  minister  there  till  1813,  when  he 
became  theological  tutor  of  the  Rotherham  Inde- 
pendent College,  and  minister  of  the  church  there; 
pastor  of  the  church  in  Silver  Street  (afterward  re- 
moved to  Falcon  Square),  London,  1828-60.  He 
was  an  associate  of  the  Haldanes  in  some  of  their 
tours,  was  a  secretary  of  the  London  Miflrionaiy 


B«nnett 
B«ntley 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


54 


Society,  was  ohainnan  of  the  Congregatioxud  Union 
1840,  and  attracted  much  attention  by  his  defense 
of  Christianity  against  the  unbelief  of  his  time. 
His  publications  include  The  History  of  Diasenten 
from  the  Revolution  to  1808,  in  collaboration  with 
Dr.  Bogue  (4  vols.,  London,  1808-12;  2d  ed.,  2 
vols.,  1833),  continued  in  The  History  of  DiaserUere 
during  the  Last  Thirty  Yeare  (1839);  The  Star  of 
the  West,  being  memaire  of  R.  DarracoU  (1813); 
Lectures  on  the  History  of  Jesue  Christ  (3  vols., 
1825;  2d  ed.,  2  vob.,  1828),  supplemented  by  Lec- 
tures on  the  Preaching  of  Christ  (1836);  Memoire  of 
the  Life  of  DaM  Bogus  (1827):  An  AntidoU  to  In- 
fidelity, lectures  delivered  in  1831,  and  A  Second 
AntidoU  to  Infidelity  (1831);  Justification  as  Re- 
vealed in  Scripture  in  Opposition  to  the  Council  of 
Trent  and  Mr.  Newman's  Lectures  (1840);  The  The- 
ology of  the  Early  Christian  Church  Exhibited  in 
Qu^ions  from  the  Writers  of  the  First  Three  Cen- 
turies, Congregational  lecture,  1841;  Lectures  on 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1846). 

Bibuoobapht:  MemoriaU  of  A«  LaU  Jamf  Btnnett,  D.D., 
induding  Sermons  Preached  on  the  Oeeaeion  of  hie  Death, 
London,  1863;  DNB,  iv.  242-243. 

BEHITETT,  WILLIAM  HENRY:  English  Congie- 
gationalist;  b.  at  London  lifay  22, 1855.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Lancashire  Independent  College  (1873-82) 
and  Owens  College,  Manchester,  London  Univer- 
sity (B.A.,  1875),  and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1882),  and  was  professor  in  Rotherham  Col- 
lege from  1884  to  1888  and  lecturer  in  Hebrew  in 
Firth  College,  Sheffield,  in  1887-88.  He  has  been 
professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  Hackney 
College,  London,  since  1888  and  in  New  College, 
London,  since  1891.  He  was  also  first  secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Lon- 
don in  1901-03,  and  has  been  examiner  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  the  University  of  Wales  since  1904,  as 
well  as  a  recognized  teacher  in  the  same  institu- 
tion since  1901.  He  has  edited  Chronicles  and  Jere- 
miah in  The  Expositor's  Bible  (London,  1894-95); 
Joshua  in  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1895)  and  in  The  Polychrome  Bible  (New  York,  1899); 
General  Epistles  and  Genesis  in  The  Century  Bible 
(London,  1901,  1903);  and  Joshua  in  The  Temple 
Bible  (1904).  He  has  also  written  Theology  of  the 
Old  Testament  (London,  1896);  Primer  of  the  Bible 
(1897);  and  Biblical  Introduction  (1899;  in  collab- 
oration with  W.  F.  Adeney). 

BSlIKO:  Bishop  of  Meissen;  b.  at  Hildesheim 
or  Goslar  1010;  d.  at  Meissen  June  16,  1106,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditional  accounts.  The  first  cer- 
tain fact  in  his  life  is  that  he  was  a  canon  of  Gos- 
lar. He  was  made  bishop  of  Meissen  in  1066,  and 
appears  as  a  supporter  of  the  Saxon  insurrection  of 
1073,  though  Lambert  of  Hersfeld  and  other  con- 
temporary authorities  attribute  little  weight  to  his 
share  in  it.  Henry  IV  imprisoned  him,  however, 
but  released  him  in  1076  on  his  taking  an  oath  of 
fidelity,  which  he  did  not  keep.  He  appeared 
again  in  the  ranks  of  the  king's  enemies,  and  was 
accordingly  deprived  of  his  bishopric  by  the  Synod 
of  Maims  in  1085.  Benno  betook  himself  to  Gui- 
bert,  the  anttpope  supported  by  Henry  as  Clement 
III,  and  by  a  penitent  acknowled^nent  of  his 


offenses  obtained  from  him  both  absolution  and  a 
letter  of  commendation  to  Henry,  on  the  basis  of 
which  he  was  restored  to  his  see.  He  promised, 
apparently,  to  use  his  influence  for  peace  with  the 
Saxons,  but  again  failed  to  keep  his  promise,  re- 
turning in  1097  to  the  papal  party  and  recognizing 
Urban  II  as  the  rightful  pope.  With  this  he  dis- 
appears from  authentic  history;  there  is  no  evi- 
dence to  support  the  later  stories  of  his  missionary 
activity  and  seal  for  chureh-building  and  for 
ecclesiastical  music.  His  elevation  to  the  fame 
of  sainthood  seems  to  have  been  due  partly 
to  the  need  of  funds  to  complete  the  cathedral 
of  Meissen,  and  partly  to  the  wish  to  have  a 
local  or  diocesan  saint.  He  was  officially  can- 
onized by  Adrian  VI  in  1523,  as  a  demonstration 
against  the  Lutheran  movement,  which  Luther 
acknowledged  by  a  fierce  polemical  treatise.  His 
relics  were  solemnly  dug  up  and  venerated  in  1524; 
but  as  the  Reformation  progressed  they  were  no 
longer  appreciated  in  Meissen,  and  Albert  V  of 
Bavaria  obtained  permission  to  remove  them  in 
1576  to  Munich,  of  which  city  Benno  is  considered 
the  patron  saint.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Several  early  aocounts  in  prose  and  mrae 
of  Benno's  life  and  miracles  were  collected  in  ASB, 
June,  iii,  148-231.  Consult:  O.  Langer.  Biechaf  Benno 
von  Meieeen,  in  MitO^eUunoen  dee  Vereine  fOr  GeechidUe 
der  Stadt  Meieeen,  i.  3  (1884).  pp.  70^5.  i.  5  (1886),  pp. 
1-38.  ii.  2  (1888),  pp.  09-144;  K  Blachatschek,  Gteekiehte 
der  BiediSfe  dee  Hoehetiftee  Meieeen,  pp.  0&-O4.  Dreeden. 
1884;  R.  Doebner,  AktenetQeke  eur  Geeehiekle  der  Vila 
Bennonie,  in  Neuee  Arofctv  flir  eSdteieche  Oeeekiehte,  Tii. 
131-144,  Dresden,  1886;  K.  P.  WiU,  Sand  Benno,  Bieekof 
von  Meieeen,  Dresden,  1887. 

BSirOIST  (BE]fOrr\  be-nwa',  BUS:  French 
Protestant;  b.  at  Paris  Jan.  20, 1640;  d.  at  Delft  Nov. 
15,  1728.  His  parents  were  servants  of  the  Protes- 
tant family  La  Tremoille.  He  early  displa3red 
fondness  for  the  classics,  studied  at  Montaigu 
College  and  at  Ia  Marche  (Paris),  and  taught  pri- 
vately in  divinity  at  Montauban.  In  1664  he  was 
ordained,  and  the  following  year  was  called  to 
Alengon,  where  he  served  for  twenty  years  as  Prot- 
estant minister,  with  as  much  prudence  as  capac> 
ity .  He  met  with  much  opposition  from  the  Roman 
Catholics,  especiaUy  from  the  Jesuit  De  la  Rue. 
who  attacked  him  and  even  incited  a  riot  against 
him.  After  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
Benoist  went  to  Holland,  and  was  called  as  minis- 
ter to  the  church  of  Delft,  near  The  Hague,  where 
he  stayed  thirty  years.  He  wrote  Lettre  d'un 
pasteur  banni  de  son  pays  d.  une  6glise  qui  n'a  pas 
fait  son  devoir  dans  la  demih-e  persecution  ((Cologne, 
1666);  Histoire  et  apologie  de  la  retraite  des  pasteurs 
d  cause  de  la  persecution  de  France  (Frankfort,  1687); 
Histoire  de  V6dU  de  Nantes  (5  parts.  Delft,  1693-95; 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1694). 

G.  Bonkt-Maurt. 

Bibuoobapht:  P.  Pascal,  £lie  B^tnoiet  ei  Vigliee  rfforwUe 
d'Alen^on,  Paris,  1802;  E.  and  E.Haac,  La  Fronoeprofes- 
tonle,  ii,  269  eqq.,  2d  ed.  by  Bordier,  Paris,  1877  aiiq.; 
BuUetin  de  la  eociHS  d*hietoire  du  proiertaiifitim  fran^aiM, 
1876,  p.  250,  1884,  pp.  112.  162. 

BEirOIST  (BSirOIT),  RENE:  Roman  Catholic 
theologian;  b.  at  Saveni^res,  near  Angers,  in  1521; 
d.  at  Paris  Mar.  7,  1608.    He  accompanied  Mary 


55 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BMintttt 
B«ntley 


Stuart  to  Scotland  as  her  cozifessor  in  1561;  after 
his  return  to  France  was  appointed  pastor  of  the 
church  of  St.  Eustache  in  Paris  in  1569,  and  played 
a  consiHcuous  part  in  the  controversies  of  the 
Ligue  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  to 
the  Guiaes  and  the  Ultramontanes.  In  1566  he 
published  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  which,  however, 
was  little  more  than  a  reprint  of  the  Geneva  trans- 
lation; it  has  been  said  that  he  knew  little  of  either 
Hebrew  or  Greek.  The  translation  was  condemned 
by  the  theological  faculty  of  the  University  of 
Paris  in  1567  and  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII  in  1575, 
and  Benoist  was  expelled  from  the  Sorbonne  in  1572. 
He  was  reinstated  by  Henry  IV  and,  to  reenter  the 
faculty,  subscribed  his  own  condemnation.  He 
exasperated  the  Ultramontanes  still  more  by  main- 
taining that  the  king  did  not  forfeit  his  right  to  the 
throne  by  professing  the  Protestant  faith.  He 
had  influence  in  bringing  about  Henry's  change  of 
faith,  and  the  latter  made  him  his  confessor  and 
appointed  him  bishop  of  Troyes,  but  the  pope 
refused  confirmation,  and  in  1604  he  had  to  renounce 
the  office.     He  was  a  voluminous  writer. 

BtBUoaaArar:  J.  C.  F.  Hoefer,  Biographie  otniroU,  v,  305, 
46  Tolfl.,  Puis,  1852-66;  C.  du  Plensin  d'Argentr^,  ColUetio 
YMitctorwm  II.  i.  392-303.  533-534.  3  Tola..  Paria,  1728-36. 

BERRATH,  KARL:  German  Protestant  theo- 
k)gian;  b.  at  DQren  (22  m.  s.w.  of  Cologne)  Aug. 
16,  1845.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn,  Beriin,  and  Heidelberg  (1864-67),  and  taught 
in  his  native  city  until  1871.  From  1871  to  1875 
he  studied  in  Italy,  chiefly  in  Rome.  In  1876  he 
became  privat-docent  at  Bonn  and  associate  pro- 
fessor in  1879.  In  1800  he  was  called  to  Kdnigs- 
berg  as  professor  of  church  history.  He  has  written 
Bernardino  Ochino  wm  Siena  (Leipsic,  1875);  Die 
Quetten  der  Ualieniechen  RefornuUionsgeschichte 
(Bonn,  1876);  Gtschiehte  der  Reformation  in  Venedig 
(Halle,  1887);  and  JtUia  Gamaga  (1900).  He  has 
also  edited  Die  Stanma  der  heiligen  Schrift,  ein 
ZeugnitM  aUe  dem  ZeitaUer  der  Reformation  (Leipsic, 
1880);  Luther's  Schnft  an  den  chrisaichen  Adel 
deutacher  Nation  (Halle,  1884);  and  K.  R.  Hagen- 
bach's  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengesehichte  (6th  ed., 
Leipsic,  1889). 

BERSLT,  ROBERT  LUBBOCK:  Orientalist; 
b.  at  Eaton  (2  m.  s.w.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  24, 1831;  d.  at  Cambridge  Apr.  23,  1893. 
He  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and 
Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge;  studied 
in  Germany;  was  appointed  reader  in  Hebrew 
at  Gonville  and  Caius  CV>llege  1863;  elected  fellow 
1876;  became  lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Ssrriac  in 
his  cdlege;  was  made  professor  of  Arabic  1887; 
examiner  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  University  of  London;  was  a  member  of 
the  Old  Testament  Revision  Company;  accom- 
panied Mrs.  Lewis  and  Birs.  Gibson  on  the  trip  to 
Sinai  on  which  the  palimpsest  of  the  Syriac  Gospels 
was  discovered  (see  Biblb  Versions,  A,  III,  1,  §  2). 
He  has  edited  The  Missing  Fragment  of  the  Latin 
Translation  of  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra^  discovered 
and  edited  with  an  Introduction  and  Notes  (Cam- 
bridge, 1875);  contributed  The  Harklean  Version 
of  Hd>.  xi,  BS-^ii,  26  to  the  Proceedings  of   the 


Congress  of  Orientalists  of  1889;  assisted  in  the 
editing  of  the  Sinai  tic  palimpsest;  edited  IV  Mac- 
cabees (to  which  he  devot^  twenty-seven  years 
of  labor),  published  posthumously  (Cambridge, 
1895);  wrote  Our  Journey  to  Sinai,  Visit  to  the 
Convent  of  St,  Calarina,  with  a  chapter  on  the  Sinai 
Palimpsest  (London,  1896);  edited  St.  Clement's 
Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  in  Syriac  (London,  1899). 

Biblxoobapht:  H.  T.  Francis.  In  Memoriam  R.  L.  Benalj/, 
Cambridge,  1893;  DNS;  Supplement,  vol.  i.  171. 

BENSON,  EDWARD  WHITE:  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  b.  at  Birmingham  July  14,  1820; 
d.  at  Hawarden  (6  m.  e.  of  Chester)  Oct.  11,  1896. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (B.A., 
1852);  became  master  at  Rugby  1852;  was  or- 
dained priest  1857;  in  1859  was  appointed  first 
head  master  of  Wellington  College  (on  the  border 
of  Windsor  forest,  near  Wokingham,  Berkshire); 
was  appointed  examining  chaplain  by  the  bishop 
of  Lincoln  (Christopher  Wordsworth)  in  1868, 
prebendary  of  Lincoln  1869,  and  chancellor  and 
residentiary  canon  1872,  when  he  resigned  his 
mastership  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Lincoln. 
In  1877  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of  Truro 
(Cornwall);  and  was  translated  to  Canterbury  in 
1883.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  deter- 
mined, and  self-reliant.  His  industry  was  unremit- 
ting, and  he  foimd  time  for  reading  and  study,  the 
fruits  of  which  appeared  in  the  posthumous  publi- 
cations Cyprian,  his  Life,  his  Times,  his  Work 
(London,  1897)  and  The  Apocalypse  (1899).  His 
administrative  ability  was  shown  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Wellington  College,  which  was  practically 
his  creation,  and  the  thorough  and  efficient  organi- 
xation  of  the  new  diocese  of  Truro,  where  he  formed 
a  divinity  school  to  train  candidates  for  holy  orders, 
began  the  erection  of  a  cathedral,  and  founded 
and  strengthened  schools.  He  was  the  first  bishop 
to  appoint  a  canon  missioner.  As  archbishop  he 
strove  for  legislation  effecting  reforms  in  church 
patronage  and  discipline;  opposed  and  prevented 
the  disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  Wales; 
created,  in  1886,  a  body  of  laymen  to  act  in  an  ad- 
visory capacity  with  the  convocation  of  his  prov- 
ince; cultivated  cordial  relations  with  the  Nes- 
torians  and  other  Eastern  Christians,  but  repelled 
what  may  have  been  intended  as  an  advance  to  his 
own  Church  from  Rome.  He  sat  as  judge  in  the 
trial  of  Bishop  King  of  Lincoln,  charged  with  cer- 
tain ritual  offenses  (1889-90),  and  in  the  judgment 
which  he  delivered  produced  a  masterly  exposition 
of  the  law  of  the  prayer-book,  based  upon  the  entire 
history  of  the  English  Church.  Besides  the  works 
already  mentioned,  a  volume  of  Prayers,  Public 
and  Private  appeared  posthumously  (1899),  and 
he  published  during  his  lifetime  several  volumes 
of  sermons  and  addresses. 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  A.  C.  Benson,  Life  of  E.  W.  Benson,  2  vols., 
London,  1899,  abridged  ed.,  1901  (by  his  eldest  son); 
J.  H.  Bernard,  ArchbUhop  Benton  in  Ireland^  London, 
1896;  DNB,  Supplement,  vol.  i,  171-179. 

BENTLEY,  RICHARD:  English  theologian  and 
scholar;  b.  at  Oulton,  near  Wakefield  (25  m.  s.w. 
of  York),  Yorkshire,  Jan.  27,  1662;  d.  at  Cam- 
bridge July  14,  1742.    He  was  the  son  of  a  black- 


Bentley 
Berenffar 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZCX3 


56 


Bmith,  was  grounded  in  Latin  by  his  mother, 
studied  at  the  grammar-school  at  Wakefield,  and 
was  admitted  at  the  age  of  fourteen  (the  usual 
age  of  matriculation  was  seventeen  or  eighteen)  to 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  took  his  first 
degree  in  1680  with  honor  in  logic,  ethics,  natural 
science,  and  mathematics,  and  became  schoolmaster 
at  Spalding  in  Lincolnshire.  But  Stillingfleet,  the 
wealthy  and  learned  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  soon  c»lled 
him  to  London  to  superintend  his  son's  studies. 
He  took  his  pupil  in  later  years  to  Oxford  and 
reveled  there  among  the  manuscripts  in  pursuance 
of  his  researches  in  profane  and  especially  Biblical 
literature,  entering  on  his  life's  work  of  treating  and 
publishing  texts.  He  had  taken  his  M.A.  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1684  and  received  the  same  degree  from 
Oxford  probably  in  1680.  Before  his  twenty-fourth 
year  he  had  started  for  himself  a  hexapla  dictionary; 
in  the  first  colunm  stood  every  Hebrew  word  in 
the  Bible  and  in  the  other  five  all  the  different 
translations  of  these  words  in  Chaldee,  S3rriac, 
Latin,  and  Greek  (both  the  Septuagint  and  Aquila). 
His  Latin  letter  of  ninety-eight  pages  to  John  Mill 
appeared  in  1691  as  an  appendix  to  an  edition  of 
the  chronicle  of  Malalas  and  presented  a  mass  of 
critical  research,  including  much  drawn  from 
manuscripts;  he  moved  over  the  field  of  classical 
literature  as  if  it  were  his  library  of  which  he  knew 
every  inch,  and  showed  himself  a  master  in  criti- 
dnng  the  origin  of  books,  in  following  up  etymo- 
logical rules,  in  explaining  their  use,  and  in  dealing 
with  meter.  Li  this,  hk  virgin  effort,  he  gave 
explanations  and  corrections  for  some  sixty  Greek 
and  Latin  authors.  He  wrote  like  an  authority, 
and  in  the  happiest  manner.  He  published  Colli' 
machua  (1693),  Phalaris  (1699;  the  debate  is  still 
interesting),  Menander  and  Philemon  (1710), 
Horace  (1711),  Terence  (1726),  and  Maniliua 
(1739);  his  edition  of  Milton's  Paradise  Loet 
appeflj*ed  in  1732. 

Ordained  1690,  probably  at  once  Stillingfleet's 
house-chaplain,  he  became  canon  of  Worcester  in 
1692,  librarian  to  the  king  in  1694,  chaplain  in 
ordinary  to  the  king  in  1695,  D.D.  from  Cambridge 
and  Master  of  Trinity  in  1699,  vice-chancellor  of 
the  University  1700,  archdeacon  of  Ely  1701. 
His  intrigues  secured  his  election  as  regius 
professor  of  theology  in  1717.  His  apparent  love 
of  power  led  the  academic  senate,  Oct.  17,  1718, 
to  deprive  him,  illegally,  of  his  academic  degrees, 
which  a  decree  of  court  restored  to  him  in  1724. 
He  was  almost  always  in  hot  water  either  in  litera- 
ture, in  his  college,  or  in  politics.  Legally  deprived 
of  his  mastership  in  1734,  he  kept  it,  simply  because 
the  man  who  should  oust  him  did  not  choose  to 
move. 

He  delivered  the  first  Boyle  lectures  (see  Botle, 
Robebt)  in  1692,  his  intimate  friend  Isaac  Newton 
helping  him.  He  wrote  against  the  freethinker 
Collins  in  1713.  Sterne  quoted  in  Tristram  Shandy 
his  sermon  on  papistry,  1715.  In  1691  he  wrote 
to  John  Mill  about  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  1713  he  discussed  the  readings,  and  in  1720  he 
published  his  proposals  for  a  new  edition.  At  least 
from  1716  on,  and  apparently  as  late  as  1732,  he 
caused  collations  to  be  made  in  the  libraries  from 


London  to  Rome.  But  he  did  not  publish  an  edition, 
probably  because  he  found  it  impossible  to  give 
what  he  wished  to  give.  His  collations  are  in  the 
library  of  Trinity  College. 

Caspar  Ren£  Grboort. 

Bibuookapht:  The  beet  life  ia  by  R.  C.  Jebb,  in  fn^ZiA 
Men  cf  LeUen,  London,  1887.  Consult  also  J.  H.  Monk, 
Life  cf  Richard  BenOey  .  .  .  vnJOt  an  Aeoowd  of  kit  Wri- 
Une»,  2d  oorreoted  ed..  lb.  1833;  A.  A.  Ellis.  BenUmi  entita 
Cambridse,  1862;  DNB,  tv,  306-314. 


BENTOH,  ANGELO  AMES:  Protestant  Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Canea  (Khania),  on  the  island  of 
Crete,  July  3,  1837.  He  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  Conn.  (BA.,  1856)  and  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  dty 
(1860).  He  held  various  parishes  in  North  Caro- 
lina from  1860  to  1883,  when  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  mathematics  and  modem  languages 
at  Delaware  College,  Newark,  Delaware,  being 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  Greek  and  Latin  two 
years  later.  In  1887  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
University  of  the  South  as  professor  of  dogmatic 
theology,  where  he  remained  until  1894,  being  like- 
wise rector  of  the  Otey  Memorial  Church,  Sewanee, 
from  1 893  to  1 895.  He  was  then  rector  at  Albion ,  111. , 
in  1895-1904,  this  being  interrupted  by  a  temporary 
charge  at  Tarentum,  Pa.  Since  1905  he  has  held 
a  temporary  charge  at  Foxburg,  Pa.  His  chief 
literary  work  has  been  the  editing  of  the  Church 
Encydopedia  (Philadelphia,  1884). 

BENZINGER,  DaCANUEL  (6USTAV  ADOLF): 
German  Orientalist;  b.  at  Stuttgart  Feb.  21,  1865. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Tubingen 
(Ph.D.,  1888;  licentiate  of  theology,  1894),  and 
after  a  pastorate  at  Neuenstadt,  WOrttemberg, 
from  1894  to  1898,  was  privat-docent  for  Old  Tes- 
tament theology  at  the  University  of  Berlin  until 
1901,  when  he  retired,  and  has  since  resided  in 
Palestine.  In  theology  he  belongs  to  the  historioo- 
critical  school.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the 
DeiU8cher  Pal&stinaverein  since  1888,  editing  its 
journal  in  1897-1902,  and  has  also  been  on  the 
executive  conmiittee  of  the  DeuUcher  Verein  zur 
Erforachung  Paldstinaa  since  1897.  He  has  written 
Hebrdiache  Archdologie  (Freiburg,  1894, 2d  ed.  1907); 
Commentarzuden  KOnigabuchem  (IB99)  and  Com^ 
mentor  tu  der  Chronik  (1901),  both  in  the  Kurzer 
Hand'Kommentar  eum  AUen  Teatament;  and  Ge- 
achichU  dea  VoUcea  larada  (Leipeic,  1904).  He  like- 
wise collaborated  with  R.  J.  Hartmann  in  Paldatina 
(Stuttgart,  1899),  and  with  Frolmmeyer  in  BUder' 
atlaa  zvr  Btbelkunde  (1905),  and  has  edited  Baede- 
ker's Paldatina  und  Syrien  since  the  third  edition 
(1889). 

BENZO:  Bishop  of  Alba,  a  zealous  partisan  of 
Henry  IV;  b.  about  the  begiiming  of  the  eleventh 
century;  d.  not  earlier  than  1085  or  1086.  Little 
that  is  definitely  attested  can  be  related  of  hia 
life;  but  it  may  be  reasonably  conjectured  that 
he  came  originally  from  southern  Italy,  that  be 
gained  some  sort  of  a  position  at  the  German  Court, 
possibly  as  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Henry  III,  and 
that  before  1059  he  was  raised  to  the  bishopric  of 
Alba  by  Henry's  influence.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
devoted  upholders  of   the  Italian   claims  of  the 


67 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bentlay 
Beren^at 


Gennan  kings,  and  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Hilde- 
brandine  party.  His  most  prosperous  days  fell 
in  the  period  of  the  schism  between  Honorius  II 
and  Alexander  II,  when  he  went  to  Rome  (at  the 
end  of  1061 )  charged  by  the  empress  Agnes  with  the 
mission  of  supporting  the  former,  the  imperial 
candidate  for  the  papacy,  to  whom  he  remained 
faithful  even  after  Alexander's  supremacy  was 
assured.  Later,  he  was  a  victim  of  the  Patarene 
movement  (see  Patarenes),  when  in  1076  or  1077 
popular  disturbances  drove  him  from  his  see.  Ill 
luck  followed  him  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  Though 
he  may  have  taken  part  in  Henry  IV's  first  ex- 
pedition to  Rome,  we  never  again  find  him  in  an 
important  political  position;  and  the  latest  indi- 
cations to  be  gathered  from  his  writings  leave 
the  picture  of  a  man  broken  by  poverty  and  illness, 
and  still  waiting  for  the  emperor  to  reward  him  for 
long  and  faithful  services.  His  Li&rt  vii  ad  Henri- 
cum  IV  do  not  make  up  a  single  work,  but  are  a 
collection  of  separate  writings  in  both  prose  and 
verse  which  he  put  together  into  a  sort  of  mosaic 
shortly  before  his  death.  Their  special  interest 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  give  an  admirable 
insight  into  the  views  of  the  extreme  imperialists, 
who  were  carried  away  by  boundless  hatred  of 
Gregory  VII.  Benzo  puts  forth  original  views 
on  the  constitution  of  the  State  and  on  ecclesiastical 
politics  from  the  standpoint  of  a  convinced  sup- 
porter of  the  empire.  His  PanegyrictUy  since  the 
time  and  manner  of  the  composition  of  its  several 
books  have  been  definitely  determined,  is  now  more 
highly  regarded  as  an  authority  on  the  period  of 
the  schimi.  Carl  Mirbt. 

BiauooBArHT:  B«iiflo'8  Ad  H^nrieum  IV  impenionm  libri 
MfKm.  ed.  K.  Feria,  »  in  MOH,  Script,  zi,  691-681. 
HjUDOver,  1854.  On  turn  life  and  work  consult:  W.  Ton 
Citiebrccbt,  AnnaU§  AUahensn,  pp.  123.  213-227,  Ber- 
lin. 1841;  idem,  OetthiehU  der  KaUeneii,  ii.  636.  Bruns- 
wiek,  1876  (in  apposition  to  the  work  of  K.  J.  Will,  next 
mentioned);  K.  J.  Will,  Bengoa  Panegyrikug,  Marbuis, 
1857;  H.  Lehmsrabner,  Bmuo  wm  Alba,  .  .  .  aein  Ixiben 
imd  .  .  .  **  Pansgyrieua,*'  Berlin,  1807;  idem,  Benso  von 
AWa,  .  .  .  ci«M  QudUnunierBudiuno,  ib.  1886;  T.  Lind- 
ner. Benmf  PansffyncM  avtf  Heituich  IV,  pp.  497-526, 
Gdttincen,  1866;  O.  Delarc,  in  R^vue  de*  q^uutiona  hiBto- 
rvp^M,  zliii  (1888).  5-60;  E.  Steindorff,  in  Gdttin0erGe2e^(er 
Anteio€r,  No.  16.  1888,  pp.  593  sqq.;  Wattenbach,  DQQ,  ii 
(1»86),  202.  u  (1894).  328-^29;  C.  Mirbt.  Dm  PvUiMUUk 
im  ZmkaUmr  Or^oon  VI J.,  Leipsie.  1894;  Hauck,  KD,  vol  iii. 

BEREHGAR  OP  POITIERS:  A  younger  contem- 
porary and  sealous  adherent  of  Abelard  (q.v.) .  Prac- 
tically nothing  is  known  of  his  life  except  what  may 
be  learned  from  his  few  brief  writings.  These, 
however,  are  not  without  interest,  partly  because 
(m  spite  of  their  being  by  no  means  completely 
trustworthy)  they  are  among  the  authorities  for 
the  history  of  the  Council  of  Sens  in  1141,  and 
partly  for  the  light  which  they  throw  on  the  mental 
attitude  and  literary  tone  which  prevailed  among 
the  disciples  of  Abelard  and  opponents  of  Bernard 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  There 
are  three  of  them  extant:  an  Apologeticua  against 
Bernard,  an  EpUtoia  contra  Carthuaienses,  and  an 
Ejiutola  ad  episcapum  Mimatenaemf  the  bishop  of 
Mende.  The  first  was  written  not  long  after  the 
Council  of  Sens,  but  not  until  the  sentence  of  In- 
nocent II  against  Abelard  was  known.    Toward 


the  end  of  it  Berengar  points  out  that  other  teach- 
ers, such  as  Jerome  and  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  had 
made  mistakes  without  being  deposed;  but  a  large 
part  of  the  tractate  is  a  personal  attack  on  Ber- 
nard, accusing  him  of  having  made  frivolous  songs 
in  his  youth,  taught  the  preexistence  of  the  soul, 
and  made  up  his  commentary  on  the  Canticles  of 
a  lot  of  heterogeneous  material,  partly  borrowed 
from  Ambrose.  Especially  bitter  are  his  acciisa^ 
tions  of  duplicity  and  unfairness  in  connection,  with 
the  Council  of  Sens.  The  shorter  but  equally  ma- 
licious letter  against  the  Carthusians,  who  had 
taken  a  stand  against  Abelard,  accuses  them  of 
breaking  their  vow  of  silence  to  speak  calunmy, 
and,  while  abstaining  from  the  flesh  of  beasts,  de- 
vouring their  fellow  men.  The  third  letter  is  written 
in  a  different  tone.  Berengar's  boldness  had  appar- 
ently stirred  up  so  much  hostility  that  he  feared 
for  his  safety,  left  home,  and  sought  an  asylum  in 
the  Cdvennes,  whence  he  wrote  to  beg  the  bishop's 
protection,  not  exactly  as  a  penitent,  though  he  im- 
plies that  he  has  approached  more  nearly  to  Ber- 
nard's standpoint.  Whether  he  succeeded  in  set- 
ting himself  right  can  not  be  told,  as  nothing  is 
known  of  his  later  life.  (F.  NiTZBCHf.) 

Biblxoorapht:  Berengar's  works  are  usually  printed  among 
Abelard's,  e-g..  in  Cousin's  ed.,  ii,  771  sqq.,  2  vols.,  Pans, 
1849-69;  also  in  MPL,  clxxviii.  Ckmsult  also  Hiaioin 
IttUraire  de  la  France,  xii,  264  sqq.,  Paris.  1763;  Hefele. 
ConeUUnoeaehiehte,  v,  427-428;  S.  M.  Deutseh.  DU  Synode 
von  Sena,  1141*  unddie  Veruiieiluno  AbAlarda,  pp.  87-40, 
Berlin,  1880. 

BERENGAR  OP  TOURS. 

Early  Life  (f  1). 

Controversy  over  the  Eucharist  (f  2). 
Berengar  Submits  at  Rome  (§  3). 
Reasserts  his  Views  in  Franoe  (§  4). 
Berengar's  Signifieanoe  (f  6). 

Berengar  of  Tours  was  bom  perhaps  at  Tours,  prob- 
ably in  the  early  years  of  the  eleventh  century;  d. 
in  the  neighboring  island  of  St.  Cosme  Jan.  6, 1088. 
He  laid  the  foundations  of  his  education  in  the 
school  of  Bishop  Fulbert  of  Chartres,  who  repre- 
sented the  traditional  theology  of  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  but  did  not  succeed  in  imposing  it  upon  his 
pupil.  He  was  less  attracted  by  pure  theology 
than  by  secular  learning,  and  brought  away  a 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  classics,  dialectical  clever- 
ness, freedom  of  method,  and  a  general  culture  sur- 
prising for  his  age.    Later  he  paid  more  attention 

to  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers,  espe- 

I.  Early     cially  Gregory  and  Augustine;  and  it 

Life.        is  significant  that  he  came  to  formal 

theology  after  such  preparation.  Re- 
turning to  Tours,  he  became  a  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral and  about  1040  head  of  its  school,  which  he 
soon  raised  to  a  high  point  of  efficiency,  bringing 
students  from  far  and  near.  The  fame  which  he 
acquired  sprang  as  much  from  his  blameless  and 
ascetic  life  as  from  the  success  of  his  teaching.  So 
great  was  his  reputation  that  a  number  of  monks 
requested  him  to  write  a  book  that  should  kindle 
their  zeal;  and  his  letter  to  Joscelin,  later  arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  who  had  asked  him  to  decide 
a  dispute  between  Bishop  Isembert  of  Poitiers  and 
his  chapter,  is  evidence  of  the  authority  attributed 
to  his  judgment.    He  became  archdeacon  of  An- 


Berengar 
Bergier 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


58 


gers,  and  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  not  a  few  bishops 
and  of  the  powerful  Count  Geoffrey  of  Anjou. 

Amid  this  chorus  of  laudation,  however,  a  dis- 
cordant voice  began  to  be  heard;  it  was  asserted 
that  Berengar  held  heretical  views  on  the  Eucha- 
rist. In  fact,  he  was  disposed  to  reject  the  teach- 
ing of  Paschasius  Radbertus,  which  dominated  his 
contemporaries.  The  first  to  take  formal  notice 
of  this  was  his  foimer  fellow  student  Adelmann 
(q.v.),  then  a  teacher  at  Li^ge,  who 
2.  Contro-  wrote  to  question  him,  and,  receiving 
▼ersy  over  no  answer,  wrote  again  to  beseech  him 
the  £u-  to  abandon  his  opposition  to  the 
charist  Church's  teaching.  Probably  in  the 
early  part  of  1050,  Berengar  ad- 
dressed a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  then  prior  of  Bee, 
in  which  he  expressed  his  regret  that  Lanfranc 
adhered  to  the  eucharistic  teaching  of  Pas- 
chasius and  considered  the  treatise  of  Ratram- 
nus  (q.v.)  on  the  subject  (which  Berengar  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  by  Scotus  Erigena)  to" 
be  heretical.  He  declared  his  own  agreement  with 
the  supposed  Scotus,  and  believed  himself  to  be 
supported  by  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Augustine,  and 
other  authorities.  This  letter  foimd  Lanfranc  in 
Rome,  after  it  had  been  read  by  several  other  peo- 
ple; and  as  Berengar  was  not  well  thought  of  there, 
Lanfranc  feared  his  association  with  him  might  be 
prejudicial  to  his  own  interests,  and  laid  the  matter 
before  the  pope.  The  latter  exconmiunicated 
Berengar  at  a  synod  after  Easter,  1050,  and  sum- 
moned him  to  appear  personally  at  another  to  be 
held  at  Vercelli  in  September.  Though  disputing 
the  legality  of  his  condenmation,  he  proposed  to  go, 
first  passing  through  Paris  to  obtain  permission 
from  King  Henry  I,  as  nominal  abbot  of  St.  Martin 
at  Tours.  Instead  of  granting  it,  however,  the 
king  threw  him  into  prison,  where  Berengar  occu- 
pied himself  with  the  study  of  the  Gospel  of  John, 
with  a  view  to  confirming  his  views.  The  synod 
was  held  at  Vercelli  without  him;  two  of  his  friends, 
who  attempted  to  defend  him,  were  shouted  down 
and  barely  escaped  personal  violence;  Ratramnus's 
book  was  destroyed;  and  Berengar  was  again  con- 
demned. He  obtained  his  release  from  prison, 
probably  by  the  influence  of  Geoffrey  of  Anjou; 
but  the  king  still  pursued  him,  and  called  a  synod 
to  meet  in  Paris  Oct.,  1051.  Berengar,  fearing 
that  its  purpose  was  his  destruction,  avoided  ap- 
pearing, and  the  king's  threats  after  its  session  had 
no  effect,  since  Berengar  was  sheltered  by  Geoffrey 
and  by  Bishop  Eusebius  Bruno  of  Angers,  and  found 
numerous  partisans  among  less  prominent  people. 

In  1054  Hildebrand  came  to  France  as  papal 

legate.    At   first  he  showed   himself  friendly  to 

Berengar,  and  talked  of  taking  him  back  to  Rome 

to  get  Pope  Leo's  authority  with  which  to  silence 

his  foes.    But  when  he  found  that  the  latter  could 

do  more  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the 

3.  Beren-    Church  than  Berengar's   friends,   he 

gar  Sub-     drew    back.    Under    these    circimi- 

mits  at      stances  Berengar  decided  to  concede 

Rome.       as  much  as  he  could,  and  the  French 

bishops  showed  that  they  wished  a 

speedy  settlement  of  the  controversy,  when  the 

Synod  of  Tours  declared  itself  satisfied  by  Beren- 


gar's written  declaration  that  the  bread  and  wine 
after  consecration  were  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ.  The  same  desire  for  peace  and  the  death 
of  Pope  Leo  were  reasons  why  Hildebrand  did  not 
press  for  Berengar's  going  to  Rome  at  once;  later 
he  did  so,  confident  of  the  power  of  his  influence 
there,  and  accordingly  Berengar  presented  him- 
self in  Rome  in  1059,  fortified  by  a  letter  of  com- 
mendation from  Coimt  Geoffrey  to  Hildebrand. 
At  a  council  held  in  the  Lateran,  he  could  get  no 
hearing,  and  a  formula  representing  what  seined 
to  him  the  most  carnal  view  of  the  sacrament  was 
offered  for  his  acceptance.  Overwhelmed  by  the 
forces  against  him,  he  took  this  dociunent  in  his 
hand  and  threw  himself  on  the  ground  in  the  silence 
of  apparent  submission. 

Berengar  returned  to  France  full  of  remorse  for 
this  desertion  of  his  faith  and  of  bitterness  against 
the  pope  and  his  opponents;  his  friends  were  grow- 
ing fewer — Geoffrey  was  dead  and  his  successor  hos- 
tile. Eusebius  Bruno  was  gradually 
4.  Reas-  withdrawing  from  him.  Rome,  how- 
serts  his  ever,  was  disposed  to  give  him  a  chance; 
Views  in  Alexander  II  wrote  him  an  encour- 
France.  aging  letter,  at  the  same  time  warning 
him  to  give  no  further  offense.  He 
was  still  firm  in  his  convictions,  and  about  1069 
published  a  treatise  in  which  he  gave  vent  to  his 
resentment  against  Nicholas  II  and  his  antagonists 
in  the  Roman  council.  Lanfranc  answered  it, 
and  Berengar  rejoined.  Bishop  Raynard  Hugo 
of  Langres  also  wrote  a  treatise  De  corpore  d 
sanguine  Christi  against  Berengar.  But  the  feel- 
ing against  him  in  France  was  growing  so  hos- 
tile that  it  almost  came  to  open  violence  at  the 
Synod  of  Poitiers  in  1076.  Hildebrand  as  pope 
tried  yet  to  save  him;  he  simmioned  him  once  more 
to  Rome  (1078),  and  undertook  to  silence  his  ene- 
mies by  getting  him  to  assent  to  a  vague  formula, 
something  like  the  one  which  he  had  signed  at 
Tours.  But  his  enemies  were  not  satisfied,  and 
three  months  later  at  another  synod  they  forced 
on  him  a  formula  which  could  mean  nothing  but 
transubstantiation  except  by  utterly  indefensible 
sophistry.  He  was  indiscreet  enough  to  claim  the 
sympathy  of  Gregory  VII,  who  commanded  him 
to  acknowledge  his  errors  and  to  pursue  them  no 
fmrther.  Berengar's  courage  failed  him;  he  con- 
fessed that  he  had  erred,  and  was  sent  home  with 
a  protecting  letter  from  the  pope,  but  with  rage  in 
his  heart.  Once  back  in  France,  he  recovered  his 
boldness  and  published  his  own  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings in  Rome,  retracting  his  recantation.  The 
consequence  was  another  trial  before  a  synod  at 
Bordeaux  (1080),  and  another  forced  submission. 
After  this  he  kept  silence,  retiring  to  the  island  of 
Saint-Cosme  near  Tours  to  live  in  ascetic  solitude. 
Apparently  his  convictions  were  unchanged  at  his 
death,  and  he  trusted  in  the  mercy  of  God  under 
what  he  considered  the  imjust  persecutions  to  which 
he  had  been  subjected. 

Berengar's  real  significance  for  the  development 
of  medieval  theology  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  as- 
serted the  rights  of  dialectic  in  theology  more  defi- 
nitely than  most  of  his  contemporaries.  There 
are  propositions  in  his  writings  which  can  be  under- 


59 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Berenffar 
Berffier 


stood  in  a  purely  rationalistic  sense.  But  it  would 
be  going  quite  too  far  to  see  in  rationalism  Beren- 
gar's  main  standpoint,  to  attribute  to 
5.  Beren-  him  the  deliberate  design  of  subvert- 
gar's  Sig-  ing  all  religiouB  authority — Scripture, 
niftranrr.  the  Fathers,  popes,  and  councils.  This 
would  be  to  ascribe  to  a  man  of  the 
eleventh  century  views  of  which  his  age  knew  noth- 
ing, which  it  even  had  no  terms  to  express.  The 
contrast  which  he  sets  forth  is  not  between  reason 
and  revelation,  but  between  rational  and  irrational 
ways  of  understanding  revelation.  He  did  not 
recognize  the  right  of  the  prevailing  theology  to 
daim  bia  assent,  because  it  made  irrational  asser- 
tions; the  authorities  to  which  he  refused  to  sub- 
mit were,  in  his  judgment,  only  human  authorities. 
He  spoke  bitterly  and  unjustly  of  popes  and  coun- 
cils, unable  to  forgive  them  for  making  him  untrue 
to  himself;  but  this  meant  no  rejection  of  the 
Catholic  conception  of  the  Church.  His  opposi- 
tion was  limited  to  the  euoharistic  doctrine  of  his 
time,  and  he  controverted  the  theory  of  Paschasius 
not  least  because  he  believed  it  was  contrary  to 
Scripture  and  the  Fathers,  and  destructive  of  the 
veiy  nature  of  a  sacrament.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxbuooaapbt:  An  edition  of  Berengar'a  worka  wm  begun 
by  A.  F.  and  F.  T.  Visoher.  vol.  i  only  was  publiflhed 
eontaining  hi*  D0  §aara  etBma^  Berlin,  1834;  cf.  Mansi, 
CoOeeba,  mx,  761  aqq.;  the  works  are  also  in  Bouquet, 
R^emtU,  Tor,  2M-300.  A  eoUeetion  of  letters  relating  to 
him  (one  of  his  own)  was  published  by  E.  Bishop  in  Hi§- 
tariatAm  JaMnuh  d$r  G&rrea-OMeUaehaft,  i,  272-280. 
Monster,  1880.  For  his  life  consult  H.  E.  Lehmann. 
BsrtwgufM  Tyronsiwts  vUm  ex  fonHJbuM  kauttm^  part  i,  Ros- 
tock, 1S70  (no  more  published);  J.  Schmitaer.  Berengar 
«o»  Taun,  ttin  Laben  und  mine  Lehre,  Munich,  1890. 
GoQsult  the  works  of  Bemold  of  San  Bias,  in  Labbe,  Con- 
eilia,  iz,  1060,  in  Bouquet,  Reeueil,  ziv,  34-37,  and  in 
MPh,  ezlviii;  B.  Haurteu,  HieUnre  de  la  phUoeopkis 
eootaeHqm,  i,  225  sqq.,  Paris,  1872;  Hefele,  ConeUienge- 
•dkuAte.  vols.  iT,  t;  KL,  ii.  301-404;  Neander,  Ckriatian 
Chunk,  iii,  60^-621,  iv.  84.  86,  02,  335,  337,  355. 

BEREHGOZ :  Abbot  of  St.  Maximin's  at  Treves 
in  the  twelfth  century;  d.  about  1125.  In  the 
records  of  the  abbey  he  is  first  mentioned  as  abbot 
in  1107,  and  for  the  last  time  in  1125.  The  register 
of  deaths  contains  his  name  against  the  date  of 
Sept.  24,  without  naming  the  year;  but  as  his  suc- 
cessor, Gerhard,  was  installed  in  1127,  he  must 
have  died  either  in  1125  or  1126.  He  rendered 
considerable  services  to  the  monastery  by  procur- 
ing from  Henry  V  the  restitution  of  a  number  of 
alienated  fiefs,  and,  besides  five  sermons  for  saints' 
days,  wrote  two  larger  works:  three  books  De  laude 
d  inventione  aanctiB  erueU,  and  a  series  of  discourses 
De  mysterio  ligni  domvnid  et  de  luce  visibili  et  in- 
vigibili  per  qiuim  antiqui  patree  dim  meruerunt  iUus- 
trari.  In  the  former  he  treats  of  the  legend  of  the 
discovery  of  the  cross  of  Christ  by  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantine  the  Great,  adducing  a  large 
number  of  Old  Testament  types  of  the  cross.  The 
latter  deals  with  Christ  under  the  aspect  of  the 
fight  of  the  world,  shining  from  the  beginning  of 
its  history.  Whether  the  commentary  on  the 
Apocalypse  which  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Blaur 
printed  as  an  appendix  to  the  second  voliune  of 
their  edition  of  St.  Ambrose,  ascribing  it  to  a  cer- 
tain Berengaudus,  is  his  or  not  must  remain  un- 
certain. (A.  Hauck.) 


Bibuqobapbt:  Berengos's  works  were  edited  by  Christo- 
phorus,  Cologne,  1555,  and  appear  in  M.  de  la  Bigne, 
Magna  hibUolheea,  toI.  vii,  ib.  1618,  also  in  MPL,  olx. 
Consult  J.  liiarx,  GeeckickU  dee  EneHfte  Trier,  ii,  05.  Trier. 
1860;  H.  V.  Sauerland.  7Vt«r«r  Geeehiekte^iueUen,  Trier, 
1880;  Hauck.  KD,  iii,  071-072. 

BSRGSN  FORMULA  (Daa  hergische  Buck). 
See  Formula  of  Concord. 

BERGER,  DANIEL :  One  of  the  United  Brethren 
in  Christ;  b.  near  Reading,  Pa.,  Feb.  14,  1832.  He 
studied  privately  at  Springfield,  O.,  taught  school 
1852-58,  and  served  as  pastor  1858-64.  From 
1864  till  1897  he  was  editor  in  the  publishing  house 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ  at  Dayton,  O., 
having  charge  of  the  denominational  Sunday- 
school  literature  1869-93,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  International  Sunday-School  Lesson  Committee 
from  1884  to  1896.  In  theology  he  is  an  Arminian. 
He  wrote  the  History  of  the  Church  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ  for  the  American  Church  History 
Series  (New  York,  1894),  and  a  larger  work  with 
the  same  title  (Dayton,  1897),  which  is  the  official 
history  of  the  denomination. 

BERGER,  bftr^'zhd',  SAMUEL:  French  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Beaucourt  (10  m.  s.s.e.  of  Belfort),  France, 
May  2,  1843;  d.  in  Paris  July  13, 1900.  He  studied 
at  Strasburg  and  TObingen;  in  1867  became  assistant 
preacher  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Paris;  in  1877, 
librarian  to  the  Paris  faculty  of  Protestant  theology. 
He  was  the  author  of  F.  C.  Baur^  les  origines  de 
Vicole  de  Tubingue  et  ses  principes  (Paris,  1867); 
La  Bible  au  seizihne  sikcUf  itude  sur  les  origines 
de  la  critique  (1879);  De  glossariis  et  compendiis 
Inblicis  quibusdam  medii  avi  (1879);  Du  rdle  de  la 
dogmatique  dans  la  predication  (1881);  La  Bible  fran- 
foise  au  moyen  Age  (1884);  De  Vhistoire  de  la  Vul- 
gate en  France  (1887);  Le  Palimpsests  de  Fleury 
(1889);  Quam  notitiam  lingtue  Hebraicas  habuerint 
Christiani  medii  aevi  temporibus  in  Gallia  (1893); 
VHistoire  de  la  Vulgate  pendant  les  premiers  siides 
du  moyen  Age  (1893);  Notice  sur  quelques  textes 
latins  inidits  de  VAneien  Testament  (1893);  Un 
Ancien  Texte  latin  des  Ades  des  Apotres  (1895);  Une 
Bible  copi^  d  Porrentruy  (jStudes  de  Thiologie  et 
d'Histaire,  1901,  213-219);  and  Les  Prefaces  joinUs 
aux  livres  de  la  Bible  dans  les  manuscrits  de  la 
Vulgate f  m^moire  posthume  (1902). 

BERGIER,  b&r^'zhyd',  NICOLAS  SYLVESTRE: 
French  Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Damay  (18  m.  s.e. 
of  Mirecourt),  Lorraine,  Dec.  31,  1718;  d.  at  Paris 
Apr.  19,  1790.  He  gained  repute  while  a  teacher 
at  the  college  at  Besan9on  by  essays  in  philology 
and  mythology;  abandoned  this  line  of  study  to 
devote  himself  to  Christian  apologetics,  and  polem- 
ics against  the  Encyclopec^ts.  In  1765-68  he 
published  at  Paris  Le  DHsme  rifvU  par  lui-mhne 
(2  vols.)  and  in  1768  the  Certitude  des  preuves  du 
ckristianisms  (2  vols.),  which  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess and  called  forth  replies  from  Voltaire  and 
Anacharsis  Cloots.  In  1769  followed  Apologie  de  la 
religion  chritienne  (2  vols.)  against  Holbach,  in  1771 
Examen  du  matirialisme  (2  vols.),  and  in  1780  TraiU 
historique  et  dogmatique  de  la  vraie  religion  avec  la 
riftUation  des  erreurs  qui  lui  ont  Hi  opposies  dans  les 
diffirtns  siteles  (12  vols.).    He  also  wrote  a  Dictton- 


BargluB 

Bernard  of  Batone 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


60 


noire  tfUologique  (3  vols.,  1789),  which  foimed  part 
of  the  Encydopidit,  but  has  several  times  been  sepa- 
rately edited  (latest  by  Le  Noir,  12  vols.,  1876). 
As  a  reward  for  his  services  he  was  made  canon  of 
Notre  Dame  in  Paris  and  confessor  to  the  aunts  of 
the  king,  with  a  pension  of  2,000  livres. 
Biblxoorapht:  Biograjihie  nouvelU  df  eontemporaint,  ii, 
378.  Paris,  1821;  Biograpkie  giniraU,  v.  14. 

BERGIUS,  JOHAmiES:  Reformed  theologian; 
b.  at  Stettin  Feb.  24,  1587;  d.  at  Berlin  Dec.  19, 
1058.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Strasburg; 
in  1615  became  professor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
where  the  theological  faculty  represented  the  Re- 
formed faith;  1623  court  preacher  at  Berlin.  He 
was  present  at  the  Colloquy  of  Leipsic  (1631)  and 
the  Thorn  Conference  (1645),  but  declined  to  at- 
tend the  Synod  of  Dort  (1618),  as  he  wished  for 
union  rather  than  the  establishment  of  Calvinism. 
He  was  emphatically  a  mediator,  and  showed  him- 
self temperate  and  dignified  in  controversy.  He 
published  many  sermons. 

Biblioorapht:  D.  H.  Hering.  BeUrOil*  ntr  GeadiidUB  der 
€vano€U»eK-reformirten  Kirche  in  den  preuMaiachrbranden' 
hurgUehen  lAtndem,  i,  16  sqq.,  ii,  82.  Breslau.  1784-85; 
H.  Landwehr,  Die  Kird»enpolitik  Friedrich  WilhelmB  dee 
Orouen  KurfHrtten,  pp.  150  sqq.,  Berlin,  1804. 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE:  Bishop  of  Cloyne  (in 
County  Cork,  about  15  m.  e.s.e.  of  the  city  of  Cork); 
b.  probably  at  Dysert  Castle,  near  Thomastown 
(90  m.  s.w.  of  Dublin),  County  Kilkenny,  Ireland, 
Mar.  12,  1685;  d.  at  Oxford  Jan.  14,  1753.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  (B.A.,  1704; 
M.A.  and  fellow,  1707;  B.D.  and  D.D.,  1721),  and 
filled  various  college  offices  from  tutor  (1707)  to  ju- 
nior dean  (1710)  and  junior  Greek  lecturer  (1712). 
He  lived  there  in  an  atmosphere  "  charged  with  the 
elements  of  reaction  against  traditional  scholasti- 
cism in  physics  and  metaphysics."  His  Common- 
Place  Book  (first  printed  in  the  Oxford  ed.  of  his 
works,  1871,  iv,  419-502)  shows  how  the  stimulus 
worked  upon  a  mind  naturally  inclined  to  inde- 
pendent investigation.    Very  early  he  adopted  the 

idea  that  no  existence  is  conceivable, 
Berkeley's  and  therefore  none  is  possible,  which 
Philosophy,  is  not  either  conscious  spirit  or  the 

ideas  (i.e.,  objects)  of  which  such 
spirit  is  conscious.  Locke  had  affirmed  secondary 
and  primary  qualities  of  the  material  world;  the 
secondary  qualities,  such  as  color  and  taste,  do 
not  exist  apart  from  sensations;  primary  qualities 
exist  irrespective  of  our  knowledge.  Berkeley  de- 
nied this  distinction,  and  held  that  external  ob- 
jects exist  only  as  they  are  perceived  by  a  subject. 
Thus  the  mind  produces  ideas,  and  these  ideas  are 
things.  There  are,  however,  two  classes  of  ideas: 
the  less  regular  and  coherent,  arising  in  the  imagi- 
nation; the  more  vivid  and  permanent,  learned 
by  experience,  "  imprinted  on  the  senses  by  the 
Author  of  nature  '^  which  are  the  real  things — a 
proof  for  the  existence  of  God.  According  to 
Berkeley  matter  is  not  an  objective  reality  but  a 
composition  of  sensible  qualities  existing  in  the 
mind.  '*  No  object  exists  apart  from  the  mind; 
mind  is  therefore  the  deepest  reality;  it  is  the 
priiLs,  both  in  thought  and  existence,  if  for  a  mo- 
ment we  assume  the  popular  distinction  between 


the  two."  Berkeley  appeared  as  an  author  with 
this  theory  already  developed,  and  from  it  he  never 
wavered.  In  1709  he  published  an  Essay  toward 
a  New  Theory  of  Vision,  an  examination  of  visual 
consciousness  to  prove  that  it  affords  no  ground 
for  belief  in  the  reality  of  the  objects  apparently 
seen.  In  1710  appeared  a  Treatise  concerning  the 
Principles  of  Human  Knowledge,  in  which  his 
theory  received  complete  exposition. 

Meanwhile  Berkeley  had  taken  orders,  and,  in 
1713,  he  left  Dublin,  went  to  London,  formed  many 
desirable  acquaintances,  and  gained  an  enviable 
reputation  for  learning,  humility,  and  piety.  The 
same  year  he  published  Three  Dialogues  Between 
Hylas  and  PhUonous  (ed.  in  Religion  of  Science 
lAbrary,  No.  29,  Chicago,  1901 ),  "  the  finest  specimen 
in  our  language  of  the  conduct  of  argument  by  dia- 
logue." He  visited  the  Continent  in  1713-14  and 
again  in  1716-20.  In  1721  he  returned  to  Ireland, 
again  filled  college  offices  at  Dublin  (divinity  lec- 
turer and  senior  lecturer,  1721;  Hebrew  lecturer, 
1722;  proctor,  1722),  and  was  appointed  dean  of 
Dromore  (1722)  and  dean  of  Deny,  "  the  best  pre- 
ferment in  Ireland  "  (1724). 

Berkeley  now  became  devoted  to  a  plan  of  es- 
tablishing a  college  in  the  Bermuda  Islands,  went 
to  London  to  further  the  project  in  1724,  and  in 
1725  published  A  Proposal  for  the  Better  Supply- 
ing of  Churches  in  our  Foreign  Plantations,  arid  for 
converting  the  savage  Americans  to  Christianily  by 
a  college  to  he  erected  in  the  Summer  Islands,  other- 
wise  called  the  Isles  of  Bermuda.  By  his  enthuaiaam 
and  persuasive  powers  he  won  many 
Berkeley's  expressions  of  sympathy,  and  came  to 

American   believe  that  the  government  would 

Scheme,  support  the  plan.  In  Sept.,  1728,  he 
sailed  for  America  and  landed  at  New- 
port, R.  I.,  Jan.,  1729.  Three  years  of  waiting  con- 
vinced him  that  his  hopes  were  futile,  and  in  Feb., 
1732,  he  returned  to  London.  He  published  im- 
mediately Alciphron  or  the  Minute  Philosopher,  the 
result  of  his  studies  in  America  and  probably  the 
most  famous  of  his  works.  It  is  a  powerful  refuta- 
tion of  the  freethinking  then  popular  and  fashion- 
able. In  1734  he  was  made  bishop  of  Cloyne,  and 
there  he  lived,  happy  in  his  family  and  beloved  for 
his  goodness  and  benevolence,  till  1752,  when  he 
went  to  Oxford  to  end  his  days  with  his  son,  a  senior 
student  at  Christ  Church.  He  kept  up  his  studies 
after  his  appointment  as  bishop  and  published  a 
number  of  books,  including  the  curious  Philosoph- 
ical Reflections,  and  Inquiries  concerning  the  Virtuee 
of  Tar^water  (1744;  three  eds.  the  same  year,  the 
second  called  Siris,  a  Chain  of  Philosophical  Re- 
flections, etc,),  in  which  he  set  forth  a  revision  of 
his  philosophy,  and  expressed  his  faith  in  tar-water 
as  a  universsd  medicine,  good  for  man  and  beast; 
it  was  the  most  popular  of  his  works. 

On  first  coming  to  America  Berkeley  bought  a 
farm  near  Newport  and  bmlt  there  a  house,  still 
standing,  which  he  called  "  Whitehall "  after  the 
English  palace.  The  shore  is  about  a  mile  from 
the  house,  and  a  cleft  in  the  rocks  is  still  pointed  out 
as  a  retreat  whither  he  was  wont  to  go  and  where 
he  wrote  much  of  Alciphron,  This  book  is  indeed 
a  permanent  record  of  his  life  at  Newport,  and  not 


61 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bersrius' 
Bernard  of  Botone 


s  little  of  its  charm  is  due  to  this  fact.  He  helped 
found  a  phflosophical  society  at  Newport  and 
preached  there  in  Trinity  Church,  a  fine  old  wooden 
structure,  which  is  stUl  standing.  He  made  at 
least  one  convert,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Johnson  (q.v.)y 
episcopal  missionary  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  and  i^ter- 
ward  first  president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York.  Attempts  to  show  that  he  directly  influ- 
enced the  early  idealistic  thought  of  Jonathan 
Edwards  have  not  proved  successful.  His  Ameri- 
esn  plans  and  dreams  inspired  the  poem,  written 
St  uncertain  date,  which  ends  with  the  stanza: 

WMtivard  Um  ooone  of  empire  takes  its  way; 

The  four  first  acta  already  i>a8t, 
A  fifth  shall  eloee  the  drama  with  the  day; 

Time's  noblest  olbinniig  is  the  last. 

BnuooaAPHT:  The  standard  edition  of  Berkeley's  com- 
plete works  is  by  A.  C.  Fraaer.  4  vols..  Oxford.  1871.  re- 
iBoed  1901,  of  which  vol.  iv  includes  his  Life  and  LetUrg 
and  An  Account  of  hi»  PhUo9ophy.  Prof.  Fraser  has  also 
edited  a  volume  of  SeUcHona  from  Berkeley,  5th  ed., 
Londoo,  1809,  and  contributed  Berkeley  to  the  Philo- 
eopkieai  Claaoiea  series,  Edinburgh,  1881.  There  is  an 
edition  of  The  Worke  of  Qtorge  Berkeley^  by  Q.  Sampson, 
vith  biographical  introduction  by  A.  J.  Balfour,  in  Bohn's 
FkOoeojikieal  Library,  3  vols.,  London,  1897-98.  An 
American  edition  of  the  Principles,  by  C.  P.  Krauth, 
Philadelphia,  1874,  presents  a  valuable  epitome  of  opin- 
uns  con<wming  Berkeley.  The  sources  for  a  biography 
are  a  Life  by  Bishop  Stock  first  published  1776,  reprinted 
in  the  Biographia  BrUannica,  vol.  ii,  1780,  and  prefixed 
to  the  first  edition  of  Berkeley's  CoUeeted  Worke,  1784, 
the  details  being  obtained  from  Bishop  Berkeley's  brother. 
Dr.  Robert  Berkeley;  S.  A.  Allibone  gives  interesting  de- 
tails of  Berkeley's  residence  at  Newport  in  Critical  Dic- 
tionary of  Englieh  Liieraiure,  i.  174-177,  Philadelphia, 
1891;  DNB,  iv.  348-356  adds  a  list  of  the  works  chrono- 
logically arransed.  Consult  further  D.  Stewart,  PhUo- 
eopkieal  Beoayo,  Edinburgh,  1810;  vol.  v  of  his  Colleded 
Worka,  11  vols.,  ib.  1854-60  (on  the  idealism  of  Berke- 
ley); S.  Bailey,  A  Review  of  Berkeley' e  Theory  of  Vieion, 
London,  1842  (adverse  in  its  pronouncement);  J.  8.  Mill, 
Dieeeriatione  and  Diacueeione,  ii,  162-197  and  cf.  vol.  iv, 
Boston,  1866;  F.  Frederichs.  Der  phenomenale  Idealimnue 
Berkeley'B  und  Kant* 9,  Berlin.  1871;  W.  Graham,  Ideal- 
iam^  an  Eooay.  London,  1872  (connects  Berkeley  and 
Hegel);  G.  Spickei^  Kant,  Hume  und  Berkeley,  Berlin, 
1875;  A.  Penjon,  Etude  eur  la  vie  et  eur  lee  auvree  pAi- 
heojitiquee  do  Oearge  Berkeley,  Paris,  1878;  J.  Janitsch, 
Kanfe  Urtheile  Hber  Berkeley,  Stra^burg.  1879;  T.  Loewy, 
Drr  Idealiemua  Berkeley'*,  in  den  Grandlagen  unterevt^t, 
Vienna.  1891;  T.  H.  Huxley.  ColUeted  Euaye,  vi,  241- 
310.  New  York.  1894;  M.  C.  Tyler.  George  Berkeley  and 
kit  Ameritan  Vioit,  in  Three  Afen  of  Letter;  ib.  1895. 

BERLEBURG  BIBLE.  See  Bibles,  Annotated, 
I,  {3. 

BER5,  DISPUTATION  OF:  The  decisive  point 
in  the  contest  which  definitely  establiBhed  the 
Reformation  at  Bern.  At  first  the  movement 
made  slow  progress  there,  as  both  the  character  of 
the  people  and  their  manner  of  life  rendered  them 
little  susceptible  to  new  ideas;  even  after  a  refonn- 
ing  party  arose,  for  several  years  things  continued 
iti  an  undecided  and  vacillating  condition.  The 
somewhat  violent  and  domineering  manner  in 
which  the  Roman  Catholic  authorities  attempted 
to  use  their  victory  at  the  Conference  of  Baden 
(1526;  Bee  Badkn,  Conference  of)  brought  on 
a  crisis  which,  after  the  fashion  of  the  time,  it  was 
i^tempted  to  meet  by  means  of  a  disputation. 
Some  of  the  Reformers  invited  to  participate 
dediiied,  having  in  mind  the  result  at  Baden,  and 
the  Roman   Catholic   dignitaries   and   celebrities 


generally  refused  to  attend.  But  a  great  number 
of  delegates  and  clergy  appeared  from  Switzerland 
and  the  South  German  states,  including  Zwingli, 
(Ecolampadius,  Butzer,  Capito,  Ambrose  Blauxer, 
and  others.  .The  opening  session  was  held  on 
Jan.  6,  1528,  and  the  discussions  lasted  from  the 
following  day  till  Jan.  26.  They  were  based  on 
ten  theses  carefully  prepared  by  Berthold  Haller 
and  Franz  Kolb  and  revised  by  Zwingli.  The  out- 
come was  that  the  ten  theses  were  subscribed  to 
by  most  of  the  clergy  of  Bern,  the  mass  was  done 
away  with,  the  images  were  quietly  removed  from 
the  churches,  and  on  Feb.  7  the  Reformation  edict 
W8S  issued,  which  gave  the  theses  force  of  law, 
annulled  the  power  of  the  bishops,  and  made  the 
necessary  regulations  concerning  the  clergy,  public 
worship,  church  property,  etc.  The  majority  of 
the  country  congregations  soon  gave  in  their  ad- 
herence. The  influence  of  the  disputation  was  felt 
even  in  France,  the  Netherlands,  and  England. 

Bzbuoorafht:  The  nets  of  the  disputation  were  published 
at  Zurich,  1528,  and  scain  in  1008  and  1701;  the  Ten 
Theses  are  given  in  English  in  Bchaff,  Creode,  i,  3M-366, 
and  Chriatian  Church,  vii,  104-106,  in  German  and  Latin, 
Creeda,  iii,  208-210.  Consult  8.  Fischer,  Ooackiehta  dor 
Disputation  und  Reformation  in  Bern,  Bern,  1828;  B.  M. 
Jackson,  Huldreieh  Zwingli,  pp.  280-283.  New  York,  1903. 

BERN,  SYNOD  OF:  The  name  given  to  the 
firstReformed  synod  at  Bern  (1532).  The  Reforma- 
tion was  established  at  Bern  by  the  Disputation 
and  the  edict  of  Feb.  7,  1528  (see  Bern,  Dispu- 
tation of),  but  much  remained  to  be  done  in  the 
way  of  consolidation  and  to  finish  the  building 
of  the  new  Church.  This  task  was  entrusted  to  a 
general  synod,  to  which  all  the  clergy  of  the  land, 
220  in  niunber,  were  invited.  It  met  on  Jan.  9-14; 
Capito  from  Strasburg  was  the  principal  figure, 
and  he  collected  the  resulta  of  the  discussion  with 
much  care  and  labor.  They  form  a  church  direc- 
tory and  pastor's  manual  which  i»  noteworthy, 
even  among  the  monuments  of  the  Reformation 
time,  for  its  apostolic  force  and  unction,  its  wannth 
and  sincerity,  its  homely  simplicity  and  practical 
wisdom. 

Bibuographt:  The  acts  of  the  synod  were  officially  printed 
at  Basel.  1632.  acain  in  1728  and  1778.  Both  the  oris- 
inal  and  a  modernised  text  were  issued  by  Lauener,  Basel. 
1830.  Consult  M.  Kirchhofer.  Berthold  Hatter,  pp.  160 
sqq.,  Zurich,  1828;  Billeter,  in  the  Bemer  Beitriioe,  ed. 
F.  Nippold,  Bern,  1884  (especial  y  useful);  E.  Bloesch. 
GeachicKte  der  adiweizeriack^ormierten  Kirchen,  i.  74-81. 
Bern.  1808. 

BERNARD  OF  BOTONE:  Canonist  of  the 
thirteenth  centuiy;  b.  in  Parma  c.  1200;  d.  at 
Bologna  May,  1263.  He  studied  law  at  Bologna, 
where  he  became  professor  and  canon;  then  spent 
some  time  in  Rome  in  an  important  official  position 
at  the  papal  court,  but  toward  the  end  of  his  life 
returned  to  Bologna  to  lecture,  especially  on  the 
decretals.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  or  com- 
piler of  the  Glaasa  ordinaria  (see  Globses  and 
Glossators  of  Canon  Law)  on  the  decretals  of 
Gregory  IX.,  but  wrote  also  Casus  longi  and  a  Simv- 
ma  super  titulis  decretalium  (cf.  J.  F.  von  8chulte, 
Die  Geschichie  der  QueUen  des  kanonischen  RechUf 
ii,  Stuttgart,  1877,  pp.  114  sqq. 

(£.  Fbiedbsro.) 


Bernard  of  Clairvans: 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


62 


BERNARD  OF  CLAIRVAUX. 


Life  and  Far-reaching  Ae- 

tivity. 
Bernard's      Importanoe 

(§1). 
Early  Career.     Abbot  of 

Clairvaux  (f  2). 
Activity  for  Innocent  II 

and  asainst  Anacletus 

II  (§  3). 
The     Second     Cnuade 

(§4). 


II.  E^cclesiafltical  and  Theo- 
logical Significance. 
AsoetidBm  (f  1). 
Study  of  the  Bible  (f  2). 
Grace  and  Works  (f  3). 
Bernard's  My8ticism(S4). 
Doctrine  of  the  Church 

(§6). 
Monasticism  (§  6). 

III.  Writings. 

IV.  Hymns. 


L  Life  and  Far-reaching  Activity:  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  (Bemardua  ClarcBvaUis)  is  one  of  the  moat 
prominent  personalities  of  the  twelfth  century, 
of  the  entire  Middle  Ages,  and  of  church  history 
in  general.  He  gave  a  new  impulse  to  monastic 
life,  influenced  ecclesiastical  affairs  outside  of 
monasticism  in  the  most  effective  manner,  and 
contributed  not  a  little  toward  awakening  an 
inner  piety  in  large  circles.    As  he 

1.  Bernard's  knew  how  to  inspire  the  majsses  by  his 
Importance,  powerful  preaching,  so  also  he  under- 
stood  how   to   lead  individual  souls 

by  his  quiet  conversation,  to  ease  the  mind,  and 
to  dominate  the  will.  It  waa  said  in  his  time  that 
the  Church  had  had  no  preacher  like  him  since 
Gregory  the  Great;  and  that  this  was  no  exag- 
geration is  proved  by  Bernard's  orations,  which 
in  copiousness  of  thought  and  beauty  of  exposition 
have  few  equals.  Revered  by  his  contemporaries 
as  saint  and  prophet,  his  writings,  which  belong 
to  the  noblest  productions  of  ecclesiastical  litera- 
ture, have  secured  him  also  a  far-reaching  influence 
upon  posterity.  Praised  by  Luther  aiid  Calvin, 
Bernard's  name  has  retained  a  good  repute  among 
Protestants,  though  he  represented  many  things 
which  the  Reformation  had  to  oppose. 

Bernard  was  bom  at  Fontaines  (20  m.  n.e.  of 
Dijon),  France,  1090;  d.  at  Clurvaux  (in  the 
valley  of  the  Aube,  120  m.  s.e.  of  Paris)  Aug.  20, 
1153.  He  was  the  third  son  of  the  knight  Tecelin 
and  Aleth,  a  very  pious  lady,  whose  influence 
decided  his  future.  While  yet  a  boy  he  lost  his 
mother,  and,  not  being  qualified  for  military  serv- 
ice, he  was  destined  for  a  learned  career.  He  was 
educated  at  Chatillon  and  for  a  time  seemed 
to  be  influenced  by  the  world  (cf.  Af  PL,  clxxviii, 
1857;  Vita,  I,  iii,  6).  But  this  period  can  not 
have  been  of  long  duration;  the  memory  of  his 
mother  and  the  impressions  of  a  solitary  journey 
called  him  back,  and  he  resolved  quickly  and  firmly 
to  break  entirely  with  the  world.  He  induced  some  of 
his  brothers,  relatives,  and  friends  to  follow  him,  and, 
after  spending  half  a  year  together  at  Chatillon, 
they  entered  the  "  new  monastery  "  at  Ctteaux 
(see  Cistercians)  .    In  1 1 1 5  a  daughter 

2.  Early  Ca-  monastery  was  founded  at  Clairvaux 
reer.  Abbot  and  Bernard  became  abbot.  He  gave 
of  Clairvaux.  all  his  energies  to  the  foundation  of 

the  monastery,  and  spent  himself  in 
ascetic  practises,  which  the  famous  William  of 
Champeaux,  then  bishop  of  Chalons,  checked  from 
time  to  time  (Ftto,  I,  vii,  31-32).  Bernard  soon 
became  the  spiritual  adviser  not  only  of  his  monks 
but  of  many  who  sought  his  advice  and  always  left 
Clairvaux  impressed  by  the  spirit  of  solemnity  and 


peace  which  seemed  to  be  spread  over  the  place 
(Vita,  I,  vii,  33-34).  His  sermons  also  began  to 
exercise  a  powerful  influence,  which  was  increased 
by  his  reputation  as  prophet  and  worker  of  mira- 
cles (Vita,  I,  X,  46).  According  to  the  constitution 
which  the  new  order  adopted,  Clairvaux  became 
the  mother  monastery  of  one  of  the  five  principal 
divisions  into  which  the  Cistercian  community  was 
organized,  and  Bernard  soon  became  the  most  in- 
fluential and  famous  personality  of  the  entire  order. 
As  early  as  the  pontificate  of  Honorius  II  (1124-30) 
he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  of  the 
Church  in  France;  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the 
papal  chancellor  Haimeric  (Epist,,  xv),  commu- 
nicated with  papal  legates  (Epiat,,  xvi-xix,  xxi), 
and  was  coxisulted  on  important  ecclesiastical 
matters.  At  the  Synod  of  Troyes  (1128),  to  which 
he  was  called  by  Cardinal  Afatthew  of  Albano,  he 
spoke  in  favor  of  the  Templars,  secured  their  recog- 
nition,  and  is  said  to  have  outlined  the  first  rule 
of  the  order  (M.  Bouquet,  Historiens  des  Gauks 
et  de  la  France,  xiv,  Paris,  1806,  232).  In  the 
controversy  which  originated  in  the  same  year  with 
King  Louis  VI,  who  was  not  antagonistic  to  the 
Church  but  jealously  guarded  his  own  rights,  Ber- 
nard and  his  friars  defended  the  bishop  before  the 
king  (Epist.,  xlv),  afterward  also  before  the  pope 
(Epiat.,  xlvi,  cf .  xlvii),  though  at  first  unsuccessfully. 

With  the  schism  of  1130  Bernard  enters  into  the 
first  rank  of  the  influential  men  of  his  time  by 
espousing  from  the  very  beginning  the  cause  of 
Innocent  II  against  Anacletus  II.  This  parti- 
aanship  of  Bernard  and  others  was  no  doubt  in- 
duced by  the  fear  that  Anacletus  would  allow  him- 
self to  be  influenced  by  family  interests.  On  this 
account  they  overlooked  the  illegal  procedure  in 
the  election  of  Innocent,  regarding  it  as  a  mere 
violation  of  formalities,  defending  it  with  reasons 
of  doubtful  value,  and  emphasizing  the  personal 
worth  of  that  pope.  At  the  conference  which  the 
king  held  at  Ktampes  with  spiritual  and  secular 
grandees  concerning  the  affair,  Ber- 
3.  Activity  nard  seems  to  have  taken  the  part  of 
for  Innocent  reporter.  He  also  worked  for  the 
n  and  pope  by  personal  negotiations  and 
against  Ana- by    writing     (Epist.,  cxxiv,     cxxv). 

clettis  IL  When  Innocent  was  unable  to  main- 
tain his  ground  at  Rome  and  went 
to  France,  Bernard  was  usually  at  his  side.  Later, 
probably  in  the  beginning  of  1132,  he  was  in  Aqui- 
taine,  endeavoring  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
Gerhard  of  Angoul^e  upon  CV>unt  William  of 
Poitou,  who  sided  with  Anacletus  (Vita,  II,  vi,  36). 
His  success  here  was  only  temporary  {Epist.,  cxxvii, 
cxxviii),  and  not  until  1135  did  Bernard  succeed, 
by  resorting  to  stratagem,  in  changing  the  mind  of 
the  count  (Vita,  II,  vi,  37-38).  When  in  1133 
Lothair  undertook  his  first  campaign  against  Rome, 
Bernard  accompanied  the  pope  from  his  temporary 
residence  in  Pisa  to  Rome,  and  prevented  the  re- 
opening of  the  proceedings  concerning  the  rights 
of  the  opposing  popes  (Epist.,  cxxvi,  8  sqq.).  He 
had  previously  visited  (}enoa,  animated  the  people 
by  his  addresses,  and  inclined  them  to  an  agreement 
with  the  Pisans,  as  the  pope  needed  the  support  of 
both  cities  (cf.  Epist.,  cxxix,  cxxx).    It  was  also 


63 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard  of  Olairvaux 


Bernard  who  in  the  spring  of  1135  induced  Fred- 
erick of  Staufen  to  submit  to  the  emperor  {Viia, 
IV,  iii,  14;  Otto  of  Freising,  Chran.,  vii,  19).  He 
then  went  to  Italy,  where  in  the  beginning  of  June 
the  Council  of  Pisa  was  held;  according  to  the  Vita 
(11,  ii,  8),  everybody  surrounded  him  here,  so  that 
it  looked  as  if  he  were  not  in  parte  sollicUndinis, 
but  in  plenitudine  patestatis.  Nevertheless,  reso- 
lutions were  passed  at  that  time  regarding  appeals 
to  the  papal  see,  which  could  hardly  have  been 
to  the  liking  of  Bernard.  After  the  council  he 
succeeded  in  inducing  Milan  and  other  cities  of 
Upper  Italy  to  submit  to  the  pope  and  emperor 
(Epigt.,  cxxix-cxxxiii,  cxxxvii,  cxl).  In  Milan  they 
attempted  to  elevate  him  almost  with  force  to  the 
see  of  St.  Ambrose  (Vila,  II,  ii-v).  During  the 
last  campaign  of  Lothair  against  Rome,  Bernard 
went  to  Italy  for  the  third  time,  in  1137;  he  worked 
there  successfuUy  against  Anacletus,  and  after  the 
Pentecost  of  1138  he  finally  brought  about  the 
submission  of  his  successor  to  Innocent  and  thus 
ended  the  schism  (Epist,,  cccxvii).  After  this  he 
left  Rome.  How  great  Bernard's  influence  in 
Rome  was  at  this  time  may  be  seen  from  his  suc- 
cessful opposition  to  Abelard  (q.v.). 

The  ecclesiastico-political  affairs  of  France  soon 
made  a  new  claim  upon  Bernard's  attention.  The 
young  king,  Louis  VII,  by  making  reckless  use  of 
his  royal  prerogatives,  caused  friction,  as  when  he 
refused  to  invest  Peter  of  Lach&tre,  whom  the 
chapter  of  Bourges  had  elected  archbishop.  The 
pope  consecrated  him,  nevertheless,  and  thus  pro- 
voked a  conflict  which  was  enhanced  by  the  parti- 
sanship of  Count  Theobald  of  Champagne.  After 
a  while  Bernard  was  asked  to  mediate;  he  faithfully 
performed  this  difficult  task  and  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  the  king  to  the  end  of  his  life  (cf .  EpisL, 
occiv),  whereas  his  relations  to  the  pope  appear 
to  have  been  troubled  toward  the  end  (Epist.t 
ccxviii;  cczxxi,  3). 

A  very  unexpected  event  was  the  election  of 
Bernard,  abbot  of  Aquse  Silvi^e  near  Rome,  for- 
meriy  a  monk  in  Clairvaux,  as  Pope  Eugenius  III 
(1145-53).  Bernard  writes  a  little  later  {EpisL, 
ccxxxix)  that  all  who  had  a  cause  now  came  to 
him;  they  said  that  he,  not  Eugenius,  was  pope. 
And  it  is  true  that  he  exercised  a  remarkable  influ- 
ence in  Rome  especially  at  first,  but  Eugenius  did 
not  always  follow  his  counsels  and  views;  he  had 
to  consider  the  cardinals  who  were  envious  of 
Bernard.  About  this  time  Bernard,  at  the  request 
of  Cardinal  Alberic  of  Ostia,  undertook  a  journey 
to  Languedoc,  where  heresy  had  advanced  greatly 
and  Henry  of  Laiisanne  (q.v.)  had  a  large  following. 
Bernard's  presence  there,  especially  at  Toulouse, 
was  not  without  effect,  but  to  win  permanent 
success  continual  preaching  was  required.  A 
more  important  commission  was  given  to  him  in 
the  following  year  by  the  pope  himself,  to  preach 
the  crusade.  At  Vezelay,  where  the 
4-  The  Sec-  king  and  queen  of  France  took  the 

ond  Cm-  cross.  Mar.  21,  1146,  Bernard's  address 
gade.  was  most  effective.  He  then  trav- 
ersed the  north  of  France  and  Flanders, 
and  the  officious  doings  of  the  monk  Radulf  induced 
him  to  gp  into  the  regions  of  the  Rhine;  he  suc- 


ceeded in  checking  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews  at 
Mainz,  which  Radulf  had  occasioned.  His  journey 
along  the  Rhine  was  accompanied  by  numerous 
cures,  of  which  the  Vita  (vi)  contains  notices  in  the 
form  of  a  diary.  But  he  regarded  it  as  the  wonder 
of  wonders  that  he  succeeded  on  Christmas  day,  1146, 
in  influencing  King  Conrad  in  favor  of  the  crusade, 
in  the  face  of  all  political  considerations.  During 
the  crusade  Eugenius  sought  a  refuge  in  France. 
Bernard  accompanied  him,  and  was  present  at 
the  great  council  in  Reims,  1148;  in  the  debates 
against  Gilbert  of  Poitiers  (see  Gilbert  de  la. 
Porr£e)  following  the  council,  Bernard  appeared 
as  his  main  opponent;  but  the  jealousy  of  the  car- 
dinals brought  it  about  that  Gilbert  escaped  unhurt 
(Viia,  III,  V,  15;  Otto  of  Freising,  De  gestie  Frid., 
i,  55-57;  Hist.  porU.,  viii,  MGH,  Scrip,,  xx,  522  sqq.). 
About  this  time  the  first  unfavorable  news  of  the 
crusade  became  known,  and  tidings  of  its  complete 
failure  followed.  No  one  felt  the  blow  more  keenly 
than  Bernard,  who  with  prophetical  authority  to 
speak  had  predicted  a  favorable  issue  {De  consid,, 
ii,  1).  In  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  had  to  ex- 
perience many  things  which  caused  him  sadness. 
Men  with  whom  he  had  had  a  lifelong  connection 
died;  his  relations  with  Eugenius  III  were  some- 
times troubled  (Epist.,  cccvi);  the  frailty  and  the 
pains  of  his  body  increased.  But  his  mental  vitality 
remained  active;  his  last  work,  De  consideraHone, 
betrays  freshness  and  unimpaired  force  of  mind. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  and  Theological  Significance: 
Bernard's  entire  life  was  dominated  by  the  resolu- 
tion he  made  while  a  youth.  To  work  out  the 
salvation  of  his  soul,  and — which  meant  the 
same  thing  to  him — ^to  dedicate  him- 

I.  Asceti-  self  to  the  service  of  God,  was  thence- 
cism.  forth  the  simi  of  his  life.  To  serve 
God  demanded  above  all  a  struggle 
against  nature,  and  in  this  struggle  Bernard  was 
in  earnest.  Sensual  temptations  he  seems  to  have 
overcome  early  and  completely  (Vita,  I,  iii,  6) 
and  an  almost  virginal  purity  distinguished  him. 
To  suppress  sensuality  in  the  wider  sense  of  the 
word,  he  underwent  the  hardest  castigations,  but 
their  excess,  which  undermined  his  health,  he  after- 
ward checked  in  others  (cf.  Vita,  I,  xii,  60).  He 
always  remained  devoted  to  a  very  strict  asceticism 
(^pis^,  cccxlv;  Cant.,  xxx,  10-12;  Vita,  I,  xii,  60), 
but  castigation  was  to  him  only  a  means  of  godliness 
not  godliness  itself,  which  demands  of  man  still 
other  things.  The  new  life  comes  only  from  the 
grace  of  God,  but  it  requires  the  most  serious  work 
of  one's  own  nature.  How  much  importance 
Bernard  attached  to  this  work,  whose  preliminary 
condition  is  a  quiet  collection  of  the  mind,  may  be 
learned  from  the  admonitions  which  he  gives  on 
that  point  to  Eugenius.  That  he  prefers  the  con- 
templative life  to  the  active  is  nothing  peculiar 
in  him;  and  he  doubtless  had  the  desire  to  devote 
himself  entirely  to  it.  He  may  have  believed  that 
only  duty  and  love  impelled  hha  to  act.  And  yet, 
as  he  was  eminently  fitted  for  action,  such  work 
was  probably  also  in  harmony  with  his  inclina- 
tions. From  his  own  experience  he  received  the 
strength  to  work,  the  thorough  education  of  the 
personality,  by  which  he  exereised  an  almost  fafri 


Bernard  of  Olairvaox 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


64 


cinating  power  over  others;  on  the  other  hand,  his 
practical  activity  excited  in  him  a  stronger  desire 
for  contemplation  and  made  it  the  more  fniitf^ 
for  him  (De  diversiSf  sermo  iii,  3-5). 

Of  Bernard's  quiet  hours,  in  spite  of  the  many 
pressing  claims  on  him,  one  part  was  devoted 
to  study,  and  his  favorite  study  was  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. His  knowledge  of  the  Bible 
2.  Study  of  was    remarkable;  not    only   does   he 

the  Bible,  often  quote  Bible-passages,  but  all 
his  orations  are  impregnated  with 
Biblical  references,  allusions,  and  phrases,  to  pay 
regard  to  which  is  often  essential  for  the  correct 
understanding.  It  is  true  that  bis  exegesis  did 
not  go  beyond  the  average  of  his  time,  yet  he  allows 
the  great  fundamental  thoughts  and  vital  forms 
of  the  Holy  Scripture  to  influence  him  the  more. 
As  he  was  nourished  by  them  he  also  knew  in  a 
masterly  manner  how  to  bring  them  near  to  others. 
All  qusJities  of  the  great  preacher  were  imited  in 
him;  besides  being  vitally  seised  by  the  grace  of 
God,  he  had  a  hearty  desire  to  serve  his  hearers, 
an  impressive  knowledge  of  the  human  heart,  and 
a  wesdth  of  thoughts  and  fascinating  exposition, 
which  was  indeed  not  free  from  mannerism.  What 
is  missing  in  his  sermons  is  reference  to  the  variety 
of  the  relations  of  life,  and  this  is  intelligible, 
because  he  had  monks  as  his  hearers. 

Religious  geniality  is  the  most  distinguishing 
quality  in  the  whole  disposition  of  Bernard;  his 
other  rich  gifts  serve  it,  to  it  is  due  the  impres- 
sion which  he  made  upon  his  time,  and  the  im- 
portance which  he  obtained  in  the  history  of  the 
JChiutsh.  At  the  same  time,  Bernard  is  also  a  child 
of  his  time;  above  all,  of  the  Church  of  his  time,  in 
which  his  religious  life  could  develop  without  con- 
flict. In  this  respect  Bernard  is  related  not  to 
Luther,  but  to  Augustine,  and  between  Augustine 
and  him  stand  Leo  I,  Nicholas  I,  and  Gregory  VII. 
Thus  elements  are  found  in  Bernard  which  point  to 
future  developments  combined  with  those  which 
belong  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  consciousness  of 
the  time.  Bernard  is  most  deeply  permeated  by 
the  feeling  of  owing  everything  to  the  grace  of 
God,  that  on  the  working  of  God  rests  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  state  of  salvation,  and  that  we  are 
to  trust  only  in  his  grace,  not  in  our 
3.  Grace  and  works   and   merits.    From   the   for- 

Works,  giveness  of  sin  proceeds  the  Christian 
life  (De  diveraia,  sermo  iii,  1).  Faith 
is  the  means  by  which  we  lay  hold  of  the  grace  of 
God  (/n  vigil,  naiiv,  domini,  v,  5;  In  Cant.,  sermo 
xxii,  8;  cf.  also  In  Cant.,  Ixvii,  10;  In  vigil,  not. 
dam.,  sermo  ii,  4).  Man  can  never  be  sure  of  salva- 
tion by  resting  his  hope  upon  his  own  righteousness, 
for  all  our  works  always  remain  imperfect.  On 
the  other  hand,  Bernard  does  not  deny  that  man 
can  and  should  have  merits,  but  they  are  only 
possible  through  the  preceding  and  continually 
working  grace  of  God;  they  are  gifts  of  God,  which 
again  have  rewards  in  the  world  to  come  as  their 
fruit,  but  without  becoming  a  cause  of  self-glory. 
Before  God  there  is  no  legal  claim,  but  an  acqui- 
sition for  eternity  through  the  work  of  the  pious, 
made  possible  and  directed  by  God's  grace. 

A   characteristic    contrast    to   these    thoughts. 


which  lead  man  again  and  again  to  himiility,  is 
the  excessive  glorification  which  Bernard  devotes  to 
the  saints,  above  all  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  Though 
he  opposes  {Epist.,  dxxiv)  the  new  doctrine  of  ho' 
immaculate  conception,  he  nevertheless  uses  expres- 
sions concerning  the  mother  of  Jesus  which  go  veiy 
far  (e.g..  In  nativ.  Beat.  Virg.  Maria,  v,  7;  In 
assumpt.  Beat.  Virg.  Maria,  i,  4;  In  adv.  dom.,  u, 
5).  The  same  concerns  also  other  saints  (e.g.,  In 
vigil.  Petri  et  Pauli,  {  {  2,  4,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
second  oration  In  transitu  B.  Malachia).  But 
the  importance  of  such  expression  which  a  Protes- 
tant consciousness  will  never  be  able  to  adopt  is 
restricted  by  this,  that  they  are  only  used  on  special 
occasions,  such  as  a  feast  of  the  saints.  Otherwise 
the  saints  stand  in  the  background,  Christ  slone 
stands  in  the  foreground. 

Bernard  has  silways  been  regarded  as  a  main 
representative  of  Christian  mysticism,  and  his  wri- 
tings have  been  much  used  by  later  mystics  and  were 
the  main  source  for  the  Imttatio  ChrisH.  But  just 
here  becomes  evident  how  different  the  phenomena 
are  which  are  comprised  under  the  name  of  mysti- 
cism. With  the  Neoplatonic-DionjTsian  mysti- 
cism that  of  Bernard  has  some  points  of  contact, 
but  it  differs  from  it  as  to  its  religious  character. 
It  is  known  how  depreciatingly  Luther  speaks  of 
the  Areopagite,  but  this  animadversion  does  not 
concern  Bernard's  mysticism.  It  is  not  man  who 
soars  to  divine  height,  but  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ, 
which  first  pardons  the  sin  and  then  lifts  up  to  itself 

the  pardoned  sinner.  On  this  account 

4*  Bernard's   the    whole    mysticism    of    Bernard 

Mysticism,     centers  about  Christ,  the   humbled 

and  exalted  one;  it  likes  to  dweD 
upon  his  earthly  appearance,  his  suffering  and  death, 
for  it  is  the  "  work  of  redemption  "  which  more 
than  anything  else  is  fit  to  excite  love  in  the 
redeemed  (In  Cant.,  xz,  2;  De  grad.  hum.  in  its 
first  chapters).  At  the  same  time  Bernard  per- 
ceives thiat  a  sensual  devotion,  as  it  were,  to  the 
suffering  of  Christ  is  not  the  goal  with  which  one 
must  be  satisfied;  the  thing  necessary  is  rather  to 
be  filled  with  the  spirit  of  Christ  and  throu^  it 
to  become  like  Christ.  By  Christ's  work  of  redemp- 
tion the  Church  haa  become  his  bride.  To  it,  i.e., 
to  the  totality  of  the  redeemed,  belongs  this  name 
first  and  in  a  proper  sense,  to  the  individual  soul 
only  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  part  of  the  Church  (In 
Cant.,  xxvii,  6,  7;  Ixvii;  Ixviii,  4,  11).  What  it 
receives  from  him  is  in  the  first  place  mercy  and 
forgiveness  of  sins,  then  grace  and  blessing.  The 
climax  of  grace  is  the  perfect  union,  but  in  the 
earthly  life  this  is  experienced  by  the  pious  at  the 
utmost  in  single  moments  (De  consid.,  V,  ii,  1;  De 
grad.  hum.,  viii;  De  dUig.  Deo,  x).  Wlien  Bernard 
speaks  of  becoming  one  with  Christ  and  with  God. 
bus  thought  is  clothed  with  Biblical  expressions; 
but  that  Bernard  in  point  of  fact  does  not  intend 
to  go  beyond  the  meaning  of  these  words  can  be 
seen  by  reading  the  explanations  (In  Cant.,  bad,  7 
sqq.),  where  the  union  with  God,  to  which  the  pious 
sold  attains,  is  most  keenly  distinguished  from  a 
consubstantiality,  as  it  exists  between  Father  and 
Son  in  the  Trinity.  Bernard  is  entirely  free  from 
pantheistic  thoughts,  and  that  mysticism  does  not 


65 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard  of  Olairvan^ 


bring  him  in  opposition  to  the  Church   his  entire 
ecclesiastical  attitude  shows. 

The  Church  as  organized,  with  its  hierarchy, 
at  whose  head  stands  the  Roman  bishop  as  suc- 
cessor of  Peter  and  vicar  of  Christ,  is  to  Bernard 
the  exhibition  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth. 
On  this  account  it  must  enjoy  perfect  autonomy, 
having  a  right  of  supervision  over  everything  in 
ChriBtendom,  even  over  princes  and  states.  It 
even  has  a  right  over  the  worldly  sword  (De  conaid.y 
IV,  7;  cf.  EfMt.,  cclvi,  1).  Nevertheless  Bernard 
is  no  blind  adherent  of  the  views  of  Gregory  VII. 
In  the  first  place  Bernard  demands 

5.  Doctrine  a  perfect  separation  between  secular 
of  the      and  spirituid   affairs;  the   secular  as 

Church,  such  is  to  be  left  to  the  secular  govern- 
ment, and  only  for  spiritual  purposes 
and  in  a  spiritual  sense  is  the  pope  to  have  super- 
vision (De  eonsid.j  i,  6).  But  Bernard  is  also  an 
opponent  of  the  absolute  papal  power  in  the  Church. 
As  certainly  as  he  recognizes  the  papal  authority 
as  the  highest  in  the  Church,  so  decidedly  does  he 
reprove  the  effort  to  make  it  the  only  one.  Even 
the  middle  and  lower  ranks  of  the  Chiutsh  have 
their  right  before  God.  To  withdraw  the  bishops 
from  the  authority  of  the  archbishops,  the  abbots 
from  the  authority  of  the  bishops,  that  all  may 
become  dependent  on  the  curia,  means  to  make 
the  Church  a  monster  (De  coruid.,  iii,  8). 

Notwithstanding  Bernard's  many-sided  activity, 
he  was  and  remained  above  all  things  a  monk, 
and  would  not  exchange  his  monachism  either 
for  the  chair  of  St.  Ambrose  or  for  the  primacy  of 
Reims.  Monachism  is  to  him  the  ideal  of  Chris- 
tianity. He  acknowledges  indeed  that  true  Chris- 
tianity is  also  possible  while  living  in  the  world 
{A])ol.,  iii,  6;  In  Cant.f  Ixvi,  3;  De  div.,  ix,  3),  but 
such  a  life  compared  with  monastic  life  seems  to 
him  a  lower,  and  in  spiritual  relation, 

6.  Monaa-     a  dangerous  position  (De  div.,  xxvii, 
tidnn.       2),    a  partition  of  the  soul  between 

the  earthly  and  heavenly.  Monasti- 
cism  itself  he  regards  in  an  ideal  manner;  it  appeals 
to  him  also  not  so  much  from  the  point  of  view  of 
merit  as  from  that  of  the  safest  way  to  salvation. 
To  this  the  whole  order  of  the  monastery  is  sub- 
serrient,  aside  from  this  it  is  of  no  value.  Besides, 
Bernard  had  relations  with  the  different  monas- 
teries and  monkish  associations  and  was  interested 
in  them  (cf .  with  regard  to  the  Premonstratensians 
Epist.,  viii,  4;  Ivi;  and  especially  ccliii;  concerning 
other  regular  canons,  Epist,,  iii;  xxxix,  1;  Ixxxvii- 
xe;  and  elsewhere).  In  his  many  relations  with 
the  Quniaoensians,  frictions  were  not  wanting 
(cf.  Epiat.,  i;  cbdv;  cclxxxiii;  etc.,  and  especially 
the  Apologia  ad  Guilelmum),  for  the  rise  of  the  new 
order  took  place  partly  at  the  expense  of  the  old. 
Nevertheless  Bernard  was  highly  esteemed  by  the 
GuniacensianB,  and  close  friendship  associated 
him  with  their  head,  the  noble  Peter  the  Venerable. 
That  it  was  not  interrupted  is  mainly  due  to  Peter, 
who  knew  how  to  bear  occasional  lack  of  considera- 
tion by  his  great  friend  (cf .  Epist.,  clxvi,  1 ;  clxviii,  1 ) 
without  resentment  {Epiat.,  ccxxix,  5).  There 
existed  a  mutual  true  affection  and  admiration; 
the  letters  which  they  exchanged  with  each  other 

II.-n5 


are  an  honorable  monument  for  both  men,  and  with- 
out regard  to  differences  of  times  and  confessions 
modem  readers  can  appreciate  them. 

in.  Writings:  The  works  of  Bernard  in- 
clude a  large  collection  of  letters;  a  number  of 
treatises,  dogmatic  and  polemic,  ascetic  and 
mystical,  on  monasticism,  and  on  church  govern- 
ment; a  biography  of  St.  Malachy,  the  Irish  arch- 
bishop; and  sermons.  Hymns  are  also  ascribed 
to  him  (see  below).  The  most  important  are  the 
letters,  which  constitute  one  of  the  most  valuable 
collections  of  church  history;  and  the  sermons,  of 
which  those  on  the  Song  of  Songs  furnish  the  chief 
source  of  knowledge  of  Bernard's  mysticism. 
The  first  and  fifth  books  of  his  De  conaideratione 
are  also  of  a  mystic  character,  whereas  ii,  iii,  and  iv 
contain  a  critique  of  church  affairs  of  Ids  time 
from  Bernard's  point  of  view  and  lay  down  a  pro- 
gramme for  papal  conduct  which  a  contemporary 
pope  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  follow. 

S.  M.  Deutsch. 
rV.  Hymns:  Five  hymns  are  ascribed  to  Ber- 
nard, viz.:  (1)  the  so-called  Rhythmtis  de  am- 
temptu  mundif  "  0  miranda  vanitas  I  0  diviti- 
arum  I  "  (2)  the  Rhythmica  oratio  ad  unum  quodlibet 
membrorum  Ckriati  palierUis,  a  series  of  salves  ad- 
dressed to  the  feet,  knees,  etc.  of  the  Crucified;  (3) 
the  Oratio  devota  ad  Dominum  Jesum  et  Beatam  Mch 
nam  matrem  ejus,  "  Summe  summi  tu  patris  unice  "; 
(4)  a  Christmas  hymn,  "  LoUabundus  exuUet  fideUa 
chorus";  (5)  the  Jubilus  rhythmicus  de  nomine 
Jesu,  "  Jesu  dulcis  memoria,"  on  the  blessedness 
of  the  soul  united  with  Christ.  All  these  poetical 
productions,  besides  being  beautiful  in  form  and 
composition,  are  distinguished  by  a  tender  and 
living  feeling  and  a  mystic  fervor  and  holy  love. 
If  they  are  really  Bernard's,  he  deserves  the  title 
of  Doctor  mellifluus  devotusque.  An  addition  to 
the  Salve  regina,  closing  with  the  words,  "0 
demens,  O  pia,  O  dulcis  virgo,  Maria,"  is  also 
ascribed  to  him.  Mabillon  denies  Bernard's  author- 
ship of  all  these  hymns  in  spite  of  the  ancient  and 
prevalent  tradition.  But  one  is  inclined  to  accept 
the  tradition,  especially  since  the  scholastic  Beren- 
gar,  in  his  Apologia  Abelardi  contra  5.  Bemardum, 
states  that  Bernard  was  devoted  to  poetry  from 
his  youth.  Gennan  adaptations  of  the  last  section 
of  (2)  by  Paul  Gerhard  (1669),  "  O  Haupt  voU 
Blut  und  Wunden,"  and  of  (5),  "O  Jesu  stiss, 
wer  dein  gedenkt,"  are  in  conmion  use;  there  are 
several  English  versions — as  by  J.  W.  Alexander, 
"  O  Sacred  Head,  now  wounded "  and  "  Jesus, 
how  sweet  thy  memory  is,"  and  Ray  Palmer's 
"  Jesus,  the  very  thought  of  thee." 

M.  Herold. 
Biblxoobapht:  A  very  accurate  list  of  the  literature  (2,761 
entries,  arraDged  chronologically)  is  given  by  L.  Janau- 
sohek.  in  BUbiHograjihia  Bemardina,  Vienna,  1891.  The 
best  edition  of  the  works  of  Bernard  is  by  J.  M.  Hors- 
tium,  revised  and  enlarged  by  J.  Mabillon,  Paris,  1667, 
corrected  and  enlarged  1690  and  1719,  reprinted  in 
MPL,  clxxxii-dxzxv,  of  which  the  last  vol.  contains  the 
old  Vita,  and  some  valuable  additions  not  found  in  Mar 
billon.  A  new  critical  ed.  of  the  SermoneB  de  tempore,  de 
eanetie,  and  de  divereie  has  been  published  by  B.  Gsell 
and  L.  Janauschek  in  vol.  i  of  Xenia  Bernardina^  Vienna, 
1891.  An  Eng.  transl.  by  S.  J.  Eales  of  the  Life  and 
Workeof  8L  Bernard  of  Clairvatuc  from  theed.of  llabiUon, 
4    vols,    only    completed,    London,    188^-97,    contains 


Bernard  of  Olairvaux 
Bernard,  Olaude 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


66 


the  preface  of  liabillon  to  his  second  edition  of  the  Opera, 
a  Bernardine  Chronology,  Li»t  and  Order  of  the  LetUr; 
and  tranal.  of  the  Letter;  Sennont,  and  Cantieo  Cantir 
corum.  Of  the  early  biographies  the  most  important  is 
the  Vita  prima,  MPL,  elxxzv.  225-466,  the  first  book  of 
which,  by  William  of  Thierry,  was  written  during  Ber- 
nard's lifetime,  the  second,  by  E^nald,  abbot  of  Bona 
Vallis.  the  other  books  by  Gaufrid  of  Clairvaux.  cf.  G. 
Haffer.  VorBtudien  su  .  .  .  Bemhard  von  Clairvaux, 
Monster,  1886.  Of  later  literature  note  J.  Pinio.  Com- 
mentariue  de  S.  Bernardo,  in  ASB,  Aug..  iv.  101  sqq.,  and 
in  MPL,  clxxxv.  643-044  (still  Tery  useful);  and  Ma- 
billon's  Prafatio  (translated  in  Eale8.ut  sup.).  Of  modem 
lives  the  following  deserve  mention:  A.  Neander,  Der 
heiliffe  Bemhard  und  9ein  ZeitaUer,  Berlin.  1813,  ed.  S.  M. 
Deutsch,  in  Bildiothek  theologiacher  Ktauikerf  vols,  xxii- 
zziii.  Gotha.  1880.  Eng.  transl.  of  1st  ed..  Life  of  SL 
Bernard,  London.  1843;  J.  C.  Morrison,  Life  and  Timee 
of  JSL  Bernard,  London.  1877;  F.  Bdhringer.  Bemhard 
von  Clairvatuc,  No.  xiii.  in  Die  Kirdte  Christi  und  ihre 
Zeugen,  Leipaio,  1878;  S.  J.  £Iales,  8L  Bernard,  in  The 
Father*  far  Englieh  Reader;  London.  1800  (Roman  (Cath- 
olic); A.  C.  Benson  and  H.  F.  W  Tatham.  in  Men  of 
Might,  ib.  1802;  R.  8.  Storrs,  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  the 
Timee,  the  Man,  and  hie  Work,  New  York,  1802;  W.  J. 
Sparrow-Simpson,  Leduret  on  8L  Bernard  of  Clairvaux, 
London.  1806  (Roman  Catholic);  E.  Vacandard.  Vie  de 
Saint  Bernard,  Paris.  1805  (displajrs  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  good  taste  and  judgment  so  far  as  the  ultra- 
montane point  of  view  of  the  author  allows).  Consult 
further:  W.  von  Giesebrecht.  GeeehidUe  der  deutechen 
Kaiaeneit,  vol.  iv.  Brunswick.  1874;  W.  Bemhardi,  Jahr- 
bUeher  dee  deutedten  Reiehe  unter  Lothair  von  Supplin- 
berg,  Leipaic,  1870,  and  unier  Konrad  III,  ib.  1883;  B. 
Kugler.  Analekten  ntr  Oeeehichte  dee  stueiten  Kreuzzugee, 
TQbingen,  1870;  idem.  Neue  Analekten,  ib.  1883;  K.  F. 
Neumann.  Bernhard  von  Clairvaux  und  die  AnfAnge  dee 
sweiten  Kreuzzugee,  Heidelberg,  1882;  G.  Haffer,  Die 
AnfOnge  dee  su)eiten  Kreuxeugee,  in  Hietariechee  Jahrbuch 
der  OOrree-QeeeUeehafi,  vol.  viii,  Bonn,  1887.  On  Ber- 
nard's relation  to  Abelard:  S.  M.  Deutsch,  Die  Synode  gu 
Sene  111  A  und  die  Verurieilung  Ab&larde,  Berlin,  1880; 
E.  Vacandard.  Abilard,  ea  lutte  avec  8.  Bernard,  Paris, 
1881.  On  Bernard  as  a  preacher:  A.  Brdmel,  Homile- 
Heche  Charakterbilder,  pp.  53-06,  BerUn.  1860;  £.  Va- 
candard, S.  Bernard,  orateur,  Rouen,  1877;  R.  Rothe, 
Gee<^iehie  der  Predigt,  pp.  216  sqq.,  Bremen,  1881;  A. 
Nebe.  Zur  Oeeehichte  der  Predigt,  i.  250  sqq.,  Wiesbaden, 
1870;  E.  C.  Dargan.  Hiet.  of  Preaching,  pp.  208  sqq.. 
New  York.  1005.  On  Bernard's  teaching:  A.  Ritschl, 
Die  Chrietlidu  Lthre  von  der  Rechtfertigung  und  VsrsdAn- 
ung,  i.  §  17.  Bonn.  1870;  idem,  LeeefrOehte  aue  dem 
heUigen  Bemhard,  in  TSK,  1870,  pp.  317-335;  H.  Reuter, 
in  ZKO,  vol.  i,  1876;  G.  Thomasius,  Dogmenifeechichte.  ed. 
Seeberg,  ii,  120  sqq.,  Leipeic,  1880;  A.  Hamack,  Dogmen- 
geechiehte,  vol.  iii.  Freiburg,  1808.  On  Bernard  as  a  hym- 
nist:  R.  C.  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  pp.  136-141.  Lon- 
don, 1864;  S.  W.  Duffield.  Englieh  Hymne,  pp.  200.  300. 
317.  430,  600.  New  York.  1886;  idem.  LaHn  Hymn- 
Wriiere,  passim,  especially  pp.  186-103,  ib.  1880;  Julian. 
Hymnology,  pp.  136-137;  P.  Schaff,  Literature  and  Poetry, 
ib.  1800.  Discussions  of  St.  Bernard  from  various  points 
of  view  will  be  found  in  the  Church  Histories  dealing  with 
his  period  and  also  in  works  on  the  History  of  Philos- 
ophy. 

For  Bernard's  hymns:  H.  A.  Daniel.  Theeaunu  hym- 
nologicue,  6  vols..  Halle.  1841-56;  C.  J.  Simrock,  Lauda 
Sion,  Cologne.  1850;  J.  F.  H.  Schlosser.  Die  Kirche  in 
ihren  Liedem  dureh  aOe  Jahrhunderte.  Freiburg.  1863;  P. 
Schaff,  Chriet  in  Song,  New  York,  1868;  J.  Pauly,  Hymni 
breviarii  Romani,  3  vols..  Aachen,  1868-70;  F.  A.  March, 
LaHn  Hymne  toith  Englieh  Notee,  pp.  114-125,  276-270. 
New  York.  1874;  W.  A.  Merrill,  Latin  Hymne  Selected 
and  Annotated,  Boston.  1004. 

BERNARD  OF  CLUNY  (Bemardus  Marlanensis, 
often  called  Bernard  of  Moriaix,  Morlanensu  being 
improperly  rendered  Morlaix  instead  of  Morlas): 
Monk  of  Cluny;  b.  probably  at  Morlas  (5  m.  n.e.  of 
Pau,  and  then  the  capital  of  the  province  of  B^am); 
d.  at  Cluny  probably  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century.    Nothing  more  is  known  of  him,  except  that 


he  wrote  a  satirical  poem  of  2,991  lines,  divided  into 
three  books,  and  entitled  De  contemptu  mundiy 
dedicating  it  to  Peter  the  Venerable.  The  theme 
is  a  monastic  and  ascetic  commonplace,  but  its 
handling  reveals  vigor  and  satirical  power.  The 
meter  is  a  medieval  adaptation  of  the  dactylic 
hexameter,  so  difficult  that  Bernard  belie>'ed  he 
had  divine  assistance  in  keeping  it  up  for  so  many 
lines;  each  pair  of  lines  rimes  and  the  first  thiid 
of  each  line  rimes  with  the  second,  thus  (lines 
1-2): 

**  Hora  noviaaima,  tempora  pesoima  sunt,  Tigilemus. 
Ecoe  minaciter  imminet  arbiter  ille  supremus." 

As  to  contents  the  poem  is  a  satirical  arraignment 
of  the  twelfth  century  for  its  vices  in  Church  and 
society,  sparing  not  even  monks  and  nuns,  but  so 
exaggerated  that  it  can  not  be  accepted  as  history. 
The  opening  of  the  first  book  and  the  concluding 
part  of  the  third  are  on  spiritual  themes  of  uncom- 
mon beauty.  The  poem  exists  in  at  least  nine 
contemporary  manuscripts  and  so  must  have  been 
popular  in  its  day.  But  it  was  forgotten  until 
Matthias  Flacius  lUyricus  discovered  it  and,  with 
a  view  of  showing  that  the  evils  of  medieval  Roman- 
ism of  which  the  Protestants  complained  were 
already  pilloried  by  Rome's  faithful  sons,  printed 
a  few  lines  from  its  third  book  in  his  Catalogut 
testium  veritaiis  qui  ante  nostram  CBtatem  redamaruni 
papm  (Basel,  1556),  and  the  next  year  the  entire 
poem  in  the  collection  of  similar  poems  which  be 
entitled  Varia  doctarum  piorumque  virorum  de 
corrupto  Ecclesia  statu  poemata  ante  nostram  aiaim 
conscripta.  This  collection  was  reprint'Cd  in  1754. 
probably  at  Frankfort.  The  first  to  bring  Ber- 
nard's poem  out  separately  was  Nathan  Chytneus 
(Bremen,  1597),  and  he  was  followed  by  Eilhard 
Lubin  (Rostock,  1610),  Petrus  Lucius  (Rinteln, 
1626),  and  Johann  and  Heinrich  Stem  (Lune- 
burg,  1640).  Finally  Thomas  Wright  reprinted  it 
in  his  Anglo-Latin  Satirical  Poets  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury (London,  1872,  Rolls  Series,  No.  59).  The 
first  complete  translation,  in  prose,  was  published 
by  Henry  Preble  (AJT,  Jan.-July,  1906).  In  1M9 
Trench  published  in  his  Sacred  Lalin  Poetry  (Lon- 
don) ninety-six  lines  from  its  first  book,  and 
these  attracted  the  delighted  attention  of  John 
Mason  Neale,  who  translated  them  in  his  Medi- 
eval Hymns  and  Sequences  (London,  1851).  His 
translation  from  Bernard  leaped  into  wonderful 
popularity  and  was  separately  printed  along  with 
other  lines  not  in  Trench,  as  The  Rhythm  oj 
Bernard  de  Morlaix,  Monk  of  Cluny,  on  the  Cehstid 
Country  (London,  1859;  often  reprinted).  One  of 
the  hymns  made  by  division  out  of  tliis  translation,  I 
"Jerusalem  the  golden,"  is  found  in  all  hymn- 
books.  Other  pieces  in  prose  and  poetry  are  also  I 
attributed  to  Bernard.  , 

Biblioorapht:     S.  M.  Jackaon.  The  Soitrce  of  "  Jerwum  I 
the  Oolden "  and  Other   Piecee  Attributed   to  BemaM  of 
Cluny,  Chicago,  1009  (contains  Preble's  translation  of  tb«  ! 
De  contemptu  mundi,  and  an  elaborate  introduction  and  ' 
bibliography).  j 

BERNARD  OF  CORSTANCE:  German  teacher 
and  author  of  the  eleventh  century;  d.  at  Gorvey 
loss.  He  was  a  Saxon  by  birth,  and  about  the 
middle  of  the  century  presided  with  notable  sue- 


67 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard  of  Olairvaux 
Bernard,  Olande 


ress  over  the  school  at  CooBtance,  which  he  left 
to  teach  at  Hildesheim.  During  his  residence 
here  he  was  asked  by  his  teacher  Adalbert  and  his 
pupil  Bemold  (q.v.)  to  write  on  the  questions 
raised  by  the  Roman  synod  of  1076,  and  answered 
in  a  lengthy  treatise  against  the  opponents  of 
Clrrgoiy  VII.  His  standpoint  comes  out  even 
more  cleariy  in  his  Liber  canonum  contra  Henricum 
IV ,  which  on  its  first  publication  (M.  Sdralek, 
Die  Streitschriften  AUmanns  van  Passau  und  WezUoa 
von  Maim,  Paderbom,  1890)  was  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Bishop  Altmann  of  Passau.  It  was 
written  after  the  Synod  of  Quedlinburg  at  Easter, 
10S5,  when  the  Gregorian  party  wafi  in  great  diffi- 
culties, and  is  an  uncompromising  declaration  of 
fidelity  to  the  papal  cause.  Bernard  was,  in  short, 
as  his  pupil  Bemold  describes  him,  not  only  "  a 
most  learned  man  "  but  also  "  most  fervent  in  the 
cause  of  St.  Peter."  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bibuogbapht:  The  two  works  mentioned  above  have  been 
e«lited  by  F.  Thmner  in  MGH,  Lib.  eU  lite,  ii  (1892).  29- 
47.  and  i  (1891),  472-516  respectively.  Consult  C.  Mirbt. 
Die  PvUizietik  im  Zeitalter  Qreoore  VII,  Leipsic.  1894;  F. 
Thaner,  Zu  meei  Streiluhriften  de$  11.  JahrhunderU,  in 
Stiue  Ankie  far  alUr€d€ut»cheGe§chichU,xvi  (1889).  529- 
540;  Hauck.  KD,  vol.  iii. 

BERNARD  OF  MENTHON:  Founder  of  the 
hospices  on  the  Great  and  Little  St.  Bernard.  Little 
is  Imown  of  his  life,  as  modem  criticism  has  hardly 
touched  it,  and  the  older  biographies  are  untrust- 
worthy and  legendary.  According  to  them  he 
was  bom  at  Menthon,  near  Annecy  (25  m.  s.  of 
Geneva),  Savoy,  in  923,  and  studied  the  liberal 
arts,  law,  and  theology.  To  avoid  a  marriage 
planned  by  his  parents,  he  fled  to  Aosta,  where  he 
was  ordained  and  later  became  archdeacon.  In 
addition  to  the  most  faithful  performance  of  his 
priestly  duties,  he  founded  the  two  hospices  and 
placed  them  in  charge  of  canons  regular,  finally 
dying  at  Novara  in  1007.  A  sequence  preserved 
in  the  Ada  Sanctorum,  and  dating  probably  from 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  or  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  speaks  of  a  meeting  between  him  and 
Henry  IV,  which  may  possibly  have  occurred. 
It  is  known  that  in  the  ninth  century  there  was  a 
hospice  under  clerical  auspices  on  the  Mons  Jovis, 
the  present  Great  St.  Bernard,  which  may  later  have 
fallen  into  decay.  First  in  1125,  and  often  after 
that  date,  we  find  mention  of  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas  on  the  Mons  Jovis;  in  1145  of  the  hoa- 
pitaU,  which  in  1177  is  called  domiu  hoapitalis  SS. 
Sicoiai  et  Bemardi  Montis  Jovis.  It  is  thus  not 
improbable  that  Bernard  restored  the  older  foun- 
dation; but  it  is  more  likely  that  this  took  place 
at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  than  at  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century.  The  date  of  1081  for  Ber- 
nard's death  is  no  better  attested  than  that  of  1007. 
Innocent  XI  canonized  him  in  1681.  The  larger 
hospice,  on  which  till  1752  the  smaller  depended, 
was  reformed  during  the  Council  of  Basel,  receiving 
a  very  original  constitution  in  1438.  Napoleon, 
pleased  by  his  reception  there,  placed  the  hospice 
founded  by  him  on  the  Simplon  pass  under  the  care 
of  the  same  conmiunity,  and  endowed  the  founda- 
tion, which  had  lost  a  great  part  of  the  rich  pos- 
sessions formerly  held  by  it  in  fourteen  dioceses. 


It  is  now  supported  by  voluntary  offerings  from 
all  the  Swiss  cantons.  A  statue  of  Bernard  was 
erected  near  the  hospice  in  1905.     (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibugorapht:  The  old  lives  are  in  ASB,  16  June,  ii.  1071- 
1089;  Alban  Butler,  Livea  of  the  Fathere,  June  15,  2  Tola., 
London.  1857-60;  an  old  text  Le  Myetkre  de  SL  Bernard 
de  Menthon  was  published  by  A.  L.  de  la  Marehe,  Paris, 
1889.  Consult  L.  Burgener,  Der  heilige  Bemhard  wm 
Menthon,  Lucerne,  1870;  Mimoiree  et  doeumente  fnMiit 
par  la  eoditi  d'hiaioire  de  la  Suiue,  vol.  xxix,  Lausanne, 
1875;  A.  Lutolf,  Ueher  daa  wxhre  Zeitalter  dee  heilioen 
Bernard  von  Menthon  (006-1081),  in  TQ,  Izi  (1879).  179- 
207;  J.  A.  Duo,  in  MiaceUanea  di  etoria  Italiana,  xxzi. 
343-388.  Turin.  1894;  Wattenbach,  DOQ,  ii  (1886).  214. 
ii  (1894).  241. 

BERNARD  OF  MORLAIX.  See  Bernard  of 
Cluny. 

BERNARD  OP  TOLEDO:  Archbishop  of  To- 
ledo 1086-1125;  b.  at  Agen  (73  m.  s.e.  of  Bor- 
deaux), France,  c.  1050;  d.  in  Spain  1125.  His 
significance  in  the  history  of  Spain  lies  in  the  fact 
that  from  him  dates  the  emergence  of  the  Spanish 
Church  from  its  isolation  and  its  dependence  on 
Rome.  He  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Cluny,  whence  he  was  sent  to  Spain  with  others 
to  assist  the  cause  of  the  reforms  of  Gregory  VII. 
Here  he  was  made  (1080)  abbot  of  St.  Facundus 
at  Sahagun  in  the  diocese  of  Leon,  and  finally 
named  by  Alfonso  VI  for  the  archbishopric  of 
Toledo.  Gregory's  plans  for  Spain  included  (be- 
sides a  general  crusiEuie  against  clerical  marriage, 
simony,  and  lay  investiture)  the  substitution  of  the 
Roman  liturgy  for  the  Mozarabic  and  the  recog- 
nition of  the  obligations  of  tribute  from  the  Spanish 
Church.  The  former  point  had  been  practically 
gained  before  his  death,  in  spite  of  strenuous  oppo- 
sition. Urban  II,  by  raising  Bernard's  see  to 
primatial  dignity,  gave  him  the  power  necessary 
to  prosecute  the  work  of  Romanizing.  His  co- 
operation made  possible  Urban's  intervention  at 
the  Synod  of  Leon  (1091)  and  ignoring  of  the  royal 
right  of  investiture  when  Alfonso  attempted  to 
appoint  a  Spaniard  to  the  see  of  St.  Jago,  apparently 
in  order  to  counterbalance  the  influence  of  the 
French  Benedictines  with  whom  the  primate  was 
filling  the  episcopal  sees.  His  career  was  through- 
out that  of  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  papacy. 
Some  reminiscences  of  his  youthful  days  as  a  knight 
appear  in  his  forcible  seizure  of  the  Mohammedan 
mosque  at  Toledo  in  his  first  year  as  archbishop 
and  in  his  plans  for  a  crusade  against  the  Saracens 
of  the  East,  which  both  Urban  II  and  Paschal  II 
forbade,  in  view  of  the  tasks  which  Spanish  Christian 
chivalry  had  at  home.  Four  of  his  sermons,  on 
the  Saltje  Regina,  are  included  among  those  of  the 
great  Bernard.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bibugoraphy:  J.  Aschbaoh,  Oeechichte  Spaniena  und  Par- 
tuifoU  giur  Zeit  der  Herrechaft  der  Almaraviden  und  AlmO" 
haden,  i.  129  eqq..  339.  358  sqq..  Frankfort.  1833;  Hi^ 
toria  Compoetellana:  EepaHa  eagrada,  ed.  H.  Floras,  zx, 
1-598.  615.  Madrid.  1791;  A.  F.  Gfrfirer.  PapH  Oregonue 
VII  und  aein  Zeitalter,  iv,  484.  600-601.  SchaffkauBen, 
1864;  Hefele.  Concilienoeeehidite,  v.  200.  261.  326-327; 
idem.  DerKardinal  Ximenee,  pp.  160  aqq.,  Amheim,  1863. 

BERNARD,  CLAUDE :  Called  the  "  poor  priest " 
and  "  Father  Bernard  ";  b.  in  Dijon  Dec.  23,  1588; 
d.  at  Paris  Mar.  23,  1641.  '  He  waa  the  son  of  a 
jurist,  studied  law  himself,  and  for  a  time  led  a  life 


Bernard 
Berqnin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


68 


of  pleasure,  but  was  converted  by  what  he  believed 
was  a  vision  of  his  departed  father.  He  became 
a  priest  and  made  Paris  his  residence,  where  he 
spent  his  time  preaching  and  visiting  the  poor  and 
sick,  not  shrinking  from  the  most  disgusting  dis- 
eases. He  gave  away  all  that  he  had,  including 
an  inheritance  of  400,000  francs. 

BERNARD,  JOmr  HEIIRY:  Church  of  Ireland, 
dean  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin;  b.  at 
Raniganj,  Bardwan  (126  m.  n.w.  of  Calcutta), 
India,  July  27,  1860.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  (B.A.,  1880),  where  he  was  elected 
fellow  and  tutor  in  1884,  retaining  his  fellowship 
until  1902.  In  1886  he  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  was  chaplain  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland  from  1887  to  1902.  Smce  1888  be  has 
been  Archbishop  King's  lecturer  in  divinity  in  the 
University  of  Ireland,  and  has  been  dean  of  St. 
Patrick's  since  1902,  where  he  had  already  been 
treasurer  from  1897  to  1902.  He  was  examining 
chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Down  in  1889,  and  was 
select  preacher  to  the  University  of  Oxford  in  189^ 
1895  and  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1898, 
1901,  and  1904.  He  has  repeatedly  been  exam- 
iner in  mental  and  moral  philosophy  for  the  India 
Civil  Service,  and  has  been  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  the  University  of  Dublin  since  1892,  as  well  as 
a  commissioner  of  national  education  for  Ireland 
from  1897  to  1903.  He  was  likewise  a  member 
of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  in 
1894,  and  of  the  Representative  Church  Body  in 
1897,  while  in  1902  he  became  a  warden  of  Alex- 
andra CoUegef  Dublin,  a  commissioner  of  charitable 
donations  and  bequests  for  Ireland  in  1904,  and 
a  visitor  of  Queen's  College,  Galway,  in  1905. 
He  has  written  or  edited  the  following  works: 
Kant's  Critical  PhUoaaphy  for  English  Readers 
(2  vols.,  London,  1889;  in  collaboration  with  J. 
P.  Mahaffy);  Kant's  Criticism  of  Judgment  (1892); 
From  Faith  to  Faith  (university  sermons,  1895); 
Archbishop  Benson  in  Ireland  (1896);  Via  Domini 
(cathedral  sermons,  1898);  The  Irish  Liber  Hymr 
norum  (1898;  in  collaboration  with  R.  Atkinson); 
The  Pastoral  Epistles,  in  The  Cambridge  Bible, 
(Cambridge,  1899);  The  Works  of  Bishop  BuUer 
(2  vols.,  London,  1900);  The  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Connihians,  in  The  Expositor's  Bible  (1903);  St, 
Patrick's  Cathedral  (1904);  The  Prayer  of  the  King- 
dom (1904);  and  has  translated  and  edited  The 
Pilgrimage  of  St.  Silvia  (1896)  and  other  publi- 
cations of  The  Palestine  Pilgrims'  Text  Society. 

BERNARD,  THOMAS  DEHAIHT:  Churoh  of 
England;  b.  at  Clifton  (a  suburb  of  Bristol), 
Gloucestershire,  Nov.  11,  1815;  d.  at  Wimbome 
(21  m.  n.e.  of  Dorchester),  Dorsetshire,  Dec.  7, 
1904.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford 
(B.A.,  1838),  was  ordered  deacon  in  1840  and  priest 
in  the  following  year,  and  was  successively  curate 
and  vicar  of  Great  Baddow,  Essex  (184(M6), 
vicar  of  Terling,  Essex  (1848),  and  rector  of  Wal- 
cot,  Somerset  (1863-86).  He  was  prebendary  of 
Haselbere  and  canon  resident  of  Wells  Cathedral 
from  1868  to  1901,  and  chancellor  of  the  same 
cathedral  after  1879,  while  from  1880  to  1895 
he  was  proctor  for  the  dean  and  chapter  of  WeUs. 


He  was  also  select  preacher  at  Oxford  in  1855, 
1862,  and  1882,  and  was  Bampton  Lecturer  in  1864. 
He  wrote  The  Witness  of  God  (university  sermons, 
London,  1862);  Progress  of  Doctrine  in  the  New 
Testament  (Bampton  lectures,  1864,  4th  ed.,  1878); 
The  Central  Teaching  of  Jesus  Christ  (1892);  and 
The  Songs  of  the  Holy  NaHviiy  (1895). 

BERNARDDf  OF  SIENNA:  Franciscan;  b.  of 
noble  parents  at  Massa  (33  m.  s.w.  of  Sienna) 
Sept.  8,  1380;  d.  at  Aquila  (58  m.  n.e.  of  Rome) 
May  20,  1444.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  order 
1402;  became  its  vicar-general  1437,  and  effected 
many  reforms  in  discipline  and  government.  He 
was  the  most  famous  preacher  of  his  time  and  spoke 
to  great  crowds  in  all  parts  of  Italy  with  wonderful 
effect.  Three  times  he  refused  the  offer  of  a  bishop- 
ric. He  was  canonized  by  Nicholas  V  in  1450  and 
his  day  is  May  20.  His  writings  were  first  printed 
at  Lyons  (1501),  afterward  at  Paris  (4  vok.,  1636; 
5  vols.,  1650)  and  at  Venice  (4  vols.,  1745).  The 
first  volume  contains  his  life  by  his  scholar,  St. 
John  of  Capistrano.  Bemardin's  writings  are  for 
the  most  part  tractatus  seu  sermanes,  which  are 
not  so  much  sermons  according  to  the  modem  view 
as  fonnal  treatises  upon  morals,  asceticism,  and 
mysticism. 

Bibxjoorapht:  The  older  aocounta  of  his  life  axe  eoUected 
in  A8B,  20  May.  vi,  262-318.  Consult:  P.  Thureau-Dan- 
gin,  Un  Pridicateur  populair*  ,  .  .  8L  Bemardin  dt 
Sienne  (1S80-14UX  Paria,  1806.  Eng.  tranal..  London. 
1006;  Berthaumier.  Hittoirt  de  S.  Bemardin  dt  Sienne, 
Paris.  1862;  J.  P.  Touaaaint.  Leben  du  heUigen  Bemardin, 
Resensburg,  1873;  F.  ApoUinaire.  La  vie  et  lea  auma  dt 
S.  Bemardin,  Poitiers.  1882;  E.  C.  Dargan.  Hiet.  cf  Preaek- 
ing,  pp.  317  aqq..  New  York.  1006. 

BSRNARDINES.    See  Cibtbrciamb. 

BERlflCE,  ber-nai's6  or  ber^nis  (for  BERE- 
NICE): Eldest  daughter  of  Herod  Aprippa  I. 
See  Hkrod  and  hib  Familt. 

BERNO  (BERN,  BERNARD)  OP  REICHENAU: 

Abbot  of  Reichenau  (Benedictine  abbey  on  an  | 
island  in  the  Untersee  of  Lake  Constance,  4  m.  w.n.w. 
of  0>nstance)  1008  till  Yaa  death,  June  7,  1048. 
He  was  monk  in  a  monastery  at  PrQm  near  Treves 
when  appointed  abbot;  imder  his  rule  Reichenau  | 
regained  its  prosperity,  which  had  been  lost  under 
his  predecessor,  the  abbot  Immo;  the  library  was 
enriched,  scholars  were  attracted  to  the  school, 
and  the  church  of  St.  Bfark  was  rebuilt.  He  vas 
renowned  personally  as  scholar,  as  poet,  and,  above 
all,  as  musician;  he  accompanied  the  emperor, 
Henry  II,  to  Rome  in  1014  for  his  coronation  and 
after  his  return  introduced  reforms  in  German 
church  music.  Besides  lives  of  saints  and  theolog- 
ical and  liturgical  treatises  he  left  a  number  of 
letters  and  works  upon  music,  which  are  published 
in  Gerbert,  Scriptores  ecdesiastici  de  musica  sacroy 
ii  (St.  Blaise,  1784).  His  writings  are  in  MPL,  cxliii. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BERNOLD:  German  ecclesiastical  author;  b. 
probably  in  southern  Swabia  c.  1054;  d.  at  Schaff- 
hausen  Sep.  16,  1100.  He  was  educated  at  Con- 
stance under  Bernard  (q.v.),  with  whom  he  con- 
tinued in  close  relations.  He  began  writing  eariy, 
and  was  present  in  Rome  at  the  great  eynod  of 


60 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bernard 
Berquin 


1079  when  Berengar  was  condemned.  The  next 
certain  date  is  his  ordination  by  the  cardinal-legate 
Otto  of  Ostia  at  Constance  in  1084.  From  1086  to 
1091  he  was  certainly  an  inmate  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  BlatBe  in  the  Black  Forest;  in  the  latter 
year  he  migrated  to  Schaffhausen,  where  he  re- 
mained (though  not  without  interruption,  as  his 
presence  at  the  battle  of  Pleichfeld  shows)  until 
his  death.  He  was  a  versatile  author.  His 
ChroMcon  (cd.  G.  Waitz,  in  MGH,  Script.,  v,  1844, 
385-467)  is  a  valuable  source  for  his  own  life- 
time, though  colored  by  his  partisan  support  of 
Gregory  VII.  His  treatise  De  Berengarii  hoeresi- 
arduE  damnaHone  muUiplici  is  interesting  for  the 
light  which  it  throws  on  the  attitude  of  German 
theology  before  the  beginning  of  the  strictly 
scholastic  period.  Most  of  his  extant  works,  how- 
ever, are  of  a  practical  nature,  dealing  with  the 
vexed  questions  of  the  church  life  of  his  time. 
Though  a  zealous  upholder  of  the  reforming  par 
pacy,  he  was  not  a  fanatic. 

Carl  BIirbt. 

Bibuoorapht:  C.  Hirfot.  Die  PubliriHik  im  ZeitaUer  Ore- 
gon VII,  Leipaic,  1894;  A.Uneniiann,  Qermania  aacra 
VrodnmuB,  ii,  432-437.  Freiburg.  1792;  E.  Strelau,  Leben 
md  WerkedeeMinehet  Btmald  wm  SL  BUuien,  Jena.  1889; 
G.  Meyer  von  Knonau,  JahrbOdur  dm  deutaehen  Reicha 
unUr  Hnnneh  IV  und  Heinrieh  V,  Leiprie.  1890-1904. 

BERHWARD:  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  993-1022. 
He  came  of  a  noble  Saxon  family,  being  the  grand- 
son of  the  count  palatine  Adalbero  and  the  nephew 
of  Bishop  Folkmar  of  Utrecht.  He  was  educated 
at  the  cathedral  school  of  Hildesheim  by  Thang- 
mar,  later  his  biographer,  and  ordained  by  Willigis 
of  Mainz.  In  987  he  became  chaplain  at  the  im- 
perial court  and  tutor  to  the  young  Otto  III.  On 
Jan.  15,  993,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Hildes- 
heim. He  protected  his  diocese  vigorously  from 
the  attacks  of  the  Normans,  and  only  once  took  a 
wrong  step  as  a  temporal  magnate — when,  at  the 
accession  of  Henry  II,  he  took  the  side  of  Margrave 
Ekkehart,  whose  death,  however,  saved  him  from 
the  consequences  of  his  mistake.  He  rendered 
great  services  to  literature  and  art.  He  died  Nov. 
20,  1022,  a  few  weeks  after  the  consecration  of  the 
magnificent  church  of  St.  Michael  which  he  had 
buQt.    Celestine  III  canonized  him  in  1193. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BnuooaAPBT:  The  Viia  by  Thsngmar  ia  in  MOH,  Script., 
IT.  764-782,  the  Jftracufa.  ib.  pp.  782-786.  Hanover.  1841; 
the  eontmoation  of  the  Vila  by  WolfheriuB,  ib.  xi,  16&- 
167.  1854.  Coamilt:  A.  Behulti,  Der  heUige  Bamward 
.  .  .  umd  enne  VardintaU,  Leipae,  1879;  W.  A.  Neumann. 
Btnward  von  Hilde^tim  und  mine  Zeii,  inMOtheilungen 
dm  kaieerUeken  deterreiokieehen  Mueetune  fUr  Kunet^  v. 
73-80.  97-104.  124-130.  141-152.  168-173.  Vienna.  1890; 
B.  Skirtn,  Der  heilige  Bernward,  in  Shidien  und  Mit- 
^eilun^n  aua  dem  Benedit^  und  dem  Ciaterz.-Orden,  xiv 
(1893).  398^20;  Wattenbach.  DOQ,  i  (1893).  318.  346- 
350.  ii,  25.  360,  511;  8.  Bexasel.  Der  heUige  Bemward  vcn 
" ~" 1895. 


BEROBAHS  OR  BARCLATITES.  See  Barclay, 
John. 

BERQUHf,  YayiLBh',  LOUIS  DE:  French  Re- 
fomier;  b.  at  Passy-Paris  June,  1490;  d.  at  Paris 
Apr.  17.  1529.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of 
.\rtois  and  was  lord  of  the  estate  of  Berquin,  near 


Abbeville.  In  1512  he  came  to  Paris  to  finish  his 
studies,  became  acquainted  with  Lefdvre  d'£taples 
and  the  publisher  Josse  Badius,  and  was  introduced 
to  Marguerite  of  Valois,  sister  of  Francis  I,  through 
whom  he  gained  the  king's  favor.  He  belonged 
to  that  group  of  godly  humanists  who  wished  a 
reformation  of  the  Church,  but  without  a  rupture 
with  Rome.  He  hated  equally  the  ignorance  of  the 
monks  and  the  coarseness  of  Luther.  Erasmus 
seemed  to  him  the  true  Reformer;  with  him  there- 
fore he  opened  correspondence  and  translated  sev- 
eral of  his  tracts,  as  well  as  Luther's  De  votia 
monasticis.  The  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  de- 
nounced him  as  a  heretic  and  on  Biay  13,  1523, 
the  trial  was  held  before  the  Parliament.  Seven 
of  Berquin's  writings  and  one  of  his  translations 
from  Luther  and  Melanchthon  were  condemned 
by  the  theological  faculty  and  by  the  Parliament. 
On  Aug.  1,  he  was  made  prisoner,  but  was  set 
free  by  order  of  the  king,  Aug.  8.  The  Parliament 
had  already  burned  his  papers  and  books.  The 
siege  of  Pavia  and  the  captivity  of  the  king  (Feb., 
1525)  increased  the  Parliament's  power,  and  the 
queen  regent,  Louise  de  Savoie,  established  (May 
20)  an  extraordinary  court  to  judge  the  heretics. 
On  the  same  day  three  of  Erasmus's  treatises  were 
censured.  Berquin  would  have  been  permitted 
to  retire  and  live  on  his  estates  if  he  had  consented 
to  keep  silence.  But  he  could  not  help  speaking 
the  truth  and  (Jan.  8,  1526),  being  denounced  by 
the  bishop  of  Amiens,  he  was  again  imprisoned. 
His  books  were  again  judged  and  forty  of  his 
propositions  were  declared  heretical.  He  defended 
himself  by  saying  that  his  propositions  were  taken 
from  Erasmus  and  nobody  adjudged  the  latter 
a  heretic.  His  books  were  nevertheless  condemned 
and  he  would  have  been  burned  with  them  if  Mar^ 
guerite  of  Valois  had  not  invoked  the  clemency  of 
her  brother.  Aug.  17  Francis  sent  a  letter  to  the 
Parliament  commanding  them  to  take  no  definite 
steps  without  his  advice.  Although  Erasmus  ad- 
vised silence,  Berquin,  confident  of  the  king's  favor, 
resumed  the  struggle  and  quoted  from  No6l  Beda's 
writings  against  Erasmus,  against  the  Sorbonne, 
and  Lefdvre  d'^taples,  twelve  propositions  as  false 
and  heretical,  and  asked  the  king  to  allow  the 
Parliament  to  give  judgment.  From  July,  1528, 
until  March,  1529,  Berquin  lived  in  security.  He 
was  then  again  imprisoned  and  Parliament  con- 
denmed  him  "  to  have  his  tongue  branded  with  a 
red-hot  iron  and  to  remain  a  prisoner  for  the  rest 
of  his  life."  Apr.  16  Berquin  appealed  to  the  king, 
and  the  next  day  Parliament,  taking  advantage 
of  the  king's  absence  at  Blois,  ordered  Berquin  to 
be  burned  at  the  Place  de  Gr&ve.  He  was  the  first 
Protestant  martyr  of  France.  Thtodore  Besa 
said  of  him:  "  If  Francis  had  upheld  him  to  the 
last,  he  would  have  been  the  Luther  of  France." 
Berquin's  original  works  are  all  lost,  only  a 
few  of  his  translations  being  left:  Enchtridion  du 
chevalier  chreetien  (Antwerp,  1529);  Le  vray  moyen 
de  hien  et  catholiquement  ae  confesaer,  par  6raame 
(Lyons,  1542);  Paraphrases  sur  le  Nouveau  Tes- 
tament, and  Le  symbole  des  apdtres  (both  from 
Erasmus,  n.p.,  n.d.). 

O.  Bonit-Maubt. 


Bamiyer 
Berthold 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


70 


Bibuoorapht:  Sources  for  a  biography  are  in  T.  B«ia. 
Hiatoirt  eccliaiatHqua  dn  igliaea  rifamU«$  ds  France,  i,  7. 
Paris,  1882;  A.  L.  Herminjard,  Corretpondanee  dea  RS- 
formatntre,  vol.  ii  and  viii,  especially  vol.  ii,  containing 
letters  by  Erasmus  to  Berquin,  ii.  166-167,  169-160.  and 
the  letter  of  Erasmus  to  C.  Utenhovius.  ii,  1803.  103.  ib. 
1878,  1803;  a  brief  but  lucid  account  of  Berquin's  lilfe  is 
contained  in  A.  Chevillier,  L'Origine  de  l\mTprimeria  d« 
Paris,  ib.  1604.  Consult:  Hittoire  du  proiutantimn*  franr 
^is,  3d,  120,  ib.  1846;  Journal  d*un  bourffeoia  da  Porta, 
ed.  L.  Lalanne,  ib.  1804;  Haur^u.  in  Revtia  dea  deux 
mandea,  Jan.  16, 1860;  H.  M.Baird,  Riaeof  the  Huffuenota, 
i,  128-168,  London,  1880. 

BERRUYER,  bfti^'r(i"y6',  JOSEPH  ISAAC: 
French  Jesuit;  b.  at  Rouen  Nov.  7,  1081;  d.  at 
PariB  Feb.  18,  1758.  He  served  as  teacher  of  his 
order  for  many  years  and  won  notoriety  from  an 
attempt  to  rewrite  the  Bible  in  French  in  the  form 
of  a  romance  fitted  to  the  taste  of  his  time;  in 
carrying  out  the  idea,  however,  he  introduced 
much  that  was  unfitting,  heretical,  and  even  blas- 
phemous and  obscene.  He  published  the  first 
part,  Hiatoire  du  peuple  de  Dieu  depuis  son  origine 
jusqu'd,  la  venue  du  Meaeie^  in  seven  volimies  at 
Paris,  1728.  It  called  forth  numerous  protests 
from  both  clergy  and  laity  and  was  put  on  the  Index 
in  1734;  certain  of  the  Jesuits  induced  the  general 
to  provide  a  new  and  expurgated  edition  (8  vols., 
1733-34).  In  1753  Bemiyer  published  the  second 
part,  including  the  Gospels,  in  four  volumes,  osten- 
sibly at  The  Hague,  but  really  at  Paris;  only  a 
few  copies  bore  the  author's  name;  it  was  emphat- 
ically condemned  by  the  French  clergy  and  was 
put  on  the  Index  in  1755.  Nevertheless  Berruyer 
issued  the  third  part,  the  Epistles,  at  Lyons  (Paris) 
in  two  volumes,  1757;  it  was  condemned  by  the 
pope  the  next  year.  The  work  was  translated  into 
Italian,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  German,  and  was 
reissued  (expurgated)  in  ten  volumes  at  Besangon 
in  1851. 

Biblxoorapht:  E.  H.  Landon,  EcdeaiaaUeal  DicHonary,  ii, 
204,  London.  1863;  A.  de  Backer,  Bibliothique  dea  Icri- 
vaina  de  la  eompaonie  de  Jiaua,  iv,  340,  7  vols.,  Paris,  1863- 
1861;  F.  H.  Reusch,  Der  Index  der  verbotenen  BUcher,  ii, 
804,  Bonn.  1886. 

BERSIER,  bftr^'syd',  EUGENE  ARTUR  FRAlf- 
(^OIS:  French  Reformed;  b.  at  Morges  (7  m.  w. 
of  Lausanne),  Switzerland,  Feb.  5,  1831;  d.  at 
Paris  Nov.  19,  1889.  He  came  of  Huguenot 
parentage,  took  elementary  studies  at  Geneva  and 
Paris;  visited  America,  1848-50;  studied  theology 
at  Geneva,  Gottingen,  and  Halle;  became  pastor 
in  Paris  1855 — in  the  Free  Church  until  1877 
(until  1861  over  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  Church; 
until  1874,  assistant  of  Pressens^  in  the  Taitbout 
Church;  until  1877,  over  the  £toile  Church),  when 
he  and  his  congregation  joined  the  Reformed 
(established)  Church  of  France.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  popular  volumes  of  sermons, 
some  of  which  have  been  translated  into  English: 
in  the  Protestant  Pulpit  series  (2  vols.,  London, 
1869);  Onenese  of  the  Race  in  its  Fall  and  its  Future 
(translated  by  Annie  Harwood,  London,  1871); 
Sermons f  tvUh  Sketch  of  the  Author  (London,  1881; 
2d  series,  1885);  St.  Paul's  Vision  (translated  by 
Marie  Stewart,  New  York,  1881;  new  ed.  1890); 
The  Gospel  in  Paris ;  Sermons,  with  Personal 
Sketch  of  the  Author  by  Rev.  Frederick  Hastings 


(London,  1884).  There  are  translations  also  into 
German,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Russian.  He  wrote 
also  SolidariU  (Paris,  1869);  Histovre  du  Synode 
de  187$  (2  vols.,  1872);  Ldturgie  (now  used  in  the 
Reformed  Church  of  France,  1874);  Mes  actu 
et  mes  principes  (1878);  L* Immutability  de  Jcsui 
Christ  (1880);  RoyauU  de  J^sus  Christ  (1881); 
Coligny  avant  les  guerres  de  religion  (1884;  3d  ed., 
1885;  Eng.  transl.,  Coligny :  the  Earlier  Life 
of  the  Great  Huguenot,  London,  1885);  La  Rt  vo- 
cation, discours  .  .  .  sur  Vldit  de  r&vocation  (1886): 
Les  R^fugOs  fran^ais  et  leur  industries  (1886); 
Projet  de  rivision  de  la  liturgie  des  Eglises  Riformita 
en  France  (1888);  Quelques  pages  d' histovre  des  Hu- 
guenoU  (1890). 

Bibuoorapht:  E.  Stapfer.  La  PrSdieaHon  d*Eugh*e  Bertur. 
Paris,  1893;  J.  F.  B.  Tinling,  Beraier'a  PuLpik  Analyn* 
of  Public  Sermona  of  .  .  .  Euoine  Beraier,  London,  1900; 
W.  C.  Wilkinson,  Modem  Maatera  of  Pulpit  Diaeourae.  pix 
261-281.  New  York.  1905  ^highly  laudatory). 

BERTHEAU,  b&r^'t6',  CARL:  German  Lutheran; 
b.  at  Hamburg  July  6,  1836.  He  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Gottingen  (1855-57, 1858-59) 
and  Halle  (1857-58),  and  after  teaching  in  the 
schools  of  his  native  city  became  pastor  of  St. 
Michael's  Church  there  in  1867.  Since  1897  he 
has  been  president  of  the  Hamburg  Verein  fur 
innere  Mission.  In  theology  he  belongs  to  the 
positive  evangelical  school.  He  prepared  the 
third  volume  of  K.  Hirsche's  Prolegomena  tu 
Thomas  h  Kempis  (Berlin,  1894)  and  edited  Lu- 
ther's catechisms  (Hamburg,  1896). 

BERTHEAU,  ERNST:  Crerman  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Hamburg  Nov.  23,  1812;  d.  at  Gottingen  May  17, 
1888.  He  studied  in  Berlin  and  G5ttingen  (Ph.D., 
1836)  and  became  repetent  at  Gottingen  1836 
extraordinary  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and 
Old  Testament  exegesis  1842,  ordinary  profeanr 
1843.  From  1870  he  was  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission to  revise  Luther's  Bible.  His  publications 
include:  Carminis  Ephraemi  Syri  textus  Syriaaa 
secundum  codicem  bibliothecoe  Angdicce  denuo  edi- 
tus  ac  versione  et  brevi  annotatione  instrudus 
(Gottingen,  1837);  Die  sieben  Gruppen  mosaischer 
Gesetze  in  den  drei  mittleren  Buchem  des  PejUa- 
teuchs  (1840);  Zur  Geschichte  der  IsraeHten,  zwei 
Abhandlungen  (1842);  an  edition  of  the  Syriac 
grammar  of  Bar  Hebrseus  (1843);  and  commen- 
taries  upon  Judges  and  Ruth  (1845;  2d  ed.,  18S3), 
Chronicles  (1854;  2d  ed.,  1873),  Esra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Esther  (1862),  and  Proverbs  (1847;  2ded., 
1883),  in  the  Kurtgefasstes  exegetisches  Handbuck 
zum  Alien  Testament.  (Carl  Berthcau.) 

BERTHIER,  bftr^'ty^',  GUILLAnME  FRAN- 
COIS: French  Jesuit;  b.  at  Issoudun  (130  m. 
s.  of  Paris),  department  of  Indre,  Apr.  7,  17(M; 
d.  at  Bourges  Dec.  15,  1782.  He  joined  the  Jesuits 
in  1722.  He  added  six  volumes  (Paris,  1749)  to 
the  twelve  already  completed  by  Longueval. 
Fontenay,  and  Brumoy  of  the  Histovre  de  Vi^lise 
gaUicane,  bringing  the  narrative  down  to  1529; 
from  1745  to  1762  he  edited  the  MHnoires  de  Tri- 
voux  and  displayed  much  moderation  as  well  as 
learning  imder  attacks  from  the  Encyclopedists 
and  Voltaire.    After  the  expulsion  of  his  order 


71 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Berruyer 
Berthold 


from  France  in  1762  he  waa  appointed  tutor  to 
the  princes  afterward  Louis  XVI  and  Louis  XVIII, 
but  had  to  leave  the  country  in  1764;  after  an  ab- 
sence of  ten  years  he  returned  to  Bourges.  He 
translated  the  Psalms  (8  vols.,  1785)  and  the  Book 
of  Isaiah  (5  vob.,  1788-89)  into  French  with  notes. 
His  (Euvres  apirUuelles  were  published  at  Paris 
m  five  volumes  in  1811. 

BiBuo<nu.paT:  A.  de  Backer,  BMiothiqu*  dea  icrivaitu  de  la 
eompagni»  d»  Jiaua,  ■.v.,  7  vola.,  Paris,  1863-61. 

BERTHOLD  OF  CHIEMSEE.  See  PCrstinoer, 
Besthold. 

BERTHOLD  OF  LIVOITIA:  Early  missionary 
and  second  bishop  among  the  Livonians.  He  was 
abbot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  in  Lokkum,  and 
was  consecrated  bishop  to  succeed  Meinhard  about 
1196  by  Hartwig  II,  bishop  of  Bremen.  After  he 
had  failed  to  win  the  heathen  by  mild  means  with 
peril  of  his  life,  he  went  to  Saxony  and  returned 
with  a  body-guard  in  1198.  The  Livonians  gath- 
ered and  were  defeated  in  battle,  but  the  bishop  was 
Blain  Jidy  24,  1198.  His  successor  was  Albert  of 
Riga  (q.v.). 

BERTHOLD  OF  REGENSBXJR6:  Franciscan 
fiiar,  the  greatest  popular  preacher  of  the  Middle 
Ages  in  Germany;  b.  at  Regensburg  probably 
earlier  than  the  traditional  date  of  1220;  d.  there 
Dec.  14,  1272.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Fran- 
dscan  community  founded  at  Regensburg  in  1226. 
His  novitiate  was  passed  under  the  guidance  of 
David  of  Augsburg;  and  by  1246  he  is  found  in  a 
position  of  responsibility.  By  1250  at  the  latest, 
he  had  begun  his  career  as  an  itinerant  preacher, 
first  in  Bavaria,  where  he  endeavored  to  bring 
Duke  Otto  II  back  to  obedience  to  the  Church; 
then  he  appears  farther  westward,  at  Speyer  in 
1254  and  1255,  then  passing  through  Alsace  into 
Switzerland.  In  the  following  years  the  cantons 
of  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Constance,  and  Orisons,  with 
the  upper  Rhine  country,  were  the  principal  scenes 
of  his  activity.  In  1260  he  went  farther  afield, 
traversing  after  that  date  Austria,  Moravia,  Hun- 
gary, Silesia,  Thuringia,  and  possibly  Bohemia, 
reaching  his  Slavonic  audiences  through  an  inter- 
preter. Some  of  his  journeys  in  the  East  were 
probably  in  the  interest  of  the  crusade,  the  preach- 
ing of  which  was  specially  entrusted  to  him  by 
Pope  UrtMui  IV  in  1263. 

The  Gennan  historians,  from  Berthold's  con- 
temporary. Abbot  Hermann  of  Niedemaltaich, 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  speak 
in  the  most  glowing  terms  of  the  force  of  his  per- 
sonality and  the  effect  of  his  preaching,  which  is 
said  to  have  attracted  almost  incredible  numbers, 
so  that  the  churches  could  not  hold  them,  and  he 
was  forced  to  speak  from  a  platform  or  a  tree  in  the 
open  air.  The  gifts  of  prophecy  and  miracles 
were  soon  attributed  to  him,  and  his  fame  spread 
from  Italy  to  England.  He  must  have  been  a 
preacher  of  great  talents  and  success.  Although 
the  manuscript  reports  of  his  sermons,  which  began 
to  circulate  very  early,  are  by  no  means  to  be  trusted 
as  literal  productions,  w^e  can  still  form  from  them 
a  tolerably  accurate  idea  of  the  matter  and  manner 


of  his  preaching.  It  was  always  of  a  missionary 
character,  based  formally  on  the  Scriptures  for  tha 
day,  but  soon  departing  from  them  to  apply  tha 
special  theme  which  Berthold  wished  to  enforce. 
This  generally  finds  its  point  in  the  insistent  call 
to  true  sorrow  for  sin,  sincere  confession,  and 
perfect  penance;  penance  without  contrition  has 
no  value  in  God's  sight,  and  neither  a  crusade  nor 
a  pilgrimage  has  any  good  result  unless  there  is  a 
finn  purpose  to  renounce  sin.  From  this  stand- 
point Berthold  criticizes  the  new  preachers  of 
indulgences.  The  extremely  mixed  character  of 
his  audiences  led  him  to  make  his  appeal  as  wide 
and  general  as  possible.  He  avoids  subtle  theo- 
logical questions,  and  advises  the  laity  not  to  pry 
into  the  divine  mysteries,  but  to  leave  them  to  the 
clergy,  and  content  themselves  with  the  credo. 
The  weighty  political  occurrences  of  the  time  are 
also  left  imtouched.  But  everything  that  affects 
the  average  man — his  joys  and  his  sorrows,  his 
superstitions  and  his  prejudices — ^is  handled  with 
intimate  knowledge  and  with  a  careful  clearness 
of  arrangement  easy  for  the  most  ignorant  to 
follow.  While  exhorting  all  to  be  content  with 
their  station  in  life,  he  denounces  oppressive  taxes, 
unjust  judges,  usury,  and  dishonest  trade.  Jews 
and  heretics  are  to  be  abhorred,  and  players  who 
draw  people's  minds  away  to  worldly  pleasure; 
dances  and  tournaments  are  also  condenmed,  and 
he  has  a  word  of  blame  for  the  women's  vanity  and 
proneness  to  gossip.  He  is  never  dry,  always  vivid 
and  graphic,  mingling  with  his  exhortations  a 
variety  of  anecdotes,  jests,  and  the  wild  etymologies 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  making  extensive  use  of  the 
allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  of  his  strong  feeling  for  nature. 

(E.  Steinmeter.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  The  sermonB  in  German  of  Berthold  were 
edited  or  given  in  abstract  by  C.  F.  Kling,  Berlin.  1824, 
on  which  cf.  J.  Grimm  in  Wiener  JahrbU^ier  der  Liieratur, 
xxxii  (1825),  194-267,  and  the  Kleinere  Schriften  by  J. 
Grimm,  Vienna,  1860.  A  complete  edition  of  his  Predig^ 
ten,  ed.  F.  Pfeiffer,  appeared  vol.  i,  Vienna,  1862  (cf.  K. 
Schmidt  in  TSK,  xxxvii,  1864,  pp.  7-«2),  voL  ii,  ed.  J. 
Strobl,  Vienna,  1880  (cf.  A.  Schonbach,  in  Anzeiger  fUr 
deutachee  AUertum,  vii  [1881],  337-385).  On  the  Latin 
sermons  consult  H.  Leyser,  Deutsche  Predigten  dee  15.  und 
14.  Jahrhunderts,  Leipsic,  1838;  G.  Jacob,  Die  lateiniMche 
Reden  dee  eelioen  BerViold  mm  Regentburg,  Regensburg, 
1880;  Sermonee  ad  religioeoe  viginti,  ed.  P.  de  a.  Hoetsel, 
Munioh,  1882.  On  his  life  and  work  consult:  K.  Ho£F- 
mann,  SUsungeberichte  der  MUnchener  Akademie,  ii  (1867), 
374  sqq..  ii  (1868).  101;  L.  Kockinger.  Berthold  von 
Regeneburg  und  Raimund  von  PeniaforU  in  Abhandlungen 
der  MUnchener  Akademie,  hietorieche  Claaee,  xiii,  3  (1877), 
165  sqq.;  K.  Unkel,  Berthold  von  Regensburg,  Cologne, 
1882.  For  his  preaching  consult:  W.  Wackemagel,  Alt- 
deuteehe  Predigten,  Basel.  1876;  R.  Cruel.  OeechidUe  der 
dfiutechen  Predigten  im  Mittelalter,  pp.  306-322,  Detmold, 
1870;  A.  Linsenmayer.  Geechichte  der  Predigt  inDeutech- 
land,  pp.  333-354.  Munich,  1886;  E.  C.  Dargan,  A  History 
of  Preaching,  New  York,  1905. 

BERTHOLD  OF  RORBACH:  Heretical  msrstic; 
d.  1356.  He  appears  first  in  Wtlrzburg,  where  he 
was  tried  on  a  charge  of  teaching  heresy,  but  saved 
himself  by  recantation  of  the  doctrines  attributed 
to  him.  He  was  again  brought  to  trial  at  Speyer 
in  1356,  but  this  time  refused  to  recant  and  was 
burned.  The  accounts  of  his  teaching  show  him 
as  an  adherent  of  the  quietistic  mysticism  of  the 


Bertboia 
Bestznann 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


72 


Brothen  of  the  Free  Spirit,  sharing  their  dis- 
belief in  the  meritoriousness  of  prayer  and  asceti- 
cism; those  who  are  "  enlightened  by  God/'  lay- 
men as  well  as  priests,  may  preach  the  Gospel  and 
change  bread  and  wine  into  the  divine  substance. 
The  strange  and  shocking  views  attributed  to  him 
on  the  passion  of  Christ  can  scarcely  be  reconciled 
with  his  other  teachings,  and  have  probably  come 
down  in  a  distorted  form.  (Herman  Hauft.) 
Bibuoorapbt:  A.  Jundt,  Hi&toin  du  panthiUme  pojnilaire 

du  moyen  Affe,  p.  106,  Paris,  1876;  H.  Haupt,  Die  reHgidten 

SekUn  in  Franken,  p.  8.  WOrBburg.  1882. 

BERTHOLD     THE     CARMELITE.       See  Car- 


BERTHOLDT,  LEONHARD:  Professor  at  Ei^ 
langen;  b.  at  E^skirchen  (14  m.  w.n.w.  of  Nu- 
remberg), Bavaria,  May  8,  1774;  d.  at  Erlangen 
Mar.  22, 1822.  He  studied  at  Erlangen  and  became 
professor  extraordinary  on  the  philosophical  faculty 
1805;  full  professor  of  theology  1810,  in  recog- 
nition of  his  work  upon  Daniel  (2  vols.,  Erlangen, 
1806-08).  His  principal  work  was  the  Hiatoriachr 
krUiache  EwUeitung  in  die  sdmnUlichen  kanoniachen 
und  apokrypkUchen  Schriften  des  Alien  und  Neuen 
Testaments  (6  vols.,  1812).  Of  less  interest  is  his 
Einleitung  in  die  theologischen  Wissenschaften 
(2  vols.,  1821-22);  and  of  still  less,  his  Handbuch 
der  Dogmengeschichle  (2  vols.,  1822-23).  As  a 
teacher,  however,  and  as  editor  of  the  KrUisches 
Journal  der  neuesten  theologischen  Litteratur,  one  of 
the  principal  organs  of  the  rationalistic  party, 
his  activity  was  stimulating  in  many  ways. 

BERTHOLET,  bar^'tO'lfi',  ALFRED:  Swiss 
Protestant;  b.  at  Basel  Nov.  9,  1868.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  his  native  city, 
Strasburg,  and  Berlin,  and,  after  being  Franco- 
German  pastor  at  L^om,  in  1892-93,  became 
privat-docent  for  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  the 
university  of  his  native  city  in  1896.  In  1899  he 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  the  same 
subject,  and  in  1905  was  promoted  to  his  present 
position  of  full  professor.  He  was  general  secre- 
tary of  the  Second  International  Ck>ngress  for  the 
History  of  Religion  held  at  Basel  in  1904,  and 
has  prepared  the  commentaries  on  Leviticus,  Deu- 
teronomy, Ruth,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Ezekiel  in 
K.  Marti 's  Kurzer  Handkommentar  zwn  AUen 
Testament  (5  vols.,  Freiburg  and  Tubingen,  1897- 
1902),  and  has  written  Der  Verfassungsgesetzent- 
wurf  des  Hesekiel  in  seiner  religionsgeschichtlichen 
Bedeutung  (Freiburg,  1896);  Die  Stellung  der 
Israeliten  und  der  Juden  zu  den  Fremden  (1896); 
Zu  Jesaja  63  (1899);  Die  israelitischen  Vorstellungen 
vom  Zustand  nach  dem  Tode  (TQbingen,  1899); 
Btuidhismus  und  Christentum  (1902);  Die  GefUde 
der  Seligen  (1903);  Seelenwanderung  (Halle,  1904); 
Der  Buddhismus  und  seine  Bedeutung  filr  unser 
Geistesleben  (Tubingen,  1904);  and  the  section  on 
the  Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  in  K.  Budde's 
Oeschichte  deraUhebrdischen  LUeraJtur  (Leipdc,  1906). 

BERTRAM:  The  name  by  which  Rstramnus 
(q.v.)  was  formerly  sometimes  quoted. 

BERTRAM,  ROBERT  AITEIN:  English  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Hanley  (147  m.  n.w.  of  Lon- 


don), Staffordshire,  Nov.  8,  1836;  d.  in  London 
Nov.  14,  1886.  He  ended  his  studies  at  Owens 
GoUege  (Victoria  University),  Manchester,  1858; 
was  pastor  at  Lymm,  Cheshire,  at  Openshaw 
(Manchester),  and  at  Barnstaple,  Devonshire; 
edited  The  CkrisHan  Age,  1880-^.  He  compiled 
The  Cavendish  Hymnal  (Manchester,  1864),  and 
published  Parable  or  Divine  Poesy,  Illustrations 
in  Theology  and  Morals  Selected  from  Great  Divines 
and  Systematically  Arranged  (London,  1866);  A 
Dictionary  of  Poetical  Illustrations  (1877);  A 
HomUetiad  Encyclopedia  of  Illustrations  m  The- 
ology and  Morals  f  a  Handbook  of  Practical  Divinity 
and  a  Commentary  on  Holy  Scripture  (1878);  A 
Homiletical  Commentary  on  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah 
(i,  1884;  ii,  jointly,  with  Alfred  Tucker,  1888). 

BERULLE,  PIERRB  DE.     See  Nkri,  Phiup. 
BERYLLUS      OF      BOSTRA.    See  MoNARcm- 

ANIBM. 

BESA]IT»  bes'ant,  AHIIIE;  (WOOD):  Theosophist: 
b.  at  London  Oct.  1,  1847.  She  was  educated  by 
private  tutors  at  dearmouth,  Dorsetshire,  London, 
Bonn,  and  Paris,  and  later  passed  B.Sc.  and  M.B. 
at  London  University.  Originally  a  member  of  the 
(Jhurch  of  England,  she  married  Rev.  Frank  Besant. 
vicar  of  Sibsey,  Linoolnshire,  in  1867,  but  was 
divorced  from  him  six  years  later  and  renounced 
Christianity  altogether.  She  then  joined  the  Na- 
tional Secular  Society,  and  as  a  scientific  material- 
ist worked  with  Charies  Bradlaugh,  with  whom 
she  edited  the  National  Reformer.  She  was  also 
prominent  in  socialistic  and  labor  movements,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Fabian  Society  and  the  Social 
Democratic  Federation.  In  1887-90  she  was  a 
member  of  the  London  School  Board  for  Tower 
Hamlets,  but  declined  reelection.  Meanwhile,  her 
views  had  undergone  further  change  as  a  result 
of  psychological  study,  and  in  1889  she  joined  the 
Theoeophical  Society,  of  which  she  has  since  been 
a  distinguished  member,  and  its  president  in  1907. 
She  has  made  extensive  journeys  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  in  the  interests  of  theosophy,  but  has  of  lat-e 
years  resided  chiefly  in  India.  In  1898  she  founded 
the  Central  Hindu  College,  Benares,  and  is  still 
the  president  of  its  council,  while  in  1904  she  estab- 
lished the  Central  Hindu  Girls'  School  in  the  same 
city.  In  addition  to  a  large  number  of  briefer 
articles  and  pamphlets,  she  has  written  Natural 
Religion  Versus  Revealed  Religion  (London,  1874); 
History  of  the  Great  French  Revolution  (1876);  The 
Lawof  Population :  Its  Consequences  and  its  Bearing 
upon  Human  Conduct  and  Morals  (1877);  The 
Gospel  of  Christianity  and  the  Gospel  of  Free  Thought 
(1877);  Heat,  Light,  and  Sound  (1881);  Legends 
and  Tales  (1885);  The  Sins  of  the  Church  (18S6); 
Reincarnation  (1892);  Seven  Principles  of  Man 
(1892);  Autobiography  (1893);  Death  and  After 
(1893);  Building  of  the  Cosmos  (1894);  In  the 
Outer  Court  (1895);  Karma  (1895);  The  Self  and 
its  Sheaths  (1895);  The  Path  of  Disdpleship  (1896); 
Man  and  his  Bodies  (1896);  Four  Great  Religiom 
(1897);  The  Ancient  Wisdom  (1897);  Evdutim 
of  Life  and  Form  (1899);  Dharma  (1899);  Story 
of  the  Great  War :  Lessons  from  the  MahdbhSraia 
(1899);  Avatdras  (1900);  Ancient  Ideals  in  Modem 


73 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Berthold 


Life  (1901);  Etoierie  ChriatianUy  (1901);  Thought 
Power:  Its  Control  and  CvUivatUm  (1901);  Th^ 
Reliffunu  ProUem  in  India  (Madras,  1902);  The 
Pedigree  of  Man  (Benares,  1903);  Study  in  Con- 
9ciou8nes9  (London,  1904);  and  Theosophy  and 
New  Psychology  (1904).  She  has  also  translated 
a  number  of  free-thought  works  as  well  as  the 
BhagavadgUA  (London,  1895),  and  has  edited 
Our  Comer  (London,  1883-^),  and,  in  collabora- 
tion with  G.  R.  8.  Mead,  The  Theosoj^ical  Review, 

BESS,  BERHHARD:  German  librarian  and 
historian;  b.  at  Nentershausen  (near  Cassel)  Biay 
19,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Marburg  and  GOttingen,  and,  after  being 
privat-docent  at  the  former  university  for  several 
years,  was  appointed  to  his  present  position  of  li- 
brarian of  the  University  of  Halle  in  1896.  In  1902- 
1903  he  was  also  entrusted  with  the  organization  of 
the  library  of  the  Prussian  Historical  Institute  at 
Rome.  He  has  written  Frankreiche  Kirchen- 
pUitik  und  der  Protese  dee  Jean  PetU  (Marburg, 
1S91),  and  Luther  und  das  landesherrliche  Kirchen- 
regiment  (1894).  Since  1891  he  has  been  the 
editor  of  the  Zeitsehrift  fur  Kirehengeschichte. 

BESSARION,  bes-flfi'ii-en,  JOHARHES  or  BASIL- 
niS:  Cardinal;  b.  at  Trebizond  1395;  d.  at  Ra- 
venna Nov.  19, 1472.  He  studied  at  Constantinople 
and  at  Misithra  in  the  Peloponnesus  under  Gemistos 
Plethon;  entered  the  Basilian  order;  became  arch- 
bishop of  Nicsea  in  1437.  As  such  he  labored  at 
Ferrara  and  Florence,  1438-39,  for  the  union  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches  (see  Ferrara- 
Florence,  Council  of).  Having  been  made  a  car- 
dinal, he  remained  in  Italy,  by  voice  and  pen  work- 
ing for  the  union.  His  house  at  Rome  became  the 
center  not  only  for  his  fugitive  countrymen,  but  also 
for  the  cultivation  of  Greek  literature  in  the  West; 
and  during  his  activity  as  legate  in  Bologna,  1451^5, 
he  woriced  in  the  same  interest  at  that  ancient 
gymnasitun  illusire.  At  the  papal  election  in  1455 
he  lacked  only  a  few  votes  of  being  chosen  pope, 
and  his  influence  in  the  curia  may  be  seen  from  the 
numerous  diplomatic  missions  with  which  he  was 
entrusted.  While  returning  from  a  missionary 
torn*  to  France,  which  he  had  undertaken  for  the 
sake  of  reconciling  Louis  XI  and  the  duke  of  Btur- 
gundy,  he  died  at  Ravenna. 

E.  Benrath. 
Bibuookapbt:  On  the  works  of  BeaBsrion  consult:  Fabri- 
chis-Hfltftes,  Bibliotheea  OrtBca,  x,  491,  xi,  480.  Hamburg. 
]807H)8;  MPO,  ebd.  On  his  life  and  activities  consult: 
Ptator.  Popes,  voL  iv,  passim  (well  worth  using);  Creigh- 
tott.  Papacy,  vols,  ii-y,  passim  (gives  an  excellent  treat- 
ment of  tb0  subject);  G.  Voigt,  Die  WiederbeMntng  dee 
daeeiaehen  AUerthume,  Berlin,  1859;  J.  Burohardt.  Kul- 
ter  der  lUnaieminee  in  Italien,  Basel,  1860,  Eng.  transl..  2 
Tob..  London,  1878;  H.  Vast,  Le  Cardinal  Beeeariony 
Paris,  1878;  R.  RochoU,  Beeearion,  Leipsic,  1904. 

BESSEL,  GOTTFRIED:  Abbot  of  Gdttweig, 
near  Vienna;  b.  at  Buchhain,  near  Mainz,  Sept.  5, 
1672;  d.  at  QOttweig  Jan.  20,  1749.  He  studied  at 
Salsburg,  entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1693, 
was  onkined  priest  1696,  and  was  employed  in 
various  dipkmiatic  negotiations  by  the  elector  of 
Mainz.  In  1707  be  converted  the  princess  Eliza- 
beth Christine  of  Brunswick  to  the  Roman  Catholic 


faith,  and,  in  1710,  her  grandfather,  the  duke 
Anton  Ulrich,  at  which  time  he  published  Quia- 
qtutginta  Romanocatholicam  fidem  omnibus  aliis 
praferendi  motiva  (Mainz,  1708).  In  1714  he  be- 
came abbot  of  Gdttweig.  He  prepared  a  chronicle 
of  the  monastery,  of  which  only  the  first  part, 
Prodromus,  has  been  published  (2  vols.,  Tegemsee, 
1732). 

BESSER,  WILHELM  FRIEDRICH:  German 
preacher  and  theological  writer;  b.  at  Wamstedt, 
in  the  Harz,  Sept.  27,  1816;  d.  near  Dresden  Sept. 
26,  1884.  He  studied  at  Halle  under  Gesenius 
and  Tholuck  (1837),  then  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  was  influenced  by  Neander  and  Twesten,  but 
still  more  by  Hengstenberg,  Otto  von  Gerlach, 
and  others.  He  returned  to  HaUe  in  1838  as  sec- 
retary to  Tholuck,  but  a  year  later  went  as  private 
tutor  to  the  house  of  Major  von  Schenkendorf 
at  Wulkow  near  Puppin.  This  had  a  decisive 
influence  on  his  life,  through  his  intercourse  there 
with  a  persecuted  Lutheran  pastor,  a  guest  in  the 
house,  who  had  such  an  effect  on  him  that,  at  his 
ordination  in  1841  as  pastor  at  Wulkow,  he  refused 
to  sign  the  Union  formula  except  with  the  reser- 
vation that  the  Union  related  to  conmion  ecclesias- 
tical organization  without  prejudice  to  the  authority 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  1845  he  withdrew 
his  subscription,  and  after  long  negotiations  was 
deprived  of  his  office  in  1847.  Connecting  himself 
with  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Prussia,  he  became 
pastor  of  Seefeld  in  Pomerania,  and  zealously 
supported  the  movement  to  obtain  equal  rights 
for  the  Lutherans  with  the  Union.  In  1853  he  was 
called  to  assist  Graid  in  the  direction  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  mission-house;  but  the  strain  of 
continuous  teaching  was  not  suited  to  his  vivacious 
and  impulsive  nature,  and  sharp  controversies 
broke  out  over  the  then  burning  question  of  the 
Indian  castes,  so  that  he  returned  willingly  to  pas- 
toral life  in  1857,  becoming  minister  of  Wtddenburg 
in  Silesia  and  also  (1864)  a  member  of  the  Lutheran 
superior  council  of  Breslau.  Failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  his  offices  at  Easter,  1884.  His 
Bibelstunden,  which  he  began  to  write  in  1843  and 
continued  at  intervals  till  he  had  covered  most  of 
the  New  Testament,  have  had  a  salutary  influence 
far  besrond  Germany.  The  list  of  his  minor  writings 
is  a  long  one,  and  includes  a  number  of  controversial 
tractates  against  what  he  thought  a  hollow  and 
deceiving  compromise,  popidar  biographies,  devo- 
tional works,  and  sermons.  (H.  H5i£CHBB.) 

Bibuooraprt:  A  sketch  of  Besser's  life  appears  in  his  Frs- 
digUn  und  PrediataueMQoe,  Breslau,  1886.  His  autobiog- 
raphy (uncompleted)  was  continued  to  the  year  1850 
by  Greve,  Aue  Beeeere  Leben,  in  GoUhold,  year  20,  1804- 
1895,  and  completion  is  promised;  cf.  ALKO,  1884,  pp. 
1030-39. 

BESTMAim,  besf'man',  HUGO  JOHAlfNES: 
German  Lutheran;  b.  at  Delve,  Holstein,  Feb.  21, 
1854.  He  studied  in  Leipsic,  Ttlbingen,  Kiel, 
Berlin,  and  Erlangen  (lie.  theol.,  1877),  and  was 
privat-docent  in  theology  at  Erlangen  1877-83. 
He  was  then  instructor  in  the  gymnasium  of  the 
orphan  asylum  at  Halle  1883-^  and  at  the 
Missionary  Seminary  in  Leipsic  1884-86.  Since 
the   latter  year   he  has   been    pastor   in    M5lln 


Beth 
Bethnne-Baker 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


74 


(Lauenburg).  He  hsa  been  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Molln  conference  for  theological 
studies  since  1896,  and  has  written  Qua  ratione 
AugtutiniLa  notionea  phUosophicB  grceca  ad  dogmata 
anthropologica  deacribenda  adhibuerU  (Erlangen, 
1877);  Geschichte  der  chrisUichen  Siite  (2  vols., 
Nordlingen,  1880-85);  Die  iheologische  Wisaenachaft 
und  die  RitsM'ache  Schvle  (1881);  Die  Anfdnge 
dee  katholiechen  ChrieterUume  und  dee  lelame  (1884); 
Der  ProteetarUiemue  und  die  theologischen  Fakvl- 
taten  (Kiel,  1891);  and  Geechichle  dee  Reiche  GoUee 
im  Alien  tmd  Neuen  Bunde  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1896- 
1900).  He  edited  also  J.  C.  K.  von  Hofmann's 
Tkeologieche  Encyclopddie  (NOrdlingen,  1879)  and 
Der  chrieUiche  Herold  (Hamburg  and  M5Un,  1898- 
1899). 

BETH,  KARL:  German  Protestant;  b.  at  FOr- 
derst&dt  (15  m.  s.  of  Magdeburg)  Feb.  12,  1872. 
He  studied  in  Tubingen  and  Berlin  (Ph.D.,  1898), 
and  was  privat-docent  in  Berlin  1901-06.  Since 
1906  he  has  been  professor  of  systematic  and  sym- 
bolic theology  at  the  University  of  Vienna.  He  has 
written  Die  Grundanechauungen  Sckleiermachere 
in  eeinem  ereten  Entwurf  der  philoaophischen  Sitten- 
lekre  (Berlin,  1898);  Die  orientalische  Kirche  der 
MtUelmeerlanderf  Reiseetudien  zur  StatieUk  und 
Symbolik  der  griechiachen,  armeniachen  und  koptir 
achen  Kirche  (1902);  Dae  Weaen  dee  Chriatentuma 
und  die  modeme  kiatoriache  Denkweiae  (1904);  and 
Die  Wunder  Jeau  (1905). 

BETHLEHEM:  A  town  in  southern  Palestine,  in 
the  territory  of  Judah,  often  called  Bethlehem 
Judah  (e.g.,  Judges  xvii,  7,  8;  cf.  Matt,  ii,  1,  5). 
Its  significance  for  the  Judah  of  Davidic  times  or 
earlier  is  as  the  home  of  Jesse  (I  Sam.  xvi,  1),  of 
Joab,  Abishai,  and  Asahel  (II  Sam.  ii,  32),  of  El- 
hanan  (II  Sam.  xxi,  19),  and  as  a  place  of  sacrifice 
(I  Sam.  xvi,  3,  5).  It  was  occupied  by  the  Philis- 
tines in  their  war  with  David  (II  Sam.  xxiii,  14). 
Rehoboam  made  of  it  a  city  of  defense 
Old  Testa-  (II  (]!hron.  xi,  6),  as  it  commanded 

ment  Hia-  the  roads  south  and  west.  Though  in 
tory.  early  times  it  was  a  place  of  impor- 
tance because  of  its  situation  on  cara- 
van routes,  it  became  overshadowed  by  the  growth 
of  the  capital.  After  the  exile  it  was  reckoned  to 
the  Jewish  conmiunity  (Ezra  ii,  21),  and  was 
inhabited  by  Calebites  who  were  driven  north  by 
the  Edomites  pressing  up  from  the  south.  This 
possession  is  explained  by  the  Chronicler  on  genea- 
logical grounds,  regarding  the  town  as  foimded  by 
Ssdma,  a  son  of  Caleb.  The  district  of  Ephratah, 
which  extended  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Bethlehem, 
became  a  possession  of  the  Calebites  and  gave 
occasion  for  the  name  Bethlehem  Ephratah,  used 
Micah  V,  2.  The  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, viticulture,  and  cattle-raising. 

For  the  Hebrews  its  fame  rests  upon  its  being 
the  home  of  David  (Luke  ii,  4,  11);  to  Christians 
everywhere  its  name  is  familiar  as  the  birthplace 
of  Jesus,  according  to  the  accounts  in  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke.  It  has  retained  its  name 
unchanged  to  the  present.  Bait4ahm  lies  five  and 
a  half  miles  south  of  Jerusalem,  a  little  east  of  the 
central  watershed,  at  a  level  above  the  sea  of  about 


2,500  feet.    The  slopes  above  it  have  been  terraced 
from  early  times,  and  their  fertility  rewards  richly 

the  labor  of  the  inhabitants  in  pro- 
Present     ducing  olives,  almonds,  figs,  and  grapes. 
Condition.  The  numerous  trees  of  the  terraces 

give  the  place  a  refreshing  appearance, 
especially  to  the  traveler  from  the  bare  heights  of 
Jerusalem.  There  is  a  spring  some  fifteen  minutes 
eastward  from  the  town,  and  water  is  taken  from 
the  aqueduct  on  the  south  leading  into  Jerusalem. 
For  the  rest  of  the  water-supply,  dependence  is  had 
upon  cisterns.  The  population  is  about  8,000; 
3,827  are  Roman  Catholics,  3,662  Greeks,  260 
Mohanunedans,  185  Armenians;  the  rest  are  Copts, 
Syrians,  and  Protestants.  Two-thirds  are  engaged 
in  various  handicrafts,  the  rest  in  husbandry, 
and  all  are  oppressed  by  burdensome  taxes.  At^ 
tempts  have  been  made  at  various  times  to  connect 
particular  parts  of  the  town  with  David,  naming 
for  him  a  house,  a  tower,  and  a  well,  but  the  tra- 
ditions are  insecm^ly  founded.  The  "Well  of 
David  "  is  the  name  given  since  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury to  three  large  cisterns  in  the  northeast. 

More  secure  is  the  tradition  about  the  birthplace 
of  Jesus,  covered  by  the  celebrated  Church  of  St. 
Mary,  a  basilica  mentioned  as  early  as  334  as  built 
by  Constantine's  order.  Eusebius  ("  Life  of  Con- 
stantine  ")  confirms  this  report;  Socrates  and  Soz- 
omen  ascribe  its  erection  to  the  empress  Helena; 
and  Eutychius  to  Justinian.  De  VogQ4  supports 
the  first  hypothesis  on  the  ground  of  the  unity 

of  plan,  conformity  of  extent  of  choir 
The  Church  and  grotto,  and  absence  of  architec- 
of  St.  Mary,  tural  marks  of  the  Justinian  period. 

In  this  opinion  he  is  supported  by 
the  architect  T.  Sandel,  who  made  a  new  examina- 
tion in  1880.  This  may  well  be  the  oldest  church  in 
the  world.  It  was  thoroughly  restored  by  the 
emperor  Manuel  Ck>mnenus,  who  adorned  it  with 
mosaics,  of  which  work  but  little  remains,  though 
a  description  by  F.  Quaresmio  (1616-26)  with  what 
is  left  suffices  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  whole.  In 
1478  (or  1482)  the  roof  was  repaired  by  Philip  of 
Burgimdy  and  Exiward  IV  of  England,  and  re- 
newed in  1672  by  the  Greek  patriarch  Dositheos. 
In  the  latter  year  the  Greeks  obtained  possession, 
which  the  Latins  had  had  since  the  crusades.  In 
1852  Napoleon  brought  it  about  that  the  Latins 
were  given  a  share  in  holding  it.  The  church,  now 
in  decay,  can  not  be  restored  for  fear  of  renewing 
outbresJcs  among  Latins,  Greeks,  and  Armenians. 
From  the  southeast  the  church  rises  prominently 
like  a  fortress;  the  north,  east,  and  south  sides 
are  less  pleasing  to  one  approaching  from  those 
directions  because  of  the  cells  of  the  monks  of  the 
different  communions.  It  has  a  nave  and  double 
aisles,  and  its  floor  space  is  about  ninety-eight  feet 
by  eighty-seven  between  the  cross  aisles.  The 
transept  and  apse  are  unfortunately  concealed  by 
a  wall  built  by  the  Greeks  in  the  seventeenth  or 
eighteenth  century.  The  entire  length  of  the  pres- 
ent church,  including  the  entrance  hall,  is  about 
230  feet.  Two  flights  of  steps  to  the  north  and 
south  lead  from  the  choir  to  the  chapel  of  the 
nativity,  the  walls  of  which  are  marble-lined  and 
hung  with  tapestries.    The  place  of  birth  is  marked 


75 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Beth 
Bethune-Baker 


by  a  sflver  star  in  the  floor  of  a  niche.  Opposite 
is  the  place,  a  marbled  hollow,  of  the  old  "  genuine  " 
manger.  A  passage  westward  leads  to  the  tomb 
and  chapel  of  Jerome. 

This  subterranean  room,  according  to  tradition 

continuous  since  Constantine,  is  accepted  as  the 

place   of  Jesus's  birth.    A  tradition 

The  Tradi-  can  be  traced  back  to  Justin  Martyr 

tional  Place  that  Jesus  was  bom  in  a  cave,  since 

of  Jesus's  Joseph  could  find  no  acconunodation 
Birth.  in  the  village.  But  it  has  been  dis- 
proved that  the  present  chapel  is  a 
[natural]  cave,  while  it  must  be  noted  that  as  early 
as  728  it  waa  reported  that  the  form  of  the  cave 
was  changed  and  an  oblong  room  hewn  out.  The 
use  of  caves  as  adjuncts  to  inns  or  "  shelters  " 
is  in  Palestine  a  peculiarity  of  the  country. 

Five  minutes  southeast  from  the  church  of  St. 
Mary  is  the  so-called  "  Milk  Grotto  "  of  the  Latins, 
in  which  Joseph,  Mary,  and  the  child  are  said  to 
have  concealed  themselves  from  Herod's  fury  before 
the  flight  into  Egypt.  The  white  of  the  limestone 
is  attributed  to  the  fall  of  a  drop  of  milk  from  Mary's 
breast.  Ten  minutes  northeast  from  Beth  Sahur 
(itself  fifteen  minutes  east  from  Bethlehem)  is 
shown  the  "Grotto  of  the  Shepherds,"  in  which  the 
angels  are  said  to  have  announced  to  the  shepherds 
the  birth  of  the  Holy  Child.  The  underground 
chapel  is  reached  by  a  passage  between  two  ancient 
olive-trees. 

One  of  the  fruits  of  modem  missions  is  the  honor- 
ing of  Jesus  in  his  birthplace,  not  by  sanctuaries 
in  stone,  but  by  provision  for  the  education  of  the 
young.  Since  1860  there  have  been  a  number  of 
Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  schools  and  estab- 
lishments, the  founding  of  which  has  spurred  the 
Greeks  and  Armenians  to  accomplish  something 
for  the  instruction  of  children  belonging  to  their 
communitieB.  (H.  Guthe.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Robmaon,  Remarche;  vol.  ii;  T.  Tobler. 
B^Odthem  in  PaUutina,  Bern,  1849;  V.  Gu&in.  DeBcripHon 
de  la  Palutint,  JvMe,  i.  120  sqq.,  Paris.  1869;  Survey  of 
Weatem  PaletHnM,  Memoir;  vol.  iii,  sheet  zrii,  London, 
1883;  P.  Palmer.  Da»  jettioe  BeOdekem,  in  ZDPV,  xvii 
(1S94).  89  sqq.;  Baedeker.  PaUaUne  and  Syria,  pp.  119- 
127.  New  York.  1898;  DB.  i,  281;  EB,  i.  560-662.  On  the 
church  consult  M.  de  VogOd,  Lee  jSglieee  de  la  terre  eainte, 
Paris.  I860:  Quaresmius,  ElueidaHo  terra  Mneto.  il.  643 
■qq.,  Antwerp.  1639.  reissued  Venice,  1880-82;  G.  Ebers 
and  H.  Guthe.  Pai&eHna  in  BUd  und  Wort,  2  vols.,  Leip. 
sic.  1883-84. 

BETHLEHEMTTES:  The  name  of  three  religious 
orders.  (1)  An  association  of  BethleemitcB,  known 
only  from  Matthew  Paris  (Hist  maj.,  839),  who 
states  that  they  existed  at  Cambridge,  England, 
about  1257  and  wore  the  Dominican  habit,  with  a 
red  star,  referring  to  Biatt.  ii,  9-10.  (2)  The 
Knights  and  Hospitalers  of  the  Blessed  Mary  of 
Bethl^iem  (Religio  mUitaris  ac  hospUalis  beatcB 
Maria  BeUUemUancB),  founded  by  Pius  II  in  1459 
to  fight  against  the  Turks.  They  wore  a  white 
hsbit  with  a  red  cross,  were  given  the  island  of 
I«inno6  as  their  seat,  and  did  not  smvive  the  cap- 
ture of  the  island  by  the  Turks  in  the  year  of  their 
foundation.  (3)  More  important  are  the  Bethlehem 
Brothers  {Fratres  BethlemitcB ;  Spanish,  Orden  de 
Bdemitaa)  of  Guatemabi  (Central  America),  founded 


there  about  ld50  by  Pierre  de  Bethencourt  and  after 
his  death  (1667)  under  the  leadership  of  the  brothers 
Rodrigo  and  Antonio  de  la  Cruz.  Originally  en- 
trusted only  with  the  care  of  the  hospital  of  Maiy 
of  Bethlehem  in  Guatemala,  the  order  was  con- 
firmed by  Innocent  XI  in  1687  and  given  a  con- 
stitution and  dress  like  that  of  the  Capuchins. 
Qement  XI  in  1707  granted  them  the  privileges  of 
the  mendicant  orders.  A  society  of  Sisters  of  Bethl&* 
hem  was  founded  in  Guatemala  by  Anna  Maria 
del  Galdo  in  1668,  and  both  the  male  and  female 
branches  spread  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  elsewhere. 
A  secularization-decree  of  the  Spanish  Cortes  in 
1820  suppressed  both  branches. 

O.  ZdCKLSBf. 
Biblxoorapht:  Heimbueher.  Orden  und  Konffregationen,  i, 
497-498;  G.  Voigt,  Enea  Syfivio  .  .  ,  ale  Papal  Pint,  ii. 
662.  Berlin.  1863;  Karl  vom  heiligen  Aloys.  Die  kaiKo- 
liedie  Kirehe  in  ihrer  geffenw&rHgen  Auebreitung,  pp.  510- 
511,  Regensburg.  1886;  Helyot,  Ordreamonaetiquee,  iii,  347- 
357,  viii.  365  sqq.;  KL,  ii.  540-544  (oontains  list  of  liter- 
ature in  Spanish). 

BETHPHANY:  A  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
festival  more  commonly  known  as  the  Epiphany. 
It  is  a  barbarous  invention  of  the  schoolmen,  from 
the  Hebrew  hSth,  "  house,"  and  the  Greek  -phaneia^ 
"  manifestation,"  which  forms  the  latter  part  of 
the  word  Epiphany;  and  was  intended  to  empha- 
size the  miracle  (in  the  house)  at  Cana  in  Galilee, 
which  is  the  third  event  commemorated  by  the 
festival  of  the  Epiphany  (q.v.). 

BETHSAIDA.    See  Gaulanitis. 

BETHUinS,  be-than',  GEORGE  WASHINGTON: 
Reformed  (Dutch)  clergyman;  b.  in  Greenwich, 
now  a  part  of  New  York  City,  Mar.  18,  1805;  d.  at 
Florence,  Italy,  Apr.  27,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.,  1823;  studied 
at  Princeton  Seminary  1823-25;  served  for  a  year 
as  missionary  among  the  negroes  and  sailors  at 
Savannah,  Ga.;  was  ordained  Nov.,  1827,  and  was 
pastor  of  Reformed  (Dutch)  churches  at  Rhinebeck 
(1827-^0)  and  Utica  (1830-34),  N.  Y.,  Philadelphia 
(First  Church,  1834-37;  Third  Church,  1837-49), 
and  Brooklyn  (1851-59);  was  associate  minister 
at  the  Twenty-first  Street  Church,  New  York, 
185&-61.  He  was  famed  as  a  preacher  and  orator, 
as  a  poet,  and  as  a  wit.  Of  his  numerous  publica- 
tions, perhaps  that  of  most  permanent  value  was 
his  edition  of  Walton's  Complete  Angler  (New 
York,  1847;  new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1880). 

Bxblxooraprt:  A.  R.  Van  Nest,  Memoire  of  Rev.  Qeorge  W. 
BeOiuna,  2  vols..  New  York.  1880. 

BETHUNE-BAKER,  JAMES  FRANKLIN:  Church 
of  England;  b.  at  Birmingham  Aug.  23, 1861 .  He 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  College,Cambridge  (B.  A., 
1884),  and  was  head  master's  assistant  at  King 
Edward's  School,  Birmingham,  and  assistant  curate 
of  St.  George's,  Edgbaston,  from  1888  to  1890.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  elected  fellow  and  dean 
of  Pembroke  College,  and  since  1905  has  also  been 
examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Rochester. 
He  has  been  the  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Theological 
Studies  since  1903,  and  has  written  The  Influence 
of  Christianity  on  War  (Cambridge,  1888);  The 
Sternness  of  Christ's  Teaching  (1889);  The  Meaning 


BetkluB 
Beysohlatf 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


76 


of  Hotnoouaioa  in  the  ConstantinopolUan  Creed  (1901 ); 
An  IrUroduction  to  ^  Early  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (London,  1903);  and  Christian  Doctrines 
and  their  Ethical  Significance  (1905). 

BETKinS,  b^t'kt-98  (BETKE),  JOACHIM: 
Lutheran  preacher  and  forerunner  of  the  Pietistic 
movement;  b.  at  Berlin  Oct.  8,  1601;  d.  at  Linum, 
near  FehrbeUin  (33  m.  n.w.  of  Berlin),  Dec.  12, 
1663.  After  finishing  his  course  at  Wittenberg, 
he  became  associate  rector  at  Ruppin,  then  was  for 
more  than  thirty  years  pastor  at  Linum.  He  wrote 
several  theological  and  devotional  works,  by  the 
reading  of  which  Spener  said  he  had  profited. 
They  contain  edifying  exhortations  against  for^ 
getting  the  need  of  sanctification  in  addition  to 
justification,  but  are  marred  by  intemperate  fanati- 
cism; Betkius  holds  the  clergy  responsible  for  all 
the  anti-Christian  phenomena  of  his  time,  and  for 
the  divine  judgments  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war. 

(F.  W.  DiBEUUB.) 

BETRAYAL  OF  FILATE.  See  Apocrypha, 
New  Testament,  B,  I,  7. 

BEURLIN,  bei'^er-ltn,  JAKOB:  German  Lu- 
theran theologian;  b.  at  Domstetten  (35  m.  s.w.  of 
Stuttgart)  1520;  d.  at  Paris  Oct.  28,  1561.  In 
Nov.,  1533,  he  entered  the  university  of  TObingen. 
When  the  Reformation  was  introduced  in  1534, 
he  remained  faithful  to  Catholicism,  but  dili- 
gently studied  philosophy  and  the  writings  of  the 
Ghurch  Fathers,  so  that  his  transition  to  the  new 
doctrine  took  place  quietly.  In  1541  he  was  made 
governor  of  the  Biartinianum,  and  at  the  same  time 
lectured  on  philosophy.  In  1549  he  accepted  the 
pastorate  of  Derendingen  near  Tubingen,  and  in 
1551  he  was  called  as  professor  to  Tubingen.  On 
June  2,  1557,  he  examined  and  signed,  together 
with  other  theologians,  the  Confessio  Wirtember- 
ffica,  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  in  the  month  of  August,  together  with 
Brenz's  friend  Johann  Isenmann  (q.v.),  he  went  to 
Langensalza  and  afterward  to  Saxony  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  the  theologians  and  coun- 
cilors of  the  elector  Maurice  concerning  the  WOrt- 
temberg  0>nfe8sion  as  compared  with  the  Saxon, 
which  had  also  been  prepared  for  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  Nov.,  1551,  in  company  with  Luther's 
former  steward,  Jodocus  Neuheller,  pastor  at  Ent- 
ringen,  he  was  sent  as  theological  adviser  of  the 
Wttrttemberg  delegates  to  Trent,  where  they  took 
notes  of  the  disputations.  On  Jan.  13,  1552, 
both  returned  home,  but  on  Mar.  7,  Beurlin, 
Brenz,  Heerbrand,  and  Vannius  again  started  for 
Trent  to  oppose  the  erroneous  decisions  of  the 
council,  and  to  defend  the  Confessio  Wirtembergica 
before  it;  but  the  council  would  not  hear  them  in  a 
public  session,  and  they  returned  home.  Beurlin 
now  devoted  all  his  time  to  his  academic  duties. 
He  lectured  on  Melanchthon's  Loci,  the  Gospel  and 
First  Epistle  of  John,  and  the  Epistles  to  the  Ro- 
mans and  Hebrews,  and  drilled  the  young  theologians 
in  admirably  conducted  disputations.  In  May, 
1554,  the  duke  sent  him  to  Prussia  to  pacify  those 
who  had  been  stirred  up  by  Osiander's  teaching. 
He  was  unsuccessful,  however,  and,  disgusted  with 
the  behavior  of  the  factions,  he  declined  the  bishop- 


ric offered  to  him  by  Duke  Albert,  and  returned 
home.  In  the  interest  of  his  academic  office  he 
now  retired  in  favor  of  Jakob  Andre&,  who  was  s 
more  willing  interpreter  of  the  iheok>gy  and  eo- 
clesiastical  policy  of  Brenz  (q.v.).  In  Oct., 
1557,  Beuiiin  and  his  father-in-law,  Mattiiseus 
Alber,  went  to  the  religious  conference  at  Worms 
in  place  of  the  Thuringian  theologians.  At  the 
Stuttgart  synod  Beurlin  also  remained  in  tiie 
background,  but  he  assisted  Brena  in  the  de- 
fense of  the  Confessio  Wirtembergica  against  Peter 
a  Soto,  and  his  attack  upon  the  coitral  point 
of  the  Roman  system  is  still  worthy  of  consider- 
ation. Vice-chancellor  of  the  univernty  after 
1557,  Beurlin  was  the  leader  of  the  Swabians 
at  the  Erfurt  Conference,  Apr.,  1561,  and  was 
still  more  prominent  on  his  last  journey  made 
in  the  service  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  King 
Antony  of  Navarre  sought  both  at  Stuttgart  and 
Heidelberg  for  a  theologian  to  advise  him  in 
the  controversy  which  arose  in  Sept.,  1557,  at  the 
religious  conference  in  Poissy  between  the  cardinal 
of  Guise  and  Beza  concerning  the  relation  of  the 
French  Protestants  to  the  Augsburg  Confession. 
Duke  Christopher  sent  three  theologians,  Jakob 
Beurlin,  Jakob  Andreft,  and  Balthasar  Bidembach. 
Before  leaving,  Beurlin  was  made  chancellor  of 
the  university  and  provost  of  the  Collegiate  Church 
(Sept.  29).  The  theologians  left  Oct.  3,  and  arrived 
at  Paris  Oct.  19.  Meanwhile  the  conference  at 
Poissy  had  been  broken  off,  and  the  theologians 
had  to  wait  till  the  king  called  them.  On  Oct.  24 
Beurlin  fell  ill  with  the  plague  and  died  in  Paris. 

G.  BoesEBT. 

Bibuoohapbt:  The  eouroea  are:  T.  Sohnepffitu,  J.  BeurhnM 
redwioua  el  i$nmorialU,  TQbingen,  1613;  J.  V.  Andieft, 
Fama  Andreana,  Stnuburg,  1530.  Coasult  G.  C.  F. 
Fisohlin,  Mtmoria  thaoloiforum  ViUebenfennum  rMvadtels, 
i,  82-87.  Ulm.  1710;  C.  F.  Sattler.  OeachidUe  van  WOrttem- 
berg  wUbt  der  Regierung  der  Herzoge,  Ulm,  1771;  H.  F. 
Eiflenbach,  BMckrtibung  und  OetchichU  der  Stodt  wtd  Unh 
veraitat  Tiibingen,  pp.  106-112.  TQbinsen,  1822;  H.  L.  J. 
Heppe,  OeachidUe  dee  deutedien  ProteelafUiemue,  toL  i. 
Marburs,  1852-^69;  C.  von  Weisaftcker,  Lehrer  und  UfUer- 
rieki  an  der  evangeUech4heologie€hen  FakulUU  .  .  .  Tir 
hingen,  Tabingen,  1877;  C.  A.  Haae,  Hertog  AWredU  von 
Preueeen  und  eein  Hafvrediger,  Leipeic  1879;  Q.  BoBsert, 
Die  Reiee  der  wikrUembergiedten  Theaiogen  naxih  Parit 
ISei,  in  WOrUembergi^che  Viertdjakrehefte,  1899.  pp. 
387-112. 

BEVAN,  bev'on,  AlVTHONT  ASHLEY:  Chuich 
of  England  layman;  b.  at  Trent  Park,  Bamet  (11 
m.  n.n.w.  of  London),  Herts,  May  19,  1859.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Gynmase  litt^raire,  Lausanne 
(1877-79)  and  the  University  of  Strasburg  (1881- 
1883),  and  in  1884  became  a  member  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in 
1890.  Since  1893  he  has  been  Lord  Almoner's 
reader  in  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
In  addition  to  minor  studies,  he  has  written  A 
Short  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Daniel  (Cambridge, 
1892)  and  the  Hymn  of  the  Soul  Contained  in  the 
Syriac  Acts  of  St,  Thomas,  Reedited  vrith  an  EngliA 
TranslaUon,  in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studia, 
V  (1897). 

BEVAN,  LLEWELYN  DAVID:  Congregation- 
alist;  b.  at  lianelly  (15  m.  s.e.  of  Carmarthen), 
Carmarthenshire,    Wales,    Sept.   11,    1842.     He 


77 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Betklns 
Beysohlair 


studied  at  New  College,  London  (B.A.,  University 
of  London,  1861;  LL.B.,  1866),  and  after  being 
assistant  minister  to  Thomas  Binney  (q.v.)  at  the 
King's  Weigh-House  Ch^[)el,  London  (1865-69), 
held  pastorates  at  Tottenham-Court  Road  Chapel, 
London  (1869-76),  the  Brick  Presbyterian  Church, 
New  York  City  (1876-82),  and  Highbury  Quad- 
rant Church,  London  (1882-^86).  Since  1886  he 
has  been  pastor  of  the  Collins  Street  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Melbourne,  Victoria.  While  in 
En^and,  he  was  associated  with  F.  D.  Maurice 
(q.v.)  in  the  Workingmen's  College,  London,  and 
was  for  several  yean  a  professor  in  New  0>llege. 

BEVERID6E,  WILLIAM:  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph; 
b.  at  Banow  (8  m.  n.  of  Leicester),  and  baptized 
there  Feb.  21,  1637;  d.  m  London  Mar.  5,  1708. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge;  was  rector  of 
Ealing,  a  west  suburb  of  London,  1661-72;  of 
St.  Peter's,  Comhill,  London,  1672-1704,  when  he 
became  bishop.  In  his  day  he  was  styled  "  the 
great  reviver  and  restorer  of  primitive  piety " 
because  in  his  much  admired  sermons  and  other 
writings  he  dwelt  so  affectionately  upon  the  Church 
of  the  eariy  centuries.  His  collected  works  (in- 
complete) are  in  the  Ltbrary  of  Angl(h-Catholic 
Theology  in  12  vols.  (Oxford,  1842-48)  and  embrace 
mx  volumes  of  sermons;  The  Doctrine  of  the  Church 
of  England  Consonant  to  Scripture,  Reason,  and  the 
Fathers:  A  Complete  System  of  Divinity  (2  vols.); 
Codex  eanonum  eccLesia  primitivcB  vindieatus  ac 
lUustratuB,  with  the  appendices,  I.  Prolegomena 
in  Iwoducdv,  sive  pandectas  eanonum ;  and  II.  Prce- 
fatio  ad  annotationes  in  canones  apostolicos 
(2  vols.);  and  the  still  read  Private  Thoughts  on 
Religion,  and  Church  Catechism  Explained.  His 
InstUutionum  ehronologioarum  libri  duo,  una  cum 
Ictidem  ariihmetiees  chronologica  litMie  (London, 
I  was  onoe  an  admired  treatise  on  chronology. 


BiBLiooaAPBT:  T.  H.  Home,  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Wri- 
Uttge  of  W.  Beomidoe,  London.  1824,  also  prefixed  to  hia 
works  in  the  Library  of  Angio-Catholie  Thooion,  ut  sup.; 
DKB,  nr.  447-448. 

BBTER,  boiler,  HARTMANN:  Reformation 
preacher  of  Frankfort,  where  he  was  bom  Sept.  30, 
1516,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1577.  In  1534  he  went  to 
Wittenberg  as  student  of  philosophy  and  theology, 
and  received  the  master's  degree  there  in  1539  and 
became  private  teacher  of  mathematics.  He  re- 
turned to  his  native  city  as  preacher  in  1546. 
The  Refonnation,  introduced  in  Frankfort  in  1522 
by  Hartmann  Ibach,  had  been  carried  on  in  the 
earlier  yeem  by  compulsion  and  rash  zeal  on  the 
part  of  its  adherents,  and  in  later  time  was  marked 
by  doctrinal  controversies  between  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  tendencies.  Beyer  came  with  the 
determination  to  win  the  victory  for  Lutheranism, 
and  to  his  activity  was  it  due  that  by  1554  a  com- 
pact Lutheran  congregation  stood  opposed  to  all 
insinuations  of  Calvinism,  while  the  earlier  demo- 
cratic and  radical  tendencies  had  been  suppressed. 
In  the  year  named,  three  congregations  of  Protes- 
tants from  the  Netheriands,  who  had  first  taken 
refuge  in  England  but  fled  that  country  after  the 
aeeesBkm  of  Mary,  came  to  Frankfort  under  the 
lead  of  Velerandus  Polanus  and  Johannes  a  Lasco 


(qq.v.),  bringing  with  them  a  Reformed  creed  and 
Reformed  practises.  Beyer  was  the  soul  of  an 
opposition  which  induced  the  city  council  to  de- 
prive them  of  the  church  they  had  used  for  worship 
in  1561.  In  1596  even  the  right  of  holding  services 
privately  was  forbidden. 

The  success  of  the  emperor  in  the  Schmalkald  war 
and  the  promulgation  of  the  Augsbiu^  Interim 
(May,  1548)  brought  the  Frankfort  Reformers  face 
to  face  with  dangers  which  for  the  time  quieted 
doctrinal  disputes.  The  council  accepted  the 
interim  cautiously,  but  its  attempts  to  forbid 
preaching  against  the  new  law  and  against  Roman 
teachings  and  practises,  to  reestablish  chmrch 
festivals,  to  prohibit  the  eating  of  meat  on  fast- 
days,  and  like  measures  met  with  determined  and 
courageous  resistance  from  Beyer  and  his  col- 
leagues. The  former  repeatedly  expressed  his  con- 
viction that  church  ordinances  could  be  established 
only  with  the  consent  of  the  congregation.  The 
struggle  went  on  till  1577,  but  the  preachers 
gained  the  victory. 

Beyer  issued  two  pseudonymous  writings  against 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  1551  and  while  in  Witten- 
berg prepared  a  treatise  on  mathematics.  His 
sermons  are  preserved  in  forty-nine  volumes  in 
manuscript  in  Frankfort.  They  are  marked  by  a 
beauty  and  force  of  language  which  make  them 
powerful  even  to-day.  (0.  E.  SrBrrzt.) 

BnuoaHAPHT:  Q.    E.    Steiti,    Dor   hJkeriMcho    Prddikani, 
Hartmann  Beyer,  Frankfort,  1862. 

BETSCHLAGy  boi'shlOH,  WILLIBALD:  Gei^ 
man  Protestant;  b.  at  Frankfort  Sept.  5,  1823; 
d.  at  Halle  Nov.  26, 1900.  He  studied  at  Bonn  and 
Berlin  1840-44;  became  vicar  at  Coblens  1849; 
assistant  pastor  and  religious  teacher  at  Treves 
1850;  court  preacher  at  Carlsruhe  1856;  ordinary 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle  1860;  and  after  1876 
editor  of  the  Deutsche  Evangelische  Bldtter,  an  organ 
of  the  so-called  Mittelpartei,  whose  leader  he  was 
till  the  end  of  his  life.  To  oppose  the  ultramontane 
aggressions  in  Germany,  he  founded  in  1886  the 
Evangelischer  Bund  (see  Bund,  Evanoelibchbr). 
Of  his  very  numerous  writings,  besides  sermons, 
the  following  are  worthy  of  mention:  Die  Chris- 
totogie  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Berlin,  1866);  Die  pau- 
linische  Theodicee  Rdm.  ix-^ci  (Beriin,  1868,  2d 
ed.,  1895);  Die  christliche  Oemeindeverfassung  im 
ZeitaUer  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Haarlem,  1874); 
Zur  Johanneischen  Frage  (Gotha,  1876);  the  biog- 
raphies of  his  brother,  F.  W.  T.  Beyschlag  (Au« 
dem  Leben  eines  FrUhvoUendeten,  2  parts,  Berlin, 
1858-59,  6th  ed.,  1889),  of  Carl  Ulhnann  (Gotha, 
1867),  of  Carl  Immanuel  Nitzsch  (Halle,  1872, 
2d  ed.,  1882),  and  of  Albrecht  Wolters  (1880); 
Zur  deutschchristlichen  Bildung  (1880,  2d  ed.,  1899); 
Das  Leben  Jesu  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1885-86,  4th  ed., 
1902);  Der  Friedensachluss  xwischen  Deutschland 
und  Rom  (Halle,  1887);  Reden  in  der  Erfurter  Vor- 
Conferenz  des  evangelischen  Bundes  (1888);  Godo- 
fred,  ein  Mdrchen  fUrs  deuische  Haus  (1888); 
Luther'a  Hausstand  in  seiner  reformaiorisdien 
Bedeutung  (Barmen,  1888);  Die  Reformation  in 
Italien  (1888);  Die  r&mischrkatholischen  AnsprHche 
an  die  preussische  Volkssehule  (1889);  Zur  Verst&n- 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


78 


digung  iiber  den  (^riaUichen  Voraehungaglavben 
(Halle,  1889);  ErkenntnUapfade  zu  Christo  (1889); 
LHe  evangeliache  Kirche  aU  Bundeagenossin  wider 
die  Socialdemokratie  (Berlin,  1890);  Neuteetament' 
liche  Theologie  (2  vols.,  1891-92,  2d  ed.,  1896; 
Eng.  transl.,  New  Testament  Theology,  2  vols.,  Ed- 
inburgh, 1895,  2d  ed.,  1896);  Christerdekre  (Halle, 
3d  ed.,  1903). 

Biblioorapht:  Consult  his  autobiography,  Aut  meinem 
Leben,  2  vols.,  Halle.  1896-08;  K.  H.  Pahnoke.  Willibald 
Beychlag,  ein  OedenkblaU,  Tflbinsen,  1005. 

BEZA,   brza,    THEODORE. 

Early  Life  (I  1). 

Teacher  at  Lausanne  (I  2). 

Joumejrs  in  behalf  of  the  Protestants  (fi  3). 

Settles  in  Geneva  (|  4). 

Events  of  1560-63  (fi  5). 

Calvin's  Successor  (|  6). 

Course  of  Events  after  1564  (|  7). 

The  Colloquy  of  Mampelgart  (|  8). 

Last  Days  (S  0). 

Humanistic  and  Historical  Writings  (S  10). 

Theological  Works  (fi  11). 

Besa's  Greek  New  Testament  (S  12). 

Theodore  Beza  (Theodore  de  Bdze  or  de  Besze), 
(jenevan  Reformer,  was  bom  at  V^zelay  (8  m.  w.s.w. 
of  Avallon),  in  Burgundy,  June  24, 1519;  d.  at  Ge- 
neva Oct.  13, 1605.  His  father,  Pierre  de  Bdze,  royal 
governor  of  V^zelay,  descended  from  a  Burgundian 
family  of  distinction;  his  mother,  Marie  Bourdelot, 
was  known  for  her  generosity.  Theodore's  father 
had  two  brothers;  one,  Nicholas,  was  member  of 
Parliament  at  Paris;  the  other,  Claude,  was  abbot 
of  the  Cistercian  monastery  Froimont  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Beauvais.    Nicholas,  who  was 

z.  Early  unmarried,  on  a  visit  to  V^zelay  was 
Life.  so  pleajsed  with  Theodore  that,  with 
the  permission  of  the  parents,  he  took 
him  to  Paris  to  educate  him  there.  From  Paris 
Theodore  was  sent  to  Orleans  (Dec,  1528)  to  enjoy 
the  instruction  of  the  famous  German  teacher 
Melchior  Wolmar.  He  was  received  into  Wolmar's 
house,  and  the  day  on  which  this  took  place 
was  afterward  celebrated  as  a  second  birthday. 
Young  Beza  soon  followed  his  teacher  to  Bourges, 
whither  the  latter  was  called  by  the  duchess  Mar- 
garet of  Angoul^me,  sister  of  Francis  I.  Bourges 
was  one  of  the  places  in  France  in  which  the  heart 
of  the  Reformation  beat  the  strongest.  When,  in 
1534,  Francis  I  issued  his  edict  against  ecclesias- 
tical innovations)  Wolmar  returned  to  Germany, 
and,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  his  father, 
Beza  went  back  to  Orleans  to  study  law,  and  spent 
four  years  there  (1535-39).  This  pursuit  had  little 
attraction  for  him;  he  enjoyed  more  the  reading  of 
the  ancient  classics,  especially  Ovid,  Catullus,  and 
Tibullus.  He  received  the  degree  of  licentiate  in 
law  Aug.  11,  1539,  and,  as  his  father  desired,  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  began  practise.  His  relatives 
had  obtained  for  him  two  benefices,  the  proceeds 
of  which  amoimted  to  700  golden  crowns  a  year;  and 
his  uncle  had  promised  to  make  him  his  successor. 

Beza  spent  two  happy  years  at  Paris  and  soon 
gained  a  prominent  position  in  literary  circles.  To 
escape  the  many  temptations  to  which  he  was 
exposed,  with  the  knowledge  of  two  friends,  he 
became  engaged  in  the  year  1544  to  a  young  girl 
of  humble  descent,  Qaudlne  Denosse,  promising  to 


make  this  engagement  public  as  soon  as  his  drcum- 
stances  would  allow  it.  He  published  a  collectioD 
of  Latin  poems.  Juvenilia^  which  made  him  famous, 
and  he  was  everywhere  considered  one  of  the  best 
Latin  poets  of  his  time.  But  he  fell  ill  and  his 
distress  of  body  revealed  to  him  his  spiritual  needs. 
Gradually  he  came  to  the  knowledge  of  salvation  in 
Christ,  which  he  apprehended  with  a  joyous  faith. 
He  then  resolved  to  sever  his  connections  of  the 
time,  and  went  to  Geneva,  the  French  dty  of 
refuge  for  the  Evangelicals,  where  he  arrived  with 
Qaudine  Oct.  23,  1548.  . 

He  was  heartily  received  by  Calvin,  who  had 
met  him  already  in  Wolmar's  house,  and  was  at 
once  publicly  and  solemnly  married  in  the  church. 
Beza  was  at  a  loss  for  immediate  occupation,  so 
he  went  to  Tubingen  to  see  his  former  teacher 
Wolmar.  On  his  way  home  he  visited  Viret 
at  Lausanne,  who  at  once  detained 
a.  Teacher  him  and  brought  about  his  appoint- 
at  Lausanne,  ment  as  professor  of  Greek  at  the 
academy  there  (Nov.,  1549).  In  spite 
of  the  arduous  work  which  fell  to  his  lot,  Beza 
foimd  time  to  write  a  Biblical  drama,  Abraham 
Sacrifiant  (published  at  Geneva,  1550;  Eng. 
transl.  by  Arthur  Golding,  London,  1577,  ed., 
with  introduction,  notes,  and  the  French  text  of 
the  original,  M.  W.  Wallace,  Toronto,  1906),  in 
which  he  contrasted  Catholidsm  with  Protes- 
tantism, and  the  work  was  well  received.  In  June, 
1551,  he  added  a  few  psalms  to  the  Froich  vermon 
of  the  Psalms  begun  by  Marot,  which  was  also  veiy 
successful.  About  the  same  time  be  published  bis 
PassavantitLS,  a  satire  directed  against  Pierre  Lizet  of 
ill  repute,  formerly  president  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  and  principal  originator  of  the  "  fiery  cham- 
ber "  {chambre  ardente),  who,  being  at  the  time 
(1551)  abbot  of  St.  Victor  near  Paris,  was  eag^r 
to  acquire  the  fame  of  a  subduer  of  heresy  by  pub- 
lishing a  number  of  polemical  writing?.  Of  a  more 
serious  character  were  two  controversies  in  whicb 
Beza  was  involved  at  this  time.  The  first  con- 
cerned the  doctrine  of  predestination  and  the  con- 
troversy of  Calvin  with  Bolsec  (see  Calvin,  John; 
BoLSEC,  J£r6me  HermI»).  The  second  referred 
to  the  burning  of  Michael  Servetus  (q.v.)  at 
Geneva  Oct.  27,  1553.  In  defense  of  Calvin  and 
the  (jrenevan  magistrates,  Beza  published  in  1554 
the  work  De  htrreticis  a  civUi  magietratu  fnmiendis 
(translated  into  French  in  1560). 

In  1557  Beza  took  a  special  interest  in  the  Wal- 
densians  of  Piedmont,  who  were  harassed  by  the 
French  government,  and  in  their  behalf  went  with 
Farel  to  Bern,  Zurich,  Basel,  Schaffhausen,  thence  to 
Strasburg,  Milmpelgart,  Baden,  and  Gdppingen.  In 
Baden  and  Gdppingen,  Beza  and  Farel  had  to  declare 
themselves  concerning  their  own 
3.  JoumeyB  and  the  Waldensians'  views  on  the 
in  behalf  of  sacrament,  and  on  May  14,  1557,  they 
the  Protes-  presented  a  written  declaration  in 
tants.  which  they  clearly  stated  their  posi- 
tion. Thisdedaration  waa  well  received 
by  the  Lutheran  theologians,  but  was  strongly 
disapproved  in  Bern  and  Zurich.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1557  Beza  undertook  a  second  journey 
with  Farel  to  Worms  by  way  of  Strasburg  to  bring 


70 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Besa 


about  an  intercession  of  the  Evangelical  princes 
of  the  empire  in  favor  of  the  persecuted  brethren 
at  Paris.  With  Melanchthon  and  other  theologians 
then  assembled  at  Worms,  Beza  considered  a  union 
of  all  Protestant  Christians,  but  this  proposal  was 
decidedly  negatived  by  Zurich  and  Bern.  False 
reports  having  reached  the  German  princes  that 
the  hostilities  against  the  Huguenots  in  France  had 
ceased,  no  embassy  was  sent  to  the  court  of  France, 
and  Beza  undertook  another  journey  in  the  interest 
of  the  Huguenots,  going  with  Farel,  Johannes  Bud- 
ddBUS,  and  Gaspard  Carmel  to  Strasburg  and  Frank- 
fort, where  the  sending  of  an  embassy  to  Paris  was 
resolved  upon. 

U]X>n  his  return  to  Lausanne,  Beza  was  greatly 
disturbed.  In  union  with  many  ministers  and 
professors  in  city  and  country,  Viret  at  last  thought 
of  establishing  a  consistory  and  of  introducing  a 
church  discipline  which  should  inflict  excommu- 
nication especially  at  the  celebration  of  the  com- 
munion. But  the  Bernese  would  have  no  Cal- 
vinistic  church  government.  This  caused  many 
difficulties,  and  Beza  thought  it  best 

4.  Settles  in  (1558)    to    settle   at    Geneva.     Here 
Geneva,     he   occupied   at    first   the    chair   of 

Greek  in  the  newly  established  acad- 
emy, and  after  Calvin's  death  also  that  of  theology; 
besides  this  he  was  obliged  to  preach.  He  com- 
pleted the  revision  of  Olivetan's  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  begun  some  years  before.  In  1559 
he  undertook  another  journey  in  the  interest  of 
the  Huguenots,  this  time  to  Heidelberg;  about  the 
same  time  he  had  to  defend  Calvin  against  Joachim 
Westphal  in  Hamburg  and  Tileman  Hesshusen 
(qq.v.).  More  important  than  this  polemical  activ- 
ity was  Beza's  statement  of  his  own  confession.  It 
was  originally  prepared  for  his  father  in  justifica- 
tion of  his  course  and  published  in  revised  form 
to  promote  Evangelical  knowledge  among  Beza's 
countrymen.  It  was  printed  in  Latin  in  1560  with 
a  dedication  to  Wolmar.  An  English  translation 
was  published  at  London  1563,  1572,  and  1585. 
TranaUtions  into  German,  Dutch,  and  Italian 
were  also  issued. 

In  the  mean  time  things  took  such  shape  in 
France  that  the  happiest  future  for  Protestantism 
seemed  possible.  King  Antony  of  Navarre,  yield- 
ing to  the  urgent  requests  of  Evangelical  noblemen, 
declared  his  willingness  to  listen  to  a  prominent 
teacher  of  the  Church.  Beza,  a  French  nobleman 
and  head  of  the  academy  in  the  metropolis  of  French 
Protestantism,  was  invited  to  Castle  N^rac,  but  he 
oould  not  plant  the  seed  of  Evangelical  faith  in  the 
heart  of  the  king.  In  the  year  following  (1561) 
Beza  represented  the  Evangelicals  at  the  Colloquy 
of  Poissy  (q.v.),  and  in  an  eloquent  manner  defended 

the  principles  of  the  Evangelical  faith. 

5.  EventB  of  The    colloquy    was    without    result, 
1560-63.    but  Beza  as  the  head  and  advocate  of 

all  Reformed  congregations  of  France 
was  revered  and  hated  at  the  same  time.  The 
queen  insisted  upon  another  colloquy,  which  was 
opened  at  St.  Germain  Jan.  28,  1562,  eleven  days 
after  the  proclamation  of  the  famous  January  edict 
which  granted  important  privileges  to  those  of  the 
Refonned  faith.    But  the  colloquy  was  broken  off 


when  it  became  evident  that  the  Catholic  party 
was  preparing  (after  the  massacre  of  Vassy,  Mar.  1) 
to  overthrow  Protestantism.  Beza  hastily  issued  a 
circular  letter  (Mar.  25)  to  all  Reformed  congrega- 
tions of  the  empire,  and  with  Cond^  and  his  troops 
went  to  Orleans.  It  was  necessary  to  proceed 
quickly  and  energetically.  But  there  were  neither 
soldiers  nor  money.  At  the  request  of  Cond^,  Beza 
visited  all  Huguenot  cities  to  obtain  both.  He  also 
wrote  a  manifesto  in  which  he  showed  the  justice  of 
the  Reformed  cause.  As  one  of  the  messengers  to 
collect  soldiers  and  money  among  his  coreUgionists, 
Beza  was  appointed  to  visit  England,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland.  He  went  to  Strasburg  and  Basel, 
but  met  with  failure.  He  then  returned  to  Geneva, 
which  he  reached  Sept.  4.  He  had  hardly  been 
there  fourteen  days  when  he  was  called  once  more 
to  Orleans  by  D'Andelot.  The  campaign  was  be- 
coming more  successful;  but  the  publication  of  the 
unfortunate  edict  of  pacification  which  Cond^ 
accepted  (Mar.  12, 1563)  filled  Beza  and  all  Protes- 
tant France  with  horror. 

For  twenty-two  months  Beza  had  been  absent 
from  Geneva,  and  the  interests  of  school  and  Church 
there  and  especially  the  condition  of  Calvin  made 
it  necessary  for  him  to  return.  For  there  was  no 
one  to  take  the  place  of  Calvin,  who  was  sick  and 
unable  longer  to  bear  the  burden  resting  on  him. 
Calvin  and  Beza  arranged  to  perform  their  duties 
jointly  in  alternate  weeks,  but  the  death  of  Calvin 

occurred  soon  afterward  (May  27, 
6.  Calvin's  1564).  As  a  matter  of  course  Beza  was 
Successor,    his  successor.    Until  1580  Beza  was 

not  only  mod^ateur  de  la  compagnie 
des  pasteurSf  but  also  the  real  soul  of  the  great 
institution  of  learning  at  Geneva  which  Calvin  had 
founded  in  1559,  consisting  of  a  gymnasium  and 
an  academy.  As  long  as  he  lived,  Beza  was  inter- 
ested in  higher  education.  The  Protestant  youth 
for  nearly  forty  years  thronged  his  lecture-room  to 
hear  his  theological  lectures,  in  which  he  expounded 
the  purest  Calvinistic  orthodoxy.  As  a  counselor 
he  was  listened  to  by  both  magistrates  and  pastors, 
(jreneva  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  founding  of  a 
law  school  in  which  Francois  Hotman,  Jules  Pacius, 
and  Denys  Grodefroy,  the  most  eminent  jurists  of 
the  century,  lectured  in  turn  (cf .  Charles  Borgeaud, 
VAcadimie  de  Calvin,  Geneva,  1900). 

As  Calvin's  successor,  Beza  was  very  successful, 
not  only  in  carrying  on  his  work  but  also  in  giving 
peace  to  the  Church  at  (Geneva.  The  magistrates 
had  fully  appropriated  the  ideas  of  Calvin,  and  the 
direction  of  spiritual  affairs,  the  organs  of  which 
were  the  "  ministers  of  the  word  "  and  ''  the  con- 
sistory," was  founded  on  a  solid  basis.  No  doctrinal 
controversy  arose  after  1564.  The  discussions 
concerned  questions  of  a  practical,  social,  or  eccle- 
siastical nature,  such  as  the  supremacy  of  the 
magistrates  over  the  pastors,  freedom  in  preaching, 

and  the  obligation  of  the  pastors  to  sub- 

7.  Course  of  mit  to  the  majority  of  the  compagnie 

Events  after  dea  pasteura,    Beza  obtruded  his  will  in 

1564.        no  way  upon  his  associates,  and  took 

no  harsh  measiu'es  against  injudicious 
or  hot-headed  colleagues,  though  sometunes  he  took 
their  cases  in  hand  and  acted  as  mediator;  and  yet  he 


Beza 

Bianohini 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


80 


often  experienced  an  opposition  so  extreme  that 
he  threatened  to  resign.  Although  he  was  in- 
clined to  take  the  part  of  the  magistrates,  he 
knew  how  to  defend  the  rights  and  independ- 
ence of  the  spiritual  power  when  occasion  arose, 
without,  however,  conceding  to  it  such  a  pre- 
ponderating influence  as  did  Calvin.  His  ac- 
tivity was  great.  He  mediated  between  the  com- 
pagnie  and  the  magistracy;  the  latter  continually 
asked  his  advice  even  in  political  questions.  He 
corresponded  with  all  the  leaders  of  the  Reformed 
party  in  Europe.  After  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (1572),  he  used  his  influence  to  give  to  the 
refugees  a  hospitable  reception  at  Geneva.  About 
this  time  he  wrote  his  De  jure  nuiffiatratutun,  in 
which  he  emphatically  protested  against  tyranny 
in  religious  matters,  and  affirmed  that  it  is  legiti- 
mate for  a  people  to  oppose  an  unworthy  magis- 
tracy in  a  practical  manner  and  if  necessary  to  use 
weapons  and  depose  them.  To  sum  up:  Without  be- 
ing a  great  dogmatician  like  his  master,  nor  a  crea- 
tive genius  in  the  ecclesiastical  realm,  Beza  had  quali- 
ties which  made  him  famous  as  humanist,  exegete, 
orator,  and  leader  in  religious  and  political  affairs, 
and  qualified  him  to  be  the  guide  of  the  Calvinists 
in  all  Europe.  In  the  various  controversies  into 
which  he  was  drawn,  Beza  often  showed  an  excess 
of  irritation  and  intolerance,  from  which  Bernar- 
dino Ochino,  pastor  of  the  Italian  congregation  at 
Zurich  (on  account  of  a  treatise  which  contained 
some  objectionable  points  on  polygamy),  and 
Sebastian  Gastellio  at  Basel  (on  account  of  his 
Latin  and  French  translations  of  the  Bible)  had 
especially  to  suffer.  With  Reformed  France  Beza 
continued  to  maintain  the  closest  relations.  He 
was  the  moderator  of  the  general  synod  which 
met  in  April,  1571,  at  La  Rochelle  and  decided 
not  to  abolish  church  discipline  or  to  acknowledge 
the  civil  government  as  head  of  the  Church,  as  the 
Paris  minister  Jean  Morel  and  the  philosopher 
Pierre  Ramus  demanded;  it  also  decided  to  con- 
firm anew  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  (by  the  expression:  "  substance  of  the 
body  of  Christ")  against  Zwinglianism,  which 
caused  a  very  unpleasant  discussion  between  Beza 
and  Ramus  and  Bullinger.  In  the  following  year 
(May,  1572)  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  na- 
tional synod  at  Nimes.  He  was  also  interested  in 
the  controversies  which  concerned  the  Augsburg 
Confession  in  Gennany,  especially  after  1564,  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ  and  the  sacra- 
ment, and  published  several  works  against  West- 
phal,  Hesshusen,  Selnecker,  Johann  Brenz,  and 
Jakob  Andreft.  This  made  him,  especially  after 
1571,  hated  by  all  those  who  adhered  to  Luther- 
anism  in  opposition  to  Melanchthon. 

The  last  polemical  conflict  of  importance  Beza 
encountered  from  the  exclusive  Lutherans  was  at 
the  Colloquy  of  MOmpelgart  (q.v.),  Mar.  14-27, 
1586,  to  which  he  had  been  invit^  by  the  Lutheran 
Count  Frederick  of  Wttrttemberg  at  the  wish  of  the 
French  noblemen  who  had  fl^  to  MOmpelgart. 
As  a  matter  of  course  the  intended  union  which 
was  the  purpose  of  the  colloquy  was  not  brought 
about;  nevertheless  it  called  forth  serious  develop- 
ments within  the  Reformed   Church.    When  the 


edition  of  the  acts  of  the  colloquy,  as  prepared 
by  J.  Andre&,  was  published,  Samuel  Huber,  of 

Burg  near  Bern,  who  belonged  to  the 

8.  The  Col-  Lutheranizing    faction   of   the   Swiss 

loquy  of    clergy,  took  so  great  offense  at  the 

Miimpd-    supralapsarian  doctrine    of    predesti- 

gatt.       nation   propounded    at    MOmpelgart 

by  Beza  and  Musculus  that  he  felt 
it  to  be  his  duty  to  denounce  Musculus  to  the 
magistrates  of  Bern  as  an  innovator  in  docWine. 
To  adjust  the  matter,  the  magistrates  arranged  a 
colloquy  between  Huber  and  Musculus  (Sept.  2, 
1587),  in  which  the  former  represented  the  mii- 
verssilism,  the  latter  the  particularism,  of  grace. 
As  the  colloquy  was  resultless,  a  debate  was  ar- 
ranged at  Bern,  Apr.  15-18,  1588,  at  which  the 
defense  of  the  accepted  system  of  doctrine  was 
at  the  start  put  into  Beza's  hands.  The  three 
delegates  of  the  Helvetic  cantons  who  presided  at 
the  debate  declared  in  the  end  that  Beza  had 
substantiated  the  teaching  propounded  at  MOm- 
pelgart as  the  orthodox  one,  and  Huber  was  dis- 
missed from  his  office. 

After  that  time  Beza's  activity  was  confined 
more  and  more  to  the  affairs  of  his  home.  His 
faithful  wife  Claudine  had  died  childless  in  1588, 
a  few  days  before  he  went  to  the  Bern  Disputation. 

Forty  years  they  had  lived  happily 

9.  Last      together.    He  contracted,  on  the  ad- 

Days.       vice  of  his  friends,  a  second  marriage 

with  Catharina  del  Piano,  a  Cienoese 
widow,  in  order  to  have  a  heljHnate  in  his  declining 
years.  Up  to  his  sixty-fifth  year  he  enjoyed  ex- 
cellent health,  but  after  that  a  gradutd  sinking 
of  his  vitality  became  perceptible.  He  was  active 
in  teaching  till  Jan.,  1597.  The  saddest  experience 
in  his  old  days  was  the  conversion  of  King  Henry  IV 
to  Roman  Catholidsm,  in  spite  of  his  most  earnest 
exhortations  (1593).  Strange  to  say,  in  1596  the 
report  was  spread  by  the  Jesuits  in  Gennany, 
France,  England,  and  Italy  that  Beza  and  the 
Church  of  Geneva  had  retiimed  into  the  bosom  of 
Rome,  and  Beza  replied  in  a  satire  that  revealed 
the  possession  still  of  his  old  fire  of  thought  and 
vigor  of  expression.  He  was  not  buried,  like 
Calvin,  in  the  general  cemetery,  Plain-Palais  (for 
the  Savoyards  had  threatened  to  abduct  his  body 
to  Rome),  but  at  the  direction  of  the  magistrates, 
in  the  monajstery  of  St.  Pierre. 

In  Beza's  literary  activity  as  well  as  in  his  life, 
distinction  must  be  made  between  the  period  of  the 
humanist  (which  ended  with  the  publication  of  hiB 
JuvenUia)  and  that  of  the  ecclesiastic.    But  later 

productions  like  the  humanistic,  biting, 

10.  Human-  satirical   Passavantiua  and  his  Com- 

istic  and     ptairUe  de  Measire  Pierre  lAzet  .  .  . 

Hiatorical    prove  that  in  later  3rears  he  occasion- 

WritingB.    ally  went  back  to  his  first  love.    In 

his  old  age  he  published  his  Cato 
ceneoriua  (1591),  and  revised  his  PoeTnata,  from 
which  he  pmrged  juvenile  eccentricities.  Of  his 
historiographical  works,  aside  from  his  Iconea  (1580), 
which  have  only  an  ioonographical  value,  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  famous  Histoire  ecdiHastique 
dee  ^glieea  riformiee  au  Royawne  de  France  (1580), 
and  his  biography  of  Calvin,  with  which  must  be 


81 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blanohlnl 


named  bis  edition  of  Calvin's  Epistola  et  responsa 
:i575). 

But  all  these  humanistic  and  historical  studies 
sre  BurpasBed  by  bis  theological  productions  (con- 
tained in  Tractationes  theologica).    In  these  Beza 
appears  the  perfect  pupil  or  the  alter 
XX.  Theo-    ego  of  Calvin.    His  view  of  life  is 
logical      deterministic   and   the   basis   of   his 
Works,      religious  thinking  is  the  predestinate 
recognition  of  the  necessity  of  all  tem- 
poral  existence    as    an    effect   of    the  absolute, 
eternal,  and  inunutable  will  of  God,  so  that  even 
the  fall  of  the  human  race  appears  to  him  essential 
to  the  divine  plan  of  the  world.    In  most  lucid 
manner  Beaa  shows  in  tabular  form  the  connection 
of  the  religious  views  which  emanated  from  this 
fundamental    supralapsarian    mode    of    thought. 
This  he  added  to  his  highly  instructive  treatise 
Summa  toUue  Christianiemi. 

Of  no  leas  importance  are  the  contributions  of 
Besa  to  Biblical  science.  In  1565  he  issued  an 
edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  accompanied 
in  parallel  colunms  by  the  text  of  the  Vulgate  and  a 
translation  of  his  own  (already  published  as  early 
as  1556).  Annotations  were  added,  also  previ- 
ously published,  but  now  he  greatly  enriched  and 
enlarged  them.  In  the  preparation  of 
12.  Beza's  this  edition  of  the  Greek  text,  but  much 
Greek  New  more  in  the  preparation  of  the  second 
Testament,  edition  which  he  brought  out  in  1582, 
Besa  may  have  availed  himself  of  the 
hdp  of  two  very  valuable  manuscripts.  One  is 
known  as  the  Codex  Beza  or  Cantabrigeneia,  and 
was  later  presented  by  Besa  to  the  University  of 
Cambridge;  the  second  is  the  Codex  Claromontanua, 
which  Besa  had  found  in  Clermont  (now  in  the 
National  Libraiy  at  Paris).  It  was  not,  however, 
to  these  sources  that  Beza  was  chiefly  indebted, 
but  rather  to  the  previous  edition  of  the  eminent 
Robert  Stephens  (1550),  itself  based  in  great  meas- 
ure upon  one  of  the  later  editions  of  Erasmus. 
Besa's  labors  in  this  direction  were  exceedingly 
helpful  to  those  who  came  after.  The  same  thing 
may  be  asserted  with  equal  truth  of  his  Latin 
version  and  of  the  copious  notes  with  which  it  was 
accompanied.  The  former  is  said  to  have  been 
published  over  a  himdred  times.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  the  author's  view  of  the  doctrine  of 
predestination  exercised  upon  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture  too  preponderating  an  influence. 
However,  there  is  no  question  that  Beza  added 
much  to  a  dear  understanding  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. EuokNB  Choist. 

BnuoasAPsr:  J.  W.  Baum,  7*.  Baa  naeh  handMehrifUidttn 
wd  mdirtH  gUiduwitio^n  Quetten,  Leipsic,  1843-62  (mas- 
terly, bat  extends  only  to  1563);  hia  life  by  Heppe  is  in 
▼oL  ▼!  of  Ltbm  und  autaevOhUe  Sekriften  der  Voter  der 
Ttformimrtgm  Kirch§,  Elberfeld,  1861  (complete  and  excel- 
Irat,  inferior  only  to  Baum);  A.  de  la  Faye,  De  vita  et 
«Mk  T.  Bexm,  Geneva.  1606  (by  a  farorite  pupil  of  Besa); 
J<r6me  Bobee.  Hiatoire  de  la  ine^  nunare,  doctrine  et  d&- 
bordoMiilt  deT.de  Btae,  Paris,  1582,  republished  Geneva, 
1835  (Roman  Catholic,  a  scurrilous  and  malignant  libel): 
P.  C.  SehloMer,  LAen  dee  Theodor  Beea  wid  dee  Peter 
iferfyr  VermioU,  HeidelberK.  1809;  E.  and  E.  Haa«,  La 
/VvMoc  proteetanU,  2d  ed.  by  Bordier.  ii,  52Q-540,  Paris. 
1879;  H.  M.  MoCraeken.  Livee  of  the  Leadere  of  Our  Church 
Unitereal,  from  the  Germ,  of  F.  Piper,  pp.  352-362, 
Phihdelphaa.  1879;  8eha£F,  ChrieOan  Chwrch,  vol.  vii.  pas- 


aim,  especially  ehi4>.  xix;  Moeller,  Christian  Church,  « ol. 
iii,  passim;  C.  y.  Proosdij,  T.  Beaa  medearbeUer  en  opvol- 
oer  van  Calvijn,  Leyden,  1895;  H.  M.  Baird,  Theodore 
Beaa,  (he  CoutteeUor  of  the  French  Reformation,  New  York. 
1899  (the  one  book  in  English,  and  a  worthy  treatment 
of  the  subject),  cf.  his  Riee  of  Ihe  Huquenote,  passim, 
ib.  1879;  A.  Bemus,  T.  de  BUe  d  Laueanne,  l«auHanne, 
19(X);  E.  Choisy,  L*£lat  duriUen  calviniate  it  Oenive  au 
tempa  deT.de  BHe,  Geneva,  1902;  Cambridoe  Modem 
Hietory,  vol.  ii.  The  Reformation,  passim,  vol.  iii,  London, 
1904;  A  ThSodore  de  Biae  U606-100S),  CSeneva,  1906. 

BEZOLD,  b^"26ld',  CARL  ERNST  CHRISTIAN: 
German  Orientalist;  b.  at  Donauwdrth  (25  m.  n.n.w. 
of  Augsburg),  Bavaria,  May  18,  1859.  He  waa 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Munich  (1876-79), 
Leipsic  (1879-80;  Ph.D.,  1881),  and  Strasburg 
(1881),  and  became  privat-docent  at  Munich  in 
1883.  He  continued  his  studies  at  Rome  in  the 
spring  of  1884  and  at  London  in  the  summer  of 
1882  and  1887,  while  from  1888  to  1894  he  was 
employed  in  the  British  Museum.  Since  the  latter 
year  he  has  been  professor  of  Oriental  philology 
and  director  of  the  Oriental  seminar  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg.  In  1884  he  foimded,  at 
Leipsic,  the  Zeitackrift  fur  Keilsckriftforachungf 
which  was  continued  in  the  following  year  as  the 
Zeitachrift  fur  Aasyriologie,  and  which  he  has  edited 
to  the  present  time.  He  likewise  edited  the  second 
edition  of  C.  F.  A.  Dillmann's  Grammatik  der 
dihiopiachen  Sprache  (Leipsic,  1899)  and  the  Orienta- 
liache  Studien  in  honor  of  the  seventieth  birthday 
of  T.  NOldeke  (2  vols.,  Giessen,  1906),  and  was 
the  founder  and  editor  of  the  Semitiatiache  Studien 
(Berlin,  1894  sqq.).  In  1904  he  became  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Archiv  fur  Religionaunaaenachaft. 
He  has  also  written  Die  groaae  Dariuainachrift  am 
Fdaen  von  Behiatun  (Leipsic,  1881);  Die  Ach&meni- 
deninachriften  (1882);  Die  Schatzhdhle,  aj/riach  und 
deutach  (2  vols.,  1883-88);  The  Ordinary  Canon  of 
the  Maaa  according  to  the  Uae  of  the  Coptic  Church, 
in  C.  A.  Swainson's  Oreek  Liturgiea  (London,  1884); 
Kurzgefaaater  Ueberblick  iiber  die  hobyloniachroja- 
ayriache  Ldteratur  (Leipsic,  1886);  Catalogue  of  the 
Cuneiform  Tableta  in  ihe  Kouyunjik  Collection  of 
the  Britiah  Muaeum  (5  vols.,  London,  1889-99); 
The  Tellrel'Amama  Tableta  in  the  Britiah  Muaeum 
(1892);  Oriental  Diplomacy  (1893);  Ninive  und 
Babylon  (Bielefeld,  190S);Diehdbyloniachraaayriachen 
KeUinachriften  und  ihre  Bedetdung  fUrdaa  AUe  Teator 
men^  (Tubingen,  1904);  Babyloniach-Aaayriache  Texte 
aberaetzt :  t.  Die  Schdpfungalegende  (Bonn,  1904);  and 
Kebra  Nagaat,  die  Herrlichkeit  der  KGnige  (Ethiopic 
text  and  German  translation,  Munich,  1905). 

BIANCHINI,  bi''an-ki'n!  (BLANCHINUS),  GIU- 
SEPPE: Italian  Biblical  scholar;  b.  at  Verona 
Sept.  9,  1704;  d.  after  1760.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  and  the  author 
of  two  works  bearing  on  the  history  of  the  Itala: 
PaaUerium  duplex  juxta  antiquam  Ualicam  ver- 
aionem  (Rome,  1740)  and  Evangeliarium  qua- 
druplex  Latince  veraionia  antiqua  aeu  veteria  Italica 
(2  vols.,  1749).  The  detailed  statements  in  the 
first  volume  are  valuable,  but  the  text  is  inferior 
to  Sabatier's  Bibliorum  aacrorum  Latince  veraionia 
antiqucB  (Reims,  1739  sqq.).  The  second,  con- 
taining some  older  codices,  supplements  Sabatier. 

K.  Benbath. 


Bible 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


82 


BIBLE. 

The  Bible  in  the  Early  Church  (S  1). 

In  the  Middle  Ages  and  Reformation  Period  (S  2). 

Modem  Views  and  Criticism  (S3). 

Wherein  the  Bible  is  Unique  (S  4). 

The  word  "  Bible  "  (from  Gk.  hiblia,  "  books  ") 
or  "  Holy  Scripture "  is  the  customary  tenn  in 
Church  and  theology  for  the  ecclesiastically  ac- 
knowledged collection  of  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament  writings.  As  the  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament  canon  are  indicated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment by  the  term  "The  Scriptures"  or  "The 
Scripture,"  so  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  whole  was 
designated  by  "  The  Books."  By  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  Greek  form,  the  word  was  received 
into  the  modem  languages  as  a  singular  of  feminine 
gender. 

The  separation  of  these  writings  from  all  other 
literature  as  "  the  Book  of  Books  "  is  derived  from 
the  practise  of  Jesus,  who,  with  his  contem- 
poraries, acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Old 
Testament  literature  (M.  Kaehler,  Jestis  und  das 
AUe  Testament,  Leipsic,  1895).  The  Old  Testa- 
ment was  conveyed,  in  t^e  Greek  translation  of  the 
Septuagint,  as  the  Word  of  God,  to  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians by  the  followers  of  Jesus.  At  the  latest  in  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century,  the  New 
I.  The  Bible  Testament  canon  was  added  to  the  Old 
in  the  Early  Testament,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  Syr- 
Church,  lac  version  (see  Canon  of  Scripture). 
And  from  that  time  the  bipartite  col- 
lection was  always  treated  as  a  whole,  although  the 
uncertainty  about  some  books  (the  so-called  Ariti- 
legomena)  was  not  forgotten  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  recognized  by  Luther  and  other  Reformers, 
and  was  treated  from  a  dogmatic  standpoint 
by  Martin  Chemnitz  (Examen  concUii  Trideniini, 
Frankfort,  1596).  The  controversy  about  the  Old 
Testament  Apocrypha  has  never  been  settled. 
What  esteem  the  Bible  enjoyed  in  the  ancient 
catholic  Church  is  seen  from  its  controlling  position 
in  divine  service,  in  the  reading  of  Scripture,  and  in 
the  delivery  of  sermons  founded  on  it,  but  especially 
from  the  labor  spent  in  translating  it  (see  Bible 
Versions,  A). 

It  must  not  be  imagined  that  the  Middle  Ages 
did  not  rightly  appreciate  the  Bible.    It  is  necessary 
to  take  into  acooimt  the  great  difficulties  which 
confronted  the  Church  at  that  time  in  forming  an 
ecclesiastical  language,  and  even  a  literary  lan- 
guage, for  the  Germanic  and  Slavic  nations.    In 
the  absence  of  modem  philology  the  efforts  made 
are  worthy  of  acknowledgment.    The 
2.  In  the    hierarchical  development  of  the  Church 
Middle      tended   to  paralyze  it  by  enforcing 
Ages  and    uniformity  in  use  of  the  church-lan- 
Reforma-    guage  at  the  expense  of  intelligibility, 
tion  Period,  and  in  the  interest  of  an  easier  man- 
agement put  the   "  heretical  book  " 
into  the  keeping  of  the  ecclesiastical  magistracy. 
But  the  Reformation  introduced  a  new  epoch  of 
wide  propagation  and  appreciation  of  the  Bible. 
The  efforts  of  the  Reformers  to  make  this  book 
accessible  to  all  Christians  were  taken  up  by  Pietism 
under  Spener;  the  founding  of  the  Canstein  Bible 
Institute  (see  Bible  Societies,  II,  1;  Canstein, 


Karl  Hildebrand,  Baron  of)  and  the  sending  out 
of  the  first  missionaries  opened  the  double  way  by 
which  the  Bible,  especially  hi  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, has  obtained  its  commanding  position  in  the 
world;  knowledge  of  the  Bible  has  been  spread  by 
the  Bible  Societies  (q.v.)  through  hundreds  of  new 
translations  (a  work  in  which  Englishmen  and 
Scotchmen,  well  read  in  the  Scriptures,  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves).  The  Bible  has  become 
in  the  fullest  sense  the  people's  book  in  all  Prot- 
estant countries  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  same 
process  is  being  repeated  among  the  non-Christian 
nations,  to  which  missionary  cooperation  gives 
the  Bible  and  with  it  often  also  an  alphabet  and 
a  literary  language. 

Tlus  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Bible  has 
its  root  in  the  unique  importance  which  the  theology 
of  the  Reformation  ascribes  to  it.  In  opposiUon 
to  the  ecclesiastical  position  of  Rome,  the  Evan- 
gelicals developed  their  doctrine  of  the  "noraia- 
tive  or  dedsive  authority  of  Scripture"  on  the  basis 
of  the  uncontroverted  character  of  the  Scripture 
as  revelation.  This  high  regard  has  as  its  founda- 
tion the  doctrine  of  "  verbal  inspiration "  (see 
Inspiration),  which  ascribes  to  the  Bible  all 
requisite  qualities,  such  as  "  perfection  "  in  com- 
municating the  ''  knowledge  necessary  for  salva- 
tion," "  transparency,"  and  the  "  power  of  inter- 
preting itself  by  itself."  Unobserved,  the  body  of 
pure  doctrine,  by  the  help  of  which  the  renewal 
of  evangelical  activity  had  been  acoomplished, 
became  transformed  into  a  set  of  doctrines  which 
were  mechanically  combined,  regardless  of  their 
historical  origin.  In  opposition  to  the  adulterated 
tradition  of  Rome,  Protestantism 
3.  Modem  could  happily  refer  to  the  bulwark 
Views  and  of  Scripture,  in  which  Roman  Catho- 
Criticism.  lies  also  acknowledged  divine  reve- 
lation. But  evangelical  theology  first 
succumbed  to  the  attack  which  the  "  Enlighten- 
ment "  (Aufkldrung),  about  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  made  upon  all  history  and  tiidi- 
tion  and  especially  upon  historical  revelation.  In 
vain  the  effort  was  made  to  prove  dogmatically 
the  immediate  divine  origin  of  the  Bible-letter, 
while  proof  was  also  given  in  an  ever-cogent  man- 
ner that  the  Bible  is  a  production  of  human 
authorship  and  tradition.  This  crisis  was  gradu- 
ally overcome  by  the  victory  gained  for  the 
''  historico-critical  "  method  of  treating  the  Bible, 
but  the  right  of  historical  revelation  was  estab- 
lished over  against  "natural  morality  and  re- 
ligion." As  in  earlier  times  historical  develoinnent 
within  the  Bible  was  now  and  then  perceived 
(e.g.,  by  Cocceius  and  Bengel),  so  now  students 
see  in  its  writings  documents  of  divine  revelation 
which  entered  into  the  human  worid  as  historical 
facts  (so  the  Eriangen  School).  Only  one  group 
of  theologians  of  the  nineteenth  century  (e.g., 
Hengstenberg  and  Rudelbach)  went  back  again  to 
the  old  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration;  most  investi- 
gators assumed  a  new  attitude  toward  Scripture. 
Documents  to  have  value  must  be  shown  to  be  an- 
cient and  to  be  derived  from  a  time  near  the  events 
they  relate;  there  must  be  testimony  to  their  genu- 
ineness and  credibility.    But  such  merely  histor- 


83 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible 


ical  consideration  of  the  Bible  proved  insufficient 
and  dangerous  in  the  nex|;  period.  ''  Liberal  the- 
ology.  endowed  with  technical  skill/'  showed  error 
in  Biblical  tradition  from  a  critical  point  of  view, 
and  in  place  of  the  Biblical  evidences  it  substi- 
tuted conjecturally  the  details  of  a  natural  history 
of  religion,  which  it  composed  after  the  Hegelian 
fomfiula  to  the  effect  that  in  the  "  historical  revela- 
tion "  there  is  to  be  seen  the  development  of 
a  religious  idea,  an  act  in  the  drama  of  the  natural 
develoiHnent  of  humanity  (so  F.  C.  Baur,  E. 
Reuss,  and  Wellhausen).  The  results  of  this  mod- 
em critician  were  propagated  among  the  people 
through  the  press  and  by  'pamphlets  in  a  wild 
confusion  along  with  the  older,  would-be  enlight- 
ening defamations  of  the  Bible  (so  by  Reimarus, 
Venturini,  and  Bahrdt).  Over  against  this  sprang 
up  a  comprehensive  literature  which  sought  to  gain 
those  who  were  estranged  from  the  Bible  and  to 
reassure  disquieted  readers.  It  was  based  on  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  part  the  revelation  of  God 
has  played  in  the  education  of  the  race,  and  in  a 
scientific  manner  discarded  the  unjustified  con- 
clusions of  the  so-called  constructive  criticism, 
at  least  as  far  as  the  New  Testament  is  concerned. 
In  this  intellectual  battle  it  became  evident  that 
the  estimate  of  the  Bible  stands  in  an  indissolubly 
reciprocal  relation  to  the  position  taken  toward 
positive  Christianity  in  general. 

It  is  therefore  absolutely  necessary  (especially 
for  the  ministry  and  for  ecclesiastical  instruction) 
to  have  a  dear  insight  into  that  which  makes  our 
Bible  the  unique  "  Book  of  Books."  This  is  ob- 
tained by  observing  what  it  is  that  has  given  the 
Bible  its  historical  position.  Throughout  the  whole 
oouTse  of  its  working  in  the  human  race  the  Bible 
appears  only  in  close  connection  with  the  Church, 
the  essential  activity  of  which,  according  to  the 
Augsburg  Confession  (vii),  is  the  preaching  of  "  the 
Word."  The  common  object  of  both  is  to  convey 
the  revelation  of  the  living  God.  Whoever  has 
become  a  believer  in  the  Gospel  and  recalLs  his 
experience  perceives  also  that  the  service  of  the 
Church  by  which  he  was  led  to  it  was  inspired  by 
the  Bible,  and  further  observation  of  life  and  history 
teaches  that  theeflicacyof  the  work  of  the  Church 
is  dependent  on  the  use  it  makes  of  the  Bible. 
For  only  in  the  Scripture  is  found  the  imchangeable 
and  therefore  authoritative  form  of 
4.  Wherein  preaching  which  first  induced  faith 
thte  Bible  is  in  Christ  and  continues  so  to  do.    On 

Unique,  the  other  hand,  the  Christian  also 
recognizes  that  his  personal  relation 
to  the  Bible  is  due  to  the  "  living  voice  of  the  Gos- 
pel "  and  that  through  the  Church  he  comes  into 
personal  relation  with  the  Bible.  He  understands 
also  that  the  Bible  is  the  book  of  the  Church  (so 
Luther),  but  not  a  text-book  or  devotional  book 
which  in  all  its  parts  is  immediately  useful  to  the 
individual  Christian.  In  it  are  found  productions 
which  are  far  remote  from  one  another  in  date, 
which  originally  were  intended  for  entirely  different 
circles  with  quite  peculiar  wants.  On  this  account 
only  the  cooperation  of  different  gifts  and  the  dili- 
gence of  generations  working  on  a  scientific  basis 
can  bring  out  its  full  content.    Under  the  assump- 


tion of  this  service  of  the  Church  each  living  Chris- 
tian has  the  possibility  of  coming  thus  through  his 
Bible  into  inunediate  touch  with  the  historical 
revelation  of  his  God  from  the  promise  of  the  cove- 
nant to  the  beginning  of  the  mission  to  the  Gentiles. 
While  historical  inquiry  establishes  the  historical 
continuation,  and  divides  the  whole  Bible  into 
single  historical  acooimts  and  documents,  the  view 
of  most  Bible-readers  is  directed  only  to  the  Bible 
as  a  whole,  and  seeks  in  every  fragment  a  word  of 
God  applicable  to  immediate  questions  and  wants. 
These  divergent  interests  must  be  united  by  observ- 
ing that  the  individual  parts,  by  being  compre- 
hended as  ''  the  Bible,"  receive  a  new  worth,  and 
that  in  this  very  form  they  obtain  an  imperishable, 
effective  continuity,  instead  of  being  merely  indi- 
vidual moniunents  of  past  times.  The  collection 
is  not  an  accidental  one,  but  transcribes  in  char- 
acteristic features  the  life  of  the  human  race  as 
it  developed  under  the  influence  of  the  history 
of  revelation.  To  him  therefore  who  sees  in 
reliance  on  God  the  stay  of  human  life,  the  Bible 
will  also  be  the  book  of  the  human  race.  For 
Christian  belief  the  Bible  appears  thus  as  the  great 
fact  in  which  Gkxi  has  inseparably  interwoven  the 
faith-awakening  knowledge  of  his  revelation  with 
the  history  of  the  human  race,  and  in  it  is  discerned 
the  dear  testimony  to  the  goal  of  the  human  race 
and  the  conquering  offer  of  God's  grace.  On  this 
account  it  remains  the  historical  and  at  the  same 
time  the  unchangeable  form  of  the  indispensable 
means  of  grace.  M.  Kaehler. 

Bibuoorapbt:  M.  Arnold,  Ldterahare  and  Dogma^  latest  ed., 
New  York,  1902  (a  rich  book,  but  on  rationalistic  basis; 
it  called  forth  many  replies  which  were  answered  in  Qod 
and  the  BibU,  1884);  J.  H.  Crooker.  The  New  Bible  and 
ii»  New  Ueee  (Unitarian,  ultrarationalistic);  G.  J.  Metx- 
ger,  Der  alte  Bibelolaube  und  der  modeme  Vemunftglaube, 
Stuttgart,  1893  (evangelical);  J.  T.  Sunderland.  The 
Bible  ,  .  .  iU  Place  among  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  World, 
New  York,  1893  (Unitarian);  J.  Denney,  Studiea  in  The- 
ology, London.  1895  (by  a  leader  in  English  evangelical 
thought);  A.  M.  Fairbaim,  Place  of  Chriet  in  Modem 
Theology,  London.  1896  (moderate  in  its  theological  posi- 
tion); P.  Miiller.  Freieinn  und  Bibelglaube,  Hamburg. 
1896;  W.  Sanday,  InapiraHon,  London.  1896  (advanced 
in  the  O.  T.  part,  oonsenrative  in  treating  the  N.  T.); 
It  L.  Ottley.  Aapeeta  of  the  Old  Testament,  London.  1898; 
T.  Zahn,  Die  bleibende  BedeiUung  des  neulestamenilichen 
Kanons  fOr  die  Kirche,  Loipaic.  1898;  S.  Bemfeld.  Das 
Budi  der  BUcher,  Berlin,  1899;  C.  A.  Briggs.  General  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  New  York,  1899 
(comprehensive  and  scholarly);  R.  S.  MacArthur.  Bible 
Diffletdties  and  their  AUeviaiive  Interpretations,  Boston, 
1898;  idem,  The  Old  Book  and  the  Old  Faith,  ib.  1899  (de- 
cidedly conservative);  L.  W.  Batten.  The  Old  Testament 
from  the  Modem  Point  of  View,  New  York,  1901;  R.  Q. 
Moulton,  Short  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Bible, 
Boston,  1901;  P.  Gardner,  Historic  View  of  the  New 
Testament,  London,  1904  (from  a  scientific  standpoint); 
F.  Bettex.  Die  Bibel  Gottes  Wort,  3d  ed..  Stuttgart,  1903, 
Eng.  transl.,  Cincinnati.  1904;  J.  E.  Carpenter.  The  Bible 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  London,  1903  (scholarly  and 
reverent,  but  on  scientific  basis):  J.  Haussleiter.  Die  Auto- 
ritat  der  Bibel,  Munich  [1904],  1905;  M.  Dods.  The  BibU, 
tte  Origin  and  Nature,  New  York,  1905  (Dr.  Dods  is  well 
known  as  a  conservative  critic);  J.  M.  McMullen.  The 
Supremacy  of  the  Bible,  ib.  1906;  W.  Barry.  The  Tradition 
of  Scripture,  its  Origin,  Authority,  and  Interpretation,  Lon- 
don, 1906;  C.  F.  Kent,  Origin  and  Permanent  Value  of  the 
O.  T.,  New  York,  1966;  A.  T.  Pierson.  The  BibU  and 
Spirihud  Criticism,  ib.  1906;  G.  F.  Wright,  Scientific 
Confirmations  of  O.  T.  History,  ib.  1906;  W.  C.  Selleck, 
New  Appreciation  of  (he  Bible,  Chicago,  1907;  H.  F.  Wa* 
ring.  Chri^ianity  and  its  Bible,  ib.  1907. 


Bible  ChriBtianB 
Bible  r 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


84 


BIBLE  CHRISnAllS  (BRYAHITES). 

WillUm  O'Bryao  (f  1). 

Early  Organisation  and  Growth  (f  2). 

Dianennon  (f  3). 

Extension  to  America  and  Australia  (f  4). 

Union  with  the  Methodists  in  Canada  (16). 

Union  in  Australia  and  England  (f  6). 

Bible  Christians  or  Bryanites  are  popular  names 
of  a  body  of  Christians  officially  known  as 
the  Bible  Christian  Connection.  The  designation 
"  Bryanites "  is  from  their  founder,  William 
O'Bryan;  that  of  "  Bible  Christians  "  was  due  to 
the  persistent  use  of  the  Bible  in  private  devotions 
and  public  services  by  a  peasantry  in  general  but 
scantily  provided  with  the  book,  and  to  the  consistent 
practise  of  its  precepts  by  their  early  ministry. 
The  sect  has  usually  been  classed  with  the  Method- 
ists and  is  now  united  with  them. 

William   O'Bryan,    the   founder,    was   bom    in 

Gunwen  (near  Lostwithiel,  23  m.  w.  of  Plymouth), 

Cornwall,  England,  Feb.  6,  1778.     He  was  the  son 

of  a  yeoman,  was  possessed  of  a  vigorous  mind  and 

retentive  memory,  and,  having  a  good  elementary 

education,    was,    intellectually,    con- 

X.  William    siderably  above  his  class.     His  home 

O'Bryan.      influences    were    devoutly    religious 

and    resulted    in    his    conversion    at 

eighteen,  when  he  began  at  once  to  exhort.    He 

was  licensed  shortly  i^ter  as  a  "  local  preacher  " 

with  the  hope  of  entering  the  Wesleyan  itinerancy; 

meanwhile  he  engaged  in  business. 

Serious  illness  (1804)  reawakened  in  him  a  pro- 
found conviction  of  his  call,  which  delay  and  oppo- 
sition had  weakened  for  a  time.  For  live  years 
more  he  was  content  to  work  on  the  Bodmin  circuit 
as  a  local  preaeher  of  the  Wesleyans,  while  still 
in  business.  His  fine  presence,  courteous  manner, 
great  magnetism,  and  above  all  his  fervent  godli- 
ness gave  him  much  popularity  as  a  preacher. 
In  his  keen  hunting  for  souls,  he  grew  restive  imder 
restraint,  overstepped  the  boimdary  of  the  circuit 
and  plunged  into  the  "  wild  wastes  of  Cornwall  and 
North  Devon,"  where  the  voice  of  Methodism  had 
never  been  heard. 

This  in  the  mind  of  the  Wesleyan  authorities  was 
a  "  dangerous  irregularity "  of  method,  against 
which  Mr.  O'Bryan  had  been  cautioned,  and,  when 
he  appeared  at  the  district  meeting  as  a  candidate 
for  the  itinerancy,  caused  his  **  first "  rejection; 
the  financial  responsibility  which  would  be  inciured 
by  accepting  a  married  man,  as  he  now  was,  was 
named  as  the  "  second "  cause  for  his  "  final  " 
rejection.  He  at  once  entered  unoccupied  fields 
in  a  new  campaign.  His  unquestioned  moral 
uprightness,  indefatigable  labors,  and  unsparing 
•elf-sacrifice  made  his  evangelical  message  remark- 
ably successful;  and  the  generosity  which  prompted 
him  to  urge  all  his  converts  to  enter  the  Church 
that  had  rejected  him  from  its  highest  office  of 
ministry  compels  admiration.  A  tendency  to 
despotic  rule,  to  which  by  nature  and  force  of 
circumstances  he  was  inclined  (see  below,  §  3),  led 
to  a  separation  in  1829  from  the  Connection  which 
he  had  foimded,  and  in  1835  to  his  emigration  to 
the  United  States  with  residence  in  New  York  City. 
He  revisited  his  spiritual  children  more  than  once 


and  was  heartily  welcomed.  A  generous  poisioD 
was  provided  for  his  support  by  the  body.  He 
died  in  Brooklyn,  Jan.  8,  1868,  and  was  buried  in 
Greenwood  Cemetery. 

The  germ  of  the  Bible  Cliristian  denomination 
consisted  of  twenty-two  persons,  converts  of  Mr. 
O'Bryan,  who  were  organized  into  a  society  on 
Oct.  9, 1815,  in  the  house  of  John  Thome,  Shebbear, 
Devonshire,  En^and.     Within  a  year  this  number 
became  eighteen   ministers  and    1,500  members; 
and  at  the  sixth  year  seventy-eight  ministers  and 
6,200  members.    To  carry  forward  a  work  extend- 
ing  BO  rapidly,  Mr.  O'Bryan  adopted 
2.  Early      John  Wesley's  plan  and  ''  chose  and 
Organiza-    appointed  "  both  men  and  women  as 
tion  and     itinerants.    The  proportion  of  women 
Growth,     was  large  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Church,  and  their  work  was  eminently 
successful;    yet    their    munber    steadily  declined 
and  ultimately  none  remained  in  the  itinerancy. 
With  this  working  force  evangelism  was  extended 
into  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  the  Sdlly  and  Chan- 
nel Islands,  and  later  by  emigration  (1820-30)  to 
America. 

Organization  into  societies  and  circuits  required 
meeting-places  and  chapels — at  first  preaching  was 
mostly  in  the  field,  the  village  green,  in  hired  halls, 
and  in  houses — and  all  property  acquired  for  such 
purpose  was  held  in  Mr.  O'Bryan's  name.  He  also 
presided  over  the  conference,  the  first  being  held 
at  Launceston  (1819),  and  composed  of  ministers 
only.  To  all  this  absolutism,  there 
3.  Dis-  was  serious  objection,  and  an  effort 
■ension.  to  secure  an  amended  deed  by  which 
all  property  should  be  held  in  trust 
for  the  Connection  was  begun  in  1826.  A  crisis 
was  reached  at  the  eleventh  conference  (1829), 
when  opposition  to  Bfr.  O'Bryan's  expressed  inten- 
tion "  that  if  all  the  conference  were  opposed  to  his 
views,  his  single  vote  was  to  determine  every  case," 
resulted  in  his  adjourning  the  conference,  and  with- 
drawing with  comparatively  few  S3rmpathisers. 
The  conference  refused  to  recognize  his  authority, 
elected  Andrew  Cory  president  in  his  stead,  and 
proceeded  with  business.  It  was  resolved  "that 
the  conference  be  the  organ  of  government;  its 
membership,  ministers  and  laymen;  and  its  next 
place  of  meeting  annually  fixed."  The  conference 
thus  declared  against  an  episcopacy,  as  it  also  de- 
cided against  ecclesiasticism  by  admitting  laymen 
to  church  government  in  equal  numbers  with 
clerical  members.  Eight  years  later  these  separa- 
tists negotiated  terms  of  reunion,  but  Bfr.  O'Biyan 
never  again  imited. 

Many  members  of  the  infant  Church  emigrated 

to  the  colonies  and  the  United  States.    In  1831 

the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Bible  Christians  in 

En^and  sent  John  Glass  and  Francis 

4.  Exten-     Metherall  as  missionaries  to  Canada 

sion  to      West    and    Prince    Edward    Island 

America     respectively.     They    also     organised 

and  Au8-    missions  (1846)  in  the  States  of  Wis- 

tralia.       consin,  Ohio,  and  Michigan.    In  1850 

James  Way  and  James  Rowe  were 

sent  out  to  Australia,  and  later  work  was  begun  in 

New  Zealand.    For  the  next  quarter  of  a  century 


86 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  ChriBtianB 
Bible  SeadinflT 


the  Church  enjoyed  undisturbed  prosperity,  estab- 
lishing three  publishing  houses,  and  a  denomi- 
national college  at  Shebbear,  Devonshire,  England. 
In  1882,  300  ministers  and  34,000  members  were  re- 
ported. This  was  the  high-water  mark  numerically. 
These  years  of  extension  had  awakened,  in  a 
much  divided  Methodism,  a  sense  of  the  advisa- 
bility of  "  union,"  in  both  England  and  the  colo- 
nies. The  center  of  discussion  was  Canada,  where 
five  Methodist  sects  wasted  their  energy  in  vigorous, 
if  not  unseemly,  rivalry.  As  early  as  1866  the 
Bible  Christians  and  Methodist  New  Connection 
approached    the    Methodist    Protes- 

5.  Union     tants  of  the  United  States  upon  the 
with  the     question  of  union,  but  the    overture 

Methodisti   ended   in   friendly  expressions   only. 
in  Canada.  In  1870  the  Methodist  New  Connection 

made  overtures  to  the  Bible  Chris- 
tians, and  in  1874  the  former  were  absorbed  by 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  of  Canada.  The  Bible 
Christians  announced  as  their  policy — a  policy 
consistently  held  since  organization — "  That  any 
basis  of  union  to  be  acceptable  to  this  Conference 
must  tecure  to  the  laity  their  fuU  share  of  privileges 
in  the  government  of  the  Church."  In  1882  a 
eonmiittee  was  appointed  by  the  Bible  Christians 
to  meet  with  three  other  conunittees,  representing 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  the  Primitive  Methodists, 
and  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  Canada. 
This  conunittee  was  explicitly  instructed  to  reaffinn 
"  That  no  imion  would  be  possible  for  their  Church 
that  did  not  provide  for  a  representation  of  the 
laity  in  all  church  courts."  A  basis  of  union  was 
provided  acceptable  to  all  parties,  voted  upon  by 
every  society,  and  in  1884  union  was  fuUy  and 
legally  perfected.  The  uniting  churches  chose  as 
a  name  "  The  Methodist  Church  of  Canada."  The 
parent  body  graciously  consented  to  the  separa- 
tion, which  affected  the  work  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States  only. 

The  energy  and  resources  of  the  En^ish  and 
Australian  conferences  were  now  devoted  to  an 

enlargement   of   home   missions   and 

6.  Union  in  the  establishment  of  a  foreign  mission 
Australia  in  China,  which  has  been  successful, 
and  Bng-    A  union  of  the  Australian  conference 

land.  with  other  Methodist  sects  in  that 
colony  left  but  the  parent  body  bear- 
ing the  name;  and  in  Aug.,  1906,  this  Church 
voted  unanimously  to  unite  with  the  Methodist 
New  Connection  and  the  United  Methodists,  the 
union  to  be  formally  and  legally  consimmiated  in 
1907.  The  name  of  "  United  Methodist  Church  " 
wftB  chosen  for  the  new  organisation.  At  the  time 
of  approving  the  union  the  Bible  Christians  had 
638  chi^>els,  202  ministers,  and  30,000  members. 
Francis  Methe&all  WHirLocK. 


J.  Thome,  A  Jubilee  Memorial  of  the  Riee 
•md  Pivgrtm  of  the  Bible  Chnetian  Connexion^  London, 
1866;  J,  O.  Hmyman.  A  HUL  of  Vie  Methodiet  Revival  of 
««  Laet  Century  in  Relation  to  North  Devon,  ib.  1886;  [John 
Tborne],  Jamue  Thome  of  Shebbear,  a  Memoir  .  .  .  from 
hit  Diary  and  Lettere,  by  hie  Son,  ib.  1873;  F.  W.  Bourne. 
TKt  Centenary  Life  of  Jamee  Thome,  ib.  1805;  Brief  Bio- 
yraphieml  Sketehee  of  Bible  ChrieUane,  Jersey.  1006;  The 
Book  of  Diedpline  far  1^  People  Known  ae  Bible  Chrio- 

,  the  Bible  Chrietiui  Book  Room. 


BIBLE   READING  BY  THE    LAIIT,  RESTRIC- 
TIOHS  ON. 

I.  The  Aneient  Churoh. 
II.  The  Middle  Aces. 

III.  The  Roman  CathoUo  Chm>eh  since  the  Reformation. 
Action  by  the  Counoi]  of  Trent  (f  1). 

Rules  of  Various  Popes  (f  2). 

Rules  and  Practise  in  Different  Countries  (f  3). 

IV.  The  Greek  Church. 

V.  The  ETangelioal  Churches. 

L  The  Ancient  Church:  It  is  indisputable  that 
in  Apostolic  times  the  Old  Testament  was  com- 
monly read  (John  v,  47;  Acts  viii,  28;  xvii,  11; 
II  Tim.  iiiy  15).  Roman  Catholics  admit  that  this 
reading  was  not  restricted  in  the  first  centuries, 
in  spite  of  its  abuse  by  Gnostics  and  other  heretics. 
On  the  contrary,  the  reading  of  Scripture  was  urged 
(Justin  Martyr,  xliv,  ANF,  i,  177-178;  Jerome, 
Adv,  libroB  Rufini,  i,  9,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  iii,  487); 
and  Pamphilus,  the  friend  of  Eusebius,  kept  copies 
of  Scriptmre  to  furnish  to  those  who  desired  them. 
Chrysostom  attached  considerable  importance  to 
the  reading  of  Scripture  on  the  part  of  the  laity 
and  denounced  the  error  that  it  was  to  be 
permitted  only  to  monks  and  priests  (De  Laiaro 
concio, iii,  MPG,  xlviii,  992;  Hom.ii  in  Matt.,  MPG, 
Ivii,  30,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  x,  13).  He  insisted  upon 
access  being  given  to  the  entire  Bible,  or  at  least  to 
the  New  Testament  (Horn,  iz  in  Col.-,  MPO,  brii, 
361,  NPNF,  xiii,  301).  The  women  also,  who  were 
always  at  home,  were  diligently  to  read  the  Bible 
(Horn,  XXXV  on  Gen.  xii,  MPG,  liii,  323).  Jerome 
recommended  the  reading  and  studying  of  Scrip- 
ture on  the  part  of  the  women  (Epist.,  cxxviii,  3, 
MPL,  xxii,  1098,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vi,  259;  Epiat., 
bodx,  9,  MPG,  xxii,  730-731,  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vi, 
167).  The  translations  of  the  Bible,  Augustine 
considered  a  blessed  means  of  propagating  the 
Word  of  God  among  the  nations  (De  doctr.  dirist,, 
ii,  6,  NPNF,  Ist  ser.,  ii,  536);  Gregory  I  recom- 
mended the  reading  of  the  Bible  without  placing 
any  limitations  on  it  {Horn,  iii  in  Ezek.,  MPL, 
Ixxvi,  968). 

n.  The  Middle  Ages:  Owing  to  lack  of  culture 
among  the  Germanic  and  Romanic  peoples,  there 
was  for  a  long  time  no  thought  of  restricting  access 
to  the  Bible  there.  Translations  of  Biblical  books 
into  German  began  only  in  the  Carolingian  period 
and  were  not  originally  intended  for  the  laity. 
Nevertheless  the  people  were  anxious  to  have  the 
divine  service  and  the  Scripture  lessons  read  in 
the  vernacular.  John  Vlll  in  880  permitted,  after 
the  reading  of  the  Latin  gospel,  a  translation  into 
Slavonic;  but  Gregory  VII,  in  a  letter  to  Duke 
Vratislav  of  Bohemia  in  1080  characterized  the 
custom  as  unwise,  bold,  and  forbidden  {Epist.,  vii, 
1 1 ;  P.  Jaff^,  BRG,  ii,  392  sqq.).  This  was  a  formal 
prohibition,  not  of  Bible  reading  in  general,  but  of 
divine  service  in  the  vernacular. 

With  the  appearance,  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses, 
who  appealed  to  the  Bible  in  all  their  disputes  with 
the  Church,  the  hierarchy  was  furnished  with  a 
reason  for  shutting  up  the  Word  of  God.  The 
Synod  of  Toulouse  in  1229  forbade  the  laity  to  have 
in  their  possession  any  copy  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament  except  the  Psalter  and 


Bible  BMdlnff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


86 


such  other  portions  as  are  contained  in  the  Breviary 
or  the  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Mary.  "  We  most 
strictly  forbid  these  works  in  the  vulgar  tongue  " 
(Harduin,  Concilia,  xii,  178;  Man^i,  Concilia,  xxiii, 
104).  The  Synod  of  Tarragona  (1234)  ordered  all 
vernacular  versions  to  be  brought  to  the  bishop  to 
be  burned.  James  I  renewed  this  decision  of  the 
Tarragona  synod  in  1276.  The  synod  held  there  in 
1317  under  Archbishop  Ximenes  prohibited  to 
Beghards,  Beguines,  and  tertiaries  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans the  possession  of  theological  books  in  the 
vernacular  (Mansi,  Concilia,  xxv,  627).  The  order 
of  James  I  was  renewed  by  later  kings  and  con- 
firmed by  Paul  II  (1464-71).  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  (1474-1516)  prohibited  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  the  vernacular  or  the  possession  of 
such  translations  (F.  H.  Reusch,  Index  der  ver- 
botenen  Bucker,  i,  Bonn,  1883,  44). 

In  England  Wyclif's  Bible-translation  caused 
the  resolution  pajssed  by  the  third  Synod  of 
Oxford  (1408):  '*  No  one  shall  henceforth  of  his 
own  authority  translate  any  text  of  Scripture  into 
English;  and  no  part  of  any  such  book  or  treatise 
composed  in  the  time  of  John  Wycliff  e  or  later  shall 
be  read  in  public  or  private,  under  pain  of  excom- 
munication "  (Hefele,  Conciliengeachichte,  vi,  984). 
But  Sir  Thomas  More  states  that  he  had  himself 
seen  old  Bibles  which  were  examined  by  the  bishop 
and  left  in  the  hands  of  good  Catholic  laymen 
(Blunt,  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  England,  4th 
ed.,  London,  1878,  i,  505).  In  Germany,  Charles 
lY  issued  in  1369  an  edict  to  four  inquisitors  against 
the  translating  and  the  reading  of  Scripture  in  the 
German  language.  This  edict  was  caused  by  the 
operations  of  Beghards  and  Beguines.  In  1485 
and  1486,  Berthold,  archbishop  of  Mainz,  issued  an 
edict  against  the  printing  of  religious  books  in 
German,  giving  among  other  reajsons  the  singular 
one  that  the  German  language  was  unadapted  to 
convey  correctly  religious  ideas,  and  therefore  they 
would  be  profaned.  Berthold's  edict  had  some 
influence,  but  could  not  prevent  the  dissemination 
and  publication  of  new  editions  of  the  Bible. 
Leaders  in  the  Chureh  sometimes  recommended 
to  the  laity  the  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  the  Church 
kept  silence  officially  as  long  as  these  efforts  were 
not  abused. 

IIL  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  since  the  Ref- 
ormation: Luther's  translation  of  the  Bible  and 
its  propagation  could  not  but  influence  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Humanism,  through  such  men  as 
Erasmus,  advocated  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and 
the  necessity  of  making  it  accessible  by  translations; 
but  it  was  felt  that  Luther's  translation  must  be 
offset  by  one  prepared  in  the  interest  of  the  Church. 
Such  editions  were  Emser's  of  1527,  and  the  Dieten- 
berg  Bible  of  1534.  The  Church  of  Rome  silently 
tolerated  these  translations. 

At  last  the  Council  of  Trent  took  the  matter  in 
hand,  and  in  its  fourth  session  (Apr.  18,  1546) 
adopted  the  Decretum  de  editione  et  usu  librorum 
scuTorum,  which  enacted  the  following:  "This 
synod  ordains  and  decrees  that  henceforth  sacred 
Scripture,  and  especially  the  aforesaid  old  and  vul- 
gate  edition,  be  printed  in  the  most  correct  manner 
possible;  and  that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  one 


to  print,  or  cause  to  be  printed,  any  books  what- 
ever on  sacred  matters  without  the  name  of  the 
author;  or   in  future  to    sell   them, 

X.  Action  or  even  to  possess  them,  unless  they 
by  the  Coun-  shall  have  been  first  examined  and  ap- 
cil  of  Trent  proved  of  by  the  ordinary."  When 
the  question  of  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular  came  up,  Bishop  Acqui  of 
Piedmont  and  Cardinal  Pacheco  advocated  its  pro- 
hibition. This  was  strongly  opposed  by  Cardinal 
Madruzzi,  who  claimed  that  ''  not  the  translations 
but  the  professors  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  are  the 
cause  of  the  confusion  in  Germany;  a  prohibition 
would  produce  the  worst  impression  in  Germany." 
As  no  agreement  could  be  had,  the  council  ap- 
pointed an  index-commission  to  report  to  the  pope, 
who  was  to  give  an  authoritative  decision. 

The  first  index  published  by  a  pope  (Paul  IV). 
in  1559,  prohibited  under  the  title  of  BiMia  pro- 
hibita  a  number  of  Latin  editions  as  well  as  the 
publication  and  possession  of  translations  of  the 
Bible  in  German,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Eng- 
lish, or  Dutch,  without  the  permission  of  the 
sacred  office  of  the  Roman  Inquisition  (Reusch, 
ut  sup.,  i,  264).  In  1564  Pius  IV  pubhshed  the 
index  prepared  by  the  commission  mentioned 
above.  Herein  ten  rules  are  laid  down,  of  which 
the  fourth  reads  thus:  **  Inasmuch  as  it  is  man- 
ifest from  experience  that  if  the  Holy  Bible, 
translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue. 
2.  Rules  of    be   indiscriminately  allowed  to  every 

Various  one,  the  rashness  of  men  will  cause 
Popes.  more  evil  than  good  to  arise  from 
it,  it  is,  on  this  p)oint,  referred  to  the 
judgment  of  the  bishops  or  inquisitors,  who  may. 
by  the  advice  of  the  priest  or  confessor,  permit 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  translated  into  the  vulgar 
tongue  by  Catholic  authors,  to  those  persons  whose 
faith  and  piety  they  apprehend  will  be  augnnented 
and  not  injured  by  it;  and  this  permission  must  be 
had  in  writing.  But  if  any  shall  have  the  presump- 
tion to  read  or  possess  it  without  such  permission, 
he  shall  not  receive  absolution  until  he  have  first 
delivered  up  such  Bible  to  the  ordinary."  Regu- 
lations for  booksellers  follow,  and  then:  *'  Regulars 
shall  neither  read  nor  purchase  such  Bibles  without 
special  license  from  their  superiors."  Sixtus  V 
substituted  in  1590  twenty-two  new  rules  for  the 
ten  of  Pius  IV.  Clement  VIII  abolished  in  1596 
the  rules  of  Sixtus,  but  added  a  "  remark  "  to  the 
fourth  rule  given  above,  which  particularly  restores 
the  enactment  of  Paul  IV.  The  right  of  the  bishops. 
which  the  fourth  rule  implies,  is  abolished  by  the 
"  remark,"  and  the  bishop  may  grant  a  dispensa- 
tion only  when  especially  authorized  by  the  pope 
and  the  Inquisition  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i,  333). 
Benedict  XIV  enlarged,  in  1757,  the  fourth  rule 
thus:  "  If  such  Bible- versions  in  the  vernacular  are 
approved  by  the  apostolic  see  or  are  edited  with 
annotations  derived  from  the  holy  fathers  of  the 
Church  or  from  learned  and  Catholic  men,  they  are 
permitted."  This  modification  of  the  fourth  rule 
was  abolished  by  Gregory  XVI  in  pursuance  of  an 
admonition  of  the  index-congregation,  Jan.  7, 1S36, 
"  which  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  according 
to  the  decree  of  1757  only  such  versions  in  the  ver- 


87 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Beadinir 


nacular  are  to  be  pennitted  as  have  been  approved 
by  the  apostolic  see  or  are  edited  with  annotations," 
but  insistence  is  placed  on  all  those  particulars 
enjoined  by  the  fourth  rule  of  the  index  and  after- 
ward by  Clement  VIII  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  ii,  852). 
In  England  the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  made 
by  Heniy  VIII  (1530)  to  depend  upon  the  per- 
mission of  the  superiors.  Tyndale's  version, 
printed  before  1535,  was  prohibited.  In  1534  the 
Canterbury  convocation  passed  a  resolution  asking 
the  king  to  have  the  Bible  translated  and  to  permit 
its  reading.  A  folio  copy  of  Coverdale's  trans- 
lation was  put  into  every  church  for  the  benefit 
of  the  faithful,  and  fastened  with  a  chain.  In 
Spain  the  Inquisitor-General  de  Valdes  published 
in  1551  the  index  of  Louvain  of  1550,  which  pro- 
hibits ''Bibles  (New  and  Old  Testaments)  in  the 
Spanish  or  other  vernacular  "  (Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i, 
133).  This  prohibition  was  abolished  in  1778.  The 
Lisbon  index  of  1624  in  Portugal  prohibited  quo- 
ting in  the  vernacular  in  any  book  passages  from 
the  Bible.  In  Italy  the  members  of  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  were  in  1596  permitted  to 
3.  Rules  and  use  a  Catholic  Italian  translation  of 
Practise  in  the  Gospel-lessons.  In  France  the 
Different  Sorbonne  declared,  Aug.  26, 1525,  that 
Countries,  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible  or  of 
single  books  must  be  regarded  as 
dangerous  under  conditions  then  present;  extant 
versions  were  better  suppressed  than  tolerated.  In 
the  following  year,  1526,  it  prohibited  the  trans- 
lation of  the  entire  Bible,  but  permitted  the  trans- 
lation of  single  books  with  proper  annotations. 
The  indexes  of  the  Sorbonne,  which  by  royal  edict 
were  binding,  after  1544  contained  the  statement: 
**  How  dangerous  it  is  to  allow  the  reading  of  the 
Bible  in  the  vernacular  to  unlearned  people  and 
those  not  piously  or  humbly  disposed  (of  whom 
there  are  many  in  our  times)  may  be  seen  from 
the  Waldensians,  Albigenses,  and  Poor  Men  of 
Lyons,  who  have  thereby  lapsed  into  error  and 
have  led  many  into  the  same  condition.  Con- 
sidering the  nature  of  men,  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  the  vernacular  must  in  the  present  be 
regarded  therefore  as  dangerous  and  pernicious  ** 
(Reusch,  ut  sup.,  i,  151).  The  rise  of  Jansenism  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  especially  the  appear- 
ance, under  its  encouragement,  of  Quesnel's  New 
Testament  with  moral  reflections  under  each  verse 
{Le  Nouveau  Testament  en  frajifois  avec  des  reflexions 
mcraies  sur  chaque  vers,  Paris,  1699),  which  was 
expressly  intended  to  popularize  the  reading  of  the 
Bible,  caused  the  renewal,  with  increased  stringency, 
of  the  rules  already  quoted.  The  Jesuits  prevailed 
upon  Clement  XI  to  publish  the  famous  bull  Unv- 
g^Uus,  Sept.  8,  1713,  in  which  he  condemned 
seven  propositions  in  Quesners  work  which  advo- 
cated the  reading  of  the  Bible  by  the  laity  (cf .  H.J. 
D.  Denzinger,  Enchiridion,  Wiirzburg,  1854,  287). 
In  the  Netherlands.  Neercassel,  bishop  of  Emmerich, 
published  in  1677  (in  Latin)  and  1680  (in  French) 
a  treatise  in  which  he  dealt  with  the  fourth  rule 
of  the  Tridentine  index  as  obsolete,  and  urged  the 
diligent  reading  of  the  Bible.  In  Belgium  in  1570 
the  unlicensed  sale  of  the  Bible  in  the  vernacular 
was  strictly  prohibited;  but  the  use  of  the  Ant- 


werp Bible  continued.  In  Poland  the  Bible  was 
translated  and  often  published.  In  Germany 
papal  decrees  could  not  very  well  be  carried  out. 
and  the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  not  only  not  pro- 
hibited, but  was  approved  and  praised.  Biiluart 
about  1750,  as  quoted  by  Van  Ess,  states,  "In 
France,  Germany,  and  Holland  the  Bible  is  read 
by  all  without  distinction.''  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  clergy  took  great  interest  in  the  work 
of  Bible  Societies.  Thus  Leander  van  Ess  (q.v.) 
acted  as  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  for  Catholic  Germany,  and  the  society 
published  the  New  Testament  of  Van  Ess, 
which  was  placed  on  the  Index  in  1821.  The 
prince-bishop  of  Breslau,  Sedlnitzki,  who  after- 
ward joined  the  Evangelical  Church,  was  also 
interested  in  circulating  the  Bible.  As  the  Bible 
Societies  generally  circulated  the  translations  of 
heretics,  the  popes — Leo  XII  (May  5,  1824);  Pius 
VIII  (May  25,  1829);  Gregory  XVI  (Aug.  15.  1840; 
May  8, 1844);  Pius  IX  (Nov.  9,  1846;  Dec.  8, 1849>- 
issued  encyclicals  against  the  Bible  Societies.  In 
the  syllabus  of  1864  "  socialism,  commimism,  se- 
cret societies,  .  .  .  and  Bible  Societies "  are  placed 
in  the  same  category.  As  to  the  effect  of  the  papal 
decrees  there  is  a  difference  cf  opinion  within  the 
Catholic  Church.  In  theory  the  admonition  of 
Gregory  XVI  no  doubt  exists,  but  practise  often 
ignores  it. 

IV.  The  Greek  Church  know^  of  no  such  restric- 
tion of  use  of  the  Bible  as  that  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Nevertheless  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem  of 
1672  answered  the  first  of  the  four  questions: 
'*  Whether  the  Holy  Scripture  can  be  read  by  all 
Christians,"  in  the  negative.  Nicholas  I  of  Russia 
abolished  in  1826  the  Bible  Society  founded  by 
Alexander  I  for  the  propagation  of  the  Bible  in 
the  Russian  vernacular. 

V.  The  Evangelical  Churches:  Luther  strove 
to  open  the  Bible  to  all,  and  his  version  served 
that  purpose.  The  principle  that  every  Evangelical 
Christian  is  at  liberty  to  read  the  Bible  remained 
uncontroverted,  though  Semler  (De  antiquo  ecciesice 
statu  commentatio,  37,  60,  68)  makes  the  assertion 
that  the  sacred  writings,  especially  the  apostolic 
epistles,  were  not  intended  for  the  use  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  congregations;  that  in  the  ancient 
Church  no  universal  use  of  the  Bible  existed,  and 
that  the  catechumens  especially  were  proliibited 
from  using  the  Bible.  Bible-compendiums  for 
special  purposes  and  separate  circles  also  came  into 
use  in  the  Evangelical  Church.  Veit  Dietrich 
published  in  1541  his  Summarium  of  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament;  Cromwell's  soldiers  had 
The  Soldier's  Pocket  Bible  of  1643  (facsimile  edition, 
Cromwell*8  Soldier's  Bible,  London,  1895).  The 
restriction  upon  Bible-reading  in  the  Evangelical 
Church  became  of  practical  importance  only  in 
the  schools.  For  didactic  purposes  Amos  Comenius 
recommended  oompendiums  and  special  manuals 
of  Scripture,  which  the  scholar  was  to  use 
till  he  could  read  the  Gospel  in  the  original. 
The  didactic  needs  were  gradually  satisfied  by 
the  introduction  of  text-books  of  "  Biblical 
history,"  the  Catechism,  and  collections  of 
Bible   sentences.     From   time  to   time  the  ques- 


Bible  SooletlM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


88 


tion  has  been  agitated  whether  the  whole  Bible 
or  so-called  school  Bibles  should  be  used  in  the 
schools.  The  principal  reason  adduced  in  favor 
of  the  latter  is  that  certain  passages  are  objection- 
able because  they  deal  with  sexual  relations.  But 
these  reasons  are  not  well  foimded,  since  reading  of 
the  Bible  has  never  been  a  cause  of  demoralisation. 
The  moral  earnestness  which  without  veiling  calls 
things  by  their  right  names  is  to  be  preferred  to 
a  careful  paraphrasing  and  veiling  of  the  sense 
which  only  the  more  excite  impure  desires. 

(Gborg  Riktschel.) 

BiBLZooBAnrr:  T.  O.  H«gelmaier.  OeachidUe  det  Bibdver- 
bote.  Ulm,  1783;  N.  Le  Maire,  SanctuaHum  profania  ocdu- 
•mm  nv  de  aanetorum  hitliorum  in  lingua  vt^port  tsu  ver- 


nacula  tractahu,  WQrsburK,  1662  (from  the  Fr.  of  1651). 
this  was  reproduced  in  substance  in  Die  Bibd  kein  Ltm- 
6ucA  IHr  Jedermann,  MOnster,  1845;  A.  Amauld.  Dt  la 
laetun  de  Vieriiure  Mtnte.  Paris  (c.  1690):  C.  W.  F.  Waldi, 
KriHeche  Untereuehungen  vom  Gebraueh  der  heiUoen  Sduift 
unler  dan  alten  Chrieten  in  dan  ereten  drai  Jahrkundenea, 
Leipsio.  1770;  E.  von  Ess,  Der  haUige  Chryeoalomue  odtr 
dia  SHmmaderkatholiechan  Kircha  lOer  doe  nlUdiehe.  hnL- 
eama  und  erbaulieha  Bibdlaeen,  Darmstadt,  1824;  J.  B. 
Bialon,  La  Ledure  da  la  eainte  Bible  an  langaa  valgaire,  2 
vols.,  LouTsin,  1846;  Vom  Leean  dor  hailigen  &Ari/f. 
Mains,  1846;  F.  H.  Reusoh.  Die  Indioee  libnntm  prokitn' 
larum  dee  eeekezehnian  Jakrhundarte,  Tilbinsen.  1886; 
W.  Walther,  Die  dautedta  Bibelliberaetgung  dee  MiUdaUen, 
Braunschweig.  1880;  J.  H.  Kurts.  Church  Hi  *ory^  \\ 
105.  3;  185.  1.  New  York.  1800;  the  text  of  the  buU  U^ 
0emfiM  may  be  found  in  Reich.  Doeumentt.  pp.  386-388. 
and  the  authoritative  statement  of  the  Greco-Runiaa 
Church  in  Sohaff.  Creada,  m,  433-434. 


British  Bible  Societies. 

Precursors  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society. 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety. 

Origin  and  Constitution  (I  1). 

Present  Organisation  (S  2). 

Foreign  Work  (§3). 

Dissensions.  Seceding  Societies 
(§4). 

The  National  Bible  Society  of  Soot- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 

4.  The  Hibernian  Bible  Society. 

5.  The  Trinitarian  Bible  Society. 

6.  The  Bible  Translation  Society. 

II.  Bible  Societies  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe. 

1.  Germany. 

2.  France. 

3.  The  Netherlands. 

4.  Scandinavia. 

5.  Russia. 

6.  Switaerland. 


m.  Bible  Sodeties  in  America. 

1.  The  American  Bible  Society. 
Organisation  (i  1). 
Constitution  and  Management  (§2) 
Summary  of  Work  ($3). 
Foreign  Work  ($4). 
Controversies  (f  5). 

2.  The  American  and  Foreign  Bible 

Society  and  the  American  Bible 
Union. 

3.  The  Bible  Association  of  Friends  in 

America. 


Bible  societies  are  benevolent  associations  formed 
to  increase  the  circulation  of  the  Bible  and  making 
special  efforts  to  supply  the  Scriptures  to  those  who 
from  poverty  or  other  causes  are  destitute  of  them. 
Printing  the  Bible  or  New  Testament  in  suitable 
styles,  translation  into  all  important  languages 
and  even  into  the  less  important  dialects,  and  some 
effective  esrstem  of  distribution  in  all  accessible 
places  are  commonly  regarded  as  essential  features 
of  the  work  of  such  societies.  In  some  cases  the 
books  are  given  without  price;  but  it  is  not  usual  to 
give  away  a  large  proportion.  The  cost  of  manu- 
facture and  of  distribution,  however,  has  to  be 
provided  by  voluntary  contributions. 

The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian 
Knowledge  (q.v.),  founded  in  London  in  1698,  was 
the  first  to  undertake  to  provide  the  common  people 
with  the  Bible.  It  continues  this  beneficent  work 
as  one  branch  of  its  publication  enterprise,  and  has 
been  the  means  of  providing  fairly  good  translations 
of  the  Scriptures  in  many  obscure  languages  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  The  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  (q.v.),  founded 
in  1701,  has  also  done  and  is  still  doing  a  good  work 
in  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  connection  with 
its  extensive  missions.  The  Scottish  Society  for 
Propagating  Christian  Knowledge,  founded  in  1709, 
added  the  work  of  circulating  the  Bible  to  its 
missionary  enterprises  in  Scotland  and  in  America. 
The  first  society  formed  for  the  exclusive  purpose 
of  publishing  the  Bible  at  a  low  price  seems  to 
have  been  the  Canstein  Bible  Institute,  established 
in  1710  at  Halle  in  Germany  by  Baron  Canstein 
(see  below,  II,  1). 

L  British  Bible  Societies.— 1.  Precnrson  of  the 
BritiBh  and  Foreign  Bible  Society:  In  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  several  societies  sprang 
up  in  Great  Britain  which  had  Bible  distribution  as 


part  of  their  programme;  such  as  the  Book  Society 
for  Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the 
Poor  (1750),  the  Bible  Society,  later  known  as  the 
Naval  and  Military  Bible  Society  (1780),  the  Society 
for  the  Support  and  Encouragement  of  Sunday 
Schools  (1785),  the  Association  for  Discounte- 
nancing Vice  and  Promoting  the  Knowledge  and 
Practise  of  the  Christian  Rdigion  (established  in 
Dublin,  1792),  the  French  Bible  Society  (established 
in  London  for  printing  the  Bible  in  France,  1792), 
and  the  Religious  Tract  Society  (London,  1799; 
see  Tract  Societies). 

2.  The  BriUsh  andForeism  Bible  Society:  These 
enterprises,  however,  did  not  supply  the  need. 
The  Rev.  Thomas  Charles  (q.v.)  of  Bala  in  Wales 
became  much  impressed  with  the  need  of  the  com- 
mon folk  about  him,  who  could  not  obtain  the  Bible 
except  by  persevering  effort  and  much  self-denial; 
the  Bible  was  not  only  scarce  but  costly.  Mr. 
Charles  finally  devoted  himself  to  find- 
ing some  effective  means  of  supplying 
his  people  with  the  Scriptures.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  Religious  Tract 
Society  in  London  in  1802,  he  aroused  great 
interest  by  his  vigorous  presentation  of  the 
need  of  the  people  of  Wales.  The  Rev.  Joseph 
Hughes,  secretary  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
exclaimed,  "Surely  a  society  might  be  formed 
to  provide  Bibles  for  Wales;  and  if  for  Wales,  why 
not  for  the  world  ?  "  This  remark  contained  the 
germ  from  which  grew  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. 

The  idea  of  a  Bible  Society  for  the  world  led  to 
discussion  and  to  study  of  the  destitution  of  the 
people.  The  Rev.  C.  F.  A.  Steinkopf,  pastor  of 
the  German  Lutheran  Church  in  London,  gave 
effective  information  of  the  situation  in  European 
countries.    Members  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 


1.  Origin 
and  Con- 
stitution. 


80 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  SooletlM 


although  they  did  not  publicly  appear,  had  much  to 
do  with  the  preparatory  work.  On  Mar.  7,  1804,  a 
public  meeting  was  held  at  the  London  Tavern, 
on  the  call  of  Bfr.  Hughes.  Three  hundred  persons 
attended  the  meeting.  It  was  quickly  evident  that 
a  society  for  increasing  the  circulation  of  the  Bible 
presented  common  ground,  upon  which  all  sects 
and  parties  could  stand.  Dissenters  met  church- 
men, and  in  their  interest  in  the  needs  of  the  masses, 
they  forgot  for  a  time  their  divergent  interpre- 
tations of  the  same  book.  The  sole  condition 
necessary  to  union  of  action  was  that  a  text  ac- 
cepted by  all  should  be  issued  without  note  or 
ooniment.  i 

At  this  meeting  a  hastily  drawn  up  set  of  by-laws 
was  adopted.  An  executive  committee  of  thirty- 
six  laymen  was  chosen,  fifteen  from  the  Church  of 
Enj^and,  fifteen  from  the  Dissenting  bodies,  and 
six  foreigners  residing  in  London.  The  Rev. 
Joseph  Hughes  (Baptist)  and  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt 
(Church  of  England)  were  elected  secretaries. 
Seven  hundred  pounds  were  subscribed  for  the 
work  of  the  society,  and  the  Bishop  of  London, 
Dr.  Porteus,  was  elected  President. 

The  constitution  of  the  society  was  soon  after- 
ward prepared;  the  Rev.  John  Owen,  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  added  to  the  staff  of  the  society 
as  a  third  secretary,  and  on  nomination  of  Lord 
Teignmouth,  a  former  governor-general  in  India, 
the  Rev.  C.  F.  A.  Steinkopf  was  appointed  secre- 
tary for  foreign  lands.  Besides  the  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don, the  Bishops  of  Diu-ham,  Exeter,  and  St. 
Davids,  and  many  other  influential  persons,  among 
whom  were  William  Wilberforce  and  Granville 
Sharp,  long  known  as  antislavery  leaders,  joined 
this  movement.  > 

As  at  present  organized,  the  business  of  the 
society  is  directed  by  a  committee  made  up  as 
indicated  above.  Every  subscriber  of  five  guineas 
annually  is  a  governor,  and  every  subscriber  of 
one  guinea  annually  is  a  member  of  the  society. 
Every  governor,  and  every  minister 
8.  PrMant  who  is  a  member,   has  the  privilege 

Orvaniaa-  of  attending  and  voting  at  all  meetings 
tion.  of  the  committee.  The  president, 
the  vice-presidents  (numbering  more 
than  a  hundred),  and  the  treasurer  are  considered 
ez  officio  members  of  the  oonmiittee.  There  are 
two  secretaries  and  three  superintendents  charged 
with  different  departments  of  the  work  besides 
several  assistant  secretaries.  To  excite  wider 
interest  and  to  facilitate  the  distribution  of  the 
Bible,  auxiliary  and  branch  societies  are  formed, 
which  pay  their  collections  into  a  common  fund  and 
receive  back  a  certain  proportion  of  the  sum 
ooUected  in  Bibles  for  distribution.  There  were 
in  1906  more  than  5,800  of  the  auxiliary  and  branch 
societies  and  associations  in  England  and  Wales 
alone. 

The  society  began  its  career  by  first  meeting 
the  wants  of  Wales.  Twenty  thousand  Welsh 
Bibles  and  five  thousand  Testaments  were  printed. 
Providentially  but  a  short  time  before  this,  the  art 
of  stereotyping  had  been  invented.  When  in  1806 
the  first  wagon-load  of  Bibles  came  into  Wales,  it 
was  received  like  the  ark  of  the  covenant;  and  the 


people  with  shouts  of  joy  dragged  it  into  the  dty. 
The  society  also  distributed  the  Bible  in  an  improved 
Gaelic  translation  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
and  turned  its  attention  to  the  Irish;  in  short,  it 
undertook  to  supply  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
with  Bibles. 

But  the  society  did  not  forget  that  it  is  a  foreign 
as  well  as  a  British  Bible  Society.  When  it  began 
operations  Europe  was  convulsed  with  war  and 
not  so  much  was  done  as  would  otherwise  have  been 
accomplished  in  the  way  of  supplying  the  destitute 
in  European  countries.  Mr.  Steinkopf  and  Robert 
Pinkerton  made  extensive  tours  through  Germany, 
Switzerland,   and    Russia,  and  everywhere    local 

Bible  societies  sprang  into  existence 

8.  Foreign  in  their  wake.    Many  of  these  societies, 

Work.       formed  in  1812  and  later,  have  done 

good  work,  being  aided  with  funds 
and  with  grants  of  Bibles  by  the  British  Society 
About  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  British 
Society  two  Scotchmen,  John  Paterson  and  Eben- 
ezer  Henderson,  went  to  Copenhagen,  intending  to 
go  out  as  missionaries  to  India  under  the  Danish- 
Halle  mission  at  Tranquebar.  Their  plan  fell 
through,  but  they  met  an  Icelander,  Thorkelin, 
in  Copenhagen,  who  told  them  of  the  destitution  of 
his  countrymen.  There  were  said  to  be  only  fifty 
Bibles  in  Iceland  for  a  population  of  fifty  thousand. 
The  two  Scotchmen  laid  the  matter  before  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  which  promised  to 
pay  half  of  the  expense  of  printing  five  thousand 
Testaments  in  Icelandic.  The  printing  was  stopped 
by  the  outbreak  of  war.  But  in  1812  Mr.  Hender- 
son received  permission  to  remain  in  Copenhagen 
to  complete  the  printing  of  the  whole  Bible  in  Ice- 
landic, and,  notwithstanding  the  war,  to  correspond 
with  the  Bible  society  in  England  regarding  this 
work.  The  confidence  thus  shown  in  the  motives 
of  the  society  was  certainly  remarkable  at  that 
epoch;  and  it  had  much  to  do  with  the  founding 
of  the  Damsh  Bible  Society  in  1814. 

The  British  Society  extended  its  work  gradually 
to  the  British  colonies,  where  it  works  through 
auxiliary  societies.  In  Canada,  the  Canadian  Bible 
Society,  which  has  united  a  large  niunber  of  local 
auxiliaries  in  one,  is  a  society  auxiliary  to  the 
British  Society,  and  has  a  secretary  appointed  by 
the  parent  society  in  London.  In  Australia  the 
society  has  fifty-two  auxiliaries  with  nearly  500 
branches.  In  India,  with  the  exception  of  Burma, 
the  society  carries  on  its  work  through  six  strong 
auxiliary  societies.  In  Cape  Colony  the  South- 
African  auxiliary  has  for  its  field  the  whole  terri- 
tory south  of  the  Orange  River.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  auxiliaries  and  branch  societies  affiliated 
with  the  British  Society  outside  of  the  United  King- 
dom exceeds  2,200.  The  whole  number  of  these 
local  societies,  in  Great  Britain  and  abroad,  which 
the  British  and  Foreign  Society  aids  and  from 
which  it  receives  donations,  is  over  8,160.  Besides 
these  auxiliary  societies  the  parent  society  makes 
use  of  agencies,  each  in  charge  of  a  special  agent, 
devoted  to  the  increase  of  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible  in  his  own  field.  These  agencies  cover  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  Turkey,  Siberia.  China,  Korea, 
and  Japan  in  Asia.    In  the  three  last-named  coun- 


Bibls  BodetlM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


90 


tries  special  arrangements  with  the  American  Bible 
Society  and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland 
prevent  dashing  and  secure  combination  for  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures.  Agencies  of  the 
British  society  also  promote  the  distribution  of  the 
Bible  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa  and  in  nearly  all 
of  the  colonies  of  East  and  West  Africa.  Where 
neither  auxiliary  nor  agency  has  been  established 
the  society  works  through  the  missions  which  are 
in  occupation  of  the  ground  in  any  part  of  the 
worid. 

This  wide-epread  work  has  not  been  brought  to 
its  present  extension  without  hindrances  and  diffi- 
culties. The  High-church  party  in  the  Church  of 
England  has  at  times  opposed  the  Bible  Society, 
preferring  to  work  through  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge,  which  takes 
care  to  have  the  Bible  supplemented  by  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  Others  have  insisted  that 
the  Bible  is  a  dangerous  book  to  put  in  the  hands 
of  ignorant  men  without  note  or  comment,  and 
for  this  reason  have  opposed  the  Bible  Society. 
In  1825  dissension  arose  within  the  Bible  Society, 
which  continued  during  two  years,  over  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Apocrypha.  It  was  formally  resolved 
in  1827  that  the  fimdamental  law  of  the  society 
forbids  its  circulating  the  Apocrypha,  and  that 
therefore  no  persons  or  societies  that  circulate 
the  Apocrypha  can  receive  aid  from 
*•  ^"J?^"   the  society.    This  decision  led  to  the 

d^    g^"  separation  of  a  considerable  number 

oietleB  "  °'  European  societies  from  the  British 
society  which  had  founded  them. 
The  discussion  also  resulted  in  the  secession  of  the 
Scottish  societies  which  originated  the  agitation 
against  the  publication  of  the  Apocrypha  (see  below, 
3).  In  1831  another  agitation  was  raised  against 
the  presence  of  Unitarians  on  the  Board  of  Man- 
agers. The  society  having  refused  to  alter  its 
constitution  so  as  to  exclude  non-Trinitarians, 
a  separate  society  called  the  Trinitarian  Bible 
Society  was  formed  (see  below,  5).  With  the 
growth  of  foreign  missions,  a  question  as  to  trans^ 
lation  of  the  words  relating  to  baptism  became 
acute;  and  the  controversy  finally  led  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  Bible  Translation  Society,  which 
was  supported  by  Baptists  who  preferred  to  trans- 
late "  immerse  "  rather  than  to  transfer  the  Greek 
word  haptizein  (see  below,  6). 

But  there  has  been  a  continuous  and  remarkable 
growth  of  the  society  in  spite  of  all  obstacles  and 
opposition.  In  1904  the  centenary  of  the  society 
was  celebrated  in  almost  all  countries  of  the  Chris- 
tian and  non-Christian  world.  "  Bible  Day  "  in 
Mar.,  1904,  will  long  be  remembered  not  only  as  a 
day  of  an  inmiense  popular  declaration  of  faith 
in  the  Bible  as  the  revelation  of  God's  will  to  men, 
but  as  a  time  for  expressing  the  warmest  love  and 
sympathy,  and  gratitude  withal,  to  the  society 
which  then  completed  a  hundred  years  of  self- 
sacrificing  service  of  the  nations.  Not  only  were 
special  gifts  sent  into  the  treasury  for  the  general 
work  of  the  society,  but  a  special  centenary  fund 
of  $1,25C,000  was  raised  in  that  and  the  following 
year  to  be  used  as  a  reserve  for  more  firmly  planting 
the  outposts  of  the  society.    The  total  issues  of  the 


British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  year 
ending  Mar.  31,  1906,  amoimted  to  5,416,569  copies 
of  the  Bible  or  its  parts.  The  total  issues  of  the 
society  from  its  organization  to  Mar.  31,  1907, 
amount  to  203,931,768  copies,  of  which  more  than 
80,000,000  copies  were  in  the  English  language. 
The  president  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  is  the  Marquis  of  Northampton.  Its 
headquarters  are  at  146  Queen  Victoria  St.,  London, 
E.  C;  its  periodicals  are  The  Bible  in  the  World 
and  The  Bible  Society  Gleanings. 

8.  The  National  Bible  Society  of  Sootland:  In 
1809  the  Edinburgh  Bible  Society  was  formed,  in 
1812  the  Glasgow  Bible  Society,  and  in  1821  the 
Glasgow  Auxiliary  Bible  Society.  As  mentioned 
above,  these  societies  seceded  from  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
troversy about  circulating  editions  of  the  Bible 
containing  the  Apocrypha.  In  1859  the  National 
Bible  Society  was  formed,  and  in  1861  all  these 
Scottish  societies  combined  to  form  a  new  organiza- 
tion which  was  incorporated  as  the  National  Bible 
Society  of  Sootland.  The  fields  of  this  society  are 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  One-fifth  of  its  issues  in  190&- 
1907  were  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  and  about 
one-half  in  China.  Its  issues  in  the  year  ending 
Mar.,  1907,  amounted  to  1,671,900  copies. 

4.  The  Hibernian  Bible  Society:  This  society 
was  organized  in  1806  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  It  is  now  independent, 
and  devotes  its  attention  mainly  to  the  needs  of 
Ireland.  In  the  year  ending  Mar.,  1907,  it  cir- 
culated 37,258  copies,  which  were  purchased  by 
the   society.    The  headquarters  are  in  Dublin. 

6.  The  Trinitarian  Bible  Society:  Formed  in 
1831  as  a  protest  against  Unitarianism,  this  society 
issued  in  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1907.  89,214 
copies  of  the  Bible  or  its  parts.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  are  at  7  Bury  St.,  London,  W.  C. 

6^  The  Bible  Translation  Society:  This  society 

organized  in  1843  to  serve  the  special  interests 

the  British  Baptist  missions.     It  is  now  a  part 

f  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  making  no  sep- 
arate publication  of  its  issues,  and  having  its  head- 
quarters at  the  Mission  House,  19  Fumival  St.. 
London. 

n.  Bible  Societies  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 
—I.  Germany:  The  first  German  Bible  Society 
was  the  Canatein  Bible  Institute,  founded  in  Halle 
in  1710  by  Karl  Hildebrand,  Baron  Canstein  (q.v.), 
with  the  definite  purpose  of  placing  the  Bible 
within  reach  of  the  poor.  The  Institute  has  issued 
up  to  the  beginning  of  1907,  over  7,000,000  copies 
of  the  Bible  and  its  parts.  The  issues  for  1907 
were  38,696  copies.  The  (first)  Kurember?  Bible 
Society  was  formed  in  1804,  and  received  aid  from 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  In  1806 
it  was  removed  to  Basel  in  Switzeriand  and  took 
the  name  of  the  Basel  Bible  Society.  Its  issues 
during  the  year  1906  amounted  to  32,708  copies. 
The  Berlin  Bible  Society  was  formed  in  1806  as  a 
result  of  the  energy  of  Father  J&nicke,  a  Moravian 
pastor,  and  was  aided  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  in  its  eariy  years.  In  1814  it  was 
converted  into  the  Pmaaian  Bible  Society.  It 
now  has  many  branches  and  devotes  its  attention 


■  ^ 

B       #^tl 

-jWbt  tl 


01 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  SooietieB 


mainly  to  the  circulation  of  the  Bible  in  Gennany. 
In  the  year  1906  its  issues  amounted  to  212,911 
Bibles  and  Testaments.  The  headquarters  of  the 
society  are  Klosterstrasse  71,  Berlin  C.  The 
Wiirttemberff  Bibls  Institute  was  formed  in  1813 
under  the  influence  of  Messrs.  Steinkopf  and  Pink- 
erton,  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Its  issues  reported  in  1906  were  334,953  copies.  The 
headquarters  are  at  Christophstrasse  6,  Stuttgart. 
The  Berff  Bible  Sooiety  was  formed  at  Elberfeld  in 
the  old  Duchy  of  Berg  in  1814.  It  furnishes  Scrip- 
tures for  use  abroad  in  some  small  quantities. 
The  total  of  its  issues  in  1906  was  151,558  copies, 
and  the  total  of  its  issues  in  the  93  years  of  its 
existence  are  2,228,353  copies.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  are  at  Marienstrasse  28,  Elberfeld. 
The  Saxon  Bible  Society  was  formed  in  the  year 
1814.  It  has  forty-two  branches,  and  besides  its 
publications  in  German,  it  has  published  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Chagga  language, 
spoken  in  the  northern  part  of  German  East  Africa. 
Its  total  issues  in  1906  amounted  to  48,065  copies.  The 
headquarters  are  at  Zinzendorfstrasse  17,  Dresden. 
The  Bavarian  Protestant  Bible  Sooiety  was  formed 
in  1823.  It  is  also  called  the  Central  Bible  Sooiety. 
Its  issues  in  1906  were  12,930  copies.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  society  are  at  Nuremberg.  There 
are  also  many  local  and  state  societies,  of  which 
those  of  Hamburg,  Sleswick,  and  Strasburg  print 
as  well  as  distribute  Bibles.  A  Roman  Catholic 
Bible  Society,  the  Be^eneburff  Bible  Institute,  was 
organised  in  1805  by  G.  M.  Wittmann,  head  of 
the  seminary  at  Regensburg,  with  the  assistance  of 
some  bishops  and  many  laymen.  A  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  was  prepared  and  60,000 
copies  were  distributed  in  ten  years,  but  in  1817 
the  Institute  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Pius  VII. 
In  1815  another  Roman  Catholic  Bible  Society  was 
founded  at  Heiligenstadt,  which  connected  itself 
with  the  Prussian  society  and  organized  auxil- 
iaries. Leander  van  Ess  (q.v.)  at  Marburg  was 
especially  interested  and  his  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  was  widely  disseminated.  He  also 
founded  the  Christian  Brotherhood  for  Bissemi- 
natinflr  the  Holy  Scriptures  with  the  support  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  Heiligen- 
stadt society  flourished  till  1830  and  maintained 
an  existence  till  1864,  but  received  its  support 
chiefly  from  Protestants  after  the  former  date. 
The  translation  of  the  New  Testament  made  by 
J.  £.  Goesner  (q.v.)  was  also  circulated  by  the 
English  society. 

a.  France:  The  French  Bible  Sooiety  (London) 
referred  to  above  began  the  Bible  movement  in 
France,  but  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  pre- 
vented the  circulation  of  French  Bibles  printed 
with  English  money.  The  Protestant  Bible  Society 
of  Paris  was  formed  in  1818,  and  received  aid  from 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  for  a  time. 
The  subsidy  was  withdrawn  after  a  few  years 
because  the  Paris  Society  included  the  Apocrypha 
in  its  Bibles.  The  issues  of  this  society  in  1906 
were  8,061  copies.  A  sharp  controversy  among 
the  French  Protestants  respecting  the  French 
version  led  in  1864  to  the  formation  of  the  Bible 
Society  of  France.     This    society    excluded    the 


Apocrypha  from  its  Bibles  and  held  to  the  version 
of  J.  F.  Osterwald  (q.v.)  of  which  it  is  now  pub- 
lishing a  new  revision.  It  has  received  aid  from 
the  American  Bible  Society,  and  it  circulates  the 
Bible  in  the  French  colonies  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
Its  issues  in  1906  were  34,556  copies. 

3.  The  Netherlands:  The  Netherlands  Bible 
Sooiety  was  formed  in  1814.  Its  issues  in  the  year 
1904  amoimted  to  93,977  copies,  of  which  57,573 
copies  were  sent  abroad  to  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
Dutch  Guiana,  and  South  Africa.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  are  at  Heerengracht  366,  Amsterdam. 

4.  Scandinavia:  The  Danish  Bible  Sooiety  was 
organized  in  1814.  Its  circulation  in  1906  amounted 
to  45,289  copies.  The  ITorweffian  Bible  Sooiety 
was  formed  in  1816  under  the  influence  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Its  issues  in 
1904  were  63,300  copies,  of  which  751  copies  were 
sent  to  Denmark,  and  11,041  copies  to  the  United 
States  of  America.  Its  total  issues  in  eighty-eight 
years  ending  Dec.  31,  1904,  were  1,153,260  copies. 
The  headquarters  of  the  society  are  at  Christiania. 
The  Swedish  Bible  Sooiety  was  organized  in  1814. 
Its  circulation  in  1906  was  12,414  copies  and  its 
total  circulation  from  the  beginning,  1,242,515  copies, 
of  which  666  were  in  the  Lapp  language. 

5.  Russia:  The  Bnsaian  Bible  Sooiety  with 
Imperial  Sanction  was  formed  in  1863.  It  circu- 
lates the  Bible  in  Russian  and  other  languages  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Holy  Synod.  Its  reports 
show  the  contributions  of  the  czar  and  czarina 
and  the  grand  dukes,  but  do  not  specify  clearly 
the  circulation.  It  makes  use  of  colporteur  and 
seems  to  do  serious  work.  A  Russian  Bible  Society 
formed  in  1812  did  an  important  work  in  Bible 
translation,  but  was  suppressed  by  imperial  ukase 
in  1826.  The  Bussian  EvangeUoal  Bible  Sooiety 
was  organized  in  1831  for  the  purpose  of  circulatirg 
the  Bible  among  Lutherans  and  in  the  German 
language.  Its  circulation  in  1904  was  22,219 
copies.  The  Finnish  Bible  Sooiety  was  formed  iQ 
1812  and  its  issues  in  1903  were  about  30,000  copies. 

6.  Switzerland:  The  Basel  Bible  Society,  trans- 
ferred to  Basel  from  Nuremberg,  has  been  men- 
tioned above  (II,  1).  Local  Bible  societies  exis» 
in  many  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland.  Thej 
seem,  however,  to  be  merely  agents  of  distributioa 
receiving  Bibles  from  other  societies,  notably  from 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  Theit 
circulation  is  therefore  included  in  that  of  the  othei 
societies.  Henrt  Otib  Dwiqht. 

nL  Bible  Societies  in  America. — 1.  The  Amerioaa 
Bible  Sooiety:  The  Revolutionary  War  produced 
a  great  scarcity  of  Bibles  in  the  United  States. 
One  year  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
Congress  was  memorialized  to  authorize  the  print- 
ing of  an  edition  of  the  Bible.  This  memorial  was 
referred  to  a  committee,  who  found  the  difficulties, 
especially  of  procuring  proper  material,  type,  and 
paper,  to  be  so  great  that  Congress  ordered  the 
importation  at  its  own  expense  of  20,000  English 
Bibles  from  Holland,  England,  or  elsewhere.  The 
scarcity  still  continuing,  in  1782  Congress  recom- 
mended to  the  people  of  the  United  States  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  printed  by  Thomas  Aitken,  of  Phila- 
delphia, ''  being  satisfied  of  the  care  and  accuracy 


Bible  Societies 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


of  the  execution  of  the  work."  It  was  not  until 
1808  that  the  first  Bible  Society  was  organized  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1809  sodeties  were  organized 
in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey  in  the  order  named  and  by  1816  there  were 
128  such  societies. 

The  idea  of  imiting  these  societies  in  one  organi- 
zation was  a  natural  one  and  was  much  discussed. 
The  missionary  travels  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  J.  Mills 
(q.v.)  in  the  West  and  South,  reported  in  religious 
periodicals,  increased  the  desire  for  a  national 
organization,  which  he  strongly  advocated.  On 
Jan.  1, 1816,  Elias  Boudinot  (q.v.),  the  president  of 
the  New  Jersey  Bible  Society,  made  a  public  com- 
munication on  the  subject,  and  on  Jan.  17  he  issued 
a  circular  letter  appointing  Wednes- 

1.  Or^an-  day,  May  8,  1816,  as  the  time  for 
iaation.  holding  a  convention  for  this  pur- 
pose in  New  York.  Sixty  delegates 
representing  twenty-eight  Bible  societies  (besides 
several  other  persons  admitted  to  seats  in  the 
convention)  met  on  the  day  named  in  the  Garden 
Street  Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  rep- 
resentiog  the  Presbyterian,  Congregational,  Meth- 
odist, Episcopal,  Dutch  Reformed,  and  Baptist 
Churches,  and  the  Society  of  Friends.  The  con- 
vention was  in  session  for  two  days,  adopted  a  con- 
stitution and  in  accordance  therewith  elected  mana^ 
gers,  who  met  in  the  City  Hall,  May  11,  and  elected 
officers,  Elias  Boudinot  being  made  president. 

Under  this  constitution  "  the  sole  object  shall 
be  to  encourage  a  wider  circulation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptmies  without  note  or  comment"  (art.  i). 
The  board  of  managers  is  composed  of  thirty-six 
laymen,  one-fourth  of  whom  go  out  of  office 
every  year,  but  are  eligible  for  re- 
^ti  d  ®^®*^^**^-      Every  clergjrman  who  is  a 

Manage-  ^*'®  member  may  meet  and  vote  with 
ment.*  ^^®  board  of  managers,  provided  he 
receives  no  salary  or  compensation  for 
services  from  the  society.  The  managers  meet 
regularly  every  month,  consider  and  act  on  all 
matters  presented  by  ten  standing  committees 
besides  other  matters  originating  in  the  board 
itself  and  report  all  their  proceedings  to  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  members  of  the  society  held  on  the 
second  Thursday  of  May  and  usually  in  New  York. 

The  society  was  incorporated  in  1841.  The 
societies  which  already  existed  became  for  the  most 
part  auxiliary  to  the  national  organization  and  in 
addition  many  other  auxiliary  societies  were 
organized  under  its  direction,  the  number  at  one 
time  reaching  2,200.  Many  of  these,  however, 
have  ceased  to  exist,  the  number  now  being  541. 
The  "  Bible  House,"  Astor  Place,  N.  Y.,  the  society's 
headquarters,  was  erected  in  1852  and  was  paid 
for  by  funds  contributed  for  the  special  purpose 
and  not  from  current  receipts  for  benevolent  work. 

The  ninety-first  annual  report  of  the  board  of 

managers    was    presented     May     9,    1907.    The 

total  cash  receipts  were  $575,820.94. 

'"*'     The  total   issues   of   that  year  were 

^^^      1,910,853,   of    which    1,010,777  were 

issued  from  the  Bible  House  in  New 

York,   and   900,076   from   the  society's   agencies 

abroad,  being  printed  on  mission  presses  in  China, 


Japan,  Siam,  Syria,  and  Turkey.  The  total  issues 
of  the  society  in  Bibles,  Testaments,  and  portioDs 
amount  to  80,420,382  copies,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows:  Bibles  20,293,636  Testaments  and  portioDs 
58,215,889. 

The  efforts  of  the  society  were  at  first  directed 
mainly  to  meeting  the  needs  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  but  from  the  very  first  it  was  in 
spirit  and  intention  a  foreign  as  well  as  a  home 
mission  society.  Bibles  at  the  very  begitming 
were  supplied  to  the  North-American  Ladiaos. 
The  third  annual  report  shows  that  steps  were 
already  taken  for  sending  Spanish  Bibles  to  Buenos 
Ayres  and  the  next  year  the  society  was  reaching 
out  to  West  Africa.  In  1836  the  first  foreign 
agency  was  instituted  in  Constantinople,  and  in  IS&t 
the  agency  for  the  La  Plata  region  in  South  America. 
During  the  past  thirty  years  this 
4.  Foreign  work  has  largely  increased  and  regular 
Work.  agencies  have  been  established  in 
Japan,  China,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Korea, 
Cuba,  Siam  and  Laos,  Central  America,  Porto  Rico 
and  the  Philippines,  besides  Venezuela  and  Colom- 
bia, where  the  agencies  have  been  temporarily 
discontinued.  These  agencies  have  distributed  a 
total  of  9,453,918  Bibles,  Testamente,  and  portions 
in  China  alone.  Besides  this  the  society  has  con- 
tinually cooperated  with  missions  and  missionaries 
in  countries  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  It  has 
stimulated  Bible  translation,  initiating  it  in  some 
cases,  cooperating  with  others  more  frequoitly 
and  securing  needed  revisions  under  its  patronage 
and  partly  or  wholly  at  its  expense.  It  has  been 
thus  interested  in  about  100  translations  and 
revisions  in  all. 

The  labors  of  the  society  have  been  broken  twice 
by  serious  differences  among  its  friends  and  sup- 
porters. In  1835  missionaries  in  Burma  published 
at  the  expense  of  the  society  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  which  rendered  the  Greek  word 
baptizein  and  its  cognate  terms  by  the  English 
"  immerse "  or  an  equivalent.  After  much  dis- 
cussion the  managers  resolved  that  they  felt  at 
liberty  "  to  encourage  only  such  versions  as  con- 
form in  the  principle  of  their  translation  to  the 
common  English  Version — at  least 
6.  Contro-   so  far  as  that  all  the  religious  denom- 

▼erales.  inations  represented  in  this  society 
can  consistently  use  and  circulate 
such  versions  in  their  several  schools  and  commu- 
nities," and  missionary  boards  were  requested  in 
asking  aid  to  state  that  the  versions  they  proposed 
to  circulate  were  in  accordance  with  this  resolution. 
The  Baptists  took  offense  and  a  controversy  ensued, 
the  consequence  of  which  was  the  formation  of  the 
American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (see  below,  2). 

In  1847  the  committee  on  versions  was  instructed 
to  undertake  a  careful  collation  of  different  editions 
of  the  English  Bible  with  a  view  to  perfecting  its 
text  in  minutiae.  Their  final  report,  made  May  1. 
1851.  stated  that  in  collating  five  standard  copies 
of  English  and  American  imprint  with  the  original 
edition  of  1611  nearly  24,000  variations  were  found 
solely  in  the  text  and  punctuation,  not  one  of  which 
marred  the  integrity  of  the  text  or  affected  any 
doctrine  or  precept  of  the  Bible.     A  standard  then 


03 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Sooieties 


determined  upon  with  the  unanimous  approval 
of  the  board  of  managers  was  accepted  generally 
by  the  public  and  for  several  years  Bibles  printed 
accordingly  circulated  without  the  slightest  objec- 
tion. But  in  1856,  and  more  decidedly  in  1857, 
the  right  of  the  society  to  circulate  such  an  edition 
was  sharply  challenged.  Considerable  public  ex- 
citement followed;  the  matter  was  debated  in 
religious  and  even  secular  joiunals  as  well  as  in 
ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  the  board  of  managers 
after  long  consideration,  and  debate  finally  took 
action,  Jan.  28,  1858,  as  follows: 

RMolved.  that  this  society's  present  standard  English 
Bible  be  referred  to  the  standing  oommittee  on  versions  for 
examination;  and  in  all  cases  where  the  same  differs  in  the 
text  or  iu  aeeeasories  from  the  Bibles  previously  published 
by  the  society,  the  oommittee  are  directed  to  correct  the 
seme  by  oonfonnins  it  to  previous  editions  printed  by  this 
society,  or  by  the  authorised  British  presses,  reference  being 
ebo  had  to  the  original  edition  of  the  translators  printed 
in  1611;  and  to  report  such  corrections  to  this  board,  to  the 
end  that  a  new  edition,  thus  perfected,  may  be  adopted  as 
the  standard  edition  of  the  society. 

The  committee  reported  in  1859  and  1860;  and 
from  this  "standard  edition"  all  the  society's 
English  Bibles  are  now  printed. 

'Die  constitution  of  the  society  originally  re- 
stricted it  to  circulating  only  "  the  version  now 
in  common  use,"  in  the  English  language.  In 
1904  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  society  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  board  of  managers  the 
constitution  was  amended  so  as  to  permit  the 
publication  of  the  Revised  Version  of  the  English 
Bible,  either  in  its  British  or  American  form,  and 
under  this  permission  some  editions  of  the  Amer- 
ican Standard  Revised  Version  are  now  published 
by  the  society  under  an  arrangement  with  the 
publishers.  John  Fox. 

2.  The  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and 
the  Axneirican  Bible  Union:  The  American  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  was  organized  at  Philadel- 
phia in  April,  1836,  by  Baptists  who  felt  aggrieved 
at  the  action  of  the  American  Bible  Society  con- 
cerning the  translation  of  the  Greek  bapHzeirif 
referred  to  above  (see  III,  1,  §  6).  Rev.  S.  H. 
Cone  was  made  president.  The  society  was  de- 
clared to  be  '^  founded  upon  the  principle  that  the 
originals  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  are  the  only 
authentic  standards  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and 
that  aid  for  the  translating,  printmg,  or  distributing 
of  them  in  foreign  languages  should  be  afforded 
to  such  versions  only  as  are  conformed  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  the  original  text;  it  being  understood 
that  no  words  are  to  be  transferred  which  are  sus- 
ceptible of  being  literally  translated,"  The  con- 
stitution adopted  declared  (art.  ii)  "  that  in  the 
distribution  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, the  commonly  received  version  shall  be  used 
until  otherwise  directed  by  the  society."  Dis- 
satisfaction with  this  policy  led  to  the  secession  of 
certain  members  and  the  formation  in  1850  of  the 
American  Bible  Union,  which  demanded  that  the 
principle  of  circulating  "  such  versions  only  as  are 
conformed  as  neariy  as  possible  to  the  original  text  " 
should  be  applied  to  the  English  version,  and 
avowed  as  its  object  "to  procure  and  circulate 
the  most  faithful  versions  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 


in  all  languages  throughout  the  world."  The  Union 
secured  the  services  of  a  number  of  Baptist  and  other 
Biblical  scholars,  especially  the  Rev.  Drs.  H.  B. 
Hackett,  A.  C.  Kendrick,  and  T.  J.  Conant.  The 
entire  New  Testament  and  portions  of  the  Old 
were  revised  and  published.  Italian,  Spanish, 
Chinese  (Ningpo  colloquial),  Siamese,  and  Sgau- 
Karen  New  Testaments  were  also  prepared.  The 
Union  ultimately  reunited  with  the  American 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  in  1882  the  latter 
passed  over  its  work  and  good-will  to  the  American 
Baptist  Publication  Society  (Philadelphia),  which 
since  then  has  performed  the  duties  of  the  Bible 
Society,  and  ii  carrying  on  the  work  of  revision 
inaugurated  by  the  earlier  societies.  The  revi- 
sion has  now  (1907)  reached  the  Book  of  Ezra, 
and  will  be  completed,  it  is  hoped,  by  the  end  of 
1908. 

8.  The  Bible  Aaaooiation  of  Friends  in  Amexloa 
was  organized  in  1830.  It  has  been,  in  the  main, 
a  distributing  agency,  circulating  the  Scriptures 
printed  by  others,  but  in  1905-06  printed  an  edition 
of  2,925  Testaments  and  Psalms.  In  1906  it  re- 
ported total  receipts  of  $3,930.59  and  payments  of 
$2,412.06.  Its  distribution  in  that  year  was  6,534 
volumes,  of  which  2,030  were  Bibles.  The  head- 
quarters are  at  207  Walnut  Place,  Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

Bibuoobapht:  On  the  general  question  eonsult:  AhriM  der 
Oetdiiehte  deM  Urtprunaa  und  Wachalhunu  der  BibdaeMU- 
BdMften,  Bannen,  1870;  Summary  Notice  eoneeming  Bible 
SoeieUet  in  General  and  TKoet  of  France  in  ParHeular, 
from  the  Fr.,  Northampton,  1827;  W.  H.  Wyokoff.  A 
Sketdi  of  the  Origin,  Hietory  .  .  .  of  Bible  SocietieB,  New 
York  1848. 

On  the  BFBS  consult:  W.  Canton,  HieL  of  the  BFBS, 
2  vols..  London.  1904;  idem.  Story  of  the  Bible  Society,  ib. 
1904;  J.  Owen.  Hiet  of  the  Origin  and  Firet  Ten  Yeara  of 
the  BFBS,  2  vols.,  ib.  1816;  Papers  Oceaeioned  by  the  At- 
tem-pte  to  Form  Auxiliary  Bible  Sodetiet  in  Varioue  Parte 
of  the  Kingdom,  ib.  1812;  Jubilee  Memorial  of  the  BFBS, 
ib.  1854;  G.  Browne.  HieL  of  the  BFBS,  2  vols.,  ib.  1869; 
La  SociitS  bibligiue  briiannique  et  itrangtre,  1804-89,  No- 
tice au  point  de  vue  hiatorigue,  philoeophigue,  si  rdigieux, 
Nantes,  1889;  H.  Morris,  Foundere  and  Preeidenta  of  As 
Bible  Society,  London,  1895;  Bible  Houee  Paper;  ib.  1899 
sqq.  (in  progress);  Bdiold  a  Sofeer.  Popular  ,.,  Re- 
port of  BFBS  for  1900-01,  ib.  1902;  T.  H.  Dark>w  and 
H.  F.  Moule.  Catalogue  of  (he  Printed  Editione  of  Holy 
Scripture  in  the  Library  of  the  BFBS,  2  vols.,  ib.  1904; 
T.  H.  Darlow.  There  ie  a  River,  ib.  1906;  Bible  Aeeocia- 
tion  Reporte,    By  Helen  Plumptre.  Worksop,  1843. 

The  organs  of  the  society  are  the  MonUUy  Reporter  of 
As  BFBS,  London.  1858-88,  succeeded  by  the  BibU  So- 
ciety Monthly  Reporter,  1889  sqq.  The  other  British 
Soeiettea  issue  various  publications,  such  as  Annual  Re- 
porte.  Quarterly  Reoorde,  and  Oeoaeional  Papere,  in  which 
their  history  may  be  traced. 

For  the  foreign  societies  there  are  also  available  their 
reports,  besides  which  the  following  may  be  consulted: 
C.  F.  Hesekiel,  GeethichU  der  Caneteineehen  Bibel  Anetalt, 
ed.  A.  H.  Niemeyer.  Halle,  1827;  O.  Bertram.  Geedtiehte 
der  Caneteineehen  Bibelanetalt,  ib.  1863;  W.  Thilo.  Oe- 
ediiehte  der  preueeieehen  Haupt-Bibelgeeellediaften,  1814- 
1864,  Berlin,  1864;  E.  Breest.  Die  Entwickelung  der  preue- 
eiedten  Haupt^BibelgeeeUechaften,  1864-91.  ib.  1891. 

For  the  American  Bible  Society  consult:  The  Amerv- 
can  Bible  Society'e  Manual,  containing  a  Brief  Sketch  of 
the  Society,  New  York.  1865.  revised  ed..  1887;  W.  P. 
Strickland.  HieL  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  ib.  1849; 
American  BibU  Society'e  Reporte,  1816-71.  4  vols.,  ib.  n.d. 
(a  roprint);  American  Bible  Society.  Report  of  the  Trane- 
ference  of  the  Library  of  the  Society  to  the  New  York  Pub- 
lic Library,  ib.  1897.  The  organ  is  the  Bible  Society  Rec- 
ord (a  monthly). 


Bible  Text. 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


94 


I.  The  Old  Testament. 

1.  The  Premaaoratio  Period. 
The  Masoretic  Text  (|  1). 
The  Earlier  Text  (§  2). 
Change  in  Style  of  Writing  (|  3). 
Attempts  to  Fix  the  Text  (§4). 
The  Pronunciation  Fixed,  but  the 

Text  Still  Unvocalixed  (|  5). 
Word-Diviflion  (§  6). 
Division  into  Verses  (§7). 
Division  into  Sections  (|  8). 

2.  The  Maaoretic  Period. 
The  Masoretes  (|  1). 
Their  Work  (J  2). 
Codices  (S  3). 

3.  The  Postmasoretie  Period. 
The  Chapter-Division  (J  1). 

Old  Testament  Manuscripts  ({  2). 
The  Printed  Text  (§  3). 
Critical  Works  and  Commentaries 
(§4). 


BIBLE  TEXT. 

n.  The  New  Testament. 

1.  History  of  the  Written  Text. 
The  Autographs  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment Books  (SI). 

The  Manuscripto  (S  2). 

Their  Material  and  Form  (§2). 

The  Ammonian  Sections  (|  4). 

Early  Divisions  of  the  Text  (|  5). 

Divisions  for  Liturgical  Reading 
(§6). 

E^ly  Corruption  of  the  Text 
(§7). 

Varieties  of  Text  Produced  by  Early 
Criticism  (|  8). 

The  Uncial  Manuscripts  (|  9). 

The  Cursive  Manuscripts,  Evangel- 
istaries, etc.  (1 10). 

2.  History  of  the  Printed  Text. 
Complutensian  and  Eraamian  edi- 
tions (I  1). 

Editions  of  Stephens  and  Besa  (§  2) 


Editions  between   1657  and  1^30 

(§3). 
Griesbach  and  his  Followers  (M  f 
Lachmann  (S  5). 
Tischendorf  (S  6). 
Tregelles  (§  7). 
Weatoott  and  Hort  (|  8). 
Other  Critics  of  the  Text  (i  0). 
More  Recent  Tendencies  ({  10.>. 

3.  Principles  of  Textual  CriticLon. 
The  Basal  Rule  (S  1). 

Other  Canons  (|  2). 

4.  Results  of  the  Textual  Giticism  of 

the  New  Testament. 
III.  Chapter  and  Verse  Diviriona. 
Chapter  Divisions  (|  1). 
Verse    Diviaiona,    Old    Testament 

(S2). 
Verse   Diviaiona,    New   Teatameitt 

(§3). 


I.  The  Old  Testament. —  1.  The  Prexxutsoretio 
Period:  The  extant  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment text  is  commonly  called  the  Masoretic,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  text  of  the  ancient  versions 
as  well  as  from  the  Hebrew  text  of  former  ages. 
This  Masoretic  text  does  not  present  the  original 
form  but  a  text  which  within  a  certain  period  was 
fixed  by  Jewish  scholars  as  the  correct  and  only 
authoritative  one.  When  and  how  this  official 
Masoretic  text  was  fixed  was  formerly  a  matter 
of  controversy,  especially  during  the  seventeenth 
century.  One  party  headed  by  the  Buxtorfs 
(father  and  son),  in  the  interest  of  the  view  of 
inspiration  then  prevalent,  held  to  the  absolute 
completeness  and  infallibihty,  and 
1.  The  hence  the  exclusive  value,  of  the 
^  Text**°  Masoretic  text.  They  attributed  it  to 
®*  '  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue, who,  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  were  supposed  to  have  purified  the  text 
from  all  accumulated  error;  added  the  vowel- 
points,  the  accents,  and  other  pimctuation-marks 
(thus  settling  the  reading  and  pronunciation); 
fixed  the  canon;  made  the  right  division  into  verses, 
paragraphs,  and  books;  and,  finally,  by  the  provi- 
dence of  God  and  the  care  of  the  Jews,  the  text  thus 
made  was  believed  to  have  been  kept  from  all 
error,  and  to  present  the  veritable  Word  of  God. 
This  view  of  the  text  prevailed  especially  when 
Protestant  scholasticism  was  at  its  height,  and  may 
be  designated  as  the  orthodox  Protestant  posi- 
tion. It  was  opposed  by  another  party  headed 
by  Jean  Morin  and  Louis  Cappel,  who,  in  the 
interest  of  pure  historicity  or  in  Antiprotestant 
polemics,  combated  these  opinions,  maintained 
the  later  age  of  the  Masoretic  text,  and  sought 
to  vindicate  value  and  usefulness  for  the  old 
versions  and  other  critical  helps.  They  fell  into 
many  errors  in  respect  to  the  details  of  the  history 
of  the  text  and  overrated  the  value  of  Extra- 
masoretic  critical  helps;  but  their  general  view  was 
supported  by  irresistible  arguments  and  is  now 
universally  adopted.  This  view,  instead  of  deriving 
the  existing  text  from  a  gathering  of  inspired 
men  in  Ezra's  time,  assigns  it  to  a  much  later  date 
and  quite  different  men,  and,  instead  of  absolute 
completeness,  claims  for  it  only  a   relative   one 


with  a  higher  value  than  other  forms  of  the  text. 
A  glance  at  the  history  of  the  text  will  show  how 
this  agreement  has  been  brought  about. 

Concerning  the  oldest  history  of  the  text  of  the 
Old  Testament  writings  there  exists  almost  no  posi- 
tive information.  The  books  were  written  prob- 
ably  upon  skins,  perliaps  also  on  linen; 
E  U  ^  paper  was  used  from  very  early 
Text  times  in  Egypt,  it  is  possible  that 
it  was  employed;  parchment  appean 
to  have  been  used  later.  The  roll  seems  to  have 
been  the  usual  form  (Ps.  xl,  8;  Jer.  xxxvi,  14  sqq.; 
Ezek.  ii,  9;  Zech.  v,  1);  the  pen  was  a  pointed  reed 
(Jer.viii,  8;  Ps.  xlv,  1);  the  character  was  the  Old 
Hebrew,  which  was  almost  identical  with  the 
Phenician  and  Moabitic  (on  the  Moabite  Stone,  q.v.). 
Specimens  of  tills  writing  are  also  preserved  in 
the  Siloam  inscription  (c.  700  B.C.),  on  gems  (of 
the  eighth  or  seventh  century),  on  coins  of  the 
Hasmoneans  and  those  belonging  to  the  time  of 
the  Jewish-Roman  war,  and,  in  somewhat  dififerent 
form,  in  Samaritan  writings.  Like  the  Phem'cians 
and  Moabites,  the  Hebrews  separated  the  words 
by  a  point  or  stroke,  but  these  signs  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  used  regularly,  since  the  Septuagint 
often  makes  word-divisions  different  from  those 
of  the  Masoretic  text.  Jewish  tradition  mentions 
several  passages  in  which  the  separation  of  words 
was  regarded  as  doubtful. 

The  difference  between  ancient  and  modern 
texts  consisted  in  this,  that  the  former  were  written 
without  vowels  and  accents.  The  Hebrew  wnting, 
like  Semitic  writing  in  general,  was  essentially 
consonantal;  vowels  were  not  written.  While  the 
language  lived,  this  occasioned  no  difficulty  to  the 
speakers  or  readers.  No  details  are  at  hand  con- 
cerning the  way  in  which  the  text  was  multiphed 
and  preserved;  but  inasmuch  as  the  writings  did 
not  then  have  in  popular  estimation  the  character 
they  came  later  to  possess,  it  is  likely  that  they  were 
less  carefully  handled,  and  that  the  same  amount 
of  pains  was  not  taken  in  copying  them.  This 
statement  rests  upon  the  fact  that  those  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament  which  we  possess  in  double  fonns 
vary  in  ways  that  indicate  a  corruption  of  the  text 
reaching  back  to  precanonicai  times  when  copies 
were  neither  made  nor  corrected  so  laboriously. 


05 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


A  new  epoch  commenced  after  the  Exile, 
when  the  holy  writings  were  raised  to  canonical 
dignity  and  as  holy  writings  were  venerated  and 
handled  with  ever-increasing  care  and  conscientious- 
ness. This  veneration  was  not  accorded  to  all  Bib- 
lical writings  at  onoe,  but  only  to  that  part  of  the 
canon  called  the  law.  The  epoch  begins  with  Ezra, 
and  extends  to  the  close  of  the  Talmud,  c.  500  a.d. 
During  this  period  not  only  were  the  form  of  writing 
and  the  text  fixed,  but  also  the  pronunciation  and 
division;  in  short,  the  major  part  of  the  present 
Mosorah  was  collected  in  verbal  form.  A  change  of 
an  external  kind  was  the  development  of  a  sacred 
writing,  under  the  influence  of  the  Aramaic  char- 
acter, the  so-called  "  square  "  or  "  Assyrian  " 
character.  Jewish  tradition  Scribes  the  intro- 
duction of  the  square  character  to  Ezra,  and  calls 
it  expressly  an  Aramaic  writing  that  the  Jews 
adopted  in  place  of  their  Hebrew,  which  they  left 
to  the  Samaritans.  A  study  of  Assyrian,  Persian, 
and  Cilician  seab  and  coins,  of  the  Aramaic  monu- 
ments from  the  third  to  the  first  century  B.C.,  and 
of  the  Palmyrene  inscriptions  from  the  first  to  the 

a  Ch  third  century  a.d.  has  permitted  the 

jjjj' g^^l^^^  tracing   of   the    development   of   the 

Writing.  P^^^^Bent  Hebrew  alphabet  through  a 
thousand  years,  back  to  the  eighth 
century.  Elzra,  therefore,  may  have  influenced 
the  use  of  the  Aramaic  alphabet,  but  the 
square  character  was  not  developed  in  his  day, 
nor  for  centuries  afterward;  nor  was  the  Aramaic 
alphabet  then  used  outside  of  the  narrow  circle 
of  the  scribes.  For  not  only  did  the  Samaritans 
retain  the  ancient  script  for  their  Pentateuch,  but 
among  the  Jews  also  it  must  have  been  used  for 
a  long  tune,  since  it  is  found  on  coins  down  to  the 
time  of  Bar  Kokba.  Matt,  v,  18  proves  that 
the  Aramaic  writing  had  become  popular  by  the 
time  that  Gospel  wsjb  written,  since  in  the  ancient 
Hebrew  the  letter  "  yodh  "  was  by  no  means  the 
smallest.  Taking  all  in  all,  it  may  be  assumed 
with  certainty  that  the  use  of  the  new  alphabet 
in  Bible-manuscripts  of  the  last  Prechristian 
centuries  was  general,  a  result  which  is  also  con- 
firmed by  a  careful  examination  of  the  Septuagint 
with  reference  to  the  manuscripts  used  by  the 
translators  (especially  must  this  have  been  the  case 
with  the  Tetragrammaton  retained  in  many  copies 
of  the  Greek  translation,  which  was  no  doubt 
written  in  the  Aramaic  script,  since  it  was  read 
enoneousiy  by  the  Christians).  Considering  this 
development  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  latest 
Old  Testament  writings  were  written,  not  in  the 
ancient  Hebrew  but  in  Aramaic,  by  the  authors 
themselves.  After  the  Aramaic  writing  was  once  in 
use  among  the  Jews,  it  soon  took  the  form  in  which 
we  now  have  it.  The  descriptions  which  Jerome 
and  the  Talmud  give  of  the  different  letters  fully 
harmonize  with  the  form  which  is  still  found  in 
manuscripts.  The  minute  rules  laid  down  by  the 
Talmud  as  to  calligraphy  and  orthography  made 
further  development  of  the  square  writing  im- 
possible, and  therefore  the  writing  of  the  manu- 
•criptB  varies  scarcely  at  all  through  centuries 
^excepting  perhaps  that  the  German  and  Polish 
Jews  have  the  so-called  Tarn  script,  which  is  some- 


what angular,  whereas  the  Spanish  Jews  have  the 
Welsh  or  more  rounded  script). 

The  veneration  shown  for  the  canonical  writings 
during  this  period  naturally  led  to  a  greater  care 
in  treatment  of  them  and  above  all  to  perception 
of  the  necessity  of  critically  fixing  the  text.  As 
soon  as  the  ancient  writings  obtained  canonical 
authority,  were  used  in  divine  service,  and  became 
the  standard  of  doctrine  and  life,  the  necessity  of 
having  one  standard  text  naturally  asserted  itself. 
The  preparation  of  such  a  text  began  with  the  law; 
the  other  two  divisions  (the  prophets  and  the 
hagiographa)  became  authoritative  only  in  the 
course  of  centuries  (see  Canon  op  Scripture,  I), 
and  naturally  their  text  did  not  receive  atten- 
tion in  the  earlier  period.  However,  criticism  dur- 
ing that  period  was  of  little  value.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  faithful  and  correct  copies  ex- 
isted, especially  of  such  books  as  were 
^^'^^^^^^■pubUcly  read,  but  this  could  not 
i^^^l  prevent  errors  and  mistakes  from 
creeping  into  copies  which  were 
generally  circulated.  When  Josephus  (Contra 
Apion,  I,  viii)  and  Philo  (cf.  Eusebius,  Proeparatio 
evangelicat  VIII,  vi,  7)  speak  of  the  great  care 
bestowed  by  the  Jews  upon  their  sacred  writings, 
this  can  not  be  referred  to  earlier  centuries,  and 
concerns  more  the  contents  than  the  linguistic 
minutiee  of  the  text.  In  the  oldest  critical  docu- 
ments— the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint— there  is  evidence  (about  500-100  B.C.) 
to  show  that  the  manuscripts  most  approved  and 
most  widely  diffused  contained  many  verbal  dif- 
ferences. And  these  variations  are  not  to  be 
charged,  as  was  formerly  done,  to  carelessness  or 
wilfulness  on  the  part  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews  and 
Samaritans,  but  are  explained  by  the  lesser  im- 
portance attached  to  exact  uniformity  of  text  and 
to  the  existence  of  mistakes  in  the  current  copies. 
And  when  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  agree  in  good  readings,  and  still  oftener 
in  bad  ones,  against  the  Masoretic  text,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  these  readings  were  spread  by 
many  copies  current  among  the  Palestinian  Jews, 
and  are  therefore  not  to  be  regarded  as  offensive. 
But  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when 
Judaism  was  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  rab- 
bis, it  became  possible  to  prepare  a  uniform  stand- 
ard text,  although  this  idea  was  not  realized  until 
many  generations  had  worked  upon  it.  The  Greek 
versions  of  the  second  century  had  already  fewer 
variations  from  the  Masoretic  text.  Still  nearer 
the  latter  text  is  the  Hebrew  text  of  Origen  and 
Jerome.  The  Talmud  itself  bears  witness,  by  the 
agreement  of  its  Biblical  quotations  with  the 
Masoretic  text,  that  the  consonantal  text  was 
practically  finished  before  the  Talmudic  era  closed. 
It  is  not  possible  to  say  upon  what  principles  the 
text  was  treated;  but  the  way  in  which  the  cus- 
todians presented  the  individuality  of  the  several 
authors,  books,  and  periods  is  remarkable,  and 
proves  that  intentional  and  arbitrary  changes  of 
the  text  were  not  made  by  these  critics.  That 
they  changed  passages  for  dogmatic,  especially  for 
Antichristian,  reasons,  as  has  sometimes  been  as- 
serted, has  long  ago  been  acknowledged  to  be  a 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFP'-HERZOG 


96 


baseless  accusation.  Where  they  mention  changes, 
they  make  clear  that  they  followed  the  testimony 
of  manuscripts,  the  number  of  which  was  probably 
not  very  great.  The  fact  that  in  the  first  cen- 
turies after  Christ  the  text  approximates  our 
present  Masoretic  reading  shows  that  a  certain 
recension  became  authoritative  which  was  possible 
only  after  a  certain  manuscript  had  been  taken 
as  the  norm.  Of  such  a  standard  oodex,  copies 
oould  easily  be  made,  or  one  could  correct  his 
own  copies  in  accordance  with  it.  Scholars 
like  Olshausen  and  Lagarde  speak  therefore 
of  some  such  archetype,  which  was  slavishly  fol- 
lowed in  every  respect.  The  critical  apparatus 
of  the  time  is  concealed  in  dissociated  fragments 
in  the  later  Masorah,  but  can  not  be  separated  from 
the  other  matter.  The  Talmud  and  the  older 
midrashim  allow  a  little  insight  into  the  critical 
efforts  of  the  time.  Thus  mention  is  made  of  the 
"  corrections  of  the  scribes,"  of  the  "  removals 
of  the  scribes"  (meaning  that  in  five  passages  a 
falsely  introduced  "  and  "  was  removed),  and  of  the 
points  in  the  Hebrew  text  over  certain  words  to 
show  that  these  words  were  critically  suspected, 
such  as  the  inverted  "  nun,"  Num.  x,  35,  and  the 
three  kinds  of  reading  (keri ;  see  Keri  and  Kb- 
thibh),  via.,  "  read  but  not  written,"  "  written 
but  not  read,"  and  "  read  [one  way]  but  written 
[another]."  The  three  kinds  of  reading  have,  it  is 
true,  for  the  most  part  only  exegetical  value;  e.g., 
they  give  the  usual  instead  of  the  unusual  grammat- 
ical forms,  show  where  one  must  understand  or  omit 
a  word,  or  where  the  reader  should  use  a  euphe- 
mistic expression  for  the  coarse  one  in  the  text; 
they  are  therefore  scholia  upon  the  text.  It  is 
possible  that  these  ''  readings  "  are  also  fragments 
of  the  critical  apparatus.  However  this  may  be, 
it  is  evident  that  at  that  period  the  text  was  fixed 
and  that  the  matter  in  question  concerned  only 
subordinate  details  of  the  text. 

The  development  of  the  pronunciation  or  of  the 
vocalization  and  the  division  of  words,  verses,  and 
sections  kept  pace  with  the  settlement  of  the  text. 
That  the  ancient  writing  had  no  vowel-points  has 
already  been  stated;  but  even  during  this  entire 
period  to  the  close  of  the  Talmud  the  sacred  text 
was  without  vowels  and  other  points.    The  old 
versions,    particularly    the    Greek,    and  Josephus 
depart  so  widely  from  the  Masoretic  text  that  they 
oould  not  possibly  have  used  the  present  pointed 
text.    The  expedient  which  charges  the  translators 
with  these  differences  is  of  no  avail,  since  it  is  not 
any  one  version  which  alone  shows  fluch  differences; 
they  all  differ.    Origen,  too,  published  a  Hebrew 
text  in  the  Hexapla  which  differed  from  the  Maso- 
retic.   Jerome  knew  nothing  about  vowel-points, 
not  even  the  diacritical  point  making 
6.  The      the  difference  between  "  s  "  and  "  sh." 
Pronun-    -phg  Talmud  and  the  modem  ecclesias- 
Pi  «d  1?      tical  or  ritual  manuscripts  of  the  Jews 
theTe^    present  an  impointed  text.    There  is 
Still  Tin-    ^^    doubt     that,    as     Elias     Levita 
▼ooaliaed.   stated,  the  Masoretic  system  of  punc- 
tuation  is  of  later  origin,  and  that 
during  this    entire    period    the   sacred  text    was 
without  points.    But   this  does  not  mean   that 


during  the  same  period  the  reading  of  the  un- 
voweled  text  was  still  unsettled  among  the  Jews; 
it  must  rather  be  assumed  that  with  the  offidai 
fixing  of  the  text  there  was  developed  also  a  certain 
mode  of  understanding  and  reading  it.  Of  coune 
time  was  required  to  bring  it  into  vogue;  but  before 
the  end  of  the  period  it  was  so  firmly  established 
that  Jerome's  pronunciation  differed  very  litUe 
from  the  Masoretic,  and  he  was  so  sure  of  its  cor- 
rectness that  he  appeals  to  it  against  the  text  of 
the  versions;  and  the  Talmud  gives  it  throughout 
correctly.  Before  the  Masoretes  the  pronundation 
was  fixed,  not  yet  written,  but  handed  down  by 
word  of  mouth,  although  some  scholars  may  have 
used  signs  in  their  books  to  assist  their  memory. 

Closely  connected  and  mutually  dependent  were 
pronunciation  and  the  division  of  words.  The 
latter  must  have  been  finally  settled  at  this  period. 

g  __  ^  The  sign  of  division  was  the  small 
Divieion*  ^P*^^  between  words.  The  final  let- 
ters, being  limited  in  number,  can  not 
be  regarded  as  word-separating  signs.  Jerome 
used  a  text  with  a  division  of  words  and  knew 
the  final  letters;  in  the  Talmud,  Menahoi  30a 
states  how  large  must  be  the  space  between 
the  words;  the  synagogue-scrolls,  though  still  with- 
out vowels,  have  nevertheless  the  division  by 
spaces,  following  the  custom  of  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts from  Talmudic  time;  and  the  fact  that  a 
number  of  "  readings "  correct  the  traditional 
division  of  words  speaks  again  in  favor  of  the  high 
antiquity  of  the  division  of  words  in  the  present 
texts. 

The    division    into    verses    is    by    no    means 

contemporary    in    origin   with    the   vocalization, 

but    much    earlier.    The   verse-divi- 

7.  Dlvi-     gjQjj  depends  in  poetry  upon  the  paral- 

■ton  into  i^iisni,  in  prose  upon  the  division 
*'**"*  of  sentences  and  clauses.  That  the  lat- 
ter were  not  marked  in  oldest  times  is  certain ;  in  poet- 
ical texts  the  members  may  have  been  distinguished 
either  by  space  or  by  breaks  of  the  line.  This  mode  of 
writing  poetical  texts  wafl  formeriy  general,  and  is 
found  in  the  older  Hebrew  manuscripts;  for  the 
poetical  texts,  Ex.  xv;  Deut.  xxxii;  Judges  v;  and 
II  Sam.  xxii,  it  is  even  prescribed  (ShMat  103b; 
Sopherim  xii),  and  is  therefore  still  customary. 
With  the  introduction  of  the  Masoretic  accents, 
poetry  was  written  close,  like  prose.  This  verse- 
division  was  taught  in  the  schools;  but  no  rules 
are  given  for  its  writing,  nor  did  any  punctuation- 
marks  indicate  it  in  this  period. 

Earlier  than  the  division  into  verses  is  that  into 
larger  or  smaller  sections ;  these  were  more  neoessaiy 
for  the  imderstanding  of  the  Scriptures  and  for  their 
reading  in  divine  worship.  Perhaps  some  of  them 
were  in  the  original  text.  The  sections  of  the  law 
were  at  least  Pretahnudic;  for  they 

.RTt}?^  are  mentioned  in  the  Mishnah  and 
frequently  in  the  Gemara;  in  the 
latter  they  are  traced  to  Mosaic 
origin;  in  Shabbat  103b,  Menahot  30  care  is 
enjoined  as  to  the  sections  in  copying  the  law, 
and  therefore  they  occur  also  in  synagogue- 
rolls.  They  are  indicated  by  spacing;  the  larger 
sections  by  leaving  the  remainder  of  the  line  at 


into  Seo- 
tione. 


97 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


their  do6e  unfilled,  the  next  great  section  beginning 
with  a  new  line,  on  which  account  they  were  called 
"  open  ";  the  smaller  sections  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  only  a  small  space,  and  were  there- 
fore called  "  dosed  "  or  "  connected."  Thus  not 
only  the  law  but  also  the  other  two  parts  of  the 
canon  were  divided.  For  the  division  of  the  whole 
canon,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  books,  see 
Canon  op  Schipture,  I. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  follows  that  the 
reading  of  the  text,  the  vocalization,  the  division 
into  words,  verses,  and  sections  depend  upon  the 
gradual  settlement  by  the  scribes;  their  reading 
can  claim  neither  infallibility  nor  any  absolutely 
binding  power;  and  though  their  labor  betrays  a 
thorough  and  correct  understanding  of  the  text, 
the  necessity  may  yet  arise  when  the  exegete  must 
deviate  from  tradition.  Extraordinary  pains  were 
taken  to  perpetuate  in  its  purity  the  text  thus 
divided  and  vocalized.  Signs  of  this  care,  such  as 
the  rules  for  calligraphy  and  for  writing  the  extraor- 
dinary points,  have  already  been  mentioned.  The 
Posttalmudic  treatises  Masseket  sapherim  and  Mas- 
teket  8€pher  torah  contain  full  details  for  copying. 
Nevertheless  fluctuations  are  met  with  in  the  Maso- 
retic  period,  and  it  must  therefore  be  assumed  that 
learned  labor  had  not  yet  covered  all  details  or 
made  final  settlement. 

2.  The  Kaeoretio  Period:  The  third  period  of  the 
textual  history  is  usually  reckoned  as  extending 
from  the  sixth  until  the  eleventh  Christian  century 
(when  Jewish  learning  was  transferred  from  the 
East  to  North  Africa  and  Spain);  it  embraces  the 
age  of  the  Masoretes  proper,  and  has  for  the  Bible 
text  in  general  the  same  importance  as  the  Tal- 
mudic  period  had  for  the  law.  The  efforts  of  the 
scholars  to  fix  the  reading  and  understanding  of 
the  sacred  text  were  overshadowed  somewhat  by 
the  study  of  the  Talmud.  After  the  close  of  the 
Talmud  the  work  was  resumed  and  cultivated  in 
Babylonia  and  Palestine  (at  Tiberias). 
tl_®  In  both  schools  the  work  of  former 
generations  was  continued;  but  the 
Palestinians,  who  acted  more  inde- 
pendently than  the  more  Talmudically  inclined 
Babylonians,  finally  got  the  victory  over  the 
Babylonian  school.  In  both  schools  they  were 
DO  longer  satisfied  with  a  mere  oral  transmission 
of  rules  and  reg^ations,  but  committed  them  to 
writing.  There  is  no  continuous  history  of  the  men 
of  the  Masorah  and  of  the  progress  of  their  work 
preserved;  but  the  marginal  notes  in  ancient  Bible- 
manuscripts  and  the  fragments  of  other  works 
show  that  the  oldest  Afasoretes  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  eighth  century.  The  main  effort  of 
this  period  (as  the  name  Masorahy  "  tradition," 
indicates;  see  Masorah)  was  to  collect  and  to  write 
down  the  exegetico-critical  material  of  the  former 
period,  and  this  makes  sufficiently  clear  the  one 
part  of  their  work.  But  the  Masoretes  also  added 
some  new  matter.  Anxiously  following  the  foot- 
steps of  the  older  critics  in  their  effort  to  fix  and 
to  guard  the  traditional  text,  they  laid  down  more 
minute  rules  of  a  lin:;uistic  and  gnunmatical  char- 
acter, and  in  this  respect  a  great  part  of  the  con- 
teniB  of  the  Maaorah  is  indeed  new. 
II.— 7 


retes. 


They  took  the  consonantal  textus  recephu  just 
as  it  stood,  and  finally  settled  it  in  the  minutest 
details,  as  is  seen  from  the  variants  which  became 

2  Their  *  flatter  of  controversy  between  the 
^^y]^^  East  and  the  West,  the  Babylonians  and 
the  Palestinians,  which  to  the  number 
of  216  Jacob  ben  Hayyim  published  for  the 
first  time  in  the  second  edition  of  the  Bomberg 
Rabbinic  Bible;  these  have  reference  mostly  to 
the  vowel-points.  This  list  of  variants,  as  is 
now  known,  is  by  no  means  complete.  They  also 
appended  critical  notes  to  the  text,  in  part  derived 
from  the  Talmudic  period,  in  part  new  (especially  the 
**  granmiatical  conjectures  ''),  showing  that  where, 
according  to  the  grammar  and  the  genius  of  the 
language,  one  should  expect  another  reading, 
nevertheless  the  text  must  stand.  Finally  the 
great  majority  of  the  alternative  "  readings " 
date  from  the  Masoretes. 

The  Masoretes  fixed  the  reading  of  the  text  by 
the  introduction  of  the  vowel-signs,  the  accents, 
and  the  signs  which  affect  the  reading  of  the  con- 
sonants (dagheshf  mappik,  raphe,  and  the  dia- 
critical point  to  distinguish  between  the  letters 
"  sin  "  and  *'8hin  '*)•  The  pronundation  they  thus 
brought  about  was  no  invention,  but  embodied 
the  current  tradition.  Nevertheless,  one  can  not 
accept  every  Masoretio  reading  as  infallible  and 
unchangeable,  espedally  when  one  considers  that 
the  tradition  no  doubt  often  fluctuated  and  that 
with  such  fluctuation  the  less  correct  reading  may 
often  have  come  into  the  text.  Besides  the  system 
found  in  the  majority  of  manuscripts,  there 
exists  another  which  has  only  recently  become 
known  called  the  "  superlinear  "  system,  because 
the  vowel-signs  are  placed  above  the  letters;  this  is 
found  in  some  Babylonian  and  South  Arabian 
manuscripts.  The  same  is  also  the  case  with  the 
accents. 

The  division  of  the  text  into  verses,  introduced 
by  the  Masoretes,  was  neither  Babylonian  nor 
Palestinian,  but  one  which  the  Masoretes  them- 
selves seem  to  have  established.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  period  the  end  of  the  verses  was  marked  by 
8oph  pcutukf  and,  when  the  accents  were  introduced, 
by  sUluk  besides.  The  old  sections  were  retained, 
though  not  recognized  as  entirely  correct,  and 
the  old  traditional  sign  for  the  section,  the  smaller 
spacing  (the  little  D  in  printed  texts),  was  respected. 
The  closed  sections  were  marked  in  manuscripts 
and  prints  by  a  D,  the  open  ones  by  a  &  in  the 
empty  space  before  the  initial  word.  In  addition 
there  were  introduced  the  Babylonian  division  into 
sections  or  parashiyoth  (in  the  law)  and  haph- 
taroth  (in  the  prophets),  for  Sabbath  public  read- 
ing. As  these  sections  generally  agree  with  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  an  open  or  closed  sec- 
tion, they  were  marked  by  a  threefold  D  [i.e.,  D  &  &] 
or  D  [D  D  D]  in  the  empty  space  before  the 
beginning. 

But  even  these  efforts  could  not  entirely  remove 
variations.  Hence,  before  the  end  of  this  period, 
the  learned  either  attempted  to  find  out  by  an 
elaborate  comparison  the  correct  punctuation  and 
to  fix  it,  or  marked  the  important  variations  in  the 
punctuation,  or  added  a  caution  to  each  apparently 


Bible  Text 


THE    NEW    SCHAFF-HERZOG 


98 


strange  and  yet  correct  punctuation.  The  greater 
mass  of  notes  which  the  Masoretes  added  to  the  text 
relate  to  these  matters.  Besides  some 
8.  Oodioes.  other  Masoretic  manuscripts  of  the 
Bible  which  are  quoted  in  the  Maso- 
retic notes  of  the  codices  or  in  the  writings  of  the 
rabbis  as  authoritative,  such  as  the  codex  Hilleli, 
the  Jericho-Pentateuch,  and  others,  two  codices 
were  especially  famous  as  model  codices  of  the  Old 
Testament,  the  codex  of  Naphtali  (Moses  ben  David 
ben  Naphtali)  and  the  codex  of  Asher  (Aaron 
ben  Moses  ben  Asher),  both  from  the  first  half  of 
the  tenth  century.  (Aaron  lived  at  Tiberias,  Moses 
in  Babylon;  but  the  latter  can  not  be  regarded  as 
a  representative  of  the  "  Babylonian  "  text-tra- 
dition.) They  were  once  much  examined  by  schol- 
ars; many  of  their  variants  are  noted  in  the  Maso- 
retic Bible-manuscripts;  a  list  of  864  (better  867) 
variants,  which  refer  almost  exclusively  to  vowels 
and  accents,  has  been  published  after  Jacob  ben 
Hayyim  in  Bomberg's  and  the  other  Rabbinic 
Bibles,  as  well  as  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  London 
Polyglot;  but  these  variants  are  neither  correct 
nor  complete.  On  the  codex  of  Asher  finally  rests 
the  whole  Masoretic  text  of  the  Occidentals;  of  the 
variant  readings  comparatively  few  were  received 
into  it. 

As  the  older  scribes  had  already  shown  extraor- 
dinary solicitude  for  the  preservation  of  the  text 
and  its  correct  reading  by  counting  its  sections, 
verses,  words,  letters,  and  by  noting  where  and  how 
often  and  when  certain  words,  letters,  or  anomalies 
occur  in  the  Bible,  which  verse  is  the  longest  and 
which  the  shortest,  and  like  minutise,  the  Masoretes 
of  course  continued  this  work,  wrote  it  down,  and 
preserved  it  in  manuscripts. 

The  punctuation  of  the  text  as  developed  by  the 
Masoretes  proved  itself  so  useful  and  met  so  well  an 
essential  need  of  those  later  times  that  it  soon  went 
over  into  manuscripts  and,  with  the  exception  of 
synagogue-manuscripts,  almost  none  were  written 
which  did  not  contain  either  the  pointed  text  alone 
or  the  pointed  beside  the  unpointed.  The  other 
Masoretic  material  was  written  either  beside  and 
below  the  text  of  the  Biblical  books  on  the  margins 
and  at  the  close  of  the  same,  or  in  separate  masorah- 
collections  (see  Masorah). 

8.  The  PoBtmasoretio  Peziod:  After  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Masoretic  textual  work  and  the 
collection  of  the  notes  having  reference  to  it,  no 
essential  change  was  made  in  the  text;  conse- 
quently this  period  is  the  time  of  the  faithful 
preservation,  multiplication,  and  circulation  of  the 
Masoretic  text.  An  essential  innovation  was  the 
introduction  of  the  now  customary  division  into 
_,^        chapters,   which    was    invented     by 

ChastM'-    Stephen  Langton  at  the  beginning  of 

Division.  ^^®  thirteenth  century,  and  applied 
to  the  Vulgate.  Isaac  ben  Nathan 
adopted  it  for  his  Hebrew  concordance  (1437-38, 
published  1523),  on  which  occasion  the  verses  of 
the  chapters  were  also  numbered.  The  chapter- 
division  was  first  applied  to  the  Hebrew  in  the 
second  edition  of  Bomberg's  Bible,  1521 ;  the  num- 
bering of  verses  was  first  adopted  for  the  Sabi- 
onetta   Pentateuch,   1557,  and   that  of  the  whole 


Bible  in  Athias's  edition  of  1661  (see  below,  III. 
§§1-2). 

Another  feature  of  this  period  is  that  a  suffident 
number  of  manuscripts  is  preserved  to  give  an 
immediate  knowledge  of  the  text.  The  Hebrew 
Bible-manuscripts  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  public  or  sacred  and  the  private 
or  common.  The  first  were  synagogue-roUs. 
and  have  been  prepared  so  carefully 
2.  Old  Tea-  j^^j  watched  so  closely  that  the 
toment  intrusion  of  variants  and  mistakes 
■orists  ^^  hardly  possible.  But  they  con- 
tain only  the  Pentateuch  or  the  Pen- 
tateuch with  the  five  Megilloth  or  "Rolls"  (i.e., 
Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  E^xdesi- 
astes,  Esther),  and  the  haphtaroth  (see  above,  2, 
§  1)  in  the  text  of  the  Masoretes  without  their 
additions.  These  manuscripts  are,  for  the  most 
part,  of  recent  origin,  although  antique  in  form,  be- 
ing written  on  leather  or  parchment.  The  pri- 
vate manuscripts  are  written  on  the  same  material, 
and  also  upon  paper  in  book  form,  with  the  Maso- 
retic additions  more  or  less  complete.  It  is  often 
difficult,  indeed  impossible,  to  determine  the  date 
and  country  of  these  manuscripts.  But  none  of 
those  now  known  are  really  very  old.  The  oldest 
authentic  date  is  916  a. d.  for  the  codex  oontaining 
the  prophets  with  Babylonian  punctuation,  and 
1009  A..D.  for  an  entire  Hebrew  Bible,  both  of  which 
belong  to  the  Firkowitsch  collection  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  According  to  the  most 
recent  investigation  the  MS.  orient.  4445  in  the 
British  Museum  (containing  Gen.  xxv,  20-Deui.  i, 
33)  may  be  a  little  older.  As  a  rule  the  oldest 
manuscripts  are  the  more  accurate.  The  number 
of  errors  that  crept  in,  especially  in  private  manu- 
scripts, which  were  prepared  without  any  official 
oversight,  awakened  solicitude  and  led  to  well- 
directed  efforts  to  get  a  pure  text  by  means  of 
collating  good  Masorah-manuscripts  (cf.  B.  Ken- 
nicott,  LHssertatio  generaliSf  Oxford,  1780,  1-lvi; 
J.  G.  Eichhom,  EinUUung,  Leipsic,  1803,  136bV 
In  this  line  the  labors  of  Meir  ha-Levi  of  Toledo 
(d.  1244)  in  his  work  on  the  Pentateuch  called 
"The  Masorah,  the  Hedge  of  the  Law"  (Florence, 
1750;  Berlin,  1761)  are  celebrated. 

The  art  of  printing  opened  a  way  of  eacttpe  from 
copyists'  errors,  and  it  was  taken  very  cariy.    The 
Pbalter  was  printed  first,  at  Bologna  in  1477  [on 
the  earlier  prints,  cf .  B.  Pick,  History  of  the  Prinied 
Edituma  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  Hebraica,  ix  (1892- 
1893),  47-116],  the  first  complete  Bible  at  Soncioo 
g  _-         in  1488;  Gerson's  edition  (the  edition 
Printed     ^^^^  Luther  used  for  his  translation) 
Text.       followed    (Brescia,    1494).     Substan- 
tially the  same  text  is  contained  in 
the  first    edition   of    Bomberg's    Rabbinic    Bible 
(1517;  see  Bibles,  Rabbinic),  also  in  the  editions 
of  Robert  Stephens  (1539  sqq.)  and  of  Sebastian 
MUnster.    The  second  independent  edition  derived 
from    manuscripts  is  that  in  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  (1514-17;  see  Biblbb,  Polyglot,  I).    The 
text  has  vowels  but  no  accents.    The  third  impo> 
tant  recension  is  contained  in  the  Biblia  Rabtnnica 
Bombergiana,  ed,  II.,  cura  R,  Jacob  hen  Chajim 
(Venice,  1525-26);   it  is  edited  acoordiug  to  the 


)9 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


Uasorah,  which  the  editor  first  revised,  and  con- 
tains the  entire  Maaoretic  and  Rabbinic  apparatus, 
[t  is  more  or  less  reproduced  in  prints  published 
during  the  sixteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
Kventeenth  centuries.  Besides  these  original  re- 
censions, editions  were  published  having  a  mixed 
text;  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglot 
(1569-72),  which  is  followed  by  the  small  editions 
of  Plantin,  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  and  the 
editions  of  Reineccius,  is  based  upon  that  of  the 
Complutensian  and  Bomberg.  Another  recension 
is  represented  in  the  editions  of  Elias  Hutter  (1587), 
Buztorf,  and  Joseph  Athias  with  preface  by  J. 
Leusden  (1661  sqq.),  for  which  some  very  ancient 
manuscripts  were  collated.  Athias's  edition  be- 
came also  the  basis  of  later  editions  like  that  of 
Jablonski  (1699),  Van  der  Hooght  (1705),  Opitz 
.1709),  J.  H.  Michaelis  (1720),  Hahn  (1832),  and 
Theile  (1S49). 

None  of  these  editions  presents   the  Masoretic 
text  in  its  original  form.    The  large  collections  of 
variants    by    B.    Kennicott,    Veiiuf    Testamentum 
Htbraiewn  cum  variia  leetionibus   (2  vols.,  Oxford, 
1776-80),  more    especially   by    De    Rossi,    Varia 
ledianea  Veieris  Testamenti  (4  vols.,  Parma,  1784- 
88)  uidSupplementa  ad  varias  aacri  textua  lectionea 
(1798),  are  valuable  for  some  Extramasoretic  read- 
ings which  they  offer,  but  they  are  less  valuable 
for  critical   purposes.     More   important  for  text- 
critical  purposes  are  (besides  the  work  of  Meir  ha- 
Levi,  ut  sup.)  the  "  Light  of  the  Law  "  of  Mena- 
hem  de  Lonsano  (Venice,  1618)  and 
^Crltieal  particularly  the  critical  commentary 
^^™*^on    the  Old  Testament  by  Solomon 
^J[^2^"   Minorxi    (Mantua,    1742-44;    Vienna, 
1813),  the  works  of  Wolf  ben  Samson 
Heidenheim,  and  especially  the  thorough  work  on 
the  Maaorah  by  S.   Frenisdorff   {Maasora  magna, 
part  I.  Hanover,  1876,  and  Oldah  we-Oklah,  1864). 
Of  great  service  were  the  publication  of  the  works 
of  the  oldest    Jewish    grammarians  and  lexicog- 
raphers and  the  discovery  of  fragments  and  publi- 
cation of  codices  like  that  on  the  prophets  of  the 
year  916  (published  by  Strack,  Prophetarum  poa- 
tmorum  codex  Babylonicua  PetrapolUanua,  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1876).    The  fruits  of  these  preliminary 
works  are  contained  in  the  correct  editions  of  the 
Masoretic  text  by  Baer  and  Ginsburg.   Baer,  who 
vas  assisted  by  Delitxsch,  published  the  Old  Testa- 
ment with  the   exception  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  and    Deuteronomy  [both   editors   died 
without  completing  their  work].     Ginsburg's  edi- 
tion is  entitled  The  New  Maaaaretico-CrUical  Text 
of  ihe  Hdrew  BMe  [2  vols.,  London,    1894.      It 
should  be  studied  with  the  same  author's  indis- 
pensable  Introduction    to    the    Maaaoretico-crUical 
Edition  of  the  H^ew  BibU  (London,  1897)]. 

Valuable  as  such  correct  editions  of  the  Masoretic 
text  are,  they  represent  only  a  single  recension, 
whose  source  is  the  textua  recepiua  mentioned  above, 
which  was  fixed  in  the  first  Christian  centuries. 
With  this  recension  the  textHritical  and  exegetical 
treatment  of  the  Old  Testament  can  not  be  satisfied. 
Before  the  received  text  was  made  canonical  there 
existed  different  forms  of  the  text,  which  in  many 
uses   stood    nearer    to    the    original  than  that 


sanctioned  by  the  Jews.  The  main  witness  here 
is  the  Septuagint,  a  correct  edition  of  which  is 
an  absolutely  necessary  though  extremely  difficult 
task.  But  Old  Testament  textual  criticism  can 
not  be  satisfied  with  a  comparison  even  with  this 
older  form  of  the  text.  In  many  cases  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  text  is  so  old  that  only  a  criticism 
both  cautious  and  bold  can  approximate  to  the 
genuine  text.  In  modem  times  some  very  impor- 
tant contributions  have  been  made,  such  as  J. 
Olshausen,  Emendationen  tum  Alien  Testament 
(Kiel,  1826);  idem,  Beiirdge  tur  Kritik  des  Hberlie- 
ferten  Textea  im  Buche  Geneaia  (1870);  J.  Well- 
hausen.  Text  der  Bucher  Samuelia  (Gdttingen, 
1871);  F.  Baethgen,  Zu  den  Paalmen,  in  JPT 
(1882);  0.  H.  Comill,Das  Buch  dea  Propheten  Eze- 
chiel  (Leipsic,  1886);  S.  R.  Driver,  Notea  on  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Booka  of  Samud  (London, 
1890);  A.  Klostermann,  Die  Bucher  Samuelia  und 
der  Kdnige  (Munich,  1887),  idem,  Deutero^eaaia 
(Munich,  1893);  G.  Beer,  Der  Text  dea  Buchea 
Hiob  (part  i,  Marburg,  1895);  and  the  Sacred 
Booka  of  the  Old  Teatament  '(the  so-called  Poly- 
chrome or  Rainbow  Bible),  ed.  P.  Haupt  (Balti- 
more, London,  and  Leipsic,  1894  sqq.). 

(F.  Buhl.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Beridee  the  introduetionB  to  the  Old  Testa^ 
ment  (especially  of  J.  Q.  Eiohhom,  4th  ed.,  Gfittingen. 
1823-26:  W.  Bf.  L.  de  Wette.  8th  ed.  by  E.  Sohrader.  pp. 
111-166.  Berlin.  1809;  C.  H.  Cornill.  if  49-^63.  Freiburg. 
1906;  F.  E.  KOnig.  if  3-30.  92.  Bonn,  1893;  C.  H.  H. 
Wright.  London.  1891.  and  W.  H.  Bennett,  ib.  1900)  and 
the  worka  mentioned  in  the  text  consult:  J.  Morinua.  Ex- 
crcifaljonum  hibliearum  de  Htbrmi  Oracique  textua  ein- 
eeriiate  libri  duo,  Paris.  1609;  L.  Cap^llus.  Critica  eacra, 
Paris,  1650.  new  edition  with  notes  by  Vogel  and  Schar- 
fenberg.  Halle.  1776-86;  H.  Hody.  De  bibliorutn  textibue 
oriointdUnu,  Oxford.  1705;  H.  Hupfeld.  in  TSK,  1830. 
1837;  A.  Qeiger.  Uredirift  und  Uebereeteunoen  der  BibO, 
Breslau.  1857;  L.  Loew.  BeUr&ge  eur  jUdiMchen  AUerthume* 
kunde,  Leipsic.  1870  (deals  with  materials  and  products 
of  writing);  H.  L.  Strack.  Proleoomena  criHea  in  Vetue 
Teetamenium  Hebraieum,  Leipsic.  1873  (very  full  upon  ex- 
tant and  lost  liSS..  and  on  the  testimony  of  the  Talmud  to 
the  text);  A.  Kuenen.  Lee  Orxginee  du  texte  maeorHique 
(from  the  Dutch),  Paris,  1875;  Palmooraphieal  Society, 
Oriental  Serie§t  Faceimilee  of  M33.  and  Ineeriptiane,  Lon- 
don, 1875-^  (deals  with  many  important  codices  of  the 
O.  T.);  A.  Harkavy.  Neuaufoefuiidene  h^dieche  Bibel- 
handaehriften,  St.  Petersburg.  1884  (characterises  fifty-one 
Hebrew  MSS.  and  fragments);  V.  Ryssel,  Unterauehun- 
gen  Hber  die  Textgeatalt  und  die  Echtheit  dea  Budua  MicKa, 
Leipsic.  1887  (198  pages  concern  the  text);  G.  C.  Work- 
man, The  Text  of  Jeremiah,  a  Critical  Inveatioation  of  the 
Oreek  and  Hebrew,  Edinburgh,  1889:  T.  K.  Abbott,  Eaaaya 
ehiafiv  on  the  Orioinal  Texta  of  the  Old  and  New  Teatamente, 
London.  1891  (on  Masoretic  and  Premasoretic  text);  F. 
Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text  dea  Allen  Teatamente,  Leipsic,  1891, 
Eng.  transl..  Edinburgh,  1892  (useful  for  beginners);  A. 
Loisy,  Hiatoire  critique  du  texte  et  dea  veraione  de  la  Bible, 
2  Tols..  Paris,  1892-95;  F.  G.  Kenyon,  Our  BibU  and  the 
Ancient  MSS.,  Being  a  Hiatory  of  the  Text  and  iU  Trana- 
lationa,  London,  1896;  W.  A.  0>pinger.  The  Bible  and  iU 
Tranemiaaion,  .  .  .  View  of  the  Hebrew  and  Oreek  Texta, 
London,  1897;  E.  Kautssch.  Abriee  der  OeadtiehU  dea 
altteatamientliehen  Schrifttume,  in  appendix  to  his  edition 
of  Die  heUiae  Sduift,  Freiburg.  1896.  Eng.  transl.  as  a 
separate  work.  New  York.  1899;  T.  H.  Weir.  A  Short 
Hiatory  of  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Teatament,  London. 
1899;  R.  Kittel.  Ueber  die  NolwendiokeU  und  MdoUchkeU 
einer  neuen  Auatfobe  der  hebrdiaehen  Bibel,  Leipsic.  1902; 
P.  Kahle.  Der  maaeretiadte  Text  dee  aUen  Teatamente  nach 
der  Ueberlieferuno  der  babyloniecksn  Juden,  Leipsic.  1902; 
T.  K.  Cheyne.  Critica  bibliea,  parts  1-5,  London.  1903- 
1905;  F.  W.  Mosley,  Paalter  of  the  Church;  Septuagint  Paalma 
Compared  with  the  Hebrew,  ib.  1905.  On  the  ancient  He- 
brew and  square  writing   consult:  D.  Ton  Muralt,  Bei- 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


100 


trlige  no*  h^Aisdien  PalAooraphie  und  nor  OetdtidUe  der 
^  Punktuation,  in  TSK,  1874;  S.  R.  Driver.  Notea  on  ths 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Book*  of  Samuel^  pp.  xi-xzxv,  London, 
1890;  Vollers.  in  ZATW,  1883.  pp.  229  sqq.;  L.  Blau, 
Zur  Einleitung  in  die  heilige  Schrift,  pp.  48-80.  Strasburg, 
1894;  R.  Butin.  The  Ten  Neqrudoth  of  the  Torah;  or  the 
Meaning  and  Purpoee  of  the  Extraordinary  Pointe  of  the 
Pentateuch,  Baltimore,  1906  (an  important  and  Bcientifio 
discussion  of  textual  critical  value).  On  the  Masoretio 
material  in  the  Talmud  and  Ifidrash  consult:  H.  L.  Strack, 
ProUoomena  eritioa  in  Vetue  Tettamentum^  ut  sup.;  L. 
Blau,  Maeoretieehe  Untereudiunoen,  Strasburg,  1891;  idem, 
Zur  Einleituno  in  die  heilige  Schrift,  100  sqq.,  ut  sup.  On 
the  vowels  and  accents  (especially  on  the  superlincar 
system)  cf.  Strack's  edition  of  the  Babylonian  codex  of 
the  prophets,  p.  vii.  ut  sup.;  idem,  Zeiteehrift  far  die  ge- 
eammte  luthtrieche  Thtologie  und  Kirche,  1877,  pp.  17-52; 
idem,  in  WieaeneehafUiche  Jahretberichte  iiber  die  mor- 
gerd&ndiachen  Studien,  1879.  p.  124;  J.  Derenbourg,  in  Re- 
vue critique,  1879,  pp.  463  sqq.;  W.  Wickes,  A  Treatiee 
on  the  Accentuation  of  the  Three  Poetical  Books,  1881;  A 
Treatise  on  (he  Accentuation  of  the  twenty-one  eo-caUed 
Proae-Booke,  pp.  142  sqq.,  London,  1887;  G.  F.  Moore,  in 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  1888;  D.  S. 
Margoliouth,  The  Superlinear  Punctuation,  in  PSBA,  1893, 
pp.  164-205;  A.  Btichler.  Untersuchungen  zur  Entsiehung 
und  Entuyickelung  der  hebrAischen  Accente,  Vienna,  1892. 
On  the  division  into  sections,  chapters,  etc.,  cf.  REJ,  iii, 
282  sqq..  vi,  122  sqq.,  250  sqq.,  vii,  146  sqq.;  Theodor, 
in  Monatsschrift  fUr  Geschichte  und  Wissenschaft  dee  Juden- 
thums,  1885,  1886,  1887;  O.  Schmid,  Ueber  verschiedene 
Einteilungen  der  heiligen  Schrift,  Gras.  1891.  The  cata- 
logues of  Hebrew  MSS.  are  mentioned  in  H.  L.  Strack, 
Prolegomena,  pp.  29-33,  119-121,  ut  sup.;  idem,  in  Ein- 
leituTigindas  A.  T.,  p.  182,  Munich,  1898;  and  with  special 
fulness  in  Ginsburg,  Introduction,  ut  sup. 

IL  The  New  Testament — 1.  History  of  the  Writ- 
ten Text:  The  autographs  of  the  New  Testament 
very  early  disappeared,  owing  to  the  constant  use 
of  the  perishable  papyrus;  for  this  appears  to  have 
been  the  material  (II  John  12).  If  they  were 
really  not  in  the  handwriting  of  the  apostles,  but 
in  that  of  their  amanuenses,  as  Paul's  Epistles 
generally  were  (Rom.  xvi,  22;  II  Thees.  iii,  17), 
it  is  easier  to  account  for  the  phenomenon.  The 
papyrus  rolls  preserved  to  the  present  day  were 
never  much  used;  indeed,  the  most  of  them  have 
been  found  in  sarcophagi,  and  so,  of  course,  were 
never  used  at  all.  The  ink  was  lampblack  mixed 
with  gum  dissolved  in  water,  copperas 
1,  The  An-  (sulphate  of  iron)  being  sometimes 
t<wpaphe  of  added.  The  pen  was  of  reed  (coLa- 
Teetanumt  ^***)-  "^^^  writing  was  entirely  in 
Booke.  uncials  (capitals),  with  no  separation 
of  the  words  (except  rarely  to  indicate 
the  beginning  of  a  new  paragraph),  no  breathings, 
accents,  or  distinction  of  initial  letters,  and  few,  if 
any,  marks  of  punctuation.  The  evangelists  may 
have  denominated  their  compositions  "  Gospels," 
although  Justin  regularly  speaks  of  the  ''  Memoirs 
of  the  Apostles  ";  but  all  addition  to  the  name  is 
later,  and  presupposes  a  collection  of  the  Gospels. 
In  the  case  of  the  Epistles  the  brief  address,  e.g., 
"  To  the  Romans,"  was  probably  added  by  the 
original  sender,  and  other  marks  of  genuineness 
given  (cf.  II  Thess.  iii,  17).  The  Muratorian  Canon 
(second  half  of  the  second  century;  see  Mura- 
torian Canon)  calls  Acts  and  the  Apocalypse  by 
these  names,  and  so  proves  the  early  use  of  these 
designations.  The  designation  "  Catholic  (i.e..  Gen- 
eral) Epistle  "  is  first  met  with  at  the  close  of  the  sec- 
ond century  (ApoUonius,  in  Eusebius,  HisL  eccl.,  V, 
zviii,  5,  where  the  First  Epistle  of  John  is  probably 


meant).  The  application  and  limiting  of  the  tenn 
to  the  whole  of  the  present  collection  is  of  Uter 
date;  for  even  in  the  third  and  fourth  century  it 
was  customary  to  give  this  term  to  epistles,  like 
that  of  Barnabas  or  those  of  Dionymus  of  Ck)niith, 
which  were  not  specially  addressed. 

The  external  history  of  the  New  Testament 
text  for  a  thousand  years  prior  to  the  invention 
of  printing  can  be  traced  by  means  of  manuscripts. 
Before  the  formal  close  of  the  canon  (end  of  fourth 
century)  there  were  probably  few  single  manu- 
scripts  of  the  entire  New  Testament. 
2.  The  Qf  ^jjg  three  thousand  known  manu- 
■orinte  ^rip^  of  the  New  Testament,  only 
about  thirty  include  all  the  books. 
Some  of  those  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  century  now 
preserved  contain  not  only  the  Greek  Old  Testa- 
ment (K,  A,  B,  C),  but  also  writings  which,  though 
not  canonical,  were  read  in  churches  and  studied 
by  catechumens.  Thus,  attached  to  the  Coda 
Sinaiticus  (K)  were  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas;  to  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus  (A),  two  "  epistles  "  ascribed  to  Clement  of 
Rome  (q.v.)  and  the  so-caUed  PsaUerium  Solo- 
monis.  The  four  Gospels  were  most  frequently 
copied,  the  Pauline  Epistles  oftener  than  the 
Cathohc  Epistles  or  the  Acts,  least  often  the  Apoc- 
alypse. The  Gospels  were  usually  arranged  in  the 
present  order,  then  came  the  Pauline  Epistles,  the 
Acts,  and  the  Cathohc  Epistles;  the  Apocalypse 
always  last.  The  arrangement  of  the  Epistles 
differed;  indeed,  there  was  no  model.  (Cta  the 
various  arrangements  cf.  C.  A.  Credner,  Geschichte 
des  neiUestamerUlichen  Kanons,  ed.  G.  Volkmar, 
BerUn,  1860;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prolegomena,  Leipsif, 
1884,  pp.  131  sqq.;  T.  Zahn,  Geschichte  des  neutesta- 
mentlichen  Kanons,  Erlangen,  1883,  ii,  343  sqq.) 

After  papyrus  had  gone  out  of  use,  parchment 
or  vellum  came  in  and  was  used  from  ths  fourth 
to  the  eleventh  century;  then  came  in  cotton  paper, 
and  afterward  linen  paper  (cf .  W.  Watt^nbach,  Dm 
Schriftwesen  im  MittelaUer,  Leipsic,  1896,  pp.  l''>9 
sqq.).  The  growing  scarcity  of  parchment  W 
to  the  reuse  of  the  old  skins,  the  former  writing 
being  erased  or  washed  off;  and  imfortunately  it 
oftener  happened  that  it  was  a  Biblical  manuscript 
which  was  thus  turned  into  a  patristic  one  than  the 
reverse.  Such  manuscripts  are  termed  Coduxi 
palimpsesti  (palimpsests)  or  rescript 
3.  Their  By  the  use  of  chemicals  the  origi- 
Material  nal  text  has  often  been  recovered  in 
and  Form,  modem  times.  The  most  famous 
New  Testament  palimpsest  is  the 
Codex  Ephraemi  (C),  of  the  fifth  century,  rewritten 
upon  in  the  twelfth.  As  papyrus  disappeared 
from  use,  the  book  form  was  generally  substituted 
for  the  rolls,  in  manuscripts  written  on  parchment 
or  paper.  The  books  were  mostly  made  up  of 
quaternions,  i.e.,  quires  of  four  sheets,  doubled  so 
as  to  make  sixteen  pages,  less  frequently  of  fi^*e, 
though  later  quires  of  six  sheets  were  common. 
The  division  of  the  page  into  columns  was  at  first 
retained,  two  being  the  usual  number  (e.g.,  Cod. 
Alex.);  but  in  many  manuscripts  (e.g.,  Cod, 
Ephraemi)  the  lines  ran  across  the  page.  [iBxcep- 
tionally,  K  has  four  columns,  B  three.]    From  the 


101 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


Sections. 


aeventh  and  ei^th  centuries  the  present  accents 
were  more  or  less  used,  but  very  arbitrarily  and 
irregularly.  The  uncials  gradually  changed  their 
earlier  simple  round  or  square  forms,  and  from  the 
tenth  century  yielded  to  the  cursives.  The  earliest 
punctuation  was  by  means  of  a  blank  space  and  a 
simple  point.  Euthalius,  a  deacon  in  Alexandria, 
in  the  year  458  published  an  edition  of  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  and  soon  after  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic 
Epistles,  written  stichometrically,  i.e.,  in  single 
lines  containing  only  so  many  words  as  could  be 
read,  consistently  with  the  sense,  at  a  single  inspira- 
tion. This  mode  of  writing  was  used  long  before 
in  copying  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  involved,  however,  a  great  waste  of  parchment, 
80  that,  in  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  it 
was  superseded  after  a  few  centuries  by  punctuation- 
marks. 

Dirisions  of  the  text  were  early  made  for  vari- 
ous purposes.  In  the  third  century  Anmionius 
of  Alexandria  (q.v.)  prepared  a  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels,  taking  the  text  of  Matthew  as  the  basis. 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  in  the  early 
4.  The  Am-  p^,^  ^f  ^jjg  fourth  century,  availing 
himself  of  the  work  of  Ammonius, 
divided  the  text  of  each  Gospel  into 
sections,  the  length  of  which,  varying  greatly 
(in  John  xix,  6  there  are  three,  and  in  twenty- 
four  other  instances  two,  in  a  single  verse),  was 
detemiined  solely  by  their  relation  of  parallelism 
or  similarity  to  passages  in  one  or  more  of 
the  other  Gospels,  or  by  their  having  no  parallel. 
These  sections  (often  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Ammonius)  were  then  numbered  consecutively 
in  the  margin  of  the  Gospel  in  black  ink;  Matthew 
having  355,  Mark  233  (not  236),  Luke  342,  and 
John  232.  They  were  distributed  by  Eusebius 
into  ten  tables  or  canons  prefixed  to  the  (jospels, 
and  containing  the  sections  corresponding  in — 

I.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  71. 
II.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  111. 

III.  Matthew,  Luke,  John,  22. 

IV.  Matthew,  Mark,  John,  26. 
V.  Matthew,  Luke,  82. 

VI.  Matthew,  Mark,  47. 
VII.  Matthew,  John,  7. 
VIII.  Luke,  Mark,  14. 
DC.  Luke,  John,  21. 

X.  Sections  peculiar  to  Matthew  62,  Mark 
21,  Luke  71,  John  97. 

Under  the  number  of  each  section  in  the  mar- 
gin of  the  several  Gospels  was  written  in  red  ink 
the  number  of  the  canon  or  table  to  which  it  be- 
longed. On  turning  to  its  place  in  this  table,  the 
number  of  the  corresponding  section  or  sections 
in  the  other  Gospels  stands  with  it,  so  that  the  paral- 
lel passages  may  readily  be  found.  For  example, 
the  first  verse  of  Matt,  iv  forms  the  fifteenth 
Eusebian  section;  the  number  two  under  this 
refers  to  the  second  canon  or  table,  where  it  appears 
that  section  fifteen  in  Matthew  corresponds  to  six  in 
Hsrk,  and  fifteen  in  Luke;  i.e.,  to  Mark  i,  12,  and 
Luke  iv,  1.  In  some  manuscripts  the  parallel  sec- 
tions are  indicated  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  They 
thus  correspond  to  our  marginal  references.  Cf .  Euse- 


bius, Epiat.  ad  Carpianum ;  J.  Burgon,  The  Last 
Tioelve  Verses  of  S,  Mark  (London,  187 1 ),  pp.  295  sqq. 

Wholly  different  in  character  and  purpose  from 
the  Eusebian  sections,  and  probably  older,  is  a 
division  of  the  Gospels  into  sections  called  tiUoi, 
also  kephalaia  majora  (in  Latin  manuscripts, 
breves),  found  in  most  manuscripts  from  the  Alex- 
andrine and  the  Ephraem  (A,  C)  of  the  fifth  century 
onward.    Of  these  sections   Matthew 

T?;,^^^  contains  68,  Mark  48,  Luke  83,  John 
of  the  T^STt  ^^'  "^^^  numbers  by  which  they  are 
'  designated  in  the  margin  of  manu- 
scripts refer  to  the  titles  describing  their  con- 
tents at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  page,  or  in 
a  list  prefixed  to  each  Gospel,  or  often  in  both 
places.  A  certain  portion  at  the  beginning  of 
each  Gospel  is  not  numbered;  for  example,  the 
first  chapter  in  Matthew  corresponds  with  our 
chap,  ii,  1-15,  and  is  entitled  peri  tdn  magOny  **  Con- 
cerning the  Magi."  There  is  a  similar  division 
in  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  to  which  Euthalius  (about 
458  A.D.),  though  not  its  inventor,  gave  wide  cur- 
rency by  his  stichometric  edition  of  these  books. 
The  Apocalypse  was  divided  by  Andrew,  bishop  of 
Csesarea  in  Cappadocia  (about  500  a.d.),  into 
twenty-four  logoi,  or  chapters,  and  each  of  these 
chapters  into  three  kephalaiOf  or  sections,  the 
former  nimiber  answering  to  the  twenty-four  elders 
spoken  of  in  the  book  (Rev.  iv,  4);  the  latter 
suggested  by  the  threefold  division  of  human  nature 
into  body,  soul,  and  spirit  (comp.  I  Thess.  v,  23), 
as  the  author  himself  declares.  In  the  Vatican 
manuscript  (B),  there  is  a  division  of  the  Gospels 
into  much  shorter  chapters  (Matt.  170,  Mark  62, 
Luke  152,  John  80),  very  judiciously  made.  This 
has  been  found  in  only  one  other  manuscript,  the 
Codex  Zacynthius  (H).  In  the  Acts  and  Epis- 
tles the  Vatican  manuscript  has  a  twofold  divi- 
sion into  chapters, — one  very  ancient,  the  other 
later,  but  both  different  from  the  Euthalian.  In 
the  older  division,  the  Pauline  Epistles  are  treated 
as  one  book.  (For  further  details  see  Tischendorf, 
Novum  TestamerUum  Vaiicanumy  Leipsic,  1867,  p. 
xxx;  Scrivener, /n^odtic^um,  i,  London,  1894,  pp.  56 
sqq.)  Other  ancient  divisions  of  the  New  Testament 
into  chapters  were  more  or  less  widely  current, 
especially  in  Latin  and  Syriac  manuscripts. 

The  superscriptions,  "  Epistle  of  Paul,"  "  Catho- 
lic Epistles,"  etc.,  can  not  be  earlier  than  the  fourth 
century,  since  they  imply  a  canonical  collection. 
The  subscriptions  at  the  end  of  the  Pauline  Epistles 
in  many  manuscripts  are  generally  ascribed  to 
Euthalius.  At  least  six  of  these  are  untrustworthy 
(I  Cor.,  Gal.,  I  and  II  Thess.,  I  Tim.,  Tit.).  For 
the  modem  divisions  of  the  Bible  into  chapters 
and  verses  see  III  below. 

An  ancient  division  of  the  text  is  the  les- 
sons, or  lections,  from  the  Gospels  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Acts  and  Epistles  on 

6.  Divi-    the  other,  read  in  the  public  services 

■ions  for    of  ^he  Church.    The  history  of  these 

ttl  iKai^°'  is  obscure,  and  they  varied  much  at 

^         '    different    periods    and    in    different 

regions.    The  lessons  for  the  Sundays 

and  chief  festivals  of  the  year  seem  to  have  been 

the  eariiest;  next  were  added  lessons  for  the  Sat- 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


102 


urdaysy  and  finally  for  every  day  in  the  week, 
with  special  commemoration  of  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs. Euthalius  marked,  in  the  Acts,  16  of  these 
"lessons";  in  the  Catholic  Epistles,  10;  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  31;  in  all,  57.  He  was  prob- 
ably not,  as  many  have  supposed,  their  inventor. 
The  system  of  lessons  which  ultimately  prevailed 
in  the  Greek  Churoh  appears  in  our  evangelista- 
ries and  lectionaries  (more  properly  praxapostoli), 
containing  the  lessons  from  the  Gospels  and  the 
Acts  and  Epistles  respectively.  The  ordinary 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament  were  often 
adapted  for  church  service  by  marking  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  each  lesson,  with  a  note  in  the 
margin  of  the  time  or  occasion  for  reading  it,  and 
by  prefixing  to  them  a  Synaxarionf  or  table  of  the 
lessons  in  their  order;  sometimes  also  a  Meno- 
togiorif  or  calendar  of  the  inmiovable  festivals  and 
the  saints'  days,  with  their  appropriate  lessons. 

Turning  to  the  internal  history  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment text,  it  is  evident  that  its  original  purity 
was  early  lost.  The  quotations  of  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  contain  readings  which  agree 
with  later  texts,  but  are  not  apostolic.  Irenseus 
alludes  (Hcer,,  V,  xxx,  1)  to  the  difference  between 
the  copies;  and  Origen,  early  in  the  third  century, 
expressly  declares  that  matters  were  growing  worse 
(in  Matt,,  xix,  19,  vol.  iii,  p.  671,  ed.  De  la  Rue, 
Paris,  1733-59),  as  is  proved  by  the  quotations 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centuries. 
From  this  time  onward  we  have  the  manuscript 
text  of  each  century,  the  writings  of  the  Fathers, 
and  the  various  Oriental  and  Occidental  versions,  all 
testifying  to  varieties  of  reading  for  almost  every 
verse,  which  undoubtedly  occasioned  many  more 
or  less  important  departures  from  the 

7.  Early  sense  of  the  original  text.  How  came 
ttoTSf"     ^^^    The  early  Church  did  not  know 

the  Text,  anything  of  that  anxious  clinging 
to  the  letter  which  characterizes  the 
scientific  rigor  and  the  piety  of  modem  times, 
and  therefore  was  not  so  bent  upon  pre- 
serving the  exact  words.  Moreover,  the  first 
copies  were  made  rather  for  private  than  for  pub- 
lic use;  copyists  were  careless,  often  wrote  from 
dictation,  and  were  liable  to  misunderstand. 
Attempted  improvements  of  the  text  in  grammar 
and  style;  proposed  corrections  in  history  and 
geography;  efforts  to  harmonize  the  quotations 
in  the  New  Testament  with  the  Greek  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  but  especially  to  harmonize  the  Gospels; 
the  writing  out  of  abbreviations;  incorporation 
of  marginal  notes  in  the  text;  the  embellishing 
of  the  Gospel  narratives  with  stories  drawn  from 
non-apostolic  though  trustworthy  sources,  e.g., 
John  vii,  53  to  viii,  11,  and  Mark  xvi,  9  to  end, — 
it  is  to  these  causes  that  we  must  attribute  the  very 
nimierous  "  readings,''  or  textual  variations.  It 
is  true  that  the  copyists  were  sometimes  learned 
men;  but  their  zeal  in  making  corrections  may 
have  obscured  the  true  text  as  much  as  the  igno- 
rance of  the  imleamed.  The  copies,  indeed,  came 
under  the  eye  of  an  official  reviser;  but  he  may 
have  sometimes  exceeded  his  functions,  and  done 
more  harm  than  good  by  his  changes. 

Attempts  were  made  by  learned  Fathers  to  get 


the  original  text;  and  three  men  of  the  third  cen- 
tury— Origen,  the  Egyptian  Bishop  Hesycfaius, 
and  the  Presbyter  Lucian  of  Antioch — deserve 
mention  for  their  devotion  to  this  object.  The  last 
two  undertook  a  sort  of  recension  of  the  New 
Testament  (cf.  Jerome,  Epist.  ad  Damasum);  but 
it  is  not  known  exactly  what  they  did,  and  their 
influence  was  small.  In  regard  to  Origen,  while 
he  did  not  make  a  formal  recension  of  the  New 
Testament  text,  his  critical  work  was  of  the 
highest  importance.  Notwithstanding  these  diver- 
sities, there  were,  as  early  as  the  fourth  and  fifth 
centuries,  afiinities  between  manuscripts  prepared 
in  the  same  district,  which  seem  to  betray  certain 
tendencies,  as  is  proved  by  the  Fathers,  the  ver- 
sions, and  the  Greek  manuscripts  themselves. 
Thus  critics  are  justified  in  speaking  of  an  Oriental 
and  Occidental,  or,  more  correctly,  an  Alexandrian 
or  Egyptian,  and  a  Latin,  as  also  of  an  Asiatic  or 
Greek,  and  a  Byzantine  or  Constantinopolitan 
text.  According  to  this  theory,  the  Alexandrian 
was  used  by  those  Jewish  Christians  of  the  East 
who  already  used  the  Septuagint;  particularly  was 
this  text  preserved  and  spread  by  the 

8.  Varie-  learned  Alexandrian  school.  The 
ties  of      Latin  text  characterizes  not  only  the 

du^ed  to  nianuscripts  prepared  by  Latins,  but 
Early      the    Greek    manuscripts    they    used. 

OritioifaiL.  The  Asiatic  manuscripts  were  used 
chiefly  by  native  Greeks  in  Greece, 
or  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  having  intercourse  with 
Greece.  The  Byzantine  manuscripts  belonged  to 
the  Church  of  that  empire.  The  latter  alone  had  a 
certain  official  uniformity,  and  were,  in  the  latter 
centuries,  almost  the  only  manuscripts  circulated 
in  the  empire.  This  class  of  manuscripts  is  also 
the  only  one  perfectly  represented  in  existing 
documents,  and  is  the  result  of  the  gradual  mix- 
ture of  older  recensions  under  the  predominance 
of  the  Asiatic  or  Greek.  Each  of  these  recensions 
is  more  or  less  altered  and  corrupted;  so  that  it  is 
often  more  difficult  to  assign  a  particular  reading  to 
its  proper  class  than  to  find  out  the  original .  Finally, 
the  differences  and  relationships  are  by  far  most 
strongly  marked  in  the  Gospels,  least  so  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse, and  again  are  more  distinct  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles  and  the  Acts  than  in  the  Catholic  Epistles. 
(Cf.  C.  Tischendorf,  Novum  TestamerUum  Grctct, 
editio  academica  viiif  Leipsic,  1875,  pp.  xxiv  sqq.) 

The  number  of  uncial  manuscripts  of  the  New 
Testament,  ranging  in  date  from  the  fourth  to  the 
tenth  century,  is  114.  This  does  not  include  eight 
psalters  containing  the  text  of  the 
?ialli£^Sr  hymns  in  Luke  i,  46-^55,  68-79,  ii, 
■orlpte.  '  29-32,  desiipiated  by  Tischendorf 
O  •-•»,  nor  the  lectionaries,  evan- 
gelistaries, and  praxapostoli.  About  half  of  these 
114  are  mere  fragments,  containing  but  a  few 
verses  or  at  most  a  few  chapters.  They  may 
be  arranged  as  follows  with  reference  to  their 
probable  date: 

Cent.  IV,  2:  k  with  the   whole  New  Testament;  B,  Go*, 
pels.  Acts,  Catholic,  and  Pauline  Epistles  (mutilated). 
Cent.  V.  16:  A  0 1»  «•  I*  Q,  Q,  T*K  T""'  3,  "^^  ••  »*. 
Cent.  VI,  24:  Dj  D,  E,  H,  I*.'  N,  N.  O,  O^  P,  R,  T''^'»' 


103 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  T«zt 


Gent.  Vn,  17:  F*  O,  !•••  R,'P'*»"p<!  w"*""  ©**•  """. 
Gent.  Vm.  19:  B,  E,  L,  S,  T<"*"  W*''^  Y  ©«»  H  ♦  n  "'«••. 
Cent.  IX.  31:  E,  F,  ,  G,  G**  H,  K,.,  L^,  M, .,  N,  O,  Pa  T'* 

V  W«^»  X*  r  A  •*  A  n  ■«•. 
Gent.  X.  6:  Gj  Hi  Si  U  X  ^i. 

Of  theee  only  one,  H,  has  the  New  Testament 
entire,  and  only  four  others,  ABC*,  the  greater 
part  of  it.  The  remainder  are  distributed,  accord- 
ing to  the  principal  divisions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  follows: 

Gospels,  81:  Complete  or  nearly  80.  12:  DEKLMSUVF 
A n O ;  containing  considerable  portions,  14:  FGHNPQll 
X  Z  A  B  2  •  3 ;  containing  at  most  a  few  chapters  or  verses. 
55:  F*  I *••-*•'  I*  N*  O  T**'*  ^'*  T"**  W*^  X**  ©*^  i«-n^ 

AcU.  13:  Complete  or  nearly  so,  5:  DEL  PS;  the  rest 
with  laiger  (H)  or  smaller  portions  (G  G»»  F*  I*»  •  3). 

Catholic  Epistks,  6:  Complete  or  nearly  so,  4:  KLPS, 
and  the  fragment  3. 

Pftuline  Epistles,  20:  Complete  or  nearly  80,7:DEFQKL 
P:  containing  larger  or  smaller  fragments,  13:  F*  H  I*  M  N  O 
0*QRSTi»i". 

Apocalypee:  besides  MAC,  Bt  contains  the  complete  text; 
P  has  some  small  gaps. 

In  reference  to  the  character  of  their  text,  Tisch- 
endorf  classifies  the  uncials  as  follows:  in  the  Gos- 
pels the  oldest  form  of  the  text,  predominantly 
.\lexandrine  in  its  coloring,  is  found,  though  with 
many  differences,  in  K  A  B  C  D 1 1^  L  P  Q  R  T*"*  X 
Z  A  e««  S;  next  to  these  stand  ?•  N  O  W*'  Y  e*»»«'. 
A  later  form  of  the  text,  in  which  the  Asiatic  col- 
oring prevails,  is  presented  byEFGHKMSU 

V  r  A  n  e^,  among  which  E  K  M  r  A  n  G**  incline 
most  toward  the  first  class.  For  the  Acts  and 
Catholic  Epistles,  fiC  A  B  C  give  the  oldest  text, 
to  which,  in  the  Acts,  D  I  approach,  and,  less 
closely,  E  G;  also,  in  the  CathoUc  Epistles  (except 
I  Pet.),  P;  while  in  the  Acts,  H  L  P,  and,  in 
the  Catholic  Epistles,  K  L,  come  nearest  to  the 
later  form  of  the  text.  In  the  Pauline  Epis- 
tles the  oldest  text  is  represented  by  fiC  A  B  C 
H I O  Q,  with  the  Greoo-Latin  manuscripts  D  F  G; 
M  P  approach  this;  while  K  L  N  stand  nearest  to 
the  more  recent  text.  The  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
appears  in  its  oldest  form  in  fiC  A  C,  to  which  P 
comes  nearer  than  B  (cf.  Gregory,  Prolegomena, 
pp.  185  sqq.).  Tregelles  exhibits  the  ''  genealogy 
of  the  text"  and  affinities  of  the  manuscripts  in 
the  Gospds  in  the  following  form: 


WetUm 
D 


Alexandrine 
BfiCZ 

CL5'1.33 
PQTRIN 
X  J60 


Byzantine 


A 

KM/7 

E  F  G  8  U,  etc. 


Westoott  and  Hort  attach  a  superlative  value 
to  B,  Tischendorf  to  fiC*  The  same  manuscript 
may  differ  in  character  in  different  parts  of  the  New 
Testament:  thus,  A  is  not  so  excellent  in  the  Gos- 
pels as  elsewhere;  A  ia  especially  good  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  Mark;  K  and  D  agree  most  closely  in  the 
Gospel  of  John;  the  cursive  1  is  remarkably  val- 
uable in  the  Gospels,  but  not  so  in  the  rest  of  the 
New  Testament. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  114 
uncial  manuscripts: 


K:  Codex  Sinaiticus.  found  by  Tischendorf  (1844  and 
1859)  in  the  Convent  of  St.  Catharine  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai,  now  preserved  in  St.  Petersburg.  Forty-three  leaves 
of  the  Old  Testament  portion  of  the  manuscript,  known 
as  the  Codex  Friderioo-Augustanus,  are  in  the  library  of 
Leipsic  University.  Besides  twenty-eiz  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  of  which  five  form  the  Codex  Friderico-Augus- 
tanus,  the  manuscript  contains  the  entire  New  Testament 
without  the  least  break,  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  the 
first  third  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas.  The  Alexandrian 
copsrist  has  frequently  shown  his  imperfect  knowledge  of 
Greek,  and  his  haste.  The  license  in  handling  the  text, 
common  in  the  first  three  centuries,  is  greater  than  in  B  A  C, 
though  much  less  than  in  D.  Nevertheless,  the  superiority  of 
the  Codex  Sinaiticus  to  all  other  New  Testament  manu- 
scripts, with  the  single  exception  of  B.  is  fully  proved  by 
the  numerous  places  in  which  its  reading  has  the  support 
of  the  oldest  quotations  or  the  most  ancient  versions.  The 
text  is  in  four  columns,  which  is  a  imique  arrangement.  The 
Pauline  Epistles,  among  which  is  Hebrews  after  11  Thessfr- 
lonians,  come  directly  after  the  Gospels;  the  Acts  and  the 
Catholic  Epistles,  then  the  Apocalypse,  follow.  The  date  of 
the  oodex  is  the  fourth  century.  It  has  a  special  value 
from  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the  corrections  it  received  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  and  later,  its  pages  repre- 
sent, after  a  fashion,  the  history  of  the  changes  in  the  New 
Testament  text.  The  oodex  was  published  (1862)  in  fao- 
simile  type  from  the  Leipsic  press,  in  four  folio  volumes,  at 
the  expense  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  Alexander  II.  The 
edition  was  limited  to  three  hundred  copies.  The  New 
Testament  part  was  published  separately  in  a  critical  edi- 
tion by  Tischendorf,  Novum  TeaiamerUum  8ina%Hcum  cum 
eputola  BamabcB  et  fragmentU  Paatoria  etc.,  Leipsic,  1863, 
and  in  a  more  popular  form.  Novum  TeatamerUum  QratcB  ex 
Sinaitico  eodice  omnium  anHquisHmo,  Leipsic,  1865  (ef.  G. 
Tischendorf,  Dtr  SinaibiJbel.  Ihre  ErUdeckunOf  Herau9oabe, 
und  Erwerbuno,  Leipsic,  1871;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prolegomena, 
pp.  16-17;  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  A  FvU  Collation  of  the  Codex 
SinaiHcuB,  Cambridge.  1867). 

A:  CJodex  Alexandrinus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  pre- 
sented in  1628  by  C^rril  Lucar,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
to  Charles  I.  The  New  Testament  begins  with  Biatt.  xxv, 
6,  and  contains  the  whole  except  John  vi,  50-viii,  62,  and 
II  Cor.  iv,  13-xii,  6,  with  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement  and 
part  of  the  second.  It  was  printed  in  facsimile  by  C.  G. 
Woide,  London,  1786,  in  ordinary  type  by  B.  H.  Cowper, 
ib.  1860,  who  corrected  some  mistakes  of  Woide,  and  in 
photographic  facsimile  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Mu- 
seimi,  ed.  E.  M.  Thompson  (4  vols.,  London,  1879-83). 
Tischendorf  places  it  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century; 
Scrivener  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  very  little  later. 

B^:  0>dex  Vaticanus,  no.  1209,  in  the  Vatican  Library. 
The  manuscript  contains,  besides  the  Old  Testament,  the 
entire  New  Testament,  with  the  exception  of  Heb.  ix,  14  to 
end  and  II  Timothy.  Titus,  Philemon,  and  Revdation. 
Juan  Sepulveda,  writing  to  Erasmus  about  1633,  men- 
tions it.  The  first  collation  of  the  manuscript,  made  in 
1669,  by  Bartolocd,  then  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  exists 
only  in  manuscript  in  the  Paris  library.  Another  was  made 
by  Birch,  1788-1801.  The  collation  made  for  R.  Bentley 
by  an  Italian  named  Mioo  was  published  by  Ford,  [1790. 
J.  L.  Hug  wrote  a  learned  CommentaHo  de  aniiquitate  codieit 
Vaticani  (Freiburg.  1810).  The  manuscript  was  then  in 
Paris,  but  it  was  later  restored  to  Rome,  when  it  became 
practically  inaccessible.  An  inaccurate  and  critically  worth- 
less edition  of  the  whole  manuscript  was  issued  by  Cardinal 
Mai  (5  vols.,  Rome.  1828-38).  C.  Vercellone,  J.  Coasa,  and 
G.  Sergio  published  an  edition  of  the  entire  codex  in  6  vols. 
(New  Testament  is  vol.  v)  in  Rome,  1868-81,  and  a  photo- 
graphic reproduction  was  published  by  the  Vatican  (1889). 
The  age  of  the  manuscript  is  about  the  same  fis  that  of  the 
Sinaitic,  and  possibly  corrections  are  by  the  same  first  hand 
in  both,  and  in  the  Vatican  by  a  second  hand  contempo- 
rary with  the  first. 

Bt:  Ckxiex  Vaticanus  2066  (eighth  century),  formerly 
Basilian  (3odex  106.  contains  Revelation,  was  first  imper- 
fectly edited  by  Tischendorf  in  Monumenia  aaera  inedita 
(Leipsic.  1846),  and  more  completely  in  Appendix  Novi 
Teatamenti  VaHeani  (ib.  1869).  By  TregeUee  the  manu- 
script was  designated  Q. 

C:  Codex  Ephraemi  (fifth  century),  now  no.  9  in  the  Nar 
tional  Library  at  Paris;  its  text  was  altered  in  the  sixth 
century  and  again  in  the  ninth.  In  the  twelfth  century  the 
original  writing  was  washed  oflF  to  make  room  for  the  Greek 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


104 


text  of  several  aaoetie  works  of  Ephraem  Synu  (d.  373). 
Pierre  AlUx,  at  about  the  eloee  of  the  Mventeenth  century, 
noticed  the  traces  of  the  old  writing  under  the  later  charac- 
ters. WetBtein  in  1716  collated  the  New  TesUment  part  so 
far  as  it  was  legible.  In  1834  and  1835  the  Ubrarian  Carl 
Hase  revived  the  original  writing  by  the  application  of  the 
Giobertine  tincture  (prussiate  of  potash).  Tischendorf,  after 
great  labor,  brought  out  in  1843  an  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament part  of  the  manuscript,  and  in  1845,  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament fragments,  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
in  facsimile.  The  codex  contains  portions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment on  sixty-four  leaves,  and  five-eighths  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

Di :  Codex  Bess  (about  550  A.D.),  from  the  monastery  of 
St.  Irensus  in  Lyons,  now  in  the  University  Library  at 
Cambridge,  a  present  in  1581  from  Theodore  Besa.  It  con- 
tains, with  few  lacuzuB,  the  Greek  and  Latin  text  of  the 
Gospels  and  Acts  and  III  John  11-15,  stichometrioally  writ- 
ten, perhaps  in  Gaul.  Edited  by  Kipling  in  1703,  but  in  a 
far  better  manner  by  Scrivener  {Beta  Codex  CarUabriffietuU) 
in  1864.  No  known  manuscript  has  so  many  and  so  remark- 
able interpolations.  Much  study  has  been  given  to  it,  e.g., 
J.  R.  Harris,  Codex  Beam  (Cambridge,  1891). 

D,:  Ck>dex  Claromontanus  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  inclu- 
ding Hebrews  (second  half  of  sixth  century).  Besa  found  it 
in  the  Monastery  of  Clermont,  hence  the  name;  now  in  the 
Paris  Library.  Contains  the  Greek  and  Latin  text  written 
stiehometrically.  It  was  retouched  at  different  times,  and 
exhibits  especially  two  periods  of  the  text.  The  Latin  text 
represents  the  oldest  version, — that  of  the  second  century. 
It  was  collated  by  Tregelles  in  1849  and  1850,  and  edited 
by  Tischendorf  in  1852  in  facsimile. 

£i:  Codex  Basiliensis  A.  N.  Ill,  12  (750  a.d.).  in  Basel, 
a  nearly  complete  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  collated 
by  Tregelles  (1846),  also  by  Tischendorf  and  J.  C.  Mailer 
(1843). 

E^:  (3odex  Laudianus  (end  of  sixth  century),  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library  at  Oxford,  a  present  from  Archbishop  Laud 
in  1636;  was  brought  to  England  in  668;  Bede  (d.  735) 
used  it  when  writing  his  ExpoeUio  reimctata  of  the  Acts. 
It  contains  an  almost  complete  Greco-Latin  text  of  the  Acts; 
edited  in  1715  by  Heame,  and  in  1870  by  Tischendorf  in 
Monumenta  eacra  inedita,  nova  eoUecUo,  vol.  ix. 

Et:  Codex  Sangermanensis,  a  Greco-Latin  manuscript  of 
the  Pauline  Epistles  (end  of  ninth  century),  now  in  St. 
Petersburg,  the  Greek  text  being  a  clumsy  copy  of  the  Oxlex 
Claromontanus.  Of  no  critical  value  except  for  the  Latin 
text.  Sabatier  published  it  in  the  third  part  of  his  BUdiorum 
wacrorum  LoHna  vereio  (1740). 

Fi:  Codex  Boreeli  (ninth  century),  now  in  Utrecht  Uni- 
versity, contains  the  four  Gospels,  but  with  many  lacuns. 
Full  description  is  given  in  J.  Heringa,  DieptUoHo  de  eodice 
Boreeliano,  ed.  H.  E.  Vinke  (Utrecht,  1843). 

F^:  Codex  Augiensis  (ninth  century),  contains  Pauhne 
Epistles  in  Greek  and  Latin,  Hebrews  only  in  Latin,  and 
the  Latin  is  not  an  exact  translation  of  the  Greek.  Richard 
Bentley  bought  it  at  Heidelberg  and  his  nephew  presented 
it  to  Trinity  College,  (Cambridge.  It  was  collated  by  Tisch- 
endorf (1842),  Tregelles  (1845),  and  edited  by  Scrivener 
(1850). 

F*:  Designates  those  passages  from  the  (Sospels,  Acts, 
and  Pauline  Epistles  written  on  the  margin  of  the  Coislin 
Octateuch  in  Paris  early  in  the  seventh  century.  It  was 
edited   by  Tischendorf  in  Monumenta  eacra  inediia  (1846). 

Gj:  CJodex  Harleianus  (tenth  century),  contains  the  Gos- 
pels, defective,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  brought  by 
A.  Seidel  from  the  East  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It 
was  collated  by  J.  C.  Wolf  (1723),  Griesbach,  Tischendorf. 
and  Tregelles. 

Gfi  A  seventh  century  fragment  of  the  Acts  (ii,  46-iii,  7), « 
brought  by  Tischendorf  from  the  East  in  1859  (see  L^). 

Gb:  Six  leaves  of  a  ninth  century  manuscript  now  in  the 
Vatican,  five  leaves  edited  by  (}oisa  in  Sacrorum  bihUorum 
vetu^ieeima  fraomenUit  iii  (Home,  1877).  The  sixth  leaf  was 
discovered  by  C.  R.  Gregory  in  1886. 

G(:  Codex  Boemerianus  (ninth  century),  contains  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  is  now  in  the  Dresden  Ro3ral  Library,  is 
in  Greek  and  Latin.  The  Greek  text  agrees  closely  with 
that  of  F,.  It  was  edited  by  Matthsi  in  1 792,  partly  collated 
by  Tregelles  and  others  (see  imder  A). 

H,:  Codex  Seidelii  (tenth  century),  contains  the  Gospels, 
but  defectively,  now  in  the  Hamburg  Public  Library,  was 
collated  by  Tregelles. 

Ha:  Codex   Mutinensis    (ninth   century),    cantains   Acts 


except  about  seven  chapters,  now  at  Modena,  collated  by 
Tischendorf  (1843)  and  Tregelles  (1845). 

Hi:  Fragments  of  a  sixth  century  manuscript  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles  in  the  edition  of  Euthalius,  of  which  forty- 
one  leaves  have  been  found;  twenty-two  are  in  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Paris,  eight  in  the  Laura  Monsstery  on 
Mt.  Athos,  two  in  the  Synodal  Library  at  Moscow,  one  in 
the  Rumjansew  Museum  there,  three  in  the  Imperial  Library 
at  St.  Petersburg,  three  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Academy,  at 
Kief,  and  two  in  the  University  Library  at  Turin.  (Cf.  H. 
Omont,  Notice  eur  un  trie  ancien  manuecrii  gree,  Paris,  1889.) 

V-"*:  Codex  Tischendorfianus  II,  twenty-eight  palimpsest 
leaves  from  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  centuries,  under  the 
Georgian  language,  in  a  text  related  to  that  of  KABC. 
Seven  leaves  contain  parts  of  Matthew;  two,  parts  of  Mark; 
five,  parts  of  Luke;  eight,  parts  of  John;  four,  of  Acta; 
two,  of  Pauline  letters.  They  were  discovered  by  Tischen- 
dorf in  the  East,  and  by  him  published  in  the  Monumenta 
aacra  inedita,  nov.  ed.,  vol.  i  (1855). 

I^  (formerly  N^):  Four  palimpsest  leaves  (early  fifth 
century),  containing  sixteen  verses  from  John  xiii,  xvi; 
now  in  the  British  Musetmi;  deciphered  by  Tischendorf  and 
Tregelles,  published  by  the  former  in  Monumenta  eaera  in^ 
edita,  nov.  col.,  vol.  ii  (1857). 

Ki:  (>odex  Cyprius  of  the  (Sospels,  complete  (middle  or 
end  of  ninth  century);  now  in  the  National  Library  in  Paha. 
Ck>llated  by  Tischendorf  (1842)  and  Tregelles  (1849  and  1850). 

Kt:  (3odex  MosquensiB  of  the  C!atholic  and  Pauline  Epis- 
tles (ninth  century);  brought  from  Mount  Athos  to  Moscow. 
Lacks  a  part  of  Ronums  and  I  0>rinthians.  Collated  by 
Matthffii. 

Li:  Codex  Regius  of  the  Gospels  (eighth  century),  now  in 
the  National  Library  in  Paris,  almost  complete.  Closely 
related  to  K  and  B  and  the  text  of  Origen.  Published  by 
Tischendorf  in  Monumenta  sacra  inedita  (1846),  in  facsimile. 

Lt:  Ck>dex  Angelicus  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles 
(formerly  G),  and  of  the  Pauline  (formerly  I)  (ninth  century), 
now  in  the  Angelica  Library  of  the  Augustinian  monks  at 
Rome.  Contains  Acts  viii,  10,  to  Heb  xiii,  10.  Collated 
by  Tischendorf  (1843)  and  Tregelles  (1845). 

Mj:  Codex  Campianxis  of  the  Grospels,  complete  (end  of 
ninth  century),  now  in  the  National  Library  in  Paris. 
Copied  and  used  by  Tischendorf  (1849). 

Mg:  CkKlex  Ruber  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  (ninth  century). 
Two  folio  leaves  at  Hamburg  (Heb.  i.  1-iv,  3,  xii,  20-xiii, 
25).  and  two  at  London  (I  Cor.  xv.  52-11  (3or.  i,  15;  II  Cor. 
X,  13-xii,  5).  Written  in  red,  hence  its  name.  Edited  by 
Tischendorf  in  Anecdota  eacra  et  prof  ana  (1855,  corrected. 
1861). 

Ni:  CJodex  Purpureus  (late  sixth  century),  a  manuscript 
of  the  Gospels  on  purple  parchment  in  silver  letters.  Forty- 
five  leaves  were  early  known:  thirty-three  are  in  the  Monastery 
of  St.  John  at  Patmos,  six  in  the  Vatican,  four  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  two  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna.  One 
hundred  and  eighty-four  leaves  more  were  discovered  in  a 
village  near  Casarea  in  C!appadocia  and  bought  by  M.  Neli- 
dow,  Russian  ambassador  at  O>nstantinople  (cf.  C.  R.  Greg- 
ory, in  TLZ,  1896,  pp.  393-394).  The  Vienna,  London,  and 
Vatican  leaves  were  edited  by  Tischendorf  in  his  Monu- 
menta aaera  inedita  (1846),  who  used  the  leaves  from  Pat- 
mos (as  collated  by  John  Sakkelion)  in  his  Novum  Teata- 
menium,  ed.  viii,  critiea  major.  These  last  were  also  edited 
by  Duclxesne  in  Archivea  dea  miaaiona  acientifiquea  (3  series, 
iii.  386  sqq.). 

N*:  Two  fragments  of  a  manuscript  very  much  like  N,. 
seen  by  Tischendorf  in  the  collection  of  Bishop  Porfiri  of 
St.  Petersburg;  they  contain  a  portion  of  Mark  ix.  and  came 
from  the  library  of  the  Alexandrian  patriarch  in  (3airo. 

N|:  Two  leaves  (ninth  century),  containing  Gal.  v,  12-vi. 
4,  and  Heb.  v.  8-vi,  10,  brought  by  Tischendorf  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

Oi:  Eight  leaves  (ninth  century)  containing  a  part  of 
John  i  and  xx,  with  scholia.  Now  in  Moscow  (S.  Syn.  29. 
formerly  120).  Edited  by  Matthasi  (1785).  and.  after  him. 
by  Tregelles.  with  Codex  Zacinthius  (see  below,  B).  Appen- 
dix (1861). 

Ofl:  Two  leaves  (sixth  century)  containing  II  Cor.  i.  20- 
ii.  12.  Brought  from  the  East  to  St.  Petersburg  by  Tischen- 
dorf in  1859. 

0«l>:  Fragments  (sixth  century  to  ninth)  containing  the 
hymns  from  Luke  i.  46  sqq.,  68  sqq..  ii.  29  sqq..  now  (0») 
in  WolfenbQttel.  (Ob)  Oxford,  (0*=)  Verona,  (0«)  Zurich.  (()•) 
St.  Gall.  (Of)  Moscow,  (Os)  Turin,  and  (Oh)  Paris.  0» 
was  edited  by  Tischendorf  in  Anecdota  aatra  el  profana  (1855), 


105 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


and  O*  in  Momtmenia  aacra  inedUa^  nov.  col.,  vol.  iv  (1869), 
and  O^  by  Bianchini  (1740). 

O^:  Pauline  Epistles,  a  single  leaf  (sixth  century),  con- 
tains part  of  Eph.  iv,  1-18,  collated  by  Tiscbendorf  at  Mos- 
cow in  1868. 

P, :  Codex  Guelpherbytanus  I  (sixth  century),  a  palimp- 
sest at  Wolfenbattel,  contains  a  part  of  all  of  the  (jospels, 
was  edited  by  Tiscbendorf  in  Monumenta  aacra  ineditat  nov. 
col.,  vol.  vi  (1869). 

Pf:  Codex  Porphyrianus  (ninth  century),  a  palimpsest, 
contains  Acts,  Catholic  and  Pauline  Epistles,  and  Revela- 
tion, but  with  lacuns;  the  text  of  the  Apocalypse  is  espe- 
cially good.  It  was  brought  to  St.  Petersburg  by  the' 
Hu»ian  bishop  Porfiri,  and  edited  by  Tiscbendorf  in 
Monumenta  taera  inedita,  nov.  coL,  vols,  v-vi  (1866-69). 

Qi:  (3odex  Guelpberbytanus  II  (fifth  century),  a  palimp- 
Kft  containing  fragments  of  Luke  and  John,  now  at  Wolfen- 
buttel;  was  edited  by  Tiscbendorf  in  Monumenta  aacra  in- 
ediia,  vol.  iii. 

Qs:  Papyrus  fragments  (fifth  century)  of  I  Ck>r.  i,  vi,  vii, 
in  the  collection  of  Bishop  Porfiri,  collated  by  Tiscbendorf 
in  1862. 

Ri:  Codex  Nitriensis  (sixth  century),  a  palimpsest  con- 
taining parts  of  Luke,  came  from  a  monastery  in  the  Nit- 
han  desert,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  collated  by  Cureton, 
then  by  Tregelles  (1854)  and  Tiscbendorf  (1855),  and  edited 
by  the  last  in  Monumenta  aacra  inedita,  nov.  col.,  vol.  ii  (1857). 

R«:  Oxiex  Cryptoferratensis  (late  seventh  century),  a 
palimpsest  fragment  (»ntaining  II  0>r.  xi,  9-19.  published 
by  CoaatL  in  Saerorum  bibliorum  veluatUaima  fragmentat  ii 
(Rome.  1867). 

Si:  Codex  Vaticanus  354  (949  a.d.),  containing  the  Gos- 
pels complete,  collated  by  Tiscbendorf  for  his  «d.  viii. 

S,:  Codex  Athous  Laurse  (eighth  or  ninth  century),  con- 
taining Acts,  Catholic  Epistles,  and  Rom.,  I  Cot.  i,  1-v,  8, 
xiii,  8-xvi,  24,  II  Cor.  i,  1-xi,  23,  Eph.  iv,  20-vi,  20,  in  the 
Laura  Monastery  on  Mt.  Athos,  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 

T>:  Codex  Borgianus  I  (fifth  century),  fragments  con- 
taining Luke  xxii.  20-xxiii,  20,  and  John  vi,  28-67,  vii,  6- 
Tiii,  31,  now  in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  the 
first  collated  by  H.  Alford  (1866),  the  second  by  Tiscben- 
dorf and  published  by  Giorgi  (1789). 

T'".  Fragments  (sixth  century)  of  John  (i,  25-42,  ii,  9- 
iv.  14,  34-50),  now  at  St.  Petersburg. 

T«:  Fragments,  similar  to  T*.  containing  Biatt.  ^v,  19- 
27.  31-34,  XV,  2-8. 

T<>:  Fragments  (seventh  century)  of  a  Greco-Coptic 
evangelistary  (Matt,  xvi,  13-20,  Mark  i.  3-8,  xii,  35-37, 
John  xix,  23-27,  xx,  30-31)  discovered  by  Tiscbendorf  in 
the  Borgian  Library  at  Rome. 

T':  A  fragment  (sixth  century)  containing  Matt,  iii,  13- 
16,  found  in  Upper  Egjrpt,  now  in  the  University  Library 
at  Cambridge,  England,  used  by  Hort,  and  copied  by  Gr^- 
ory  in  1883. 

T':  Another  fragment  (ninth  century),  also  from  Upper 
Egypt,  of  a  Greco-Coptic  evangelistary,  containing  Matt. 
iv.  2-11,  copied  by  Gregory  in  1883,  now  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  at  Oxford. 

Tk:  Two  fragments  (fourth  to  sixth  century)  contain- 
ing I  Tim.  iii,  15-16,  and  vi.  2.  now  in  the  Egyptian  Museum 
of  the  Louvre;  published  by  T.  Zahn  in  Foradiungen,  iii,  277 
«qq.  (Leipeic  1884). 

T^:  Tluee  leaves  (sixth  or  seventh  century)  containing 
Matt.  XX.  3-32,  xxii,  4-16,  found  in  Cairo  by  A.  Papado- 
pttkH-Kerameiis. 

T>-r:  Fragments  (seventh  to  tenth  century)  of  six  Greoo- 
Coptie  and  three  Greek  manuscripts,  containing  parts  of  the 
(jtMpeb,  found  in  the  Schnudi  Monastery  near  Akhmim, 
Egypt,  BOW  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris,  published  by 
E.  Amfiineau  in  NoUeea  at  eztraita,  vol.  xxxiv,  part  ii  (Paris, 
1895),  363  sqq.   The  text  is  related  to  that  of  T*. 

T*:  Two  leaves  (eighth  to  tenth  century),  also  from  the 
Schnudi  Monaetery,  containing  I  Cor.  i.  22-29. 

T««i:  Nine  leaves  (fifth  century)  with  Greoo-Coptic  text 
of  Lake  xii,  15-xiii,  32,  John  viii,  33-42,  formerly  owned  by 
Woide,  now  in  the  library  of  the  CSIarendon  Press  at  Oxford, 
pubtiahed  by  Ford,  1799. 

V:  Codex  Nanianus  (ninth  or  tenth  century),  contains 
the  (jospels,  now  in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark,  Venice,  ool- 
li^tod  by  Tiscbendorf  and  Tregelles. 

V:  (>odex  Mosquensis  (eighth  or  ninth  century),  contains 
the  (jospels  nearly  complete  to  John  vii,  49,  written  at  Mt. 
AthQe.coUated  by  Matthsei  (1785). 

W*:  Two  leaves   (eighth  oentury)   containing  parts  of 


Luke  ix'X,  now  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris,  edited  by 
Tiscbendorf  in  Monumenta  aacra  inedita  (1846). 

Wb:  A  paUmpsest,  probably  originally  belonging  with  W*. 
of  fourteen  leaves,  containing  fragments  of  Matt.,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  found  by  Tiscbendorf  at  Naples  and  by  him  de- 
ciphered in  1866. 

We*.  Three  fragments  (ninth  century)  of  a  Greco-Latin 
manuscript  of  the  Gospels  from  Mark  ii  and  Luke  i,  now  at 
St.  Gall,  edited  by  Tiscbendorf  in  Monumenta  aacra  inadita, 
nov.  col.,  voL  iii  (1860). 

Wd;  Fragments  of  four  leaves  (ninth  century)  contain- 
ing parts  of  Mark  vii,  viii.  ix,  now  in  the  library  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  published  by  Scrivener,  Adveraaria 
critica  aacra  (Cambridge,  1893),  pp.  xi  sqq. 

W*:  Twelve  leaves  (ninth  oentury)  containing  parts  of 
John  ii-iv,  seven  leaves  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Dionysixis 
on  Mt.  Athos  (collated  by  Pusey  for  Alford),  three  in  the 
library  of  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford  (examined  by  Tiscb- 
endorf), and  two  in  the  National  Library  at  Athens  (dis- 
covered by  Gregory  in  1886). 

W:  A  palimpsest  (ninth  century)  containing  part  of 
Mark  v,  in  the  library  of  Christ  Church  0>llege  at  Oxford. 

Wk:  Thirty-six  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (ninth  century)  con- 
taining part  of  the  four  Gospels,  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Wii:  Two  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (ninth  century)  contain- 
ing parts  of  Mark  iii,  discovered  by  Gregory  in  1883. 

W>:  Two  leaves  (seventh  or  eighth  century)  with  parts  of 
Luke  iv,  copied  by  Gregory  in  Paris  in  1884. 

Wk:  Two  leaves  (eighth  or  ninth  century)  with  parts  of 
Luke  XX  and  xxiii,  also  copied  by  Gregory  in  Paris.  1884. 

Wi:  Two  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (seventh  oentury)  con- 
taining Mark  xiii,  34-xiv,  29,  discovered  by  Gregory  in  the 
National  Library  at  Paris,  1885. 

W™:  Four  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (seventh  or  eighth  cen- 
tury) containing  parts  of  Mark,  in  the  National  Library  at 
Paris,  discovered  by  Gregory,  1885. 

W":  Four  leaves  (seventh  century)  containing  John  vi, 
71-vii,  46,  in  Vienna. 

W«:  Sixteen  leaves  of  a  palimpsest  (ninth  century)  con- 
taining parts  of  the  Synoptic  C^spels,  in  the  Ambrosian 
Library  at  Milan. 

X:  (?odex  Monacensis  (ninth  or  tenth  oentury)  contain- 
ing numerous  fragments  of  the  Gospels  and  a  commentary, 
in  the  University  Library  at  Munich.  Collated  by  Scholi, 
Tiscbendorf,  and  Tregelles. 

X^:  Fourteen  leaves  (ninth  or  tenth  century)  containing 
Luke  i,  1-ii,  40,  incomplete,  in  the  Court  and  State  Library 
at  Munich. 

Y:  Codex  Barberini  225  (eighth  oentury),  six  leaves  con- 
taining parts  of  John,  published  by  Tiscbendorf  in  Monu- 
menta aacra  inedita  (1846). 

Z:  Codex  Dublinensis  rescriptus  (sixth  century),  an  im- 
portant palimpsest  with  numerous  ifragments  of  Matthew, 
in  Trinity  (College,  Dublin.  Published  in  facsimile  by  Bar- 
rett (1801).  accurately  deciphered  by  Tregelles  (1853),  newly 
edited  by  T.  K.  Abbott  (DubUn,  1880). 

T:  CJodex  Tiscbendorfianus  IV  (ninth  century)  contains 
large  parts  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  Luke  and  John  are  com- 
plete. It  was  found  by  Tiscbendorf  in  the  East,  part  of  it 
is  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  and  the  larger  part 
at  St.  Petersburg.     It  strongly  resembles  K}. 

A:  Ck>dex  Sangallensis  (ninth  oentury),  a  nearly  complete 
copy  of  the  (Sospels  (one  leaf  lacking)  with  interlinear  Latin 
translation  approximating  the  Vulgate  text.  It  is  in  St. 
Gall,  possibly  copied  there,  and  is  possibly  the  same  (for 
the  Gospels)  manuscript  as  Gt  (Pauline  Epistles).  (Cf.  J. 
R.  Harris,  Codex  SanodUanaia,  Cambridge,  1891.) 

%*:  Codex  Tiscbendorfianus  I  (seventh  oentury),  four 
leaves  with  parts  of  Matt,  xii-xv,  found  by  Tiscbendorf  in 
the  East  in  1844  and  1853,  now  in  the  library  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leipsic,  edited  by  Tiscbendorf  in  Monumenta 
aacra  inedita,  nov.  col.,  vol.  ii  (1857). 

9ti:  Six  leaves  (seventh  century)  containing  fragments 
of  Matt,  xxii-xxiii  and  Mark  iv-v,  brought  by  Tiscbendorf 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1859. 

ec:  Two  folio  leaves  (sixth  century)  containing  Biatt.  xxi, 
19-24  and  John  xviii,  29-35,  brought  by  Tischendorf  and 
Bishop  Porfiri  to  St.  Petersburg. 

%^:  A  fragment  (eighth  century)  containing  Luke  xi,  37- 
45,  brought  by  Tischendorf  to  St.  Petersburg. 

9«:  A  fragment  (sixth  century)  containing  Biatt.  xxvi, 
2-7,  9. 

e':  Four  leaves  (sixth  oentury)  containing  parts  of  Mat- 
thew and  Mark. 


Bible  Tact 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


106 


•i:  A  fragment  (nzth  eentury)  oont»inizig  John  ri,  13- 
24,  limilar  to  O.. 

•k:  Three  fracmente  (ninth  eentury)  of  a  Qreoo- Arable  man- 
uscript of  the  Gospels.  ••*i>  are  all  in  the  collection  of  Bishop 
Porfiri  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  were  collated  by  Tiscfaendorf. 

A:  Codex  Tischendorfianus  III  (ninth  century)  contain- 
ing Luke  and  John  complete,  with  occasional  scholia  in  un- 
dads  on  the  margin,  partly  of  a  critical  kind.  Now  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  Oxford;  collated  by  Tisohendorf  (who 
brought  it  from  the  East)  and  Tregelles. 

B:  CodfBx  Zacynthius  (eighth  century),  a  palimpaest  con- 
taining Luke  i,  1-xi,  33,  with  some  gaps;  brought  from  the 
Island  of  Zante,  and  presented  in  1821  to  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  London;  deciphered  and  published 
by  Tregelles  in  1861.  The  text,  which  is  very  valuable,  is 
surrounded  by  a  commentary. 

n:  Codex  Petropohtanus  (ninth  century)  of  the  Gospels 
complete,  excepting  seventy-seven  verses.  Brought  to  St. 
Petersburg  by  Tischendorf  from  Smym*. 

2:  Codex  Rossanensis  (sixth  century),  containing  Matt. 
i.  1-Mark  xvi,  14,  and  belonging  to  the  diapter  of  the  Cathe- 
dral Church  at  Rossano,  written  on  very  fine  purple  vel- 
lum in  silver  letters,  with  the  three  first  lines  in  both  columns 
at  the  beginning  of  each  (3ospel  in  gold.  It  is  adorned  with 
eighteen  remarkable  pictures  in  water-colors,  representing 
scenes  in  the  (joepel  history,  with  forty  figures  of  the  proph- 
ets of  the  Old  Testament.  Its  miniatures  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  celebrated  Vienna  piuple  manu- 
script of  Genesis.  It  numbers  ahtmdred  and  eighty-eight 
leaves,  some  of  which  have  been  much  injured  by  dampness. 
It  originally  contained  the  four  (joepels.  The  text,  as  well 
as  the  writing,  resembles  that  of  C^odex  Ni  of  the  Gospels. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  spring  of  1879,  at  Rossano  in  (Cala- 
bria (Southern  Italy),  by  Dr.  Gebhardt  of  Gdttingen  and 
Professor  Hamack  of  Giessen,  who  have  published  a  full  de- 
scription of  it,  with  two  facsimiles  of  the  writing  and  outline 
sketches  of  the  miniatures,  in  an  elegant  quarto  entitled 
Evangeliorufn  codex  Oracua-  Purpureut  RoMtanentU  (Leip- 
do,  1880).  The  illuminations  are  reproduced  in  exact  fac- 
simile by  Antonio  Himos  (Rome,  1007).  The  text  seems  to 
hold  a  position  about  midway  between  that  of  the  older 
uncials  and  those  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  agreeing 
most  remarkably  with  N|,  often  with  AAII,  or  with  D  and 
the  Old  Latin,  against  the  mass  of  later  manuscripts. 

•:  Codex  Beratinus  (probably  sixth  century),  contain- 
ing Matt,  vi,  3-Mark  xiv,  62,  with  some  lacuna,  on  purple 
vellum  and  in  possession  of  the  (>hi]rch  of  St.  George  at 
Herat,  Albania,  made  generally  known  by  P.  Batiffol  in  1885. 

4":  Codex  Athous  Launs  (eighth  or  ninth  century),  con- 
taining the  New  Testament  except  Matthew,  Mark  i,  1-ix, 
4,  Heb.  viii,  11-ix,  19,  and  Revelation,  is  in  the  Laura 
Monastery  on  Mt.  Athos,  was  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 

O:  (}odex  Athous  Dionysii  (eighth  or  ninth  eentury), 
containing  the  four  Gospels,  is  in  the  Monastery  of  St.  Dio- 
ttsrsius  on  Mt.  Athos,  was  examined  by  Gregory  in  1886. 

3i:  (}odex  Athous  Andree  (ninth  or  tenth  century),  con- 
taining the  four  (joepeb  but  with  lacunse,  is  in  the  Monas- 
tery of  St.  Andrew  on  Mt.  Athos,  was  examined  by  Gregory 
in  1886. 

^9:  Codex  Patinensis  (fifth  century),  twenty-one  palimi>- 
sest  leaves  containing  fragments  of  Acts  and  of  the  (Catholic 
and  the  Pauline  Epistles,  now  in  the  Vatican  Library,  was  de- 
scribed by  Bati£Fol  (1891),  partly  read  by  W.  Sanday  (1896). 

J:  The  sign  attached  by  Gregory  to  a  fragment  of  N, 
before  he  knew  its  relationship. 

•^•-it.  14:  Small  fragments  (fifth  to  ninth  century)  of  the 
Synoptics  and  I  (Corinthians  in  the  convent  of  St.  Catharine 
on  Mt.  Sinai,  discovered  by  J.  R.  Harris  and  published  in 
Biblietd  Fragmentt  from  Mt,  Sinai  (London,  1890). 

Besides  the  uncials,   there  are  known    for  the 
Gospels  over  1,2(X)  cursives  designated  by  Arabic 
numerals,  over  950  evangelistaries  of 
which  about  100  are  in  uncial    wri- 


10.  The 
CnrfliTe 
Manu- 


ting,  varying  in  date  from  the  tenth  to 
■oriptB      *^®   twelfth  century.     For  the  Acts 
Svanffelis-  ^^^   *^^®  Catholic   Epistles  there  are 
taries,  etc.  over    400  cursives,   for    the    Pauline 
Epistles  about  500,  and  for  the  Apoc- 
alypse 180.    Of  lectionaries  there  are  known  over 
260,  only  a  very  few  of  which  antedate  the  tenth 


century.  The  following  are  noteworthy,  either 
because  of  the  value  of  their  readings  or  for  the 
influence  they  have  had  on  the  text: 

1  Gospels,  Acts.  Catholic  and  Pauline  Epistles:  Codex 
Basiliensis  (tenth  or  twelfth  eentury),  especially  valuable 
for  the  text  of  the  Gospels,  contains  the  apparatus  of  En- 
thalius  on'the  Acts  and  Epistles.  Kindred  to  it  in  the  Gcepeb 
are  209.  118,  131. 

1  Apocalypse:  Codex  Reuehiini  (twelfth  eentury).  used 
by  Erasmus  (1516),  in  the  University  Library  at  Basel 

13  (3ospeIs:  Codtx  Parisiensis  (thirteenth  century),  fasi 
some  lacuns,  was  collated  by  Wetstein,  Griesbach.  and  W. 
H.  Ferrar,  and  is  closely  reUted  to  69.  124.  and  346,  viiile 
643,  788,  and  826  belong  to  the  same  group. 

13  Acts  and  (}athoUc  Epistles,  17  Pauline  Epistles,  s&d 
33  (3ospels  are  all  parts  of  the  same  manuscript  (ninth. 
tenth,  or  eleventh  century),  and  the  text  agrees  often  with 
that  of  the  best  uncials;  collated  by  Griesbach.  and  Tre- 
gelles (1860). 

14  Apocalypse,  31  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  37  Pauline 
Epistles  and  69  Gospeb  are  parts  of  the  same  manuscript 
(Leicester  Oxiex,  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century).  ooUsted 
by  Tregelles,  Scrivener,  and  Abbott  (cf.  13  supra). 

34  Acts  and  (}atholio  Epistles,  40  Pauline  Epistles.  61 
Gospels,  and  92  Apocalypse  are  parts  of  the  same  manu- 
script (Oxiex  Montfortianus.  sixteenth  eentury),  at  Trinity 
College.  DubUn.  coUated  by  O.  T.  Dobbin  (1864). 

47  Pauline  Epistles  (eleventh  or  twelfth  century),  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  collated  by  Tregelles. 

95  Apocalypee  (CJodex  Parham.  eleventh  or  twelfth  een- 
tury). belongs  among  the  best  witnesses  to  Revelation,  col- 
lated by  Scrivener. 

566  Gospels  (ninth  or  tenth  century)  in  letters  of  gold  on 
purple  parchment,  with  especially  ancient  readings  in  Mark; 
designated  81  by  Westcott  and  Hort.  now  in  St.  Ptotersburs. 

2.  History  of  the  Printed  Text:  For  more  than 
half  a  century  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
original  text  of  the  New  Testament  remained  un- 
published. The  credit  of  first  printing  it  belongs 
to  Cardinal  Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  archbishop  of 
Toledo,,  who  made  it  vol.  v  of  his  Polyglot  Bible 
(see  Bibles,  Polyglot,  I).  The  manuscripts  de- 
pended upon  were  comparatively  mod- 
Lnrf^^  d®™  ^^  ^^  inferior  value.  Though 
^^^J^^^JJ^  the  volimie  is  dated  June  10,  1514,  the 
EditionB.  ^^^  Testament  was  not  published  be- 
fore 1521  or  1522,  and  thus  was  pre- 
ceded by  the  Greco-Latin  New  Testament  of  1516. 
published  by  Froben  of  Basel,  and  edited  by  Eras- 
mus, who  used  as  the  basis  of  his  text,  in  the  Gos- 
pels, an  inferior  Basel  manuscript  of  the  fifteenth 
century  (cod.  2),  and  one  of  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth century  in  the  Acts  and  Epistles  (cod.  2). 
With  these  he  collated  more  or  less  carefuUy  one 
more  manuscript  of  the  Gospels  (cod.  1),  two  in  the 
Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles  (codd.  1  and  4),  and 
three  in  the  Pauline  Epistles  (codd.  1,  4,  7).  The 
oldest  of  these  (cod.  1,  tenth  century)  has  a  good 
text  in  the  Gospels;  but  Erasmus  made  veiy  little 
use  of  it;  the  others  are  comparatively  modem,  and 
poor.  For  the  Apocalypse  he  had  only  a  sin^e 
manuscript  of  the  twelfth  century,  wanting  the 
last  six  verses,  which  he  translated  into  Greek 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  In  various  other  places 
in  the  Apocalypse  he  followed  the  readings  of  the 
Vulgate  in  opposition  to  the  Greek,  as  he  did  in 
a  few  cases  elsewhere.  The  first  edition  of  Eras- 
mus was  sped  through  the  press  with  headlong 
haste  (pracipUatum  fuit  veriua  quam  editumi  ^ 
Erasmus  himself  says)  in  order  that  the  pub- 
lisher, Froben,  might  get  the  start  of  the  Gom- 
plutensian.    It  consequently  swarms  with  erron. 


107 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


A  more  correct  edition  was  issued  in  1519:  Mill 
observed  about  four  hundred  changes  in  the  text. 
For  this  and  later  editions,  one  additional  manu- 
script (cod.  3)  was  used  in  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Epistles.  In  the  third  edition  (1522)  the  changes 
were  much  fewer;  but  it  is  noted  for  the  intro- 
duction of  I  John  V,  7,  from  the  Codex  Mont- 
fortianus  (sixteenth  century).  In  the  fourth 
edition  (1527)  the  text  was  altered  and  improved 
in  many  places,  particularly  in  Revelation,  from 
the  Complutensian  Polyglot.  That  of  the  fifth 
(1535)  and  last  (Erasmus  died  in  1536)  hardly  dif- 
fers from  the  fourth. 

The  next  editions  which  call  for  notice  are  those 
of  the  great  printer  and  scholar  Robert  Stephens 
(Estienne,  Stephanus;  see  Stephens),  three  pub- 
lished at  Paris  (1546,  1549,  and  1550;  the  first  two, 
in  small  12mo,  are  known  as  the  0  mirificam  edi- 
tions, from  the  opening  words  of  the  preface,  which 
is  the  same  in  both;  the  last,  a  magnificent  folio, 
is  called  the  edUto  regia)^  and  one  at  Geneva  (16mo, 
1551),  in  which  the  present  division  into  verses  was 
first  introduced  into  the  Greek  text  (see  below,  III, 
1 3).  The  edition  of  1550,  notwithstanding  its 
various  readings  in  the  margin  from  fifteen  manu- 

scripts  and  the  Complutensian  Poly- 
fa^^Jr*^  HJlot,  is  mainly  founded  on  the  fourth  or 
and  Be^T  ^^^  edition  of  Erasmus.  Scrivener  has 

noted  a  hundred  and  nineteen  places 
in  which  it  differs  from  all  of  the  manuscripts  used. 
The  text  of  the  edition  of  1551  varies  but  slightly 
from  that  of  1 550.  The  four  folio  editions  of  Theodore 
Beza  (Geneva,  1565, 1582, 1588  or  1589,  and  1598), 
as  well  as  his  five  8vo  editions  (1565, 1567, 1580, 1590, 
1604)  follow,  for  the  most  part,  Stephens's  editions 
of  1550  or  1551,  with  changes  here  and  there,  many 
of  which  are  not  improvements.  Stephens's  edition 
of  1551  is  commonly  spoken  of  in  England  as  the 
texhu  receptuB ;  but  on  the  Continent  the  first 
Elzevir  edition,  printed  at  Leyden  in  1624,  has 
generally  received  that  designation.  The  expres- 
sion is  borrowed  from  the  preface  to  the  second 
Elzevir  edition  (1633),  in  which  occur  the  words, 
Textum  ergo  habes,  nunc  ab  omnibua  receptum.  The 
text  of  the  seven  Elzevir  editions  (1624, 1633, 1641, 
Leyden;  1656,  1662,  1670,  1678,  Amsterdam), 
among  which  there  are  a  few  slight  differences,  is 
made  up  almost  wholly  from  Beza's  smaller  edi- 
tions of  1565  and  1580;  its  editor  is  unknown. 
The  textus  recepttu,  slavishly  followed,  with  slight 
diveiBities,  in  hundreds  of  editions,  and  substan- 
tially represented  in  all  the  principal  modem  Prot- 
estant translations  prior  to  the  nineteenth  century, 
thus  resolves  itself  essentially  into  that  of  the  last 
edition  of  Erasmus,  framed  from  a  few  modem 
and  inferior  manuscripts  and  the  Ck>mplutensian 
Polyj^ot,  in  the  infancy  of  Biblical  criticism.  In 
more  than  twenty  places  its  reading  is  supported  by 
the  authority  of  no  known  Greek  manuscript. 

The  editions  from  1657  to  1830,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  of  Griesbach  (see  below,  {  3),  are  im- 
portant, as  regards  the  text,  mainly  for  their 
accumidation  of  critical  materials.  In  Walton's 
Poly^t  (London,  1657;  see  Bibles,  Polyglot, 
IV),  Stephens's  Greek  text  of  1550  was  accom- 
panied by  the  Vulgate,   Peshito-Syriac,  Ethiopic, 


Arabic,  and,  in  parts  of  the  New  Testament, 
other  ancient  versions,  with  a  critical  apparatus  in- 
cluding the  readings  of  Codd.  A,  Di,  Ds,  Stephens's 
margin,  and  eleven  cursive  manuscripts  collated 
by  or  for  Archbishop  Ussher.  In  Bishop  Fell's 
edition  (Oxford,  1675),  which  reproduces  substan- 
tially the  Elzevir  text,  other  authorities,  inclu- 
ding readings  of  the  Cioptic  and  Gothic  versions, 
are  given  in  the  notes,  though  the  title  page  (ex 
p2iis  100  MSS.  codicibua),  is  very  misleading. 
The  edition  of  John  Mill  (Oxford,  1707,  fol.;  im- 
proved and  enlarged  by  Ludolph  Kuster,  Amster- 
dam, Leipsic,  and  Rotterdam,  1710),  the  work 
of  thirty  years,  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of 
textual  criticism  by  its  vast  additions  to  the  store 
of  critical  material  through  the  col- 
betwae  ^*  lation  of  the  new  manuscripts,  the 
1657  and  <^Il6<^tion  of  readings  from  the  ancient 
1830.  versions,  and  especially  from  the 
quotations  found  in  the  writings  of 
the  Christian  Fathers,  and  by  its  very  learned  and 
valuable  prolegomena.  Mill  gave  his  judgment 
on  many  readings  in  his  notes  and  prolegomena, 
but  did  not  venture  to  form  a  text  of  his  own, 
reprinting  Stephens's  text  of  1550  without  inten- 
tional variation.  The  projected  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  and  Latin  Vulgate  in  parallel 
columns,  by  the  illustrious  critic  Richard  Bentley 
(q.v.)  deserves  a  brief  notice.  Proposals  for  printing 
were  issued  in  1720,  and  a  large  amount  of  materials 
was  collected  at  great  expense,  including  a  collation 
of  cod.  B  (published  by  Ford  in  1799);  but  the 
work  was  never  completed.  It  was  to  have  been 
founded  on  the  oldest  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts 
compared  with  the  principal  ancient  versions  and 
the  quotations  in  the  Fathers  of  the  first  five  cen- 
turies. (Cf.  A.  A.  EULb,  BenUeii  criHca  Bocra, 
Cambridge,  1862;  R.  C.  Jebb,  Bentley,  London, 
1882.)  The  edition  of  Johann  AlbrechtBengel  (q.v.; 
TObingen,  1734,  4to),  while  it  had  the  advantage 
of  some  new  manuscripts,  was  specially  valuable 
for  its  discussions  and  illustrations  of  the  principles 
of  criticism,  and  its  classification  of  manuscripts; 
but,  except  in  the  Apocalypse,  Bengel  did  not 
venture  to  introduce  any  reading,  even  though 
he  believed  it  unquestionably  genuine,  which  had 
not  previously  appeared  in  some  printed  edition. 
His  judgment  of  the  value  of  different  readings 
was,  however,  given  in  the  margin  (cf.  E.  Nestle, 
Bengel  aU  GeUhrkr,  Tubingen,  1893,  pp.  39  sqq.). 
The  magnificent  edition  of  Johann  Jakob  Wetstein 
(q.v.;  2  vols,  fol.,  Amsterdam,  1751-52),  the  work 
of  forty  years,  greatly  enlarged  the  store  of 
critical  material  by  extensive  collation  of  manu- 
scripts and  researches  into  the  quotations  of  the 
Fathers,  and  by  his  description  of  this  material  in 
very  valuable  and  copious  prolegomena  (reprinted, 
with  additions  by  Semler,  Halle,  1764).  He  gives 
also  the  readings  of  the  chief  printed  editions  which 
preceded  him,  and  describes  them  fully.  He  in- 
troduced the  present  method  of  denoting  the 
uncial  manuscripts  by  Roman  capitals,  and  the 
cursives  and  lectionaries  by  Arabic  figures.  Besides 
the  critical  matter,  Wetstein's  edition  is  a  the- 
saurus of  quotations  from  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Rabbinical  authors,  illiistrating  the  phraseology  of 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


108 


the  New  Testament,  or  oontaining  passages  more 
or  less  parallel  in  sentiment.  His  publisher  insisted 
on  his  reprinting  the  textua  receptus  (substantially 
that  of  the  Elzevirs);  but  he  gives  his  critical 
judgment  in  the  margin  and  the  notes.  Other 
editions  to  be  briefly  mentioned  are  those  of  F.  C. 
Alter  (Vienna,  1786-87),  giving  the  readings  of 
twenty-two  Vienna  manuscripts  and  of  four  manu- 
scripts of  the  Slavonic  version;  of  Andrew  Birch 
{Quatuor  Evangelia  Greece,  Copenhagen,  1788,  4to, 
and  VaricB  Uctiones,  1798,  1800,  1801),  exhibiting 
the  readings  of  many  manuscripts  collated  in  the 
libraries  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany,  by  himself 
and  others;  and  of  C.  F.  Matthsi  (Novum  Testa- 
merUum  Greece  etLaiine  [the  Vulgate],  12  vols.,  8vo, 
Riga,  1782-88;  also  Novum  Testamentum  Grace,  3 
vols.,  8vo,  Wittenberg,  etc.,  1803-07),  for  which 
over  a  hundred  manuscripts  were  used,  mostly  from 
the  library  of  the  Holy  Synod  at  Moscow.  Mat- 
thffii  was  a  careful  collator,  but  a  very  poor  critic; 
and  his  manuscripts  generally  were  of  inferior 
quality. 

The  first  edition  of  Johann  Jacob  Griesbach  (q.v.) 
was  published  in  1774r-75  (the  first  three  Gospels 
in  synopsis);  but  it  was  only  in  the  second  edition 
(2  vols.,  8vo,  Halle,  1796-1806)  that  he  first  made 
really  good  use  of  the  materials  gathered  by  his  pred- 
ecessors, and  augmented  by  his  own  collections. 
A  manual  edition  was  issued  at  Leipsic  in  1805, 
the  text  of  which,  differing  somewhat  from  that 
of  the  larger  edition,  expresses  his 
later     critical    judgment.    Following 


4.  aries- 

bachand 


hisFol-  "^  *^®  tT9kC^  of  Bengel  and  Semler, 
lowers.'  Griesbach  sought  to  simplify  the  proc- 
ess of  criticism  by  classifying  his 
manuscripts  and  other  authorities.  He  made 
three  classes  or  recensions — the  Alexandrian,  the 
Western,  and  the  Ck>nstantinopolitan  or  Byzantine 
— to  the  latter  of  which  the  mass  of  later  and  in- 
ferior manuscripts  belongs.  Though  his  system  is 
not  now  accepted  in  its  details,  much  truth  lay 
at  the  bottom  of  it.  His  principles  of  criticism 
were  sound;  and  in  his  application  of  them  he  dis- 
played rare  tact  and  skill.  In  1827  a  third  edition 
of  the  first  volume  of  his  Greek  Testament  was 
published,  with  important  additions,  under  the 
editorship  of  Dr.  David  Schulz.  Griesbach's 
Symhola  crUiccB  (Halle,  1785-93),  and  Commen- 
tariue  crUicua  on  Matthew  and  Mark,  parts  i,  ii, 
with  Meletemata  critica  prefixed  to  part  ii,  Jena, 
1798, 1811,  are  still  valuable.  A  number  of  manual 
editions  founded  on  that  of  Griesbach,  but  inclining 
more  to  the  textue  receptus,  as  those  of  H.  A. 
Schott  (Leipsic,  1805, 1813,  1825, 1839),  with  a  good 
Latin  translation;  G.  C.  Knapp  (Halle,  1797, 
1813,  1824,  1829, 1840),  with  a  useful  Commentatio 
isagogica,  or  introduction,  and  carefully  punctuated 
and  divided;  J.  A.  H.  Tittmann  (ster.,  Leipsic, 
1820,  1828,  16mo;  1824,  1831,  8vo);  A.  Hahn 
(Leipsic,  1840,  1841,  revised  ed.  1861;  reprinted 
at  New  York,  1842,  by  Edward  Robinson); 
K.  G.  W.  Theile  (ster.,  Leipsic,  1844,  11th 
ed.  1875,  by  O.  von  Gebhardt),  with  the  vari- 
ations of  the  chief  modem  editors,  parallel  passages, 
etc.;  also  S.  T.  Bloomfield's  Greek  Testament 
with  English  Notes  (London,  1832,  9th  ed.,  1855, 


2  vols.,  8vo),  mark  no  progress  in  criticism  beyond 
Griesbach,  but  rather  a  retrograde  movement 
The  same  is  true  of  the  large  edition  of  the  Catholic 
scholar  J.  M.  A.  Scholz  (2  vols.,  4to,  Leipdc,  1830- 
1836),  whose  extensive  travels  and  researches  in 
libraries  enabled  him  to  add  a  very  laige  number 
of  new  manuscripts  (according  to  Scrivener,  616) 
to  the  list  of  those  previously  known.  But  of  these 
only  thirteen  were  collated  entire;  a  few  others  in 
the  greater  part;  many  in  only  a  few  chi^tera; 
many  more  simply  inspected,  or  only  enrolled  in 
the  list.  Scholz  was  a  poor  critic,  and  as  an  editor 
and  collator  incredibly  careless.  He  divided  his 
manuscripts  into  two  classes  or  recensions — the 
Alexandrian  and  the  Constantinopolitan,  giving 
the  preference  to  the  latter.  But  in  ^plying  his 
system,  he  was  happily  inconsistent,  particularly 
in  his  second  volume,  and  at  a  later  period  of  hiii 
life  (1845)  abandoned  it.  His  edition  met  with 
no  favor  from  intelligent  scholars;  but  in  Elng- 
land,  where  Biblical  criticism  was  at  its  lowest 
ebb,  it  was  welcomed  and  praised  by  many,  and 
its  text  reprinted. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  textual  criticism 
was  inaugurated  by  the  appearance  (Berlin,  1831) 
of  a  small  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  by  the 
distinguished  classical  scholar  Carl  Lachmann 
(q.v.),  followed  by  a  larger  edition,  in  which 
the  authorities  for  the  Greek  text  were  supplied 
by  Philipp  Buttmann,  with  the  Latin  Vulgate  in 
the  lower  margin,  critically  edited  from  oodd. 
Fuldensis,  Amiatinus,  and  other  maniiscripts 
(2  vols.,  8vo,  Berlin,  1842-50).  Lachmann's  aim 
in  these  editions  was  not  to  reproduce  the  original 

text  according  to   his  best  judgment 

6. 1«aoh-    (for  this  he  deemed   conjectural  criti- 

mann.      cism  to  be  necessary  in  some  cases), 

but  to  present  as  far  as  possible  on 
purely  documentary  evidence  the  text  current 
in  the  Eastern  churches  in  the  fourth  century 
as  a  basis  for  criticism.  He  paid  no  attention 
to  the  textus  receptus,  and  used  no  cursive  manu- 
scripts, but  founded  his  text  wholly  on  ancient 
authorities;  viz.,  codd.  A  B  C  D  P  Q  T  Z  of  the 
Gospels,  A  B  C  D  E  m  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles, 
A  B  G  D  G  in  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  A  B  C  in  the 
Apocalypse,  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  codd. 
a  (Vercellensis,  fourth  century),  b  (Veronensis,  fifth 
century),  and  c  (Colbertinus,  eleventh  century) 
of  the  Old  Latin,  for  the  Gospels,  besides  the  Latin 
versions  of  the  Greco-Latin  manuscripts  in  the 
above  list;  of  the  Fathers  he  used  Irerueus,  Cypriiin, 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  and,  in  the 
Apocalypse,  Primasius.  His  attempted  task  was 
not  fully  accomplished,  partly  because  the  text  of 
some  of  the  most  important  manuscripts  which  he 
used  (B  C  P  Q,  and  the  Latin  Codex  Amiatinus) 
had  been  but  very  imperfectly  collated  or  edited, 
partly  because  the  range  of  his  authorities  was 
too  narrow,  and  partly  because  he  was  sometimes, 
apparently  at  least,  inconsistent  in  the  i^pb'cation 
of  his  principles.  But  he  was  the  first  to  found 
a  text  wholly  on  ancient  evidence  (Griesbach  dis- 
regarded what  he  deemed  unimportant  variations 
from  the  received  text);  and  his  editions,  to  which 
his  eminent  reputation  as  a  critic  gave  wide  cur- 


109 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


rency,  espedaily  in  Germany,  did  much  toward 
breaking  down  the  superstitiouB  reverence  for  the 
textus  receptus  which  had  long  prevailed. 

Next  to  be  noted  are  the  editions  of  Tischendorf 
and  Tregelles.  Through  their  combined  labors 
we  have  a  solid  basis  for  a  completely  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  accurate 
knowledge,  not  possessed  before,  of  all  manu- 
scripts of  the  oldest  class  (not  including  lection- 
aries),  comprising  many  newly  dis- 
6.  Tiaohen-  c6vered,  among  them  the  Sinaitic  of 
dorf.  the  fourth  century.  Lobegott  Fried- 
rich  Constantin  Tischendorf  (q.v.) 
spent  about  eight  years  of  his  life  in  travels  in 
search  of  manuscripts  (for  which  he  visited  the 
East  three  times— in  1844, 1853,  and  1859),  or 
in  collating  with  extreme  care  or  transcribing 
and  preparing  for  publication  the  most  im- 
portant of  those  in  the  various  libraries  of 
Europe  which  were  before  known,  but  had  not 
been  published  or  thoroughly  examined.  The 
following  uncial  Greek  manuscripts  (see  the  list 
above)  were  discovered  by  Tischendorf:  K  Ga  I 
Ni  O,  T^  *  r  e*^  A  n;  first  used  by  him:  F*  P  N, 
0^'OS  P,  Q,  R, ,  T*«  W^  Q-^;  published:  fiC  B,  , 
C  D.  E,  F*  I  P  L,  M.  N,  O*  Pi.,  Qi  Ri  W«  Y  e* 
(of.  C.  R.  Gregory's  Prolegomena  to  Tischendorf's 
Novum  Te^amentum  Greece,  ed.  viii,  i,  Leipsic, 
1884,  p.  31).  His  editions  of  the  texts  of 
Biblical  manuscripts  (including  some  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint)  comprise  no  less  than  seventeen  large 
quarto  and  five  folio  volumes,  not  including  the 
Anecdota  sacra  et  profana  (1855,  new  ed.  1861), 
or  the  NotUia  edUionis  Codicis  Sinaiiici  (1860),  two 
quarto  volumes  containing  descriptions  or  col- 
lations of  many  new  manuscripts;  and  many 
of  his  collations,  or  copies  of  manuscripts,  remain 
unpublished. 

The  titles  of  Tischendorf 's  various  writings, 
most  of  them  relating  to  Biblical  criticism,  fill 
pages  7-22  of  Gregory's  Prolegomena.  His  first 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  (Leipsic,  1841)  was 
promising  as  a  first  essay,  but  of  no  special  im- 
portance except  for  the  refutation,  in  the  prole- 
{^mena,  of  Scholz's  theory  of  recensions.  In  the 
Edttio  Lipsiana  seeunda  (1849)  the  critical  appa- 
ratus was  much  enlarged,  and  the  text  settled  on 
the  basis  of  ancient  authority,  generally  with  good 
judgment.  In  1859  appeared  the  Editio  aeptima 
critica  maior  (2  vols.),  in  which  very  large 
additions  were  made  to  the  critical  apparatus,  not 
only  from  manuscripts,  Greek  and  Latin,  but 
from  the  quotations  in  the  writings  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  and  the  evidence  was  for  the 
first  time  fully  stated,  both  for  and  against  the 
reading  adopted.  In  the  first  volume,  Tisch- 
endorf, influenced  perhaps  by  Scrivener,  showed 
a  tendency  to  allow  greater  weight  to  the  later 
uncials  and  cursives  than  he  had  done  in  his  edition 
of  1849;  but  he  soon  found  that  he  was  on  the  wrong 
track;  and  on  the  whole,  if  orthographical  changes 
are  included,  his  edition  of  1859  differs  more  widely 
fttMn  the  iextu8  receptus  than  that  of  1849.  Its 
publication  was  immediately  followed  by  Tischen- 
dorf s  third  journey  to  the  E^t,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  great  Snaitic  manuscript,  together  with  the 


acquisition  of  much  other  new  critical  material. 
After  the  publication  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  in 
1862,  in  a  magnificent  edition  of  four  volumes 
folio,  in  facsimile  type,  with  twenty-one  plates  of 
actual  facsimiles,  at  the  expense  of  the  Russian 
Government,  the  edition  being  limited  to  three 
hundred  copies,  he  issued  in  1863,  in  4to,  his 
Novum  Testamentum  Sinaiticum,  in  ordinary  type, 
but  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
with  full  prolegomena;  and  his  Novum  Testamen- 
tum Greece  ex  Stnaitico  Codicei  Vaiicana  itemque 
Elzeviriana  lectione  notata,  in  1865,  8vo,  with  a 
supplement  of  additions  and  corrections  in  1870. 
After  some  other  publications,  particularly  the 
second  edition  of  his  Synopsis  evangelica  in  1864, 
in  which  the  Sinaitic  manuscript  was  first  used,  he 
undertook  his  last  great  critical  edition  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  Novum  Testamentum  Groece,  editio 
octava  critica  maior  (issued  in  eleven  parts,  i,  Leipsic, 
Oct.,  1864,  xi,  at  the  end  of  1872;  collected  into  two 
volumes,  8vo,  1869-72).  This  edition  far  surpassed 
all  that  had  preceded  it  in  the  richness  of  its  critical 
apparatus,  and,  as  compared  with  that  of  1859, 
rests  much  more  on  the  authority  of  the  oldest 
manuscripts,  particularly  the  Sinaitic.  The  prep- 
aration of  the  prolegomena  by  Tischendorf  himself 
was  prevented  by  his  sudden  illness  and  subse- 
quent death,  and  was  entrusted  to  an  American 
scholar  residing  in  Leipsic,  Caspar  Ren^  Gregory 
(q.v.),  who  had  also  the  valuable  assistance  of  Ezra 
Abbot  (q.v.).  In  the  interest  of  the  work  Dr. 
Gregory  made  special  journeys  through  Europe  and 
into  the  Orient,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  give 
first-hand  descriptions  and  collations  of  many 
manuscripts.  It  was  published  in  three  parts 
at  Leipsic,  1884-94.  Besides  the  works  mentioned, 
the  most  important  publications  of  Tischendorf 
pertaining  to  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New 
Testament  are :  Codex  Ephraemi  Syri  rescrip- 
tus  (1843,  4to;  Old  Testament  part,  1845);  Monu- 
menta  sacra  inedita  (1846,  4to);  Evangelium 
inedUum  (1847,  4 to);  Codex  Amiatinus  (Vulgate; 
1850,  new  ed.  1854);  Codex  Claromontanus  (1852. 4to) ; 
Monumenta  sacra  inediUif  nova  coUectio,  vols,  i-vi, 
ix  (1855-70, 4to);  Novum  Testamentum  Vaticanum 
and  Appendix  Novi  Testamenti  Vaticani  (1867-69, 
4to) ;  cf .  Responsa  ad  calumnias  Romanas  (1870, 8vo), 
also  Appendix  codicum  celeberrimarumf  Sinaiiici^ 
Vaticani,  Alexandrini  (1867,  4to);  Die  Sinaibibel, 
ihre  EntdeckunQf  Herausgabe,  und  Erwerbung  (1871, 
large  8vo).  His  Novum  Testamentum  trigloUum, 
Greece,  Latine,  Germanice  (Leipsic,  1854,  2d  ed., 
1865)  is  a  convenient  book,  the  three  parts  of  which 
were  also  issued  separately,  and  in  various  com- 
binations. The  Greek  is  his  own  text,  with  the 
variations  of  the  textus  receptus ;  the  Latin,  the 
Vulgate  critically  revised  from  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts, with  the  variations  of  the  Clementine 
edition;  the  German  the  genuine  text  of  Luther, 
though  in  modem  orthography.  Tischendorf  also 
issued  many  manual  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, the  three  latest  in  his  lifetime  being  pub- 
lished in  1875  by  Tauchnitz,  Brockhaus  (to  match 
his  edition  of  the  Septuagint),  and  Mendelssohn 
(Editio  academica  septima),  respectively.  His  large 
editions  of  1859  and  1869-72  were  issued  with  the 


Bible  T«Kt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


110 


7.  Tre- 
ffeUes. 


critical  apparatus  greatly  abridgedi  but  giving 
the  chief  authorities  for  all  the  important  various 
readings,  with  the  titles  Edilio  septima  critica  minor 
(1859)  and  Editio  octava  critiea  minor  (1872-77). 

Samuel  Prideaux  Tregelles  (q.v.)  ranks  next  to 
Tischendorf  in  the  importance  of  his  critical  labors, 
and  in  single-hearted  devotion  to  his  chosen  task. 
In  1848  he  issued  a  Prospectus  for  a  critical 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  the  text  of  which 
was  to  be  foimded  solely  on  the  authority  of  the 
oldest  Greek  manuscripts,  the  ancient  versions 
to  the  seventh  century,  and  the  citations  of  early 
writers,  including  Eusebius.  No  ac- 
count was  made  of  the  "received 
text,"  or  of  the  great  mass  of  cursive 
manuscripts.  Completeness  and  accuracy  in  the  ex- 
hibition of  the  evidence  of  the  witnesses  used  were 
especially  aimed  at.  Like  Tischendorf,  Tregelles 
visited  (in  1845-46,  1849-50,  and  1862)  the  prin- 
cipal libraries  in  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  collating 
manuscripts  the  text  of  which  had  not  before  been 
published.  These  were  the  uncials  B,  D,  Ej  F,  Gi 
H,.,  P  Kj  L,  M,.,  R,  U  X  Z  r  A,  the  cursives 
1,  13,  17,  31,  37,  47,  61,  69,  and  also  Codex  Zacyn- 
thius  (H).  In  many  cases  Tregelles  compared 
his  collations  with  those  of  Tischendorf,  and  settled 
the  differences  by  a  reexamination  of  the  manu- 
script. In  1861  he  edited  the  Codex  Zacynthius 
(H),  republishing  in  an  appendix  the  fragments 
of  O.  His  edition  of  The  Greek  New  Testament, 
Edited  from  Ancient  AuthorUiee,  with  their  Varioue 
Readings  in  Fvil,  and  the  Latin  Vereion  of  Jerome, 
was  issued  in  London  in  seven  successive  parts: 
i,  Matthew,  Mark,  1857;  ii,  Luke,  John,  1861; 
iii,  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  1865;  iv,  Romans  to 
II  Thessalonians  (iii,  3),  1869;  v«  Hebrews  (with 
IIThess.  iii,  3-18)  to  Philemon,  1870;  vi.  Revelation, 
1872.  Part  vii.  Prolegomena  and  Addenda  and  Cor- 
rt^«nda,  appeared  in  1879,  four  years  after  his  death, 
edited  by  Dr.  Hort  and  A.  W.  Streane.  Though  Tre- 
gelles added  far  less  than  Tischendorf  to  our  store  of 
critical  material,  he  did  more  to  establish  correct  prin- 
ciples of  criticism,  and  his  various  writings  had  a 
wide  and  most  beneficial  influence  in  England. 
He  also  published,  in  1854,  An  Account  of  the 
Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  with 
Remarks  on  its  Revision  upon  Critical  Principles, 
and,  in  1856,  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism 
of  ^  New  Testament,  forming  part  of  vol.  iv  of 
the  tenth  and  later  editions  of  Home's  Introduc- 
tion, This  volume  was  also  issued  separately, 
and  in  the  eleventh  edition  of  Home's  Introduction 
(1861)  appeared  with  "  Additions  "  and  a  "  Post- 
script." 

In    1881   appeared   The  New  Testament  in  the 

Original  Greek.     The  Text  Revised  by  Brooke  Foss 

WestcoU  .  .  .  and     Fenton    John    Anthony    Hort 

(Cambridge  and  London).    The  American  edition 

(New  York)  has  a  valuable  introduction  by  Philip 

Schaff,  with  the  cooperation  of  Ezra  Abbot.    Dr. 

Schaff  also  prepared  a  compact  man- 

tt*"d    "^  ^^  ^®^  Testament  criticism,   A 

°  Hor?       Companion  to  the  Greek  Testament  and 

'       the  EnglUh  Version  (New  York,  1883), 

which  embodies  the  substance  of  this  introduction, 

thoroughly  revised.    The    text  of   Westcott  and 


Hort  is  accompanied  by  an  Introduction  and 
Appendix  (1882)  in  which  the  authors  discuss  the 
need  of  criticism  for  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  methods  of  textual  criticism,  the 
application  of  its  principles  to  the  text,  the  nature 
and  details  of  their  edition,  and  add  notes  <m  se- 
lect readings  and  orthography,  with  orthographical 
alternative  readings,  and  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament.  In  1895  the  text  appeared  in  larger 
form,  and,  in  1896,  the  Introduction  in  finally  revised 
form.  This  edition  is  not  accompanied  with  any 
critical  i^paratus;  it  rather  was  the  object  of 
the  authors,  by  a  careful  study  of  the  materialB 
furnished  by  their  predecessors,  augmented  some- 
what, however,  by  their  own  researches,  to 
trace  the  history  of  the  text  as  far  as  possible; 
to  distinguish  its  different  types,  and  determine 
their  relations  and  their  comparative  value; 
to  investigate  the  special  characteristics  of 
the  most  important  documents  and  groups  of 
dociunents;  and,  finally,  to  apply  the  principles  of 
criticism  which  result  from  these  studies  to  the 
determination  of  the  original  text.  Their  view 
of  the  genealogical  relations  of  the  chief  ancient 
texts  excited  strong  opposition  in  certain  quarters, 
but  their  work  was  recognized  as  the  most  important 
contribution  to  the  scientific  criticism  of  the  New 
Testament  text  which  had  yet  been  made.  They 
distinguish  four  principal  types  of  text:  the  West- 
em,  characterized  by  a  tendency  to  paraphrase 
or  to  modify  the  form  of  expression,  and  also  to 
interpolate  from  parallel  passages  or  from  extra- 
neous sources,  represented  especially  by  D  and 
the  Old  Latin  versions,  also  in  part  by  the  Cure- 
tonian  Syriac;  the  neutral,  represented  by  B  and 
largely  by  fiC.  preserving  best  the  original  form; 
the  Alexandrian,  much  purer  than  the  Western, 
but  betrajring  a  tendency  to  polish  the  language; 
and  the  Syrian,  the  latest  form,  a  mixed  text, 
borrowing  from  all,  and  aiming  to  be  easy,  smooth, 
and  complete.  They  regard  B  as  preeminent  above 
all  other  manuscripts  for  the  purity  of  its  text; 
the  readings  of  fiC  and  B  combined  as  generally 
deserving  acceptance  as  genuine,  their  ancestries 
having  "diverged  from  a  point  near  the  auto- 
graphs"; and  they  attach  great  weight  to  every 
combination  of  B  with  another  primary  Greek 
manuscript,  asLCTDHAZ33,  and,  in  Mark,  A. 
Westcott  and  Hort  (see  Westoott,  Brooke  Foss; 
Hort,  Fenton  John  Anthony)  began  their  work 
in  1853.  Their  method  of  cooperation  was  fir^t 
independent  study,  then  comparison.  The  Intro- 
duction is  chiefly  the  work  of  Dr.  Hort,  whoe« 
name  is  one  of  the  greatest  in  the  history  of  text- 
criticism.  He  carried  into  the  study  of  the  text  a 
large  knowledge  of  church  history  and  patristic 
theology,  and  it  was  this  breadth  of  historical 
knowledge  which  made  the  Introduction  the  great 
work  it  is.  The  genealogical  theory,  suggested 
by  Bengel  and  elfJtK>rated  by  later  scholars,  was 
here  worked  into  a  truly  monumental  form.  A 
thorough  acquaintance  with  this  book  is  necessary 
to  the  student  if  he  would  have  a  dear  insight  of 
the  deepest  tendencies  in  the  text  studies  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  or  an  under- 
standing of  the  course  taken  by  text-study  in  the 


Ill 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


present.  Conscious  agreement  with  it  or  conscious 
disagreement  and  qualification  mark  all  work  in 
this  field  since  1881. 

Of  the  many  other* scholars  whose  labors  have 
aided  in  the  establishment  of  the  text  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  the  Anglican  scholar  Frederick 
Henry  Ambrose  Scrivener  (q.v.)  deserves  men- 
tion especially  for  his  editions  and  collation  of 
manuscripts.  His  Plain  Introdudion 
Criti^^  to  the  CrUicism  of  the  New  Testament 
the -tat.  (Cambridge,  1861;  4th  ed.,  by  E.  Mil- 
ler, 2  vols.,  London,  1894)  is  a  stand- 
ard work.  Scrivener  was  an  able  defender  of 
the  later  manuscripts  as  witnesses  to  the  original 
text  against  Teschendorf,  Tregelles,  and  West- 
cott  and  Hort.  In  this  contention  he  had  the 
doughty  support  of  John  William  Burgon 
(q.v.)  in  The  Revision  Revised  (London,  1883). 
Among  Americans,  Ezra  Abbot  and  Joseph 
Henry  Thayer;  among  Hollanders,  W.  C.  Van 
Uanen,  J.  Cramer,  and  J.  J.  Prins;  among 
Frenchmen,  P.  BatifFol,  J.  P.  P.  Martin,  and  E. 
Am^lineau;  among  Italians,  Angelo  Mai,  Carlo 
Vercellone,  and  J.  Cozsa;  and  among  Germans,  F. 
Blass,  E.  Nestle,  B.  Weiss,  E.  Riggenbach,  and 
0.  von  Gebhardt  have  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  textual  criticism. 

When  Westoott  and  Hort  published  their  text 
in  1881  and  when,  in  1882,  Hort's  masterpiece  on 
introduction  followed,  there  was  a  disposition  in 
some  quarters  to  believe  that  New  Testament 
scholarship  had  come  somewhere  near  a  critical 
texiua  reeeptus.  The  genealogical  theory  first 
broached  by  Bengel  seemed,  after  a  century  and  a 
half  of  toil,  to  have  led  the  student  into  a  definite 
path  which  would  surely  lead  to  a  final  goal.  But 
significant  changes,  in  feeling  if  not  in  opinion, 
are  beginning  to  manifest  themselves.  Westcott 
and  Hort  mark  a  main  epoch  in  text- 
^bIJUS?'*  study.  More  clearly  than  their  pred- 
^^U^_  eoessors,  they  showed  that  the  study 
eiee.  of  the  text  was  inseparable  from  the 
study  of  church  history.  But  the 
hypothesis  which  Hort  so  powerfully  worked  out 
has  to  some  extent  wrought  its  own  undoing.  The 
lines  of  study  that  it  suggested  have  brought  to  light 
>o  many  new  facts  and  so  many  serious  problems 
that  the  tone  of  certitude  at  one  time  in  fashion 
has  passed  away.  To  Scrivener's  description  of 
Westoott  and  Hort's  text  as  a  splendidum  peccatum 
few  will  assent.  Yet,  beyond  question,  the  sit- 
uation has  materially  changed.  The  "Western 
Text "  or,  to  call  it  by  a  safer  name,  the  "  Syro- 
Wertem  Text,"  which  Westcott  and  Hort  took 
to  be  a  fairiy  well  delineated  fact,  has  become  an 
imperious  problem.  The  genealogical  theory  has 
fulfilled  the  chief  fimction  of  a  good  working 
hypothesis  by  introducing  order  into  chaos  and 
pointing  to  the  promising  lines  of  attack  upon  the 
vast  body  of  data  awaiting  the  student.  But 
genealogical  certitude  has  declined.  With  its 
decline  has  come  a  growing  disposition  to  concede 
to  exegesis  a  certain  right  against  the  overweening 
authority  of  any  group  of  manuscripts,  however 
imposing.  The  good  text-critic  should  also  be  an 
accomplished  exegete.    In  Johannes  Weiss  the  two 


qualities  are  in  a  measure  blended.  Hence,  at  a 
critical  point  like  Rom.  v,  1,  the  exegete  in  him 
goes  against  the  authority  of  A  B  C  D  E  K  L, 
Vulgate,  Peshito,  etc.,  and  adopts  ixofitv  instead 
of  ix^H^^' 

Monimiental  work  is  not  at  present  the  order 
of  the  day.  The  searching  investigations  of  the 
versions,  the  detailed  and  comprehensive  study 
of  patristic  quotations,  larger  and  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  mental  conditions  under  which  an  entire 
group  of  texts  are  Ukely  to  have  imdergone  per- 
ceptible, even  if  inconsiderable,  changes — ^in  a 
word,  a  vast  amount  of  labor  lies  ahead.  The 
doing  of  it  will  require  a  very  considerable  time. 
Meanwhile  the  confidence  and  finality  of  a  quarter- 
century  ago  are  to  be  replaced  by  a  restrained 
skepticism. 

3.  Principles  of  Teztnal  Crltioism:  It  is  im- 
possible, within  the  limits  here  allowed,  to  state 
and  illustrate  the  principles  of  criticism  applica- 
ble to  the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament.  A  few 
hints  may,  however,  be  given.  The  object,  of 
course,  is  to  ascertain  which,  among  two  or  more 
variations  of  the  text  presented  by  our  manu- 
scripts or  other  authorities,  is  the  original.  No 
kind  of  evidence,  external  or  internal,  is  to  be 
neglected.    The    problem    is    to    be 

^^1*®  solved  by  a  process  of  reasoning 
Bale.  ^P^^  probabilities;  and  what  has 
to  be  considered,  in  every  case,  is 
which  hypothesis  will  best  explain  all  the  phe- 
nomena. This  fact  is  sometimes  partially  stated 
under  the  form  of  the  rule  that  that  reading 
is  to  he  accepted  as  genuine  which  wiU  best  explain 
the  origin  of  the  other  variaiiona.  This  is  an  impor- 
tant rule;  but  there  must  be  taken  into  account 
not  merely  the  nature  of  the  variations,  but  the 
number,  independence,  and  character  of  the  wit- 
nesses that  support  them.  The  process  of  criti- 
cism is  not  a  mechanical  one.  Authorities  must  be 
weighed,  not  counted.  One  good,  very  early 
manuscript  may  be  worth  more  than  a  thousand 
copies  derived  from  a  late  and  corrupted  arche- 
type. Again,  though  the  presumption  is  in  favor 
of  the  oldest  manuscripts,  mere  antiquity  does  not 
prove  the  excellence  of  a  copy. 

One  of  the  essential  prerequisites  to  intelligent 
criticism  is  a  thorough  study  of  the  occasions 
of  error  in  manuscripts.  This  involves  a  knowl- 
edge of  paleography  and  of  the  history  of  pro- 
nunciation. The  similarity  of  certain  letters  or 
abbreviations  in  their  older  forms  gave  occasion 
to  errors  which  can  be  only  thus  explained; 
and  in  the  corruption  of  the  Greek  language, 
vowels  and  diphthongs  originally  distinct  in  sound 

2  oth        ^^^  pronounced  alike   (itacism).    A 

Canons,  i^tudy  of  the  tendencies  and  habits  of 
transcribers  is  also  involved.  Many 
manuscripts,  in  the  alterations  they  have  re- 
ceived from  later  hxuids,  illustrate  the  manner 
in  which  the  text  was  corrupted.  Among  the 
maxims  resulting  from  such  a  study,  in  connection 
with  the  consideration  of  external  testimony,  are 
the*:  (1)  The  more  difficiUt  reading  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred (Bengel's  great  rule).  This  applies  to  those 
variations  which  are  to  be  ascribed   to  design. 


Bible  Text 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


112 


Transcribers  would  not  intentionally  substitute  a 
harsh,  ungranunaticali  unusual,  Hebraistic  ex- 
pression, one  that  caused  a  difficulty  of  any  kind, 
for  an  easier  one.  (2)  The  shorter  reading  is  to  be 
preferred  (Porson's  "surest  canon  of  criticism")- 
The  tendency  of  scribes  was  almost  always  to  add, 
rather  than  to  omit.  They  did  not  like  to  have 
their  copies  regarded  as  incomplete.  It  was  com- 
mon to  insert  in  the  margin  of  manuscripts,  or 
between  the  lines,  glosses,  or  explanations  of 
imusual  or  difficult  expressions,  also  words  or 
clauses  which  served  to  supplement  the  language 
of  one  Gospel  from  the  parallel  or  similar  passages 
in  another,  or  to  complete  abridged  quotations 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  fuller  text  of  the 
Septuagint.  Words  accidentally  omitted  were  also 
placed  in  the  margin,  or  between  the  lines.  A  tran- 
scriber might  thus  easily  mistake  these  glosses,  or 
supplements,  of  his  predecessor  for  accidental 
omissions  and  transfer  them  to  his  text.  This 
rule  does  not  apply  to  cases  where  an  omission  can 
be  satisfactorily  explained  by  homcsoteleuton;  that 
is,  cases  where  two  successive  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences  have  a  like  ending.  The  scribe  copies 
the  first  of  these,  then  his  eye  glances  to  the  like 
ending  of  the  second,  and  he  thinks  that  that  is 
what  he  has  just  copied,  and  omits  unconsciously 
the  intervening  words.  Another  prerequisite  to  suc- 
cessful criticism  is  a  careful  study  of  the  principal 
documents  and  groups  or  classes  of  docimients, 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  text,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  traced,  in  order  to  determine  by  a 
process  of  comparative  criticism  their  peculiar 
characteristics,  their  weak  points  and  their  strong 
points,  and  the  relative  antiquity  and  value  of 
their  texts.  This  process  includes  the  ancient 
versions  and  the  quotations  in  the  writings  of 
the  principal  Christian  Fathers.  It  can  not  be 
here  detailed.  Griesbach  did  good  work  in  this 
direction,  and  it  has  been  the  special  study  of 
Westcott  and  Hort.  It  is  thus  possible  to  weigh 
the  external  evidence  in  particular  cases  with  some 
approach  to  accuracy. 

4.  BesultB  of  the  Textual  Oritioism  of  the  New 
Testament:  The  host  of  "various  readings" 
which  an  examination  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
versions,  and  quotations,  has  brought  to  light, 
perhaps  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  in  num- 
ber, alarms  some  simple-minded  people.  Anal- 
ysis at  once  dispels  the  alarm.  It  is  seen  that  a 
very  large  proportion  of  these  readings,  say  nine- 
teen-twentieths,  are  of  no  authority,  no  one  can 
suppose  them  to  be  genuine;  and  nineteen-twen- 
tieths  of  the  remainder  are  of  no  importance  as 
affecting  the  sense.  Of  how  much,  or  rather,  of 
how  little,  importance,  for  the  most  part,  the 
remainder  are,  can  readily  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament  (with 
its  marginal  notes)  with  the  text  of  the  Authorized 
Version,  or  by  an  examination  of  the  various  read- 
ings of  the  chief  modem  editors  in  Scrivener's 
Novum  Testamentum  textua  Stephanici  A.D,  1660 
.  .  .  accedurU  varia  lediones  (8th  ed.,  Cambridge, 
1877).  The  great  number  of  various  readings  is 
simply  the  result  of  the  extraordinary  richness  of 
critical  resources.     Westcott  and   Hort   remark, 


with  entire  truth,  that  "  in  the  variety  and  fubiess 
of  the  evidence  on  which  it  rests,  the  text  of  the 
New  Testament  stands  absolutely  and  unaj^roach- 
ably  alone  among  ancient  prose-writings." 

Bzbuoorapht:  On  the  paleography  of  the  N.  T.:  &  P. 
TregelleB,  An  Aeamnt  of  the  Pnnted  Ttxt  of  ttc  GnA 
New  TftammU;  ^eiih  Remarka  on  ita  Rmiaion  uponCriHcal 
Principles,  toffether  tpith  a  Collation  of  the  Critieal  Texta  o/ 
Orieebach,  SehoU,  Lachmann,  and  Tieekendorf,  vfiSk  Aat  ta 
Common  Uae,  London,  1854;  E.  A.  Bond  and  E.  M.  Tbomp- 
•on.  FaeeimileB  of  Ancient  MSS,  ib.  1873-82;  W.  W*t- 
tenbach.  Anteitung  sur  griechiaeken  Palteooraphie,  l>ip6ic 
1877;  idem,  Sdurifttafeln  eur  OeaehidUe  der  griedaaehn 
Schnft,  2  parte,  Berlin,  1876-77;  idem  and  F.  A.  too 
Welsen,  Exempla  eodieum  Gracorum  liUeriB  mtmiaciilu 
acriptorum,  Heidelberg.  1878;  idem,  Seripturm  Oratt 
apedmina^  Berlin,  1883;  N.  Gardthauaen,  Grieehiadu 
Palaographie,  Leipmc,  1879;  J.  R.  Hanis.  ffew  Ttata- 
ment  AtUoffrapha,  in  supplement  to  AJP,  no.  12,  1882; 
idem,  SHchometry,  New  York.  1803;  T.  W.  Allen.  Nota 
on  Abbreviationa  in  Greek  M8S,  toith  FaceimiUs,  Oxford, 
1889;  ,F.  Blaas,  Palcaograpkie,  in  Handbw^  der  kiaati- 
ad^en  AUerthumaipiaaenachaftt  vol.  i,  Munich,  1892;  W. 
A.  Copinger.  The  Bible  and  ita  Tranamieaum,  Londoo, 
1897;  F.  G.  Kenyon,  Our  BibU  and  Ute  Ancient  MSS,  ib. 
1897;  idem,  BibU  ManuacripU  in  the  Britiah  Mvaeam, 
Facaimilea,  ib.  1901;  C.  F.  Bitterly.  Praiia  in  Greek  MSS 
of  the  N.  T.  The  mechaniced  and  literary  Prooeaaea  in- 
volved in  their  Writing  and  PreaervaHon,  New  York,  1898; 
R.  Proctor.  The  PrinHng  of  Greek  in  the  Fifteenth  Cettr 
tury,  no.  8  of  lUtiatrated  Monographa,  issued  by  the  Bib- 
liographical Society.  London,  1900;  DB,  iv,  944-057. 

For  the  old  printers  consult — on  Christopher  Plantin: 
M.  Rooses,  Chriatopher  Plantin^  imprimeur  Anvemoia, 
Antwerp,  1884;  idem,  Chrietopher  PlanHn,  Corrttpon- 
dance,  Ghent,  1886;  T.  L.  de  Vinne,  Chrietopher  Planiin 
and  the  PlanHnrMoretua  Muaeum  at  Antwerp,  New  York. 
1885;  L.  Degeorge,  La  Maiaon  Plantin  h.  Anvera,  Paris. 
1886.  On  the  Stephens:  G.  A.  Crapelet.  Robert  Eattenm, 
imprimeur  royal,  Paris,  1839;  A.  A.  Renouard,  Annala 
de  Vimprimerie  dee  Eatienne,  ib.  1843;  L.  Feugfere,  Emd 
awr  la  vie  et  lea  ouvragea  de  Henri  Eatienne,  ib.  1853.  On 
the  Elseyin:  C.  Pieters,  Annalea  de  Vimprimerie  Elaevi- 
rienne,  Ghent.  1860;  A  Willems,  Lea  EUHfier:  hiatoire  d 
annalea  typographiquea,  B-uasels,  1880. 

Late  critical  editions  are!  C.  Tischendorf,  Novum  Tet- 
tamentum  Grace,  ed.  8.  critica  major,  Leipdo,  1864-72; 
Prolegomena,  by  C.  R.  Gregory,  ib.  1884-M.  small  ed  of 
text  of  8.  ed.,  with  selections  of  readings,  ib.  1878;  F.  H. 
A.  Scrivener  and  E.  Palmer,  The  Greek  Teatament  vift 
the  Readinga  adopted  by  the  Reviaera  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
eion,  Oxford.  1882;  B.  F.  Westcott  and  F.  J.  A.  Hort. 
N.  T.  in  the  OrigiiuU  Greek,  Am.  ed.  with  introduetioii  by 
P.  SchafiF.  3d  ed..  New  York.  1883;  W.  Saaday.  Lloyd't 
ed.  of  Mill'a  Text  with  ParaUel  Refereneea,  Eueebian  CanonM 
.  .  .  and  three  Appendicea  (published  separately,  oontaio- 
ing  variants  of  Westcott  and  Hort,  and  a  selection  of  im- 
portant readings  with  authorities,  together  with  readings 
from  Oriental  versions,  Memphitic,  Armenian,  and  Ethi- 
opio),  Oxford,  1889;  O.  von  Gebhardt.  Novum  Tealameih 
tum  (with  variants  of  Tregelles  and  Westcott  and  Hort), 
6th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1894;  B.  Weiss.  Daa  Neue  Teatament, 
Textkritiache  Unterauchungen  und  TextherateUung,  ib.  1894- 
1900;  F.  Blass,  Acta  Apoatolorum  aive  Lucte  ad  Theojior 
lum  Uber  aUer  aeaindum  formam  qua  videtur  Romanam, 
ib.  1896;  idem,  Evangelium  aecundam  Lucam  eive  Luce 
ad  TheopihiLum  liber  prior  aeeundum  formam  qua  videter 
Romanam,  ib.  1897;  E.  Nestle,  Teatamentum  Nomm 
GrcBca  cum  apparatu  critioo,  Stuttgart.  1808  (the  uw  of 
editions  with  the  MS.  variants  will  still  be  required); 
Novum  Teatamentum  Grmcum,  editio  Stutgardiana,  ib.  1888 
(based  on  collation  of  Tischendorf,  Westcott  and  Hort, 
Weymouth,  and  Weiss;  contains  for  the  Gospels  sikI 
Acts  a  selection  of  MS.  readings,  chiefly  from  Codex  Bete). 

Treatises  on  various  phases  of  the  history  of  N.  T.  tex- 
tual criticism  are:  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  A  Full  and  Eiad 
CoOation  of  about  twenty  Greek  MSS  of  the  Holy  GoaptU 
{hitherto  unexamined)  .  .  .  in  the  Britiah  Mueerm,  t^ 
Archiepiacopal  Library  at  Lambeth,  .  .  .  with  a  critieal  /«- 
troduetUm,  Cambridge,  1853;  idem,  A  Plain  Introdvdien 
to  the  Criticiam  of  the  New  Teatament,  4th  ed.,  by  E  Miller. 
London,  1894  (conservative);  O.  T.  Dobbin.  The  Coder 


113 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 


MantfarUanno,  ib.  1854;  F.  W.  A.  B&thicen.  Der  ipriechi' 
•dU  Tat  dsM  Cunton^aektn  Synra,  Leipaic.  1885:  J.  R. 
Harrifl,  Th»  Origin  of  the  LeietBier  Codex  of  the  N.  T., 
London,  1887;  U.  J.  M.  Bebb,  Evidence  of  the  Early  Ver- 
•ione  and  Paretic  Quotatione  on  the  Text  of  ...  the  N.  T., 
in  Studia  BiUica,  ii.  Oxford,  1890;  H.  C.  Hodcier,  A  Full 
Account  and  CoUoHon  of  the  Greek  Curaive  Codex  Evang. 
60^  London,  1890  (oontainB  in  Appendix  C,  A  fuU  and 
exact  cemparieon  of  tKe  Elaevir  BdiHane  of  1624  and  16SS); 
G.  H.  GwiUimm,  The  Material  for  the  Criiieiem  of  the  Peeh- 
itto  N.  T.,  in  Studia  Bibliea,  iii.  47-104.  Oxford,  1891; 
F.  H.  ChMe,  The  (Hd  Syriac  Element  in  tKe  Text  of  Codex 
Bexet,  London,  1893;  Mrs.  A.  S.  Lewis,  The  Four  Ooepele 
yanaUtted  from  Ae  Syriae  Palimpeeet,  ib.  1894;  R.  C. 
Benaley.  J.  R.  Harris,  and  F.  C.  Burkitt.  The  Four  Goa- 
peie  in  Syriae  iranacribed  from  the  Syriae  Palimpaeat,  Cam- 
bridce,  1894;  O.  N.  Bonwetsch  and  H.  Aehelia,  Die  chriat^ 
htken  griechiaehen  SdvriftatOler  vor  Euaebiue,  Berlin,  1897; 

E.  Miller.  The  Preaent  State  of  the  Textual  Coniroveray  re- 
afpteUng  A«  Holy  Ooepela,  London,  1899  (oonaervative); 
idem.  The  Textual  Controverey  and  the  Twentieth  Century, 
ib.  1901;  G.  Salmon,  Some  Thoughte  on  the  Textual  CrUi- 
eiam  of  the  N.  T.,  ib.  1897;  M.  R.  Vincent.  A  Hiat.  of  the 
Textual  Critieiem  of  the  N.  T.,  New  York,  1899;  K.  Lake. 
The  Text  of  the  N.  T..  London,  1900;  F.  G.  Kenyon, 
Bamdhook  to  Textual  Critieiam  of  the  N.  T.,  ib.  1901;  idem. 
Evidence  of  GreA  Papyri  reith  Regard  to  Textual  Critieiam, 
ib.  1905.  On  the  Revisers'  text  consult  W.  M.  Sanday 
in  Bxpoaitar,  1881. 

The  prindplee  of  textual  criticism  are  discussed  at 
length  in  Hort's  Introduction  to  Weetcott  and  Hort's 
Greek  Testament,  London,  1881.  where  also  is  found  the 
most  elaborate  discussion  of  the  Sinaitic  and  Vatican  MSS. 
On  the  Sinaitic  MS.  consult  also  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener.  Col- 
lation of  theCodexSinaiticua,  3d  ed..  London,  1867;  C.  Tisch- 
sndorf.  Die  Anfechtungen  der  Sinaibibel,  Leipsic,  1863; 
idem.  Die  Sinaibibel,  ihre  Entdeckung,  Herauagabe  und 
Erw^rhung,  ib.  1871;  idem.  Waff  en  der  Finatemiaa  wider 
die  Sinaibibel,  ib.  1863.  Convenient  manuals  are:  E. 
Nestle,  EinfUhrung  in  daa  griechiache  Neue  Teatament, 
Gettincen,  1897.  A  valuable  collection  of  editions  of  the 
Grtek  Testament,  moatly  amassed  by  the  late  Dr.  Isaac 
H.  Han.  is  in  the  library  of  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York. 

During  the  last  three  srears  considerable  discussion  has 
been  aroused  on  the  subject  of  the  text,  to  which  the 
following  are  the  moat  important  contributions: 

For  1902:  J.  M.  Bebb,  in  DB,  iv.  848-855.  860-864; 

F.  Blass,  Svangeliuim  aecundum  Johannem  cum  varia  lee- 
tiomia  deUetu,  Leipeie;  F.  G.  Burkitt,  The  Date  of  Codex 
Beta,  in  JTS,  vol.  iii;  F.  C.  Conybeare,  Three  Early  Doe- 
MfMi  ModifUsatuma  of  the  Text  of  the  Goapela.  in  Hihbert 
Jmmal,  i.  96-113;  M.  D.  Gibson.  Four  remarkable  Sinai 
MSS,  in  Expoeitory  Timea,  xiii,  509-511;  S.  K.  Gifford, 
PttuU  epiatolaa  qua  forma  legerit  Joannea  Chryaoatomua, 
Halle;  E.  J.  Goodapeed,  The  HaakeU  Goapela,  in  JBL,  xxi, 
100-107;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Textkritik  dee  N.  T.,  vol.  ii, 
Ldpsie;  C.  E.  Hammond,  Outlinea  of  Textual  Critieiam 
appUed  to  the  N.  T.,  Oxford;  J.  R.  Harris.  A  eurioua  Be- 
an reading  vindicated,  in  'Expoeitor,  pp.  189-195;  idem. 
On  a  Recent  Emendation  in  the  Text  of  St.  Peter,  ib.,  pp. 
317-32(h  idem.  The  Hiatory  of  a  Conjectural  Emendation 
(ib.,pp.  378-390);  A.  Hjelt,  Die  aliayriache  EvangeHenOber' 
aebemg  und  Tatiana  Diaieaaaron,  in  T.  Zahn's  Foraehungen, 
▼iii,  1,  Leipsic;  K.  Lake,  Codex  1  of  the  Goapela  and  iU 
AUiea,  Cambridge;  idem,  7*«xfs  from  Mount  Athoa,  in 
Stmdia  Bibliea,  vol.  v,  part  2.  pp.  89-185.  London;  A.  S. 
Lewis,  Stadia  Sinaitiea  XI.  Apocrypha  Syriaca,  Lon- 
don; 0.  R  S.  Mead,  The  Goapele  and  the  Goapel.  Study 
in  Biotl  rsesnl  Reeulta  of  lower  and  higher  Critieiam,  London; 
A  llerx.  Die  vier  kanoniaehen  Evangelien  nach  ihrem  tdtee^ 
Im  hAgmUen  Texte.  Ueberaeteung  und  Erl&uterung  der 
avriaehen  im  Sinaikloeter  gefundenen  Palimpaeethandaehrif- 
tm.  part  2:  Erlduterungen,    let  half:  Matlh&ue,   Berlin; 

E.  Nestle,  The  Greek  Teatament,  with  Introduction  and 
Appendix  on  irregular  Verba,  by  R.  E.  Weidner.  New 
York;  idem,  in  DB,  iv.  645-652.  732-741;  H.  von  Soden, 
Bit  Schriften  dee  N.  T.  in  ihrer  HUeaten  erreichbaren  Text- 
mlalt,  vol.  i,  part  1,  Berlin;  B.  Weiss.  Daa  Neue  Teata- 
■Mnl,  3  vols.,  Leipeie;  H.  J.  White,  in  DB,  iv,  873-890. 

For  1903:  L.  Blau,  Ueber  den  Einfluaa  dee  aUhtbrHiachen 
BtuAioeteiM  avj  die  Originale  und  auf  die  tUteaten  Hand- 
tAHften  der  LXX,  dee  N.  T.  und  der  Hexapla,  Berlin; 

F.  C.  Burkitt,  On  Codex  Claromontanua,  in  JTS,  iv,  587- 

n.— 8 


588;  idem,  77^  Syriae  Interpretation  of  John  xiii,  4,  in 
JTS,  iv,  436-438;  idem,  in  EB,  iv,  4981-5012;  idem. 
Further  Notea  on  Codex  k,  in  JTS,  v.  100-107;  W.  £. 
Crum.  Coptic  Oatraka  from  the  Collection  of  the  Egypt  Ex- 
ploration Fund,  the  Cairo  Muaeum,  and  othera,  London; 
M.  D.  Gibson,  Four  Remarkable  Sinai  Manuaeripta,  in 
Expoeitory  Timea,  xiii,  509-511;  J.  E.  Gilmore,  Manu- 
acript  Portiona  of  three  Coptic  Lectionariea,  in  PSBA,  xxiv, 
186-191;  G.  H.  Gwilliam.  The  Age  of  the  Bodleian  Syriac 
Codex  Datokina  S,  in  JTS,  iii.  452  sq.;  idem.  Place  of  the 
PeahUto  Veraion  in  the  Apparatua  crilieua  of  the  GreA  N. 
T.,  in  Studia  Bibliea,  v,  3,  pp.  187-237;  K.  Lake.  Dr. 
Weiaa'  Text  of  the  GoapeU,  in  AJT,  vii,  249-258;  A. 
Schmidtke,  Die  Evangelien  einer  alien  Unzialcodex,  Leip- 
sic; W.  B.  Smith.  The  Pauline  Manuaeripta  F  and  G,  in 
AJT,  vii,  452-185.  662-688;  C  Taylor.  The  Perieope  of  the 
AduUereea,  in  JTS,  iv.  129-130;  B.  Weiss.  Die  Perikope 
von  der  EhArecherin,  in  ZWT,  xlvi.  141-158;  A.  Wright, 
A  Synopaia  of  the  Goapela  in  GreA,  2d  ed.,  London;  O. 
Zdckler.  The  Textual  Queation  in  Acta,  transl.  by  A.  Steimle, 
New  Rochelle. 

For  1904:  F.  Blass,  UAer  die  Textkritik  im  N.  T.,  help- 
sic;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Evangelion  Da-Mepharreahe.  The 
Cureionian  Veraion  of  the  four  Goapela,  xoith  the  Readinga 
of  the  Sinai  Palimpaeet  and  the  early  Syriae  patriatie  Evi" 
dence,  2  vols.,  Cambridge;  Codex  Veronenaia  .  .  .  denuo 
ed.  J.  Belaheim,  Prague;  R.  D'Onston,  The  Patriatie 
Goapela.  An  EngliA  Veraion  of  the  Holy  Goapda  aa  they 
exiated  in  Ae  aecond  Century.  London;  J.  T.  BCarshall.  Re- 
markable Readinga  in  the  Epiatlea  found  in  the  Palealinian 
Syriac  Lectionary,  in  JTS,  v,  437-445;  J.  B.  Mayor, 
Notee  on  the  Text  of  II  Peter,  in  Expoeitor,  pp.  284-293; 
idem,  Notea  on  the  Text  of  the  Epiatle  of  Jude,  ib.,  pp.  450- 
460;  J.  O.  F.  Murray,  Textual  Critieiam,  in  DB,  extra 
vol.,  pp.  206-236;  W.  Sanday,  The  Preaent  GreA  Tea- 
tamenU  of  the  Clarendon  Preaa,  in  JTS,  v,  279-280;  A 
New  GreA  Teatament,  prepared  by  E.  Neatle.  Text  vrith 
Critieal  Apparatua,  London;  Novum  Teatamentum  .  .  . 
Latine  aecundum  editionem  aancH  Hieronymi  .  .  .  reeen- 
auit  J.  Wordsworth — H.  J.  White,  part.  ii.  fasc.  2.  Actue 
Apoatolorum,  Oxford;  C.  H.  Turner,  A  Re-Collation  of 
Codex  k  of  the  Old  LaHn  GoapeU,  in  JTS,  v,  88-100. 

1905:  R.  F.  Weymouth,  The  ReauUant  GreA  Text,  with 
readings  of  Stephens  (1550),  Lachmann,  Tregelles,  Light- 
foot,  and  (for  the  Pauline  Epistles)  Ellioott,  also  of  Al- 
ford  and  Weiss  for  Matthew,  the  Basel  ed..  Westoott  and 
Hort  and  Revisers,  London,  1892,  3d  ed..  1905. 

1906:  F.  H.  A.  Scrivener.  Novum  Teatamentum,  Textua 
Siaphanid,  Varica  Leetionee  of  Beaa,  the  Elxevira,  LaAmann, 
Tiachendorf,  Tregdlae,  WeateoU  and  Hort,  and  the  Reoi- 
aera,  London.  1887.  ed.  E.  Nestle.  1906;  A.  Deissmann, 
The  New  Biblieal  Papyri  at  Heidelberg,  in  Expoeitory  Timea, 
pp.  248-254. 

The  literature  of  the  work  which  is  being  done  may  be 
found  year  by  year  in  the  Bibliographie  der  tfieologiaehen 
Literatur  and  in  AJT. 

UL  Chapter  and  Verae  Divisions:    The  purpose 
of  the  present  division  into  chapters  and  verses 
was  to  facilitate  reference.    These  divisions  some- 
times, but  not  generally,  ignore  logical  and  natu- 
ral divisions.    Ck>mmon  opinion  oonoeming  chapter 
divisions  attributes  them  to  Cardinal  Hugo  of  Saint 
Cher  (q.v.)  for  use  in  his  concordance  to  the  Latin 
Vulgate  (c.  1240,  first  printed,  with  modification, 
at  Bologna,  1479).    This  opinion  rests  on  the  direct 
testimony  of  Gilbert  Genebrard   (d.   1597),   that 
"  the  scholastics  who  with  Cardinal 
1-  ^*P*®'  Hugo  were  authors  of  the  concord- 
DlvlBlon..  ^^„    ^^^g    ^j^^    division.     Qu^tif 

and  Echard,  a  century  and  a  half  later  than 
Genebrard,  ascribe  to  Hugo  only  the  subdivision 
of  the  chapters  presently  to  be  mentioned.  The 
better  opinion  is,  that  Stephen  Langton,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (d.  1228),  made  the  chapter 
division  to  facilitate  citation.  Before  the  invention 
of  printing  it  had  already  passed  from  Latin  manu- 
scripts to  those  of  other  tongues,  and  after  the 


Bible  Text 
Bible  Verelona 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


114 


invention  of  printing  it  became  general.  It  has 
undergone  slight  variations  from  the  beginning 
to  the  present  iay.  Many  early  printed  Bibles, 
especially  Greek  Testaments,  besides  these  chapters 
retain  also  the  old  brews  or  HUoi  noted  in  the  mar- 
gin (see  above,  II,  1,  §  5).  The  chapters  were  at 
first  subdivided  into  seven  portions  (not  para- 
graphs), marked  in  the  margin  by  the  letters  A,  B, 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  reference  being  made  by  the  chapter- 
number  and  the  letter  imder  which  the  passage 
occurred.  In  the  shorter  Psalms,  however,  the 
division  did  not  always  extend  to  seven.  In  Ps. 
cxix  it  seems  not  to  have  been  used  at  all.  This 
division  (except  in  the  Psalms)  was  modified  by 
Conrad  of  Halberstadt  (c.  1290),  who  reduced  the 
divisions  of  the  shorter  chapters  from  seven  to 
four;  so  that  the  letters  were  always  either  A-G  or 
A-D.  This  subdivision  continued  long  after  the 
introduction  of  the  present  verses,  but  in  the 
seventeenth  century  was  much  modified,  some 
chapters  having  more  than  four,  and  less  than 
seven,  subdivisions. 

The  present  verses  differ  in  origin  for  the  Old 

Testament,  New  Testament,  and  Apocrypha.    In 

the  canonical  Testament  they  appear 

2.  Veree     ju    ^^g    oldest    known    manuscripts 

^"^d*"'  (^  *^''®'  ^'  ^'  §  7,  2,  §  2),  though 
j^^j^  they  were  not  used  for  citation  by 
ment.  *^®  ^^^^  **^  ^^®  fifteenth  century. 
The  earlier  printed  Hebrew  Bibles 
marked  each  fifth  verse  only  with  its  Hebrew  nu- 
meral. Arabic  numerals  were  first  added  for  the 
intervening  verses  by  Joseph  Athias,  at  Amsterdam, 
1661,  at  the  suggestion  of  Jan  Leusden.  The  first 
portion  of  the  Bible  printed  with  the  Masoretic 
verses  numbered  was  the  Psalterium  Quincuplex 
of  Faber  Stapulensis,  printed  at  Paris  by  Henry 
Stephens  in  1509.  In  1528  Sanctes  Pagninus 
published  at  Lyons  a  new  Latin  version  of  the 
whole  Bible  with  the  Masoretic  verses  marked  and 
numbered.  He  also  divided  the  Apocrjrpha  and  New 
Testament  into  numbered  verses;  but  these  were 
three  or  four  times  as  long  as  the  present  ones. 

The  present  New  Testament  verses  were  intro- 
duced  by   Robert   Stephens   in   his   Greco-Latin 
Testament    of     1551    (see    above,    II,    2,    §   2). 
Stephens  says  in  his  preface  that  the 
8.  Verse    division  is  made   to  follow  the  most 
"^^'^onm,   ancient  Greek  and  Latin  copies.   But 
T  «tl       '^  ^^  ^  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
mentJ      ^   ^^  ^^^  Greek  or   Latin  manu- 
scripts whose  divisions  coincide  very 
nearly   with    Stephens's    verses.      Doubtless    he 
made  this  division  with  reference  to  his  concord- 
ance to  the  Vulgate,  then  preparing,  published  in 
1555.    This  Latin  concordance,  like  former  ones, 
contains  references    to    the    letters    A,  B,  G,  D, 
E,  F,  G,  and  also  to  the  numbers  of  the  verses 
of   each   chapter    "  after   the   Hebrew   method " 
of  division.    This  latter,  the  preface  states,  has 
special  reference  to  an  operi  ptdcherrimo  et  prce^ 
darissimo  which  he  is  now  printing,  which  must 
mean  his  splendid  Bible  of  1556-57,  3  vols.,  con- 
taining the  Vulgate,  Pagninus,  and  the  first  edition 
of  Beza's  Latin  New  Testament.    Meanwhile,  for 
present  convenience,  he  is  issuing  a  more  modest 


Bible  (Vulgate),  with  the  verses  marked  and  num- 
bered. This  latter  was  his  Vulgate  of  1555  (Ge- 
neva)—the  first  whole  Bible  divided  into  tk 
present  verses,  and  the  first  in  which  they  were 
introduced  into  the  Apocrypha.  The  text  is  con- 
tinuous, not  having  the  verses  in  separate  para- 
graphs, like  the  New  Testament  of  1551,  but 
separated  by  a  1[  and  the  verse-number.  Tbe 
verse-division  differs  in  only  a  very  few  places  from 
that  of  1551;  and  a  comparison  shows  that  the 
concordance  agrees  rather  with  the  diviaon  of 
1551  than  with  that  of  1555.  The  statement  so 
often  made  that  the  division  was  made  "  on  boRe- 
back  "  while  on  a  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons  must 
be  qualified.  His  son  asserts  that  the  work  was  done 
while  on  the  journey,  but  the  inference  most  natural 
and  best  supported  is  that  the  task  was  accom- 
plished while  resting  at  the  inns  along  tbe  road. 

In  other  languages  the  division  appeared  first  as 
follows:  French,  New  Testament,  Geneva,  1552, 
Bible,  Geneva,  1553  (both  R.  Stephens);  Italiao, 
New  Testament,  L.  Paschale  (Geneva?),  1555; 
Dutch,  New  Testament,  Gellius  Ctematius  (Giliis 
van  der  Erven),  Embden,  1556,  Bible,  Nikolaus 
Biestkens  van  Diest,  Embden,  1560;  English, 
Genevan  New  Testament,  1557,  Genevan  Bible, 
1560;  German,  Luther's  Bible,  perhaps  Heidelberg. 
1568,  but  certainly  Frankfort,  1582. 

In  Beza's  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 
(1565-1604)  sundry  variations  were  introduced, 
which  were  followed  by  later  editors,  notably  the 
Elzevirs  (1633,  etc.);  and  many  minor  changes 
have  been  made,  quite  down  to  the  present  day. 

A  very  convenient  and  illuminating  "  table  oi 
ancient  and  modem  divisions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment," giving  the  divisions  in  the  Vatican  manu- 
script, the  titloi,  the  Anmionian  kephalaia,  the 
atichoi,  r&nata,  and  the  modem  chapters  and  verses, 
is  given  in  Scrivener,  Introduction,  i,  68.  The  tabi, 
kephalaiay  and  tables  of  the  Eusebian  canons  are 
available  in  such  editions  as  Stephens's  Greek  TesUr 
ment  of  1550,  and  Mill's  of  1707, 1710.  The  Greek 
Testament  by  Lloyd  (Oxford,  1827)  and  by  M 
(1859)  give  the  Eusebian  canons.  For  a  synopsis 
of  variations  in  manuscripts  consult  J.  M.  A.  SchoU, 
Novum  Testamentum  Grace,  i,  Frankfort,  1830, 
pp.  xxviii-xxix. 

The  Stephanie  verses  have  met  with  bitter  criti- 
cism because  of  the  fact  that  they  break  the  text 
into  fragments,  the  division  often  coming  in  tbe 
middle  of  the  sentence,  instead  of  forming  it  into 
convenient  and  logical  paragraphs,  an  arrangf- 
ment  which  has  seldom  found  favor.  But  their 
utility  for  reference  outweighs  their  disadvanta^ 
They  should  never  be  printed  in  separate  para- 
graphs (as  in  the  English  Authorised  Version), 
but  the  text  should  be  continuous  and  the  num- 
bers inserted  in  the  margin  (as  in  the  Revised  Ver- 
sion). 

Bibxjoorapht:  C.  R.  Gregory,  Proleoamena,  i,  140-1S2,  Uip- 
Bic,  1804;  the  Introductuma  of  Tregelles  and  ScriTeoer, 
ut  sup.  under  II;  B.  F.  Westoott  and  F.  J  A.  Hort,  M /., 
Introduction  and  Appendix,  pp.  318  aqq..  of  Am.  edition. 
New  York,  1882;  I.  H.  Hall,  in  Sunday  School  Timn,  Apr. 
2.  1881.  Ckineult  also  W.  Wright,  in  Kitto's  Cydop^ 
of  Biblical  LUeraiurt,  *'  Verse,"  London,  1845  (the  ed.  of 
1870  is  not  so  good);  DCA,  ii.  063M>67. 


115 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Text 
Bible  Vereione 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


I.  Greek  Venioiuk 

1.  The  Septuadnt. 
Origin  (i  1). 
Printed  Editions  (f  2). 

Eariy    Corruption    of    the     Text 

(§3). 
The  Hexapla  of  Origen  (f  4). 
Lucian  and  Hesychius  (|  5). 
VersionB  Made  from  the  Septuagint 

(§6). 
Manuacripte  (f  7). 

2.  LAter  Greek  Tramlations. 
Aquila  (I  1). 
Ssrmmaehufl  (f  2). 
Theodotion  (|  3). 

n.  Latin  Vermons. 
1.  The  Latin  Bible  before  Jerome. 


A.  Ancient  Versions.' 

The  Old  Latin  Bible.    The  Itala 

(»1). 
Manuscripts  and  Editions  (f  2). 
Quotations  in  Latin  Writers  (f  3). 

2.  The  Bible  of  Jerome  (the  Vulgate). 
Jerome's  Work.    The  New  Testa- 
ment (S  1). 

The  Old  Testament  (f  2). 

History  to  the  Invention  of  Print- 
ing (f  3). 

Earlier  Printed  Editions  (f  4). 

The  Sixtine-Clementine  Edition 
(§6). 

Later  Work.     Problems  (f  6). 

3.  Later  Latin  Translations. 
III.  Syriao  Versions. 

1.  The  Peshito. 


Origin  and  Name  (S  1). 
The  Old  Testament  (f  2). 
The  New  Testament  (f  3). 
2.  Later  Versions. 
IV.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 
V.  Aramaic  Versions  (the  Targums). 
Origin  and  Language  (S  1). 
Targum  Onkelos  (f  2). 
Targum  Jonathan  (f  3). 
Other  Targums  of  the  Law  and 

Prophete  (f  4). 
The  Hagiographa  (f  6). 
VI.  The  Armenian  Version. 
VII.  Egsrptian  Coptic  Versions. 
VIII.  The  Ethiopic  Version. 
IX.  The  Georgian  (Iberian)  Version. 
X.  The  Gothic  Version  of  Ulfilas. 


I.  Arabic  Versions. 
II    (}eltic  Versions. 
IIL  Duteh  Versions. 
IV.  English  Versions. 

The  Earliest  Versions  (S  1). 

Wyclif  (i  2). 

Tyndale  (|  3). 

Gorerdale.     Other  Editions  (f  4). 

The  Douai  Bible  (f  5). 

The  Authorised  Version  (f  6). 

The  Reriaed  Version  (f  7). 

Minor  Versions  (f  8). 

Rare  and  Curious  Editions  (f  0). 
V.  Finnish  and  Lappish  Versions. 
VI.  French  Versions. 

The  Earlier  Versions  (f  1). 

Guysrd  dee  Moulins  (f  2). 

Protestant  Versions  (f  3). 

Roman  Catholic  Versions  (f  4). 


B.  Modem   Versions. 

VII.  German  Versions. 

Old  German  Fragmente  (f  1). 
Printed    Bibles    Before    Luther 

(§2). 
Luther's  Bible  (f  3). 
Revision    of    Luther's    Version 

(§4). 
Other  Versions  (S  5). 
VIII.  Greek  Versions.  Modem. 
IX.  Hebrew  Translations  of  the  New 

Testament. 
X.  Hungarian  (Magyar)  Versions. 
The  First  Versions  (f  1). 
The  Komiromi  Bible  (f  2). 
Modem  Versions  (f  3). 
XI.  Italian  Versions. 
XII.  Lithuanian    and    Lettish    Ver- 
sions. 
XIII.  Persian  Versions. 


XIV.  Portuguese  Versions. 
XV.  Scandinavian  Versions. 

Before  the  Reformation  (f  1). 
Since  the  Reformation  (f  2). 
XVI.  Slavonic  Versions. 

The  Old  Church  Slavonic  Ver- 
sion (f  1). 
Russian  Versions  (f  2). 
Bulgarian  and  Servian  Versions 

(§3). 
Slovenian  and  Croatian  Versions 

(§4). 
Bohemian  Versions  (f  6). 
Wendish     or    Sorbic    Versions 

(§6). 
Polish  Versions  (f  7). 
XVII.  Spanish  Versions. 
XVIII.  Bible  Versions  in  the  Mission 
Field. 


Bible  veraions,  or  translations  of  the  original 
Hebrew  and  Greek  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, may  be  treated  in  an  encyclopedia  from 
different  points  of  view :  (1)  from  the  critical,  as 
instruments  with  which  to  reconstruct  the  original 
text ;  (2)  from  the  exegetical,  as  showing  how  the 
Bible  was  understood  in  different  times  and 
places;  (3)  from  the  historical,  as  documents  for 
showing  the  extent  of  the  Bible  and  of  its  propa- 
gation among  the  nations  of  the  earth;  (4)  from  a 
Ut«rary  and  philological  standpoint,  since  the 
Bible  vernons  are  often  the  earliest  monuments  of 
the  respective  languages. 

Versions  are  either  primary  and  direct,  as  the 
Septuagint,  or  secondary  and  indirect,  derived  ver- 
sions, as  the  Old  Latin.  [They  now  exist,  either 
for  the  entire  Bible  or  a  part,  in  more  than  five 
hundred  languages.  During  1906  eleven  new  ver- 
sions were  added  and  translation  or  revision  is  in 
progress  in  over  one  hundred  tongues.  Scriptures 
for  the  blind  are  issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  in  fifteen  languages.]  Manifestly 
only  a  selection  of  the  more  important  versions  can 
be  treated  here. 

'  The  fffindiple  of  arrangement  adopted  in  this  eeriee  of 
vtidca  IB  that  of  age,  not  aamply.  however,  on  account  of 
clutMiolQipeal  precedence,  but  because  neceeaarily  the  earli- 
est Tcnions  are,  generally  epeaking,  the  most  important 
^  text-«ritieal  pfuipoaee.  Two  main  divisions  are  thus 
tvued:  A,  Andent  Versions;  and  B,  Modem  Versions. 
The  TCTBODs  treated  under  A  are  arranged  approximately 
in  order  of  text-critical  value;  under  B.  alphabetically. 


Of  the  complete  Bible  in  the  original  languages 
there  is  as  yet  but  one  edition  in  existence:  BiJblia 
Sacra  tarn  Veteria  qaam  Novi  TestamerUi  cum  Apocry- 
phis  9ecundum  forUes  HebrcBoa  et  GrcBcoa,  ed.  G.  B. 
Michaelis  (2  vols.,  Zullichau,  1740-41;  cf.  the  cor- 
respondence on  this  point  in  .the  Sunday  School 
Times,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  1899,  raised  by  a  statement 
in  the  TLZ,  1899,  no.  14).  E.  Nestle. 

Bibuooraprt:  Among  older  works  the  following  are  indis- 
pensable: J.  H.  Hottinger,  DiMertaUonum  theotogieo- 
Vkilologicarum  fateieuhu,  Heidelberg,  1660  (deals  with 
Jewish  and  Christian  translations);  Richard  Simon,  Hi»- 
toire  erUique  du  Vieux  TeMtamerU,  Amsterdam,  1680,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1682;  idem,  Hutoire  critique  dea  veniotu 
du  Nouveau  TeMtament,  Rotterdam,  1690.  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1602;  idem,  Hiaiovre  ariHque  du  texte  du  Nouvmu 
Teatament,  Rotterdam,  1680,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1680; 
idem,  NouvtlUa  obaervaiuma  aur  la  texte  ei  lea  veraiona  du 
Nouveau  Teatament,  Paris,  1606  (on  Simon  consult  H. 
Margival,  in  Revue  d'hiatoire  et  de  lUtirature  relioieuaea, 
Jan.,  Feb.,  1806). 

Bibliographical  information  is  to  be  sought  in  the  fol* 
lowing:  J.  Le  Long,  BMiotkeca  Sacra,  emendata  .  .  .  o6 
A.  G.  Maaeh,  2  parts  in  6  vols.,  HaUe,  1778-00  (part  1 
deals  with  editions  of  the  original  texts,  part  2,  in  4  vols., 
deals  with  versions);  Article  Bibd  in  J.  S.  Ersch  and  J. 
G.  Gruber,  AUgemeine  Encuklopddie,  reprinted  as  a  sepa- 
rate volume,  Leipsic,  1823;  The  Biblea  in  the  Caxton  Ex 
hibiHon,  London,  1878;  BriH^  Muaeum  Catalogue,  entry 
'*  Bible,"  4  parts,  including  Appendix,  London,  1802-00  (the 
fullest  list  printed  of  editions  of  the  Bible  and  of  its  parts); 
T.  H.  Darlow  and  F.  H.  Moule.  Hiatorieal  Catalogue  of  the 
Printed  EdiOana  of  Holy  Scripture  in  the  lAbrary  of  Oim 
BriHih  and  Foreign  BiJUe  Society,  vol.  i,  BngUah,  London, 
1003,  vol.  ii  not  yet  issued.  Of  specific  interest  are:  L» 
Hain,  Repertorium  biJbliographicum,  6  vols..  Stuttgart^ 
1826-01,  SuppUment  by  W.  A.  Coptnger.  3  voU.,  LondM^ 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


116 


1891-1002,  iippendioM  by  D.  Reiohlinc  Munich.  1906-06; 
W.  T.  Lowndas,  BibUograpKer'9  Manual,  4  vols.,  Lon- 
don. 1857-64;  J.  G.  Brunet,  Manud  du  Libraire,  7  yoU.. 
Paris,  1860-78.  Consult  also  the  works  of  Loisy,  Copin- 
ger,  and  Kenyon  given  under  Biblb  Text,  I;  the  table 
of  BiibU  Trantlaiioni  in  J.  S.  Dennis.  CmUtnnial  Survey  of 
Farmon  Miuiona,  New  York,  1904;  T.  Hiring.  Da»  Fcr- 
tUmdniMB  dor  BibA  in  der  Entwidduno  der  MwntichhMt,  Ta- 
bingen,  1906.  and  DB,  iv,  848-866.  extra  volume,  236- 
271.  402-420. 

A.  Ancient  Vereiong. 

L  Greek  Veniong. — 1.  The  Beptuacint:  The  Bi- 
ble version  most  important  in  every  respect  is  the 
Alexandrian  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  so-called  Septuagint.  "  Custom  now  holds 
to  the  version  which  is  called  the  Septuagint/' 
writes  Augustine  (De  civitate  Dei,  x\m,  42).  The 
term  "  Septuagint "  is  an  abbreviation  of  secundum 
aepluagirUa  inUrprdea;  the  subscription  of  Genesis 
in  the  Codex  Vaticanus  is  "  According 

1.  Origin,  to  the  Seventy  ";  Ckxlex  A  has  before 
Isaiah,  "the  Edition  of  the  Seventy  "; 
this  is  based  on  the  story  that  King  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  by  the  advice  of  his  librarian  Deme- 
trius Phalereus,  asked  from  the  high  priest  Eleazar 
of  Jerusalem  seventy-two  scholars,  who  translated 
for  him  in  seventy-two  days  the  law,  and,  after  a 
later  form  of  the  legend,  in  seventy-two  (or  thirty- 
six)  cells,  the  seventy-two  or  thirty-six  copies 
being  found  without  any  variation  when  brought 
together  and  compared.  The  story  is  first  told  in 
the  so-called  "Letter  of  Aristeas"  (see  Aribtsa8), 
who  pretends  to  be  one  of  the  officers  sent  by 
Philadelphus  to  Jerusalem,  and  is  wholly  unhis- 
torical. 

As  the  date  of  the  version  ancient  chronicles 
mention  the  2d,  7th,  17th,  18th,  19th,  or  20th 
year  of  Philadelphus,  the  year  1734,  35,  36,  or  37 
of  Abraham;  as  its  day  the  8th  of  Tebeth,  a  day  of 
darkness  like  that  on  which  the  golden  calf  was 
made  (cf .  Margoliouth,  in  the  ExpoeUor,  Nov.,  1900, 
348-^9).  Philo  relates,  on  the  contraiy,  that  the 
Jews  of  Alexandria  kept  in  his  time  an  annual 
festival  **  in  commemoration  of  the  time  when 
the  interpretation  first  shone  out,  and  they  praised 
God  for  his  works  in  times  new  and  old."  He  knows 
that  the  interpreters  asked  God's  blessing  on  this 
undertaking;  "  for  he  answered  their  prayers 
that  more  and  more  the  whole  race  of  men  might 
be  assisted  to  correctness  of  life  in  thought  and 
deed."  This  aspiration  was  fulfilled  when  the 
version  became  one  of  the  chief  instruments  for 
the  preparation  and  propagation  of  Christianity 
(on  this  aspect  of  the  version  cf.  E,  W.  Grin  field, 
Apology  for  the  Septuagint,  London,  1850;  W.  R. 
Churton,  The  Influence  of  the  Septuagint  on  the 
Progress  of  Christianity ,  London,  1861;  A.  Deiss- 
mann,  Die  Hdlenieierung  des  semitischen  Mono- 
theismuSf  Leipsic,  1903).  It  is  not  yet  certain 
whether  the  translation  is  due,  as  the  legend  pur- 
ports, to  the  literary  interest  of  a  king  who  was  a 
bibliophile;  or,  as  is  the  conunon  view  at  present, 
to  the  religious  wants  of  the  Jewish  community 
of  Alexandria;  or  to  the  needs  of  an  intended 
Jewish  propaganda.  For  the  latter  view  the  pro- 
logue of  Ecclesiasticus  may  be  mentioned,  which 
i»,  at  the  same  time,  the  first  witness  to  speak 


of  all  three  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  as  already 
extant  in  Greek;  Aristeas,  Philo,  and  Josephus 
speak  only  of  the  law.  Of  the  several  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  only  Esther  has  a  state- 
ment about  the  translation  of  the  book,  which  is 
referred  generally  to  Soter  II  (114  bx;.),  but  by  H. 
Willrich  (Judaica,  GOttingen,  1000)  to  Ptolemy  XIV 
(48  B.C.).  At  the  end  of  Job  is  the  strange  notice: 
"  This  is  interpreted  from  the  Syrian  book." 

The  first  part  of  the  Septuagint  to  be  multiplied 
by  the  printing-press  was  the  Psalms  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Psalter  of  Bonacursius  (Milan,  Sept.  20, 
1481;  in  Greek  alone,  Venice,  1486,  and  again  by 
Aldus  Manutius  about  1497).  The  complete  ed^ 
tions  fall  into  four  classes  according  as  they  are  de- 
rived from  one  or  another  of  four  original  editions, 
fi    Pri  tmA   ®^  ^^cb  ^^6  first  (designated  as  c)  b 

SditiLMMT  **^®  Complut€nsian  Poly^ot  of  Car- 
dinal Ximenes,  printed  1514-17  but 
not  published  until  1521  (see  Bibles,  Polt- 
GLOT,  I;  cf.  Frans  Delitzsch,  Studien  zur  Eni- 
stekungsgeschichte  der  Polyglattenbibel  des  Cardinals 
Ximenes,  Leipsic,  1871,  supplemented  1878-86; 
T.  H.  Darlow  and  F.  H.  Moule,  Historical  Catalogue 
.  ,  .  of  the  BFBS,  ii,  London,  1908,  1  sqq.).  Of 
the  manuscripts  used  for  the  Greek  Old  Testament 
we  ki|ow  with  certainty  Vat.  Gr.  330  and  346,  and 
Venet.  5  (^Hohnes-Parsons  108,  248,  and  68). 
The  second  (a)  is  the  Aldine  Bible  published  by 
Andreas  Asulanus,  father-in-law  of  the  elder  Aldus 
(Venice,  1518).  Among  the  manuscripts  used 
were  Hohnes-Parsons  29,  68,  121,  all  of  Venice. 
The  third  and  most  important  is  the  Editio  Siitina 
(6),  published  by  Pope  Sixtus  V  (Rome,  1586 
[1587])  on  the  basis  of  Codex  Vat.  Gr,  1209  ('-B, 
in  the  article  Biblb  Text,  II,  1,  §  9).  Besides  c 
and  a,  the  manuscripts  Holmes-Parsons  16,  19,  23, 
51  seem  to  have  been  used,  especially  for  the  scholia, 
which  were  collected  chiefly  by  Petrus  Morinus  and 
enlarged  by  Flaminius  Nobilius  in  the  Latin  transla- 
tion published  1588.  The  fourth  edition  (4  vols, 
folio  and  8  vols.  8vo,  Oxford,  1707-20)  was  be- 
gun by  Johannes  Ernst  Grabe  (q.v.),  who  pub- 
lished vols,  i  and  iv  (1707,  1709),  and  after  his 
death  (1711)  was  completed  by  Francis  Lee  (vol 
ii,  1719)  and  Geoige  Wigan  (voL  iii,  1720).  It  is 
based  on  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  (A;  see  Bible 
Text,  II,  1,  §  9)  with  use  of  other  sources,  espe- 
cially Origen's  Hexapla,  has  useful  prolegomena, 
and  possesses  a  merit  of  its  own. 

These  editions  have  been  often  reproduced— the 
Sixtine  edition  most  frequently — ^with  more  or  less 
of  editorial  labor  (for  list  of  reprints,  etc.;  aL<« 
mention  of  the  more  important  editions  of  single 
books  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament,  cf.  the  Hauck- 
Herzog  RE,  iii,  4-9  and  Swete,  Introduction,  171- 
194).  But  no  existing  edition  of  the  Septua^t 
satisfies  present  wants,  for  none  gives  an  exact  re- 
production of  the  manuscript  or  manuscripts  which 
it  follows,  nor  does  any  provide  a  full  apparatm 
criOcus,  The  first  attempt  to  satisfy  the  latter 
want  was  made  in  the  great  work  begun  by  Rob- 
ert Holmes  (q.v.)  and  completed  after  his  death 
(1805)  by  James  Parsons,  Vetus  Testamcntum 
Gracum  cum  variis  lectionibus  (5  vols.,  Oxford, 
1798-1827;  cf.  Swete,  Introduction,  184-187;  Churth 


117 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  V«raioiis 


Quarterly  Review,  Apr.,  1899,  102  sqq.,  and 
the  annual  accounts  published  during  the  progress 
of  the  work  from  1789  to  1805).  The  text  is  that 
of  b.  Not  less  than  164  volumes  of  manuscript 
collations  prepared  for  this  work  are  still  in  the 
Bodleian  Library.  All  manuscripts,  versions,  and 
quotations  were  put  under  contribution.  Despite 
some  drawbacks  in  the  plan  and  still  more  in  the 
execution,  the  work  deserves  admiration;  it  is  still 
indispensable  to  all  who  wish  full  information 
about  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek.  The  advance 
made  in  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century  is 
due,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  discovery  of  new  ma- 
terials (e.g.  the  Codex  Sinaiticus ;  see  Bible  Text, 
H»  1»  S  9);  on  the  other,  to  greater  exactness  in 
handling  witnesses  Both  these  advantages  are 
evident  in  the  work  of  C.  Tischendorf,  P.  de  La- 
garde,  and  H.  B.  Swete.  Tischendorf  (Vetue  Tes- 
tamentum  Greece  fuxta  LXX  inUrpreUs,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1850;  7th  ed.,  1887)  repeated  the  text  of 
b  and  enriched  it  with  variants  from  the  Codex 
Aiexandrinus,  Epkraemi  ReacriptuSf  and  (after 
1869)  the  Sinaiticus,  adding  rich  prolegomena. 
Lagarde's  work,  though  left  incomplete,  was  mon- 
umental (for  list  of  his  publications,  see  Lagarde, 
Paul  Anton  db).  Swete  reproduced  in  his 
edition  {The  Old  Testament  in  Greek  according  to 
the  Septuagint,  3  vols.,  Cambridge,  1887-94;  2d 
cd.,  1895-99;  3d  ed.,  1901-07)  for  the  first  time 
not  the  printed  text  of  h,  but  the  Vatican  manu- 
script itself,  in  the  first  edition  according  to 
the  facsimile  impression  of  Fabiani-Cozza  (Rome, 
1869-81),  which  for  the  second  has  been  revised 
(by  E.  Nestle)  after  the  photographic  reproduction. 
Where  the  manuscript  is  deficient  the  text  has 
been  taken  from  the  oldest  manuscript  accessible 
in  a  trustworthy  form,  while  under  the  text  variants 
have  been  given  from  some  of  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts, as  Sinaiticus,  Aiexandrinus,  and  Ambrosi- 
anus.  The  merit  of  this  edition  is  that  it  gives 
the  materials  with  greatest  accuracy;  its  defect, 
that  it  does  not  make  any  attempt  to  construct 
the  text  according  to  the  principles  of  textual 
criticism,  but  follows  the  leading  manuscript  even 
in  its  most  glaring  faults.  And  in  some  books 
at  least  (e.g.  in  Elcclesiasticus),  the  oldest  manu- 
scripts are  far  from  being  the  best.  But  this 
deficiency  is  fully  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
edition  is  intended  to  be  but  the  basis  of  a  great 
critical  edition  now  in  course  of  preparation,  of 
which  the  first  part  has  already  appeared,  The 
Old  Testament  in  Greek,  according  to  the  Text 
of  Codex  Vaticanus  Supplemented  from  Other  Un- 
cial Manuscripts,  with  a  Critical  Apparatus  Con- 
taining the  Variants  of  the  Chief  Ancient  Authorities 
for  the  Text  of  the  Septuagint,  ed.  A.  E.  Brooke 
and  N.  McLean,  vol.  i,  The  Odateuch,  part  i,  Gen- 
esis (Cambridge,  1906;  cf.  JTS,  iii,  601-621,  and 
E.  Nestle,  Die  grosse  Cambridger  Septuaginta,  in 
Verhandlungen  desXIIL  Intemationalen  Orientalis- 
tenkongresses,  1902;  idem,  Septriagintastudien,  vol. 
V.  1907). 

Then  are  two  English  translations:  The  Septua- 
gint Version  of  the  Old  Testament  according  to  the 
Vatican  Text,  translated  into  English,  with  the  prin- 
cipal various  readings    of    the  Alexandrine  copy, 


and  a  table  of  comparative  chronology,  by  Sir  Lan- 
celot Charles  Ijee  Brenton  (2  vols.,  London,  1844; 
has  also  the  Greek  text);  the  other  by  Charies 
Thomson  (Philadelphia,  1808;  new  ed.,  The  Old 
Covenant,  commonly  called  the  Old  Testament,  by  S. 
F.  Pells,  2  vols.,  London,  1904). 

That  there  is  yet  not  a  satisfactory  edition  of  the 
Septuagint  is  not  because  of  want  of  materials  for 
its  preparation — there  is  on  the  contrary  an  em- 
barras  de  richesse — but  of  its  complicated  history. 

The  history  of  a  translation  will  always 

8.  Barly    be   more    complicated   than    that   of 

^^cfthe       ^^  original  text,  but  in  this  case  it 

Text.       IS  the  more  so  as  the  Septuagint   is 

a  work  of  Jewish  origin,  taken  over 
into  the  Christian  Church.  Of  the  pre-Christian 
period  of  its  history  next  to  nothing  is  known. 
There  are  some  Hellenistic  writers  who  used  the 
Septuagint,  as  Demetrius,  Eupolemus,  Aristeas 
(the  historian),  Ezekiel,  and  Aristobulus;  but  the 
preserved  fragments  of  their  writings  are  too  few 
and  incomplete  to  establish  more  than  the  mere 
fact  that  they  used  the  Septuagint.  Philo  made 
extensive  use  of  the  law,  but  his  quotations  from 
the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  are  very  few,  and 
from  Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesiastes,  Canticles,  Lam- 
entations, Ezekiel,  and  Daniel  he  does  not  quote 
at  all.  Besides,  his  writings  can  be  traced  back  only 
to  the  libraiy  of  Origen,  and  have  been  transmitted 
to  us  probably  exclusively  through  Christian  copy- 
ists. For  Josephus  we  must  be  content  to  know 
that  for  his  description  of  the  restoration  he  used 
what  is  now  called  I  Esdras;  but  about  his  relation 
to  the  chief  manuscripts  there  is  imcertainty. 
Even  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament  do 
not  justify  very  definite  statements,  except  that 
they  prove  that  already  in  those  times  the  copies 
were  not  free  from  textual  corruption  (cf.  Heb.  iii, 
9,  xii,  5).  A  little  later  the  situation  is  described 
by  Origen — speaking,  it  is  true,  chiefly  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament,  but  what  he 
says  holds  good  also  of  those  of  the  Old  Testament: 
*'  Now  it  is  clear  that  there  has  come  a  great 
difference  in  copies,  either  through  the  laziness  of 
scribes  or  from  the  audacity  of  those  who  intro- 
duced corruptions  as  amendments,  or  of  others 
who  took  away  from  or  added  to  their  new  text 
such  things  as  seemed  good  to  them." 

If  the  situation  was  already  bad,  since  any  copyist 
or  reader  who  was  acquainted  with  the  original 
might  change  single  passages  on  comparison  with 
the  Hebrew,  it  became  worse  when  new  translations 

appeared,  especially  those  of  Aquila, 

Symmachus,  and  Theodotion  (see  be- 


4.  The  Hex- 
apla  of 


Oriffen.  ^^^'  ^^'  ^^  ^^*  *  systematic  com- 
parison of  the  Septuagint  with  the 
Hebrew  and  these  versions  was  carried  out  by  Ori- 
gen in  the  Hexapla  (see  Origen),  and  what  ap- 
peared to  him  a  safeguard  against  the  calamity 
that  threatened  the  text  turned  out — ^not  by  his 
fault,  but  through  later  ignorance  and  carelessness — 
the  worst  aggravation  of  it.  In  continuation  of  the 
passage  just  quoted,  he  goes  on  to  say  that  through 
the  guidance  of  God  he  foimd  a  way  to  correct 
the  dissonance  in  the  copies.  Using  the  Hebrew 
as  a  criterion,  and  adopting  the  text  of  the  Septua- 


BiMe  Versions 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


118 


gint  which  confirmed  the  Hebrew,  he  made  the  two 
the  ground  text,  and  marked  changes  by  diacritical 
signs.  It  is  pardonable  that  he  took  his  Hebrew  text 
— ^whence  he  got  it  is  not  known — as  the  original  text ; 
but  it  was  contrary  to  sound  criticism  to  take 
those  readings  of  the  Septuagint  which  agreed  with 
the  Hebrew  for  the  true  ones,  instead  of  those 
which  dififered  from  it  (cf.  the  third  axiom  of  La- 
garde  for  the  restoration  of  the  Septuagint,  AfiUhei- 
lunfftn,  i,  21).  Nevertheless  we  should  be  extremely 
thankful  if  the  work  of  Origen  had  been  preserved. 
Until  1896  it  was  known  only  from  the  descrip- 
tions of  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Epiphanius,  and  some 
later  writers,  and  by  specimens  preserved  in  scholia 
of  Biblical  manuscripts,  a  great  part  also  by  a  literal 
Syriac  translation  (see  below,  §  6).  In  1896  Gio- 
vanni Mercati  discovered  in  a  palimpsest  of  the 
Ambrosian  Library  of  Milan  the  first  continuous 
fragments  of  a  copy  of  the  Hexapla,  and  in  1900 
another  and  much  older  piece  was  found  by  C.  Taylor 
among  the  Greek  palimpsests  from  the  Cairo  geni- 
zah  in  the  Taylor  and  Schechter  collection.  These 
fragments  show  that  Origen  put  generally  only 
one  Hebrew  word,  or  at  the  most  two,  in  one  line; 
the  extent  of  the  work,  therefore,  must  have  been 
much  greater  than  wss  previously  supposed. 
The  later  fate  of  the  original  is  unknown.  Jerome 
saw  and  used  it  in  the  library  at  Gsesarea;  it  may 
have  been  destroyed  there  during  the  invasion  of 
the  Arabs. 

Origen  arranged  his  work  in  six  columns,  the 
first  containing  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew  let- 
ters, the  second  the  same  in  a  Greek  transcription, 
the  third  the  translation  of  Aquila,  the  fourth  that 
of  Symmachus,  the  fifth  the  Septuagint,  the  sixth 
the  translation  of  Theodotion.  For  some  books,  es- 
pecially the  Psalms,  Origen  had  a  fifth,  sixth,  and 
even  a  seventh  translation  at  his  disposal  (see  below, 
2,  §  3).  In  the  Septuagint  column  he  used  the 
system  of  diacritical  marks  which  was  in  use 
with  the  Alexandrian  critics  of  Homer,  especially 
Aristarchus,  marking  with  an  obelus — under  dif- 
ferent forms,  as  -7  ,  called  lemniscus,  and  -r  ,  called 
hypolemniscus — those  passages  of  the  Septuagint 
which  had  nothing  to  correspond  in  Hebrew,  and 
inserting,  chiefly  from  Theodotion  under  an  aster- 
isk (*),  those  which  were  missing  in  the  Septua- 
gint; in  both  cases  a  metobelus  iy)  marked 
the  end  of  the  notation.  This  column  was  copied 
afterward  with  additional  excerpts  from  the 
other  versions  on  the  margins;  and,  if  it  had 
been  copied  with  all  its  critical  marks,  it  would 
have  been  well,  but  later  copyists  neglected  these 
completely  and  produced  what  we  may  call  krypto- 
hexaplaric  manuscripts,  completely  spoiling  by 
this  carelessness  the  value  of  the  Septuagint  for 
critical  purposes.  Such  a  copy,  for  instance,  is, 
for  Kings,  the  Codex  Alexandriniu ;  and  it  is  but 
a  poor  defense  of  these  copyists  that  the  same 
process  has  been  repeated  in  the  nineteenth  century 
by  the  Moscow  and  Athens  reprints  of  Grabe's 
edition  of  that  codex. 

After  Origen,  Eusebius  and  his  friend  Pamphilus 
were  careful  to  continue  or  disseminate  his  exegetical 
labors.  Copies  of  the  Pentateuch  are  known 
which  were  compared  with  the  Samaritan  text 


(ef.  S.  Kohn,  SamareUikon  und  Septuaginta,  in 
Monataachrift  fUr  Wiasenachaft  des  Judenthums, 
new  series,  i,  1894,  pp.  1-7,  49-67;  ZDMG,  1893, 
p.  650).  Jerome  mentions  besides  Eusebius  and 
B  i^  i^n  P^^°^P^^^»  Lucian  and  Hesychius,  the 
^.  text  of  the  former  being  used  from 
Hesyohins.  ^n^tantinople  to  Antioch,  that  of 
'  the  latter  in  Alexandria  and  Egypt, 
while  the  provinces  between,  especially  Palestine, 
kept  to  the  copies  of  Origen  as  published  bj 
Eusebius  and  Pamphilus  (PrafaHo  in  paralipo- 
mena ;  Adv.  Rufinum,  ii,  27).  About  neither  the 
work  nor  the  person  of  Hesychius  (see  HBSYCHirs, 
1)  is  there  complete  certainty.  He  may  have 
been  the  martyr  bishop  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
(Hist,  ecd.f  viii,  13)  together  with  Phileas  of 
Thmuis.  The  result  of  his  labors  is  sought 
now  for  the  Octateuch  in  the  manuscripts  44, 
74,  76,  84,  106,  134;  for  the  jwophete,  especially 
Isaiah  and  the  Twelve,  in  the  Codex  Marehalianvx 
and  its  supporters  26,  106,  198, 306  (cf .  N.  McLean, 
in  JTS,  ii,  1901,  p.  306,  and  A.  Ceriani,  De  Codict 
Marchaliano,  Rome,  1890,  pp.  48  sqq.,  105  sqq.V 
Lucian  was  a  deacon  of  Antioch,  who  died  a 
martyr  at  Nicomedia  312  (see  Lucian  the  M.\r- 
ttr).  He  must  have  known  a  Hebrew  text  which 
showed  many  peculiarities,  especially  in  the  his- 
torical books,  and  perhaps  used  for  his  pur- 
poses the  Syriac  version.  The  first  part  of  his 
work  has  bc«n  edited  by  Lagarde  in  lAbronm 
VeUris  Testamenti  canonieorumf  para  prior,  grace 
(GOttingen,  1883;  cf.  his  MtUheUungen,  ii,  171). 
But  this  revision  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  original  Septuagint  any  more  than  the  Eng- 
lish Revised  with  the  Authorised  Version.  Since 
the  fourth  centuiy  very  little  has  been  done  m 
the  Greek  Church  for  its  Bible.  Emperors  di- 
rected beautiful  copies  of  it  to  be  written — e.g.. 
Constantine  ordered  fifty  copies  through  Eusebius 
for  the  new  churches  of  his  capital »  and  for  CJon- 
stans  Athanasius  procured  **  copies  of  the  divine 
writings,"  one  of  which  is  perhaps  preserved  in 
the  famous  Codex  Vaticanus,  Other  royal  persons 
wrote  them  with  their  own  hands. 

Latin  was  probably  the  first  language  into 
which  the  Septuagint  was  translated.  (On  the 
Latin  version,  or  rather  versions,  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint see  below,  II,  1.  It  is  a  pity  that 
so  little  of  these  labors  has  been  preserved, 
and  that  these  few  remnants  are  so  diffi- 
cult of   access.)    After  the  Latin   versions  came 

the  Egyptian   (see   VII).    Here    the 

Made"**  difficulty   of    the     language    makes 

from  the     ^^^^    helps    for   restoration    of  the 

Ssptuafflnt.  Septuagint  accessible  to  few.    Similar 

is  the  case  with  the  most  neglected 
branch  of  the  Semitic  languages,  the  Ethiopic 
(see  Vni).  The  Arabic  versions  (see  B,  I)  are 
for  a  great  part  too  late  to  have  much  weight 
for  the  critic  of  the  Septuagint.  The  Gothic 
version  (see  X)  is  an  outcome  of  the  Lucianic  re- 
cension, for  which  it  would  have  great  importance. 
both  for  age  and  literalness,  but  very  little  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  preserved  in  Gothic.  The  Luci- 
anic recension  is  also  the  basis  of  a  Slavonic  venion 
(see  B,  XVI)  and  through  it  of  the  Georgian  (see  IX)- 


110 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Verslonfl 


The  Annenian  version  (see  VI)  is  again  of  great  im- 
portance, also  the  so-called  Syro-Hexaplar  ver- 
non  made  in  the  year  616-617  by  Paul,  bishop  of 
Telia  (Constantine  in  Mesopotamia),  in  a  cloister 
near  Alexandria  with  the  utmost  fidelity  from 
manuscripts  which  went  back  by  few  intervening 
links  to  the  very  copies  of  the  Hexapla  and  Tetrapla 
of  Origen.  The  greater  is  the  pity,  therefore,  that 
only  fragments  have  been  preserved,  and  that 
especially  the  codex  which  Andr6  du  Maes  (Masius, 
d.  1573)  had  in  his  hands,  containing  the  historical 
books  (including  part  of  Deuteronomy  and  Tobit), 
has  been  lost,  and  that  only  a  part  of  this  Bible 
(poetical  and  prophetic  books)  is  still  preserved 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  hence  called 
Codex  Syro-hexaplaria  Ambrosianus  (published  in 
a  photolithographic  facsimile  edition  by  A.  Ceriani 
as  vol.  vii  of  the  Monumenta  sacra  et  profana, 
Hilan,  1874).  The  fragments  of  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Numbeis,  Joshua,  Judges,  and  I  and  II  Kings  have 
been  most  carefully  edited  in  the  last  work  of  Paul 
de  Lagaide,  Biblioiheca  SyriaccB  a  Patdo  de  Lagarde 
coUectce  qua  ad  phUologiam  sacram  pertinent  (GOt- 
tingen,  1802).  For  earlier  works  on  this  version 
cf.  E.  Nestle,  lAtieratura  Syriaca  (reprinted  from 
his  S^frische  Grammatik,  Berlin,  1888),  29-30;  cf. 
also  T.  S.  Rordam,  Libri  Judicum  et  Ruth  (Copen- 
hagen, 1859-61),  and  F.  Field,  Otium  Norvicenee,  i 
(Oxford,  1864),  and  his  edition  of  the  Hexapla  (Ox- 
ford, 1875).  There  are  also  fragments  in  the 
speaal  dialect  called  Syro-Palestinian,  on  which 
cf.  Swete,  Introduction,  114,  and  F.  C.  Burkitt, 
in  JTS,  ii,  174  sqq. 

Up  to  the  present  day  in  several  CHiurches  these 
versions  based  on  the  Septuagint  have  been  re- 
tained and  even  in  those  where  they  have  been 
replaced  by  translations  from  the  original,  as  in 
the  Latin  West  through  Jerome  or  in  modem  Europe 
throu^  the  Reformation,  the  influence  of  the 
S^tuagint  is  still  very  marked;  note,  for  instance, 
the  names  of  the  Biblical  books  in  the  latest  of 
Uiese  revisions,  the  English  Revised  Version. 

The  versions  just  mentioned  are  one  of  the  three 
aouroes  which  exist  for  the  recovery  of  the  true 
text  of  the   Septuagint,  the  first  class  being,  of 

7  Va»       course,  the    Greek   manuscripts    still 

•oript^*  in  existence,  the  third  the  quotations 
of  ancient  writers.  A  list  of  the  more 
ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint  was  given  in 
the  eighteenth  century  by  Stroth  in  Eichhom's  Re- 
pertorium  (Leipsic,  1777  sqq.),  vols,  v  sqq.;  the 
most  complete  list  was  formerly  that  in  the  pref- 
aces of  Holmes-Parsons;  then  in  the  prolegom- 
ena of  Teschendorf  and  in  Lagarde's  Genesis 
Grace ;  but  reference  may  now  be  made  to  Swete, 
/iKrodiictum,  pp.  122-170.  A  few  remarks  on  some 
of  them  may  be  offered. 

The  four  great  uncials,  K  or  S,  A,  B,  and  C,  are 
the  chief  manuscripts  also  for  the  New  Testament 
(Bee  Bible  Text,  II,  1,  §  9).  For  K  there  is 
needed  a  photographic  reproduction  or  a  com- 
plete new  collation.  The  notations  from  A  in 
Swete's  Septxiagint  need  revision,  at  all  events 
in  the  first  volume.  Of  B  a  new  photographic 
reproduction  is  in  preparation;  on  the  suggestion 
of  Rahlfs  that  B  is  dependent  on  Athanasius,  cf. 


E.  Nestle,  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism  of 
the  Greek  New  Testament  (London,  1901),  62,  181, 
where  (note  1)  read  Constantius  instead  of  Constans. 
Concerning  the  famous  illuminated  Codex  Cottonior 
nus  (D),  which  was  badly  injured  by  fire  in  1731, 
nothing  new  has  come  to  light  since  Swete  wrote; 
it  is  well  to  mention  the  name  of  Martin  Folkes 
as  editor,  by  whom  were  issued  the  facsimiles  in 
the  Vetusta  monumenta  of  1747.  On  the  pur- 
ple illuminated  Genesis  of  Vienna  (L),  there  is 
a  dissertation  by  W.  Ludtke  (Greifswald,  1897), 
who  is  inclined  to  ascribe  this  oldest  Biblical 
history  with  illuminations  to  the  second  part 
of  the  fifth  century.  To  the  eighteen  uncial 
manuscripts  enumerated  by  Swete  (Introduction, 
pp.  146-148)  as  not  yet  used  for  any  edition 
of  the  Septuagint  and  remaining  without  a  sym- 
bolical letter  or  number,  may  be  added:  fragments 
of  Genesis  at  Vienna  (cf.  Philologischer  Anzeiger, 
xiv,  1884,  415);  a  Hebrew-Greek  palimpsest  con- 
taining fragments  of  Ps.  cxliii,  cxliv;  and  parts  of 
four  leaves  from  a  papyrus  oodex  of  Genesis,  of  the 
late  second  or  early  third  century  (Oxyrhynchus 
papyri  no.  656).  On  the  minuscules  scarcely  any- 
thing has  been  done  lately,  except  that  some  will  be 
used  in  the  Cambridge  edition  mentioned  above 
(§  2).  For  facsimiles,  cf.  F.  G.  Kenyon,  Fac^ 
similes  of  Biblical  Manuscripts  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum (London,  1901). 

The  question,  in  which  set  of  manuscripts  the 
purest  text  is  to  be  found,  is  not  yet  settled. 
It  is  the  more  complicated  since  the  Old  Testar 
ment  is  a  collection  of  books  which  in  one 
and  the  some  manuscript  may  have  had  a  very 
different  pedigree;  for  whole  Bibles  (pandectes,  such 
as  manuscripts  K,  A,  and  B)  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  produced  much  before  the  time  of  Eusebius 
or  Origen. 

2.  Later  Greek  Translations :  The  rupture  be- 
tween Church  and  Synagogue  led  to  new  transla- 
tions. The  authors  of  at  least  three  of  them  are 
known  by  name,  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theo- 
dotion. 

Of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  Irenseus  is  the  first 
who  mentions  Aquila  of  Pontus  as  a  translator  of 
the  Bible.  Epiphanius  calls  him  a  "Greek"  and 
a  relation  of  Hadrian,  and  tells  that 
1.  Afinila.  he  was  placed  by  Trajan  in  charge  of 
the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem,  that  he 
became  a  Christian  but  returned  to  the  Jewish 
faith.  Epiphanius  places  his  translation  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  Hadrian,  430  years,  four  months,  less 
nine  days  after  the  Septuagint.  Jewish  sources 
mention  a  proselyte  Aquila,  a  contemporary  of 
Rabbis  Eliezer,  Joshua,  and  Akiba,  who  met  Ha- 
drian and  is  called  his  nephew,  and  is  praised  as 
translator  of  the  Bible  in  the  words  of  Ps.  xlv, 
"thou  art  fairer  than  the  children  of  men";  some 
passages  of  his  translation  are  quoted. 

It  is  not  clear  as  yet,  whether  or  how  the  dates  of 
Epiphanius  and  the  statements  of  the  Pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  about  Aquila,  the  disciple  of 
Simon  Magus,  are  to  be  combined.  That  Aquila 
the  translator  of  the  Bible  is  the  well-known  hus- 
band of  Priscilla  in  the  New  Testament  is  a  fancy  of 
HausdorfT.     His  translation,  the  use  of  which  was 


Bible  T«raiona 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


120 


permitted  in  the  synagogue  by  Justinian,  is  the 
most  literal  ever  produced,  and  enough  has  been 
preserved  to  judge  of  its  value  and  character. 
Up  to  1897  all  ^own  of  it  went  back  to  the 
Hexapla  of  Origen  (cf.  F.  Field,  Origenis  Hexon 
plarum  qucB  auperaunt,  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1867-75, 
and,  on  Field,  J.  H.  Bum,  Expaaitory  Times, 
Jan.,  1897).  In  1897  for  the  first  time  a  contin- 
uous portion  of  his  translation  came  to  light  in 
a  palimpsest  of  the  Cairo  Synagogue,  showing  the 
tetragrammaton  written  in  Old  Hebrew  letters. 
The  statement  of  Jerome  that  Aquila  made  two 
versions,  **  a  second  edition,  which  the  Hebrews 
call  '  the  accurate  one,' "  seems  to  be  correct. 
Some  new  fragments  to  be  added  to  Field  are 
in  J.  B.  Pitra,  Analeda  sacra  (Paris,  1876);  E. 
Klostermann,  AjuUekta  zur  Septuaginta  (Leipsic, 
1895);  Jerome,  in  Anecdota  Maredsolana,  iii,  1. 

According  to  Epiphanius,  Symmachus  was  a 
Samaritan,  and  lived  not  under  Severus,  but  under 
"  Verus "  (i.e.,  Marcus  Aurelius;  cf.  Lagarde, 
Symmicta,  ii,  Gdttingen,  1880).  Geiger  identified 
the  translator  with  Symmachus  ben  Joseph,  dis- 

2  g  dple    of  Rabbi  Meir  {JudUche  Zeit- 

^^gy^^  schrift  fur  Wisaenschaft  und  Leben,  i, 
1862,  pp.  62-64).  Origen  got  the 
manuscript  of  his  translation  from  a  certain  Juliana 
of  Csesarea,  who  had  received  it  with  other  works 
of  Ssrmmachus  from  Symmachus  himself.  Whether 
the  Csesarea  where  she  lived  was  that  of  Palestine 
or  Gappadocia  is  in  doubt.  In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury Symmachus's  works  were  still  in  existence  at 
Rodosto  near  Constantinople  (cf.  R.  FOrster,  De 
antiquitaiibtia  et  libris  manuscriplU  Constantino^ 
politanis,  Rostock,  1877;  T.  Zahn,  TLB,  1893,  p. 
43).  Symmachus  wrote  the  most  elegant  Greek 
of  all  these  translators.  Jerome  quotes  in  three 
passages  a  second  translation. 

Theodotion,  according  to  Irenseus,  was  from 
Ephesus;  according  to  Epiphanius,  from  Pontus; 
he  went  over  from  Gnosticism  to 
Judaism.  His  work  is  a  revision  of 
the  Septuagint  and  has  therefore 
been  placed  by  Origen  in  his  Hexapla  next  to 
the  column  of  the  Septuagint.  For  the  same 
reason  Origen  made  use  chiefly  of  Theodotion 
to  supply  such  passages  as  were  missing  in  the 
Septuagint  (cf.  I  Sam.  xvii,  12  sqq.;  Jer. 
xxxiii,  14-26;  xxxix,  4-13).  For  the  Book  of 
Daniel  his  version  came  into  general  use  in  the 
Church,  while  the  older  Greek  version  has  been 
preserved  only  in  the  one  codex  (Chisianus)  dis- 
covered 1772.  Readings  similar  to  those  of  Theo- 
dotion are  found  before  his  time  (on  this  question 
cf.  E.  Kdnig,  Einleitung,  ii,  108;  TLB,  1897,  61; 
St&rk,  ZWT,  1895,  288).  Howorth  offers  some 
unconventional  views  (PSBA,  1891-92)  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  Chronicles  and  Ezra-Nehemiah  in  our 
editions  of  the  Septuagint  are  from  Theodotion. 
That  his  name  has  the  same  meaning  as  that  of 
the  Targumist  Jonathan  seems  accidental. 

Besides  these  versions,  which  covered  the  whole 
Old  Testament — ^note,  however,  that  for  Samuel  we 
have  no  quotations  from  Aquila — Origen  succeeded 
in  finding,  at  least  for  certain  parts,  more  translar 
iions:  the  one  which  he  numbered  five,  in  Nioopo- 


8.  Theodo- 
tion. 


lis  near  Actium;  the  sixth  with  other  Hebrew  and 
Greek  books  in  a  clay  jar  near  Jericho  in  the 
time  of  Antoninus,  the  son  of  Severus. 

Deserving  of  brief  mention  is  a  Greek  trans- 
lation which  is  1,000  years  younger  than  the  pre- 
ceding, the  GroBcus  Venetus,  which  first  became 
known  in  1740  through  the  catalogue  of  the  library 
of  San  Marco.  The  complete  and  final  edition  u 
due  to  O.  von  Gebhardt  {Griscus  Venetus,  Penia- 
teuchi,  Proverbiorum,  RiUh,  Cantici,  Ecdesiasta, 
Threnorum,  Danielis  graca  versio,  with  preface  by 
F.  Delitzsch,  Leipsic,  1875).  Delitzsch  is  inclined 
to  see  in  the  translation  the  work  of  a  Jew,  Elisseus, 
who  lived  at  the  court  of  Murad  I  in  Prusa  and 
Adrianople;  von  Gebhardt,  that  of  a  proselyte. 
The  rendering  of  "  Yahweh"  by  orUourgos,  ousidU* 
and  the  use  of  the  Doric  dialect  for  the  Aramaic 
portions  of  Daniel  are  interesting.       E.  Nkbtle. 

Bibuoobapht:  Tha  following  is  only  a  aeleetton  out  of  the 
vast  body  of  literature  available.  The  critical  Introduc- 
tions and  Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament  and  oo 
separate  parts  deal  more  or  less  fully  with  the  subject 
For  the  literature  on  Polyglots  see  Bibles,  PoLTouyr. 
for  that  on  Aristeas  see  Arxstkab;  and  on  printed  edi- 
tions of  the  Septxiagint  of.  H.  B.  Swete,  Introduetion,  pp. 
171-104,  London,  1902.  On  the  Septuagint  in  genenl 
consult  besides  the  works  mentioned  in  the  text:  J.  H. 
Hottinger,  ExercUaiionea  AntirMoriniana,  Zurich,  1644; 
idem,  DiaBortaHonum  .  .  .  /oscicu/us,  Heidelberg,  1660; 
A.  Galovius,  Critictu  aacer,  Leipsic,  1646;  L.  Cappellui. 
CriHea  mora,  Paris,  1650;  J.  Buxtorf,  Anticritiea,  tu 
vindicicB  veriiatia  Hef>raiea,  Basel,  1653;  J.  Usaber.  Dt 
Oraoa  aeptuaointa  iniarprttum  varaiona  ayntaoma^  Londoo. 
1655;  J.  MorinuB,  ExarcitaHonea  acdeaiaaiiea  ei  bibiira, 
Paris,  1660;  H.  Hody.  Da  bihliorwn  textibua  orwtnaiibw. 
Oxford,  1705;  J.  E.  Grabe,  Epiatola  ad  J,  AfiUtwn,  Ox- 
ford, 1705;  idem.  Da  viHia  aaptuaginia  itUarpretum,  ib. 
1710;  E.  Leigh,  CriHca  aacra,  6th  ed.,  London,  17D6; 
A.  Trommius,  Concordantiat  Grotcm  veraumia,  Amster- 
dam. 1718;  W.  Whiston,  Eaaav  toward  Raatorvio  ^ 
Trua  Taxi  of  Via  Old  .  .  .  Teatamant,  London.  1722. 
and  Suppfemenl  (to  the  same),  1723;  J.  G.  OarpioT. 
CritLca  socro.  Leipsic.  1728;  W.  Wall,  TKa  Uaa  of  ft* 
SaphuMoirU  TranalaHon,  in  his  Brief  CriSiad  Sota, 
London.  1730;  C.  F.  Houbigant,  ProUgomena  in  aerip- 
turam  aacram,  Paris,  1746;  B.  Kennioott,  The  State 
of  the  Pnniad  Habrew  Taxt  of  the  Old  Taatatneni,  Oxford, 
1753;  idem,  a  second  Diaaertation  on  the  same  subject 
1750;  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Profframtna  .  .  .  abar  die  70  DoU- 
miUacher,  Gdttingen.  1767;  H.  Owen,  Enquirv  into  Ae 
PraaarU  State  of  the  Saptuoffint  Veraion,  London,  1769; 
idem,  CriHca  sacra,  1774;  idem,  A  Brief  Account  .  .  .  of 
the  Saptuagint  Veraion,  1787;  J.  C.  Biel.  Notfua  theamma 
j^ilolooicua.  The  Hague,  1770-80;  J.  F.  Schleusner.  Urwi 
ininterpreteagraiei  Valeria  TaatamenH,  Leipsic.  1784-88;  C. 
A.  Wahl,  Clavia  libronim  Valeria  Taatamenti,  Leipsic  1853; 
G.  Bickell,  De  indole  ac  rations  veraionia  Alexandrina  .  .  . 
Jobi,  Marbuig.  1862;  F.  Delitssch.  Studien  .  .  .  der  am- 
phUenaiaehen  Polyglotte,  Leipsic.  1886;  A.  Schols.  Maaort- 
thiacher  Taxt  und  die  LXX-Ueberaetaung  dea  .  .  .  Jert- 
miaa,  Regensburg,  1875;  idem.  Die  alexandriniaehe  Ueber- 
aetxung  dea  ,  ,  .  Jeaaiaa,  WOrsbuig,  1880;  R  Flecker. 
Scripture  OnomcUotogy  .  .  .  Critical  Notea  on  the  Septaa- 
ginl,  London,  1883;  W.  J.  Deane.  in  The  Expomter, 
1884.  pp.  130-157,  223-237;  E.  Nestle.  Septuagvakutar 
dien,  vols.  i-v.  Ulm.  1886-1007.  Maulbronn.  18O9-1903: 
J.  G.  Garleton,  The  Biibla  of  our  Lord  and  hia  Apoa- 
Ilea,  London,  1888;  E.  Hatch.  Assays  in  BibUeal  Gruk, 
London,  1880  (cf.  criticism  by  Hort,  in  The  Expoaitar, 
Feb..  1807);  A.  Schulte.  De  reatUuHone  .  .  .  verainma 
OrctecB  .  .  .  Judicum^  Leipsic,  1880;  G.  C.  Workmso. 
Text  of  Jeremiah] .  .  .  Gredk  and  Hthrtw,  Edizibui«h. 
1880;  P.  de  Lajsarde,  iSficAomsfrie,  in  MiWsalangii^ 
iv,  205.  G6ttingen,  1801;  F.  C.  Conybeare,  on  PMo'^ 
Text,  in  The  Expoaitor,  Dec.,  1801.  pp.  456-466;  H.  B 
Swete,  on  GHUa'a  Theory,  in  Expaaitory  Timaa,  June,  1891. 
J.  Taylor,  Maaaoretic  Taxt  and  .  .  .  Varaiona  of  .  .  .  Micak, 
London,  1801;  Tranaaetiona  of  Ae  Congraaa  of  OrienkiHiti 


121 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Veroloiui 


in  London,  London,  1894;  E.  Hatch  luid  H.  A.  Redpath. 
Concordanet  to  the  Septuagint,  London,  1802-1900;  F.  C. 
Conybeare.  Philonean  Text,  in  JQR,  Jan.,  1893,  pp.  246- 
280.  Oct,  1895.  pp.  88-122;  H.  A.  Redpath.  in  The  Acad- 
emy, Oct  22,  1893;  G.  Morin,  Une  revision  du  peauUer,  in 
Revue  hinidieUne,  1893,  part  5,  pp.  193-197;  H.  H.  Ho- 
worth,  in  The  Academy,  1893,  July  22,  Sept.  16,  Oct.  7, 
Dec.  16,  1894.  Feb.  17.  May  5.  June  9  (cf.  W.  A.  Wright, 
ib.  1894.  Nov.  3.  and  T.  K.  Cheyne,  1894,  Nov.  10);  V. 
Nourisaon,  La  BildioOUque  dee  PtoUmSee,  Alexandria, 
1893;  8.  Silberstein.  Codex  Alexandrinue  und  VtOieanua 
dee  driOen  KOniotbuchee,  in  ZATW,  1893-94;  G.  A.  Deiss- 
mann,  Bibeletudien,  Marburs,  1895-96.  Eng.  tranal.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1901;  H.  A.  Kennedy,  Sourcee  of  New  Teetament 
Greek,  Edinburgh,  1895;  £.  Kloetermann,  AndUcta  sur 
Septuaffinta,  Lcipeic.  1^5;  Max  Lfihr,  Vonxrbeiten  tu 
Dcniel,in  ZATW,  xv  (1895),  75-103,  193-225;  E.  Nestle, 
Zum  Codex  Alexandrinue,  in  ZATW,  xv  (1895),  261-262; 
idem,  Zur  HexajUa  dee  Origenea,  in  ZWT,  xxxviii,  231; 
H.  E.  Ryle,  Philo  and  Holy  Scripture,  London,  1895; 
F.  Johnson,  QuotatUme  of  the  New  Teetament,  London, 
1896;  A.  F.  Kirkpatrick,  The  Septuoffint,  in  The  Expoeir- 
tor,  April.  1896,  213-257;  E.  Kloetermann.  Die  MailOn- 
der  Froifmenie,  in  ZATW,  1896,  pp.  334-337;  J.  FQrst,  in 
Semitie  Studiee  in  Memory  of  A.  Kohul,  Berlin,  1897; 
E.  Nestle,  EinfUkruno  in  doe  grieehieche  Neue  Teetament, 
(jOttingen,  1897,  Eng.  tranal.,  London.  1901;  J.  H.  Moul- 
ton,  A  Qrammarof  New  TeetametU  Qredc,  voL  i,  Prolegom^ 
ena,  pp.  1-41.  Edinburgh.  1906;  A.  Merx,  Der  Werth  der 
Sephtoffinta  fUr  die  TextkriHk  dee  A.  T.,  in  JPT,  ix.  65; 
A.  Rahlfe,  Septuaffintar-Studien,  parts  i-ii.  Gdttingen, 
1904-07. 

On  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion,  besides  the 
references  in  Irensus,  Origen,  Euaebius,  Jerome,  and 
EpiphaniuB.  consult:  C.  A.  Thieme,  Pro  puritate  Sym- 
maeki,  Leipaie,  1755;  R.  Anger,  De  Onkelo  Chaldaieo,  ib. 
1845;  F.  Field.  Origenie  Hexaplortan  qua  eupereunt,  i,  pp. 
xiri  sqq.,  Oxford,  1867;  G.  Mercati.  L'Eth  di  Simmaco 
interprete,  Modena,  1892;  L.  Hausdorff.  Zur  Oeechiehte  der 
Targumim  naeh  talmudiechen  QueUen,  in  Monateechrift  fUr 
GeedtidUe  und  Wieaeneehaft  dee  Judentume,  xxxviii  (1893), 
5-7;  L.  Blau,  Zur  Einleitung  in  die  heUige  Schrift,  Buda- 
pest, 1894;  M.  Friedmann,  Onkeloe  und  Akylae,  Vienna, 
1896;  S.  Kraus-Budapest,  in  Feetathrift  zum  achteigeten 
Getnartetage  [H.  Steinachneidera,  Leipsic,  1896;  F.  C.  Bur- 
kitt,  Fragmenia  of  the  Booka  of  Kinga  ....  Cambridge. 
1897;  DCB,  i,  150-151,  ii.  14-23  (valuable);  DB,  iv. 
864-866;  EB,  iv,  6017-19. 

IL  Latin  Vernons:  The  oiigui  of  the  earliest 
Latin  versioiis  is  unknown.  This  fact  is  easily  ex- 
plained if  the  case  was  stated  correctly  by  Augus- 
tine: "Those  who  translated  the  Scriptures  from 
Hebrew  into  Greek  can  be  enumerated;  but  the 
Latin  translators  by  no  means.  For  in  the  early 
days  of  the  faith  when  any  one  received  a  Greek 
manuscript  into  his  hands  and  seemed  to  have  ever 
so  little  facility  in  language,  he  dared  to  translate 
it"  (De  doctrina  Christiana,  ii,  11).  Again  (ii,  14) 
he  mentions  "  the  abundance  of  interpreters." 
Augustine  is  probably  right  in  the  supposition 
that  Latin  versions  did  not  exist  in  pre-Christian 
times.  At  all  events  there  are  no  traces  of  Jewish 
undertakings  in  this  direction.  The  history  of  the 
Latin  versions  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts 
by  the  work  of  Jerome  and  closes  with  an  account 
of  later  versions  independent  of  Jerome,  particu- 
lariy  those  made  by  Ftotestants. 

1.  Thel«atln  Bible  before  Jerome:  The  statement 
of  Augustine  about  the  great  variety  of  Latin 
translations  is  corroborated  by  the  docimients, 
manuscripts,  and  quotations  preserved,  for  the 
New  Testament  of  course  much  more  than  for  the 
Old.  But  even  for  the  latter  one  may  cite,  e.g. 
for  Deut.  xxxi,  17,  at  least  eight  variant  readings; 
and  in  the  New  Testament  for  Luke  xxiv,  4,  5, 
at  least  twenty-seven  variant  readings.    In  other 


words,    as  Jerome  says,   "  as  many  readings  as 

copies  ";  and  these  readings  are  not  merely  dif- 

ferent  renderings  of  an  identical  Greek 

_  ' ,    *  4?,     text,  but  correspond  to  various  Greek 
Latin  Bible.         ,.  *     r      l«  i.  x      j 

The  Itala.  ^^^^g^,  a  fact  which  seems  to  de- 
monstrate the  more  clearly  the  exist- 
ence of  dififerent  translations.  Nevertheless  Je- 
rome speaks  frequently  as  if  there  was  but  one 
ancient  translation,  which  he  opposes  as  "  the  com- 
mon edition"  and  an  "old  translation"  to  his  own 
undertaking.  Some  variations  at  least  arose  in 
the  way  sketched  by  Jerome — "  by  stupid .  inter- 
preters badly  translated,  by  presimiptuous  but 
unskilled  men  perversely  amended,  by  sleepy 
copyists  either  added  to  or  changed  about."  Never- 
theless it  is  impossible  to  reduce  all  these  variations 
to  consecutive  stages  of  one  original  translation 
and  therefore  scholars  use  the  term  "Old  Latin 
versions "  (in  the  plural)  and  avoid  especially  the 
name  formerly  used ;  viz.,  "  Itala."  This  designation 
went  back  to  a  single  passage  of  Augustine  {De 
dodrina  Christiana,  ii,  14,  15);  after  he  had  fixed 
the  principle  "  that  the  uncorrected  texts  should 
give  way  to  the  corrected  ones  at  least  when  they 
are  copies  of  the  same  translation,"  he  goes  on  to 
say:  "  Among  translations  themselves  the  Itala 
is  to  be  preferred  to  the  others,  for  it  keeps  closer 
to  the  words,  without  prejudice  to  clearness  of 
expression."  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  puts 
here  one  translation,  which  he  prefers,  in  opposition 
to  several  other  translations;  therefore  it  was  not 
well  done  to  comprehend  all  that  is  left  of  the  Latin 
Bibles  from  the  time  before  Jerome  under  this  name 
Itala.  Some  have  tried  to  change  the  text,  but 
Itala  b  the  correct  reading.  Augustine  must  mean 
a  version  used  in  or  having  come  from  Italy,  prob- 
ably the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula.  Isidore 
of  Seville  (EtymologicB,  vi,  4)  in  the  seventh  century 
clearly  imderstood  by  "  Itala  "  the  work  of  Jerome. 
This  view  was  restated  in  1824  by  C.  A.  Breyther, 
was  considered  possible  by  E.  Reuss,  and  well- 
founded  by  F.  C.  Burkitt  {The  Old  Latin  and  the 
Itala,  in  TS,  iv,  3),  with  the  limitation  that  Augus- 
tine had  not  yet  in  view  the  whole  of  Jerome's 
labor,  but  only  its  beginning — the  revision  of  the 
Gospels.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  avoid  com- 
pletely the  name  "  Itala  "  and  to  use  "  Old  Latin  " 
for  the  Bible  before  Jerome.  The  home  of  this 
Bible  is  not  to  be  sought  in  Rome,  where  Greek  was 
the  language  of  the  infant  Church  and  its  literature, 
but  most  probably  in  Africa.  It  is  true,  many  of 
the  linguistic  peculiarities  ascribed  to  Africa  are 
shared  by  the  lingua  rusUca  in  other  parts  of  the 
Latin  world,  and  it  has  become  customary  to  distin- 
guish an  African  and  a  European  branch  of  the 
Latin  Bible;  nevertheless  the  origin  of  this  whole 
literature  seems  to  have  been  in  Africa.  Trans- 
lations of  certain  books  which  in  early  times 
were  of  almost  canonical  standing — such  as  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  and 
the  First  Epistle  of  Clement — are  closely  con- 
nected with  these  versions  (cf.  Hamack,  LUteratur, 
i,  883;  O.  Bardenhewer,  GeschichU  der  aWcirchr 
lichen  lAtteratur,  i,  Freiburg,  1902). 

Because  the  Old  Latin  versions  have  been  re- 
placed in  the  use  of  the  Church  by  the  version  of 


Bible  T«raiona 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


122 


Jerome,  only  a  few  manuscripte  of  the  Old  Latin 
have  survived  and  these  as  fragments  and  palimp- 
sests only,  but  of  high  antiquity.  It  is  a  great  pity 

that  they  are  not  yet  collected  in  such 

■oxlx^a^^d  *  ^*^  **  ^  make  their  use  easy,  es- 

Bdltlons.    P^c^y  ^OT  the  Old  Testament,  since 

they  are  all  important  for  the  criticism 
of  the  Beptuagint.  This  was  recognised  by  the 
Roman  oonunission  which  prepared  the  Editio 
Sixtina  of  the  Septuagint.  They  collected  with 
great  care  the  Biblical  quotations  from  the  Latin 
ecclesiastical  writers.  Petrus  Morinus,  Antonius 
AgeiliuB,  and  Lselius  Malwerda  were  the  members 
of  the  commission  to  whom  this  part  of  the  task 
was  entrusted.  Their  labors  were  used  in  the  scholia 
of  the  Greek  edition  of  1586  [1587]|  but  still  more 
freely  in  its  Latin  translation,  published  by 
Flaminius  Nobilius  (Rome,  1588;  reprinted  with 
the  Greek  text  at  Paris,  1624;  without  it,  Venice, 
1600,  1628;  Antwerp,  1616).  But  the  chief 
work  is  Bibliorum  Siurorum  Lalina  vertiones 
antiqucB  .  .  .  opera  et  studio  Petri  Sabatier,  0.  S.  B., 
e  amgregatiane  S.  Mauri  (3  vols.,  Reims,  1739-49, 
with  new  title,  Paris,  Didot,  1751).  Before  Saba- 
tier,  are  to  be  mentioned  J.  M.  Cams  (Cardinal 
Tommasi),  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  iuxta  editionem  seu 
LXX  Interpretum  seu  B.  Hieronifni  vetert*  tituli, 
etc.  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1688;  2d  ed.  in  Thomasii  Opera^ 
ed.  Vezzosi,  i,  Rome,  1747);  and  EccUsiastes  ex 
versione  Itala  cum  notis  Bosauete  (Paris,  1693). 
For  full  list  of  manuscripts  and  editions,  cf.  the 
Hauck-Hersog  RE,  iii,  28-^3.  The  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament  are  enumerated  also  in  Scriv- 
ener's Introduction,  ii  (London,  1894),  45-54  (re- 
vised by  H.  J.  White);  in  Gregory's  Prolegomena 
to  Tischendorf's  New  Testament,  iii,  952-971,  and 
Textkritik  des  Neuen  Testaments  (Leipeic,  1900), 
698-613;  and  in  the  prefaces  of  Jerome's  New 
Testament  edited  by  J.  Wordaworth  and  H.  J. 
White  (Novum  TestamerUum  Domini  nostri  Jesu 
Christi  Latins  secundum  editionem  S.  Hieron^/mi  ad 
codicum  manuscriptorum  fidem  recensuit  Johannes 
Wordsuforih,  In  operis  societatem  adsumpto  Hen- 
rico Juliana  White,  part  i,  the  four  Gospels,  Ox- 
ford, 1889-98;  part  ii,  section  i,  Acts,  1905).  In 
the  critical  apparatus  of  the  New  Testament  they 
are  designated  by  the  small  letters  of  the  Latin 
alphabet. 

The  following  additions  may  be  made  to  what  is  con- 
tained in  the  RE  (ut  sup.): 

Old  Testament:  P.  Sabatier,  Bibliorum  Sacrorum  LatincB 
vernonea  arUiqucB,  i  (Reims.  1744),  004  (for  a  fragment  of 
Job:  cf.  S.  Beiger.  Hialoire  de  la  Vulgate,  Paris.  1893,  86); 
G.  M.  Bianchini,  VindicicB  eanonicarum  Kripiurarum  (Rome, 
1740;  Psalms  from  the  Codex  Veroneneie);  F.  Mone,  Latei- 
nieehe  und  Oriechiache  Mesaen  (Frankfort.  1850).  40  (for  frag- 
ments of  Paalms  from  a  palimpsest  in  Carlsruhe);  P.  de 
Lagarde,  Probe  einer  neuen  Auagabe  der  lateiniachen  C/e6er- 
•eUung  dee  AUen  Teetamente  (QAttingen,  1885;  for  Psalms); 
H.  Ehrensberger,  Paalterium  vetue  (Tauberbischofsheim, 
1887);  Heptateuehi  parHa  poeteriorie  vereio  L0aHna  anti- 
quiaeima  e  eodice  Luffdunenai  (Lyons,  1890;  cf.  F.  Vigou- 
roux,  in  Revue  dea  queaHona  hiatoriqueat  Jan.-Apr.,  1902); 
P.  de  Lagarde,  Septuaoiniaatudien^  ii  (GOttingen.  1892; 
for  III  Esdras);  J.  Belsheim,  Libri  ToHt,  Judit,  Eater  .  .  . 
Latina  tranalcMo  e  eodice  .  .  .  Monachenai  (Trondhjem, 
1893);  V.  Schultie,  Die  Quedlinburger  Itala-Miniaturen 
.  ,  .  in  Berlin  (Munich,  1898;  he  refers  them  to  the  fourth 
century);  P.  Gorssen,  Ztpei  netie  Fragmente  der  Weingar- 
tenet   Prophetenhandachrift,    nebat  einer    Unterauchung   Hber 


daa  VerhAltnia  der  Weingartener  und  WOrtburger  PropketeK- 
handaehriften  (Berlin,  1899);  P.  Thielmann.  Berickt  iiUr 
daa  geaammelte  handachriftUdte  Material  gu  einer  kritiaekni 
Auagabe  der  lateiniachen  Utberaetaungen  bibliaeker  Bfick«' 
dea  AUen  Teatamenta,  in  SitxungaberidUe  der  k&mc^idm 
Bayeriachen  Akademie  der  Wiaaenaehaften,  1899,  ii,  2;  G. 
Hoberg.  Die  dUeate  lateiniache  Ueberaetaung  dea  Bwka 
BarucK  (Freiburg.  1902);  A.  M.  Amelli,  De  libri  Bar%A 
vetuatiaaima  Latina  veraiane  .  .  .  epiatola  (Montecasnoo, 
1902);  W.  O.  E.  Oesterley,  Old  Latin  Texta  of  tbe  Miiuir 
PropKeta,  in  JTS,  ▼  (1904).  76.  242,  378.  570.  vi  67.  217. 
The  Psalms  from  the  Mosarabic  Liturgy  are  in  MPL,  Izzxr. 

New  Testament:  Goepels:  The  Fragmenta  Cttrienaia  (a) 
are  edited  in  OLBT,  ii  (London.  1888);  for  Coder  Sare^ 
tianua  ()),  cf.  G.  Amelli,  Un  anOdUaaimo  codiee  bibUco  iattno 
purpurea  (Montecassino,  1893);  Acts:  Codex  Demidoviama 
idem),  probably  of  the  thirteenth  century,  now  lost,  s 
mixed  text,  was  edited  by  C.  F.  Matthtei  {Novum  Teatamn- 
tum,  Riga.  1782);  for  the  Codex  Laudianua  (e).  see  Buu 
Text,  II,  1,  f  9;  it  was  revised  by  White  for  Wordswortb- 
White;  on  the  Codex  Perpinianua  (p),  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, a  mixed  text,  collated  by  White,  cf.  8.  Beiger.  l-'n 
Ancien  Texta  latin  dea  Aetea  dea  Apdtrea,  in  Noticea  et  Ex- 
traita  dea  manuacrita,  xxxr  (Paris,  1895);  cf.  further  Libv 
comieua  aive  lectionariua  miaaa  quo  Toletana  eedeaia  ante  a^ 
noa  MCC  utOtatur,  ed.  G.  Morin  {Aneodota  Marodaolana,  i. 
Blaredsous,  1893).  Pauline  Epistles:  for  the  manoschptj 
d,  e,  f,  g,  cf.  H.  Rdnsch.  in  ZWT,  1882,  p.  83.  Apocalypm: 
cf.  H.  linke,  Studien  sur  Itala  (Breslau,  1889).  The  Codex 
Corbeienaia  (ff,),  with  fragments  of  the  GathoUc  Epistles. 
Acts,  and  the  Apocalypse  from  the  Fleury  palimpsest  (Paris 
6400  G),  have  been  lately  edited  by  E.  8.  Buchanan  (Ox- 
ford, 1907.  in  OLBT,  v). 

On  the  relation  of  the  different  texts,  ef.  for  the  New 
Testament  Hort's  Introduction  (London,  1881)  and  Words- 
worth-White;  for  the  Old  Testament  Kennedy  in  DB,  iii 
49  sqq.  On  the  language,  cf.  H.  Rdnsch,  Itala  und  Vul- 
gata  (Marbuig,  1869),  on  which  work  ef.  J.  N.  Ott,  in  Nau 
JahrbOcher  fUr  Philologie,  cix,  1874,  pp.  778.  833. 

Of  the  highest  importance  for  the  restoration 
of  the  Old  Latin  Bible  are  the  quotations  of  the 
older  Latin  writers.    Their  ooimtriee  are    known 
and  thus  the  home  of  the  Biblical  texts  is  located. 
Yet  many  questions  are  still  unsettled; 
8«Jft^ota-   e.g.,  did  Tertullian  know  and  use  a 
in  ^tin    ^^^°  translation  or  are  his  quotations 
Writers,    taken  by  him  from  the  Greek  and  trans- 
lated   into    Latin7    Heinrich    Hoppe 
{Syntax  und  StU  des  Tertullian,  Ldpsic,  1903)  de- 
nies that  Tertullian  knew  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  T.  Zahn  makes  the  same  assertion 
for  the  New  Testament. 

Quotations  from  almost  all  books  are  found  in  the  Libtr 
de  divinia  acripturia  aive  apeculum  (designated  as  m).  aa- 
cribed  to  Augustine,  published  by  A.  Mai  in  Spieilegium 
Romanum,  ix,  2  (Rome,  1843),  1-88,  and  in  Nova  pofrvM 
bibliotheoa,  i,  2  (1852),  1-117;  better  by  F.  Weihrich,  is 
CSEL,  xii  (cf.  Weihrich*s  disserUtion,  Die  Bibd-ExetrpU 
de  divina  acriptura,  Vienna,  1893).  Several  fragments  an 
also  in  C.  Vercellone,  Diaaertationi  acoademiehe  (Rome, 
1864).  On  the  quotations  in  general,  cf.  H.  Rdnsch.  io 
ZHT,  X,  1867,  60&-634.  1869,  433^79,  1870,  91-150. 
1871.  631.  1875.  86;  L.  J.  Bebb,  in  Studia  BibUa,  ii  (Loi- 
don,  1890),  195  sqq.;  Scrivener's  Introduction  (London. 
1894),  167-174;  Gregory's  Prolegomena,  iii  (Leipeic,  1894), 
1131-1246;  and  Kennedy,  in  DB,  52-53. 

The  writers  that  are  of  primary  importance  are:  Aldmas 
Avitus,  archbishop  of  Vienne  c.  450-^17;  Ambrose,  bishop 
of  Milan  374-397;  Ambromaster,  the  name  given  to  a  moft 
important  commentator  on  the  thirteen  Epistles  of  St.  Pftul 
(cf.  T.  Zahn.  in  NKZ,  xvi,  pp.  419  sqq.,  and  A.  Souter. 
7*iS,  vii,  4,  Cambridge,  1905);  Amobius,  preebyter  in  Africs. 
fourth  century;  Exhartationea  de  p<Bnitentia,  ascribed  to 
Cyprian;  Liber  de  aieatoribua  (according  to  Hamack  as  esrly 
as  Cyprian);  lAber  de  paadui  eomputua  (written  in  Africa  & 
243);  Li6er  de  promiaaionibua  (ascribed  to  Prosper  of  Aqui- 
taine);  Liber  eollationialegumMoaaicttrumetRomanarvm  leu 
P.  KrOger  and  T.  Mommsen  in  CoUectio  librorum  jurii  «»- 
tefuatiniani,   iii,  BerUn,  1891);  Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo 


128 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


354^430  (from  this  eutkor  alone  Legarde  ooUeoted  13.276 
quotetiont  of  the  Old  Testament  and  29,640  of  the  New 
Testament);  Gapreolus,  bishop  of  Carthage  c.  431;  Cassian, 
monk  at  MaraeiUee  (d.  about  436);  Commodian  (perhaps 
middle  of  third  oentury);  (}srprian,  bishop  of  Carthage  (d. 
258:  cf.  Sanday,  in  OLBT,  ii;  Lagarde.  Svmmicta,  i,  74;  Mit- 
IfcsiliMVm.  ii«  54;  P.  Corssen,  Dtr  cytfianuehe  Text  der  Ada 
ApoMontm,  Berlin.  1802);  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles; 
Philastrius,  bishop  of  Brescia  (o.'380;  ed.  Marx,  in  CSBL, 
xxrriii);  Fulgentius,  bishop  of  Ruspe  (e.  468-533);  Gildas 
of  Britain;  Eueherius;  Hilarius,  bishop  of  Poitiers  (d.  380; 
cf .  Singwle,  in  Kleint  philoU>oi9di0  Ahhandlunffent  Innsbruck, 
1887);  Irenaus,  bishop  of  Lyons  (e.  180,  Novum  Teatamen- 
tum  Irtnai;  to  be  published  in  OLBT  by  Prof.  Sanday); 
Jorinian  (in  the  time  of  Jerome);  Lactantius  (in  Africa  c. 
260-340);  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari  (d.  371;  cf.  Dombart. 
in  BerHner  PhUoloffiMehe  Wodimaeknft,  1866,  no.  6);  Julius 
Firmicos  Materaus  (c.  346);  Maximin  (cf.  TLZ,  1900,  17): 
Noyatian  (at  Rome  c.  252;  cf.  Hamaek,  in  TU,  xiii.  4); 
Origen  (Latin  translation;  c  261);  Optatus,  bishop  of  Milere 
in  Numidia,  c.  368;  Primasius,  bishop  of  Adrumetum,  sixth 
century  (cf.  Haussleiter,  inZahn,  For9ehufHf€n  but  OeBchiehU 
def  naUetlamentUehm  Xafums,iv,  Berlin,  1900.  1-224);  Pe- 
Isgiusof  Ireland;  Prisdllian,  bishop  of  Avila  in  Spain,  fourth 
century  (cf.  C8EL»  xriii);  Salvianus  of  Marseilles,  o.  460  (cf. 
Ullrich,  De  Sabriani  weriptunB  aaera  veraionibut,  Neustadt, 
1893):  Tertullian  of  Carthage,  e.  160-240  (cf.  Rdnsch,  Dos 
Snu  TeHomsnl  TertulUana,  Leipsie,  1871,  and  J.  N.  Ott.  in 
Nau  JakrbiUAer  far  PhiMogia,  1874,  p.  866);  Tyconius,  in 
Africa,  c  340  (cf.  F.  C.  Burkitt,in  TS,  iii,  1. 1894);  Verecun- 
dns  (cf.  Lagarde,  SeptuoifinUutudien,  i);  Victorinus.  bishop 
of  Fettau  in  Pannonia,  c.  3(X)  (cf.  Haussleiter,  in  ZWT,  vii, 
23^257);  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Thapsus,  o.  484. 

Some  parts  of  the  Old  Latin  Bible  are  still  in 
ecclesiastical  use  and  even  in  the  works  of  Luther 
Denifle   has   shown    readings    from    this    source. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  translations 
in  the   vernacular  dialects  of  medieval   Europe, 
such   as   the   Angjio-Saxon    (cf.    for  instance  R. 
Handke,  Ueber  daa  VerhOltnia  der  tDcsUdchsiachen 
Evangelienuberaetgung    gum    lateinischen    Original, 
Halle,    1896;  A.   S.   Cook,   Biblical  QuotaHona  in 
Old  Englith  Praae  Writers,  New  York.  1898;  Max 
FOrster,  in  Engliache  Studien,  Leipsie,  1900,  p.  480). 
2.  The  Bible  of  Jerome  (the  Vallate):    Toward 
the    end    of    the   fourth    oentury    the   inconve- 
nience from  which   the  Western  Church  suffered 
because  there  was  no  single  authorized  Latin  ver- 
non  of  the  Bible  must  have  been  seriously  felt, 
and  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome  (d.  384),  oommis- 
flioaed  Jerome  (q.v.)  to  prepare  an  authoritative 
revision,   probably  in  the   year   382. 
LJwomj^sThe  letter  with  which  Jerome  dedi- 
H^Terta!^*®^*^®  first  part  (the  Gospels)  to 
ment.       the  pope  g;ive6    the    only    authentic 
reooid    of  the   work   and    its    scope 
(cf.  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  vi,  487-488).     Jerome  accepts 
the  task  set  him  by  Damasus,  notes  its    extreme 
difficulty  and  the  resulting  peril  to  himself,  antici- 
pates the  harshest  criticism  of  himself  and  of  the 
resiUts  of  his  labor,  and  states  that  his  emenda- 
tions have  been  as  conservative  as  possible.     Not- 
withstanding   Jerome's    modesty  concerning    his 
work,  it  has  had  an  imparalleled  history,  inas- 
much   as    it    became    the    Bible    of    the   whole 
Occident. 

To  estimate  Jerome's  work  property,  it  would 
be  necessary  (1)  to  know  what  were  the  Latin 
texts  which  he  had  to  revise;  (2)  what  were  the 
Greek  texts  which  he  chose  as  standard;  (3)  to 
have  his  work  in  its  original  form.  The  last  is  now 
realized,  at  least  for  the  first  part  of  the  New  Tes- 


tament, since  the  monumental  edition  of  Words- 
worth-White. The  Greek  manuscript  or  manu- 
scripts used  by  Jerome  must  have  been  of  the  type 
of  the  Codices  Vaticanus  and  StnaiHcus;  there 
are,  however,  some  readings  not  attested  by  any 
Greek  manuscript  (cf .,  for  instance,  John  x,  16,  tmum 
ovile;  xvi,  13,  docebit;  and  on  this  question  cf.  the 
letter  of  Wordsworth  and  White  in  The  Academy, 
Jan.  27,  1894;  their  Epilogue,  657-672;  E.  Mange- 
not,  in  RSE,  Jan.,  1900).  About  Jerome's  Latin 
texts  there  is  still  less  information.  Wordsworth 
and  White  printed  under  Jerome's  text  that  of  the 
Codex  Brixianits  (/)  as  most  nearly  related  to  it; 
but  according  to  Burkitt  and  Kaufmann  it  is 
rather  a  text  of  Jerome  himself  adapted  to  the 
Gothic  version.  Jerome's  statement  in  his  prefa- 
tory letter  that  he  changed  as  little  as  possible  is 
probably  true;  for  the  language  indicates  that  the 
Gospels  came  from  different  translators.  Identical 
expressions  in  Greek  are  quite  differently  rendered 
into  Latin  (cf.  the  history  of  the  Passion  in  the 
different  Gospels,  and  notice  for  instance  lagenam 
aqucB  baiulane  =  amphoram  aqucB  portans,  or  the 
rendering  of  "  high  priest "  in  Matthew  by  prin- 
cepe  sacerdotum,  in  Mark  by  aummus  eacerdos,  in 
John  by  pontifex).  It  is,  therefore,  quite  wrong  to 
treat  the  Vulgate  of  the  Gospels  as  a  harmonious 
work,  and  it  is  dear  that  the  value  of  it  for  tex- 
tual criticism  is  greatly  enhanced,  since  it  pre- 
serves the  text  of  the  time  when  the  (jospels  were 
not  yet  united  into  one  collection.  Whether  also 
in  the  second  part  of  the  New  Testament  such 
differences  can  be  detected  has  not  yet  been  in- 
vestigated. It  is  not  even  quite  certain  how  far 
Jerome  revised  the  second  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Only  the  Gospels  have  his  prefaces,  and 
Augustine  writes  to  him  only  of  the  Gospel:  "  We 
give  no  small  thanks  to  God  for  your  work  in 
which  you  have  interpreted  the  Gospel  from  the 
Greek."  Jerome,  however,  answers:  "If,  as  you 
say,  you  suspect  me  of  emending  the  New  Testa- 
ment ";  and  in  398  he  wrote  to  Lucinius  Beticus, 
to  whom  he  sent  the  first  copy  ready  (EpieU,  Ixxi, 
5,  NPNF,  2d  series,  vi,  154):  "The  New  Testa- 
ment I  have  restored  to  the  authoritative  form  of 
the  Greek."  In  his  De  vir,  ill,  he  says:  "The 
New  Testament  I  have  restored  to  the  true  Greek 
form,  the  Old  I  have  rendered  from  the  Hebrew." 
Jerome's  work  on  the  Old  Testament  was  more 
thorough.  First  he  revised  the  Psalter  [from  the 
Septuagint]  in  383  in  Rome.  This  revision  was  in- 
troduced by  Damasus  into  the  liturgy  and  is  hence 
called  the  PadUerium  Ramanum  in  distinction  from 
the  PadUerium  vetua  or  the  unrevised  Old  Latin. 
It  was  in  use  in  Italy  till  Pius  V  (1566-72) ,  and  it  is 
still  used  in  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  and  in  Milan, 
partly  in  the  Roman  Missal  and  in  one  place  in  the 
Breviary,  in  the  hortatory  Psalm  xcv  (xciv).  About 
four  years  later  in  Palestine  Jerome 
revis^  the  Psalms  a  second  time, 
making  use  of  the  critical  marks  of 
Origen,  the  obelus  and  asterisk.  This 
revision  is  known  as  the  Gallican  Psalter,  as  it  was 
first  used  chiefly  in  Gaul  (it  seems  through  Gregory 
of  Tours),  but  finally  it  became  the  current  version 
in  the  Latin  Church  (through  Pius  V),  of  course 


8.  The 

Old  Testa- 

ment. 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


124 


without  the  critical  marks.  At  last  Jerome  trans- 
lated the  Psalms  from  the  Hebrew  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Sophronius  about  392  (not  405,  as  Lagarde 
has  it);  but  this  remained  a  private  labor  and  is  not 
foimd  in  many  manuscripts.  The  best  edition  of 
this  version  is  Lagarde's  Psalterium  juxta  HebrcBoa 
Hieronymi  (Leipsic,  1874). 

About  the  same  time  with  his  second  revision  of 
the  Psalter  Jerome  revised  the  translation  of  Job 
(preserved  in  a  few  manuscripts,  especially  at  Ox- 
ford and  St.  Gall;  edited  by  Lagarde,  MtUheilungeny 
ii,  189  sqq.;  cf.  OBspari,  in  AcUs  du  huUihne  con- 
grbs  dea  OTienialistes,  i,  Leyden,  1893,  37-51)  and 
most  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament;  but  he  lost 
the  work  "by  the  deceit  of  somebody."  There- 
fore he  undertook  the  greater  labor  of  translating 
the  Old  Testament  afresh  direct  from  the  Hebrew. 
He  began  in  390  with  Samuel  and  Kings  and  pub- 
lished them  with  his  Prologus  galeatua  (q.v.);  then 
followed  Job,  the  Prophets,  and  Psalms.  About  the 
chronological  order  of  the  rest  absolute  certainty 
is  not  reached.^  He  left  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Maccabees,  and  Baruch  without  revision.  Accord- 
ing to  his  own  statement  he  translated  the  three 
Solomonic  writings  in  three  days,  Tobit  in  one  day, 
Judith  in  one  night;  for  the  latter  two  his  Jewish 
teacher  translated  to  him  the  Aramaic  into  He- 
brew and  he  dictated  the  Latin  to  a  copyist  (cf . 
G.  GrUtssmacher,  HieronymtiSf  i,  Leipsic,  1901, 
73-77.  On  Jerome's  method,  cf.  G.  Hoberg,  De 
S.  Hieronymi  ratione  interpretandif  Bonn,  1886;  M. 
Rahmer,  Die  hebr&iachen  TradUionen  in  den  Wer- 
ken  des  Hieronymus,  Breslau.  1861). 

At  first  Jerome's  work  was  not  well  received,  es- 
pecially because  he  had  dared  to  part  with  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  even  Augustine  believed  to  be 
equally  inspired  with  the  original  Hebrew.  An 
African  bishop  on  finding  hedera 
«•  ™"*^  ('*  ivy ")  in  the  Book  of  Jonah  in 
vention^'f  ^^®  ^®^  version  instead  of  the  accus- 

Printlnff.  tomed  cucurbita  ("  gourd ")  raised  a 
tumult  in  his  Church.  Jerome's  former 
friend  Rufinus  wrote  expressly  against  the  new 
work.  "  So  great  is  the  force  of  established  usage," 
says  Jerome,  "  that  even  acknowledged  corrup- 
tions [of  text]  please  the  greater  part,  for  they 
prefer  to  have  their  copies  pretty  rather  than 
correct."  On  the  other  hand  he  knows  "  that 
they  attack  it  in  public  and  read  it  in  secret." 
At  the  time  of  his  death  (420)  the  attacks  and  criti- 
cism of  his  opponents  had  ceased. 

We  are  not  informed  where  and  when  complete 
Bibles  of  Jerome's  version  were  first  produced  and 
introduced  into  the  use  of  the  Church.  In  Spain  it 
seems  to  have  been  at  a  pretty  early  time.  Cassiod- 
orus  (d.  about  570)  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not 
the  very  first,  who  took  care  to  produce  correct 
copies.  From  his  copies  are  derived  the  introduc- 
tory pieces  in  the  Codex  Amiatinus  (cf.  H.  J.  Whjte, 
in  Studia  Biblical  ii,  Oxford,  1890,  273;  P.  Corssen, 
Die  Bibdn  dee  Casaiodorius,  JPT,    1883,    1891). 

>  White  gives  the  following  table:  394  Esdras;  306  Chron- 
icles; 398  Proverbs.  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Solomon;  401? 
Genesis,  followed  by  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuter- 
onomy; 405  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Esther,  Tobit,  Judith, 
and  the  ai)ocryphal  parts  of  Daniel  and  Esther. 


Pope  Gregoiy  the  Great  wrote  at  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century:  "  I  indeed  circulate  the  new  trans- 
lation; but  when  the  course  of  argument  demands 
it,  1  use  now  the  new  and  now  the  old  by  way  of 
proof;  and  this  because  the  Apostolic  See,  over 
which  under  God  I  preside,  uses  both  and  by  the 
study  of  both  my  toil  is  lightened."  By  that  time 
the  name  Fu/^^oto  ("common,"  "ordinary  "), which 
before  had  meant  the  Septuagint  and  its  Latin  trans- 
lation, had  gone  over  to  the  work  of  Jerome.  Roger 
Bacon  says  of  it  "that  [version]  which  is  diffused 
among  the  Latins  is  that  which  the  Church  receives 
in  these  days."  But  even  in  the  printed  editions 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  this  name 
is  not  yet  as  invariable  as  we  are  inclined  to 
suppose;  and  despite  the  warning  of  Walafrid 
Strabo,  "  let  none  desire  to  amend  one  from  the 
other,"  mixing  in  all  degrees  of  the  old  and  the  new 
texts  took  place  and  survives  up  to  the  present 
not  only  in  manuscripts,  but  even  in  the  printed 
text,  as  when  in  II  Kings  i,  18,  the  first  part  is  from 
the  Old  Latin,  and  the  second  from  Jerome. 

Charlemagne  found  several  recensions  in  use  in  his 
dominions.  In  a  capitulary  of  789  he  ordered  that 
there  should  be  "  in  each  monastery  and  parish  good 
copies  of  the  catholic  books,  and  the  boys  must  not  be 
permitted  to  deface  them  either  in  reading  them 
or  by  writing  on  them;  and  if  there  be  necessity 
for  writing  [copying]  a  Gospel,  Psalter,  or  Missal, 
men  of  maturity  are  to  do  it,  using  all  care."  In  797 
he  committed  to  Alcuin  (q.v.)  the  "  emendation  of 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament ";  and  the  copy  of 
the  Biblical  books,  "  bound  together  in  the  sanctity 
of  one  most  glorious  body,"  which  Alcuin  offered 
to  him  on  Christmas  801,  must  have  been  the  first 
copy  of  this  revision,  of  which  the  Codex  VdHed- 
lanua  at  Rome  is  the  best  representative  in  exist- 
ence. As  Alcuin  was  himself  of  Northumbria,  he 
probably  had  his  text  brought  from  there,  and 
fortunately  just  there  the  purest  text  seems  to  have 
survived  (cf.  Berger's  Hiatoire  and  Wordsworth- 
White).  At  the  same  time  Bishop  Theodulf  of  Origans 
(787-821)  worked  at  a  revision,  but  on  very  diflferent 
lines.  Being  a  Visigoth,  he  took  Spanish  manu- 
scripts as  the  basis,  but  incorporated  in  the  mai^gins 
various  readings;  fortimately  his  work  found  no 
large  circulation.  It  is  still  represented  by  some 
fine  manuscripts  (cf.  Berger,  145-184,  and  Delisle, 
in  Bibliothcque  de  VScole  dea  Chartea,  vol.  xl,  Paris, 
1879).  About  the  labors  of  Lanfranc  of  Canter- 
bury (q.v.)  precise  information  is  not  obtain- 
able; but  the  normal  copy  produced  with  the  help 
of  Jewish  scholars  by  Stephen  Harding,  third  abbot 
of  Ctteaux,  for  the  members  of  his  order  is  still  pre- 
served at  Dijon  (cf.  J.  P.  Martin,  in  RSE,  1887). 
Later  on,  critical  observations  on  the  true  readings 
of  certain  passages  were  collected  in  the  so-called 
Correctoria  Biblica,  The  principal  Carrederia  are 
(1)  the  Correctorium  Pariaienaef  prepared  about 
1236,  also  called  Senonenae,  sneered  at  by  Roger  Ba- 
con, who  in  1267  called  the  Parisian  text,  in  a  letter 
to  Pope  Clement  IV,  "horribly  corrupt";  "the 
correctors,"  he  says,  are  "  corruptors,  for  any 
reader  whatsoever  in  the  lower  oniers  oorrectB  as 
he  pleases,  in  like  manner  also  the  preachers,  and 
similarly  the  students  change  as  they  like  what  they 


125 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


do  not  understand";  (2)  the  Corredorium  Sor- 
bonicum,  a  aort  of  epitome  of  the  larger  Correc- 
ioria;  (3)  the  Correctarium  of  the  Dominicans, 
prepared  under  the  auspices  of  Hugo  of  St.  Cher, 
which  sometimes  went  back  of  the  Latin  text  to 
Greek  and  Hebrew  manuscripts;  (4)  the  Correc- 
iorium  VcUtcanum,  the  work  of  the  Franciscans, 
perhaps  especially  of  Willermus  de  Mara.  (Cf!  on 
the  Ccrredofria,  besides  S.  Berger,  in  RTP,  xvi,  41, 
especially  Denifle,  in  Arckiv  fUr  Litteratur-  und 
Kirchenge9chiehte,  iv,  Berlin,  1883,  263,  471.)  By 
the  influence  of  the  University  of  Paris  the  text 
used  there  was  the  one  which  was  most  current  in 
the  Middle  Ages  and  consequently  that  which 
found  its  way  into  the  first  printed  editions,  and 
gained  thereby  still  more  influence. 

To  eDumerate  even  the  more  important  of  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Vulgate  is  here  impossible.  There  are  lists 
in  J.  Le  Long,  Biblioiheea  mura  (i,  Paris,  1723,  234  sqq.), 
and  in  C.  Veroellone,  V<xrim  leetianea  vtdgaUB  LatincB  Bib- 
Iwrum  ediHonia  (i,  Rome,  1860,  bocdi  sqq.,  ii,  1864,  xvii 
Kiq.).  Scrivener's  IfUroducUon  (ii,  London,  1804,  67-90) 
hiM  a  select  list  of  181  manuscripts,  chiefly  of  the  New 
Testament,  by  H.  J.  White;  Berger's  Hiatoire  (Paris,  1893, 
S74-422)  one  of  253;  Gregory's  Prdeoomena  (iii,  Leipsic, 
IS94.  983-1106)  notes  some  2.270,  and  his  TezikriHk  (2 
vols.,  Leipsic  1900-02)  2,3M,  reserving  some  for  an  ap- 
pendix. H.  J.  White  {DB,  iv,  88G-889)  classifies  them 
under  the  following  headings:  (I)  Early  Italian  texts; 
(2)  Early  Spanish  texto;  (3)  Italian  texts  transcribed  in 
Britain;  (4)  Continental  manuscripts  written  by  Irish  or 
Saxon  scribes  and  showing  a  mixture  of  the  two  types  of 
text;  (5)  Type  of  text  current  in  Languedoc;  (6)  Other 
French  texts;  (7)  Swiss  manuscripts,  especially  of  St. 
(jail;  (8)  Aleuinian  xeeenaion;  (9)  Theodulfian  recension; 
(10)  Medieval  texts. 

Naturally  Bibles  and  parts  of  the  Bible  were 
among  the  earliest.of  printed  books,  and  as  a  matter 
of  course  the  text  presented  was  the  Vulgate. 
The  Mazarin  Bible,  so  called,  because  a  copy  in 
the  library  of  Cardinal  Mazarin  first  attracted  the 
attention  of  bibliographers — i.e.,  the  Bible  in  forty- 
two  lines,  not  that  in  thirtynsix — ^is  now  proved 
to  be  the  first  Bible  printed  by  Gutenberg.  His 
Psalter  of  1457  is  the  first  book  with 
pSSd'^  a  printed  date,  while  the  Psalter  of 
Bditions.  ^^^^  ^  ^^^  °'  *^®  moBt  costly  of  books. 
A  Bible  printed  at  Biainz  1462  is  the 
first  dated  Bible.  The  first  Bible  printed  at  Rome 
is  of  1471,  by  Sweinheim  and  Pannartz,  printed  in 
250  copies.  Of  ninety-two  editions  of  the  fifteenth 
century  which  can  be  localized,  thirty-six  belong  to 
Germany  (to  Nuremberg  13,  Strasburg  8,  Cologne  7, 
Mainz  3,  Speyer  2,  Bamberg  1,  and  Ulm  1 ,  the  latter 
of  1480  being  the  first  Bible  with  summaries); 
twenty-nine  belong  to  Italy,  twenty-four  of  them 
to  Venice.  In  England  in  the  whole  period  none 
is  known.  The  first  quarto  Bible  is  believed  to 
have  been  printed  at  Piacenza  1475,  and  the  first 
octavo  at  Basel  1491  (because  of  its  small  size 
called  the  first  "  poor  man's  Bible  ")  •  An  undated 
Bible,  probably  of  1478,  has  for  the  first  time 
the  verses: 

Fontibufl  ex  cneeie  hebraeorum  quoque  libris 

Emendata  aatia  et  deoorata  simul 
Bibha  eum  pneaens,  superoe  eco  testor  et  aetra. 

Gopinger  mentions  124  editions  of  the  lAtin  Bible 
prior  to  1500,  of  the  sixteenth  century  he  knows 
i38  editions,  of  the  seventeenth  262,  of  the  eight- 


eenth 192,  of  the  nineteenth  (till  1892)  133,  in  all 
1 ,  149.  These  figures  show  that,  under  the  in  fluence 
of  the  religious  and  intellectual  awakening,  the  six- 
teenth century  was  the  time  of  the  Latin  Bible. 

The  bad  state  of  the  text  soon  became  evident 
and  attempts  were  made  to  improve  it  from  the 
original  texts,  as  by  the  editors  of  the  0>mpluten- 
sian  Polyglot  (see  Bibles,  Polyglot,  I),  and, 
among  Protestants,  first  by  Andreas  Osiander  (Nu- 
remberg, 1522)  and  at  Wittenberg,  in  an  edition  of 
the  Pentateuch,  Joshua-Kings,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment, ascribed  to  Luther  and  Melanchthon  (1529), 
then  by  Lukas  Osiander  at  Tubingen  (9  vols.,  157S(- 
1586),  with  an  "exposition."  Of  greater  impor- 
tance are  the  attempts  to  correct  the  text  from  the 
Latin  manuscripts,  to  which  Lorenzo  della  Valle  had 
called  attention  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Erasmus 
published  his  In  LcUinam  Novi  Teatamenti  inierpre- 
talionem  ex  coUaiione  ffrcBcorum  exemplariunk  annotor- 
tionea  appnme  utiles  at  Paris  in  1505.  The  French 
printer  Robert  Stephens  (q.v.)  in  particular  cor- 
rected the  text  from  manuscripts  and  put  variant 
readings  on  the  margins  (cf .  Wordsworth,  in  OLBT, 
i,  1883,  47-54).  For  his  edition  of  1528  he  used 
three  good  manuscripts,  for  the  larger  of  1540  not 
less  than  seventeen;  his  impression  of  1555  is  the 
first  complete  Bible  with  the  modem  verse  division, 
and  his  text  became  the  basis  of  the  official  Roman 
text  through  the  mediation  of  the  edition  under- 
taken by  the  theological  faculty  of  Louvain  under 
the  guidance  of  Johannes  Hentenius  after  compari- 
son of  some  thirty  manuscripts  (Louvain,  1547). 

All  these  editions  were  private  imdertakings. 
In  its  fourth  session  (Apr.  8, 1546),  the  Council  of 
Trent  decreed  that  "  of  all  Latin  editions  the  old 
and  vulgate  (imlgata)  edition  be  held  as  authorita- 
tive in  public  lectures,  disputations,  sermons,  and 
expositions;   and   that  no  one  is  to 

ai  Sn*       ^^^  ^^  presume  under  any  pretext 
Olementliie  ^  reject  it."    The  council  decreed  at 

Bdltion.  ^^^  same  time  that  "  this  same  old 
and  vulgate  edition  be  printed  in 
as  correct  form  as  possible."  It  does  not  appear 
that  steps  were  taken  to  entrust  a  special  person  or 
body  with  the  latter  task.  The  edition  of  Hentenius 
was  used  for  a  long  time  as  the  best  available. 
At  last  several  popes  took  the  matter  in  hand,  and 
after  various  attempts  of  Pius  IV  and  Pius  Y,  at 
last  Sixtus  V  carried  the  work  to  completion 
through  a  committee,  with  Cardinal  Antonio  Caraffa 
at  its  head,  and  published  the  Biblia  Sacra  VtU- 
gata  EdUionU  tribus  tomis  distincta,  Roma :  ex 
Typographia  Apostolica  Vaticana  M,D.XC  (on  a 
second  title-page:  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatce  EdiHonia 
ad  concilii  Tridentini  prcBscriptum  emendata  et  a 
Sixto  V.  P,  M.  recognita  et  approbata).  In  the 
constitution  JEtemue  Hie  (Mar.  1,  1589;  not  included 
in  the  BvUarium  Romanum ;  printed  in  Thomas 
James,  Bellum  papale,  London,  1600,  and  L.  van 
Ess,  GeschichU  der  Vtdgaia,  Tubingen,  1821,  269) 
Sixtus  had  declared  the  edition  '*  true,  lawful,  au- 
thentic, and  not  to  be  questioned  in  disputations, 
either  public  or  private."  No  future  edition  was 
to  be  published  without  the  express  permission  of 
the  Holy  See,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  it  was 
forbidden  to  reprint  it  in  any  place  except  the  Vati- 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


126 


can;  all  future  editions  were  to  be  carefully  collated 
with  it,  "  that  no  smallest  part  be  changed,  added 
to,  or  taken  away/'  and  they  were  to  be  accom- 
panied with  the  official  attestation  of  the  inquisitor 
of  the  province  or  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  no 
variant  readings,  scholia,  or  glosses  being  allowed 
on  the  margins.  In  August  of  1590  Sixtus  V  died, 
and  was  followed  by  several  short-lived  popes;  in 
1592  Clement  VIII  called  in  all  copies  of  the 
edition  which  were  within  reach — copies  are,  there- 
fore, of  extreme  rarity — ^and  replaced  it  imder  the 
direction  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine  with  a  new  Btblia 
Sacra  VtJgatcB  Editianis.  Ramce:  Ex  Typographia 
Apostolica  VaHcana  M.D^CII  (on  the  second  title- 
page:  Btblia  Sacra  Vtdgata  Editionia  Sixti  QuinH 
Pont.  Max.  Jumu  recognita  atque  edita).  The  ac- 
companjring  bull  decreed:  "  From  the  form  of  this 
copy  let  not  even  the  least  particle  be  changed, 
added  to,  or  taken  away,  unless  it  happens  that 
some  fault  is  unmistakably  due  to  typographical 
carelessness — let  this  be  inviolably  observed." 
The  reasons  for  this  whole  proceeding  are  not 
quite  clear.  That  the  printing  of  the  first  edition 
was  not  correct  enough  is  not  true;  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  Sixtine  edition  is  typographically  more 
correct  than  the  Clementine,  but  the  text  of  the 
Clementine  is  an  improvement  on  that  of  the 
Sixtine.  Sixtus  was  personally  interested  in  the 
work  and  changed  the  text  frequently  to  accord 
with  that  of  Stephens,  while  the  editors  of  the 
Clementine  edition  followed  more  often  that  of  Hen- 
tenius.  There  are  some  3,000  differences  between  the 
two  editions.  Nevertheless  the  names  of  both  popes 
were  placed  on  the  title-pages  of  the  later  reprints, 
first,  it  seems,  at  Lyons,  1604,  then  at  Mainz,  1609, 
the  official  title  being  now:  SixH  V.  et  Clementis 
VIII.  Pontt.  Maxx.  jussu  recognita  atque  edita.  A 
quarto  edition  was  issued  in  1593  with  "marginal 
references,  explanations  of  Hebrew  names,  and 
an  index  of  subjects,"  and  a  small  quarto  edition 
in  1598  with  a  correctorium.  All  four  editions 
(1590,  1592,  1593,  1598)  are  compared  by  Leander 
van  Ess  in  his  edition  of  the  Vulgate  (3  parts, 
TQbingen,  1822-24).  Of  editions  by  other  editors, 
those  of  C.  Vercellono  (Rome,  1861)  and  particu- 
larly M.  Hetzenauer  (Innsbruck,  1906)  may  be  men- 
tioned; the  latter  has  useful  appendices. 

Since  the  edition  of  1592  scarcely  any  at- 
tempt has  been  made  in  the  Roman  Church  to 
apply  to  its  Bible  the  most  necessary  emendation. 
D.  Vallarsi  printed  an  emended  text 

%^k  (Verona,  1734),  under  the  title  Divina 
Problems,  bibliotheca,  in  his  edition  of  the  works 
of  Jerome.  [A  Biblical  commission  was 
appointed  late  in  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII,  and 
Pius  X  has  lately  conunissioned  members  of  the 
Benedictine  Order  to  revise  the  Vulgate.  It  is 
intended  to  restore,  so  far  as  possible,  the  exact 
text  of  Jerome.]  Among  Protestants,  Richard 
Bentley  contemplated  a  new  edition  of  the  Latin 
New  Testament  together  with  the  Greek  (see 
Bible  Text,  U,  2,  §  3);  about  the  same  time  J.  A. 
Bengel  (q.v.)  did  much  for  it;  in  the  nineteenth 
century  S.  Berger  in  France  should  have  the 
greatest  credit  for  clearing  up  the  history  of  the 
Latin    Bible;    at    last     Wordsworth-White    have 


issued  what  must  be  called  the  first  critical 
edition  of  the  Latin  New  Testament;  and  in 
Bavaria  P.  Thielmann  is  engaged  in  publishing 
those  books  of  the  Old  Testament  which  were 
not  translated  by  Jerome  himself. 

It  is  a  matter  of  siurprise  that  a  task  so  eaay  and 
interesting  as  the  criticism  of  the  Latin  Bible  has 
recehred  so  little  attention.  Berger  knew  more  than 
8,000  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Bible;  few  of  them 
have  been  properly  investigated.  What  kind  of 
surprises  they  may  offer  is  shown  by  the  reoent 
discovery  of  two  different  translations  of  the  Third 
Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  in  two  manu- 
scripts of  the  tenth  and  thirteenth  centuries  at 
Milan  and  Laon.  The  order  of  the  Biblical  books 
in  the  manuscripts;  the  prefaces  and  sununaries 
(cf .  on  this  point  Les  Prefaces  jointes  aux  litres  de 
la  Bible  dans  les  maniucrits  de  la  Vulgate;  mtmom 
posthume  de  M.  Samuel  Berger,  in  the  Mimovren  de 
VAcadimie  des  Inscriptions  et  BeUes-Lettres,  ser.  i, 
vol.  xi,  part  2,  1902);  the  capitulation  and  di- 
visions; the  illumination  and  nuniatures  (many  of 
the  manuscripts  belong  to  the  most  beautiful  pro- 
ductions of  Christian  art);  ecclesiastical  or  private 
notes;  connection  with  the  vernacular  versions, 
influence  upon  the  dialects  of  Europe;  lists  of  the 
passages  in  literature  which  mention  manuscripts 
of  the  Latin  Bible;  and  many  other  points  may 
be  named  as  those  which  await  investigation. 

8.  Later  Latin  Translations:  That  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate was  not  sufficient  was  asserted  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  scholars  like  Nicolaus  de  Lsrra  and  Ray- 
mond Martini.  The  English  Benedictine  Adam 
Easton  (d.  1397)  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
first  to  think  of  a  new  translation.  It  was  Eras- 
mus, however,  who  vindicated  the  right  to  phce 
new  Latin  translations  by  the  side  of  the  Vulgate 
through  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(Basel,  1516,  1519,  1522,  1527,  1535,  and  more 
than  200  times  since  the  death  of  Erasmus;  see 
BiBLB  Text,  II,  2,  f  1;  Erasmus,  Debideriub). 
He  has  had  many  followers  who  have  translated 
into  Latin  either  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament  or 
both,  as  well  as  separate  books  of  the  Bible,  even 
as  late  as  the  nineteenth  century.  But  the  time 
has  passed  when  Latin  versions  were  neceasaiy  or 
helpful;  since  the  Reformation  translations  into 
the  vernacular  languages  have  taken  their  place. 

The  more  important  new  trandatione  of  the  whole  Bible 
are  those  of  the  Dominican  Sanctes  Pasninus  (Lyons,  1528; 
revised  and  annotated  by  Biiohael  Servetus,  Lyons,  1542). 
of  Arias  Montanua  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglot  (1572),  and 
one  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Oajetan  (1530 
sqq.;  see  Cajbtan,  Thomas). 

The  Old  Testament  was  newly  translated  by  the  He- 
braist Sebastian  Mttnster  (Basel,  1534-35  and  often):  by 
Leo  Jud  and  (after  Jud's  death)  T.  Bibliander,  C.  PteUicu, 
P.  Cholinus,  and  R.  Gualthenis  (Zurich,  1543);  by  Sebas- 
tian CSastellio  (complete  ed.,  Basel,  1551,  with  a  dedication 
to  Eong  Edward  VI  of  Ehigland);  by  Immanuel  Tremei- 
lius,  a  Jew  of  Ferrara,  and  his  son-in-law,  Frandscus  Junius 
(du  Jon;  5  parts,  Frankfort.  1575-70;  beet  ed.,  with  full 
index,  by  P.  Tossanus,  Hanau,  1624.  Tremellius's  work 
was  well  received);  by  J.  Piscator  (24  parts,  Herbom,  1601- 
1616;  really  a  revision  of  Tremellius);  by  Thomas  MalTenda, 
a  Spanish  Dominican  (left  incomplete  at  Malvenda's  death 
in  1628  and  first  published  with  his  CommetUoarii,  5  ▼ok. 
Lyons,  1650);  by  J.  Cocceius  (published  with  his  commeo- 
taries.  Opera,  vols,  i-vi,  Amsterdam,  1701;  incompWe; 
contains  also  most  of  the  New  Testament);  by  Sebastian 


137 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


Schmid,  a  Strasbuxv  Lutheran,  who  worked  forty  years  on 
the  translation  (Strasbuxv.  1696;  photographic  facsimile, 
with  manuscript  notes  by  Swedenborg,  ed.  R.  L.  Tafel, 
Stockholm,  1872);  by  Jean  Le  Clero  (Clericus;  Amst^r- 
dam.  1603-1731);  by  C.  F.  Houbigant  (4  vols..  Paris, 
1753);  by  J.  A.  Dathe  (Halle,  1773-89);  and  by  H.  A. 
Scbott  and  J.  F.  Winaer  (Leipsio,  1816). 

Forty  years  after  the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
of  Erasmus,  Beza's  Latin  New  Testament  appeared  (Ge- 
oeva.  1556,  1665,  1582,  1588,  1598,  and  more  than  100  sub- 
Mquent  editmns;  by  the  BFBS,  1896).  A  translation  by 
H.  A.  Schott  was  published  at  Leipsic  in  1805.  The  latest 
works  of  the  kind  are  by  F.  A.  A.  Nftbe  (Leipsic,  1831)  and 
A  (joschen  (Leipsic,  1832). 

For  other  translations,  including  thooe  of  separate  books 
of  the  Bible,  cf.  the  Hauck-Hersog  RE,  iii,  49-58.  On 
translations  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin  verse,  cf.  Hugues 
Vsgsnay.  Lea  TradueHon*  du  PtauHer  en  vera  latin  au 
teitihna  aikde,  in  Compta  rendu  du  quatriime  Congria  inter- 
natianal  dea  Catholiquea  (Freiburg.  1898),  part  vi,  Seiencea 
fkUolooiquaa.  E.  NeSTLE. 

Bibuoobapbt:  On  the  Latin  Bible  before  Jerome  consult; 
H.  R&nseh,  Ikda  und  Vulgala,  Marbuxg,  1875;  idem, 
in  ZWT,  1875.  pp.  76,  81.  425.  1876,  pp.  397.  1881, 
p.  198;  Desjaoques,  in  £tudea,  relioieuaea,  j^Hoaophiqwa, 
kiatoriquea  si  litUrairea  de  la  eompagnie  de  Jiaua,  1878, 
pp.  721-724;  L.  Ziegler,  Die  lateiniacKen  U^beraetaungen 
9or  Hieronymua  und  die  Itala  dea  AugiMtinua,  Munich, 
1879;  G.  Koffmane,  Geaehichte  dea  Kirchenlateirta  bia  auf 
Auffuatinua-Hieronymua,  Breslau,  1879-81;  P.  Corssen, 
Dia  vermeiniUdie  "  Itala  "  und  die  Bibelliberaeizuno  dea 
Hieronymua,  in  JPT,  1881,  pp.  507-519;  F.  Zimmer,  in 
TSK,  1889;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  The  Old  Latin  and  the  Itala,  in 
TiS.  iv.  3.  Cambridge,  1896;  E.  Ehrlich,  Beitriko*  tur 
Latinitdi  der  Itala,  Rochlits,  1895;  idem.  Qua  »U  Itala 
9u«  dieitur  verborum  tenaeitaa,  Leipsic,  1889;  P.  Mon- 
eeaux.  Lea  Africaina.  Stude  aur  la  litt^ature  Latine 
d'Afriqua  and  La  Bible  Latine  en  Afrigue,  in  RE  J,  1901; 
DB,  iii.  47-64;  EB,  iv,  5022-24. 

On  the  Vulgate  consult:  B.  Berger,  Hiatoire  de  la  Vvl- 
gaia,  Paris,  1893  (this  work  was  crowzied  by  the  Academy, 
pp.  xx-xxiv  contain  a  full  list  of  earlier  literature);  G. 
Riegler.  KriHaehe  Geaehichte  der  Vulgata,  Sulzbach.  1820; 
L.  Van  Ess,  PraipnaHadte  Geaehichte  der  VtUgcUa,  Tubing- 
en. 1824;  A.  Schmitter,  Kurze  Geaehichte  der  hierony- 
wuamaehen  Bibeliiberaeigung,  Freysing,  1842;  F.  Kaulen. 
GeaikiehU  der  Vulgala,  Mains,  1868;  O.  Rothmanner,  in 
HiatoriachrpoHHadu  BlOUer,  cxiv.  31-38.  101-108;  DB, 
iy.  873-890. 

On  tiie  grammar  and  the  language  consult:  W.  Nowack, 
Die  Bedeuiung  dea  Hieronymua  fOr  die  altteatamenUiehe 
TextkriHk,  GOttingen,  1875;  J.  A.  Hagen,  Sprachliche 
Erarterungen  eur  Vulgata,  Freiburg,  1863;  J.  B.  Heiss, 
Zur  GrammatUc  der  Vulgata,  Munich,  1864;  V.  Loch. 
Malerialien  su  einer  lateiniadien  GrammatUc  der  VulgeUa, 
Bsmbecg.  1870;  P.  Hake,  Sprachliche  Bemerkungen  tu 
dm  Paalmentexte  der  Vulgata,  Amsberg.  1872;  H.  G^lser, 
huda  .  .  .  de  la  laHniU  de  SL  JirBme,  Paris,  1884;  P. 
Thiehnann,  in  Philologua,  xlii,  319,  370;  G.  A.  Saalfeld. 
De  biMiorum  aaerorum  Vulgata  editionia  gracitate,  Qued- 
linburg,  1891;  W.  M.  C.  Wilroy,  7*^  Participle  in  the 
Vvlgata  N.  T„  Baltimore,  1892;  L.  B.  Andergassen,  Ua>er 
dan  Gtbraueh  dea  InfiniUva  in  der  Vulgata,  1891;  P.  Thiel- 
mson,  BeitrOga  tur  Textkritik  der  Vulgata,  Speier.  1883; 
S.  Berger.  in  Revue  de  thiclogie  et  de  philoaophie,  xvi  (1883), 
41  iqq.;  idem,  in  Mhnoirea  de  la  aociStS  dea  antiquairea 
de  France,  Iii.  144;  P.  Martin,  in  Le  Mua^n,  vii  (1888). 
88-107, 169-196.  viii  (1889).  444;  H.  P.  Smith,  in  Preabyte- 
rian  and  Refonned  Review,  April,  1891;  £  .von  DobschCkts, 
Studien  tur  Textkritik  der  Vulgala,  Leipsic,  1894  (cf.  on 
it  H.  J.  White,  in  Critical  Review,  1896,  pp.  243-246); 
J.  Eeker,  Porta  Siona,  Lexikon  turn  lateiniachen  Paalter, 
▼iii.  234, 1,936  columns.  Trier.  1904;  F.  Kaulen.  Sprach- 
Udiea  Handbueh  xur  biUiaehen  Vulgata,  Freibuxg,  1904 
(cf.  on  it  JOlicher,  in  TLZ,  1905,  no.  6). 

On  the  printed  text  consult:  W.  A.  0>pinger,  Incuna- 
bula biUiea,  ete.,  London,  1892;  cf.  L.  Delisle,  in  Jour- 
nal dea  aavana,  1893,  pp.  202-218,  where  0>pinger's  124 
sditioDs  prior  to  1500  are  reduced  to  ninety-nine. 
and  W.  MflUer.  in  Dsiatsko's  Bibliothekawiaaenachaftliche 
Arbeiten,  no.  6,  1894.  pp.  84-95);  L.  Hain,  Repertorium 
bihliographicum,  4  vols..  Paris,  1826-38,  Index  volume. 
Leipsie,  1891,  Supplement  by  W.  A.  0>pinger,  3  vols., 


London.  1895-1902.  Appendieaa  by  D.  Reichling.  fascic- 
ulus 1,  Munich,  1905  (gives  ninety-seven  editions  prior 
to  1500).  On  the  first  printed  Bible  consult  K.  Dsiatzko, 
Gutehberga  frUheate  Drucherpraxia  auf  Orund  einer  Ver- 
gleichung  der  4^aeiligen  und  SSteUigen  Bibel,  Leipsic.  1891 ; 
L.  Delisle.  in  Journal  dea  aavana,  1894,  pp.  401-413;  Brit- 
iah  Muaeum  CcOalogue,  entry  Bible. 

UL  Syriac  VerBions. — 1.  The  Peshlto:  Acoording 
to  some  Syrians  certain  of  the  Biblical  books 
(enumerated  by  Ishodad,  bishop  of  Haditha,  c.  862) 
were  translated  into  Byriac  under  Solomon  at  the 
request  of  Hiram,  king  of  Tjrre.  Another  tradition 
refers  this  work  to  a  priest  Asa  or  Ezra,  who  was 
sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  to  Samaria,  and  the 
rest  of  the  Old  Testament  with  the  New  to  the 
days  of  King  Abgar  V  of  Edessa  and 
Mid  ^^®  apostle  Addai  (i.e.,  Thaddsus;  see 
Name.  Abgar.  Cf.  II  Kings  xvii,  24,  I 
Chron.  xv,  18,  in  the  editions  of  Lee 
and  Ceriani;  J.  P.  N.  Land,  Anecdota  Syriaca,  iii, 
Leyden,  1870,  11;  Bar  Hebrseus  on  Ps.  x;  J  A, 
1872,  458).  Bar  Hebrseus  makes  the  strange 
statement  that,  according  to  Eusebius  (cf.  HiaL 
ecd.y  VI,  xvi,  4,  and  VI,  xvii),  Origen  found  the 
Syriac  version  in  the  keeping  of  a  widow  at  Jeri- 
cho; and  equally  curious  is  the  tradition  which  re- 
fers the  translation  of  the  New  Testament  to 
Mark.  Some  manuscripts  of  the  Psalms  state  that 
they  were  translated  from  Palestinian  into  Hebrew, 
from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  from  Greek  into  Syriac. 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (commentary  on  Zeph. 
i,  6)  rightly  says:  ''  These  books  were  translated 
into  Syriac  by  some  one,  but  who  he  was  no  one 
knows  to  this  day."  Some  scholars  have  thought 
to  discover,  at  least  for  the  New  Testament,  the 
influence  of  th0  Latin  Vulgate;  more  probable  is 
the  supposition  that  at  least  some  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  pre-Ohristian  or  certainly  Jew- 
ish; and  the  home  of  the  translation  is  not  Jeru- 
salem and  Palestine  (/A,  1872, 458)  or  Antioch,  but 
Edessa  and  its  neighborhood. 

The  name  which  is  conmionly  given  to  the  old- 
est and  most  important  Syriac  version,  "  Peshito  " 
C'  Peshitto  "),  is  first  foimd  with  Moses  bar  Kepha 
(d.  913)  ^nd  in  Masoretic  manuscripts  of  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  (cf.  N.  P.  S.  Wiseman,  Hotcb 
Syriaca,  Rome,  1828,  p.  223;  J.  P.  P.  Martin, 
IniroducHon  d  la  crUique  textueUe  du  Nouveau 
Testament,  Paris,  1883,  p.  101;  ZDMG,  xxxii,  589). 
It  means  "  the  simple "  in  contradistinction  to 
the  more  elaborate  versions,  such  as  that  made 
from  the  Greek  by  Paul  of  Telia  (see  below,  2;  on 
the  name,  cf.  K.  W.  M.  Montijn  and  J.  P.  N. 
Land,  in  Godgeleerde  Bijdragen,  1882;  F.  Field, 
Origenia  Hexapla,  i,  Oxford,  1875,  p.  ix;  ZDMG, 
xlvii,  157,  316;  A.  Mez,  Die  Bibel  des  Joaephua, 
Basel,  1895,  4;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Early  Eaaiem  Chria- 
tianity,  London,  1904,  chap.  ii). 

The  Syriac  Old  Testament  is  practically    the 

same  as  that  of  the  Palestinian  Jews.    Chronicles, 

however,  was  missing  in  the  Nestorian  canon  and, 

as  it  seems,  also  in  that  of  the  Jacobites;  at  least 

it  is  not  treated  in  their  Masoretic 

T  ^L     t  °^*^^*8C"P*^»  b"*  ^^  ^  found  in  very 

es       en  .  ^j^  manuscripts.    Ezra-Nehemiah  too 

are  not  treated  in  the  Masoretic  manuscripts  nor 

Esther  by  the  Nestorians,  while  in  Jacobite  manu- 


Bi^e  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


128 


Bcripta  this  book  together  with  Judith,  Ruth,  Su- 
sanna, and  Thecla  forms  the  '*  Book  of  Women  " 
(cf.  A.  Baumstark,  in  Oriena  ChrisUanua,  iii,  Leip- 
sic,  1901,  353).  After  the  Law  there  follows  as 
the  second  part  the  "  Book  of  Sessions,"  i.e..  Job, 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Proverbs,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  Ecclesiastes,  Ruth,  Song  of  Solomon. 
Among  the  prophets,  Isaiah  (sometimes  divided  at 
XXV,  2)  is  followed  by  the  minor  prophets,  then 
Jeremiah  (with  a  division  at  xxxii,  6)  with  Baruch 
i-ii  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  then  Ezekiel  and 
Daniel. 

Manuscripts  with  the  Apocrypha  are  called 
"catholic"  or  ''pandects";  they  do  not  contain 
I  Esdras,  Tobit,  or  the  Prayer  of  Manasses,  but 
have  an  Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  IV  Esdraa,  and 
even  the  story  of  Shamuna  and  Josephus,  War, 
V,  as  IV  and  V  Maccabees.  Tobit,  as  far  as  chap, 
vii,  II,  is  preserved  only  in  the  translation  of  Paul 
of  Telia,  but  from  that  point  on  there  is  a  still 
later  text.  Accurate  manuscripts  give  stichomet- 
rical  lists  (cf.  Martin,  Introduction,  677;  J.  R.  Haiv 
ris.  On  the  Origin  of  the  Ferrar  Group,  London, 
1893,  10,  26;  DB,  iv,  650). 

The  character  of  the  translation  is  different  in 
various  books;  it  is  very  literal  in  the  Law,  influ- 
enced by  the  Septuagint  in  Isaiah  and  the  minor 
prophets,  probably  also  in  the  Psalms.  Ruth  is 
paraphrastic.  Chronicles  resembles  a  Jewish  tar- 
gum,  while  the  Syriac  Proverbs  has  been  used 
in  the  Targum.  Ecclesiasticus  is  taken  from  the 
Hebrew. 

Up  to  1858  only  one  old  version  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Syriac  was  known  in  Europe;  viz., 
that  published  for  the  first  time  by  J.  A.  Wid- 
manstadt  (Vienna,  1555).  Textual  critics  con- 
sidered it  "the  queen  of  the  Bible  translations." 
In  1858  W.  Cureton  published  in 
-'  ^^J^  London,  from  manuscripts  which  had 
come  into  the  British  Museum  in 
1842,  Remains  of  a  very  Ardient  Recension  of 
the  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac  hitherto  Unknoum  in 
Europe.  The  great  value  of  this  recension  was 
soon  recognized,  and  was  greatly  enhanced 
when,  in  1892,  a  second  manuscript  of  it  was 
discovered  in  a  palimpsest  on  Mount  Sinai  by  Mrs. 
A.  S.  Lewis  and  her  sister,  Mrs.  M.  D.  Gibson, 
which  was  published  under  the  title,  TJie  Four 
Gospels  in  Syriac  Transcribed  from  the  Sinaitic 
Palimpsest  by  the  Late  R.  L.  Bensly  .  .  ,  J,  R. 
Harris  ,  ,  .and  F,  C.  Burkitt.  With  an  Intro- 
duction by  Agnes  Smith  Lewis  (Cambridge,  1894). 
Mrs.  Lewis  published  Some  Pages  of  the  Four 
Gospels  Retranscribed  from  the  Syriac  Palimpsest 
wiOt,  a  Translation  of  the  Whole  Text  (London,  1894). 
F.  C.  Burkitt  published  Evangelum  donMephar- 
reshe:  The  Curetonian  Version  of  the  Four 
Gospels,  with  the  Readings  of  the  Sinai  Palimpsest 
and  the  Early  Syriac  Patristic  Evidence  Edited, 
Collected,  and  Arranged  (vol.  i,  text  and  transla- 
tion, vol.  ii,  introduction  and  notes,  Cambridge, 
1904).  Burkitt's  title  is  taken  from  the  head- 
ing or  subscription  of  the  two  manuscripts  and 
means  "the  Gospel  of  the  Separated"  (i.e., 
"the  Separated  Gospels"),  used  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian,  which  was  called 


among  the  Syrians  "  the  Gospel  of  the  Com- 
bined" ("the  Combined  Gospels").  Herein  is  in- 
dicated the  first  problem  in  the  history  of  the 
Syriac  New  Testament.  It  is  well  known  that 
a  harmony  of  the  Gospels  was  used  in  the  Syriac 
Church  till  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  oentuiy, 
when  Theodoret  removed  the  copies  in  his  dio- 
cese, and  Rabbulas  of  Edessa  ordered  that  the 
"  Gospd  of  the  Separated "  should  be  read  in 
church.  The  great  question  concerns  the  relsr 
tionship  of  the  Peshito,  the  Mepharresbe,  and 
Tatian.  It  seems  certain  that  the  three  are  in- 
terrelated. It  seems  further  to  have  been 
proved  by  Burkitt  that  the  Peshito  is  the 
latest,  and  is  in  all  probability  the  revision 
which  Rabbulas  of  Edessa  (d.  435)  is  said  to 
have  undertaken.  The  decision  of  the  other 
question,  whether  the  Mepharresbe  or  Tatian  is 
the  earlier,  is  made  difficult  by  the  fact  th&t 
Tatian's  work  is  not  preserved  in  its  original  fona, 
and  further  by  the  fact  that  the  two  representatives 
of  the  Mepharresbe,  the  manuscripts  of  Cureton  and 
Lewis,  differ  greatly.  But  on  the  whole  it  seems 
most  probable  that  Tatian  was  the  first  to  bring 
the  Gospel  to  the  Syrians  in  the  form  of  his  Dia- 
tessaron, and  that  then  on  the  basis  of  his  harmony 
the  version  of  the  separate  Gospels  originated. 
Burkitt  is  inclined  to  believe  that  this  was  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  second  century,  perhaps  under 
the  influence  of  the  Chiu'ch  of  Antioch,  through 
Paul  of  Edessa.  The  opposite  view,  that  the  Meph- 
arresbe is  earlier  than  Tatian,  is  taken  by  Hjelt, 
who  believed  he  was  able  to  show  that  the  Go^)eb 
in  the  Mepharresbe  were  translated  by  different 
hands,  and  that  the  first  Gospel  especially  betrays 
a  Jewish  character.  Without  the  discovery  of  new 
evidence  the  question  will  be  very  difficult  to 
decide. 

No  manuscript  of  an  early  Syriac  version  of  the 
Acts  and  the  Pauline  Episties  is  known.  But 
that  there  was  an  older  version  can  be  proved 
from  the  quotations  of  such  early  writers  as  Aphra- 
ates  and  Ephraem,  and  perhaps  also  from 
readings  in  the  Armenian  version.  In  eariy  times 
the  apocryphal  correspondence  with  the  Corin- 
thians was  placed  with  the  Episties  of  Paul. 
The  Catholic  Episties  were  at  first  totally  un- 
known, as  is  expressly  stated  by  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia  and  Theodore  bar  Koni  (cf .  A.  Baum- 
stark, in  Oriens  Christianus,  i,  176,  iii,  555).  In 
the  Peshito  as  we  have  it  the  three  greater  of  them 
are  found,  in  accordance  with  the  use  of  the  Church 
of  Antioch.  Still  later  the  four  others  were 
added.  It  is  strange  that  the  Nestorian  inscrip- 
tion of  Singan-fu  (see  Nestorianb)  speaks  of 
twenty-seven  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Revelation  never  formed  part  of  the  canon 
among  the  Syrians  (cf.  on  the  Syriac  canon, 
T.  Zahn,  Grundrisa  der  Geschichte  des  neutesUh 
menUichen  Kanons,  Leipsic,  1904,  §  6;  J.  A.  Bewer, 
The  History  of  the  New  Testament  Canon  in  the 
Syrian  Church,  Chicago,  19C0;  W.  Bauer,  Der 
Apostolos  der  Syrer,  Giessen,  1903),  and  whether 
the  Pauline  collection  included  PhUemon  can  not 
be  decided. 
2.  Later  Veraioiui:    The    Nestorian    patriarch 


129 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


Mar  Abba  (d.  552)  is  said  by  Bar  Hebrseus,  Ebed 
Jesu,  and  Amru  to  have  translated  and  explained 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  from  the  Greek;  but 
nothing  more  is  known  about  it. 

In  508  Philoxenus  of  Mabug  with  the  help  of  his 
coadjutor  Polycarp  translated  at  least  some  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  imdertook  a  new  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament.  Parts  of  Isaiah  pre- 
sented in  a  manuscript  of  the  British  Museum  may 
belong  to  this  version  (ed.  A.  Ceriani,  MonumerUa 
sacra  et  profana,  v,  5,  Milan,  1873,  1-40).  Accord- 
ing to  Bernstein,  the  Gospels  are  contained  in 
manuscript  A2  of  the  Angelican  library  at  Rome. 
Isaac  H.  Hall  published  a  Syriac  Manuscript 
Gospels  from  a  pre-Harklensian  Version^  Acts  and 
EpisUts  of  the  Peshitto  Version,  Written  (probably) 
between  700  and  900  A.D.  Presented  to  the  Syrian 
Protestant  College  [Beirut]  (Philadelphia,  1884). 
The  minor  epistles,  first  published  by  E.  Pococke 
in  1630  and  since  often  found  in  editions  of  the 
Syriac  New  Testament,  are  very  likely  part  of  this 
version,  and  so  is  the  version  of  Revelation  dis- 
covered by  J.  Gwynn  and  published  by  him  (Dub- 
lin, 1897). 

About  one  himdred  years  later  the  work  of  trans- 
lation was  resumed,  for  the  Old  Testament,  by 
Paul  of  Telia  (the  so-called  Syro-Hexaplar  version; 
dee  above,  I,  1,  §  6),  and,  for  the  New  Testament, 
by  Thomas  of  Heraclea  (Harkel  in  Mesopotamia). 
This  version  was  published  by  J.  White  under  the 
inappropriate  title,  Versio  PhUoxeniana  (Oxford, 
1778-1803).  A  lacuna  m  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews was  filled  in  by  R.  L.  Bensly  (Harklean  Fer- 
sion  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrevos  xi,  £8-xiii,  ;95, 
London,  1889).  W.  Deane  began  a  new  edition 
but  was  prevented  from  finishing  it.  Its  comple- 
tion, especially  for  the  Acts,  is  much  to  be  desired. 
For  his  maiginal  notes,  Thomas  made  use  of  a 
manuscript  closely  related  to  the  Greek  codex  D 
(cf.  A.  Pott,  Der  abendlSndische  Text  der  Apostelge- 
sehidue,  Leipsic,  1900,  and  Hilgenfeld,  in  ZWT, 
xliii,  1900,  p.  3).  The  Syriac  text  of  Revelation 
published  by  De  Dieu  (L^den,  1627)  and  now  in 
the  common  Syriac  New  Testaments  belongs  to 
this  version  (cf.  J.  Gwynn,  in  HemuUhena,  1898, 
227-245). 

On  the  revision  of  the  Old  Testament  undertaken 
by  Jacob  of  Eldessa  in  704-705,  cf.  Kamphausen, 
in  TSK,  1869,  753,  and  A.  Ceriani,  Monumenta 
tocra  et  profana,  v,  1  (Milan,  1871). 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  Palestinian 
version  (used  by  the  Melchite  Church  in  Palestine 
and  Egypt).  Of  the  Old  Testament,  only  frag- 
nients  remain.  The  New  Testament  has  been 
known  from  an  evangeliarium  at  Rome  since  1789 
(published  by  F.  Miniscalchi-Erizzo,  Verona,  1861- 
1864 ,  and  by  Lagarde,  Bibliotheea  Syriaca,  GOttingen, 
IS92).  Since  that  time  many  new  texts  have  been 
brought  to  light,  especially  through  Mrs.  Lewis. 
A  full  list  is  given  in  the  Lexicon  syropaUestinum 
of  F.  Schulthess  (Berlm,  1903),  pp.  vii-xvL  F.  C. 
Burkitt  (JTS,  ii,  183)  gives  reasons  for  believing 
that  this  literature  may  have  a  connection  with 
the  attempts  of  Justinian  in  the  fifth  centuiy  to 
extirpate  the  Samaritans,  and  of  Heraclius  early 
in  the  sixth  century  to  harass  the  Jews.    This 

n.— 9 


peculiar  dialect   is  important  lexically,  as  being 
closely  akin  to  the  language  spoken  in  Galilee. 

E.  Nestle. 

Biblioorapht:  The  first  parts  of  the  Bible  printed  in  Syriao 
are  in  Ambrosiua  Theseus,  IniroducHo  in  Ctuildaieam  lin- 
ffuam,  Syriaeam  atque  Armenieam,  Pavia,  1539  (cf.  ZDMQ, 
Iviii,  1904,  601).     The  Old  Testament  appeared  first  in 
the  Paris  Polyglot,  vols,  vi-ix.   1632-45.   then  in    the 
London  Polyglot,  vols,  i-iv,   1654-57,  reprinted  by    S. 
Lee  for  the  BFB8,  London,  1823  (other  copies,  1824;  on 
their  differences — one  set  contains  Ps.  cli,  the  other  not 
—cf.  ZDMQ,  lix.  1905.  31),  and  at  Urumiah  (with  mod- 
em Syriac  added),  1852.     The  text  is  very  bad,  resting 
on  a  single  late  manuscript  at  Paris  adapted  by  Gabriel 
Sionita.  editor  of  the  Paris  Polyglot,   from  which  the 
London  Polsrglot  and  Lee  took  it  with  scarcely  any  cor- 
rection, the  Urumiah  edition,  at  least  in  some  parts,  with 
but  few  corrections  (cf.  W.  E.  Barnes.  An  AjfpanUu9  eriHeu9 
to  Chronidea  in  the   Pethitta    Version,  Cambridge,  1897; 
G.   Diettrich,   Bin  Apparatus  eriticoM  xur   PMio  Mum 
Propheten  Jesaia,  Giessen,  1905).     Bernstein  and  Rahlfs 
have  published  emendations,  the  former  in  ZDMO,  uL 
1849.  387-396,  the  latter  in  ZATW,  ix.  1889.  161-210. 
A.  M.  Oriani  published  a  photographic  reproduction  of 
the  Codex  Ambroeianua,  Milan,  L876-«3.     The  Apocry- 
pha was  published  by  Lagarde,  Leipsic,  1861.    The  first 
critical  edition  of  the  Gospels  was  by  P.  E.  Pusey  and 
O.  H.  GwilUam.  Oxford,  1901;  for  the  rest  of  the  New 
Testament  there  are  the  editions  of  the  American  mis- 
sion at  Urumiah,  1846,  New  York,  1846.  etc.     The  edi- 
tion most  used  in  textual  criticism  hitherto  has  been 
that  of  J.  Leusden  and  C.  Schaaf,  Leyden,  1709  and 
1717,  reprinted  by  Jones,  Oxford,  1806  (cf.  Tischendorf 
on  liatt.  X,  8,  with  the  note  of  Pusey-Owilliam).    The 
entire  Bible  was  printed  by  the  Dominicans  at  Mosul, 
1887-91.    A  list  of  editions  to  1888  is  contained  in  Nee^ 
tie,   LittenUura  Syriaca   (reprinted  from  Syriache  Oram- 
ma*%k,  Berlin,  1888),  17-30.    Consult  further:  Beck,  Edi- 
fumes  prineipee  Novi   TeaiamenH  Syriaci,   Basel,    1771; 
J.  Le  Long,  BiUiotheoa   sacra,    emendaia  .  .  ,  ab  A.  O. 
Maech,  i,  part  4,  pp.  54-102,  6  vols.,  Halle,  1778-90; 
A.  M.  Ceriani,  Le  Ediaioni  e  i  manoaeritti  del  veraione  Siri- 
ache  da  veecMo  Teatamento,  Milan,  1869;  Printed  ediiuma 
of  the  Syriac  New  Teatament,  in  Church  Quarterly  Review, 
July,    1888,    255-297;  Syriae   New    Teatament   iranalated 
into  Eng,  by  J.  Murdoch,  with  a  bikiioaraphical  Appendix, 
by  I.  H.  Hall,  6th  ed.,  Boston,  1893;  G.  H.  Gwilliam,  The 
Ammonian  Sectiona,  Euadrian  Canona  and  Harmoniaing 
Tablea  in  the  Syriac  T^ra^uanoelium,  in  Studia  Biblica  et 
Ecdeaiaatiea,  ii,   Oxford,   1890;    idem,  Materiala  for  the 
CriHciam  of  the  Peahitto,  ib.  iii,  1891;  Scrivener,  Introduc- 
tion, ii,  6-40;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  EvanotHion  da-Mepharreahe, 
Introduction,  vol.  i,  London,  1905.     On  the  Old  Testament 
in  the  Peshito    consult:   J.  Prager,  De  veteria  teatamenti 
veraione  Syriaca  quam   Peachittho,    G5ttingen,    1875;  J. 
Perles,  Meletemata  PeaAUhoniana,  Breslau,  1860;  J.  m! 
BchOnfelder,  Onkeloa  und  Peachittho,  Munich,  1869.    On 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament:  L.  Hiriel,  De  Peniateudii 
veraione  Syriaca,  Leipsic,  1815;   S.  D.   Lusiatto,  Philo- 
xeniu    aive   de  Onkeloai  Chaldaica  Pentateuchi  veraione, 
Vienna,  1830;   F.  Tuch,  De  Lipaienai  codice  Pentateuchi 
Syriaco,  Leipsic,  1849;  E.  Schwarts,  Die  ayriache  Ueher- 
aetaung   dee  1,  Samudia,  Berlin,  1897;   J.  Berliner,  Die 
PeathiUa  auml.Buch  der  Kdnige,  Berlin,  1897;  8.  Frftnkel, 
in  JPT,  1879,  pp.  506,  720  (on  Chronicles);  A.  Oliver,  A 
Trand.  of  the  Syriac  Peachito  Veraion  of  the  Paalma,  Bos- 
ton, 1861;  F.  B&thgen,-l7n<er«uGfcttn0en  Ober  die  Paalmen 
naeh  der  Peachito,  Kiel,  1878;  idem,  in  JPT,  viii  (1882), 
405,  693;  F.  Dietrich.  CommentaHo  de  paalterio  .  .  .   tn 
ecdsaia    Syriaca,    Marburg,    1862;  B.    Oppenheim,    Die 
ayriadte    Ud)eraetsung  .  .  .  der  Paalmen,   Leipsic,    1891; 
J.  F.  Berg,  Influence  of  the  Septuagini  upon  the  Peahitta 
Paalter,   New  York,   1895;  Techen,   Oloaaar,  in  ZATW, 
xvii  (1897),  129.  280  (on  Psalms);  Baumann  (on  Job),  in 
ZATW,  xviii-xx  (1898-1900);  J.  A.   Dathe,  De  ratione 
eonaenaua  .  .  .  Syriaca  Proverbiorum,  Leipsic,    1764;  A. 
S.  Kamenetsky  (on  Ecclesiastes),  in  ZATW,  xxiv  (1904); 
G.  Dietrich.  Die  Maaaorah  der  OaUichen  und  weatlidien 
Syrer,  London,  1899;  idem,  Textkriiiadier  Apparat,  1905 
(Isaiah);   C.  H.  Ck>mill.  Daa  Buch  dea  Propheten  Eaechid, 
pp.  137-156,  Leipsic  1886);  C.  A.  Oedner,  De  prophetorum 
minorum  veraionia  Syriaca  .  .  .  indole,  Gdttingen,  1827; 


Bible  Versiong 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


130 


M.  Sebok  (SohOnberser),  Die  wyrtMchs  Utbereetsung  der 
swOlf  PropheUfn,  Breslau,  1887;  V.  Rynel,  Uniertudiuno- 
tn  Hber  die  TextgeakUt  .  ,  .  dee  BtuJiee  Micha,  Leipno 
1887;  J.  J.  Kneuoker,  Dae  Buck  Barueh,  pp.  190-198, 
Leipsio,  1869;  T.  NOldeke,  Die  Texte  dee  Buchee  Toint,  in 
Monateberichie  der  BerUtter  Akademie,  1879.  pp.  45-^. 

On  the  New  Testoment:  The  Peekito  Vereione  of  the 
Goepeie,  ed.  G.  W.  Gwilliam,  London.  1901.  On  the  Cuz«- 
tonian:  C.  Hennanaen,  De  eodioe  eoanoeUonun  Syriaeo, 
Copenhagen.  1869;  Le  Bit,  itude  eur  une  aneienne  ver- 
eion  eyriaque  dee  evangilee,  PaiiB,  1859;  Q.  Wildeboer,  De 
VKtarde  der  ej/riedte  evang^ien,  door  Cureton  ontdekt^  Ley- 
den.  1880;  Fr.  B&thcen.  Bvangdienfraomenie,  Leipdo. 
1885;  H.  Hannan.  Cureion  FragmefUe,  in  JBL,  1885. 
June-Dec.,  pp.  28-48. 

On  the  Mephaireehe,  J.  R.  Crowfoot,  Pragmenia  Evan- 
oeUca^  London,  1870;  idem,  CoUaHon  in  Oreek  of  Cure- 
ton*e  Svriae  Fragmente,  ib.  1872.  On  the  Sinai  Palimp- 
seot:  M.  D.  Gibson,  How  ffte  Codex  vxu  found,  Gambridge, 
1893;  Mrs.  R.  L.  Bendy,  Our  Journey  to  Sinai  .  .  .  vnih 
a  Chapter  on  ffte  Sinai  PoHmpeeet,  London,  1896;  K. 
HoUhey,  Der  neuenideckte  Codex  Syrue  SinaiHeue,  Munidi, 
1896;  A.  Bonua.  CoHatio  eodide  Lewieiani  .  .  .  cum  eo- 
dioe Curetoniano,  Oxford,  1896.  For  further  aooounts  of 
the  Lewis  oodex  consult  the  files  of  the  Atkencnm,  Acad- 
emy, Contemporary  Review,  Expoeitory  Timee,  Ouardian, 
Church  Quarterly  Bevpew,  TLZ,  and  similar  journals  for 
the  years  1803-96. 

On  the  Peshito  in  textual  criticism  consult:  The  Ox- 
ford Debate  on  The  Textual  CriUeiem  of  the  New  Teetament, 
London,  1897;  T.  W.  Etheridge,  Hora  Aramaiae.  With 
a  TraneL  of  .  ,  .  SL  Matthew  and  .  .  .  Hebrewe  from 
Uie  .  .  .  Peahito,  London,  1843;  idem.  The  Apoetolical 
Aete;  TraneL  from  (he  Peehito  and  a  UUer  Text,  London, 
1849;  W.  Norton,  A  Tranel.  .  .  ,  of  the  Seventeen  Lettere 
,,,oftke  Peehito  Syriae,  London.  1890;  J.  Gwsmn,  Older 
Syriae  Vereion  of  the  four  Minor  Catholic  Bpietlee,  in  Her- 
mathena,  1890.  On  Tatian:  A.  Hjelt,  in  T.  Zahn,  For- 
eAungen,  vii,  1  (1903);  Mrs.  Lewis,  in  Expoeiior,  Aug., 
1897.  June,  1890. 

IV.  ThA  Samaritan  Pentateuch:  This  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch in  Samaritan  characters  or  with  the 
Arabic  version  used  by  the  Samaritans.  All  three 
are  contained  in  the  famous  triglot  manuscript 
in  the  Barberini  Library  at  Rome  of  the  year 
1227  (for  facsimile  cf.  O.  M.  Bianchini's  Evan- 
geliarium  quadrwplex,  Rome,  1749,  or,  on  a  reduced 
scale,  F.  O.  Kenyon,  Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient 
Manuscripts,  London,  1896,  pi.  v).  The  question 
of  the  age  of  this  targum  depends  on  the  de- 
cision of  the  question  whence  the  readings  are 
taken  which  are  found  under  the  rubric  to  Sama- 
raUikon  in  some  fifty  marginal  notes  of  Origen's 
Hexi^la  (to  the  passages  collected  by  Field  add 
Lev.  XV,  8;  Deut.  viii,  22,  xxxiv,  1-3,  from  the 
margins  of  Lagarde's  Btblioiheca  Syriaca).  The 
most  probable  view  seems  to  be  that  not  Origen  but 
Eusebius  took  these  notes  from  the  Hebrew  Penta- 
teuch as  used  among  the  Samaritans.  On  a 
Samaritan  inscription  found  at  Amwas  (Emmaus) 
cf.  Revue  Biblique,  1896,  p.  433.         E.  Nestlb. 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  essentially  the 
same  as  the  Hebrew.  The  variations,  aside  from 
those  of  a  linguistic  character,  are  the  following: 
the  narrative  of  action  or  declaration  by  Moses 
is  often  preceded  by  the  statement  that  he  acted 
or  spoke  by  divine  direction;  Gen.  ii,  2a,  "  seventh  " 
is  changed  to  "  sixth ";  anthropomorphisms  are 
removed,  and  in  den.  xx,  13,  xxxi,  53,  xxxv,  7,  Ex. 
xxii,  8,  the  plural  predicate  after  Elohim  is 
changed  to  the  singular  to  avoid  a  polytheistic 
implication;  "  Ebal "  (Deut.  xxvii,  4)  was  dis- 
placed by  Gerizim    for    national    reasons.     The 


Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  proved  by  these  chsngn 
to  be  a  revision  of  the  Jewish,  but  a  revision  made  in 
early  times  (possibly  pre-Christian),  thougjb  the 
modem  tendency  is  to  ascribe  the  text  now 
extant  to  the  second  Christian  century. 

Bxbuoorapht:  The  text  was  first  printed  in  the  Paris  Poty- 
Slot,  1648,  then  in  Walton's  Polyslot,  1657.  Other  edi- 
tions of  the  whole  or  of  parts  are:  A.  BrOll.  l>at  sonov 
tanieche  Targum  tum  Pentateudi,  Frankfort,  1873-75,  vith 
two  appendices  which  appeared  187&-76;  H.  Petermaim 
and  C.  VoUers,  Pentateuehue  Samaritanue  .  .  .,  i.  Gcnem. 
BerUn,  1872,  ii,  Bxodue,  1882.  iii.  Lsvificuc.  1883,  vt, 
Humeri,  1885,  y,  Deuteronomium,  1881;  J.  W.  Nutt,  Ftoq- 
mente  of  a  Samaritan  Targum,  London,  1874;  F.  Field, 
Origenie  Hexaplarum,  \,  p.  Ixzzii-lxzxiy,  Oxford.  1875: 
8.  Kohn,  in  Monateeehrift  fOr  Qeechickte  vmd  Wiuf^ 
eehaft  dee  Judentume,  1804,  pp.  1-7.  40-67. 

On  various  phases  of  the  relation  to  text-criticism  ood- 
ault:  J.  Morinus,  Exerdtationee  in  uinimg%u  Samania- 
norum  Pentateuehum  Paris,  1631;  idem,  in  the  Prefsee  of 
his  edition  of  the  Septuaeint,  1628;  W.  Gesenitu,  Dt 
Pentateuehi  Samaritana  indole,  .  .  .  Halle.  1815;  &  B. 
Winer,  De  vereionie  Pentaieuchi  Samaritana  indo^  Leip- 
sie,  1817;  8.  Kohn,  De  Pentateudto  Samariiano  .  .  .  .  ih. 
1866;  idem,  Samaritanieehe  Studien,  Breelau,  1868;  idea. 
Zur  Spraehe,  lAteratur  und  Dogmatik  der  Samariime. 
Leipsio.  1876;  idem,  in  ZDMO,  xxxix  (1885).  16&-228; 
A.  Cowley,  in  JQR,  viii  (1806).  562  sqq..  and  in  J£, 
X,  667;  idiem,  A  Suppoeed  Early  Copy  of  tke  SamarHen 
Pentateuch,  in  PEF,  Quarterly  Statement,  Oct..  1904;  P. 
Kahle,  Textkritiedte  und  lexikalieehe  Bemarkungen  tern 
eamaritanieehen  Peniateuehiargum,  Leipeio.  1886;  J.  Skin- 
ner, Notee  on  a  newly  acquired  Samaritan  MS,  in  JQR, 
xiy  (1801),  26-36;  W.  E.  Barton,  The  Samaritan  Pento- 
teudi,  in  Biblioiheca  eacra,  Ix  (1803);  R.  Gottheil,  in  JBL, 
xxy,  part  1,  1806;  J.  A.  Montgomery,  The  SaxuriioM, 
Philadelphia,  1807. 

y.  Aramaic  Veraions  (The  Targoms) :  These  are 

Aramaic  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testament  {Uar- 

gum  a  "  interpretation,  transition/'  from  targem, 

"  ^  explain,  translate  ";  cf.  Ezraiv,  7) 

1.  Or^ln   prepared   for  use  in    the  synagogue, 

T-fi^Ti^ay*.  *"^^  *^^^  *^®"^  ™®  ^^°^  ^^®  custom  of 
*  repeating  and  explaining  the  Hebrev 
sacred  text  in  the  Aramaic  tongue,  which  aft«r 
the  exile  became  the  vernacular  of  the  Jews  in 
Palestine  and  elsewhere.  At  first  the  targum  was  a 
free  oral  exposition;  then  it  gradually  acquired 
fixed  form,  and  at  last  was  r^uoed  to  writing. 
It  is  frequently  found  in  manuscripts  following 
the  Hebrew  text  verse  by  verse.  When  the 
Law  was  read,  the  pars^hrase  was  given  after 
every  verse;  with  the  Prophets  three  verses 
were  allowed  to  be  taken  together. 

The  language  of  the  Targums  used  to  be  called 
Chaldee,  because  Jerome  so  named  the  Aramaic 
portions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  are  written 
in  a  dialect  very  akin  to  that  of  the  Taiigums. 
In  reality,  these  have  preserved  the  Jewish  form  of 
the  Aramaic,  the  next  cognate  dialect  being 
Syriae,  the  form  of  the  Aramaic  used  by  the 
Christians  of  Edessa,  while  still  other  cognate 
dialects  are  those  of  the  Pahnyrene  inscriptions 
and  of  the  Samaritans  (see  Semitic  Languages). 
The  grammatical  and  lexicographical  use  of  the 
Targums  is  hampered  by  the  fact  that  no  edition 
has  as  yet  appeared  that  takes  account  of  all 
the  materials  now  available.  Merder  vocal- 
ized the  texts  after  the  Syriae,  Buxtorf  after 
the  Biblical  Aramaic;  the  edition  printed  by 
Foa   (Sabbionetta,    1557)    seems    to    rest   on  a 


131 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Varsioint 


auinuacript  in  which  the  supralinear  Bjrstem  of 
kocalization  had  been  changed  into  that  of  TiberiaB, 
but  with  many  faults  and  inconsistencies.  The 
aio6t  original  system  of  vocalisation  is  that  pre- 
Berved  in  manuscripts  from  Yemen,  on  which  cf . 
the  worics  of  Merx,  Beiiiner,  Landauer,  Kautssch, 
Maq^outh  {The  Superlinear  PtufuttuUionf  in  PSBA , 
xxiii,  164-205),  and  Bamstein  (The  Targum  of 
(hikeloe  to  Genesis,  London,  1896),  and  the  editions 
of  Pr&torius  (Joshua,  Berlin,  1899;  Judges,  1900). 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  there 
is  more  than  one  Targum.  One  on  the  Pentateuch 
]s  attributed  in  some  passages  of  the  Talmud  to 
^  -.  the  helpers  of  Esra.    According  to  the 

OiSi3Sir  Babylonian  Tahnud  (MegiUot  3a),  On- 
kelos  delivered   it    orally    in    Pales- 
tine; but  this  is  the  result  of  confusing  Onkelos 
with  Aquila,   who   translated  the  Old  Testament 
into  Greek  (see  above,  I,   2,  }    1),  and  "Judaic 
Fentateuch-Targum"    is    a    better    name     than 
"Targum  of  Onkelos,"  which   has   been  in    use 
since  Bomberg's  Rabbinic  Bible  of  1517.    In  the 
tliini  century  its  text   seems  to    have  been   con- 
sidered fixed,     and   manuscripts    are    mentioned 
several  times,  but  Origen  and  Jerome   apparently 
did  not  know    a    Targum,  and  h«ioe  we   may 
conclude  that  it  did  not  find  official  recognition 
before  the  fifth  oentuiy.     Its  language  is  differ- 
ent from    that    of    both    Talmuds,    and  seems 
to  render  the  original  into  the   language   of  the 
place  and  time  of  its  origin  (Palestine)  as   faith- 
fully as  a  translation  which  is   somewhat  para- 
phrastic can   do.     The   Hebrew   text   on    which 
it  rests   is   practically   our    Masoretic    text,  and 
it  is  of  interest  as   representing   the    exegetical 
tradition  of  the  Jews.    It  is  quite  literal,  gives  a 
messiamc  interpretation  of  Gen.  xlix,  10,  and  Num. 
ixiv,  17,  additions  to  Gen.  xlix.  Num.  xxiv,  Deut. 
xxxii,  33,  and  avoids  all  anthropomorphisms.   Like 
the  Hebrew  text,  it  has  been  the  subject  of  Maso- 
retic studies,  which  have  been  edited  by  Beriiner 
{Die  Massorah  sum  Targum  Onkelos,  Leipsic,  1877). 
The  Targum  of  the  Prophets  has  been  ascribed 
to  Jonathan  ben  Usiiel,  Hillel's  greatest  disciple; 
others  give  as  its  redactor  Joseph  b^  Hiyyaof  Baby- 
Ion  (d.  about  333) ;  but  it  did  not  receive 
J     ttS**  **■  ^"^  written  form  before  the  fifth 
^"^        '  century.  It  is  more  paraphrastic  than 
the  Targum  of  the  Law,  which  induced  Comill  to 
think  that  it  is  older.    Eichhom  and   Bertholdt 
thought  they   recognised   different  hands.     The 
paraphrase  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  book  of 
Daniel.    Isa.    liii  is  understood  of   the  Messiah, 
whose  suffering  atones  for  Israel.    Great  enmity  is 
shown  against  Rome. 

The  two  Targums  just  described  represent  the 
Judaic  Aramaic;  of    a  mixed  character   is    the 
language  of  Targums  Yerushalmi  I  and  II  on  the 
Law.  Some  verses  are  missing  from  the 
tL?^*'    former,  and  the  latter  is  preserved  only 
^J*^"^   in  fragments.    Certain  other  fragments 
l*w  and    ^^^'^^^  "*  various  manuscripts  and  edi- 
Pnphsts.  ^^^°^  ^^  ^^®  Pentateuch  are  designated 
'  by  Dahnan  (OrammaHk,  §  6,  3)  as  Yer- 
ushalmi III.    There  are  similar  fragments  of  a  Tar- 
Sumonthe  Prophets  published  by  Lagarde  from  the 


margins  of  Reuchlin's  codex  (on  which  cf.  Bacher,  in 
ZZ>Af  O,  xxviii).  Bassf round  (Z>a«  Fro^^mententor^m 
sum  Pentateuch,  Breslau,  1896)  and  similarly  Dal- 
man  (Grammatik,  §  6,  4)  see  in  Onkelos  the  oldest 
Palestinian  Targum  and  in  Yerushalmi  I  and  II 
a  later  development.  M.  Ginsburger,  on  the 
contrary  (Pseudo^onaihan,  Berlin,  1903,  preface), 
and  Bacher  find  in  them  traces  of  a  very  old 
Palestinian  Targum,  which  has  been  worked  over 
by  Onkelos.  The  comment  in  these  pieces  is 
sometimes  very  fantastic. 

The    Targums    of    the   Hagiographa    are    not 

translations,    but  commentaries;  the   Targum   of 

the    Song  of  Solomon,  for  instance,  is    a   pane- 

gyric    of    the    Jewish    nation    with 

•5L»i  ^      foolish  anachronisms,  the  Targum  of 

"^lll^^l^"    the  Psalms  is  in  some  parts  literal,  in 

others    explanatory.    The  Targum  of 

Proverbs  is  a  working  over  of  the  Syriac  translation 

(cf.  Pinkuss,  in  ZATW,  xiv,  65,    161).    As  the 

Hagiographa  were  not  read  in  the  Synagogue  as 

regularly  as  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  (cf.  Lk.  iv, 

16;  Acts  xiii,   15;  xv,  21),  their  Targums  are  to 

some  extent  private  literary  works   of    differing 

character.     For  Ezra-Nehemiah  and    Daniel    no 

Targum  is  known,   unless  the  Aramaic  parts  of 

Daniel  are  fragments  of  a  Targum.    For  Esther 

there  are  two  Targums.  E.  Nbbtlb. 

Bibuoorafbt:  The  best  grammar  ia  G.  Dalman,  Oram^ 
maUk  des  jilditdiHpal&atinUchgn  AromAtedk,  Leipsic,  1894, 
Au»oaU  mU  DialdUproben,  1806,  2d  ed.,  1006  (sivea  val- 
lutble  compend  of  titerature).  The  first  special  diction- 
ary for  the  Targum  is  the  Meturgeman  of  Elias  Levita, 
Isny,  IMl;  quite  oomplete  but  unsatisfactory  linguis- 
tically is  J.  Levy,  Chaiddiuhea  WOrteHmeh  Hber  die  Tar- 
gumim,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1867-68.  The  whole  range  of 
Aramaic  literature  is  treated  in  Nathan  bar  Jeohiel, 
Sepker  he^antk  (c  1100  a-d.),  first  printed  without  place 
and  date,  but  before  1480  ▲.d.,  new  ed.,  by  A.  Kohut, 
Vienna.  1878^2  (cf.  JE,  iz,  180-182).  Others  are:  G. 
F.  Boderianus  (1673),  printed  in  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot; J.  Buxtorf,  Lexicon  duMldaicum,  1640,  new  ed.,  B. 
Fischer,  Leipsic,  1860-76;  M.  Jastrow.  DieHonary  of  the 
TVnyumtm,  ffte  Talmud  BabU  and  Jeru^uUmi  and  the  Mid- 
raAie  lAierature,  2  vols..  New  York,  1003  (the  most  ac- 
cessible); G.  Dalman,  AramOiechHneuhetn'aieihee  WOrter- 
hudi  mU  Lerikon  der  Abbreviaturen,  yon  G.  Handler, 
Frankfort,  1807-1001. 

The  Targum  of  Onkelos  was  first  printed  Bologna,  1482, 
with  Hebr.  text  and  Rashi's  commentary;  best  edition 
by  Foa,  at  Sabbionetta,  1667,  republished  by  A.  Berliner 
at  Berlin,  1884  (cf.  Lsgarde,  MittheUungen,  ii.  163^182); 
latest  edition  in  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch  Sefer  keter  tora 
at  Jerusalem,  1804-1001.  Parts  are  in  A.  Merx,  Chree- 
iomafftia  Targumioa,  Berlin,  1883;  in  E.  Kautssch,  Ud)er 
eine  aUe  Handeehrift  dee  Targum  Onkeloe,  Halle,  1803; 
and  G.  Dalman,  AranUUaehe  Dialektproben,  Leipsic,  1806. 
Translations  are  that  in  Eng.  by  J.  W.  Etheridge,  inclu- 
ding Onkelos,  Jonathan,  and  the  Jerusalem  fragments,  2 
yols.,  London,  1862,  and  the  Latin  transl.  by  P.  Fagius, 
Strasburg,  1646.  On  the  text-critical  value  and  other 
relations  consult:  S.  Landauer.  Die  Maeorah  sum  OnkeUM, 
Leipsic  1877;  H.  Bamstein,  Targum  of  Onkdoe  to  Oeneeie, 
London,  1806;  G.  Diettrich,  Orammatieehe  Beobaehtungen, 
in  ZATW,  XX  (1000).  148-160;  E.  Brederek,  in  T8K,  Ixxiv 
(1001),  861-377;  A.  Merx,  Die  Vokalieation  der  Targume, 
in  Verhandlung  dee  Sten  orientaliechen  Congreee,  ii.  part  1, 
pp.  142-188.  On  the  person  of  Onkelos  consult:  D. 
Luaaatto,  Philoxenue,  Cracow,  1806;  M.  Friedmann,  Onk^ 
loe  und  Akylae,  Vienna,  1806;  JB,  ii,  86-38.  ix,  406, 
xii,  68-60. 

The  editions  of  the  Targums  of  Jonathan  are:  For  the 
"  Former  Prophets "  1st  edition,  Leiria,  1404,  for  the 
whole,  in  the  first  Rabbinic  Bible,  Venice,  1617;  by  Lar 
garde  after  Reuchlin's  MS.,  1872  (cf.  A.  Klostermann, 
in  TSK,  zlvi,  1873,  731-767);  Joshua  and  Judges  by  Pr»- 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


ISS 


tonus  from  South  Arabian  M88..  Berlin,  1890-1900;  Jonah 
and  Ificah  by  Merx.  in  his  Cknttomathia,  ut  sup.;  Nahum 
by  Adler.  in  JQR,  vii  (1896).  63a-«57;  Jer.  i-xii  by  Wolf- 
Bohn,  1903;  Esekiel.  i-x  by  Silbermann,  1902;  the  Haf- 
taioth  in  the  Hebrew  Pentateuoh  Sefer  keter  torah,  ut  sup. 
Consult  also:  C.  W.  H.  PauU.  The  Chaldee  Paraphnue  on 
As  Prophet  Imiiah,  London,  1871;  Z.  Frankel,  Zu  dem 
Tarovan  der  Propfuten,  Brealau,  1872;  W.  Baeher.  in 
ZDMG,  xxviu  (1874),  1-72.  167,  819;  H.  8.  Levy, 
Targtan  on  /sotoA,  wUh  Commenkuy,  London,  1889. 

Yerushalmi  I  and  II  were  first  published  in  Bombexv'a 
Rabbinic  Bible,  Venice,  1617.  The  best  editions  of  both 
are  by  M.  Ginsburger,  Paeudo-Jonathan,  Berlin,  1903, 
and  Daa  FraomentenAaroum,  1899  (of.  Bamstein,  in  JQR, 
xiii,  1899.  167;  ZDMO,  hriii,  1904.  874-378).  On  both 
Targums,  ef.  Dalman,  OrammaHk,  f  6,  1-2;  on  an  im- 
portant manuscript  of  Yerushalmi  II  at  Nurembem.  ef. 
Lacarde,  MitOuUungen,  iii,  Gdttingen,  1889.  87. 

The  Tarsum  of  the  Hagiographa:  The  first  edition  of 
Job.  Ps.,  Prov..  and  the  Bolls  was  in  the  Rabbinic  Bible. 
Venice.  1617,  which  books  were  reprinted  by  Lagarde  in 
1873;  the  best  edition  of  the  Tarsum  on  Esther  is  by  M. 
David.  Berlin,  1898  (of.  Posner,  Daa  Tarffum  Riad^n  tu 
Bathar,  Breslau.  1896);  Eoelesiastes.  from  South  Arabian 
MSS.,  by  A.  Leyy.  ib.  1906.  (}onsttlt  E.  Brederek,  Kon^ 
kordana  aum  Targtan  OnJbsfos.  Gieesen,  1906;  H.  L.  Strack, 
Einleiiung  in  daa  A.  7*..  f  84.  Munich,  1906. 

VL  The  Armenian  Version :  The  Armenian  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  rests  on  the  Greek, 
though  it  shows  in  certain  passages  and  books  traces 
of  revision  either  from  the  Syriac  or  from  the 
Hebrew.  The  Greek  text  used  seems  to  have  been 
dependent  on  Origen,  for  in  some  Armenian  manu- 
scripts hexaplaric  marks  are  found.  In  the  manu- 
scripts (not  in  the  printed  editions)  various  pseudepi- 
graphic  books  appear.  The  Armenian  Psalter 
printed  for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
at  Venice,  1850,  was  rejected  in  consequence  of 
these  additions.  Ecdesiasticus  has  been  trans- 
lated twice,  first  in  the  fifth  centuiy,  this 
version  being  printed  in  the  Venice  Bible,  1860; 
again  probably  in  the  eighth  century,  found  in 
Zohrab's  edition  of  the  Armenian  Bible  of  1805. 
On  the  statements  of  Koriun,  Lazar  of  Parpi. 
and  Moses  of  Chorene,  that  the  Scriptures  were 
translated  by  Mesrob,  Sahag,  E^znik,  and  others 
between  396  and  430  from  manuscripts  brought 
from  Edessa,  Constantinople,  and  Alexandria, 
cf.  Conybeare,  DB,i,  152  (see  Armenia,  II,  §§ 
2S),  A  collation  of  the  Armenian  version  was 
made  for  Hohnes-Parsons  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  2), 
and  is  being  made  afresh  for  the  forthcoming 
Cambridge  Septuagint  by  McLean  (cf.  Swete, 
Iniroductum,  London,  1900,  p.  118).  Theodoret 
states  that  in  his  time  the  language  of  the  Hebrews 
was  translated  into  that  of  the  ,  Armenians, 
Scythians,  and  Sauromatians.  A  concordance  to 
the  Armenian  Bible  has  been  printed  in  the  cloister 
of  San  Giacomo  at  Jerusalem  (1895).  The  un- 
canonical  writings  of  the  Old  Testament  found  in 
Armenian  manuscripts  in  the  library  of  San 
Lazsaro  were  translated  into  English  by  J. 
Issaverdens  (Venice,  1901);  on  Ter  Moosesjan's 
Hittory  of  the  Translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arme- 
nian, cf .  H.  Goussen,  in  NouveUe  Revue  de  Thiologie, 
1904,  p.  9. 

For  the  New  Testament  Mill  used  some  notes  on 
the  Armenian  version  by  W.  Guise  and  L.  Piques. 
For  Tregelles  C.  Rieu  collated  Zohrab's  edition 
of  1805.  His  notes  were  used  by  Tischendorf 
in  the  eighth  edition  of  his  New  Testament;  Gregory 


catalogued  sixty-four  manuscripts  in  Europe  (outside 
of  Russia)  and  America.  At  Moscow  is  a  copy  of  the 
Gospels  dated  887,  at  Echmiadzin  is  the  manu- 
script 222  written  in  989,  but  with  an  ivor; 
binding  which  is  much  older.  Conybeare  dis- 
covered in  this  manuscript,  after  Mark  xvi,  8, 
the  words  AritUm  erUzou  ("of  the  presbyter 
Ari8t[i]on"),  which  probably  preserve  the  name 
of  the  author  of  the  dose  of  the  second  G<»- 
pel.  The  Gospels  have  invariably  the  so-called 
Ammonian  sections;  the  Acts  and  Epistles  of  Paul, 
the  Euthalian  additions  (see  Ammoniub  of  Alex- 
Ain>RiA;  Euthaliub);  at  their  end  is  found  the 
apocryphal  correspondence  of  Paul  with  the  Corin- 
thians. After  John  follows  sometimes  the  apooy- 
phal  "  Rest  of  John."  The  Apocalypse  is  said  to 
be  a  recension  made  by  Nerses  Lambron  in  the 
twelfth  centuiy;  a  much  older  version  is  indicated 
by  H.Gou88en(cf.  Gregory,  r«x<*rttifc,Leipsic,  1902, 
p.  568).  The  inclusion  of  the  apoci3rphal  com- 
spondence  of  Paul  with  the  Corinthians  and  other 
characteristics  of  this  version  and  the  whole  histoiy 
of  the  Armenian  Church  confirm  the  view  that 
the  Armenian  version  was  first  based  on  the 
Syriac  Bible  and  afterward  revised  from  the 
Greek;  cf.  on  this  question  Conjrbeare  and 
Burkitt.  £.  Nestle. 

Bibuoorapht:  Tbe  Anneniaa  Bible  wbs  first  priated, 
Amflterdam,  1666^  from  a  single  MS.;  of  this  tbe  editioB 
by  Meohitar,  Venioe,  1733,  wm  in  the  main  a  repriot; 
the  fint  critical  edition  was  by  Zohrab,  Venioe,  180S. 
Consult  Scrivener,  InirodueHon,  ii.  14S-164;  Gncory, 
TexaariHk,  i,  666-673;  F.  C.  Conybeare.  in  DB,  i.  151- 
164,  and  in  The  ExpoaUor,  1893,  pp.  242  wsq..  vA 
Dec.,  1896;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  in  EB,  rr,  6011.  5028;  k. 
Abeghian,  Varfragen  cur  BntalehungageacKiAle  der  afkr- 
meniaehen  BibdOberaetgungen,  Marburg,  1906:  idem,  Z» 
EntaiehungageachidUe  der  ailarmeniaehen  Bibelubenebua^ 
gen,  TQbingen,  1907. 

Vn.  Egyptian  Coptic  VerBions:  According  to 
Zosimus  Panopolitanus,  the  Hdt>rew  Bible  was 
translated  into  Egrptian  at  the  same  time  as  tbe 
Septuagint  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  6);  according  to  the 
life  of  St.  Anthony,  he  heard  the  Gospel  read  in 
church  in  the  Egsrptian  language.  But  the  latter 
statement  is  not  certain  enough  to  justify  the 
supposition  that  the  Egsrptian  version  of  the  New 
Testament  goes  back  to  the  middle  of  the  third 
centuiy.  At  that  time  Christianity  in  Egypt 
seems  to  have  been  restricted  to  the  Greek-q)esk- 
ing  towns.  Modem  scholars  distinguish  linguis- 
tically as  many  as  five  or  six  Coptic  dialects;  for 
the  textual  critic  the  Coptic  versions  faU  into 
three  divisions,  although  a  former  generation 
knew  only  one  and  called  it  the  Coptic,  i.e.,  the 
Eg3rptian,  version.  These  divisions  are:  (1)  The 
Saidic  or  the  version  of  Upper  E^gypt,  sometinies 
called  the  Thebaic;  (2)  the  Fayyumic  (formerly 
called  the  Bashmuric),  with  which  text  the 
fragments  in  the  Middle-Eg3rptian  dialect  agree; 
(3)  the  version  now  in  ecclesiastical  use  among  all 
Copts  or  Egyptian  Christians,  called  Bohsiric. 
The  Bohairah  ("  Lake  ")  is  a  district  near  Alex- 
andria and  Lake  Mareotis,  the  modem  Beher&h. 
There  is  a  fourth  dialect  called  Akhmimic;  but  the 
version  of  the  CathoUc  Epistles  in  this  dialect,  pre- 
served in  a  very  ancient  manuscript,  is  properly 


133 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versioiis 


classed  with   the  Saidic  veraion.    Bashmuric  had 
already  died  out  in  the  time  of  Athanaaius. 

The  Bohairic  version  was  for  a  long  time  the 
only  one  known  to  European  scholars,  and  is 
still  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  earliest  version 
in  any  Egyptian  dialect;  but  with  better  reason 
others  see  in  it  a  late  recension,  characterized  by 
greater  faithfulness  to  the  Greek,  the  basal  Greek 
text  being  best  represented  by  the  Greek  Codex 
L  and,  among  the  Fathers,  not  by  Clement  and 
Origen,  but  by  Cyril.  Of  the  Saidic  manuscripts 
some  of  the  more  ancient  are  bilingual,  the 
Greek  occupying  the  page  on  the  left  hand  of 
the  open  book;  the  Bohairic  manuscripts,  on 
the  contrary,  are  often  accompanied  by  an 
Arabic  translation,  but  there  is  no  instance  of 
a  Greoo-Bohairic  manuscript.  When  written  in 
two  oolimins  the  Greco-Saidic  manuscripts  have 
both  Greek  columns  on  the  left  and  both  Saidic 
on  the  right,  and  occasionally  the  two  pages 
of  the  codex  give  different  readings.  The  text 
of  this  version  generally  supports  that  represented 
by  Codex  B,  but  it  has  some  strange  "Western" 
singularities;  for  instance,  to  Luke  xxiii,  53,  it  is 
added  that  Joseph  plae«d  a  stone  at  the  door  of 
the  sepulcher,  which  twenty  men  were  scarcely 
able  to  move,  and  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man 
and  Lazarus  the  name  of  the  former  is  given  as 
"Nineveh."  Revelation  seems  to  have  been  con- 
sidered uncanonical,  for  it  is  not  found  with  the 
rest  of  the  New  Testament.  E.  Nestle. 

Biblioorafbt:  Eneh  and  Graber,  AUifemeinB  EnetfdopOdie, 
Section  2,  toI.  xzadbc,  12-36;  J.  P.  Martin,  in  PolybibUon, 
i.  126,  Pftris,  1886;  A.  Schulte.  Die  kopHeche  UebereetMung 
iUr  vier  gro&mn  Propheten,  MOnster,  1803;  Scrivener, 
Ininduetion,  ii,  01-144;  H.  Hsrvemat.  itude  nor  lea  ver- 
tiana  Copiea  de  ia  Bible,  in  Revue  Biblique,  y  (1806).  3, 
427-433.  640-500.  vi  (1807).  1,  48-74;  Gregory,  TezOaitik, 
l  528-553;  DB,  i.  668-673;  EB,  iv.  5006-11.  6027;  W. 
E.  Cram  is  Mcustomed  to  note  new  Biblical  tcxta  in  the 
aanoal  Ar^aelogieai  Report  of  the  Kgsrpt  Exploration 
Fund  (of.  that  for  1005-06.  pp.  66  aqq.). 

On  the  Bohairic  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  especially 
the  PMitoteueh.  ef.  A.  E.  Brooke,  in  JT8,  iii.  258-278.  For 
the  Bohairic  New  Testament  there  is  now  the  fine  edition 
of  the  Clarendon  Frees  by  G.  Homer,  The  Coptic  Veraion  of 
Ikt  N.  T.  in  tke  Northern  DiaUet^olh^rtoiaeeaaed  the  Mem- 
pkiHe  and  Bohairict  wOh  Introduction,  erUieal  Apparaiua, 
and  literal  Eng.  finafisl.,.  vols,  i-ii.  Gospels,  1808,  vols,  iii- 
iT.  Acts  and  Epistles,  1005. 

The  Saidic  New  Testament  is  edited  by  P.  J.  Balestri  in 
Seemrum  biUiorum  fragmenta  copto-aahidioa  Muaei  Bor- 
ffiani,  voL  iii,  Rome,  1004;  the  Berlin  manuscript  of  the 
Pnlter.byA.  Rahlf8,G(?A,  iv,  4, 1001;  cf.  also  J.  O.  Prince. 
Tw  Veraione  of  Ute  Coptic  Paalter,  in  JBL,  xzi,  02-00; 
E.  0.  Winstedt.  Sahidic  BibUeal  FragmenU  in  Ae  Bodleian 
Ubrory,  in  PSBA,  zxvii,  2;  and  C.  Wessely.  jSoAidMcA- 
0rietAia(he  Paalmenfragmente,  Vienna,  1007.  For  parts  of 
the  Old  Testament  cf.  Lagarde's  PenttUeueh,  Leipeic,  1867, 
PaaUerU  veraio  Memphiiiea,  Gdttingen,  1875,  and  (for  Wis- 
dom. Ecdeeiastes.  and  Psalms)  his  JBgypHaca,  1883;  vols, 
i  and  ii  of  the  Borgian  Fragments,  byCiasca.  1885-80;  on 
the  importance  of  the  Egyptian  version  of  Job,  of.  Lagarde. 
Mmnbiingen,  G6ttingen.  1884,  i,  203. 

ym  The  Ethiopic  VeTsion:  In  Ethiopic  there 
existB  a  translation  of  the  Bible  which  has  oontinued 
the  only  one  authorised  among  Abyssinian  Chris- 
tiana, and  even  among  the  Jewish  Falashas;  and  it 
still  maintains  its  andoit  authority,  although  the 
Ethiopic  long  ago  ceased  to  be  spoken.  There  is 
00  reliable  injformation  as  to  the  exact  time  or  man- 
ner of  its  origin;  but  it  is  certain  that  it  was  made 


from  the  Septuagint  in  the  eariy  days  of  Abyssin- 
ian Christianity,  between  the  fourth  and  the  sixth 
century.  It  is  very  faithful,  being,  for  the  most 
part,  a  verbal  rendering  of  the  Gredk,  readable  and 
fluent,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  often  renders 
closely  the  ideas  and  the  words  of  the  Hebrew. 

Dillmann  projected  an  edition  of  the  Ethiopic 
Old  Testament  in  five  volumes,  of  which  he  lived 
to  publish  vols,  i,  Gen  .-Ruth  (1853),  ii,  Sam.-Kings 
(1861-71),  and  v,  the  Apocrypha  (1894).  He  ar- 
ranged the  manuscripts  in  three  groups:  (1)  those 
which  contain  the  original  translation  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint uncorrupted;  (2)  those  the  text  of  which  has 
been  revised  and  completed  from  the  Greek;  (3)  those 
which  have  been  corrected  from  the  Hebrew.  From 
the  circymstanoethat  the  Ethiopic  Church  was  de- 
pendent on  that  in  Egypt,  it  is  probable  that  the 
particular  recension  of  the  Septuagint  from  which 
the  Ethiopic  translation  was  made  was  the  Hes- 
ychian  (see  above,  I,  1,  5  6).  But  the  early  Aramaic- 
speaking  missionaries  influenced  the  translation, 
as  is  shown  by  the  numerous  Aramaic  words 
which  are  employed  to  convey  Christian  ideas. 
Possibly  the  Bible  was  translated,  at  least  in  part, 
by  these  missionaries  or  their  pupils. 

The  division  into  chapters  was  introduced  at  a 
later  day  into  Abyssinia,  under  European  influ- 
ences. The  Ethiopic  Bible  includes  the  Apocrypha, 
except  the  books  of  Maccabees,  which  were  either 
not  translated  or  very  early  lost,  and  several 
pseudepigrapha,  and  puts  them  upon  perfect 
equality  with  the  canonical  writings;  and  in  this 
way  the  number  of  books  is  given  as  eighty-one, 
forty-six  for  the  Old  Testament,  thirty-five  for 
the  New.  (See  Abtbbinia  and  thb  Abyssinian 
Church.)  (F.  PrAtobius.) 

Bibuoorapht:  For  lints  of  Ethiopic  MSS.  Bvailsble  con- 
sult the  Cotaloffue*  by  A.  T.  d'Abbadie,  Paris,  1859  (b  gen- 
eral list),  by  C.  F.  A.  Dillmann  (for  British  Museum),  Lon- 
don, 1847  (for  Bodleian  Library).  Oxford.  1848,  and  (for 
Berlin)  Berlin,  1878,  by  W.  Wright  (for  British  Museum), 
London,  1877,  and  by  H.  Zotenberg  (for  Biblioth^ue 
National).  Paris;  ZDMO,  y.  164  sqq.  (for  those  in  TQ- 
bingen),  ZDMO,  xvi  (for  Vienna),  Btdletin  acientiflqua 
publiS  par  VAcadhnie  dee  Seienoea,  ii,  302,  iii,  146  sqq. 
(for  those  in  St.  Petersburg),  and  a  general  list  in  C.  R. 
Gregory,  Prolegomena,  iii,  000-012,  Leipsic,  1804.  On  the 
version  consult:  C.  F.  A.  Dillmann.  in  JahrhUcher  der  Mfr- 
liaOten  Wieaenachaft,  v  (1863),  144-161;  Reckendorf,  in 
ZATW,  vii  (1887),  61-00;  P.  J.  Bachmann.  Dodekapro- 
pheton  athiopum,  part  1,  Obadiah,  Halle,  1802,  part  2, 
Maieachi,  1803.  Die  Klagdieder,  1803,  Jeaaia,  1803;  L. 
Goldschmidt,  Bihliotheca  (Bthiopica,  Leipsic,  1803;  Hack- 
spill,  in  ZA,  xi  (1807),  160-161.  The  subject  is  treated 
also  in  G.  R.  Gregory.  Prolegomena,  iii,  804-000,  ut  sup.; 
in  the  Einleitung  of  K6nig.  1803,  p.  113,  of  JOlicher,  1804, 
p.  388,  and  of  Ck>mill.  1806,  p.  338,  and  the  Introduction 
of  Scrivener,  ii,  154-166. 

The  best  ed.  of  the  Old  Testament  is  that  of  Dillmann 
(ut  sup.).  The  New  Testament  was  first  printed  at  Rome 
in  1548-40  by  the  Abyssinian  TasfarSion  or,  as  he  is  also 
called,  Peter  the  Ethiopian,  reprinted  in  the  London  Poly- 
glot. Aned.was  issued  by  T.  P.  Piatt  for  theBFBS  in 
182&-30,  reprinted  at  Leipsic,  1800. 

DL  The  Georg;ian  (Iberian)  Veraioii:  The  earliest 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Bible  in  the  language  of  the 
Iberians  belong  to  the  fifth  century,  and  seem  to  be- 
tray the  in fluence  of  the  Syriac  version.  David  and 
Stephen  in  the  eight  century  are  the  first  names 
known  of  men  engaged  in  revision  of  the  Iberian 
Bible.   ApapyrusRnilterisaflsigned  to  the  seventh 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


134 


or  eighth  century,  and  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  is 
dated  a  century  later  (facsimile  in  Tsagareli).  The 
edition  printed  at  Moscow,  1743,  has  been  retouched 
from  the  Slavonic.  S.  C.  Malan  in  1862  used  this 
version  for  his  edition  of  the  Gospel  of  John.  On 
the  Georgian  manuscripts  of  the  library  at  Paris 
there  is  a  recent  paper  by  A.  Khakhanov. 

E.  Nbstlk. 

Bibuoorapht:  Serivener,  Ininduelion,  ii,  166;  A.  A. 
Tsacareli,  '*  InformAtion  about  the  Monuments  of  Georgian 
Literature  "  (Ruasian).  parts  i-iii,  St.  Petersburg,  1886-04; 
C.  R.  Qregory,  Prol^oomtna,  iii,  922-023,  Leipdo,  1894; 
idem,  TexOeritik,  i,  578;  J.  M.  Bebb,  in  DB,  iv,  861;  A. 
Palmieri,  Le  Veraiorm  Oeorgian*  della  Bibtia,  in  BeMa- 
rione,  2  eer.,  vol.  v,  269-268.  322-327.  vi.  72-77. 189- 
194,  Rome,  1901-02.  On  the  people  oonsult:  A.  Leist, 
Daa  gwrgitchB  VoUt,  Dresden,  1903. 

X.  The  Gothic  Version  of  Ulfilas:  Ulfilas  (q.v.), 
the  Moses  of  the  Goths,  as  Constantino  styled  him 
(cf.  TSK,  1893,  273),  was  made  bishop  probably  in 
341  at  Antioch  and  died  in  381  or  383.  He  gave 
to  his  people  the  alphabet  and  the  Bible,  but,  ac- 
cording to  Philostorgius  {Hist,  eccl.,  ii,  5),  omitted 
to  translate  the  boolu  of  Kings  because  he  thought 
they  contained  too  much  about  war  for  the  good  of 
his  fierce  countrymen.  Of  the  Old  Testament  very 
few  fragments  are  left;  viz..  Gen.  v,  3-30;  Ps.  Iii, 
2-3;  Ezra  xv  (i.e.  Neh.  v),  13-16,  xvi,  14-xvii, 
3,  xvii,  13-45.  The  translation  follows  the  recen- 
sion of  Lucian  (see  above,  I,  1,  §  5).  The  Gothic 
priests  Sunnias  and  Fretela,  who  were  in  corre- 
spondence with  Jerome  about  the  true  readings  of 
certain  passages  in  the  Psalter  some  twenty  years 
after  the  death  of  Ul  filas  (cf .  Jerome,  Epiat ,  cvi) ,  were 
perhaps  engaged  in  a  revision  of  the  Gothic  Psalms. 
That  the  Psalms  were  sung  in  Gothic  at  Ck)nstan- 
tinople  is  testified  by  Chrysostom  (cf.  the  disserta- 
tion of  J.  Milhlau,  Zur  Frage  nach  der  gotischen 
PaalmenuberaeUung,  Kiel,  1904).  On  the  frag- 
ments of  Ezra  (Nehemiah),  cf.  E.  Languor,  Die  goti- 
schen Nehemia-fragmente  (Sprottau,  1903). 

More  of  the  New  Testcunent  is  preserved,  thanks 
to  the  Codex  ArgerUeua  now  in  Upsala,  also  by  a 
palimpsest  from  Weissenburg  discovered  in  Wol- 
fenbQttel  in  1756,  and  fragments  at  Turin  discov- 
ered by  Angelo  Mai  in  1817  and  by  Reififerscheid 
in  1866.  The  Codex  Argenteus  must  have  had  a 
very  near  relationship  to  Codex  /.  of  the  Latin  Bible 
(cf.  M.  Haupt,  Die  Vorrede  der  gotischen  BibelUber- 
setzung,  in  his  Opuacula,  vol.  iii,  Leipsic,  1876; 
Burkitt,  JTS,  i,  129;  Kauffmann,  ZDP,  xxxii,  305- 
335;  Drftseke,  ZWT,  1907).  It  was  perhaps  part 
of  a  Greek,  Gothic,  and  Latin  Testament.  The 
version  is  very  faithful,  following  the  text  used  by 
Chrysostom.  More  than  100  Greek  and  Latin 
words  were  retained  by  Ulfilas  (cf.  C.  Elis,  Ueber 
die  Fremdwdrter  und  fremden  Eigennamen  in  der 
gotischen  Bibeldbersetzung,  Gdttingen,  1903). 

E.  Nestlb. 

Bzblioorapht:  E.  Bernhardt,  KriiUche  UfUernuhuno^ 
aber  die  gothiMd^t  BibelUberaetntng,  Meiningen,  1867;  K. 
Weinhold,  Die  gothiedte  Sprache  im  Dientte  dee  Ckrieten^ 
thutne,  Halle.  1870;  A.  Kisch.  Der  SepHuiointarCodex  dee 
Ulphilae,  in  Monataechrift  fUr  Oeechichte  und  Wieeenachaft 
dee  Judenihume,  xxii  (1873),  42-46.  86-80,  21&-210;  O. 
Ohrloff,  Die  Bruehetncke  ,  .  .  der  gothiechen  BibelUber^ 
eetiunff,  Halle,  1873;  idem,  in  ZDP,  vii  (1876),  251-205; 
A.  Schaubaeh,  Ud>er  doe  VerhdUnie  der  gothieehen  Bibel- 
abereeUung  .  ,  ,  gu   der   Lutheritchen  ....    Meiningen, 


1870;  O.  Kaufmann,  in  ZeiteArift  fOr  deuUtkee  Alkr- 
AMm,  zxvii  (1883);  K.  Marold,  Kriti»dt0  Unieretukun^ 
aber  den  Binfiuee  dee  Lateine  on/  die  gothieeke  BiJbdiber^ 
eeitung,  KOnigsbers,  '1881;  C.  R.  Qregary,  PtoUoomna, 
iii,  1108,  Leipoio,  1804;  F.  Kauffmann.  in  ZDP.  xxix 
(1806).  306-337;  W.  Bangert,  Der  Einflum  ialeiaudtr 
Queilen  auf  die  gothiedte  Bibelllbermtzuno,  Rudokudt, 
1880;  W.  Luft  and  F.  Vogt.  in  Zeiiedirift  fur  deutMcha 
AUerVium,  zlu  (1808);  J.  MOhlau.  Zw  Fraoe  natk  der 
goUedten  Pealmenlibereeitung,  Kiel.  1004.  On  the  Uo- 
goase  oonault:  G.  H.  Balg,  CompartUive  Oloeaarp  of  th* 
Golhie  Lafi4ruage,  8  i>art8.  New  York,  1887-00;  J.  WrigLt. 
A  Primer  of  the  Oothie  Language^  London,  1800;  on  the 
Gothie  alphabet,  W.  Luft,  ShuHen  au  den  difetim  ^enM- 
niachen  AlpHabelen,  GQtenloh,  1808. 

The  Codex  Argenleua  was  first  published  by  Frandwus 
Junius  (du  Jon),  Dort,  1665;  with  the  other  fngments. 
glossary,  etc.,  by  H.  C.  de  Gabelents  and  J.  Loebe,  Ldjnc 
1836  and  1846;  in' facsimile  by  A.  Uppstr5m,Upeala,  18H 
supplemented  in  1857  by  ten  leaves  which  had  been  stoles 
but  afterward  recovered.  The  edition  most  uaed  in  (jermsny 
is  by  F.  L.  Stamm,  Padeibom,  1858, 0th  ad.,  with  diction- 
ary by  M.  Heyne  and  grammar  by  F.  Wrede,  1806.  An- 
other ed.  with  apparatus  is  by  K  Bernhardt, .HaDe,  1875 
(text  ed.,  1884).  There  is  an  American  edition  by  G.H. 
Balg.  The  Firai  Oermanie  BibU,  BCilwaukee.'lSOl.  Fsrtiil 
eds.  are  J.  Bosworth,  The  Oothie  and  Angto-Saxon  Ootpdt 
.  .  .  with  .  .  .  Wyeliffe  and  Tyndale,  London,  1865.  new 
ed..  1007,  and  W.  W.  Skeat.  Mark,  London,  1882. 

B.  Modem  Venioiii. 

L  Arabic  Venions:  "^There  are  more  Arabic 
veraionB  of  the  Gospels  than  can  be  wdoome  to 
theology,  with  its  press  of  work,"  wrote  Lagsrde 
in  the  preface  of  his  edition  of  the  four  Gospels 
in  Arabic  (Leipsic,  1864).  There  are  translaticns 
made  from  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Coptic,  Latin, 
Syriac,  and  Greek.  There  was  not,  as  it  seems,  a 
translation  into  Arabic  before  Mohanmied  (cf.  M. 
J.  de  Goeje  and  M.  Schreiner,  in  Semitic  Stvdiea  in 
Memory  of  Alexander  Kohut,  Beiiin,  1897,  p.  405). 
John  of  Seville  is  said  to  have  produced  an  Arabic 
Bible  about  737;  the  chronicle  of  Michael  Synis 
mentions  an  Arabic  translation  of  the  Gospels  made 
under  direction  of  John,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  at 
the  command  of  the  emir  Amru.  The  *' Indians" 
mentioned  by  Chrysostom  between  Egyptians  and 
Persians  as  in  possession  of  the  Scriptures  in  tbdr 
mother  tongue  may  be  South-Arabians,  but  there 
is  no  additional  information  about  this  venion. 

Of  trandationa  from  the  Hebrew  Old  Teetament,  by  far 
the  moet  important  is  the  work  of  Saadia  ben  Joerph.  the 
Gaon,  from  the  Fayyum  (d.  942;  see  Saadia).  On  Saftdis 
and  his  translation,  of.  H.  Ewald  and  L.  Dukes,  Beilrigi  vk 
Oeadiichie  der  iUteeten  Auelegung  und  SjtrackarkUtruno  da 
alien  Teakamenta,  ii  (Stuttgart.  1844);  B,  Munk,  in  La  BibU, 
traduction  nouveUe  ,  .  ,  par  8.  Cohan,  ix  (Paris,  1838).  73- 
159;  M.  Steinschneider,  Die  arabiaehe  Literaiur  der  Judtn 
(Frankfort,  1902),  66  sqq.;  and  espeeially  the  edition  of 
his  collected  works  by  J.  H.  Derenbourc,  voL  i,  the  P^oto- 
teuch  (Plans,  1893);  iii,  Isaiah  (1896);  ir.  Proverbs  (1899);  v. 
Job  (ed.  Bacher.  1899).  On  the  question  of  the  text,  d. 
P.  Kahle,  Die  arabiaehen  BibelllberaeUungen  .  .  .  (Leipac, 
1904),  no.  Tiii,  and  against  him  Bacher,  in  TLZ,  1905,  na  8. 
Saadia's  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  was  printed  fint  ia 
Hebrew  letters  with  the  Hebrew  text.  Taii^im  and  a  Per- 
sian translation  at  O>nstantinople,  1646,  then  in  the  fanf 
and  London  Polyglots  (see  Bibleb,  Poltglot,  III,  IV^. 
For  Geneflis  and  Exodus,  cf.  Lagarde.  in  his  MaieriaiieH  rv 
KriHk  (Leipsic,  1867).  Kahle  used  for  his  specimen  a  nasoo- 
script  of  Florence  and  Wolfenbattel,  not  used  by  Dereo- 
bourg.  On  Isaiah,  cf.  Derenbouiv.  in  ZATW,  1890,  pp- 1' 
84.  Of  Job  there  is  an  edition  by  J.  Cohn  (Berlin,  1SS9). 
On  the  Pmdms,  cf.  the  dissertations  of  Haneberg,ia  AM  A, 
1841,  iii,  2;  J.  Cohn,  in  Magaxin  far  die  Wiaaenackaft  ^kt 
Judentuma,  1881.  On  Oantides,  cf.  A.  Merx.  Die  Saadi«r 
niadte  Udteraetxung  daa  Hohen  Liadea  ina  Arabiaehe  (Heide^ 
berg,   1882).    On   ProTerbs,   cf.    a  dissertation  of  Jooms 


136 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


Boodi  (HaUe.  1888).  On  Saadi«'a  flystem  of  tranriating, 
cf.  W.  Easelkemper,  D*  Saadia  Oaonia  vUot  bibliorum  v«r- 
nofw,  htrmmmUiea  (MOoster,  1807). 

There  are  other  Aiabic  traoBlations  made  bom  the  He- 
b^w  by  Jews  such  as  the  ^ro6s  ErpenU,  a  translation  of 
the  Ptotateueh  made  by  an  African  Jew  in  the  thirteenth 
century  (published  by  Erpenius,  Leyden,  1622),  and  a  trans- 
Istion  of  the  Psalms  made  by  the  Karaite  Japhet  ben  Eli 
(ed.  J.  J.  L.  Barg^  Paris,  1871);  a  specimen  of  his  com- 
meotary  on  Genesis  is  in  Kahle,  viii;  his  commentary  on 
Deuteronomy  was  edited  by  8.  Margoliouth.  in  Aneodota 
(honienna,  Semitic  series,  vol.  i,  part  3,  1809.  Hosea  and 
Joel  fzom  an  Oxford  manuscript  were  edited  by  Schr6ter,  in 
Ankiv  fur  viamnaekaftUehs  BrforBchung  dst  Alien  Teata- 
meniM,  i  and  ii  (1801^70).  A  FragmerU  einar  arabiadtan 
PtiUaiaudkabaraataung  was  published  by  J.  Hirsch,  Leipsio, 
IMa 

The  first  specimen  of  an  Arabic  translation  of  the  Samar- 
itsn  text  was  published  by  A.  C.  Hwiid  (Rome,  1780)  from 
the  famous  triglot  in  the  Barberini  library;  then  by  Paulus, 
1789  and  1791 ;  better  by  de  Sacy,  in  Mimovraa  da  VAcadimia 
da  InacripHona,  xlix,  1-199;  8.  Kohn.  in  Abhandlungan  fUr 
die  Kunda  daa  Morgeniandaa,  vol.  ▼,  part  4  (Leipsic,  1876), 
1-199;  J.  Bloch,  Die  aamaritaniaehrarobiatha  Pantaiauch- 
tiwrarirttfia  (Berlin,  1901);  and  Kahle,  ut  sup.,  no.  vi.  The 
Saoiaritans  seem  to  have  used  at  first  the  translation  of 
Ssadia;  soon  after  1000  they  made  a  translation  of  their 
own,  which  was  revised  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
eentury  by  Abu  Said;  Genesis,  Exodus,  and  Leyitious  of 
thia  version  wm  edited  by  Kuenen,  1851-64  (cf.  A.  (^wley, 
in  JE,  X.  877). 

Many  Ooptie  manuscripts  have  an  Arabic  translation  by 
the  nde  of  the  Coptic  text;  in  other  manuscripts  contain- 
ing only  an  Arabic  version,  this  is  derived  from  the  O>ptio 
(cf.  Ara6.  S  in  the  Greek  Pentateuch  of  Holmee-Parsons; 
ne  above,  I,  1,  i  2);  for  Job  such  a  translation  has  been 
edited  by  Lacarde,  PsoUsriufa,  Jofr,  Provarbia  arabioa  (Ck^t- 
tingen.  1870);  on  Psalms,  cf.  PaaUerirtm  CopUca,  ed.  M.  Q. 
Schwartse  (Leipsic,  1843),  v. 

From  the  Ls^in,  either  made  from  it  or  corrected  by  it, 
sje  the  Roman  editions  such  as  that  of  Sergius  Risi  (Arabic 
and  Latin,  3  vols.,  Rome,  1671),  the  Gospels  (1591),  and 
Paahns  and  Prophet9  (1614).  A  new  recension  by  Rafael 
Toki  contains  only  Genesis-Nehemiah  and  Tobit  (2  vols., 
1752).  The  edition  of  1671  without  the  Apocrsi>ha  has 
been  frequently  reprinted  by  the  BFBS  since  1822  after  it 
had  reprinted  the  Arabic  portion  of  the  London  Polyglot 
nnder  the  supervision  of  J.  D.  Carlyle  (Newcastle,  1811). 
In  1858  the  Goepels,  in  1860  the  New  Testament,  in  1865 
the  Old  Testament  appeared  in  the  new  translation  begun 
by  the  American  missionary  Eli  Smith  (q.v.)  and  finished 
by  C.  V.  A.  Van  Dyck  at  Beirut,  with  the  help  of  native 
•cholara  It  has  been  frequently  reprinted  in  Beirut,  Ox- 
ford, London,  and  New  York.  In  competition  with  this 
tranelation  are  two  from  Roman  Gatholics,  the  one  un- 
dertaken by  the  Dominicans  of  Mosul  under  the  direction 
of  Joseph  David  (4  vols.,  1875-78),  the  other  by  the  Jesuits 
in  Beirut  (3  vols.,  1876-82;  reproduced  by  photolithography 
in  1  voL,  1897;  cf.  on  these  editions  Kahle,  iii  sqq.;  A.  G. 
£31ii,  CalaloQua  of  Arabic  Booka  in  Ota  BriHah  Muaaum,  Lon- 
don, 1894  sqq.;  the  Bible  Catalogue  of  the  same  library; 
sad  Dariow-Moule.  Hiatorioal  Catalogua  cf  tha  CoUaction  of 
(kt  BFBS,  ii,  London,  1908).  Independent  translations  of 
the  New  Testament  are  those  of  Salomo  Negri  (London, 
1727)  and  of  Nathanad  Sabat  (Calcutta,  1816).  There  is 
Abo  an  edition  of  the  Psalms  by  Negri  (London,  1725;  cf . 
G.  A.  Freylinghausen,  Memaria  Nagriana,  Halle,  1764). 

From  the  Syriac  Bible  is  the  text  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Sam- 
oel,  I  Kings  i-xi,  II  Kings  ii,  17  to  the  end.  Chronicles, 
Neh.  ix,  28  to  end,  and  Job  in  the  Paris  and  London  Poly- 
Rlota.  The  first  fo\ir  books  are,  according  to  Rddiger,  by 
the  same  author,  the  rest  by  different  authors.  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  and  Job  have  been  reissued  by  Lsgarde 
(PaoifeKiMR,  etci,  ut  sup.)  and  the  whole  with  few  al- 
terations by  the  BFBS  (1811,  ut  sup.).  A  Psalter  in 
Syrise  and  Arabic  in  Syriac  letters  (the  so-called  Kar- 
ihunie  script;  i.e.,  Gersom's  manner  of  writing)  was 
printed  by  Haronite  monks  of  Mount  Lebanon  at  Kos- 
chaya,  1610  (perhaps  as  early  as  1585),  and  reprinted 
in  Arabic  type  by  Lagarde.  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
I^rateronomy  in  the  MatariaUen  of  Lagarde  seem  to  have 
iMen  derived  from  the  Syriac  Bible.  A  translation  of 
tbe  Syriac  Hexapla  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Wisdom  is  the 
vork  of  Hareth  ben  Senan  ben  Sabat  (cf.  Nestle,  in  ZDMG, 
1878.  p.  468;  Hobnes-Parsons,  PratfaHo  ad  PafOaHauthum, 


and  Kahle,  ut  sup.,  ix).  The  fragments  of  Job  were  edited 
by  Baudissin,  1870. 

From  the  Greek  are  translated  the  prophets  and  the 
poetical  books  (except  Job)  in  the  Polyglots,  perhaps  also 
the  Psalms  as  edited  by  Athanasius,  patriarch  of  Antioch 
(Aleppo,  1706),  reprinted  by  Lagarde  with  a  translation  of 
the  tenth  century  by  Abu  al-Fath  Abdallah  ben  Fadhl. 

Gregory  {.TaxOcntik,  Leipsio,  1902)  mentions  137  Arabic 
manuscripts  for  the  New  Testament.  On  no.  136,  cf. 
Stenij,  Dia  aitarabiacha  UdtaraaUuno  dar  Briefa  an  dia  Ha- 
6rder,  an  dia  Rdnur  und  an  dia  Korinther  (Helaingfors, 
1901).  For  the  manuscripts  on  Mount  Sinai,  cf.  the  cata- 
logue of  Mrs.  M.  D.  Gibson,  in  Studia  SinaUiea,  iii  (Cam- 
bridge, 1894),  and  her  publication  of  a  part  of  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  in  no.  ii  (1893)  of 
the  same  collection;  also  in  no.  vii  (1899),  an  Arabic  trans- 
lation of  Acts  and  of  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles  from  an 
eighth  or  ninth  century  manuscript.  On  the  revision  of 
the  Arabic  made  about  250  at  Alexandria  by  Hibath  Allah 
ibn  al-Assaly  with  various  readings  from  the  Greek,  the 
Syriac,  and  the  Ck>ptic  cf.  D.  B.  Macdonald,  in  the  Hartford 
Saminary  Record,  Apr.,  1893.  Finally,  the  Arabic  version 
of  Tatian's  JHtUaaaaron  (ed.  Ciasca,  Rome,  1888)  must  not 
be  forgotten.  E.  Nestlb. 

Bibuoorapbt:  On  the  BCSS.  the  one  indispensable  book  is 
I.  Guidi,  La  iraducioni  daoH  evangdii  in  arabo  .  .  .  , 
Rome,  1888;  and  valuable  is  also  C.  R.  Gregory,  Prol^ 
gomena,  iii,  928-947.  Leipsic,  1894.  On  the  version  and 
editions  consult:  Walton's  Polyglot,  Prolegomana,  chap. 
14,  London,  1652;  C.  F.  Schnurrer,  Bibliothaca  arabiea, 
da  Paniateucho  arabieo  .  .  .  ,  Tttbingen.  1780;  H.  E.  G. 
Paulus,  Commentaiio  criHea,  Jena,  1789;  R.  Holmes, 
Vatua  Teatamentum  Orctea,  the  Preface  to  the  Pentateuch, 
Oxford,  1798:  J.  Roediger.  Commantatio  .  ,  ,  de  irtier- 
prefolions  Arabioa  .  .  .  ,  Halle,  1824;  idem.  Da  origina 
.  .  .  Arabic9  .  .  .  interpretationia,  ib.  1829;  J.  Gilde- 
meistor,  Da  evangeiiia  in  Arabieum  .  .  .  tranalaiia,  Bonn, 
1865;  Gregory,  Taxikriiik;  Scrivener,  IntrodueHon,  ii.  161- 
164;  F.  C.  Burkitt,  in  DB,  i,  136-138  (a  lucid  presenta- 
tion). 

n.  Celtic  Venions:  No  version  of  the  Bible 
or  of  single  Biblical  books  in  any  of  the  Celtic  dia- 
lects has  come  down  from  the  pre-Reformation 
period,  though  a  few  Biblical  extracts  in  Old 
Irish  (Sth-llth  centuries)  are  extant  in  homilies. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  English  Church 
in  1560  as  the  State  Church,  Bishop  Nicholas 
Walsh  of  Ossory  and  others  made  an  effort 
toward  giving  the  Bible  to  the  Irish  people, 
and  the  New  Testament,  translated  by  William 
O'Donnell,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  was  published 
at  Dublin  in  1603  in  Irish  characters.  This  edition 
was  republished  at  London  in  1681,  and  in  1685 
the  Old  Testament,  translated  by  Bishop  Will- 
iam Bedell  of  Kilmore  and  others,  was  issued. 
This  edition  was  often  reprinted,  especially  in  a 
revised  form  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  in  1827.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  the  modem  dialect  of  Munster  by  Dr.  R. 
O'Kane  appeared  at  Dublin,  1858.  Of  the  Roman 
Catholic  translation  prepared  by  Archbishop  John 
MacHale  of  Tuam  from  the  Vulgate,  the  first  volume 
only  (Genesis-Joshua)  has  appeared  (Tuam,  1861). 
Gaelic,  which  is  spoken  in  the  Highlands  and  west- 
em  isles  of  Scotland,  is  related  to  Irish;  conse- 
quently the  Scottish  minister  Robert  Kirke,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  Protestant  High- 
landers, had  O'Donnell's  Irish  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  printed  in  Roman  letters  and 
supplied  with  an  Irish-Gaelic  glossary  (London, 
1690).  To  provide  the  Gaelio-speaking  Highlanders 
with  a  Bible  of  their  own,  the  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Christian  Knowledge  published  in  1767 
the  New  Testament  translated  by  James  Stuart  o! 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


Killin,  and  in  1783-1801  a  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  prepared  by  John  Stuart,  Jr.,  and 
John  Smith.  At  the  instance  of  the  same  so- 
ciety, Dr.  Mark  Hildesley,  bishop  of  Man,  dis- 
tributed different  parts  of  the  Bible  among 
the  Blanz-speaking  clergy  of  the  Isle  of  Man, 
with  the  view  of  having  a  translation  prepared 
into  this  tongue.  The  whole  was  revised  by 
P.  Moore  and  his  pupil  John  Kelly.  In  1770-72 
the  Bible  in  Manx  was  printed  for  the  above  so- 
ciety at  Whitehaven  under  the  supervision  of 
J.  Kelly,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  later  editions. 

Before  the  Reformation  hardly  any  parts  of  the 
Bible  were  translated  into  Cymric.  In  1562  the 
House  of  Commons  resolved  to  have  the  Bible  and 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  translated  into  Cymric 
within  four  years,  and  made  the  bishops  of  Bangor, 
St.  As^h,  Hereford,  TJandaff,  and  St.  Davids 
responsible  for  its  execution.  The  New  Testament 
was  published  in  London  in  1567,  and  in  1588  the 
whole  Bible  (revised  by  Bishop  Richard  Pany,  1620) . 
All  later  issues  follow  Party's  reviwd  text.  The 
Bible  has  never  been  translated  into  Cornish.  A 
manuscript  belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  contains  a  translation  of  Gen.  i,  iii; 
Matt,  iv,  vi,  9-13,  vii;  and  the  ten  commandments. 
Before  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
only  short  passages  of  the  Bible  had  appeared 
in  the  Breton.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  published  at  Angouldme  in  1827  the  New 
Testament  translated  by  the  Breton  scholar  Le 
Gonidec  into  the  dialect  of  L6on.  The  translation 
was  made  from  the  Vulgate,  and  was  for  other 
reasons  unsuitable.  A  new  translation  by  the 
Baptist  missionary  John  Jenkins  was  printed  at 
Brest  in  1847.  Le  Gonidec's  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  was  revised  by  Troude  and  Milin,  and 
published  at  Saint-Brieuc  in  1866.  In  1883  the  Trin- 
itarian Bible  Society  published  a  New  Testament 
in  the  dialect  of  Tr^guier,  prepared  by  the  Breton 
Protestant  G.  Ar  Choat,  and  in  1889  the  whole 
Bible.  A  Roman  Catholic  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  was  published  in  Guingamp  in  1853,  and 
an  edition  of  the  Psalms  at  Paris  in  1873.  For  lin- 
guistic purposes  C.  Terrien  translated  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  into  the  dialect  of  Vannes  (Lundayn, 
1857)  at  the  instance  of  Luden  Bonaparte. 

(H.  ZiMMSR.) 

BnuooaAPHT:  J.  Reid,  Bibliothtea  Seoto-CeUiea,  OImcow. 
1832;  tbA  SeotH^^eUic  Review,  Nov.,  1881,  pp.  160  aqq.; 
T.  Llewelyn,  An  HiaUnioal  Account  of  (he  BriUth  or  Welsh 
Veniont  and  EdiHone  of  Uie  BibU,  London,  1768;  W. 
Rowland,  Uvfryddiadh  of  Cymry,  pp.  10-21.  41-50,  93-07. 
Llandloes,  1800;  Revue  CtUique,  vi.  382.  xi,  180-100,  368; 
Bible  of  Every  Land,  pp.  151-173.  London,  1861;  I.  Bal- 
linger,  The  Bible  in  Walee,  London,  1006. 

m.  Dutch  Versions:  The  first  printed  Dutch 
version  (Delft,  1477),  was  made,  apparently  by  a 
layman,  probably  about  1300  from  the  Latin.  Some 
parts,  which  the  translator  was  unwilling  to  popu- 
larise, as  Deut.  xxii,  13-21,  are  passed  over  with 
a  reference  to  the  Latin  text.  Difficult  passages 
have  explanations  mostly  from  the  Historia  achoUu- 
tiea  of  Peter  Comestor.  The  printed  edition  omits 
Psalms  and  the  New  Testament,  though  both  are 
contained  in  a  good  manuscript  of  this  version  at 
Vienna.    A  very  good  translation  of  the  Psalms  is 


found  in  several  incunabula.  About  1,300  traiuda- 
tions  of  the  New  Testament,  or  at  least  of  the 
church  lessons  or  of  the  life  of  Christ,  began  to 
be  made.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  of 
Erasmus  appeared  at  Delft  in  1524,  and  two  yean 
before  at  Antwerp  a  translation  of  Luther's  version 
was  printed  by  Hans  van  Roemundt  (repeated  at 
Basel,  1525  and  1526,  also,  a  little  altered,  at  Am- 
sterdam, 1526) .  The  Old  Testament  with  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  Psalms  translated  from  Luther,  the 
rest  the  text  of  the  Delft  edition  revised,  was 
printed,  also  by  Roemundt,  in  1525  in  four  small 
vols.;  and  the  first  complete  Dutch  Bible  was 
printed  at  Antwerp  in  1526  by  Jacob  van  Liesveldt. 
It  was  reprinted  and  corrected  several  times  until 
1546,  when  Charies  V  prohibited  the  edition. 

Roman  Catholic  editions  of  the  New  Testament  fol- 
lowed in  1527,  1530,  and  1533,  in  Dutch  and  Latin 
in  1539.  The  whole  Bible  did  not  appear  until  after 
the  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  at  Cologne  in 
1548  by  Alexander  Blanckart,  and  at  Louvain  in 
the  same  year  by  Nicolaus  van  Winghe  with  a  sharp 
preface  against  the  Protestant  editions.  In  1599  it 
was  revised  after  the  official  Vulgate  of  1592,  again 
in  1717  by  iEgidius  Wit  of  Ghent.  After  1820  the 
Roman  Catholics  were  allowed  to  use  editioDs 
without  notes,  and  such  an  edition  of  1599,  caUed 
the  Mdrentorf  Bible  (from  its  publisher),  was  cir- 
culated by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

The  division  of  Dutch  Protestantism  into  various 
parties,  Lutherans,  Mennonites,  and  Reformed, 
caused  the  production  of  various  versions.  The 
Lutherans  received  a  version  in  1558  after  Bugen- 
hagen's  edition  in  Low  (jerman;  it  has  been  several 
times  revised  and  reprinted  up  to  1851.  The  Men- 
nonites  used  a  version  printed  by  Nicolaes  BiestiEeos 
at  Emden  in  1560,  the  first  Dutch  edition  with  verse 
divisions.  The  Reformed  received  another  in  1556, 
based  on  the  Zurich  Bible  of  1548-49  (see  below, 
VII,  §  5);  but  in  1562  they  adopted  a  version 
based  on  Luther's,  called  the  Deux  Aes  or  Eulen- 
spiegel  Bible  (from  the  marginal  notes  at  Neh.  ii, 
5  and  Ecdus.  xix,  5).  The  Remonstrants  used 
at  first  the  Staatenbibel  (see  below)  but  received 
a  New  Testament  of  their  own  from  Hartsoeker 
in  1680. 

After  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  necessity  of  improving  the  Dutch  versions  was 
felt  and  was  shown  especially  by  W.  Baudartius  of 
Zutphen,  who  published  in  1614  an  emended  transla- 
tion. As  early  as  1594  the  States  General  deter- 
mined on  undertaking  a  revision.  The  result  is 
the  Staatenhibel,  At  first  Philips  van  HCamix  (q.v.) 
was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  a  new  translation; 
in  1596  Johannes  Drusius  (q.v.)  was  appointed  his 
assistant.  The  Synod  of  Dort  discussed  the  ques- 
tion in  eight  sessions  in  Nov.,  1618,  and  Uaj, 
1619.  The  work  of  translation  was  completed  in 
1632,  the  revision  of  the  Old  Testament  Sept, 
1634,  that  of  the  New  Testament,  Oct.  10,  1635. 
The  first  edition  was  printed,  with  and  without 
notes,  in  1636,  but  not  published  before  July  29, 
1637.  An  official  list  of  misprints  followed  in 
1655  and  in  1711  for  the  first  time  an  edition  was 
stereotyped.  An  edition  of  500  copies  of  the  New 
Testamwt  was  printed  for  Peter  the  Great  in  1717, 


137 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


and  of  the  Old  Testament  in  five  parts  in  1721,  in 
two  columns,  one  being  left  blank  in  order  to  re- 
ceive in  St.  Petersburg  the  Russian  text.  Language 
and  orthography  raised  difficult  questions  in  a  re- 
vision of  1762,  and  another  by  Henry  Cats  and 
W.  A.  van  Hengel  in  1834.  The  first  impression 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was  made 
in  1812. 

About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  members 
of  the  theological  faculty  of  Leyden  began  a  new 
revision;  the  New  Testament  was  finished  in  1866; 
woiic  on  the  Old  Testament  was  interrupted  for  a 
time,  but  was  resumed  in  1884  by  A.  Kuenen  and 
his  pupils,  H.  Oort,  W.  H.  Kosters,  and  J.  Hooykas. 
The  first  instalment  appeared  at  Leyden  in  1897, 
the  first  part  (Gen  .-Esther)  in  1900,  the  second  part 
(Job-Malachi)  in  1901. 

Of  other  translations  that  by  J.  H.  van  der  Palm 
(1825  and  often)  is  worthy  of  mention.  The  New 
Testament  has  been  translated  by  0.  Viasering, 
a  Mennonite  (1854),  by  S.  P.  Lipman,  a  Roman 
Catholic  (1861),  and  by  0.  J.  Vos  of  the  Reformed 
Cliurch  (1895).  E.  Nestle. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  really  important  work  is  Isaac  Le  Long, 
Bak-Zaal  der  nederduitBdis  BybtU,  Amsterdam,  1732,  2d 
ed..  1764.  Consult  also  BibU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  181-186, 
London,  1861;  H.  van  Druten,  Oeeehiedenia  der  Neder- 
taf»d$du  BvbelvertaUng,  2  vols.,  Leyden.  1896-97;  Q.  N. 
De  Vooys.  ThT,  March.  1903;  J.  M.  Bebb,  in  DB,  extra 
▼ol.,  pp.  414-415. 

On  the  StaatenbiiM  consult  N.  Hinlopen,  Hietorie  van 
de  NedeHandaehe  OverwetHmfe  dee  Bybele,  Leyden,  1777; 
P.  Meyes,  Jacabue  Reviue,  Amsterdam,  1806;  J.  Hein- 
sius,  Klank-en  Buitfinifleer  van  de  tool  dee  ttatenbijbele. 
Amsterdam,  1897. 

IV.  English  VerBions:  Setting  aside  the  Biblical 
poetry  that  is  in  the  main  wroxigly  ascribed  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Csdmon  (q.v.),  and  the  translation 
of  John's  Gospel  which  Bede  finished  on  his  death- 
bed, but  of  which  nothing  further  is  known,  the 
Psalms  seem  to  have  been  the  first  part  of  the 
Bible  to  be  translated  into  English.  An  Anglo- 
Saxon  paraphrase  is  extant  containing 
B^Tklt  *^  ^"^  ^*y  Psahns  in  prose,  the 
Yer^LwDa.  «8t  in  verse  (ed.  B.  Thorpe,  Oxford, 
1835),  which  has  been  incorrectly  at- 
tributed to  Aldhelm  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Sherborne, 
who  died  in  709,  and  to  King  Alfred;  the  name 
of  the  translator  is  not  known,  but  he  did 
his  work  after  778  and  used  the  Latin,  not 
the  Greek  text,  as  did  all  the  others  down  to  and 
induding  Wydif .  A  translation  of  the  four  (xospels 
was  made  probably  in  the  ninth  centuiy  (ed.  Mat- 
thew Parker,  1571;  T.  Marshall,  1665;  B.  Thorpe, 
Tha  halffon  Godapd  an  Englisc.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
Vernon  of  the  Holy  OogpeU,  London,  1842;  Joseph 
Bosworth  and  George  Waring,  The  Gothic  and 
Anglo'Saxan  Oo8pels,  London,  1865;  new  ed., 
1907),  and  interlinear  fosses  for  the  Psalms  and 
the  (jospels  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
iPaallerium  Davidis  LaUno-Saxonicum  veius,  Lon- 
don, 1640).  The  so-called  Vespasian  Cxospels  prob- 
ably belong  to  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century 
(cf.  J.  Stevenson,  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English 
Psalter,  2  vols.,  London,  1843-47;  H.  Sweet,  The 
Oldest  English  Texts,  Early  English  Text  Society, 
vol.  83,  London,  1885,  pp.  183-^20;  E.  Wende, 
UAeriieferung  und  Sprache  der  mitteUnglischen  Ver- 


sion des  Psalters  und  ihr  Verhdltnis  zur  lateinischen 
Vorlage,  Breslau,  1884).  There  are  other  similar 
glosses  to  the  Psalter  in  the  libraries  of  Cambridge 
University  and  Trinity  Gollege.  Cambridge,  in  the 
British  Museum,  in  the  Bodleian  at  Oxford,  in 
Lambeth  Palace,  and  Salisbury  Cathedral.  For  other 
Gospel  versions,  cf .  G.  Stevenson  and  G.  Waring,  The 
Lindisfame  and  Rushrvorth  Gospels  (4  vols.,  Durham 
and  London,  1854-66);  K.  W.  Bouterwek,  Die 
vier  Evangelien  in  aUnorthumbrischer  Sprache 
(Gateraloh,  1857);  W.  W.  Skeat,  The  Gospel  according 
to  MaUhew,  etc.  (Cambridge,  1887,— AfarA;,  1871; 
Luke,  1871;  John,  1878);  A.  S.  Cook,  A  Glossary  of 
the  Old  Northumbrian  Gospels  (Halle,  1894).  Alfric 
(q.v.)  translated  the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  in 
997-998.  The  following  may  also  be  mentioned: 
homilies  on  the  lessons  by  the  Augustinian  monk 
Ormin  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  (the 
so-called  Ormulum);  the  translation  of  the 
Psalms  by  William  de  Shorham,  vicar  of  Chart- 
Sutton,  near  Leeds  in  County  Kent,  about  1325 
(the  manuscript  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  owned 
by  John  Hyde  and  perhaps  written  by  him, 
may  be  a  revision  of  this  translation);  and  the 
commentary  with  a  translation  of  the  Psalms  by 
Richard  RoUe  of  Hampole  near  Doncaster,  York- 
shire, written  about  1330  (cf.  H.  R.  Bramley,  The 
Psalter  .  ,  .  by  Richard  RoUe  .  .  .  Edited  from 
Manuscripts,  Oxford,  1884;  Heinrich  Middendorft, 
Studien  Ober  Richard  RoUe  von  Hampole,  Magde- 
burg, 1888). 

The  language  developed  and  the  thoughts  of 
men  strode  onward.  John  Wyclif  (q.v.)  entered 
the  lists  to  war  for  the  pure  truth,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  give  the  people  the  Bible.  With  the  help 
of  his  pupil  Nicholas  of  Hereford  (q.v.)  he  seems  to 
have  translated  the  whole  Bible,  and  when  he  was 
charged  with  heresy  and  driven  from 
2.  Wyolif.  Oxford  m  1382,  he  withdrew  to  Lutter- 
worth and  revised  the  whole  very 
carefully.  His  pupil  John  Purvey  (q.v.)  appears 
also  to  have  revised  some  things  in  the  Old 
Testament;  he  did  all  he  could  to  spread  the 
translation  abroad  after  Wydif's  death  (cf .  The 
New  Testament  in  English,  Translated  by  John 
Wydiffe  circa  1380,  now  first  printed  from  a  contem^ 
porary  manuscript,  .  .  .  Printed  at  Chisunck  by 
Charles  WhUtingham  for  William  Pickering,  Lon- 
don, 1848;  Josiah  Forshall  and  Frederic  Madden, 
The  Holy  Bible  .  .  .  in  the  Earliest  English  Ver- 
sions Made  .  .  .  by  John  Wydiffe  and  his  Follow- 
ers, 4  vols.,  Oxford,  1850,  with  a  list  of  170 
manuscripts;  J.  ten  Brink,  Geschichte  der  englischen 
Litteratur,  vol.  ii,  by  Alois  Brandl,  Strasburg, 
1893,  pp.  5-32,  especially  pp.  27;  A.  Richter,  Das 
Wydiffesche  Evangdium  Johannis  im  500,  Bde, 
der  Tauchnitzer  Collection  of  British  Authors,  die 
Wydiffesche  Bibduberseteung,  und  das  VerhOltnis 
des  ersteren  zu  der  letzteren,  programme  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Wesel,  Aug.  30,  1862).  The  first 
English  Bible,  the  first  Bible  at  all  in  a  modem 
tongue,  was  well  received  by  the  people,  but  for 
a  century  and  a  half  was  the  object  of  attack  by 
priests  and  nobility.  Even  long  after  the  dis- 
covery of  printing  no  one  could  think  of  publish- 
ing this  translation.     It  finally  came  out  as   a 


Btbl«  Terslons 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


138 


literaxy  neoearity  in  1731,  edited  by  J.  Lewis 
(reprinted  by  H.  H.  Baber,  London,  1810, 
and  by  Baxter,  London,  1841;  the  edition  of 
1848  ia  named  above).  For  another  version  of 
thia  period  oonault  the  work  of  a  Swedish  lady, 
Anna  G.  Panes,  A  Fourteenth  Century  English 
Biblical  Version  (Cambridge,  1904). 

The  first  to  translate  the  New  Testament 
in  English  from  the  original  Greek  was  William 
lyndale   (q.v.).    He   printed  Matthew  and  Mark 

first,  somewhere  on  the  Continent,  in 
8.  Tyndale.  1524  and  1525,  and  then  the  whole  New 

Testament  in  quarto,  partly  at  Cologne 
at  Peter  Quentel's  before  1526,  partly,  it  seems, 
at  Worms  (at  Peter  Schdffer'sT)  in  3,000  copies, 
and  in  octavo  at  Cologne-  at  SchOffer's  in 
3,000  copies.  Both  editions  were  in  En^and 
by  about  March,  1526  (cf.  The  First  Printed 
English  New  Testament  Translated  by  WiUiam 
Tyndale,  PhoUdithographed.  .  .  .  EditedbyE.Arber, 
London,  1871;  The  First  New  Testament  Printed 
in  the  English  Language  .  .  ,  by  WiUiam  Tyndale. 
Reproduced  in  facsimile  ,  .  ,  by  F.  Fry,  Bristol, 
1862;  James  Loring  Clieney,  The  Sources  of  Tyn- 
dale^s  New  Testament,  Halle,  1883,  especially  pp. 
39,  40;  W.  Sopp,  Orthographie  und  AusspratAe 
der  ersten  neuenglischen  BibelQbersetzung  von  William 
Tyndale,  Marburg,  1889).  The  hierarchy  attacked 
Tyndale's  work  violently.  The  first  public  burning 
of  the  volume  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  the 
autimmof  1526.  William  Warham  (q.v.),  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  thought  in  May,  1527,  that 
his  agents  had  bought  up  all  the  copies  of  all 
three  editions.  In  1528  the  readers  of  the  New 
Testament  had  to  take  their  turn  at  being  burned. 
Tyndale  published  the  Pentateuch  Jan.  17, 1530,  at 
Marburg,  Joshua  in  1531. 

William  Roye,  George  Joye  (afterward  a  bitter 
enemy),  Miles  Coverdale  (q.v.),  John  Rogers  (q.v.), 
and  John  Frith  (q.v.)  were  among  the  friends  who 
from  time  to  time  worked  with  Tyndale.  Cov- 
erdale completed  at  Antwerp,  Oct.  4,  1535.  the 
printing  of   his  translation   of   the  whole  Bible 

"  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn  "  (i.e.  the 

4.  Oover-  German  of  Luther  and  the  Zurich  Bible 

^J;      of    1524-29-see   below,   VII,   §  5— 

Bditions.   ^^^  ^^^  Vulgate),  using  also  Tyndale's 

work.  This  was  the  first  complete 
Bible  in  English;  in  it  the  non-canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  in  an  appendix  by 
themselves,  named  "  Hagiographa."  In  1537 
the  "Matthew"  Bible  came  out,  a  speculation 
on  the  part  of  the  king's  printer,  although  most 
of  it  was  perhaps  printed  in  Antwerp;  it 
was  a  combination  of  Tyndale  and  Coveidale, 
made  by  John  Rogers  (alias  Matthew)  in 
.\ntwerp.  In  1539  appeared  the  "Tavemer" 
Bible,  a  revision  of  the  Matthew  Bible  by 
Richard  Tavemer  (q.v.).  The  "Great"  Bible 
was  brought  out  by  Oomwell,  Eari  of  Essex, 
Thomas  Cranmer  (q.v.),  and  Thomas  More  (q.v.), 
and  a  committee  of  prelates  and  scholars,  and 
was  printed  under  Coverdale's  supervision,  partly 
at  Parin,  till  the  Inquisitor-General  attacked  it  Dec. 
17,  1538,  and  then  in  London,  where  the  volume 
was  finiflhcd  in  Apr.,  1539;  the  second  edition("  Cran- 


mer's  "  Bible,  1540)  was  "  apoynted  to  the  vse  of 
the  churches";  the  Psalter  from  this  Bible  still  staiufa 
in  the  prayer4MX>k  of  the  Knglish  Church.  In  1557 
William  Whittingham  published  at  Geneva  an  Eng- 
lish New  Testament  with  Stephens's  verBe-dirifflon 
of  1551  (see  Bulk  Text,  III,  }§  2-^3)  and  withmany 
corrections  of  the  translation.  In  1558  Coverdile 
began  in  Geneva  a  new  Bible,  but  returned  to 
England  in  1559,  while  Whittingham,  Anthooy 
Gilby,  and  Thomas  Sampson  finished  the  print- 
ing of  the  handsome  edition  known  as  the 
"Geneva"  Bible  in  Apr.,  1560.  Ardibishop 
Parker  (q.v.)  with  eleven  bishops  and  four  minor 
prelates  began  in  1563  a  revision  of  the  ecfition  of 
1539,  which  was  completed  Oct.  5,  1568,  as  the 
"  Bishops'  "  Bible;  but  it  was  not  especially  liked; 
in  the  churches  they  used  chiefly  the  Bible  of  1539 
and  at  home  the  Geneva  Bible.  See  Bibles, 
Annotated,  and  Biblb  Suioiarieb,  II,  {(  1-2. 

The  Roman  Catholic  fugitives  on  the  Gontineiit 
now  prepared  an  Eng^h  version  and  published 
the  New  Testament  at  Reims  in  15S2;  the  Old 
Testament  followed  in  two  volumes  at  Douai 
(q.v.)  in  160&-10  (the  first  edition  of  the  "Douai '' 

Bible;  cf.  Gregory  Martin,  A  Z>t»- 
^^^  coverie  of  the  Manifold  Corruptiont  of 
mSSi.      ^  ^^^  Scriptures  by  the  Herdikes  of 

our  Daies,  etc.,  Rekns,  1582;  Will- 
iam Fulke,  A  Defence  of  the  Sincere  and  True  Trans- 
lations of  the  Holie  Scriptures  .  .  .  againd  .  .  . 
Gregorie  Martin,  London,  1583,  ed.  C.  H.  Harts- 
home  for  the  Parker  Society,  Cambridge,  1843). 
[Both  works  profess  to  be  "faithfully  translated 
out  of  the  authentical  Latin,  diligently  conferred 
with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  editions  in  di- 
vers languages,"  and  are  provided  with  argumenU 
of  books  and  chapters,  annotations,  and  "other 
helps  for  the  better  understanding  of  the  text,  and 
specially  for  the  discovery  of  the  comiptionfi  of 
divers  late  translations,  and  for  clearing  the  con- 
troversies in  religion  of  these  days."  The  New 
Testament  was  reprinted  at  Antwerp  in  1600;  the 
two  Testaments  were  united  by  Richard  C^hal- 
loner  (q.v.)  in  a  five  volume  edition  published  in 
London,  1749-50.  The  version  was  promoted  by 
Cardinal  William  Allen  (q.v.)  and  the  translation 
was  by  Gregory  Martin,  a  former  fellow  of  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford,  revised  by  Allen,  Richard 
Bristow,  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and 
probably  others.  The  annotations,  tables,  etc, 
for  the  Old  Testament  were  by  Thomas  Worthing- 
ton,  a  graduate  of  Oxford  (Brasenose  College)  and 
president  of  Douai  College  1599-1613.  The  long 
interval  between  the  publication  of  the  two  Testa- 
ments was  due  to  lack  of  means  as  the  translation 
of  both  was  completed  before  1582.  The  English 
of  the  translation  is  faulty  owing  to  too  close  fol- 
lowing of  the  Vulgate,  and  from  the  critical  stand- 
point it  possesses  the  advantages  and  defects 
inherent  in  that  Latin  version.  An  daborate  pref- 
ace of  more  than  twenty  pages  explains  and  justi- 
fies the  translation.  The  notes  are  characterised 
by  the  controversial  spirit  of  the  time  in  which 
they  were  produced.  The  Douai  version  became 
the  standani  Bible  of  the  Enghsh  Roman  Catho- 
lics and,  with  extensive  changes  in  language  and 


139 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


orthogn^hy  introduced  in  Challoner's  various 
editions  (see  Cralloner,  Richard),  stiU  remains 
such.  American  editions  were  published  in  New 
York  in  1854  and  1861.  Consult  Henry  Cotton, 
Rhemes  and  Daway  (Oxford,  1855);  F.  £.  C.  Gigot 
(Roman  Catholic),  Oeneral  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  Scriptures  (New  York,  1900),  pp.  345  sqq.] 

Puritan  dissatiiBfaction  with  existing  versions,  or 
perhaps  with  the  existence  of  another  version  than 
the  one  used  and  approved  by  themselves,  was 
urged  by  John  Reynolds  (q.v.),  head  of   Ciorpus 
Christi   College,  Oxford,  at  the  Hampton   Court 
Conference  (q.v.)  in  Jan.,  1604.    The  idea  of  a 
new  Bible  translation,  to  be  made  ostensibly  at 
his  instance  and  under  his  direction,  was  congenial 
to  James  I.    By  the  summer  of  1604  the  prelimi- 
Dsries  were  completed.  A  commission  of  six  "  com- 
panies," each  of  nine  scholars  (two 
^t^'r^fd*"  co™P*^®*  ^'^^  ^  Westminster,  Ox- 
Ymdra.    ^<*"^»  ^^^  Cambridge;  actually  forty- 
seven  members  took  part;  for  names 
of  the  translators,  the  division  of  the  work,  and 
much  other  information  about  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion in  convenient  form,  cf.  Mombert's  Hand  Book, 
chap,  xiii;  Schaff's  Companionf  chap,  vii),  was  ap- 
pointed by  James  and  very  strict  rules  were  laid 
down  for  the  work.     After  years  of  labor  (although 
6ome  say  that  the  work  really  began  only  in  1607 
and  lasted  but  two  years  and  a  lulf ),  during  which 
some  passages  were  wrought  over  fourteen  or  even 
seventeen  times,  the  version  appeared  in  1611  in 
two  folio  editions,  set  up  and  printed  at  the  same 
time  so  as  to  have  a  large  number  of  copies  very 
quickly;  in  the  same  year  a  duodecimo  edition 
came  out,  of  which  only  one  copy  (in  the  Lenox 
Library,  New  York  City)  is  said  to  be  known,  and 
in  1613  what  is  called  the  second  folio  edition. 
The  translation  was  then  called  "  The  Authorised 
Vereion  "  (although  it  does  not  appear  ever  to  have 
been  "  authorized  ")  or  "  King  James's  Version," 
and  the    title  read  "  Appointed    to  be  read  in 
Churches."    The  translation  was  good,  clear,  dig- 
niBed,  idiomatic,  and  suited  to  the  people.    Of 
course,  like  everything  new,  it  was  at  first  and  for 
a  long  time  sharply  attacked,  but  little  by  little  it 
made  its  way,  and  in  1661  the  Epistles  and  Gos- 
pels in  the  Fngliah  prayer-book  were  changed  to 
this  translation.     F.  H.  A.  Scrivener  published  a 
critical  edition  of  this  version:  The  Cambridge  Para- 
graph Bible  of  the  Authorized  English  Version,  etc. 
(Cambridge,  1873),  in  which  he  compared  many  of 
the  reprints,  as  well  as  the  revisions  of  Dr.  Paris 
in  1762,  Dr.  Blayney  in  1769,  and  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  in  1867;  unfortunately  Scrivener  does 
not  give  the  exact  text  of  1611  or  of  1613. 

On  Feb.   10,  1870,  on  motion  of  Samuel  Wil- 
bcrforce  (q.v.),   bishop  of   Winchester,  the   Con- 
vocation of  C^terbury  determined   upon   a  re- 
vision of   the  Authorized   Version  (cf.  Mombert, 
Hand  Book,  chxp.  xiv;  Schaff,  Companion,  chap, 
viii).     About     thirty-seven    scholars 
^^J2j    were  asked  to  take  up  the  Old  Tc»- 
Tersion.    tament,  and  about  twenty-nine   the 
New  Testament,  although  the  number 
really   working  at  any  time  was  less.    At  least 
five    religious    bodies    besides    the    Church    of 


England  shared  in  the  work.  In  like  manner 
two  groups  of  scholars  from  nine  different  relig- 
ious bodies  took  up  the  work  in  America  and 
the  results  of  the  deliberations  were  exchanged 
across  the  sea.  The  Greek  text  of  the  New 
Testament  (cf .  Ths  Greek  Testament  vrith  the  Read- 
ings Adopted  hy  the  Revisers  of  the  Authorized 
Version,  Oxford,  1881)  was  thoroughly  worked 
over  and  the  translation  made  on  the  basis  of 
the  result  compared  with  the  translation  of  1611, 
and  in  every  detail  filed  and  polished.  The  re- 
vised New  Testament  was  published  in  England 
May  17,  1881,  and  in  America,  May  20,  1881; 
the  Old  Testament  appeared  May  19,  1885.  Three 
million  copies  of  the  New  Testament  were  sold 
within  a  year.  The  reception,  especially  in 
England,  was  at  first,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
not  very  friendly.  A  very  few  indeed  were  dis- 
satisfied because  too  few  alterations  had  been 
made.  The  great  mass  struggled  against  the 
change  of  old  familiar  words  and  found  support  in 
one  scholar  or  another.  Some  conservative  scholars 
condemned  the  English  dress  while  they  approved 
the  changes  made  in  the  original  text,  and  others 
took  offense  at  the  new  readings  in  the  original 
text,  because  they  considered  the  common  readings 
sacred.  America  had  a  peculiar  reason  for  com- 
plaint, seeing  that  many  an  expression  which  Amer- 
ican scholars  had  preferred  was  to  be  found  only 
in  the  appendix,  and  they  were  bound  not  to  issue  a 
new  edition  within  fourteen  years.  That  time  was 
up  in  1896,  and  the  American  edition,  a  model  of 
exact  work,  appeared  in  New  York  in  1901.  As 
the  years  pass  the  revision  gains  friends,  and  gains 
them  more  rapidly  than  did  the  revision  of  1611. 
Caspab  Ren6  Grbqobt. 

The  following  is  a  list  (inoomplete)  of  translations  of  the 
Bible  or  parts  of  it  into  English  or  attempts  at  revision  of 
the  Authorised  Version  hy  indiyiduals  previous  to  the  re- 
vision of  1881-86  (see  also  Bibx.bb,  Annotated,  and  Biblb 
SuMMARisB,  II).  Daniel  Maoe,  a  Presbsrterian  clergyman, 
N.  T.  (2  vols.,  London.  1729;  Ok.  text  with  a  scholarly 
but  eccentric  transl.);  Anthony  Purver,  a  Quaker,  A  New 
and  Literal  Tranal.  of  AU  the  Booke  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  (2 
vols.,  London,  1764;  has  notes);  Edward  Harwood,  A 
Liberal  TraneL  of  the  N.  T.  (2  vols.,  London, 
8.  Xinor  1768;  described  as  an  attempt  to  transUte 
Verslona.  the  sacred  writings  with  the  *'  freedom, 
spirit,  and  elegance  "  of  other  translations 
from  the  Qreek;  has  notes  and  includes  the  First  Epistle 
of  Clement);  Henry  Southwell,  entire  Bible  (London,  1782; 
the  A.  V.  with  notes.  '*  wherein  the  mistranslations  are  cor- 
rected ");  George  Campbell,  professor  in  Aberdeen,  The 
Four  Ooepele  (2  vols.,  London,  1789;  has  dissertations  and 
notes);  Gilbert  Wakefield,  a  Unitarian,  N.  T.  (3  vols., 
London,  1791);  James  Macknight,  AU  the  Apoetolical  Ejne- 
tlee  (4  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1796;  has  commentary,  notes,  and 
life  of  Paul);  William  Newcome,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
N.  T.  (2  vols.,  Dublin,  1796;  from  Griesbach's  text;  a  Uni- 
tarian version  based  on  Neweome's  work  was  issued  by 
Thomas  Belsham  in  2  vols.,  London,  1808;  Newcome  also 
published  "  attempts  "  at  improved  versions  of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  1785,  and  Esekiel,  1788;  his  manuscript  mate- 
rials for  a  revised  O.  T.  are  in  Lambeth  Palace);  Nathaniel 
Scarlett,  successively  a  Methodist,  Universalist,  and  Bap- 
tist, N.  T.  (London,  1798;  with  not«s);  David  Macrae,  A 
Revieed  Tranel.  and  Interpretation  of  Ote  Sacred  Scripharee, 
€ffter  the  Baetem  manner,  from  roncwrrent  authoritiee  of  the 
erxHee,  interpretere,  and  commenlatare*  eopiee  and  nertions, 
ehowing  thai  Ote  inepired  vriHnge  contain  the  eeede  of  the 
valuaUe  edeneee,  etc.  (2  parts,  London,  1798-99^;  Charles 
Thomson,  entire  Bible,  the  O.  T.  from  the  Septuagint  (4 
vols..  Philadelphia,  1808);  John  BeUamy,  O.  T.  through 


Bibl«  Teraions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


140 


Bone  of  SoL  (London,  1818  aqq.;  has  notM);  Alexmnder 
Campbell,  founder  of  the  Dteeiples  of  Christ,  N.  T.  (1820; 
see  Camfbbli..  Ai«kzakdcb);  Rodolphus  Dickinson,  an 
American  Episcopalian,  N.  T.  (Boston,  1833;  has  notes); 
Noah  Webster,  the  lezicoKrapher,  the  Bible  "  with  amend- 
ments of  the  language  "  (New  Haven.  1833;  the  amend- 
ments were  the  removal  of  obsolete  words  or  *'  those  deemed 
below  the  dignity  and  solemnity  of  the  subject,  the  eorree- 
tion  of  errors  in  grammar,  and  the  insertion  of  euphe- 
misms, words,  and  phrasss  which  are  not  very  offensive  to 
deUcacy ");  Nathan  Hale,  N.  T.  (Boston,  1836;  from 
Griesbaeh's  text);  Granville  Penn,  N.  T.  (London.  1830); 
C.  WeUbeloved,  a  Unitarian,  Pentateuch  and  Job-Song  of 
SoL  (2  vols.,  London,  1838;  "  a  new  transl."  witb  notes); 
Samuel  Sharpe.  the  Egyptologist,  N.  T.  (London,  1840; 
from  Griesbaeh's  text)  and  O.  T.  (3  vols.,  1806;  there  were 
eight  eds.  of  the  former  and  four  of  the  latter  during  the 
author's  Ufe;  Sharpe's  revision  is  commended  for  skilful 
removal  of  the  archaisms  of  the  A.  V.);  Edgar  Taylor, 
N.  T.  (London,  1840;  from  Griesbaeh's  text;  a  meritorious 
verrion);  Joshua  V.  Himes,  the  "  liillerite,"  N.  T.  (Boston, 
1849);  James  Murdock,  N.  T.  from  the  Peshito  (New  York, 
1851);  Andrews  Norton,  Gospels  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1865); 
Gospel  of  John  (London,  1857)  and  Pauline  Epistles  (1801) 
by  Henry  Alford,  George  Moberly,  W.  G.  Humphry,  C.  J. 
Ellioott,  and  John  Barrow;  L.  A.  Ambrose,  N.  T.  (Boston, 
1858;  with  chronological  arrangement  and  **  improved " 
chapter  and  verse  divisions);  L.  A.  Sawyer,  N.  T.  (Boston, 
1858).  entira  Bible  (New  York,  1879  sqq.);  Bobert  Young, 
author  of  the  coneordanoe,  entire  Bible  (Edinburgh,  1803; 
very  literal);  T.  S.  Green,  The  Twofold  N.  T.  (London. 
1804;  Gk.  text  and  new  transl.  in  parallel  columns);  Henry 
Alford.  N.  T.  (London,  1809);  G.  R.  Noyes,  professor  in 
Harvard,  N.  T.  (Boston.  1809;  from  Tischendorfs  text; 
Prof.  Noyes  also  published  translations  of  Job,  1827,  PMlms, 
1831,  the  Prophets,  1833,  and  Proverbs,  Ecdesiastes,  and 
Canticles,  1840);  J.  N.  Darby.  N.  T.  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1872);  J.  B.  Botherham,  N.  T.  (London.  1872;  from  text 
of  Tregelles,  with  introduction  and  notes);  Samuel  David- 
son, N.  T.  (London,  1875;  from  Tischendorfs  text,  with 
introduction);  J.  B.  Mc(71el]an,  (3ospels  (London.  1875; 
based  on  A.  V.  with  a  "  critically  revised  "  text);  Julia  E. 
Smith,  entire  Bible  (Hartford.  1870);  Ths  Reviami  Engliah 
BibU  (O.  T.  by  F.  W.  Goteh  and  Benjamin  Davics,  N.  T. 
by  G.  A.  Jacob  and  S.  G.  Green,  London,  1877;  with  notes, 
Ubles,  and  maps);  The  Sunday  Sduxd  Centenary  Bible,  by 
T.  K.  Cheyne.  R.  L.  Clarke.  S.  R.  Driver,  A.  Ckwdwin.  and 
W.  Sanday  (London,  1880;  republished,  1882.  as  The  Vari- 
crum  Teaeher'a  BibU).  The  American  Bible  Union,  formed 
in  1850  (see  Biblb  Sociribs,  III.  2).  undertook  an  Eng- 
lish version  which  should  reflect  Baptist  views  in  the  lan- 
guage used,  and  published  the  N.  T.  (2d  revision.  New  York 
and  London.  1809)  and  certain  books  of  the  O.  T.  Since 
1882  the  work  has  been  continued  by  the  American  Bap- 
tist Publication  Society  of  Philadelphia  and  is  now  nearing 
completion.  Among  the  scholars  who  have  collaborated 
in  this  version  are  John  A.  Broadus,  T.  J.  Conant,  H.  B. 
Hackett,  William  R.  Harper,  Alvah  Hovey.  A.  C.  Kendrick, 
Ira  M.  Price,  J.  R.  Sampey,  and  B.  C.  Taykir.  A  present 
day  tendency  is  represented  by  The  Bible  in  Modem  Eng- 
IxA,  translated  direct  from  the  original  languages  by  Ferrar 
Fenton,  with  critical  introduction  and  notes  (St.  Paul's 
cqistles.  London.  1894;  N.  T.  complete.  1895;  O.  T.,  1903). 
The  following  are  by  Roman  (}atbolies:  John  Oaryll,  a 
layman,  secretary  to  the  qiieen  of  James  II  and  intimately 
associated  with  the  family  of  James,  the  Psalms  (St.  Ger- 
mains,  1700;  a  prose  version  from  tiie  Vulgate  taking  Bel- 
larmine  as  a  guide);  (}omeliu8  Nary,  parish  priest  of  St. 
Biichan's.  Dublin.  The  N.  T.  .  ,  .  neuAy  Tranalaied  out  of 
ihe  LaUn  Vulgate  (Dublin,  1718;  has  annototions  and  notes); 
Robert  Witham,  president  at  Douai,  Annotatione  on  the 
N.  7*.  (2  vols..  Douai.  1730;  explains  the  "  Uteral  sense." 
'*  examines  and  disproves  "  false  interpretations,  and  gives 
*'an  account  of  the  chief  differences  betwixt  the  text  of 
the  ancient  Latin  version  and  the  Greek ");  '*  Troy's 
Bible"  (DubUn.  1791;  ed.  the  Rev.  Bernard  MacMahon. 
who  had  already  edited  three  annotated  editions  of  the 
Reims  N.  T.;  this  Bible  is  annotated  and  the  text  of  the 
N.  T.  differs  considerably  from  Challoner;  the  name  comes 
from  J.  T.  Troy,  titular  archbishop  of  Dublin,  who  ap- 
proved the  work);  Alexander  Geddes.  (jenesis-II  (chron- 
icles and  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  (2  vols.,  London,  1792- 
1797)  and  Psalms  i-oviii  (1807;  see  Gbddbs,  Alexandbr); 
the  "  Newcastle  N.  T."  (1812;  differs  from  every  other 


known  edition  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts);  John  lioKard.  A 
New  Vereian  of  ffte  Four  Oo&pde  (London.  1830;  for  the 
most  part  from  the  Greek;  has  notea);  F.  P.  Keozick. 
bishop  of  Philadelphia,  later  archbishop  of  Baltimore.  N.  T. 
(2  vols..  New  York,  1849-61;  "  a  revision  of  the  Rheini«h 
translation  with  notes  ");  F.  A.  Spencer.  O.  P.,  N.  T.  (Nev 
York,  1898  eqq.;  from  the  Greek).  The  work  of  Biabop 
Challoner  has  been  tefeiied  to  above  (f  6). 

The  following  are  eertain  rare  and  curious  editions  of  tbs 
English  Bible  with  the  passage  or  fact  which  gives  to  each 
its  name.  The  Broeekee  BibU:  the  Geneva  Bible  of  I5aO; 
Gen.  iii.  7  reads  '*  They  sewed  fig  leavea  together  and  made 
themselves  breeches  "  (also  in  Wydif);  the  Bug  Bibk:  aa 
edition  of  the  Matthew  Bible  in  1551;  Pn 

9.  Bare      xd,  6  reads  "  So  that  thou  shalt  not  nsda 
and  to  be  afraid  for  any  bugges  [i.e.,  bogies]  by 

Ooxioiia      ni^t "  (also  in  Coverdale   and    Tavenwr;; 

Bdltiona.  the  Caxton  Memorial  BibU:  Oxford.  1S77: 
printed  and  bound  in  100  copies  in  twelve 
hours;  the  Dia<Aarge  BibU:  London,  1802;  I  Tun.  t.  31, 
"  I  discharge  [for  chargel  thee  before  God";  the  Eon  to 
Bar  BOde:  Oxford,  1807;  Matt.  xiii.  43.  "  Who  hath  esn 
to  ear  "  (also  has  "  good  works  "  for  "  dead  works  '  ia 
Heb.  ix,  14):  the  Gooee  BibU:  Doit  editions  of  the  Qeaer% 
Bible,  because  the  Dort  press  had  a  goose  as  its  embleni; 
the  He  and  She  BibUe:  the  first  and  the  aeoond  folio  edi- 
tions of  the  version  of  1611;  in  Ruth  iii.  16,  the  former 
reads  '*  He  measured  six  measures  of  barley  and  laid  it  on 
her:  and  he  went  into  the  city  ";  the  latter  **  and  she  went 
into  the  city  ";  both  issues  were  used  by  printers  as  eopy 
until  in  and  after  1614  all  have  **  she  "  (cf.  the  Revised 
Version,  text  and  margin);  the  Zjeda  Bible:  the  first  Biah- 
ops'  Bible  (1508);  it  used  a  series  of  initial  letters  prepared 
for  Ovid's  Metamorphoeee  and  that  for  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  represented  Leda  and  the  swan  (also  called  the 
Treacle  Bible,  see  below);  the  Mwrderere*  BibU:  has  "  mur- 
derers "  for  **  murmurers  "  in  Jude  10.  also  other  miaprist*; 
the  Plaeemakere'  BibU:  the  second  edition  of  the  (jenrvs 
Bible  (1602);  has  **  plaoemakers  "  for  *'  peacemakers "  in 
Matt.  V,  9;  the  RAduOi  BibU:  London,  1823;  (Sen.  xxir. 
01,  **  And  Rebekah  aroae  and  her  camels  "  (for  "  damMla  "); 
the  Roein  BibU:  the  first  Douai  Bible  (1009-10):  Jer. 
viU.  22.  "  Is  there  no  rxMin  in  GileadT"  (A.  V.  "balm"): 
the  Standing  Fiahee  BibU:  London,  1800;  £sek.  xlvii.  10. 
**  The  fishes  [for  fishers]  shall  stand  upon  it " ;  (the  error 
was  repeated  in  editions  of  1813  and  1823);  the  Tkuwik 
BibU:  Aberdeen.  1070;  it  is  about  one  inch  square  ssd 
half  an  inch  thick;  the  To  Remain  BibU:  (Cambridge.  1805; 
Gal.  iv,  29.  **  Persecuted  him  that  was  bom  after  the  Spirit 
to  remain  even  so  it  is  now  "  (the  words  '*  to  remain  "  hsd 
been  written  on  the  proof  in  answer  to  a  query  whether  or 
not  a  conuna  should  be  deleted;  the  error  was  retained  in 
an  edition  printed  for  the  Bible  Society  in  1806-06  and  in 
an  edition  of  1819);  the  TreaeU  BibU:  the  first  Bishops' 
Bible  (1608;  also  called  the  Leda  Bible,  see  above):  Jer. 
viii.  22,  **  Is  these  no  tryade  in  Gilead  "  (cf.  the  Rmid 
Bible);  the  Vinegar  Bible:  Oxford.  1710-17;  has  "  vine- 
gar "  for  "  vineyard  "  as  the  heading  to  Luke  xx  (it  was 
printed  by  J.  Baskett.  and  though  the  most  sumptuous  of 
the  Oxford  Bibles,  soon  came  to  be  styled  "  a  basketful  of 
printer's  erron ");  the  Wicked  Bible:  London.  1631:  the 
negative  was  left  out  of  the  seventh  commandment  (it  wv 
printed  by  the  king's  printer  and  there  were  four  editioiu 
in  the  same  year;  all  were  suppressed  and  the  printer  va* 
fined  £300);  another  Wicked  Bible  (London.  1053)  makes 
Pkul  ask.  I  (}or.  vi.  9.  "  Know  ye  not  that  the  unrighteous 
shall  inherit  the  kingdom  of  CSodr  "  the  Wife-Hater  BibU: 
Oxford,  1810;  Luke  xiv,  20,  *'  If  any  man  come  to  me  and 
hate  not  his  father  .  .  .  yea,  and  his  own  wife  [for  bfc] 
also,  he  can  not  be  my  disciple."  The  list  of  misprioM 
might  be  greatly  extended.  A  Cambridge  Bible  of  1629, 
printed  and  proof-read  with  great  care,  introduced  "th>' 
doctrine  "  for  "  the  doctrine  "  in  I  Tim.  iv.  16.  and  the 
error  reappeared  for  many  years.  An  Edinburgh  octavo 
of  1037  has,  Jer.  iv,  17.  "  because  she  hath  been  relipow* 
[rebellious]  against  me."  Perhaps  the  finest  Bible  ever 
printed  at  Cambridge  (1038)  has  a  famous  error  in  ActJ 
vi,  3,  which  is  said  to  have  cost  Oomwell  £1.000  as  a  bribe 
— ••  whom  ye  [for  we]  may  appoint."  Cotton  Mather  re- 
lates that  a  Bible  printed  before  1702  made  David  oomplaio 
in  Ps.  cxix,  101,  **  Printen  [princes]  have  persecuted  me 
without  a  cause."  The  "  wicked  "  Bible  of  1631  does  not 
furnish  the  only  instance  of  an  infelicitous  omission  of  a 
negative;  an  Edinburgh  Bible  of  1700  reads,  Heb.  ii,  1^ 


141 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versioiis 


**  He  took  on  him  the  nature  of  angels  "  (correct  reading 
"  he  took  not  ");  another  (Edinburgh.  1816)  has,  Luke 
Ti.  29.  "  Forbid  [not]  to  take  thy  coat  also  ";  and  a  London 
Bible  of  1817  reads,  John  xvii,  25,  "  O  righteous  Father, 
the  world  hath  [not]  known  thee."  On  the  other  hand  an 
Edinburgh  edition  of  1701  makes  the  Psalmist's  prayer 
(oix.  35)  "  Make  me  not  to  go  in  the  path  of  thy  oom- 
maadments."  The  errors  of  an  Oxford  Bible  of  1804  in- 
ehide.  Num.  zzzy,  18,  **  The  murderer  shall  surely  be  put 
tc«ether  "  (for  "  to  death  "),  I  Kings  yiii,  19,  '*  out  of  thy 
lions  [krios],"  and.  Gal,  v,  17.  "  For  the  flesh  lusteth  after 
[against]  the  Spirit."  A  Cambridge  Bible  of  1810  reads  in 
Mai.  ir,  2.  "  shall  the  son  [sun]  of  righteousneos  arise  .  .  . 
and  shall  [for  ye  shall]  go  forth."  An  Oxford  Bible  of  1820 
has,  Isa.  fanri,  0,  '*  Shall  I  bring  to  the  birth  and  not  cease 
[eaose]  to  bring  forth?  "  A  (Cambridge  Bible  of  1826  has 
"  heart "  for  "  hart "  in  Ps.  xlii,  1,  and  the  error  was  re- 
peated in  an  edition  of  1830.  A  Bible  printed  at  Utica, 
N.  Y..  in  1829  begins  Jas.  v,  17.  "  Elias  was  a  man  possible 
like  unto  us  "  ("subject  to  like  passions  as  we  are  ").  One 
of  Jesper  Harding's  early  editions,  published  at  Philadel- 
phia, has  m  I  Kings  i,  21.  **  The  king  shall  dagger  sleep 
with  his  fathers  "  (the  copy  read  **  The  king  shall  f  Bleep 
with  his  fathers  ").  A  Bible  published  at  Hartford  in  1837 
makes  II  Tim.  iii,  10,  read,  "  All  scripture  is  given  by  in- 
ipiration  of  God,  and  is  profitable  ...  for  destruction 
[instruction]  in  righteousness."  An  edition  printed  for  the 
American  Bible  Society  in  1855  has  in  Mark  v,  3,  "  Who 
had  his  dwelling  among  the  lambs  [tombs]."  The  Great 
Bible  in  1539  introduced  the  mistranslation  "  fold "  for 
"flock  "  in  John  x,  10,  and  it  was  not  oorrected  till  the 
Reyised  Version.  Some  of  the  renderings  in  the  early  ver- 
■oos  are  extremely  quaint.  In  Gen.  xxxix,  2,  Tyndale  has, 
"  And  the  Lord  was  with  Joseph  and  he  was  a  lucky  fel- 
low," and  in  Matt,  vi,  7,  **  When  ye  pray,  babble  not  much." 
Coverdale  renders  Judges  xr,  9,  "  Then  God  opened  a  gome 
tooth  in  the  eheke  bone  so  the  water  went  out,"  and  I 
lungs  xxii,  34,  "  Shott  the  King  of  Israel  between  the 
mawe  and  the  lunges." 

English-speaking  Jews  have  used  freely  the  Authorised 
Vernon,  also,  since  its  appearance  in  1885,  the  revised  Old 
Testament.  Tks  JmatMh  SUAool  and  Family  BibU  (4  parts. 
London,  1851-^1)  has  a  new  translation  by  A.  Benisch, 
and  Thg  Jewuk  Family  Bible  (London,  1884)  has  a  revi- 
sion of  the  Authorised  Version  by  M.  FriedULnder;  the 
latter  was  sanctioned  by  the  chief  rabbi  of  the  British 
Jews.  Isaac  Leeser,  a  pioneer  Jewish  rabbi  and  founder 
of  the  Jewish  press  in  America,  published  a  translation  of 
the  complete  Old  Testament  at  Philadelphia  in  1854.  giv- 
ing practically  new  versions  of  the  Prophets,  Psalms,  and 
Job  and  following  the  Authorised  Version  in  other  parts. 
In  1898  the  Jewish  Publication  Society  of  America  (Phiht- 
delphia)  took  in  hand  the  preparation  of  a  complete  revi- 
aon,  with  M.  Jastrow,  Sr.,  as  editoi^in-chief  and  K.  Kohler 
sod  F.  de  Sola  Mendes  as  associate  editors.  In  1905  Dr. 
Kohler's  translation  of  the  Psalms  was  issued  (cf.  the  JB, 
iii,  194-195). 

BtBUOQBAPHT:  The  most  complete  view  of  the  literature  on 
the  subject  is  given  in  S.  Q.  Ayres  and  C.  F.  Sitterly,  Ths 
HiMory  of  Uie  Bng.  BibU,  New  York,  1898  (a  bibUography 
almost  exhaustive,  arranged  in  rubrics).  The  most  com- 
plete account  up  to  the  time  of  its  publication  is  J.  Eadie, 
n*  Sno.  BibU,  an  BxUmal  and  CriHeal  HixL  of  ,  ,  , 
Sng.  7Vsfis2a<iofis,  2  vols.,  London,  1876.  The  most  re- 
sent, and  worthy  of  eonfidenee,  is  H.  W.  Hoare,  Evoh^ 
Uonaf  OiM  BnolUh  BibU  .  .  .  1889-1886,  London.  1902 
(excsedingly  handy).  (}onsult  further:  T.  J.  Conaat, 
PopiOar  Hilary  of  Ike  TrantikOion  of  As  Holy  Seripiurea 
into  As  Bno.  Tonoue,  New  York,  n.d.;  The  Bnglieh  Hex- 
apfo,  published  by  Bagster,  London,  n.d.,  has  a  valuable 
preface;  The  BibU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  189-205,  ib.  1861 
(contains  specimen  paragraphs  £rom  several  versions); 
C.  Anderson,  AnnaU  of  the  Eny.  Bible,  new  ed.  by  H. 
Anderson,  ib.  1862;  Anolo-Ameriean  BibU  Revieion,  by 
Mmhen  of  tke  American  Reviaion  Committee,  New  York, 
1879;  J.  Stoughton,  Our  Eng.  Bible,  ita  TraneUUone  and 
Tranelaiore,  London.  1879;  B.  Gondit.  HieL  of  Ote  Eng, 
BibU,  New  York,  1882;  W.  F.  Moulton.  HieL  of  (he  Eng. 
BibU,  London,  1882;  B.  F.  Westcott  and  F.  J.  A.  Hort, 
The  New  Teekament  in  lis  Original  Greek,  vol.  ii,  inbroduo- 
Hon  and  Appendix,  London.  1881.  New  York,  1882;  J.  I. 
Mombert,  Handbook  of  the  Eng.  Vereione,  London,  1907 
(valuable);  A.  S.  Gook.  The  BibU  and  Eng.  Proee  StyU, 
Boston.  1892;  idem,  BibUeal  Qyoiaiione  in  Old  Eng.  Proee 


WriUre  .  .  .  introdueUon  on  Old  Eng.  Vereione,  New 
York,  1904  (the  work  of  a  master,  minute  and  exact); 
J.  Wright,  Early  BibUe  of  America,  ib.  1892  (on  printed 
editions);  R.  Lovett,  Frinlsd  Eng.  BibUe  1625-1886,  ib. 
1894;  T.  H.  Pattison,  HiML  of  the  Eng.  BibU,  ib.  1894; 
G.  MiUigan,  The  Eng.  BibU,  a  Sketch  of  iU  Hiet,  Edin- 
burgh, 1895;  P.  Schaff.  Companion  to  the  Greek  Teetament 
and  the  Eng.  Vereion,  4th  ed.,  New  York,  1896  (deals  with 
the  A.  V.  and  R.  V.);  J.  W.  Beardslee,  BibU  among  the 
Natione;  Study  of  the  great  Tranelaiore,  ib.  1899;  G.  L. 
Owen,  Noiee  on  Ote  Hiet  and  Text  of  our  Early  Eng.  BibU, 
London,  1901;  £.  H.  Foley,  The  Language  of  the  North- 
umbrian Gloee  to  the  Goepel  of  St,  Matthew,  New  York, 
1903;  R.  Demans,  W.  TindaU:  A  Biography.  Being  a 
Contribution  to  (he  Early  Hietory  of  the  Englieh  Bible, 
London,  1904;  Anna  C.  Paues,  Fourteenth  Century  Eng. 
Vereion  A.  Prologue  and  Parte  of  the  N.  T.  now  firet  edited 
from  the  MSS.,  London,  1904;  B.  F.  Westcott,  General 
View  of  the  Hiet,  of  (he  Eng.  BibU,  ib.  1906  (the  Utest 
ed.  of  Bishop  Westoott's  scholarly  work);  J.  R.  Slater, 
The  Sourcee  of  TyndaWe  Vereion  of  the  Pentateuch,  (Chicago, 
1906;  S.  Hemphill,  HieL  of  the  R.  V,  of  the  N.  T„  Lon- 
don, 1906;  I.  M.  Price,  Anceetry  of  our  Eng.  Bible,  Phiht- 
delphia,  1907.  The  OoepeU  in  Weet  Saxon,  ed.  J.  W. 
Bright,  are  appearing  in  Boston,  Matthew,  1904,  Mark, 
1905,  Luke,  1906,  cf.  The  GoepeU,  Gothic,  Anglo-Saxon, 
Wydiffe,  and  TyndaU  Vereione,  London,  1907. 

V.  Finnish  and  Lappish  Versions:  Although  Swe- 
dish was  formeriy  the  principal  language  of  Finland, 
which  remained  a  Swedish  province  till  the  year 
1809,  during  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the  land 
acquired  a  Finnish  ecclesiastical  language.  A  young 
Finn,  Michael  Agricola  (see  Finland,  {  2)  became 
acquainted  with  Luther  at  Wittenberg.  Having 
returned  to  his  native  land  in  1539,  he  began  to 
translate  religious  books  into  Finnish.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  was  published  first 
in  1548;  the  Psalms  and  some  of  the  Prophetical 
books  in  1551-^.  In  1642  the  entire  Bible  in  Fm- 
nish  by  E.  Petrous,  M.  Stadius,  H.  Hofman,  and  G. 
Favorin  was  published  in  Stodcholm,  Finland  hav- 
ing at  that  time  no  printing  establishment.  There 
were  new  editions  in  1083-^  by  H.  Florinus,  and 
in  1758  by  A.  Litzelius;  a  new  translation  by  A.  V. 
Ingman  appeared  in  1859. 

The  Lappish  and  Finnish  languages  are  cognates, 
the  former  having  several  dialects.  The  Lapps 
(q.v.)  were  nominally  Christians  early  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  but  had  little  real  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tianity. Thomas  von  Westen  (q.v.)  did  much  for 
Christian  instruction  among  them  during  the  years 
1714-23.  Some  Christian  works  were  published  in 
Lappish;  parts  of  the  Bible  were  translated  and 
sent  to  Copenhagen,  where  they  were  destroyed  by 
a  fire.  The  Norwegian  Bible  Society  having  re- 
solved in  1821  to  publish  a  Lappish  translation  of 
the  Bible,  Provost  Kildahl  offered  his  services  in 
1822  in  conjunction  with  a  teacher  named  Gunder- 
sen.  Kildahl  died  the  same  year,  but  the  work  was 
continued  by  Gundersen  and  later  by  Niels  Stock- 
fieth.  The  first  two  Gospels  were  printed  in  1838, 
and  the  complete  New  Testament  in  1840  (new 
eds.  1850  and,  revised,  1874).  Stockfleth  translated 
also  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  (1840),  and  the  Psalms 
(1854).  A  Lapp,  Lars  Hfttta,  translated  the  whole 
Old  Testament,  which,  after  being  revised  by  Prof. 
J.  A.  Friis  and  Seminary-Director  Quigstad  in 
Tromsd,  was  printed  in  1875.  All  these  are  in  the 
Norwegian-Lapp  dialect. 

In  the  SwecUsh-Lapp  dialect  a  handbook  contain- 
ing the  lessons  from  the  (jospels  and  the  Epistles  for 


Bible  Varsions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


142 


the  church-year,  the  Psakns,  Proverbs,  and  Ecde- 
siasticufl  was  published  by  J.  J.  Tom&us  at  Stock- 
hohn  in  1648.  The  New  Testament  was  translated 
by  Per  FjelbtrOm  and  published  in  1755;  a  new 
edition  and  also  the  entire  Bible  was  issued  at 
HemOsand  in  1811.  J.  Beiahbim. 

Bibuoobapht:  BibU  of  Evmy  Land,  pp.  819-324,  London, 
1861. 

VL  French  Veraions:  The  beginnings  of  a  French 

Bible  may  be  traced  at  least  to  the  early  twelfth 

century.    In  all  probability  pupils  of  Lanfranc  (d. 

1089)  translated  the  Psalter  for  the  first  time  into 

the  French-Norman  vernacular.     At 

^^*     that  time  there  was  scarcely  any  dif- 

Vertions.  ^^^^^^  between  the  Norman  and  the 
'  French  (i.e.  the  dialect  used  in  the 
jQe-de-France,  a  province  having  Paris  as  its  capi- 
tal). The  Psalter,  together  with  the  canticles  used 
in  the  Church,  was  offered  to  the  French-speaking 
people  in  a  double  form;  vis.,  (1)  after  the  PsaUe- 
rtum  Hdjraicum,  i.e.  the  Plsalter  translated  by 
Jerome  directly  from  the  Hebrew  (cf .  Le  Litre  dea 
PBoumes,  ed.  from  Cambridge  and  Paris  manuscripts, 
F.  Michel,  Paris,  1876);  (2)  after  the  PaaUerium 
GaUicanum,  i.e.  according  to  the  Psalter  carefully 
revised  by  Jerome  from  the  Septuagint  (cf.  lAbri 
Paaltnorum  veraio  anHqua  OaUica,  ^.  F.  Michel, 
Oxford,  1860;  see  above  A,  II,  2,  }  2).  These 
translations  were  made  word  for  word,  and  are 
interlinear,  the  Latin  text  standing  between  the 
lines  of  the  French.  The  translations  from  the 
Gallican  Psalter  were  so  well  received  that  down  to 
the  Reformation  no  one  ventmied  on  a  new  rendering. 
The  manuscripts  of  the  French  Psalter  which  are 
still  extant,  more  than  100  in  number,  without  an 
exception  go  back  to  the  old  Norman  Psalter. 

About  fifty  years  later  Revelation  was  translated 
into  French  in  the  Norman  provinces;  also  Samuel 
and  Kings  (cf.  Le9  Quatre  Livrea  des  RoU,  pvblUa 
par  U  Roux  de  lAncy,  Paris,  1842).  In  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  numerous  translations 
originated  (cf.  Q.  Paris,  La  LitUraJtwre  frangaise 
au  moyen  dge,  Paris,  1890,  §  136;  J.  Bonnard, 
Le8  Tradttctiona  de  la  Bible  en  vera  franpaU,  Paris, 
1884).  Toward  1170  Peter  Waldo,  the  head  of  the 
Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  better  known  later  as  the 
Waldenses  (q.v.),  brought  out  translations  of  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular,  which 
had  been  made  by  Lyonnaise  priests  at  his  ex- 
pense, and  Pope  Innocent  III  did  not  rest  till  these 
suspicious  writings  were  eveiywhere  suppressed  by 
the  Inquisition.  Nevertheless  some  remnants  of 
this  old  Waldensian  literature  have  been  saved  from 
the  hands  of  the  inquisitors  at  Mets  and  Li4ge. 

Of  the  versions  which  have  been  printed,  and  of 
which  it  is  possible  to  give  some  account,  mention 
may  be  made  of  that  of  Guyard  des  Moulhis,  canon 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Aire  in  Artois,  on  the  borders 
of  Flanders.  Taking  the  HUtaria  schtdaeHca 
of  Peter  Comestor  (q.v.),  composed  in 
8.  <^yard  jiyo  and  containing  a  digest  of  the 

XoiUbxs.    ^^^^®  history  with   glosses,  he   made 

a  free  translation  of  it  between  1291 

and    1295;    added   a   sketch   of    the   history    of 

Job,   Proverbs,   and   probably   the  other  books 


ascribed  to  Solomon;  substituted  for  Comestor's 
history  of  the  Maccabees  a  translation  of  Macca- 
bees from  the  Vulgate;  and  in  general  made  the 
whole  oonfonn  more  closely  to  the  text  of  the  Vul- 
gate   than    Comestor    had    done.    Psalms,      the 
Prophets,  and  the  Epistles  and  Revelation  were  not 
in  the  work  as  first  issued,  and  it  is  uncertain 
whether  Acts  was  not  also  omitted;  they   were 
added,    however,    in    later   issues.    These   parts, 
brought    together,    received    the    name    Biblium 
historude  (Bible  hietoriale;  see  Biblbb,  Historical), 
and  it  was  printed  and  reprinted  in  great  numbers. 
An  edition  completed  by  different  hands  and  ma^ 
king  thus  the  first  complete  Bible,  was  issued  by 
order  of  Charles  VIII  about  1487,  edited  by  the 
king's  confessor,   Jean  de  Rely,  and  print^   by 
V^nird  in  Paris.     Twelve  editions  of  this  appeared 
between  1487  and  1545.    This  is  called  La  Grande 
Bible  to  distinguish  it  from  a  work  entitled  La 
Bible  pour  lea  aimplea  gena,  a  summary  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  five  editions, 
four  undated,  one  dated   1535,  have  been  exam- 
ined.   Previous  to  the  edition  of  1487,  an  edition  of 
the  New  Testament  of  the  same  translation  as  that 
found  in  the  supplemented  work  of  Guyard,  but 
not  by  Guyard  hLouself ,  was  printed  at  Lyons  by 
Bartolom^e    Buyer,   edited   by   two   Augustinian 
monks,  Julien  Macho  and   Pierre   Farget.    It    is 
undated,  but  is  referred  to  the  year  1477,  and 
justly  claims  to  be  the  ediHo  princepa  of  the  French 
Scriptures. 

In  the  year  1523  there  appeared  at  Paris,  from 
the  press  of  Simon  de  Colines,  an  anonjrmous 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  (often  reprinted), 
to  which  was  added  in  the  same  year  the  Psalter 
and,  in  1528,  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament,  issued 

at  Antwerp  in  consequence  of  at- 
*•  2JJ**"  tempts  on  the  part  of  the  French 
Veraions.   clergy  to  suppress  the  book.    There 

can  be  no  doubt  that  the  well-known 
humanist  Jacques  Lefftvre  d'£taples  (see  Faber 
Stapulknsib)  was  the  author  of  this  version. 
The  complete  work  appeared  in  one  volume 
at  Antwerp,  1530.  It  was  placed  on  the  papal 
Index  in  1546;  but  in  1550  it  was  reissued  at 
Louvain,  edited  by  two  priests,  Nicolas  de  Leuze 
and  Francois  van  Larben,  who  revised  the  work, 
striking  out  all  that  savored  of  heresy.  The  first 
Protestant  version  was  prepared  by  Pieire  Robert 
Olivetan  (q.v.)  within  the  space  of  one  year,  and 
printed  in  1535  by  Pierre  de  Wingle  at  Serri^res, 
near  NeuchAtel,  in  Switseriand,  at  the  expense  of 
the  Waldensians.  It  was  reprinted  several  times, 
in  one  case  with  a  few  emendations  from  the  pen  of 
Calvin,  in  1545.  The  Roman  critics  had  denounced 
Olivetan's  work  as  of  little  value  because  of  his 
supposed  ignorance  of  the  languages.  But  he 
really  knew  and  used  the  Hebrew  to  advantage, 
and  the  Old  Testament  was  quite  well  done;  but 
either  through  press  of  time  or  less  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  Greek,  the  New  Testament  was  inferior. 
To  remedy  the  defects  of  Olivetan's  version,  tbe 
"  venerable  company "  of  pastors  of  Geneva 
undertook  a  revision  of  the  work  and  was  assisted 
by  Besa,  Simon  Goulart,  Antoine  Fay,  and  others. 
The  editor  was  Bonaventure  Conieille  Bertram, 


143 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Veralonc 


who  gives  an  account  of  Ills  work  in  the  Lwmbror 
tiones  FrankUUlenses  (in  Pearaon's  Critici  Sacrif 
vol.  viii).  This  revised  edition  appeared  in  1588. 
In  this  as  well  as  in  the  following  editions  the  divine 
name  Yahweh  was  translated  by  l'£temel  and 
this  rendeiing  is  retained  to  this  day  in  the  Protes- 
tant Bible  of  France. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  this  revision  of 
Oiivetan's  version,  known  as  the  "  Geneva  Bible/' 
was  again  revised  by  different  ministers;  the  edi- 
tions of  G.  Diodati  (Geneva,  1644),  Samuel  Des 
Bklarets  (Amsterdam,  1669),  and  David  Martin 
(New  Testamoit,  Utrecht,  1696;  whole  Bible, 
1707)  are  the  first  of  such  revisions.  Martin's 
Bible  was  again  revised  by  the  Basel  minister  Pierre 
Roques  (1744),  and  is  to  this  day  disseminated  by 
Bible  Societies  along  with  other  editions.  Twenty 
years  before  Roques  published  Martin's  revised 
text,  J.  F.  Osterwald  (q.v.),  a  pastor  at  NeuchAtel, 
published  anew  the  Geneva  Bible  in  1724,  and 
another  and  revised  edition  in  1744,  in  which  he 
embodied  the  results  of  the  exegetical  science  of 
the  time.  As  Osterwald's  translation  became  the 
standard  version,  it  was  adopted  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  issued  from  time 
to  time.  A  thoroughly  revised  version  prepared 
by  M.  Foasard  and  other  French  pastors  was  pub- 
lished by  the  French  Bible  Society  in  1887,  and 
this  revised  text  was  then  adopted  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

The  foUowinc  are  other  Proteetant  Ternone:  8.  Chms- 
UUon  (CuUUo),  eomplete  Bible  (2  vols..  Basel,  1656);  J. 
Le  Clere  (Clericua),  N.  T.  (Amsterdam.  1703);  I.  de  Beau- 
Bobre  and  J.  Lenfant.  N.  T.  (Amsterdam,  1718;  often  re- 
printed  in  Germany  and  Bwitxerland);  Charles  Le  C^ne, 
Bible  (Amsterdam,  1741);  H.  A.  Perret-Gentil,  professor  at 
Neochitel.  O.  T.  (NeuchAtel.  1847  sqq.);  E.  Amaud,  N.  T. 
<TouloaM,  1858);  A.  Rilliet,  N.  T.  (Geneva,  1859);  M.  J.  H. 
Oltramare,  N.  T.  (Geneva,  1872);  Louis  Segond,  O.  T. 
(Geneva*  1874),  N.  T.  (1879),  whose  work  has  been  printed 
by  the  Oxford  Univernty  press;  E.  Stopfer,  N.  T.  (Paris, 
1889). 

Of  versioDS  by  Roman  Catholics,  the  most  im- 
portant are  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
published  anonymously  (Tr6voux,  1702),  but  as- 
cribed with  correctness  to  Richard  Simon  (q.v.),  and 
a  aeries  of  versions  which  proceeded 

*C«toSlc^  from  Port  Royal  and  the  Jansenists. 

Teniona.  ^  early  as  the  middle  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  Antoine  Godeau 
(q.v.)  published  a  translation  of  the  Bible,  at  first 
in  parts,  then  as  a  whole.  In  1667  the  New  Tes- 
tament followed,  printed  by  the  Elzevirs  at  Am- 
sterdam, for  a  bookseller  of  Mons,  whence  it  is 
often  called  the  Mons  Testament.  The  transla- 
tors were  Antoine  and  Louis  Isaac  Lemaistre 
de  Sacy  (see  Lemaistrk  de  Sact,  Louis  Isaac), 
aided  by  Antoine  Amauld,  Pierre  Nicole,  Claude 
deSainte-Biarthe,  and  Thomas  du  Foss6.  The  Old 
Testament,  translated  by  Louis  Isaac  Lemaistre 
deSacy,  was  added  later  (1671),  and  the  New 
Testament  by  Pasquier  Quesnel  (q.v.)  appeared  in 
1687.  These  translations  exercised  great  influence, 
partly  on  account  of  the  elegance  of  the  language, 
partly  on  account  of  the  notes,  which  served  de- 
votional purposes.  Their  method  is  not  a  literal 
rendering,  but  is  paraphrastic.    The  translation  of 


the  New  Testament  generally  known  as  that  of 
De  Sacy  was  often  republished,  and  is  still  widely 
used  in  France,  being  circulated  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society. 

Ren^  Benoist  (q.v.)  published  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  1566.  Jacques  Corbin,  an  advocate  of  Paria,  presented 
the  Vulgate  in  a  translation  more  Latin  than  French  in 
1648.  The  Latin  New  Testament  of  Erasmus  was  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Michel  de  Marolles,  abb^  of  Villeloin 
(1649).  who  also  published  a  version  of  the  Psalms  (1644). 
Densrs  Amelote,  a  priest  of  the  Oratory,  translated  the 
New  Testament  Vulgate  into  very  good  French  (1666). 
Dominique  Bouhours,  a  Jesuit,  also  issued  a  French  New 
Testament  (1607).  In  the  eighteenth  century  C.  Hur6 
(1702).  AugusUn  Calmet  (1707).  N.  Le  Qros  (1739).  and 
others  made  versions,  all  more  or  lees  dependent  on  the 
Vulgate.  In  more  recent  times  the  Psalms  and  Job  have 
been  often  translated.  The  entire  Bible  by  E.  CSenoude 
(Paris,  1821  sqq.)  had  great  success.  The  Gospels  by 
Lamennais  (Paris,  1846)  are  a  model  of  style,  but  because 
of  the  notes  are  really  a  socialistic  polemic.  [Other  names 
and  works  which  may  be  mentioned  are:  M.  Orsini,  La 
BibU  dM  familUt  eaiholiguet  (Paris.  1851);  H.  F.  Delaunay, 
who  translated  the  annoUted  Bible  of  J.  F.  Allioli  (q.v.) 
into  French  (5  vols.,  Paris.  1856);  J.  A.  Gaume.  Le  Nouveau 
TukmerU  (2  vols..  Paris.  1863);  M.  A.  Bayle,  who  fur- 
nished the  translation  for  Paul  Drach's  annotated  Bible 
(Paris,  1869  sqq.);  P.  Giguet.  who  translated  the  Septua- 
gint  (4  vols..  Paris.  1872);  H.  Lasserre.  Let  Sainte  Evan- 
giUe  (Paris,  1887);  the  Abb«  Boisson  (Paris.  1901);  the 
Abb^  Glaire,  who  furnished  the  French  translation  for  the 
polyglot  Bible  of  F.  Vigouroux  (Paris.  1898  sqq,);  and  the 
Ahh6  Crampon,  La  Sainte  BibU,  revised  by  the  Jesuit  fathers 
with  the  collaboration  of  the  professors  of  St.  Sulpice  (Paris, 
1907).] 

Translations  of  the  Old  Testament  by  Jews  are 
found  in  S.  Cahen's  annotated  Bible  (18  vols.,  Paris, 
1831-51)  [and  in  the  Old  Testament  translated 
under  the  direction  of  Zadoc  Elahn,  chief  rabbi  of 
France  (1901  sqq.)].  (S.  BEROERf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  most  important  contributions  on  the 
subject  have  been  produced  by  S.  Berger,  as  follows: 
La  Bible  frariQaiee  au  moyen  Age,  Paris.  1884;  Lee  BibUe 
jfroven^alee  et  vaudoiaee,  in  Romania^  xviii  (1889);  Nott' 
veUee  recherchee  tur  lee  biblee  provengalee  et  eatalanee,  ib. 
xix  (1890).  ef.  P.  Meyer,  in  Romania,  zvii  (1888),  121.  and 
H.  Suchier.  in  Zeitechrift  far  romanieche  Philologie,  iii 
(1879).  412.  For  enumeration  of  French  Bibles  consult 
BritiahMuegum  Catalogue .  entry  "  Bibles.  French."  176-188. 
and  the  Appendix,  **  Bibles.  French."  18;  O.  Douen.  Cata- 
logue de  la  eocUU  bibUque  de  Parie,  1862;  Bible  of  Every 
Land,  pp.  254-260.  281-283.  London,  1861  (incomplete, 
but  clear  so  far  as  it  goes).  Consult  also  J.  Le  Long. 
BtbUoiheea  eaera,  vol.  i.  Paris,  1723;  E.  Reuss.  Fragmsnie 
litthairee  et  ariiiquee  rdatife  h.  Vhiatoire  de  la  Bible  fran- 
gaiae,  in  Revtte  de  tMologie  et  philoeophie,  ii,  iv-vi,  xiv.  new 
series,  iii-v  (1851-67,  exceedingly  important);  idem.  Oe- 
echichte  der  heiligen  Sduriflen  dee  Neuen  Teetamente,  pp. 
465  sqq..  Brunswick.  1887;  E.  P^tavel-Olliff.  La  Bible  en 
France,  ou  2<«  traductione  franfaieee  dee  eaintee  ieriiuree, 
Paris,  i864;  £.  Cadiot.  ^ssai  eur  lee  condUione  d*une  tro" 
duction  populaire  de  la  bible  en  langue  franfaiee,  Stras- 
burg.  1868;  G.  StrOmpell.  Die  ereten  BibelMereeisungen 
der  Franeoeen  1100-lSOO,  Brunswick.  1872;  A.  Hatter, 
NoU  eur  la  rhfieion  de  la  bible  d'Oetartoald,  Paris.  1882; 
J.  Bonnard,  Lee  Traductione  de  la  bible  en  vere  franfaie 
au  mouen  dge,  Paris.  1884;  P.  Quievreux.  La  Traduction 
du  N,  T.  de  Leftvre  d'£tapUe,  Paris.  1894;  P.  Meyer. 
NoHee  du  MS.  Bibliothique  NaHonale  F  6447,  Paris.  1897; 
A.  Laune.  La  Tradtietion  de  VA.  T.  de  Lefhvre  d'StapUe, 
Paris.  1895;  Revue  de  Vhietoire  dee  Religione,  xxxii.  56; 
DB,  extra  vol.,  pp.  402-406. 

Vn.  German  Versions:  After  the  Gothic  ver- 
sion of  Ulfilas  (see  above.  A,  X),  the  oldest  frag- 
ment of  the  Bible  in  a  Germanic  tongue  is  probably 
the  Matthew  of  Monsee,  of  the  year  738  (twenty- 
two  leaves  are  in  Vienna,  two  in  Hanover;  on  tho 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


144 


left  page  is  the  Latin,  on  the  right  German),  a 
Bavarian  working  over  of  a  Prankish  or  Alsacian 
original.    The  best  edition  is  A.  Hench,  The  Monaee 

FragmerUa  newly  Collated,  vnih  Text, 

1.  Old  Oer-  IrUrodttction,  Notes,  Grammatical  Trea- 

jg^^       tise,    and    Exhauelive    Glossary    and 

mmta.      Facsimile    (Strasburg,     1890).      The 

"German  Tatian,"  of  which  the  chief 
manuscript  is  at  St.  Gall  (second  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  in  two  ooliunns,  left  in  Latin,  right  in 
German),  originated  about  830  in  Fulda.  The 
Latin  rests  upon  a  manuscript  written  about  540 
for  Bishop  Victor  of  Capua  (q.v.)f  which  is 
still  preserved  in  Fulda,  and  the  German  follows 
the  Latin  very  closely  (best  edition  by  E.  Sievers, 
Tatianus.  LateinistJi  und  Altdeutsch,  Paderbom, 
1874,  2d  ed.,  1892).  Heccard,  count  of  Burgundy, 
in  876  gave  as  a  present  an  Evangelium  T^eu- 
discum  with  other  books  (cf.  P.  Lejay,  in  Revue 
des  Bibliothkques,  July-Sept.,  1896).  Walton,  in  his 
Polyglot  (Prolegomena,  p.  34a),  asserts  that 
"  Rhenanus  testifies  that  Waldo,  bishop  of  Frei- 
sing  [884-906]  about  the  year  800  [sicQ  translated 
the  Gospels  into  German  "  (cf.  Hauck,  KD,  ii,  620, 
704,  712).  Detached  fragments  of  the  Gospels 
have  been  published  by  F.  Keinz  (SMA,  1869, 
p.  546)  and  J.  Haupt  (Germania,  xiv,  1869,  p.  440), 
which  are  in  a  handwriting  of  the  twelfth  century, 
but  show  the  accents  used  earlier  in  the  school  of 
Notker  Balbulus  (see  Notker,  1;  cf.  W.  Walther, 
Die  deutsche  BiMubersetzung  des  Mittelalters,  3 
vols.,  Brunswick,  1889-91,  455-465).  For  the 
Heliand  and  Otfrid's  Liber  Evangeliorum  or  Krist, 
see  Heliand,  the,  and  the  Old-Saxon  Oenebib; 
Otfrid  of  Weissenburg). 

The  first  translator  after  Ulfilas  known  with 
certainty  is  Notker  Labeo  of  St.  Gall  (d.  June  29, 
1022;  see  Notker,  4).  His  Job  is  lost,  but  his 
translation  of  the  Psalms  can  be  almost  completely 
reconstructed  from  his  German  and  Latin  commen- 
tary on  them  (best  ed.  in  P.  Piper's  Schriften  Not' 
kers  und  seiner  Schule,  3  vols.,  Freiburg,  1883--84; 
facsimile  in  Vogt  and  Koch,  Deutsche  Litteratur' 
gescMchle,  Leipsic,  1904,  and  Walther,  ut  sup., 
563).  Williram,  after  1048  abbot  of  Ebersberg  in 
Bavaria  (see  Williram),  made  a  translation  of  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  which  found  so  much  favor  that 
nineteen  manuscripts  are  still  known,  one  written  as 
late  as  1528  (cf.  Walther,  523-536,  with  facsimile, 
and  J.  SeemttUer,  Die  Handschriften  und  Quellen 
von  WiUirams  Paraphrase,  Strasburg,  1877,  and 
Willirams  Paraphrase,  1878;  Hauck,  KD,  iii,  968). 
An  interlinear  version  of  the  PsaJms  from  the 
cloister  of  Windberg,  written  1187,  was  published 
by  E.  G.  Graflf,  Deutsche  Interlinearversionen  der 
Psalmen  (Quedlinburg,  1839;  cf.  Walther,  566; 
also  A.  E.  SchOnbach,  Bruchstucke  einer  frdnkischen 
Psalmenversian,  in  ZDAL,  xxiv,  2,  pp.  177-186). 
Other  manuscripts  of  this  kind  are  mentioned  by 
Walther,  568.  Some  twenty  manuscripts  and  two 
impressions  (the  one  probably  by  Knubloezer  in 
Htrasburg  about  1477,  the  other  by  Peter  Drach  in 
Worms  1504)  have  preserved  the  commentary  of 
N)<'olaus  de  Lyra  (see  Lyra,  Nicolaus  db),  con- 
iitining  translations  into  German  by  Heinrich  von 
Mug<;ln,  who  was  for  a  time  with  the  emperor 


Charles  IV  at  Prague  and  seems  to  have  left  him 
on  account  of  his  edict  of  1469  against  the  German 
books  on  Holy  Scripture  (cf.  Helm,  in  Sievers's 
BeUrdge  tur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache,  sxi, 
1897,  p.  240,  xxii,  1898,  p.  135). 

Especially  interesting  is  Walther's  eighth  group 
of  translations  of  the  Psalms  (which  indudb  all 
Latin-Oierman  Psalters  printed  in  the  Middle  Ages 
and  two  or  three  manuscripts)  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  the  German  text  does  not  go  back  to  the 
Latin  Vulgate  in  common  use,  but  to  Jerome's  ver- 
sion from  the  Hebrew  (see  above.  A,  II,  2,  {  21 
To  Walther's  ninth  group  belongs  the  ^lendid 
Psalter  of  St.  Florian  in  three  languages,  Latin, 
Polish,  and  German,  which  was  made  ei^r  for  the 
Polish  queen  Marguerite,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Charies  IV,  or  for  Mary,  sister  of  the  Polish  queen 
Hedwig  of  Anjou.  Another  translation  is  due  to 
Henry  of  Hesse,  rector  of  the  University  of  Heidel- 
berg, who  died  1427,  a  Carthusian.  On  the  eve  of 
the  Reformation  Duke  Eberhard  I  of  WQrttemberg 
was  careful  to  have  translations  made  for  him 
(cf.  TLZ,  iv,  473;  571). 

Besides  202   (203)   manuscripts,  Walther  enu- 
merates between  1466  and  1521  eighteen  impres- 
sions   of    complete    German    Bible?, 
8.  Printed  twenty-two   of  Psalters,  and  twelvt 
IMblea  be-  of  other  parts.     Of  the  eighteen  com- 
fore        plete   Bibles,    fourteen   are   in  High 

I.uther.  German.  They  differ  from  the  com- 
mon Latin  Bible  by  containing  the 
Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans  and  by  placing  Acts 
after  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  The  prayer  of 
Manasses  is  missing  in  the  first  two  and  placed 
after  Chronicles  in  the  rest.  Their  correct  chrono- 
logical order  is: 

(1)  Straabuis.  Mentel.  e.  1466  (Hain.  Reperlorium  bOh 
Uognphieuwi,  no.  8180).  (2)  Strwburs.  Eteestein.  e.  1470 
(Hain.  3129).  (3)  Aufsburs.  Pflansnuuin.  e.  1473  (Hain, 
3131).  (4)  Aucsbuic.  G.  Zainer,  e.  1473.  a  thorousb  nri- 
■ion  of  2  (Hain.  8133).  (5)  Swin,  1474  (Hain.  3132).  (6  and  7) 
Augsburg.  G.  Zainer,  and  A.  Sorg.  1477  (Hain,  3134-^135). 
(8)  Augsbuig,  A.  Sorg.  1480,  a  repetition  of  Zuoer'a 
imprenion  of  1477  (Hain.  8136).  (9)  Nurembeig.  A. 
Kobuiger.  1488  (Hain,  8137).  (10)  Straabuig,  Gritaiinser. 
1486  (Hain.  3138).  (11-14)  AU  printed  in  Augsburg,  by  H. 
SohOnsperger.  1487. 1490  (Hain.  813IM0).  H.  Otmar.  1507, 
and  SilTanus  Otmar.  1618L 

All  these  editions  give  in  the  main  one  and  the  same 
version,  but  Zainer  (4  above)  undertook  a  thorough 
revision,  which  had  much  influence.  Koburger 
(9  above)  also  made  changes.  The  version  was 
already  more  than  100  years  old  when  first  printed. 
Its  home  is  not  yet  ascertained,  but  there  are  traces 
which  indicate  Bohemia.  The  Latin  text  unde^ 
lying  this  version  is  interesting  especially  in  Acts, 
where  it  has  preserved  many  Old  Latin  readings. 
Led  by  an  entry  in  a  manuscript  of  Nuremberg, 
F.  Jostes  tried  to  prove  that  a  certain  Johannes 
Rellach  of  ResOm  (7)  in  the  diocese  of  Constance, 
who  he  thinks  was  a  Dominican,  was  the  author  of 
this  version  about  1460  (cf.  his  Meister  JohoMtf 
ReUach,  ein  Bibeliibersetzer  des  15.  Jahrhunderts,  in 
Histonsches  Jahrbuch,  Munich,  1897,  133-145). 
Eurrehneyer  (Die  deutsche  Bibel,  TObingen,  190^ 
sqq.)  seems  to  think  the  version  older  than  this 
Rellach,  who  may  have  undertaken  a  revision  of  it, 
and  he  has  not  pronounced  upon  the  alleged  Waldeff* 


145 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Veraioni 


sian  origin  of  the  version;  the  manuscript  of  Tepl 
may  have  been  in  Waldensian  hands,  but  this  does 
not  prove  a  Waldensian  origin.  There  are  certain 
peculiar  readings  in  which  the  version  agrees  with 
the  Provencal  translation. 

A  different  translation  containing  only  the  Old 
Testament  is  represented  by  the  **  Wenzel "  Bible 
at  Vienna,  translated  from  the  Latin  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  emperor  Wenceslaus  by  Martin  Rotlev 
later  than  1389  (facsimile  in  Vogt  and  Koch,  ut 
sup.)-  A  "  Bible  for  the  Poor  "  at  Maihingen  of 
1437  gives  a  German  working  over  of  the  212  hex- 
ameters in  which  Alexander  Villadeus  summarized 
all  the  chapters  of  the  Bible  (e.g.  Gen.  i-vii:  aex, 
prohibet,  peccant,  Abel,  Enoch,  archa  fit,  intrant) 
and  counts  seventy-six  books,  fifty-^ight  prologues, 
1,457  chapters,  and  1,606  verses  in  the  Psalter. 
To  the  same  group  belongs  a  nuinuscript  now  at 
3laihingen  (1472),  beautifully  illustrated  by  Furt- 
meyer  for  Albert  IV  of  Bavaria,  which  has  between 
Deuteronomy  and  Job  Matt,  i-v,  44,  like  a  manu- 
script in  the  British  Museum  written  by  the  same 
copyist  in  1465  (cf.  the  Atkenceum  for  May  31,  1884, 
and  R.  Priebsch,  Deutsche  Handschriften  in  England, 
i,  Erlangen,  1896).  For  other  versions,  cf .  Walther. 
The  Low  German  Bibles  include  the  Old  Testar 
ment  of  Delft  (1477),  without  Psalms,  and  the 
famous  Picture  Bible  of  Cologne  (about  1478;  cf. 
R.  Kautzsch,  Die  HoUachnitU  der  KSlner  Bibel  von 
1479,  in  Stvdien  tur  deutachen  Kunstgeachichte,  vii, 
1896,  and  G.  Gerlach,  in  Dziatzko's  Arbeiien,  ii,  13, 
Leipsic,  1896).  The  Song  of  Solomon  in  this  Bible 
is  not  translated  but  is  given  in  Latin.  The  Bible 
of  LQbeck  of  1494  gives,  up  to  II  Kings  vii,  an 
original  translation;  from  that  chapter  onward 
text  and  pictures  of  the  Cologne  Bible.  The  edition 
of  Ludwig  Trutebul  (Halberstadt,  1522)  is  very 
Bcarce.  On  the  Psalters  cf .  Walther,  682-703,  and 
Kurrelmeyer,  ut  sup. 

On  the  "  Wensel "  Bible,  ef.  AJP,  zxi,  62-75.  and  F. 
JeUnek,  Dis  Spndte  der  Wenulbibel,  GOrs.  18Qft-9Q.  On 
Uw  prfr-Lutheran  Bibles,  cf .  A.  E.  SohOnbacfa,  MimsMtn  au» 
Cmer  Handeikriften,  ii,  Reihs,  Deuiache  UAen&lgunoefi 
inhliteker  SekrifUn,  Gras,  1899;  idem,  Ueber  tin  miftet- 
deuUdua  Evanoelienwerk  aua  8L  Paul,  Vienna,  1897,  and 
L.  J.  M.  Bebb,  in  DB,  extra  vol.,  411-^13. 

Contemporaneously  with  Luther  others  were 
engaged  in  translating  parts  of  the  Bible  into  mod- 
em German,  e.g.,  Btechenstein,  Lange,  Krumpach, 
Amman,  Nach^al,  Capito,  and  FrOhUch;  but  their 
works  are  foigotten  (see  also  below,  {  5).  Not  con- 
templating at  first  the  entire  Bible,  Luther 
began  with  the  penitential  Psalms 
wSir  "  (^*'-'  ^^^'^'  improved  1526)  and  fol- 
lowed with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
Pb.  cx  in  1518,  the  Prayer  of  Manasses  with 
Uatt.  xvi,  13-20,  in  1519,  and  other  pieces.  At 
the  end  of  1521  he  began  with  the  New  Testament. 
He  writes  on  Dec.  18,  1521:  "Meanwhile  1  am 
gathering  notes,  being  on  the  point  of  translating 
the  New  Testament  into  the  vernacular; "  two 
dasrs  later:  "  Now  I  am  laboring  on  annotating 
and  translating  the  Bible  into  the  common  speech;  " 
on  Jan.  13,  1522,  to  Amsdorff:  ''  Meanwhile  I  am 
translating  the  Bible,  though  I  have  undertaken  a 
task  beyond  my  strength.  The  Old  Testament  1 
can  not  touch  unless  you  lend  your  aid  "  (cf .  G.  Boe- 
II.— 10 


sert,  in  TSK,  1897,  pp.  324,  349,  366).  The  New 
Testament  was  in  type  Sept.,  1522;  it  was  pub- 
lished with  woodcuts  at  Wittenberg  without  name 
of  printer  or  of  translator  (Das  Newe  Testament 
Deutzsch)  and  was  sold  for  one  and  one-half  florins. 
In  December  a  second  edition  followed  (cf.  R. 
Kuhrs,  VerhdUnis  der  Decemberbibel  zur  September' 
bibel.  KriHscher  Beitrag  tur  Geschichte  der  BibeU 
sprache  M,  Luthers,  Mit  einem  Anhang  iiber  J  oh. 
Lange's  Matthdusubersetzung,  Greifswald,  1901). 
Of  the  Old  Testament,  part  i  (the  five  books  of 
Moses)  was  ready  in  1523;  parts  ii  and  iii  (the  his- 
torical and  poetical  books)  in  1524;  the  prophets 
did  not  follow  until  1532;  and  the  Apocrypha  as  a 
whole  not  until  the  first  complete  Bible  in  1534. 
Eleven  editions  were  published  during  Luther's 
lifetime,  besides  numerous  reprints.  For  the  Old 
Testament  he  used  the  edition  of  Brescia,  1494 
(the  copy  is  now  at  Berlin);  for  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  second  edition  of  Erasmus  (1519),  but 
he  consulted  the  Vulgate,  and  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment had  the  assistance  of  his  friends  Melanchthon, 
Bugenhagen,  Aurogallus,  and  all  available  helps. 
In  the  preface  to  Sirach  he  mentions  the  earlier 
German  translation,  but  he  seems  on  the  whole 
independent  of  it.  The  influence  of  Luther's 
work  was  great  even  outside  of  Germany.  It 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Danish  translation  of  1524, 
of  the  Swedish  and  Dutch  of  1526,  of  the  Icelandic 
of  1540,  and,  through  the  mediation  of  Tyndale, 
influenced  the  English  Authorised  Version  of 
1611. 


Large  parts  of  Luther's  autograph  printer's  copy  are 
preserved,  and  the  first  part  is  in  print  in  D.  Martin  Lutkmr'a 
DmU$che  Bibel,  Weimar.  1906.  A  catalogue  of  the  original 
editions  of  Luther's  Bible  was  published  by  H.  E.  Bindseil 
{VerMeidinise  der  Orioinal^Atugaben,  ete..  Halle,  1840).  who 
also,  in  collaboration  with  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  issued  a  critical 
reprint  of  the  edition  of  1545  with  a  collation  of  the 
earlier  impressions  (7  vols.,  Halle,  1845-55).  J.  G.  Hage- 
mann,  NachridU  von  denen  fUmehmaten  UAeraeUunoen  der 
heiligen  Schrift  (Brunswick.  1750),  gives  a  list  of  editions 
to  1749.  In  the  Hauok-Heriog  RE,  iii.  74-75,  about 
ninety  places  are  named  in  which  Luther's  Bible  has  been 
printed,  with  the  date  of  the  first  edition  in  each  place. 
It  includes  the  following  towns  in  America:  Qermantown, 
Penn.,  1743  (the  first  Bible  in  a  European  language 
printed  in  America;  see  Sower.  CHanroPHEB)  and  1763 
(cf.  Baaler  BiJbelbote,  1899,  62);  New  York.  1854  (N.  T.) 
and  1857  (complete  Bible);  Philadelphia,  1846.  Reading, 
Penn..  1813,  and  Lancaster.  Penn.,  1819,  may  be  added. 
A  chronological  list  would  show  the  influence  of  Pietism. 
The  first  Berlin  edition  (1699),  for  example,  was  due  to 
Spener.  The  first  Low  German  Bible,  by  J.  Hoddersen, 
was  printed  by  L.  Diets  at  LQbeck  in  1533;  the  last  was 
that  of  LQneburg.  1621. 

By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
six  or  seven  different  recensions  of  Luther's  ver- 
sion were  in  use  in  Protestant  Germany  (cf .  C. 
MOnckeberg,  Tabellarischc  Uebersicht  der  wichtigsten 
VarianUn  der  bedeutendsten  gangbaren  Btbetaus- 
gaben,  New  Testament,  Halle,  18^, 
♦.BevlslonoidTestament,  4  vols.,  1870-71).  In 
^'         1863    a    committee    was    named    by 


Luther's 
Version. 


the  Eisenach  Ck)nference  (see  Eisen- 
ach Ck)NFERENCE)  to  Undertake  a 
final  revision.  As  the  result  of  the  labors  of  this 
committee  the  revised  New  Testament  appeared 
in   1867   and   again   in   1870,   Genesis  in   1873, 


Bible  Venioiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


146 


the  PsalmB  in  1876|  the  whole  Bible  (the  so-called 
Ptobebibel)  in  1883.  At  last,  in  Jan.,  1890,  the  whole 
work  was  finished  and  the  first  impression  was  pub- 
lished at  Halle  in  1892.  The  revised  edition  was 
adopted  in  most  parts  of  Germany,  though  in 
Mecklenburg  it  is  still  opposed.  A  comparison  with 
the  English  revision  shows  that  the  German  was 
much  too  timid  (cf.,  on  the  one  side,  P.  de 
Lagarde,  Die  revidierte  Luiherbibel  dee  HalUschen 
TFaitenAouses,  Gottingen,  1885,  also  in  MiUhtH- 
ungen,  iii;  on  the  other,  E.  V.  KohlschQtter,  Die 
R^nsion  der  Luthersehen  BiMUberMdzung,  1887, 
and  A.  Kamphausen,  Die  beriehtigU  Lutiierhibd, 
Berlin,  1894;  also  TJB,  1886,  where  twelve 
pamphlets  for  and  against  the  revinon  are  named; 
O.  H.  T.  Willkomm,  Wob  verliert  uneer  Volk  dutch 
die  BiMrevieion  f    Zwickau,  1901). 

Luther's  work  wm  oritidMd  early,  eapedally  by  his 
Koman  Catholic  opponenta — e.g.,  by  Hieronsnnus  Emeer. 
to  whom  UibanuB  RhegiuB  replied  in  1524  (aee  Em- 
SBR,  HxniGirrMrs;  RBBOiua,  Urbahub;  ef.  G.  Kawerau's 
Hieronynnu  Emur,  Halle,  1808;  for  critidam  from  the 
modem  point  of  view.  d.  P.  de  Lagarde,  Dm  revidieiig 
ZttlfterMM.  ut  eup.).  The  Wittenbei«  edition  of  1572  in- 
troduced the  munmariee  of  Vdt  Dietrich.  A.  Caloriue 
added  in  1661  a  "  BibUcal  Calendar  "  by  whieh  it  was  pos- 
■ible  to  read  the  Psalms  four  times  every  year.  Proverbs 
twice,  and  the  rest  of  the  Bible  with  Luther's  prefaces  once. 
The  Wittenberg  faculty  added  a  new  preface  in  1669.  The 
verse  of  the  "  three  witnesses ''  (I  John  v,  7)  was  first  in- 
troduced into  a  Frankfort  edition  of  1575.  into  a  Witten- 
berg impression  in  1506.  Dietrich's  summaries  were 
replaced  by  those  of  Leonhard  Hutter  in  1624;  in  this  edi- 
tion a  Roman  Catholic  compodtor  changed  "  everlasting 
gospel "  in  Rev.  xiv,  6,  to  **  new  gospel,"  the  verse  being 
often  applied  to  Luther,  and  subsequent  editions  were 
printed  from  the  sheet  as  copy.  Several  editions  gave 
great  offense  because  of  changes  in  the  text  or  additions 
— e.g..  an  edition  by  N.  Funk  (Altona,  1815)  was  asserted 
to  teadi  a  '*  new  faith  "  because  of  changes  in  the  indexes 
and  notes.  The  Bible  Institute  founded  at  Halle  by  Karl 
Hildebrand,  Baron  Ganstdn  (q.v.)  came  to  have  great  in- 
fluence; after  1717  standing  type  or  stereotyped  plates 
were  used  and  millions  of  copies  of  the  Halle  text  were  eir- 
eulated  (see  Bxblb  Socxetxsb.  II,  1). 

The  Anabaptists  Hans  Denk  and  Ludwig  H&tser  (qq.v.) 

translated  the  Prophets  before  the  completion  of  Luther's 

venion  (published  by  Peter  Sehdffer,  Worms,  1527;  many 

later    editions):  thdr    work    was    used    by 

6.  Other     other  translatora  and  has  been  praised  for 

Versions,  scholarship  and  style  (d.  J.  J.  I.  DftUinger. 
Die  Reformation,  i,  Regensbuig,  1846,  199; 
Heberle.  in  TSK,  xxviii,  1855,  882;  L.  Kdler,  Bin  Apotd 
der  WiedertHufer,  Ldpdc,  1882,  210  sqq.).  The  preachen 
of  Zurich  publidied  a  complete  Bible  in  dx  parts  (152fr- 
1529),  using  Luther's  work  so  far  as  available  and  adding 
the  Prophets  (part  iv)  themselves  and  the  Apocrypha 
(part  V,  induding  III  and  IV  Esdras  and  III  BCaccabees 
but  not  the  Prayer  of  Asariah,  the  Song  of  the  Three  Chil- 
dren, the  Prayer  of  Maiuuises,  or  the  Additions  to  Esther) 
by  Leo  Jud  (q.v.).  The  complete  Bible  was  printed  in 
1530,  without  prefaces  and  glosses,  the  Apocrypha  at  the 
end.  The  edition  of  1531  (2  vols.)  has  a  short  admonition 
and  introduction  for  **  the  Christian  reader  of  these  Bib- 
lical Books  "  probably  by  Zwingli;  Also  summaries,  paral- 
lel references,  woodcuts,  and  a  new  translation  of  the  poet- 
ical books.  The  edition  of  1548  (2  vob.)  professes  to  have 
been  compared  word  for  word  with  the  Hebrew,  but  really 
does  not  differ  from  editions  of  1542  and  1546;  it  became 
the  bads  of  later  editions.  The  verse  dividon  was  first 
introduced  in  1589.  A  revidon  of  the  Zurich  New  Testa- 
ment was  undertaken  by  J.  J.  Breitinger  in  1629,  by 
a  eolUffium  btUieum  in  1817,  1860,  1868,  and  1882.  and 
a  new  revidon  of  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  appeared 
in  1893  (d.  E.  Riggenbach,  D%»  $ekwmaeruehe  revidierU 
Uebenelmifig  dss  Neuen  TeaiammU§  and  der  Pealment  Basel, 
1895). 

Beddee  the  Zurich  Bible  three  other  "  compodte " 
BiblM  (1.6.,  Luther's  timndation  so  far  as  it  had  appeared 


with  the  misdng  parts  supplied  from  other  tranalationi*) 
were  published  before  1534:  (I)  Worms,  Peter  Schdffer. 
1529.  the  so-called  *'  Baptist  "  Bible,  having  HAtser  and 
Denk's  verdon  of  the  Prophets;  it  was  the  first  Protestant 
Bible  to  use  the  word  Biblia  in  the  title,  retained  in  Luther's 
Bible  till  the  dghteenth  century;  (2)  Strasburg,  Wolff 
KOpphl,  1530,  Prophets  by  H&tser  and  Denk,  Apocrypha 
by  Jud;  (3)  Frankfort.  C.  Egenolph,  1534.  in  which  only  a 
part  of  the  Apocrypha  was  not  Luther's.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Laodiceans  was  induded  in  these  editions. 

About  one  hundred  yean  after  Luther  new  verdons  be- 
gan to  appear.  The  first  complete  Bible  was  that  of  J. 
Pisoator  (Herbom,  1602),  called  the  '*  Straf  mich  CSott  " 
Bible  because  the  translator  added  in  smaller  type  to  Mark 
viii,  12,  Wann  dieem  geedUsdU  ein  taichen  toirdt  oegeben 
werden,  §o  etraffe  mieh  Oott  ("  If  a  dgn  be  given  to  this 
generation,  so  strike  me  God ; "  d.  R.  Steek,  Die  Pieea- 
torhibel,  Bern.  1897).  The  Berieburg  Bible  (8  vols.,  1726- 
1742)  and  the  Wertheim  Bible  (1735)  were  prepared  in  the 
interest  of  mystidsm  and  rationalism  respectively  (see 
BxBLBS,  Amnotatxd,  akd  Bible  SuitMARiBa,  L  II  3.  4). 
Later  verdons  are  by  J.  D.  Uichaelii  (O.  T.,  13  vols..  Gdt- 
tingen,  1769  sqq.;  N.  T..  2  vols..  1790);  J.  H.  D.  Molden- 
hauer  (O.  T.,  10  vob.,  Quedlinburg,  1774  sqq.;  N.  T..  2 
vob..  1787-88);  Simon  GrynsBUS  (5  vols.,  Basel.  1776-77; 
a  paraphrase  in  modem  style,  the  historical  books  of  the 
O.  T.  abridged,  the  (Soepels  harmonised);  and  G.  F.  Grie»- 
inger  (Stuttgart,  1824).  Better  than  these  is  the  verdon 
of  W.  L.  M.  de  Wette  and  J.  C.  W.  Augusti  (6  vola..  Hd- 
delberg.  1809-14;  later  editions  by  De  Wette  alone).  Bun- 
sen's  annotated  Bible  (9  voAs.,  Ldpdc,  1858-70)  has  a 
tnmslation  of  the  HagiogrH>ha  by  A.  Kamphauaen,  of  the 
Apocrypha  and  N.  T.  by  H.  J.  Holtsmann,  other  portions 
by  Bunsen. 

Translations  of  the  New  Testament  alone  indude:  J. 
Crell,  J.  Stegman  the  elder,  and  others,  the  Sodnian  N.  T. 
(Rakow,  1630);  J.  Felbinger,  also  a  Sodnian  (Amnterdam, 
1660);  J.  H.  Rdts.  Reformed  (Offenbach.  1703);  C.  E. 
Triller  (Amsterdam,  1703);  Count  Zinsendorf  (Elbersdorf. 
1727);  Timotheus  Philadelphus  (i.e.,  J.  Kayser,  a  Stutt- 
gart phyddan,  1783);  C.  A.  Heumann'( Hanover,  1748);  J.  A. 
Bengel  (Stuttgart.  1753);  C.  T.  Damra  (3  vols.,  Berlin, 
1765);  C.  F.  Bahrdt  ("  the  hitest  revelations  of  God,"  4 
vob.,  Riga,  1773-74);  J.  C.  F.  Schuls  (vol.  i.  the  (Sospels, 
1774);  P.  M.  Hahn  (Winterthur,  1777);  G.  W.  Rullmann 
(3  vols.,  Lemgo.  1790-91);  J.  A.  Bolten  (8  vols.,  Altona, 
1792-1806);  J.  O.  Thdss,  Gospels  and  AcU  (4  vols.,  Ham- 
buig.  1794-1800);  J.  J.  Stols  (2  vols.,  Zurich,  1795;  a  see- 
ond  ed.  of  a  verdon  by  Stols,  J.  L.  VOgeU.  and  C.  H&feU, 
2  vols.,  1781-82);  G.  F.  Sdler  (2  vob..  Erlangen.  1806); 
J.  C.  R.  Eckermann  (3  vob..  Kiel,  1806-06):  J.  W.  F. 
Hetsel  (Dorpat,  1809);  C.  F.  Prdss  (2  vob..  StetUn.  1811); 
L.  Sohuhkrafft  (Stuttgart);  J.  Gossner  (Munich,  1815); 
H.  A.  W.  Meyer  (GAttingen,  1829);  E.  G.  A.  B«ckd  (Al- 
tona, 1832);  J.  K.  W.  Alt  (4  parts.  Ldpdc,  1837-39); 
K.  von  der  Heydt  (Elberfeld.  1852;  used  by  the  Plymouth 
Brethren);  F.  Rengsdorf  (Hamburg,  1860);  C.  WeiasAcker 
(Tabingen,  1875;  9th  ed., '1900);  C.  Rdnhardt  (Lahr,  1878); 

E.  Zittel  (3  vob.,  Carlsruhe,  1880-85);  C.  Stage  (Redam. 
Ldpdc,  1896;  "  in  present-day  speech  ");  H.  Wieee  (Ber- 
Un.  1905). 

Roman  Catholic  verdons  have  been  numerous.  Hiero- 
nymus  Elmser's  New  Testament  (Dresden,  1527;  see  Em- 
ber, HiKBONTinTS)  was  merely  a  slight  revidon  of  Luther 
after  the  Vulgate.  J.  Dietenberger,  a  Dominican,  pub- 
Ushed  the  entire  Bibb  at  Mains  in  1534  (d.  F.  Schndder. 
Johann  Dietenberger'e  Bibeldrudt,  Mains,  1901).  In  the 
New  Testament  he  followed  Emser  chiefly,  in  the  Apocry- 
pha Leo  Jud,  in  the  Old  Testament  he  took  much  from 
Luther.  C.  Ulenberg  revised  this  verdon  in  1630.  and  the 
clergy  of  Msins  in  1662;  thenceforth  it  was  commonly 
called  the  *'  Catholic  "  Bibb.  Later  Roman  Catholic  ver^ 
dons  are:  T.  A.  Erhard  (2  vols..  Augsburg,  1722);  the 
Benedictines  of  the  doister  of  EttenhdmmOnster  (Con- 
stance, 1751);  I.  Wdtenauer  (14  vols.,  Augsburg.  1777-81): 

F.  Ronalino  (3  vob..  Vienna,  1781);  K.  H.  Sdbt  (Prsgue. 
1781);  H.  Braun  (13  vols.,  Augsburg.  1788-1805;  worked 
over  by  J.  F.  Allioli.  6  vols..  Nuremberg,  1830-32):  D.  von 
Brentano.  T.  A.  Dereser.  and  J.  M.  A.  Schols  (N.  T.  by 
Brcntano.  3  vols..  Kempten.  1790-91;  revised  and  O.  T. 
added  by  Dereser  and  Schols,  15  vob.,  Frankfort.  1797- 
1833);  K.  and  L.  van  Ess  (3  vob..  Sulsbach,  1807-22);  H. 
J.  Jack  (Leipsic.  1847).  Translations  of  the  New  TesU- 
ment  alone  are:  C.  Fischer  (Prague.  1784);  B.  B.  M.  Schnap- 
pinger   (3   vob.,    Mannhdm,    1787-W);  &   MtttM:helb  (2 


147 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


ToU.  Mamdi.  1780-00):  B.  Weyl  (Maim,  1780);  J.  G. 
Krach  (2  vols..  Freiburg.  1790);  C.  Scbwartiel  (6  vols., 
Ulm.  180a-O5);  M.  WitUnann  (Regensburg.  1800);  J.  U. 
Sailer  (Gras.  1822);  J.  H.  Kistemaker  (Munich,  1825; 
circulated  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  which 
DOW  alao  dreulatei  Allioli's  translation);  B.  Weinhart 
(Freibuig.  1900);  A.  Amdt.  S.  J.  (Regensburg,  1903);  B. 
Grundl  (Augsbuig,  1903). 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  scholarly 
translation  of  the  canonical  Old  Testament,  edited 
by  E.  Kautzsch  in  collaboration  with  F.  Baethgen, 
H.  Guthe,  A.  Kamphausen,  R.  Kittel,  K.  Marti, 
W.  Rothstein,  R.  Ru^tschi,  V.  Ryssel,  K  Siegfried, 
and  A.  Socin  (Freiburg,  1894;  2d  ed.,  1896).  In 
the  supplementary  translation  of  the  Apocrypha 
and  Pseudepigrapha  Prof.  Kautzsch  had  the 
assistance  of  G.  Beer,  F.  Blass,  C.  Clemen,  A.  Deiss- 
mann,  C.  Fuchs,  H.  Gunkel,  H.  Guthe,  A.  Kamp- 
hausen,  R.  Kittel,  E.  littmann,  M.  Ldhr,  W.  Roth- 
stein, V.  Ryssel,  F.  Schnapp,  K.  Siegfried,  and 
P.  Wendland.  Since  1899  dieap  editions  called 
Texibibel,  both  with  and  without  Weizs&cker's  New 
Testament,  have  been  circulated. 

German  Israelites  have  translations  of  the  Old 
Testament  prepared  under  the  direction  of  L.  Zuns 
(Berlin,  1837)  and  by  S.  Bemfeld  (Berlin,  1902). 
There  are  aJso  versions  in  the  Jewish-German 
(Yiddish).  E.  Nestle. 

BiauooBAnr:  The  oae  work  on  early  German  transla- 
tions is  W.  Walther,  DU  deuiaeh*  BiMlibtn^iguno  dsf 
MiiUlaU§n,  3  vols.,  Brunswick,  1889-91;  ef.  BibU  of  aU 
Leads,  pp.  178-187,  London,  1861,  and  DB,  extra  vol., 
pp.  411-414. 

The  subject  of  the  printed  German  Bible  before  Luther 
has  been  muoh  elucidated  by  W.  Kurrelmeyer  of  Balti- 
more, who  has  prepared  an  edition  from  a  collation  of 
■I!  impresrions  and  manuscripts;  vols,  i  and  ii,  the  N.  T., 
hare  already  appeared  as  nos.  234  and  238  of  the  Bibli- 
ottdk  dm  lUUraruehgn  VtninB  in  StuUQort,  TObingen, 
1904  and  1905;  toIs.  ili-iv  of  the  O.  T.,  nos.  243.  246.  ib. 
1907.  F.  Jostes  (Roman  Catholic)  has  long  had  a  history 
in  preparation.  Consult  L.  Hain,  A^pereorium  bibli- 
offmpkiemn,  vol.  i.  Paris,  1826;  L.  Keller,  Dis  Reforma- 
tion und  dii  diUron  RoformparUion,  Leipsio,  1885;  idem. 
Dm  Waldonatr  und  di$  deutecfcsn  BibolliberoeUunoon,  v, 
189.  ib.  1886;  F.  Jostes.  Die  WaUUnoer  und  di$  vorlu- 
tkeiioeken  douJiadun  BibelliberMigunoen,  p.  44,  MOnster, 
1685;  idem.  DU  TopUr  BibdHbtneiguno,  MOnster.  1886; 
idem,  *'  Dis  Waldontorbiboln "  und  .  .  .  Johannot  Rol- 
laeft.  in  HiOorioduo  JahrbutK  ZY  (1894),  77  sqq.;  H. 
Haupt,  I>%o  douiochs  BibaHberMUuno  der  miUOaUorli^ 
then  Waldmuor  ....  WOrsburg,  1885;  idem,  in  Con- 
frofblatt  far  Bibiiothokoweoon,  1885,  pp.  287-290;  idem, 
Dtr  loaidoHoioeko  Uropruno  dot  Codox  Toplonoia  .... 
WQribuDB.  1886;  M.  Rachel,  Dio  Froibortfor  Bibe/O&erssfs- 
ung.  Freiburg,  1886;  S.  Berger.  La  QuooHon  du  codex  Top- 
faiuu.  in  Roou€  hiotoHquo,  zxz  (1886),  164,  zzzii  (1886), 
184;  K.  Behellhom,  Ueber  dat  VorfUUInio  dor  Froiborgor 
md  der  Toplor  BibolhandoehHft,  Freiberg.  1896;  W.  Wal- 
ther. Bin  anoMichor  BiboHiboreetaor  doo  MiUdaUore,  in 
^«iie  KrdUieks  Zoiiochrift,  Tiii,  3  (1896),  194-207;  Schaff. 
ChruHan  Church,  vi,  851  sqq. 

On  Luther's  Bible  consult:  J.  G.  Palm,  Hiatorio  dor 
rfnitodkm  BiboUtboreoUurnf  Dr.  M.  Luihori,  l$17-54»  ed. 
i.  M.  (^eas,  Halle,  1772;  G.  W.  Panser.  Eniwurf  oinor 
veOaUndigon  Gesdktcftls  der  douttdion  BiboHiborootMuno  M, 
LitOme,  J6i7-8S,  Nuremberg,  1791;  J.  Janssen-Pastor. 
(kednehio  doo  douioehon  Volkoo,  vii,  531-575,  Freiburg, 
18Q3:  Schaff,  ChriaHan  Church,  Ti,  340-368;  MoeUer, 
ChrioHan  Church,  iii.  8^35. 

On  the  language  of  Luther's  Bible  consult:  R.  von 
Ramner,  Sinvirkung  doo  Chriotoniumo,  Stuttgart,  1845; 
P.  Pietsch,  M.  Luihor  und  dio  hochdoutoeho  Sehriftopracho, 
Breslau.  1883;  K.  Burdach,  Dio  Biniffung  dor  nouhoeh- 
dootoehen  HdvrifUpracho,  Halle,  1884;  B.  Lindmeyer.  Dor 
WortedtaU  in  Lulhore,  Emaero  und  Echo  UAorootaung  doo 
AT.  r.'c  Strasburg.  1899;  F.  Dauner,  Die  obordoutoehon 
Bibdglooearo   doo   xvi.   JahrhundorU,    Darmstadt,    1898; 


66hme,  Zur  Oooehiehto  der  oAt^oiochon  KamloiopraAo, 
Reichenbach.  1899;  W.  W.  Florer.  SubetantivfUxion  boi 
Martin  Luther,  Ann  Arbor,  1899;  H.  Byland,  Dor  Wort- 
aehaio  doo  ZUrieher  A.  T.'o  von  1696  und  16S1  .  .  .  ,  Ber- 
lin, 1903. 

On  translations  after  Luther  consult:  J.  Meager,  Oo- 
odUehto  dor  BiMUhoroetMunoon  in  dor  echwotMorioeh-rofor' 
miorton  Kirehe,  Basel,  1876;  A.  Kappler.  Dio  oehwoioori- 
oeho  BibdHborootouno,  Zurich,  1898;  idem,  Dio  nouo  Ro- 
vioion  dor  ZUtriektr  BibA,  in  J^sue  Zikrichor  Zoitung,  Not. 
2  and  27.  1904. 

On  Roman  Catholic  verBions  consult:  G.  W.  Panser, 
Goodtit^U  dor  rOmioeh4Mtholioehon  BibolUborooiaung,  Nu- 
remberg, 1781;  J.  Janssen-Pastor,  ut  sup.;  O.  Keferstein, 
Dor  LauUiand  in  don  Bibollihorooloungon  von  Bmoor  und 
Bek,  Jena.  1888. 

Vm.  Greek  VersionB,  Modem :  Parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  translated  by  Jews  into  modem 
Greek  as  early  as  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
A  version  of  the  Pentateuch  made  in  1547  has  been 
edited  by  C.  Hesseling  (Leipsio,  1897).  On  the 
whole  the  Greek  Church  has  been  anxious  to  make 
the  people  acquainted  with  the  Bible,  a  fact  evinced 
especially  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  efforts 
of  Damascenus  the  Studite  (q.v.).  But  when,  at 
the  instance  of  Cyril  Lucar,  Maximos  KalliupoUtes 
published  in  1638  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  original  Greek  with  a  modem  Greek  version, 
the  Church  as  a  whole  did  not  favor  it,  though 
the  patriarch  Parthenios  permitted  its  circulation. 
This  text  was  reprinted  in  London  in  1703  by  the 
monk  Seraphim,  also  in  1710  at  Halle,  and  by 
C.  Reineccius  in  his  polyglot  Bible  of  1713  (see 
Bibles,  Poltolot,  V).  In  the  East,  Seraphim's 
edition  was  expressly  prohibited  by  the  patriarch 
Gabriel  of  Constantinople  (1702-04). 

A  new  period  began  when  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  took  the  matter  in  hand.  As  early 
as  1810  it  published  the  text  of  Maximos,  and  Eng- 
lish influence  induced  the  patriarchs  Cyril  VI  and 
Gregory  V  to  permit  its  circulation.  Other  issues 
followed  in  1814,  1819,  and  1824.  The  defi- 
ciencies of  the  old  text  having  been  long  known,  it 
was  decided  to  bring  out  a  new  translation,  which 
should  approach  more  nearly  the  ancient  Greek. 
For  thb  work  the  monk  Hilarion  was  employed 
under  the  direction  of  the  learned  Archbishop  CJon- 
stantius  of  Sinai,  afterward  patriarch.  But  when, 
in  consequence  of  a  controversy  over  the  Apocrypha 
(182&--27),  the  society  introduced  bibles  without 
the  Apocrypha,  the  Greek  Church  would  not  cir- 
culate them.  Moreover,  after  the  war  of  liberation 
the  desire  to  be  entirely  independent  of  Occidental 
aid  greatly  increased  and  orthodox  reaction  set  in 
anew.  The  version  of  such  learned  Greeks  as 
Typaldos,  Bambas,  and  others  found  no  more 
favorable  reception.  This  disposition  has  con- 
tinued. The  latest  version  of  the  New  Testament 
by  A.  Pallis  (Liverpool,  1902),  written  in  common 
Greek,  has  not  been  approved.  The  patriarch 
Joachim  III  has  renewed  the  prohibition  of  Bible 
translation.  Philipp  Meter. 

Bibuographt:  Korals.  in  Atakia,  vol.  iii  (1830);  J.  Wenger, 
BoitrAge  our  Kenntnio  dor  grioehieehen  Kirehe,  Berlin,  1830; 
BiMo  of  Every  Land,  pp.  241-244.  London.  1861;  E.  Le- 
grand,  BiJbliogravhio  HelUniquo,  3  vols.,  Paris.  1885-1903 
(for  15th  and  16tb  centuries);  idem.  Bibliographio  Hel- 
Uniquo, 5  vols.,  ib.  1894-1903  (for  the  17th  century);  A.  D. 
Xyriakos.  GeochiehU  dor  orionialioehon  Kirdton,  146S-J8M, 
Leipsic.  1902;  Bible  Soeioty  Roportor,  Jan.  and  May,  1902; 
DB,  extra  vol.,  p.  420. 


Bible  Veralona 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


148 


IX.  Hebrew  TraxislationB  of  thei  New  Testa- 
ment: The  anciently  attested  Hebrew  original  of 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew  and  the  Gospel  according  to 
the  Hebrews  are  not  to  be  included  in  this  treat- 
ment (see  Matthew,  II;  Apocrypha,  B,  I,  19). 
Of  existing  Hebrew  versions  of  the  New  Testament, 
the  more  important  are  the  following: 

1.  Veralona  by  Jews:  (1)  The  Evangelium  Mat- 
then  in  lingua  Hdiraica  cum  versiane  Latina,  by 
Sebastian  MOnster,  appeared  at  Basel,  1537  (2d  ed., 
Paris,  1541;  3d  ed.,  with  Hebrews  in  Hebrew  and 
Latin,  Basel,  1557).  (2)  The  Evangelium  hebraice 
Matihcn  recens  e  Jvdctorwn  peneiralibus  enUum, 
with  Latin  translation,  edited  by  Jean  du  Tillet 
and  Jean  Mercier  (Paris,  1555)  is  part  of  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Gospels  by  Schemtob  Schaprut  (1385), 
which  may  be  preserved  in  a  Vatican  manuscript.  (3) 
A  complete  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  by  Ezekiel  Rachbi  (d.  1772),  and  an  aBsist- 
ant  from  Germany. 

8.  Verslona  by  Ohristiana:  (1)  Elias  Hutter 
made  a  Hebrew  translation  of  the  complete  New 
Testament  for  his  polyglot  editions  (Nuremberg, 
1599,  1602;  see  Biblss,  Poltolot,  V);  a  better 
edition  of  this  version  was  issued  by  B.  Robertson 
(London,  1661),  and  the  first  part  of  the  same  by 
R.  Caddick  (London,  1798).  (2)  Johannes  Baptista 
Jona  translated  the  four  Gospels  (Rome,  1668). 
(3)  A  translation  of  Matthew  by  Johannes  Kemper 
(d.  1714),  with  Latin  rendering  by  A.  Borelius, 
is  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Upsala.  (4)  The  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, translated  by  F.  A.  Christiani,  appeared  in 
Leipsic,  1676,  and  Luke  i,  1-xxii,  14,  by  I.  From- 
man  at  Halle,  1735.  (5)  The  translation  of  the 
whole  New  Testament  prepared  for  the  London 
Society  for  Promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews 
appeared  in  1821,  and  in  revised  form  in  1840  and 
1866.  (6)  The  edition  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  begun  in  1864,  was  made  by  Frani 
Delitzsch  (Leipsic,  1877;  stereotyped  ed.,  1881; 
revised  ed.,  1885;  again  revised  by  Delitzsch  and 
edited  by  G.  Dabnan,  1892).  (7)  The  translation 
of  the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society,  begun  by  Isaac 
Salkinson  and  completed  by  C.  Ginsburg,  was 
issued  m  London,  1885.  (G.  Dalman.) 

BiBUOOBAFirr:  On  1:  A.  Herbtt,  DU  von  8«batHan  Mfln- 
«ter  .  .  .  tlbwMtfunomft  eUa  Bvangdiumt  Matthdi,  Q6t- 
tincen,  1879;  F.  Deliineh.  Brief  an  di$  R&mer,  pp.  22. 
106.  103-100.  Leipdo,  1870;  B.  Scboditer.  in  JQR,  vi, 
144-145.  On  2:  F.  DelitBSoh.  ut  sup.,  pp.  21-88;  Thao- 
UvUdiBB  LUaraiurUaU,  1889-1890;  Q.  Dalnum.  in  H«- 
6raiea.  ix.  22<»-231  and  TktolooitehM  lAitraiuHtlaU,  1891, 
pp.  289  aqq.;  J.  Dunlop,  Momonte  cf  QottpA  Triumpke, 
pp.  378-380.  London.  1894. 

Z.  Hungarian   (Magyar)    Versions:    Jdnos  Er- 
dasi  (or  Sylvester;    b.  1504;    died  o.  1560)  made 
the  first  Hungarian  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.     After    studying  in    Cracow    and   Wit- 
tenberg   (1526-29),    he    returned   to 
^T^t      ^  native  land  and  worked  at  Sirv&r 
Versions,  ^^^der  the  patronage  of  the  magnate 
T.  N&dasdi,   who    erected    the    first 
Hungarian  printing-press  in  Uj-Sziget    (Neanesis). 
There  Erd6si's  traxislation  was  printed  in   1541. 
ErdOsi   was    afterward    professor   of   Hebrew    in 
Vienna  (1542-52);    driven  out  by  the  Jesuits,  he 


went  to  Debreczin  and,  in  1557,  to  LOcse  (Leut- 
schau)  as  teacher  and  preacher.  A  little  later,  G. 
Heltai,  pastor  at  Kolosvdr  (Klausenburg),  and  his 
three  colleagues  translated  the  New  Testaoient, 
with  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament  (Kolosvdr, 
1552-61).  P^ter  Juhisz  (Melius),  pastor  and  super- 
intendent at  Debreczin  (1558-72),  rendered  into 
Hungarian  the  books  of  Job  and  Kings  (Debreczin, 
1565),  and  the  New  Testament  (Sz^gedin,  1567); 
of  the  latter  work  no  copy  is  known.  T.  F^le- 
gyh^zi,  professor  and  pastor  at  Debreczin,  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  at  Deb- 
reczin in  1586.  Caspar  Kdroli  (d.  1591),  a  pupil  of 
Melanchthon,  pastor  at  Gdnc  (not  far  from  Kassa), 
translated  the  entire  Bible  with  the  Apocrypha  and 
published  it  at  Visoly,  1590.  This  is  styled  the 
Visoly  Bible,  and  it  has  remained  in  use  to  the 
present.  It  has  passed  through  many  editions 
with  some  slight  corrections. 

During  the  religious  wars  (1604-45)  against  the 
Austrian  monarchs  the  Hungarian  nation  heroically 
fought  for  political  and  religious  liberty;  to  the 
great  Protestant  princes  of  Transylvania,  Bocskai, 
Bethlen,  and  George  (GyOrgy)  'RA- 
8.  The  k6czi  the  Protestant  Church  is  much 
KonUCroml  indebted,  for  without  them  it  would 
Bible,  have  suffered  the  fate  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Church.  The  victorious  BA- 
k6czi  family  caused  10,000  copies  of  the  Bible  to  be 
published  at  Virad  in  1657.  The  years  1660  to 
1781  were  a  dark  period  for  Hungarian  Protestants, 
during  which  the  Austrian  government,  under 
Jesuitical  influences,  took  control  of  the  entire 
kingdom,  and  the  freedom  gained  in  the  Refor- 
mation was  lost.  The  crisis  came  in  1671-81,  the 
so-called  ''  decade  of  mourning."  This  grievoua 
situation  explains  the  fact  that  Himgarian  bibles 
had  to  be  printed  in  foreign  countries.  The 
learned  Reformed  pastor  of  Debreczin,  Gydi^gy 
Csipk^  Konu&romi,  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar, 
in  order  to  meet  the  common  wish  and  to  make  the 
Bible  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  language, 
made  a  new  translation  which  was  approved  by  the 
synods  in  1681.  The  city  of  Debreczin  at  enormous 
cost  had  an  edition  of  4,000  copies  printed  at  Ley- 
den  in  1718.  When  the  edition  reached  the  frontier 
it  was  seized  by  the  Jesuits  (who  had  secured  from 
the  king  an  order  to  that  effect)  and  carried  to  their 
house  at  Kassa.  The  agitated  citizens  and  council 
of  Debreczin  used  all  means  available  to  recover 
the  books  and  at  length  secured  a  royal  edict  from 
King  Charles  III  (June  29,  1723)  granting  them  a 
free  Bible  (P.  Bod,  Historia  Hungarorum  ecclesir 
asHca,  iii,  89).  So  great  was  the  power  of  the 
Jesuits,  however,  that  they  frustrated  the  royal 
edict,  and  the  bishop  of  Eger,  Count  F.  Bark6czy, 
carried  the  Komdromi  bibles  to  his  palace  and 
threw  them  all  into  damp  cellars,  where  they  re- 
mained till  1754,  when  on  Nov.  1  he  burned  them 
in  the  court  of  his  palace  before  a  laige  gathering 
(cf.  The  Bible  Society  Monthly  Reporter,  Mar.,  1904, 
p.  69).  A  few  copies  retained  in  VarB6,  hidden  in 
the  Prussian  ambassador's  house,  were  brought  to 
Debreczin  in  1789. 

The  Roman  Catholics,  on  their  part,  had  the 
Bible  translated  by  a  Jesuit  scholar  Gydrgy  Kdldi, 


149 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Veraiona 


and  this  translation  appeared  at  Vienna,  1626  (see 
Kaij>i,  GrdROY).  In  the  nineteenth  century 
Baron  A.  Bartakovics,  archbishop  of  Eger,  ordered 
a  new  translation,  which  was  made  by  his  secretary, 
the  learned  Tirkinyi  (d.  1886);  this  ''  Eger  Bible  " 
was  published  at  the  cost  of  the  archbishop  in  1862, 
and  again  in  1892. 

Samuel  IQLmori,  professor  in  the  Lutheran  theo- 
logical academy  at  Pozsony  (Pressburg),  attempted 
a  new  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  with  the 
Apocrypha  (Budapest,  1870).  Because  of  the 
translator's  modem  style  and  his 
8.  Modem  inadequate  knowledge  of  the  Magyar 
Yendons.  tongue,  notwithstanding  its  fidelity  to 
the  original,  this  version  can  not  be 
used  by  the  people.  A  revision  of  the  old  KAroli 
text  was  proposed  as  early  as  1840,  and  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  assumed  the  task.  The 
first  revision  of  the  New  Testament  was  accom- 
plished by  J.  MenyhiLrt,  professor  of  exegesis  in 
Debrecsin  College,  and  by  W.  Gydri,  Lutheran 
pastor  of  Budapest.  It  was  issued  at  Budapest  in 
1878  and,  being  sharply  criticized,  did  not  gain 
acceptance.  The  work  of  revision  began  more 
seriously  in  1886,  when  T.  Duka,  a  native  of  Hun- 
gaiy  and  a  member  of  the  committee  of  the  Bible 
society  in  London,  secured  the  aid  of  that  great 
organisation.  Competent  men  were  chosen  from 
among  the  professors  and  pastors  of  both  Churches. 
After  many  years'  labor,  the  revised  Old  Testament 
left  the  press  at  Budapest  in  1898.  This  noble 
work  needs  further  revision,  and  the  Hungarian 
Church  awaits  the  moment  when  the  second  revision, 
soon  to  appear,  will  be  ready.  Work  on  the  revi- 
sion of  the  New  Testament  is  progressing. 

After  the  great  revolution  of  1848  and  between 
1851  and  1861,  the  constitution  of  Hungary  was 
suspended  by  the  Austrian  government  and  the 
circiilation  of  the  Bible  was  prohibited.  The  Bible 
depot,  the  property  of  the  British  Society,  was 
ordered  to  be  removed,  and  was  located  at  Beriin; 
nnoe  the  coronation  of  Francis  Joseph  I  all 
hindrances  have  been  removed,  and  under  the 
Hungarian  state  government  circulation  of  the 
Bible  is  free.  F.  Balooh. 

Bibuoobapbt:  BibU  of  Entry  Land,  pp.  325-327,  lA>ndon, 
IMl;  F.  Veraeshi.  DiMaerlaHo  de  vernont  Hunoariea  terip' 
bra  aocTtf,  Budapest,  1822;  T.  Dukm,  in  BibU  SocUiy'a 
M<mA!v,  London,  1882;  JCL,  ii.  770-771;  Hauek-Heriog, 
RE,  pp.  115-118  (givM  the  literature  in  Hungarian); 
BD,  extra  ToL,  p.  417. 

XI.  Italian  Versions:  Legend  has  it  that  Jacob 
of  Varasie  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Genoa,  made  an 
Italian  translation  of  the  Bible.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  one  was  prepared  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  eariiest  printed  Italian 
Bible  is  that  of  Nicold  di  Malherbi,  an  abbot  of 
the  Gunaldolites,  based  on  the  Vulgate  and 
published  Venice,  1471.  In  1530  Antonio  Bruc- 
doli  published  at  Venice  his  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  and  in  1532  the  entire  Bible.  In  the 
Bune  year  the  New  Testament  by  the  Dominican 
Zsocaria  was  published  at  Venice,  and  in  1551  that 
of  Domenico  Gi^o.  After  this  time  Geneva  be- 
came the  home  of  the  Italian  Bible.  A  congre- 
gtktion  of  refugees  settled  there  about  the  middle 


of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  for  their  benefit 
Massimo  Teofilo,  a  former  Benedictine  of  Florence, 
translated  the  New  Testament  from  the  Greek 
(Lyons,  1551).  For  the  Old  Testament  Bruccioli's 
version  was  revised  and  thus  in  1562  the  first 
Protestant  Bible  in  the  Italian  language  appeared 
(at  Geneva).  It  was  entirely  superseded  in  1607 
by  the  translation  of  G.  Diodati  (q.v.)  of  Lucca. 
Tliis  version,  made  directly  from  the  original  texts, 
stands  in  high  esteem  for  fidelity  and  has  been 
repeatedly  reprinted  by  different  Bible  societies. 
A  version  affecting  great  elegance,  but  by  no 
means  as  faithful  because  m^de  from  the  Vulgate, 
is  that  of  Antonio  Martini,  archbishop  of  Florence 
(Turin,  1776).  This  version  has  also  been  repeat- 
edly reprint^  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  in  1889  sqq.  an  illustrated  edition  was 
published  by  the  Catholic  publisher  Sonzogno  at 
Milan.  [A  version  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  in  mod- 
em Italian  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  St. 
Jerome  Society  of  Rome  by  Giuseppe  CSementi,  a 
secular  priest  and  professor  of  Italian  literature, 
with  brief  notes  by  Giovanni  Genocchi  of  the  Mis- 
sion of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  preface  by  Giovanni 
Semeria  of  the  Order  of  St.  Paul  (Bamabites),  was 
printed  at  the  Vatican  Press  with  the  approbation 
of  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1902.  The  work  was  well 
received  by  the  public  and  by  scholars,  and  was 
approved  and  circulated  by  many  dignitaries  of 
the  Roman  Church,  although  some  feared  its  influ- 
ence. The  completion  of  the  New  Testament  and 
translation  of  the  Old,  which  was  contemplated  by 
the  Society,  has  been  postponed,  as  it  seemed  inad- 
visable to  Pope  Pius  X  to  give  the  Italian  people 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  at  the  present  time.  The 
volume  published  is  sold  at  a  nominal  price,  and 
about  500,000  copies,  it  is  claimed,  have  been  dis- 
tributed.   See  Jerome,  Saint,  Orders  and  Socie^ 

TIES  OF.]  (S.  BERQERf.) 

BiBUOoaAnnr:  8.  Berger,  La  BibU  Italienne  au  moytn  Age^ 
in  Rcmania,  zzui  (1894),  358  sqq.  (oontaina  bibliog' 
raphy  and  liat  of  MSS.);  BibU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  277- 
270.  London.  1861;  J.  D.  Hales,  Tht  BibU  or  the  BibU 
Society  r  The  CorrupHon  of  Qod'e  Word  in  the  Italian 
Vereion  of  Moroni,  London,  1861;  J.  Garini,  Le  Vereione 
dMa  BiUia  in  volgari  iialiano,  S.  Pier  d'Arena,  1894; 
8.  Minoeei,  Vereione  Italiennee  de  la  BibU,  in  Vigouroux, 
Dietionnaire  de  la  BibU;  KL,  u,  741-742;  i>B,  extra  vol., 
406-406. 

Xn.  Lithuanian  and  Lettish  Versions:  A  fore- 
runner  of  the  Bible  translation  for  Protestant 
Lithuanians  was  the  rendering  of  the  Scripture 
lessons  from  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  by  B.  Willent 
(KOnigsberg,  1579)  from  Luther's  text  (edited  by 
E.  Bechtel,  in  Bezzenberger's  LUauische  und  leUische 
Drucke  de8  16,  JahrhunderU,  part  3,  Gdttingen, 
1882).  The  first  translator  of  the  Bible  in  a  fuller 
sense  was  Jan  Bretkun  (Bretkunas),  minister  at 
Labiau  and  KOnigsberg  (d.  1602  or  1603).  He 
translated  the  whole  Bible,  1679-90.  The  manu- 
script, preserved  in  the  university  library  at 
Kdnigsberg,  is  described  by  A.  Bezzenberger, 
Beitrdge  rur  Geachichte  der  litauischen  Sprache 
(Gdtthigen,  1877),  pp.  vi-vii.  Only  the  Psalms 
were  published  (Kdnigsberg,  1625)  and  the  editor, 
J.  Rhesa,  introduced  many  changjs. 

The  Reformed  Lithuanians,  anxious  for  a  Bible, 


Bible  Veraioiui 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


150 


in  1657  commissioned  Samuel  Boguslaw  Chylinski 
to  go  to  England  and  have  the  Bible  printed  there 
(of.  H.  Reinhold,  in  MiUheUungen  der  litauisch- 
liUerarUchen  GeseUschaft,  voL  iv,  part  2,  p.  105). 
The  Old  Testament  as  far  as  the  Psalms  was  pre- 
sented to  the  synod  at  Wilna  in  print  in  1663,  other 
parts  in  manuscript.  Of  this  Bible  impression 
only  three  copies,  aU  imperfect,  are  known  to  exist. 
Chylinski  was  the  translator. 

The  New  Testament,  translated  by  Samuel  Byth- 
ner,  was  published  at  Kdnigsberg,  1701,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Lutherans  (new  ed.,  Berlin,  1866). 
A  New  Testament  translated  by  different  ministers 
was  published  at  Kdnigsberg  in  1727.  The  Old 
Testament  was  prepared  in  the  same  way  and  the 
whole  Bible  was  published  at  Kdnigsberg,  1735. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
need  of  a  new  edition  of  the  Bible  was  felt,  and  the 
work  was  undertaken,  with  the  help  of  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  by  a  number  of  clergy- 
men and  especially  by  L.  J.  Rhesa.  It  was  based 
on  Luther's  version,  with  comparison  of  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  originals,  and  was  published  at 
Tibit,  1824. 

For  the  Roman  Catholic  Lithuanians,  Joseph  Ar- 
nulf  Giedraltis  (Polish,  Giedroj^),  bishop  of  Samo- 
gitia,  translated  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Vulgate  (WUna,  1816). 

The  oldest  specimen  of  Lettish  printing,  the 
Enchiridion  (Kdnigsberg,  1586-^7;  called  in  later 
editions  Vademecum  and  "  Hand-Book "),  con- 
tains among  other  writings  for  ecclesiastical  use 
the  Scripture  lessons  for  Sundays  and  festivals  for 
the  Evangelical  Letts  (in  later  editions  enlai^ged  by 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament).  The  first  Lettish 
Bible,  translated  by  E.  Glttck  and  C.  B.  Witten, 
was  published  at  Riga,  1685-89.  In  1877  A.  Bielen- 
stein  published  at  Mitau  a  thoroughly  revised 
edition.  (A.  Leskien.) 

BxBUOoaArHT:  L.  J.  Rheaa,  OttehichU  dtr  litaui9ehen  BtbeX, 
KfinigabeiVt  1886:  H.  Reinhold.  D%»  toomannU  Chy- 
linakiadi^  BtMUbeneUuno,  in  Mittfmlunoen  der  lilauiaik' 
litUrariadien  O—dUchafU  vol.  !▼,  part  2,  p.  105;  Napierw 
■ky.  CkrondoQiacker  CarmMd  der  UUied^litterariMAen 
GtedUehaft,  vol.  iii.  1831;  BihU  of  Every  Land,  pp.  310- 
313,  London,  1861;  Bielenstein.  Zum  SOOiUhrioen  JuM- 
lAum  der  letUsehen  Liieratur,  Riga,  1886.  Coniult  also  the 
Annual  Beporta  of  the  BFBa 

ZnL  Perrian  Verrions:  Chrysostom  mentions 
Persians  as  well  as  Syrians,  Egyptians,  Ethiopians, 
and  other  nations  as  being  in  possession  of  the 
Qospel;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  there  was 
at  that  time  a  version  of  Scripture  in  the  Per- 
sian tongue,  since  Syrian  influence  predominated 
in  the  Persian  Empire.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
Chosroes  II  had  the  Scriptures  brought  from 
Edessa  (cf.  TLZ,  1896,  432,  and  Theodoret,  Hist, 
9ed,,  i,  5).  All  that  was  known  in  Europe  till  1700 
of  Biblical  and  other  texts  is  found  in  Lagarde, 
Persische  Studien  (Gdttingen,  1884),  3-8. 

A  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  by  the  Persian 
Jew  Jacob  ben  Joseph  Tawus,  printed  in  Hebrew 
characters,  is  contained  in  a  polyglot  Pentateuch  of 
Constantinople  (1546),  and  was  transcribed  into 
Persian  characters  with  a  Latin  translation  by  T. 
Hyde  in  vol.  iv  of  Walton's  Polyglot.  The  Gos- 
pda,  translated  from  the  Greek,  were  edited  by 


Abraham  Wheelocke  and,  after  his  death,  by 
Pierson  (London,  1657),  and  another  translation 
from  the  Syriac  was  printed  in  vol.  v  of  Walton's 
Polyglot,  and  used  by  Tischendorf  after  the 
edition  of  C.  A.  Bode  (Helmstadt,  1750-51).  In 
Paris  are  parts  of  two  different  translations  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  one  made  from  the  Hebrew, 
the  other  from  the  Aramaic  (cf.  Zotenberg,  Cata- 
logue de$  maniueriu  HAreux,  etc.,  Paris,  1866 
sqq.,  and  Lagarde,  Pertiache  Studien,  i,  69,  and 
ii,  and  his  Symmicta,  ii,  Gdttingen,  1879,  14-17). 
0^  Jewish  reports  about  the  Bible  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Elam  and  Media  cf.  L.  Blau,  EinUiiung 
in  die  heilige  Schrift  (Budapest,    1804),  80-04. 

E.  Nbbtlb. 

For  partial  translations  of  the  Bible,  particu- 
larly of  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecdesiastes,  Canticles,  the  Minor  Prophets,  Esther, 
Daniel,  Tobit,  Judith,  Job,  and  Lamentations, 
preserved  in  manuscript,  cf.  JE,  iii,  190,  vii,  319- 
319.  The  oldest  fragments  of  this  character  are 
probably  those  found  in  the  Pahlavi  Skikand- 
gdnUknlg  Vijdr,  which  dates  from  the  latter  part  of 
the  ninth  oentuiy  (ed.  Jamasp-Asana  and  E.  W. 
West,  Bombay,  1887;  transl.  by  E.  W.  West,  SBE, 
xxiv,  117  sqq.).  These  fragments  are  Gen.  i,  2-^, 
ii,  16-17,  iii,  9,  11-16,  18-19,  vi,  6;  Ex.  xx,  5; 
Deut.  xxix,  4,  xxxii,  35;  Ps.  xcv,  10;  Isa.  xxx, 
27-28,  xliii,  19;  Matt,  i,  20,  v,  17,  vii,  17-18,  xii, 
34,  XV,  13,  xviii,  32;  Luke  v,  31-32,  vi,  44,  xv,  4; 
John  i,  11,  14,  viii,  23,  viii,  37-^38,  42-45,  47;  and 
Rom.  vii,  19-20.  They  were  quoted  for  anti- 
Christian  polemics,  and  from  the  forms  of  the  proper 
names  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  a  Syriac 
original,  though  traces  of  the  Targum  of  the  pseudo- 
Jonathan  (see  above.  A,  V,  {  3)  may  be  discovered 
in  the  renderings  of  Ex.  xx,  5  and  especially  of  Gen. 
iii,  14  (cf.  L.  H.  Gray,  in  Actee  du  XIV.  eangr^ 
international  dee  arientalietee,  i,  Paris,  1005, 182-186). 
Equally  interesting  are  the  fragments  of  the  New 
Testament  in  Estrangelo  script  but  in  an  Iranian 
dialect  (probably  Sogdhian,  thus  constituting 
almost  the  only  known  remains  of  this  dialect), 
discovered  in  Tiirfan,  Eastern  Turkestan,  in  1903. 
These  citations  are  Mamchean  in  origin,  and  the 
following  passages  are  thus  far  known:  Matt,  x, 
14  sqq.;  Luke  i,  63-80;  John  xx,  19  sqq.;  Gal.  iii, 
25  sqq.,  and  a  number  of  smaller  fragments  which 
are  adaptations  and  compilations  rather  than 
translations  (cf.  F.  W.  K.  MQller,  in  appendix  to 
the  Abhandlungen  der  Berliner  Akademie,  1904, 
pp.  34-37,  and  Sitzungeberichte  der  Berliner  Aka- 
demie, 1907,  pp.  260-270).  Mention  may  also  be 
made  of  a  Persian  version  of  Gen.  i-vi,  6,  by  Abhi- 
chand,  a  Hindu  converted  to  a  mixture  of  Judaism 
and  Mohammedanism  by  the  Judeo-Persian  poet 
Sarmad  eariy  in  the  seventeenth  centuiy,  and  pre- 
served in  the  Dabietan.  This  version  differs  ma- 
terially from  the  translation  of  Jacob  Tawus. 

Bibuoobapht:  Walton'*  PUygiot,  ProlefomBna,  16,  and 
8.  CMoui  in  vol.  ir;  8.  Hunk,  Une  vereion  permne  MS. 
de  la  BiUiotkigue  RoyaU,  Paris.  1838;  BibU  of  Bvery 
Land,  pp.  64-71.  London.  1861;  A.  Kobut.  B^UudUung 
der  ptrtiMAm  PentateuthiOieredMuno,  Heidelberg.  1871; 
T.  N6ldeke.  in  ZDMO,  U  (1803).  648;  Horn,  iiue  tlolie- 
wieehen  BtUiolM:en.  in  ZDMO,  U  (1803);  8criTener.  /»- 
trodwHon,  U.  165:  Gra«ory.  TexAriHk,  i.  676-578. 


151 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


XIV.  Portngoese  Vendons:  Portuguese  venions 
begin  with  that  by  Joa5  Ferreira  d'Ahneida,  a 
former  Roman  Catholic  priest  (New  Testament, 
Amsterdam,  1681 ;  Old  Testament,  revised  and  con- 
tinued bj  Danish  missionaries,  Tranquebar,  1719- 
1751).  A  Roman  Catholic  version,  with  annotations, 
hj  Antonio  Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  was  published  in 
Lisbon,  1778  sqq.  (23  vols.;  revised  ed.,  greatly 
improved,  1794-1819). 

A  version  based  on  Almeida's  translation  was 
made  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Boys,  and  published  by 
the  Trinitarian  Bible  Society  (London,  1843-47). 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  often 
printed  revised  editions  of  both  Almeida's  and 
Pereira's  versions.  The  need  of  a  better  and  more 
accurate  translation  of  the  Bible  in  the  Portu- 
guese language  is  generally  recognised  by  Protes- 
tant missionaries  and  laborers  in  Portugal  and 
Brazil.  (S.  BEROEBf.) 

Biblioorafbt:  Bibie  of  Evary  Land,  p.  271-276,  London. 
1861;  8.  Befier.  in  Romania,  xxriii  (1899),  643  sqq. 
igpna  a  full  aooount  of  the  literfttura);  DB,  extra  vol., 
pp.  410-411. 

XV.  Scandinavian  Versions:  Of  the  Scandi- 
navian countries,  Norway  and  its  colony,  Iceland, 

had  at  a  very  eariy  period  a  national 
1.  Before  literature  in  the  Old  Norwegian 
the  Bef-  tongue  (incorrectly  called  Old  Norse). 
ormation.  Xo  the  eariiest  period  of  Bible  trans- 
lation belongs  the  Stjom  ("  Dispen- 
sation/' Bc.,  of  God),  which  includes  Gen.-II 
Kingi.  This  is  not  a  translation  but  a  para- 
phrase of  these  books  on  the  basis  of  the  Vul- 
gate, with  explanatory  remarks  from  different 
authors — Josephus,  Augustine,  Peter  Comestor, 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  and  others.  The  preface 
stales  that  it  was  prepared  imder  the  patronage 
of  King  Haakon  V  (129^1319),  and  from  a 
note  in  one  of  the  manuscripts  it  appears  that 
Brand  Jonson,  bishop  of  Hole  in  Iceland  (d.  1264), 
made  the  translation.  If  this  note  is  correct, 
JoDson  probably  translated  the  middle  and  most 
ancient  part  (Ex.  xix-Deut.  xxxiv).  The  Stjam 
was  edited  by  Prof.  C.  R.  Unger  (Christiania,  1862). 
In  the  Old  Norwegian  literature  there  exist  many 
homilies,  legends  of  the  saints,  and  apociyphal  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  which  contain  many  Bible  texts; 
these  were  put  together  and  published  by  J.  Bels- 
heim  under  the  title  Af  BibeUn  i  Norge  og  paa 
ItUxnd  %  Midddalderen  (Christiania,  1884). 

The  eariiest  traces  of  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
Old  Swedish  appear  in  the  time  of  St.  Bridget.  In 
her"Revdations"  aswell  as  in  accoimts  of  her 
life  it  is  said  that  she  had  a  copy  of  the  Bible 
made  in  Swedish.  This  was  imdoubtedly  only  an 
exposition  of  the  Pentateuch  composed  by  her 
father  confessor  Matthias  in  Linkdping  (d.  1350; 
see  Bridget,  Saint,  of  Sweden).  Joshua  and 
Judges  were  translated  later  by  Nils  Ragnvaldson 
(d.  1514),  while  Judith,  Esther,  Ruth,  and  Bfaccabees 
were  trandated  by  Jens  Budde  of  the  N&dendal 
monastery.  There  is  also  extant  a  translation  of 
the  Apocaljrpse,  made  prior  to  1520.  All  these 
Biblical  works,  baaed  on  the  Vulgate,  were  edited  by 
G.  E.  Klemming,  in  Svtnaka  MeddtidenB  Bibdat' 
&cten  (2  vols.,  Stockholm,  1848-^). 


An  old  Danish  version  based  on  the  Vulgate, 
containing  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  contained  in  a  manuscript  of  the  Mariager 
monastery  in  Jutland,  antedating  1480.  The 
first  eight  books  were  edited  by  Prof.  C.  Mol- 
bech  (Copenhagen,  1828).  A  translation  of  the 
Psalms  of  the  same  period  is  extant  in  different 
manuscripts.  Some  of  them  were  edited  by  C.  J. 
Brandt,  in  Qande  danskeLdsebog  (Copenhagen,  1857). 

In    both    Denmark    and    Sweden    the    entire 

Bible  was  first  translated  in  the  period  of  the 

Reformation.  Norway  was  united  with  Denmark 

from  1380  to   1814  and  the   Danish 

8.  Binoe    language,  being  cognate  with  the  Nor- 

theBef-  wegian,  became  the  common  literary 
ormatlozi.  language  in  the  two  countries.  The 
New  Testament  was  first  rendered 
into  Danish  by  Hans  Mikkelsen,  formerly  bur- 
gomaster of  Malmd,  who  followed  Christian  II 
into  exile  in  the  Netherlands  in  1523.  This  New 
Testament  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1524.  Being  a 
mixture  of  Danish  and  German,  the  language 
was  uncouth.  A  better  translation  was  made 
by  Christen  Pedersen  (d.  1554),  the  first  editor  of 
the  history  of  Denmark  by  Saxo  Grammaticus  and 
of  other  older  works.  P^ersen's  New  Testament 
was  printed  at  Antwerp  1529  and  again  in  1531, 
and  in  the  latter  year  his  translation  of  the 
Psalms  appeared.  Previous  to  this  (1528)  a 
translation  of  the  Psalms  made  by  Frans  Wormord- 
sen,  a  Dutchman  by  birth,  was  published  at  Ros- 
tock. All  these  followed  the  Vtdgate  closely,  but 
were  influenced  by  Luther  and  Erasmus.  The 
Danish  Reformer  Hans  Tausen  (d.  1561,  as  bishop 
of  Ribe  [Ripen])  translated  the  Pentateuch  from 
Luther's  version  (Magdeburg,  1535).  Peder  Tide- 
mand  translated  Judges  (Copenhagen,  1539),  and 
Wisdom  and  Ecdesiasticus  (Magdeburg,  1541). 
The  first  complete  Bible  in  Danish  was  published 
at  Copenhagen  in  1550,  following,  according  to  the 
instructions  of  Christian  III,  as  much  as  possible 
Luther's  version.  The  greater  part  of  the  work  was 
done  by  Christen  Pedersen,  assisted  by  a  number  of 
professors.  A  new  edition  followed,  1589,  reprinted 
1633.  A  translation  from  the  ori^nal  languages, 
prepared  by  Hans  Paulsen  Resen  (d.  1638),  ap- 
peared in  1607,  and,  revised  by  Bishop  Hans 
Svane  or  Svaning  (the  so-called  Svam'ng  Bible), 
again  in  1647  and  was  used  till  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  centuiy.  In  1819  Bishop 
F.  C.  K.  H.  MOnter  (q.v.)  with  others  imdertook  a 
revision  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  whole 
Bible,  revised  by  C.  Rothe,  C.  Hermansen,  and  C. 
Kalkar  under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  H.  L.  Mar- 
tensen  (q.v.)  was  published  in  1872.  There  are 
translations  made  by  other  scholars,  such  as  C. 
Basthohn  (New  Testament,  1780),  O.  H.  Guld- 
berg  (New  Testament,  1794),  the  whole  Bible  by 
J.  C.  Lindberg  (1837-56)  and  C.  Kalkar  (1847), 
the  four  Gospels  by  K.  F.  Viborg  (1863),  and 
the  New  Testament  by  Bishop  T.  8.  R5rdam 
(1886;  2d  ed.,  1894-95).  A  Roman  Catholic 
version  of  the  New  Testament  after  the  Vulgate 
was  published  by  J.  L.  V.  Hansen  in  1893. 

After  the  separation  of  Norway  from  Denmark 
in  1814,  three  revisions  of  the  New  Testament 


Bible  Versioxia 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


152 


were  made  (1819,  1830,  and  1873),  the  most 
important  being  by  Prof.  Hereleb  in  1830.  A  new 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  undertaken  by 
Adjunct  Thistedahi  and  Profs.  Kaurin,  Holmboe, 
Caspari,  and  Nissen  was  published  in  parts  (1857- 
1869;  revised  ed.  completed  1890),  and  of  the  New 
Testament  by  Bishops  F.  W.  Bugge,  A.  C.  Bang, 
and  others  was  published  in  1904. 

The  New  Testament  was  rendered  into  the  Nor- 
wegian vernacular,  which  much  resembles  the  Old 
Norwegian,  by  Prof.  E.  Blix,  I.  Aasen,  M.  Skard, 
and  J.  BeliBheim,  and  published  in  1889  (new  ed., 
1899).  A  translation  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  in  preparation  and  the  Book  of  Psalms 
was  printed  in  1904,  Genesis  in  1905.  A  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  for  the  use 
of  Roman  Catholics  has  also  been  'published. 
During  the  Reformation  period  Iceland  also  re- 
ceived the  Bible  in  its  old  Norwegian-Icelandic 
tongue.  An  Icelander,  Odd  Qottskalkson,  of  Nor- 
wegian descent,  translated  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  published  at  Roskilde,  1540.  The 
whole  Bible  translated  after  Luther's  version  by 
Bishop  Gudbrand  Thorlakson  appeared  in  1584 
(revised  1644).  A  new  translation  by  Bishop  Stein 
Jonson  was  issued  in  1728,  but  the  rendering  was 
not  smooth,  so  the  older  version  of  Thorlakson 
was  reprinted  at  Copenhagen  in  1747,  and  the  New 
Testament  again  in  1750  and  1807,  followed  in  1813 
by  a  reprint  of  the  whole  Bible.  In  1827  a  new 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  published, 
followed  by  a  revised  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  in 
1841,  and  by  a  revised  edition.  Oxford,  1863. 

When  Gustavus  Vasa  became  king  of  Sweden 
in  1523,  wishing  for  a  Swedish  translation,  he 
applied  to  Archbishop  Johannes  Magni  of  Upsala, 
requesting  him  with  the  help  of  the  clergy  to  pre- 
pare a  translation  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
archbishop  devised  a  plan  which,  however,  was 
opposed  by  some  of  the  ministers.  Bishop 
Hans  Brask  of  LinkOping  said  that  "it  were 
better  for  Paul  to  have  been  burned,  than  to 
be  known  by  every  one."  The  New  Testament 
translated  by  the  chancellor  Lorenz  Andre&  (q.v.) 
with  the  assistance  of  Pastor  Olaus  Petri  (q.v.)  was 
published  at  Stockhohn  1526.  The  whole  Bible, 
translated  by  Lars  Petri,  archbishop  of  Upsala  (d. 
1573),  was  issued  1540-41.  This  Bible,  made 
after  Luther's,  was  for  a  long  time  the  church 
Bible  of  Sweden.  A  revised  edition  by  the  two 
bishops  Geaselius  in  Abo  (father  and  son;  see 
Gezelius,  Johannes)  was  highly  praised.  Dif- 
ferent commissions  for  translating  the  Bible  were 
appointed;  one,  consisting  of  twenty-three  mem- 
bers, spent  a  long  tune  in  preparing  a  translation 
with  a  rationalistic  tendency;  but  the  ''  specimens  " 
published  from  time  to  time  found  no  favor.  In 
1844  the  conunission  was  reconstituted,  with  Prof. 
A.  Knds  as  one  of  its  most  active  members.  The 
New  Testament  prepared  by  the  cathedral  provosts 
0.  A.  Thoren  and  H.  M.  Melin  and  published 
in  1853-77  was  not  favorably  received.  A  better 
reception  met  the  version  of  the  New  Testament 
prepared  by  Archbishop  Sundberg,  Cathedral 
Provost  Thoren,  and  Bishop  Johanson,  published  in 
1882.    A  new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is 


in  preparation.    The  Bible  version  of  Cathedral 
Provost  Melin  was  published  in  1865-69. 

J.  Beubhedi. 

BxBUOoaAPHT:  J.  Belsheim.  VeiledfUno  %  BibtUna  Hittork^ 
pp.  252  aqq.,  Christuuiia,  1880;  J.  A.  Schiiuneier.  Ge> 
•cfcidUe  der  •ehweiithen  BibeU-Uebenetsunoen  und  Atu- 
Oaben,  Leipdo,  1777;  P.  W.  Becker.  De  J.  P.  Reaenii  ter- 
none  Danica,  Copenhagen,  1&31:  C.  Molbech,  Bidroo  til 
•n  hittorie  of  de  Dandee  BibdovermetteUer,  tb.  1840;  Bibk 
of  Every  Land,  pp.  214-226,  London,  1861;  C.  W.  Brumu 
BiblioOuca  Danica,  Copenhegtm,  1872;  J.  P.  Hicgmnn, 
Forteeknino  dfver  evenaka  upplaoor  of  BibeUi,  Upaala. 
1882;  KL,  u,  767-709;  DB,  extra  vol..  pp.  415-^416. 

ZVL  Slayonic  VerBions:    The  history  of  Bible 
versions  in  the  Slavonic  begins  with  the  seooDd 
half  of  the  ninth  century.    The  oldest  translation, 
commonly  called  the  Church  Slavonic, 
^'m^^  Old  Lb  closely  connected  with  the  activity 
SlavJnlo    ®^   ^^^    ^^    apostles  to    the    Sla\-s, 
Version.    Cyril  and  Methodius,  in  Moravia.  864- 
885  (see  Ctril  and  Methodius).  The 
oldest    manuscripts    are    written    either    in    the 
so-called  Qyrillic  or  the  Glagplitic  character.    The 
former  is   the    Greek  majuscule  writing  of  the 
ninth   century   with   the   addition  of  new    char- 
acters for  Slavic    soimds    which    are    not  found 
in    the    Greek    of    that  time;   the  latter    was  a 
style  of  the  Greek  minuscule  with  the  addition  of 
new  signs  as  in  the  Cyrillic  alphabet.    The  oldest 
manuscripts   are  written  in  the  Glagolitic,  which 
is  older  than  the  Cyrillic.   The  oldest  manuscriptfi 
extant  belong  to  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century, 
and  the    first    complete    collection    of    Biblical 
books  in  the  Church  Slavonic  language  originated 
in  Russia  in  the  last  decade  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  was  made  by  Archbishop  Gennadius  of  Nov- 
gorod, and  the  Old  Testament  was  translated  partly 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  partly  from  the  Septuagint. 
The  New  Testament  is  based  upon  the  old  Church 
Slavonic  translation.     During  the   sixteenth  cen- 
tury a  greater  interest  in  the  Bible  was  awakened 
in   South  and  West  Russia,     owing  to  the  con- 
troversies   between  adherents    of    the  Orthodox 
Church  and    the  Roman  Catholics  and   Uniates. 
In  the    second    half    of    the    sixteenth    century 
the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles,  and  parts  of  the 
Psalter  were  often  printed  at  Lemberg  and  Wihia, 
though  the  oldest  edition  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  was 
issued  at  Moscow  in  1564.    In  1581  the  first  edition 
of  the  Slavonic  Bible  was  published  at  Ostrog,  a 
number  of  Greek  manuscripts,  besides  the  Genna- 
dius Bible,   having   been   used    for   this   edition. 
But  neither  the  Gennadius  nor  the  Ostrog  Bihle 
was  satisfactory,  and  in  1663  a  second  somewhat 
revised    edition    of    the    latter    was    published 
at  Moscow.    In   1712  the  czar  Peter  the  Great 
issued  a  ukase  ordering  the  printed  Slavonic  text 
to  be  carefiilly  compared  with  the  Greek  of  the 
Septuagint  and  to  be  made  in  every  respect  oon- 
formable  to  it.    The  revision  was  completed  in 
1724  and  was  ordered  to  be  printed,  but  the  death  of 
Peter  (1725)  prevented  the  execution  of  the  order. 
The  manuscript  of  the  Old  Testament  of  this  re- 
vision is  in  the  synodal  library  at  Moscow.  Under 
the  empress  Elizabeth  the  work  of  revision  was  re- 
sumed by  a  ukase  issued  in  1744,  and  in   1751  a 
revised  "Elizabeth"  Bible,  as  it  is    called,  was 


163 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 


published.  Three  other  editions  were  published  in 
1756, 1757,  and  1759,  the  second  somewhat  revised. 
All  later  reprints  of  the  Russian  Church  Bible  are 
based  upon  this  second  edition,  which  is  the 
authorized  version  of  the  Russian  Church. 

The  Church  Slavonic  is  not  intelligible  to  the 
Russian  people.  An  effort  to  produce  a  version  in 
the  vernacular  was  made  by  Frantsisk  Skorina  (d. 
after  1535),  a  native  of  Polotsk  in  White  Russia. 
He  published  at  Prague,  1517-19,  twenty-two  Old 

«----i--  Testament  books  in  the  "Russian 
VeniozLs.  language,"  in  the  preparation  of  which 
he  was  greatly  influenced  by  the 
Bohemian  Bible  of  1506  (see  below,  {  5).  Other 
^orts  were  made  during  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries,  but  the  Church  Slavonic 
predominated  in  all  these  efforts.  Peter  the 
Great  felt  that  the  mass  of  the  Russian  people 
needed  a  Bible  in  the  vernacular  and  author- 
ised Pastor  GlQck  in  1703  to  prepare  such 
an  edition.  Unhappily  Glttck  died  in  1705  and 
nothing  is  known  of  his  work.  It  was  left  to 
the  nineteenth  centuiy  in  connection  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Russian  Bible  Society  (foimded 
in  1812  at  St.  Petersburg,  with  the  consent  of  Alex- 
ander I;  see  Bible  Societies,  II,  5)  to  prepare  a 
Bible  in  the  vernacular.  The  work  was  under- 
taken by  Philaret  (q.v.),  rector  of  the  Theological 
Academy  of  St.  Petersburg  (afterward  metro- 
politan of  Moscow),  and  other  members  of  the 
faculty  of  the  aisidemy.  The  Gospels  were 
published  in  1818  and  in  1822  the  entire 
New  Testament.  In  1820  the  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  imdertaken,  and  in 
1822  Phflaret's  translation  of  the  Psalms  was 
published.  In  1825  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
Judges,  and  Ruth  were  issued.  The  year  1826 
saw  an  end  to  the  activity  of  the  Bible  Society 
in  the  ban  put  upon  all  kkids  of  private  assodar 
tions,  even  when  non-political.  Not  before  1858 
was  the  work  of  translation  resumed.  In  1876  the 
entire  Bible  was  published  in  one  volume.  The  Old 
Testament  books,  though  based  upon  the  Hebrew, 
follow  the  order  of  the  Septuagint  and  the  Church 
Slavonic  Bible.  The  Apocryphal  books  also  form 
a  part  of  the  Russian  Bible.  The  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  also  issued  a  Russian  edition, 
omitting,  however,  the  Apocrypha. 

The  Bulgarians  too  were  provided  during  the 
nineteenth  century  with  translations  of  Biblical 
books  into  the  vernacular.  In  1828  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  published  at  Bucharest  (2d  ed.,  1833), 
tiaoalated  by  the  pastors  Sapunov  and  Sera- 
phim. For  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  the  archimandrite  Theodosius,  abbot  of 
the    Bistrica    monastery,    translated 

^\^iU»»-  the  New  Testament,  which  was  printed 
g^^[^    at  London  in  1828.    The  entire  edition 

▼ersiona.  ^^  ^^nt  to  St.  Petersburg  and  is  said  to 
have  been  destroyed  there.  A  new 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at 
Smyrna  in  1840  (3ded.,  Bucharest,  1853,  and  often). 
In  1867  the  American  Bible  Society  printed  in  New 
York  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  and  other 
editions  were  issued  at  Constantinople  in  1866  and 
1872.    The  Old  Testament  "translated  from  the 


original "  was  also  published  there  in  three  parts 
(1862-64),  but  without  the  Apocrypha.  An  edition 
of  the  entire  Bible  ''  faithfully  and  accurately  ren- 
dered from  the  original "  was  published  by  the 
same  society  at  Constantinople  in  1868  (3d  ed., 
1874).  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Servian  was  made  by  Vuk  Stefanovi6  Karajid,  the 
foimder  of  modem  Servian  literature,  and  published 
at  Vienna  in  1847.  The  Old  Testament  was  trans- 
lated by  Vuk's  pupil  Dyuro  Danichitf  and  issued  at 
Belgrade  in  1868.  The  language  in  both  is  excellent. 
The  Servian  Bible  of  Atanasiie  Ivanovitf  Stoikovitf 
(published  by  the  Russian  Bible  Society  at  St. 
Petersburg,  1824)  is  not  written  in  the  vernacular, 
but  is  a  mixture  of  Church  Slavonic  and  Servian. 

The  Bible  versions  for  the  Slovenes  are  most  closely 
connected  with  the  activity  of  the  Reformer  of  Car- 
niola.  Primus  Truber  (1507-86;  see 
*•  ®lo-  Truber,  Primus),  and  his  associates 
^Oroatlsm  *^^  successors;  they  were  intended  for 
Versions,  the  Evangelical  Slovenes.  Truber  trans- 
lated the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  was 
printed  at  Reutlingen  in  1555 ;  in  1557  the  first 
part  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at  TQ- 
bingen,  the  second  part  in  1560,  and  the  complete 
New  Testament  was  issued  in  1582;  the  Psalms  ap- 
peared in  1566.  Dalmatin,  who  assisted  Truber, 
translated  the  Old  Testament,  and  an  edition  of  the 
entire  Scriptures  in  Slovenian  was  published  under 
his  direction  at  Wittenberg  in  1584.  Stevan  Kues- 
mics  published  a  New  Testament  for  the  Hungarian 
Slovenians  in  their  dialect  at  Halle  in  1771.  An  edi- 
tion published  at  GOns  (KOszeg)  in  1848  has  the 
Psalms  added.  In  1784  a  part  of  the  New  Testament 
for  the  use  of  Roman  Catholics  was  printed  at  Lai- 
bach,  translated  from  the  Vulgate  by  several  hands. 
The  second  part  of  the  New  Testament  was  issued 
in  1786,  and  the  Old  Testament  between  1791  and 
1802.  Efforts  were  also  made  to  prepare  a  Bible 
version  for  the  Evangelical  Croats  or  for  those  who 
should  be  brought  over  to  the  Evangelical  faith. 
A  New  Testament  translated  by  Anton  Dalmata 
and  Stipan  Consul  was  printed  in  Glagolitic  char- 
acters (2  parts)  at  Tubingen,  1562-63.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  efforts  were  made  to  give  a  trans- 
lation to  the  Catholic  Croats  and  Servians  in  the 
so-called  Blyrian  dialect,  but  nothing  was  printed 
till  the  nineteenth  century,  when  a  Bible  in  Latin 
letters  together  with  the  parallel  text  of  the  Vulgate, 
translated  into  "  the  lUyric  language,  Bosnian  dia- 
lect" by  Petrus  Kataucsich,  was  published  at  Buda- 
pest (6  parts,  1831).  It  followed  the  Vulgate 
slavishly. 

The  Czech  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages  is 
very  rich  in  translations  of  Biblical  books,  made 
from  the  Vulgate  (cf.  the  list  of  manuscripts  and 
prints  in  J.  Jungmann,  Historie  LUeratury  Cfeski, 
Prague,  1849).  During  the  fourteenth  century 
all  parts  of  the  Bible  seem  to  have  been  trans- 
lated at  different  times  and  by  different  hands. 
The  oldest  translations  are  those 
5.  Bohe-  of  the  Psalter.  The  New  Testa- 
ment must  also  have  existed  at  that 
time,  for  according  to  a  statement 
of  Wyclif,  Anne,  daughter  of  Charles  IV,  received 
in  1381  upon  her  marrying  Richard  II  of  England 


Versiona. 


Bible  Versions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-ESItZOG 


154 


a  Bohemian  New  Testament.  It  is  certain  that 
Hubs  had  the  Bible  in  Bohemian  before  him  as  a 
whole  and  he  and  his  successors  midertook  a 
revision  of  the  text  according  to  the  Vulgate. 
The  work  of  Huss  on  the  Bible  antedated  1412. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  the  revision  was  con- 
tinued. The  first  complete  Bible  was  published  at 
Prague,  1488;  other  editions  were  issued  at  Kutten- 
berg,  1489,  and  Venice,  1506.  These  prints  were 
the  basis  of  other  editions  which  were  published 
from  time  to  time. 

With  the  United  Brethren  a  new  period  began 
for  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1518  the  New 
Testament  appeared  at  Jungbunzlau  at  the  instance 
of  Luke  of  Prague  (q.v.).  It  was  not  satisfactory 
and  the  same  must  be  said  of  the  edition  of  1533. 
Altogether  different  was  the  translation  made  by 
Jan  Blahoslav  from  the  original  Greek  (1564, 
1568).  The  Brethren  soon  undertook  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  and 
appointed  for  this  work  a  niunber  of  scholars, 
who  based  their  translation  upon  the  Hebrew  text 
published  in  the  Antwerp  Polyglot.  The  work 
began  in  1577  and  was  completed  in  1593,  and  from 
the  place  of  printing,  Krialitz  in  Moravia,  it  is 
known  as  the  Kralitz  Bible  (6  parts,  1579-93, 
containing  also  Blahoslav's  New  Testament).  This 
excellent  translation  was  issued  in  smaller  size  in 
1596,  and  again  in  folio  in  1613  (reprinted  at  Halle 
in  1722,  1745, 1766;  Pressburg,  1787;  Berlin,  1807). 

After  the  year  1620  the  publication  of  non- 
Catholic  Bibles  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  ceased,  and 
efforts  were  made  to  prepare  Bibles  for  the  Catholics. 
After  some  fruitless  beginnings  the  work  was 
entrusted  to  certain  Jesuits,  who  took  the  Venice 
edition  of  1506  as  the  basis,  but  relied  greatly, 
especially  for  the  Old  Testament,  on  the  Brethren's 
Bible.  Between  1677  and  1715  the  so-called 
St.  Wenceslaus  Bible  was  published  at  the  expense 
of  a  society  founded  in  honor  of  the  saint.  A  new 
edition  appeared  at  Prague  1769-71.  A  thoroughly 
revised  edition,  iising  the  text  of  the  Brethren's 
Bible,  was  published  in  1778-80.  Still  more  de- 
pendent on  the  Brethren's  Bible  was  Prochaska's 
New  Testament  (Prague,  1786),  and  his  edition  of 
the  whole  Bible  (1804).  Editions  of  Prochaska's 
text,  slightly  amended,  were  issued  in  1851  and  1857. 
The  Bible  edited  by  BesdSka  (Prague,  1860)  gives 
the  text  of  the  Brethren's  Bible  with  slight  changes. 
G.  Palkovi^  translated  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate 
into  Slovak  (2  parts.  Gran,  1829). 

The  oldest  Sorbic  Bible  version,  that  of  the  New 
Testament  of  1547,  is  extai}t  in  a  manuscript  in 
the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  The  translator  was 
Miklawusch  Jakubica,  who  employed  a  dialect  (the 
Lower  Sorbic)  now  extinct.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  Gottlieb  Fabricius,  a  Grerman, 
^ opSot^^  made  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
Ver^ons.  ^^^^  which  was  printed  in  1709.  In  a 
revised  form  this  version  was  pub- 
lished by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in 
1860.  The  Old  Testament,  translated  by  J.  G. 
Fritz,  was  printed  at  Kottbus  in  1796.  An  edi- 
tion of  the  entire  Bible  was  published  by  the 
Prussian  Bible  Society  in  1868. 

Michael  Frentzel,  pastor  in  Postwitz  (d.  1706), 


translated  the  New  Testament  into  the  Wendish 
of  Upper  Lusatia  (Upper  Sorbic),  and  his  version  was 
published  by  his  son,  Abraham  Frentiel  (Zittau, 
1706).  A  complete  edition  of  the  Bible,  the 
work  of  different  scholars,  was  first  published 
at  Bautsen,  1728.  A  second  revised  edition  was 
prepared  by  Johann  Gottfried  Ktlhn  and  issued 
in  1742;  a  third  improved  edition  prepared  bj 
Johann  Jacob  Petschke  was  published  in  1797. 
Passing  over  other  editions,  it  is  worth  while  to 
note  that  the  ninth  edition  of  the  complete  Bible 
(Bautzen,  1881)  was  revised  by  H.  Inunisch  and 
others  and  contains  a  history  of  the  Upper  Lusa- 
tian  Wendish  Bible  translation.  For  the  Roman 
Catholic  Wends  of  Upper  Lusatia  G.  Luscanski 
and  M.  Homik  translated  the  New  TestameDt 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  published  it  at  Bautxen, 
1887-^2;  the  Ptolms  were  translated  from  the 
Hebrew  by  J.  Laras  (Bautzen,  1872). 

The  histoiy  of  the  Polish  translation  of  the  Bible 
begins  with  the  Psalter  (cf.  W.  Nehring,  AUpol- 
niache  Spraehdenkmdler,  Berlin,   1886).   A  manu- 
script of  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
in  the  abbey  of  St.  Florian,  near  linz,  in  Latin, 
Polish,  and  German  is  probably  the 
7.  Polish    oldest.    A  critical  edition  of  the  Fo- 
Versions.    lish  part  was  published    by  Nehring 
(PtaUerii  Florianensis  pars  Polmiea, 
Posen,    1883)    with    a    very     instructive    intro- 
duction.   Besides  the  Florian  Psalter  there  is  the 
Psalter  of  Pulawy  (now  in  Cracow)  belonging  to 
the  end  of  the   fifteenth   century   (published  in 
facsimile,  Posen,  1880). 

Polish  Bibles  originated  after  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  An  incomplete  Bible,  the  so- 
called  Sophia  Bible  (named  after  Queen  Sophia, 
for  whom  it  was  intended,  according  to  a  remark 
from  the  sixteenth  century;  also  called  the  Siros- 
patak  Bible  from  the  place  where  it  is  preserved), 
contains  Genesis,  Joshua,  Ruth,  Kinga,  Chronides, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  II  (III)  Esdras,  Tobit,  and  Judith 
(ed.  A.  Maledd,  Biblia  KroUnoij  Zojii,  Lembeiis, 
1871).  With  the  Reformation  period  activity  in 
the  work  of  translation  increased  as  the  different 
confessions  endeavored  to  supply  their  adherents 
with  texts  of  the  Bible.  An  dfort  to  provide  the 
Lutherans  with  the  Bible  in  Polish  was  made  by 
Duke  Albert  of  Prussia  (q.v.)  in  a  letter  directed  in 
his  name  to  Melanchthon.  Jan  Siekludd,  preacher 
at  KOnigsberg  (d.  1578),  was  conmiissioned  to  pre- 
pare a  translation,  and  he  published  the  New  Testsr 
ment  at  Kdnigsberg,  1551  and  1552.  The  Polish 
Reformed  (Calvinists)  received  the  Bible  through 
Prince  Nicholas  Radziwill  (1515-65).  A  com- 
pany of  Polish  and  foreign  theologians  and 
scholars  imdertook  the  task,  and,  after  six 
years'  labor  at  Pinoow,  not  far  from  Cracow, 
finished  the  translation  of  the  Bible  which 
was  published  at  the  expense  of  Radziwill  in 
Brest-Litovsk,  1563  (hence  called  the  Brest  or 
Radziwill  Bible).  The  translators  state  that  for 
the  Old  Testament  they  consulted  besides  the  He- 
brew text  the  ancient  versions  and  different  modem 
Latin  ones.  The  Brest  Bible  was  not  universally 
welcomed.  The  Reformed  suspected  it  of  Sodnian 
interpretations;  the  Sodnians  complained  that  it 


165 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  VenionB 


was  not  accurate  enough.  The  Sodnian  Simon 
Budny  especially  charged  against  the  Brest  Bible 
that  it  was  not  prepared  according  to  the  original 
texts,  but  after  the  Vulgate  and  other  modem 
▼enioDS,  and  that  the  traioslators  cared  more  for 
elegant  Polish  than  for  a  faithful  rendering.  He 
undertook  a  new  rendering,  and  his  translation 
('*  made  anew  from  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin 
into  the  Polish  ")  was  printed  in  1572  at  NeSviXh. 
As  changes  were  introduced  in  the  printing 
which  were  not  improved  by  Budny,  he  disclaimed 
the  New  Testament  and  published  another  edition 
tl574).  The  charges  which  he  made  against  the 
Brest  Bible  were  also  made  against  his  own,  and 
the  Sodnian  Adam  Caechowici  published  a  new 
and  improved  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
(Rakow,  1577).  The  interesting  preface  states 
that  Czechowics  endeavored  to  znake  an  accurate 
translation,  but  did  not  suppress  his  Sodnian 
ideas;  e.g.,  he  used  "  immersion "  instead  of 
"baptism."  Another  Sodnian  New  Testament 
was  published  by  Valentinus  Smaldtis  (Rakow, 
1606). 

The  Brest  Bible  was  superseded  by  the  so-called 
Daniig  Bible,  which  finally  became  the  Bible  of 
all  Evangelical  Poles.  At  the  qrnod  in  Olarowiec, 
1600,  a  new  edition  of  the  Bible  was  proposed  and 
the  work  was  given  to  the  Reformed  minister 
Martin  Janidd,  who  had  already  translated  the 
Bible  from  the  original  texts.  In  1603  the  printing 
of  this  translation  was  dedded  upon,  after  the  work 
had  been  carefully  revised.  The  work  of  revision 
was  entrusted  to  men  of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran 
confeanons  and  members  of  the  Moravian  Church 
(1604),  especially  to  Danid  llikolajewski  (d.  1633), 
superintendent  of  the  Reformed  churches  in  Great 
Poland,  and  Jan  Tumowski,  senior  of  the  Mora- 
Tian  Church  in  Great  Poland  (d.  1629).  After 
it  had  been  compared  with  the  Janidd  translation, 
the  Brest,  the  Bohemian,  Pagnini's,  and  the  Vul- 
gate, the  new  rendering  was  ordered  printed.  The 
Janicki  translation  as  such  has  not  been  printed, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  state  how  much  of  it  is  con- 
tained in  the  new  Bible.  The  New  Testament  was 
first  published  at  Dansig,  1606,  and  very  often  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The 
eomplete  Bible  was  issued  in  1632,  and  often  since. 
The  Dansig  Bible  differs  so  much  from  that  of 
Brest  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  new  translation. 
It  is  erroneously  called  also  the  Bible  of  Paliurus 
(a  Moravian,  senior  of  the  Evangelical  Churches 
in  Great  Poland,  d.  1632);  but  he  had  no  part  in 
the  work. 

For  the  Roman  CSatholics  the  Bible  was  trans- 
lated from  the  Vulgate  by  John  of  Lemberg 
{UoffolUa,  hence  this  was  called  the  Leopolitan 
Bible)  and  published  at  Cracow,  1561,  1574,  and 
1577.  This  Bible  was  superseded  by  the  new 
translation  of  Jakub  Wujek  (a  Jesuit,  b.  about  1540; 
d.  at  Cracow  1593).  Wujek  critidsed  the  Catholic 
and  non-Catholic  Bible  vermons  and  spoke  very 
favorably  of  the  Polish  of  the  Brest  Bible,  but  as- 
serted that  it  was  full  of  heresies  and  of  errors  in 
translation.  With  the  approbation  of  the  Holy 
See  the  New  Testament  was  first  published  at 
Craoow,  1593,  and  the  Old  Testament  in    1590, 


after  Wujek's  death.  This  Bible  has  often  been 
reprinted.  Wujek's  translation  follows,  in  the 
main,  the  Vulgate.  (A.  Leskden.) 

Bibuooraprt:  For  the  boginzungs  of  Slavio  Yeraiona  con- 
sult: Vita  mneU  M§thodii,  numh^loveniet  et  laHfm,  ed.  F. 
Mikloaioh,  Vienna,  1870;  C.  DOmmler,  Die  pannoni$che 
Leg^nde  vnm  htHigmi  Method,  in  Ardtiv  fUr  Kunde  dtterr. 
OMeMehtsquettsH,  yol.  xiii;  idem  and  F.  Mikloaioh,  Die 
Legende  vom  Imliatn  CyriUue,  in  Denkeekriften  der  Wiener 
Akademie,  phU.-hietor.  Claeee,  ziz  (1870);  Jagi^,  ZurSntetd^- 
unif9ffe9chie>Ue  der  Kirehenelav-Spradu,  Vienna.  1000.  On 
the  history  of  verrions  consult:  8.  W.  Ringeltaube,  Nack- 
rieht  van  polnieeh^n  BiMn,  Dansig.  1744:  R.  G.  Ungar, 
AUaetneine  bdhmiecKe  Bibliothek,  part  1,  Tkeologie,  Prague, 
1786  (a  bibliography  of  Bohemian  versions);  J.  Dobrow- 
sky.  Ueber  den  ereten  Text  der  hdhnUeehen  BibeUtbereet^ 
ttfitf.  Prague.  1708;  idem.  OlaooliHea,  ib.  1807;  £.  F. 
Sohnurrer.  Slavieche  BUeKerdruek  in  WUrtiemberg  im  16. 
Jakrhundert,  TQbingen,  1700;  O.  J.  DIabacs,  Nachrieht 
von  ein^m  hieher  noeh  unbekannten  bdhmieehen  A.  T., 
Prague.  1804;  Bible  of  Every  Land,  pp.  201-310.  London, 
1861;  I.  Kostren^  OeeehiefUe  der  jfroteetantiaehen  lAtte- 
raiur  der  SUdelaven,  1SS9^6,  Vienna,  1874;  W.  R.  Morfill. 
Slavome  Literature,  London,  1883;  Ardtiv  fUr  Slaviedte 
Phitoloffie,  by  V.  Jagi^  especially  supplement  vol.  by  F. 
Pastimek.  Berlin,  1802  (contains  bibliographical  lists  of 
works  on  SlaTonic  subjects  for  the  years  1876-01,  inclu- 
ding whatever  has  appeared  during  that  time  on  the  Rus- 
sian Bible);  V.  Vondrik.  Die  Spuren  der  aWnrehenela- 
vieeKen  EvanoeUenlibereetgunif,  Vienna,  1803;  F.  Ahn,  Bib- 
tioffrapkiedu  SeitenKeiten  der  Truberlitteraiur,  Leipsic, 
1804;  L.  J.  M.  Bebb,  The  Ruteian  BibU,  in  Chwdi  Qtiar^ 
terly  Revimo,  Oct.,  1805.  pp.  203-225;  T.  Else,  Die  elove- 
nieehen  proteelanHeeken  Druekeekriften  dee  xvi.  Jakrhun- 
derta,  Venice,  1806;  Scrivener,  IntrodueUon,  ii,  157  sqq.; 
BD,  extra  voL.  pp.  417-420. 

ZVn.  Spanish  Versions:  It  is  very  difficult 
to  decide  at  what  time  the  first  Spam'sh  version 
was  made.  In  treating  of  Spanish  Bibles,  a  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  between  the  Catalonian  and 
the  Castilian  speech.  Of  Biblical  manuscripts  in  the 
former  there  are  many  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
one  (of  the  New  Testament)  from  the  fourteenth. 
Report  has  it  that  the  Dominican  Romeu  Sabruguera 
of  Mallorca  (d.  1313),  who  translated  the  Psalms, 
worked  on  a  translation  of  the  entire  Bible;  but 
the  report  can  not  be  verified.  Most  of  the  Cata- 
lonian translations  of  parts  of  the  Bible  (Prov- 
erbs, the  Prophets,  Pauline  and  Catholic  Epistles) 
depend  on  the  Vulgate  and  early  French  versions; 
a  translation  of  the  Psalms  depends  wholly  on  the 
French;  the  Gospels  in  the  oldest  manuscripts  are 
not  based  on  the  Vulgate  but  on  a  text  in  southern 
French.  Of  an  alleged  translation  supposed  to 
have  been  printed  in  Valencia,  1478,  no  biblio- 
graphical datum  or  exemplar  is  known,  only  a  few 
fragments  being  so  attributed. 

Of  the  Castilian  translations  almost  as  little  is 
known,  since  no  efficient  examination  of  Spanish 
manuscripts  has  yet  been  made.  If  tradition 
may  be  accepted,  the  oldest  version  belongs  to 
the  thirteenth  century,  having  been  made  at  the 
request  of  Alphonso  of  Castile  and  John  of  Leon; 
but  there  is  no  confirmation  of  this  statement. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  early  Castilian 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  were  made  by  Jews, 
and  the  basis  was,  naturally,  the  Hebrew  text. 
Luis  de  Guzman,  grand  master  of  the  Order  of 
Calatrava,  entrusted  in  1422  to  the  learned  rabbi 
Moses  Arragel  of  Maqueda  the  work  of  translating 
and  annotating  the  Scriptures,  but  with  the  help 
and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Franciscan  Arias 


tlble  VersioziB 
AblM,  Annotated 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


156 


of  RnrinftB  (Endena)  and  others  of  the  clergy.  It 
accords  with  this  that  most  of  the  manuscripts 
follow  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  canon. 

Of  printed  texts  the  first  in  chronological  order 
is  the  New  Testament  by  Francis  of  Rnrinas 
(Antwerp,  1543);  next  a  Bible  printed  in  two 
editions  (Ferrara,  1553),  one  for  Jews,  the  other 
for  Christians  (reprinted  Amsterdam,  1611,  1630; 
revised  ed.,  1661).  In  1556  Juan  Peres  published 
(ostensibly  at  Venice,  really  at  Geneva)  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  follows  the  original 
Greek.  In  1569  a  Bible  was  published,  probably 
at  Basel,  in  the  translation  of  Cassiodoro  de  Reina. 
Another  edition  with  slight  changes  was  published 
by  Ricardo  del  Campo,  1596,  and  an  entirely  re- 
vised edition  by  Cipriano  de  Valera  was  published 
at  Amsterdam,  1602.  The  oldest  Jewish-Span- 
ish printed  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  is  that 
of  Constance,  1547.  The  Old  Testament  in  He- 
brew and  Spanish  was  published  by  Solomon 
Proops  at  Amsterdam  in  1762.  It  was  not  until 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  a  Roman 
Catholic  scholar  undertook  to  give  his  Spanish 
countrymen  a  new  translation,  with  the  Latin 
text  and  a  commentary.  The  author  of  this  work 
(10  vols.,  Valencia,  1790-93;  20  vols.,  Madrid, 
1794-97)  was  Felipe  Scio  de  San  Miguel,  bishop 
of  Segovia.  It  was  often  reprinted.  A  more  re- 
cent translation,  having  respect  to  the  original 
texts,  was  published  by  Felix  Torres  Amat,  bishop 
of  Astorga  (9  vols.,  Bfadrid,  1824-29;  6  vols., 
1832-^5;  reprinted,  17  vols.,  Paris,  1835).  A 
corrected  edition  of  Amat's  version  was  pub- 
lished under  the  care  of  Sefior  Calderon,  by  the 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge 
in  1853.  In  1893  the  American  Bible  Society 
published  a  thoroughly  revised  edition  of  Valera's 
Bible,  which  may  be  regarded  as  practically  a 
new  version.  The  work  was  done  by  H.  B.  Pratt. 
A  New  Testament  in  the  Catalan,  translated  by 
J.  M.  Pratt,  was  issued  by  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  (S.  BERQERf.) 

BiBUOoaAPRT:  8.  Beiger,  NouvdUa  ret^archst  tur  Im  hiblea 
.  .  .  colalafiM,  in  Romania,  3dx,  1890;  idem.  Let  BibUa 
caatidlane;  ib.  zzviii,  1899  (oontaina  bibliosjaphy  and 
list  of  M8S.);  J.  M.  d«  E^nirtfn,  Mwmona  «U  lot  eodieet 
noiabUa,  Madrid.  1859;  J.  Rodrinues  de  CMtro,  Bibli- 
oieea  ewpaHola,  vol.  i.  ib.  1781;  J.  L.  Villanueva,  Dt  la 
UeeAon  d»  la  iS,  BtcrUura  en  lenguae  vtUgaree,  Valensia, 


1791;  BibU  of  Bvery  Land,  pp.  261-907.  London.  1$61; 
The  Governor  of  Madriife  Bible,  ib.  1871;  J.  £.  B.  Xayor. 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Via  BibU,  ib.  1896;  G.  Borrov.  Tk 
BibU  in  Spain,  latest  ed.,  ib.  1906;  KL,  ii,  743-744;  DB, 
extra  vol.,  pp.  40^-410. 

XVm.  Bible  Versions  in  the  Hjssum  Fidd: 
Eusebius  (Theophania,  iii,  28)  says  that  the  writingn 
of  the  Apostles  were  transUted  in  the  whole  wotH 
in  all  languages  of  Greeks  and  baibaiiaiis;  and 
Chiysostom  and  Theodoret  repeat  the  renuriL 
with  still  greater  emphasis.  NevertheleBs  from 
this  early  time  till  the  rise  of  Pietism  and  the 
foimding  of  missionary  and  Bible  societies  little 
was  done  by  the  official  Church  or  Chintbei 
for  the  translation  and  circulation  of  the  BiUe. 
The  first  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  has  an  account  of  what  was  then  the  most 
famous  collection  of  Bibles  (at  Stuttgart)  and 
estimates  the  number  of  languages  rq>re8ented 
there  at  forty-one.  The  Bibles  presented  to  the 
Society  in  its  first  year  were  in  forty-six 
languages,  from  Arabic  and  Armenian  to  Turk- 
ish and  Welsh.  The  catalogue  of  Bibles  of 
the  BriUsh  Museum  includes  ninety-seven  lan- 
guages. The  hundredth  Report  of  the  Briti&h 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  the  "  Histoiical 
Table  of  Languages  and  Dialects  in  which  the 
Translation,  Printing,  or  Distribution  of  the 
Scriptures  has  been  at  any  time  promoted  by 
the  Society"  (pp.  434  sqq.),  gives  378  lan- 
guages; versions  in  twenty-four  languages  pre- 
pared by  other  societies  have  been  removed  from 
the  list.  [The  total  number  of  languages  into 
which  the  Bible,  or  parts  of  it,  has  now  been 
translated  is  about  500.]  The  best  conspectus  is 
afforded  by  T.  H.  Darlow  and  H.  F.  Moule,  His- 
torieal  Catalogue  of  the  Printed  Ediiums  of  Holy 
Scripture  in  the  Library  of  the  Britieh  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  (2  vols.,  London,  1003-08). 

E.  Nestle. 
BnuooaAPRT:  The  BibU  of  Evenf  Land,  London,  1861; 
R.  N.  Oust,  Lanouaoe  aa  lUueiraUd  by  BibU  TrandatiaM, 
ib.  1886;  idem,  Beeaye  on  Ihe  Languaoea  of  the  Bihk  ead 
BibU  TranaUUuma,  ib.  1890;  idem.  Three  Liata  <ff  Biik 
TrandaHona  acoompUahed  ...  to  iiua.  /,  1890,  ib.  1S90; 
J.  S.  Denma,  CenUnnial  Survey  of  Foreign  Miaaimta,  Nr« 
York,  1901;  E.  Wallrotb.  in  AUgemeine  Miaaionaeitadinft. 
ziriii,  1901:  T.  Niool,  The  BibU  and  the  Ckartk  atd  lb 
Miaaion  Field,  in  London  Quarterly  Ravieta,  Jan..  1901 
The  Reporia  of  the  various  Bible  Sodetiee  furaiah  tta 


BIBLES,  ANNOTATED,  AND  BIBLE  SUMMARIES. 


I.  Gennan. 

The  Ernertine  and  TQbingen  Bibles 

(ID. 
WOrttemberg  Bibles  (|  2). 
The     Bfarburs.     Berleburg,     and 

Ebendorf  Bibles  (|  3). 
The  Wertheim  Bible  (f  4). 
Later  Works  (f  6). 


II.  English. 

Uatthev's  and  the  Geneva  Bible 

(ID. 
The  Bishops'  Bible  (|  2). 
The  Authorised  Version  (|  3). 
John  Ganne's  Notes.  1647  (|  4). 
Other  Works  to  1701  (|  6). 
Matthew  Henry.    Other  Works  to 

1760  (I  6). 


Various  Works  after  1760  (I  7V 
Thomas  Soott  and  Others  to  1810  (S  ^L 
Adam  Clarke,  D'Oyly  and  Msnt,  tnl 

Bellamy.  1810-34  (|  9). 
Other  Works  1816^38  (|  10). 
Republication  in  America  (ill).       | 
Original  Amerioan  Works  (|  12). 
Later  Works,  English  and  Ameneta 

(I  13).  j 


[Under  this  title  certain  works  are  mentioned 
which  give  the  text  of  the  Bible  with  annotations 
aiming  to  promote  its  proper  use  and  understanding. 
They  are  of  the  nature  of  commentaries,  and  a 
distinction  is  not  to  be  sharply  drawn.  The 
annotated  Bible,  however,  wiU  alwajrs  include 
the  text,  to  which  the  helps  are  strictly  subor- 
dinate; the  oommentaiy  is  published  for  the  sake 


of  the  comments  and  frequently  does  not  include 
the  text.] 

L  German:  When  the  Reformation  msde 
the  Bible  the  common  property  of  the  people^ 
it  was  not  only  the  source  of  their  faith  and  piety, 
but  the  only  literature,  the  whole  intellectual 
world,  of  the  uneducated  classes.  The  moit 
Luther's  Bible  was  cherished  as  the  compendium 


167 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bible  Versions 
Bibles,  Annotated 


of  religious  and  ethical  truth  and  became  the  daily 
reading  of  the  people,  the  more  it  needed  explanar 
tory  notes.  As  early  as  1531-33  Luther  published 
his  **  Summaries  of  the  Psalms/'  which  were  incor- 
porated by  Bugenhagen  in  his  North  Saxon  Bible 
(Lubeck,  1534).  In  the  High  German  Bible, 
"  summaries  and  brief  contents  of  all  the  chapters  " 
are  found  first  appended  to  the  Augsburg  edition 
of  1535.  Real  annotations  appeared  as  parts  of 
the  book  only  after  Luther's  death,  first  as  mar- 
ginal rotes  or  in  smaller  type  under  the  text  (the 
Wittenberg  editions  of  Lufft,  1551,  and  Krafft, 
1572,  the  latter  containing  the  arguments  and  notes 
of  Veit  Dietrich,  the  Nuremberg  preacher). 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  the  Refor- 
Toation  early  brought  the  Bible  into  eveiy  house. 
There  were  no  small  cheap  editions,  and  the  Thirty 
Vears*  War  made  the  earlier  ones  still  scarcer. 
Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  of  Saxe- Weimar  (d.  1675; 
fee  Ernest  I.  the  Pioub)  brought  about  the  publi- 
cation of  the  famous  Ernestine  Bible,  on  which, 
'u'ter  plans  laid  out  by  him,  nearly  thirty  prominent 
theologians  worked.    Eveiy   oonununity   was   to 
possess  a  copy;  if  they  were  poor,  the 
1.  The     duke  provided  it  wholly  or  in  part. 
'^l^rnw^jnB  The  actual  work  of  preparation  began 
"Siuwen   ^  l^^f  and  was  completed  in  1640. 
Bibles.     It    contained,    besides    pictures    and 
maps,   and   a   running   commentary, 
i:J^les  of  weights,  coins,  etc.,  the  topography  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  creeds  and  Augsburg  Confession. 
It  was  originally  sold  at  six  thalers,  but  the  price 
gradually  rose  with  later  improvements  and  addi- 
tional illustrations,  imtil  its  general  circulation  was 
impeded.    The  Tttbingen  Bible  (1730)  is  an  adap- 
tation of  this,  less  firm  in  its  dogmatic  stand,  by 
Christoph    Matth&us    Pfaff    (q.v.),    professor  at 
Tubingen,  and  his  brother-in-law,  Johium  Christian 
Klemm. 

The  same  spirit   that   actuated   Duke   Ernest 
induced  Eberhard  III  of  WOrttemberg  to  publish 
the   "  WQrttemberg  Sunmiaries  "   in 
^^^^^     1669,  the  first  attempt  to  give  a  clear, 
SibiMif     precise,    and    connected    paraphrase 
of  the  whole  Scriptures.   A  revised  and 
enlarged  edition  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1700,  followed 
by  others.  The  complete  revision  published  in  1787  by 
Magnus  Friedrich  Boos,  Kari  Heinrich  Rieger,  and 
others  of  the  school  of  Bengel  was  less  clear,  objective, 
and  orthodox.  Another  WQrttemberg  edition  which 
deserves  mention  is  the  New  Testament  published 
in  1701  by  the  court  preacher  Johann  Reinhard 
Hedioger  (q.v.);  it  was  marked  by  Pietistic  devia- 
tions from    trtulitional    theology,    and    attracted 
attention  by  its  sharp  rebukes  of  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple at  large  and  especially  of  the  clergy. 

The  new  spirit  of  mystical  Pietism  which  influ- 
enced the  last-named  work  was  fully  revealed  in 
the  Marburg  Bible  (1712),  as  might  be  inferred  from 
the  main  title,  "  Mystical  and  Prophetic  Bible." 
The  interpretation  of  type  and  prophecy  in  this 
follows  the  federal  theology  of  Cocoeius,  that  of 
Canticles  and  Revelation  Madame  Guyon.  It  was 
the  forerunner  of  a  larger  work  in  the  same  spirit, 
theBerieburg  Bible  of  1726-42  (8  vols,  folio), 
projected  and  prepared  chiefly  by  Johann  Heinrich 


Haug  (q.v.).    The  text  is  a  revision  of  Luther's, 
with  comparison  of  the  English  and  French  ver- 
sions; the  commentary  reflects  the  views  of  the  Phila- 
o   m|^       delphian    communities,    and    quotes 
Marbu^    the    mystical    books   current   among 
Berleborff,  them,  especially  Madame  Guyon's,  but 
*^        its  teaching  goes  back  beyond  Dippel 
Bibles!      ^^^  Petersen  to  Jakob  Bdhme,  or  even 
to  Origen  in  some  points.     It  lacks 
unity  of  belief  and  of  treatment;  it  is  the  work  not 
of  a  single  mystic,  giving  voice  to  his  inner  convic- 
tions, but  of  a  propagandist  sect  with  practical  tend- 
encies.   It  is   not  without  value,  however,  from 
different  points  of  view;  it  edifies  by  its  continual 
application  of  Scriptural  words  to  the  spiritual  life, 
and  it  prepares  the  way  for  historical  criticism  by  an 
appendix  containing  apooypha  (Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament), pseudepigrapha,  and  postapostolic   wri- 
tings.   In  the  same  year  (1726)  appeared  the  Ebers- 
dorf  Bible,  in  the  preparation  of  which  Zinzendorf 
shared.    Its  commentaries  are  altogether   in  his 
spirit,  and  it  was  received  with  favor  only  by  the 
friends  of  the  Hermhut  community. 

When  the  emotional  mysticism  of  the  Pietists 
gave  way  to  the  prosaic,  conmionplaoe  conceptions 
of  the  age  of  Enlightenment  (q.v.),  attempts  were 
made  to  replace  the  older  commentaries  by  works  con- 
ceived in  the  new  spirit.  The  Wertheim  Bible  (1735) 
aroused  great  excitement  in  its  day,  both  in  Church 
and  State,  though  its  interest  now  is  purely  historical. 
This  was  only  the  first  part  of  a  projected  whole, 
and  contained  merely  the  Pentateuch.  The  gbt 
of  the  long,  involved  preface  is  that 
w^*  the  traditional  ideas  about  the  Scrip- 
hiSm  ^^'^  rested  on  prejudice  and  un- 
Blble.  scientific  conceptions,  and  that  the 
attempt  was  now  made  to  found  an 
exposition  of  their  real  meaning  on  adequate 
grounds  of  reason  and  historical  evidence.  It 
proposes  to  give  a  free  translation,  adapted  to 
modern  comprehension,  though  faithful  in  substance, 
and  supplemented  by  the  necessary  explanations. 
The  translation  is  hopelessly  bald  and  common- 
place to  our  taste;  the  editor  showed  some  orig- 
inality, however,  as  for  example  in  venturing  to 
discard  the  traditional  division  of  chapters  and 
verses.  The  general  philosophical  principles,  as 
well  as  the  critical  and  historicid,  are  those  of  Wolf; 
in  spite  of  many  blunders,  a  fair  knowledge  of 
Hebrew  is  displayed.  The  editor's  name  is  not 
given,  but  it  was  soon  known.  He  was  Johann 
Lorenz  Schmidt,  a  graduate  of  Jena,  personally 
much  respected,  who  was  then  tutor  to  the  young 
Count  von  LOwenstein  at  Wertheim  in  Franconia. 
He  was  arrested  at  the  beginning  of  1737  and  the 
book  was  confiscated  by  the  imperial  authorities. 
After  a  year's  close  imprisonment,  he  was  allowed 
more  liberty,  and  escaped  to  Holland.  The  literary 
war  which  raged  around  the  Wertheim  Bible  was 
fierce  and  not  uninteresting.  In  1738  Schmidt 
published  a  collection  of  reviews  and  polemical 
pamphlets,  with  his  own  replies.  His  work  found 
imitators;  another  of  a  similar  nature,  with  mod- 
em deistic  explanations,  appeared  in  1756,  but  hod 
little  success;  and  the  excitement  over  the  frankly 
rationaUstio  commentary  of  Nioolaus  Funk  (Altona» 


Bibles,  Annotated,  and 
[Bible  Sommariee    « 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


lU 


1815)  waa  not  wide-spread  (cf.  J.  N.  Sinnhold, 
Atufiihrlidie  Historie  der  Weriheim  Bibel,  Erfiirt, 
1739). 

The  eighteenth  century  was  not  destitute  of 
attempts  to  cany  on  the  old  tradition  in  a  spirit 
of  orthodox  edification.  The  first  waa  that  of 
Christoph  Starke  (New  Testament,  3  vols.,  1733 
sqq.;  Old  Testament,  6  vols.,  1741  sqq.),  which 
gave  Luther's  text  with  extended  comments  from 

6   X«ater   ^^^'^  expositors  and  ascetic  writers, 

Works,  introductions  to  each  book,  and  a 
summary  of  each  ch£^ter.  Next 
came  the  Hirschberg  Bible  (1756-63),  an  excellent 
work  which  fell  flat  at  the  time  and  was  res- 
cued from  oblivion  only  by  a  reprint  in  1844 
under  the  patronage  of  Frederick  William  IV. 
The  age  was  not  favorable  to  the  spread  of  Biblical 
study,  and  but  a  few  readers  were  foimd  for  the 
commentary  translated  from  English  expositors  by 
R.  Teller,  J.  A.  Dietelmayer,  and  Brucker  (19  vols., 
1749-70),  or  for  the  edition  of  Blichaelis  (1769-92). 

But  the  revival  of  religious  devotion  ultimately 
made  itself  felt  in  this  field.  Friedrich  von  Meyer's 
revised  translation  with  short,  pointed  comments 
and  uncritical  introductions  appeared  in  1819. 
More  widely  read  were  Richter's  (1834-40)  and 
Lisco's  (1833-43).  A  more  learned  and  thorough 
work  was  that  of  Otto  von  Gerlach  in  6  vols.,  which 
is  still  popular  in  North  Germany,  as  is  the  Calvoer 
Handbuch  der  BibeUrkldrung  (1849)  in  the  South. 
Other  more  recent  editions  which  may  be  men- 
tioned here  are  those  of  Bunsen  (9  vols.,  1858-70), 
Christian  MQller  (CoUeginm  Bttdicum,  6  vols., 
1879-84),  Johann  Peter  Lange  (36  vols.,  1856-77), 
E.  A.  D&chsel  (illustrated,  7  vols.,  1865-^),  and 
R.  J.  Grau  (2  vols.,  1877-«)).  [J.  F.  AllioU's  an- 
notated Bible  (6  vols.,  Nuremberg,  1830-^)  has 
been  very  popular  among  Roman  Catholics.] 

(H.  HOlbchbr.) 

n.  English:  As  a  rule,  Bible  societies  publish 
the  Scriptures  "without  note  or  comment" — a 
wise  plan,  for  it  secures  the  widest  dreulation  of 
the  Word  of  God.  In  eariy  times,  however,  when 
a  person  bought  a  Bible,  he  found  between  the 
covers  not  only  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments, 
but  a  commentary  in  the  notes  attached,  a  con- 
cordance at  the  end,  and  a  small  dictionary  in 
the  introduction  and  tables.  These  special  editions 
had  their  day,  and  fell  into  disuse,  for  very  evident 
reasons.  The  numerous  comments  made  the  vol- 
ume too  bulky  for  convenience  and  general  use; 
the  notes  were  likely  to  be  one-sided  and  subjeo- 
tive,  so  that  a  man's  theology  might  be  judged  by 
his  Bible,  from  its  being  supplied  with  comments 
by  Doddridge,  or  those  of  D'Oyly  and  Mant;  how- 
ever acceptable  the  annotations  might  be  for  a  time, 
eventually  they  were  superseded  by  later  scholar- 
ship. Moreover,  in  the  last  half-century  commen- 
taries, Bible  dictionaries,  and  concordances  have 
grown  into  great  volumes,  and  constitute  a  distinct 
class  of  literature.  They  have  found  their  true 
places  apart  from  the  inspired  words  of  the  Bible. 

Annotated  Bibles  date  back  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  Matthew's  Bible  (1537)  had  anno- 
tations, and  John  Rogers,  who  was  the  real  trans- 
lator of  this  Bible,  showed  by  his  notes,  especially 


on  the  subjects  of  faith,  holy  life,  and  repentance 
that  he  was  in  f\ill  touch  with  the  most  advancK 
Protestantism.  The  Cxeneva  Bible  (1560)  attaisec 
its  great  popularity  and  fame  by  its  prologues  idc 
maiginal  notes.  These  annotations  are  so  numer 
ous  and  miscellaneous  that  it  is  not  easy  to  gh^ 

in  a  brief  statement  a  fair  r^reeeci 

1.  Xat-     tation  of  their  general  tenor.    Ublj 

J^Ttift     ***  strongjy  antipi^al,  and  for  thaj 

Q^nB'^B,     'o^^^i^   ^®y  were   especially  acoept| 

Bible.      able   to  overzealous   Refonnos.    A^ 

might  be  expected,  the  Geneva  note^ 
are  also  Calvinistic.  When  the  Geneva  Bible  wa^ 
first  published,  Calvin  was  the  ruling  spirit  q 
Geneva.  All  the  featiu-es  of  his  theological,  eode^ 
siastical,  political,  and  social  system  are  according 
reflected  in  the  marginal  annotations  of  the  Eng^ 
Bible  that  issued  from  the  dty  of  his  resideooe. 
The  political  doctrine  of  the  book  was  as  mudy 
disliked  by  kings  of  the  absolute  order,  as  were  the 
ecclesiastical  notes  by  infallible  popes,  and  o&^ 
of  the  reasons  that  led  King  James,  in  1604,  td 
agree  readily  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Serip^ 
tures,  was  his  dislike  of  the  politics  preached  on 
the  margins  of  the  Geneva  Bible. 

The  marginal  notes  in  the  Bishops'  Bible  (1568) 
are  not  very  numerous,  and  they  are  gaienlly 
not  interesting.    They  were  designed  mostly  for 

rraders   of   weak    capacity.    A  lew, 

»B^V    ^^^   *"*    valuable    and    entertain- 

Blble!      ^f  '^'^  taken  veri>atim,  without  A^ 

knowledgment,  from  the  G^eva 
Bible.  Some  of  them,  too,  remind  of  Genera 
caps  and  predestination  in  a  way  that  would 
scarcely  be  expected  in  a  Bible  issued  by  a  body 
of  prelates.  The  distribution  of  notes  in  ibs 
Bishops'  Bible  is  very  irregular  and  unequal.  In 
some  books  hard  to  understand,  such  as  the  prophe- 
cies of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  the  notes  are  very 
sparse,  so  that  five  or  six  consecutive  pages  msy 
be  found  here  and  there  without  a  single  anno- 
tation; while  in  other  books,  such  as  (jenesis, 
Exodus,  Job,  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  the  notes 
are  very  frequent. 

In  the  original  edition  of  the  Authorised  VerBkm 
(1611),  the  number  of  marginal  references  to  cor- 
responding passages,  including  those  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha, was  about  9,000.  Lu-ge  as  this  number 
seems,  it  is  but  a  small  fraction  of  what  the  ref- 
erences now  amount  to  in  some  well-edited  Bibles. 
These  references,  doubtless,  have  their  value,  bat 
it  can  not  be  denied  that  many  of  them  obscure 
the  meaning  of  the  statements  to  which  they  are 
attached.  It  is  different,  however,  with  what  are 
called  the  marginal  notes.    In  the  original  editioD 

(1611)    these   notes   were   nearly  as 

8.  The     numerous  as  the  marginal  references. 

Autoop-    j^   ^^^   Qi^j   Testament   there  were 

Versiozi.    ^i^^S  references  and  6,637  notes;  in 

the  New  Testament  1,517  refeienctf 
and  765  notes;  in  the  Apocrypha  885  refer- 
ences and  1,017  notes.  These  notes  are  brief  and 
non-polemical,  differing  In  these  respects  very 
markedly  from  the  annotations  in  both  Matthew's 
and  the  Geneva  Bible.  They  indicate,  for  the  toast 
part,  alternative  or  more  literal  renderings.  In  soine 


1S9 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blbleo,  Annotated,  and 
[Bible  SummarleB 


cases  they  specify  variant  readings  in  the  original 
text,  and,  in  other  cases,  they  give  brief  explanations 
of  words  or  expressions.  Not  a  few  of  the  alterna- 
tive rendering  they  present  have  been  adopted, 
either  verbatim  or  substantially,  in  the  revised 
version  of  1881-S5.  The  headings  of  chapters 
in  the  translation  of  1611  were  new.  In  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  the  Geneva  Bible,  and  the  Great 
Bible,  all  the  chapters  were  headed  with  a  short 
table  of  contents;  but  the  King  James  translators 
prepared  tables  of  their  own.  And  these  tables, 
drawn  up  in  1611,  appear  in  many  editions  at  the 
present  day  unaltered,  save  in  some  twelve  in- 
itances. 

Other  Bibles  with  notes  from  the  pen  of  an- 
Dotators  appeared  and  in  course  of  time  became 
vezy  popular.  These  annotators  did  not  write 
Bo  much  for  the  learned  as  for  the  conmion  people, 
and  their  Bibles  became  household  and  family 
books,  laying  stress  more  or  less  on 

4.  J<^    the  devotional   side.    John  Canne,  a 

^5J^"  Baptist  minister  (d.  1667?),  was  the 
1647.'  autiior  of  three  sets  of  notes  which 
accompanied  three  editions  of  the 
Bible.  His  great  ambition  was  "  to  make  the 
Bible  its  own  interpreter."  His  first  authenticated 
version  appeared  in  1647  at  Amsterdam,  under  the 
title,  The  Bible,  vrith  Marginal  Notee,  Shewing 
Scripture  to  he  the  Beet  Interpreter  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  work  was  often  reprinted  (9  editions, 
between  1662  and  1754).  Orme,  in  his  Bibliotheca 
BiUiea  (Edinburgh,  1824),  says  of  it,  "  The  mar- 
ginal references  of  Canne  are  generally  very  judi- 
cious and  apposite.  They  still  retain  a  considerable 
reputation,  though  most  of  the  latter  editions 
which  pass  under  the  name  of  Canne's  Bible  are 
full  of  errors,  and  crowded  with  references  which 
do  not  belong  to  the  original  author." 

In  1657  there  was  published  Annotations  upon 
Aa  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  .  .  . 
Wherein  the  text  is  explained,  doubts  resolved,  Scrip' 
tyres  paralleled,  and  various  readings  observed  by 
the  labiar  of  certain  learned  divines  thereunto  appointed 
and  therein  employed,  as  is  expressed  in  the  preface, 
2  vds.,  London,  1657.  This  work  is  usually 
ofiUed  the  "Assembly's  Annotations,"  from  the 
circumstance    of    its    having    been 

*v9*J«'  composed  by  members  of  the  West- 
^  minster  Assembly. — ^Another  popular 
1701.  work  of  the  same  character  was 
Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible ' 
wherein  the  sacred  text  is  inserted,  and  various  read- 
ings annexed;  together  with  the  parallel  Scriptures, 
The  more  difficult  terms  explained;  seeming  con- 
tradictions reconciled;  doubts  resolved,  and  (he 
^iMe  text  opened.  By  the  Rev,  Matthew  Poole, 
I/Midon,  1863, 2  vols.,  fo.  The  work  was  published 
in  many  editions.  Poole,  an  eminent  non-con- 
fonnist  divine  (1624-79),  did  not  finish  it;  but 
it  was  completed  after  his  death. — Not  less  popular 
was  a  woric  entitled.  The  Old  and  New  Testament, 
with  Annotations  and  parallel  Scriptures,  By 
Samuel,  Clarke,  A,M,,  London,  1690.  Bishop 
Lloyd's  Bible  (London,  1701)  was  the  first  to  in- 
corporate Archbishop  Ussher's  chronology. 

In  1708  appeared  the  first  volume  of  Matthew 


Henry's  well-known  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament ;  four  other  volumes  (to  the  end  of  the 
Gospels)  were  published  in  1710,  and  a  sixth  volume 
(the  Book  of  Acts)  from  Henry's  manuscript  after 
his  death  (1714);  the  work  was  completed  by  vari- 
ous non-conformist  clergymen  (see  Henrt,  Mat- 
thew). It  long  enjoyed  a  high  and 
6.  Katthew  deserved  reputation,  and  is  distin- 
^^^^'  guished,  not  for  depth  of  learning  or 
Works  oiginality  of  views,  but  for  sound 
to  1760.  practical  piety,  and  the  large  measure 
of  good  sense  which  it  discovers. — Dr. 
Edward  Wells  edited  between  the  years  1700 
and  1728,  An  Help  for  the  more  Easy  and  Clear 
Understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  after  the  fol- 
lowing method  :  1.  The  common  English  translaHon 
rendered  more  agreeable  to  the  original,  2.  A  poro- 
phrase  wherein  the  text  is  explained,  and  divided 
into  proper  sections,  and  lesser  divisions,  3.  An- 
notations. 4.  Preface,  8  vols. — Patrick,  Lowth, 
Whitby,  and  Arnold's  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  a 
work  of  a  similar  character,  appeared  in  London, 
1727-60, 7  vols.,  and  was  reprinted  as  late  as  1821. 
According  to  Orme,  Patrick  was  "  the  most  sen- 
sible and  useful  commentator  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. He  had  a  competent  measure  of  learning 
for  the  undertaking,  of  which  he  never  makes  any 
ostentatious  display.  The  elder  Lowth  completed 
the  work  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  Whitby  com- 
mentated on  the  New  Testament.  Neither  Patrick 
nor  Lowth  has  so  much  Arminianism  as  Whitby, 
though  they  all  belong  to  the  same  theological  school. 
Whitby  was  superior  to  both  in  acuteness  and 
research,  but  if  the  reader  do  not  find  in  them  the 
same  talent,  he  will  be  exposed  to  less  injury  from 
specious  and  sophistical  reasonings  against  some 
important  doctrines  of  Christianity." — John  Gill 
published  An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments,  in  which  ^  sense  of  the  sacred  text  is  given  ; 
doctrinal  and  practical  truths  are  set  in  a  plain  and 
easy  light;  diffUuU  passages  explained;  seeming 
contradictions  reconciled;  and  whatever  is  material 
in  the  various  readings,  and  the  several  Oriental 
versions,  is  observed.  The  whole  illustrated  by 
notes  from  the  most  antient  Jewish  writings.  By 
John  Gill,  D,D,,  9  vols,  fo.,  London,  1748-63; 
9  vols.  4to,  London,  1809.  Gill  gives  a  simmiary 
of  each  chapter.  Orme  says  of  him,  "  Had  Dr. 
Gill  fulfilled  the  promise  of  his  title  page,  no  other 
commentary  on  the  Bible  could  have  been  required. 
But  he  moves  through  his  exposition  like  a  man  in 
lead,  and  overwhelms  the  inspired  writers  with 
dull  lucubrations  and  rabbinical  lumber.  He  is 
an  ultra-Calvinist  in  his  doctrinal  sentiments; 
and  often  spiritualizes  the  text  to  absurdity.  If 
the  reader  be  inclined  for  a  trial  of  his  strength 
and  patience,  he  may  procure  the  burden  of  Dr. 
Gill.  He  was,  after  all,  a  man  of  undoubted 
learning,  and  of  prodigious  labour." — A  very  popular 
work  was  an  English  translation  of  Jean  Fr6d4ric 
Osterwald's  Argumens  et  reflexions  sur  Vicriture 
sainie  (NeuchAtel,  1709-15  and  often;  see  Oster- 
WALD,  Jean  FntotRic),  which  appeared  under 
the  title.  The  Arguments  of  the  Books  and  Chap- 
ters of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  practical 
observations.     Translated   by  John  Chamberlayne, 


Bibles,  Annotated,  «nd 
[Bible  SnmmarleB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


160 


E9q,f  London,  1749,  3  vols.;  fifth  edition,  enlarged, 
2  vols.,  London,  1779. 

Chamberlayne's  work  was  followed  by  A  New 
and  Literal  Translalion  of  all  the  Books  of  (he  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  with  Notes  critical  and  ex- 
planatory. By  Anthony  Purver  (2  vols.,  London, 
1764).  Purver  was  a  Quaker  and  originally  a 
shoemaker.  He  taught  himself  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Latin,  in  order  that  he  might  understand  the 
Bible.  His  work  is  often  ungrammatical,  and 
unintelligible;  the  notes  are  very  similar  to  the 
text  and,  what  is  worse,  full  of  pride  and  ill-nature. 
Notwithstanding  these  defects,  Purver 
7.  Various  sometimes  gives  a  better  rendering 
)fS^*  ^^**^  occurs  in  the  Authorized  Version. 
1750.  — One  year  later  appeared  The  Evan- 
gelical Expositor;  or  a  Commentary 
on  the  Holy  Bible,  wherein  the  Sacred  Text  is  inserted 
at  large,  the  sense  explained,  and  different  passages 
elucidated,  with  practical  observations,  etc.  By 
T.  Haweis,  LL.B,,  MJD.,  London,  1765,  2  vols.; 
Glasgow,  3  vols.  4to,and  various  editions.  Haweis 
(d.  1820)  was  rector  of  Aldwinkle,  Northampton- 
shire; his  work  had  little  value. — Next  to  be 
mentioned  is  The  Complete  Family  Bible :  or  a 
Spiritual  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament ; 
wherein  each  chapter  is  summed  up  in  its  context, 
and  the  sacred  text  inserted  at  large,  with  Notes, 
spiritual,  practical,  and  explanatory.  By  ihe  Rev. 
Mr.  Cruden,  London,  1770,  2  vols. — In  the  same 
year  appeared  a  similar  work  under  the  title, 
A  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, in  which  are  inserted  the  Notes  and  Collections 
of  John  Locke,  Esq.,  Daniel  Waterland,  DJ).,  and 
the  Right  Hon.  Edward,  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and 
other  learned  persons,  with  practical  improvements. 
By  W.  Dodd,  LLJ).,  London,  1770,  3  vols.  This 
is  mostly  a  compilation,  the  chief  value  of  which 
consists  in  notes  furnished  from  the  original  papers 
of  John  Locke,  Dr.  Waterland,  Lord  Clarendon, 
Gilbert  West,  and  some  others.  Great  use  is  also 
made  of  some  of  the  printed  and  long-established 
commentaries  on  Scripture,  such  as  Calmet,  Houbi- 
gant,  and  Doddridge.  Adam  Clarke  said,  rather 
hyperbolically,  that  it  was  on  the  whole  by  far 
the  best  comment  that  had  yet  appeared  in  the 
Ekiglish  language. — ^The  next  work  to  be  men- 
tioned is  The  Self-Interpreting  Bible,  containing 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  to  which  are  annexed 
an  .  .  .  introduction,  marginal  references  and  illue- 
trations  .  .  .  explanatory  notes  .  .  .  etc.,  etc.  By 
the  late  Rev.  John  Brown,  Minister  of  the  Gospel  at 
Haddington,  London,  1778,  2  vols.  It  was 
repeatedly  reprinted,  and  proved  almost  as  popular 
south  as  north  of  the  Tweed. — Henry  Southwell 
published  a  Bible,  Authorised  Version  ;  with  notes 
etc.;  wherein  the  mis-translations  are  corrected, 
London,  1782. — ^Another  work  of  a  similar  character 
is  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  carefully  printed  from  the  first 
edition  (compared  with  others)  of  the  present  trans- 
lation ;  with  notes  by  Thomas  Wilson,  DJ).,  Bishop 
of  Sodor  and  Man,  and  varums  renderings,  collected 
from  other  translations,  by  ihe  Rev.  Clement  CrutweU, 
editor,  I^ndon,  1785,  8  vols.  Bishop  Wilson's 
notes  are  merely  brief  hints  either  for  the  expla- 


nation or  the  practical  improvement  of  particular 
passages.  Dr.  Thomas  Paris,  in  the  Cambridge 
Bible  of  1762,  and  Dr.  B.  Blayn^,  in  the  Oxford 
Bible  of  1769,  added  considerably  to  the  numbo 
of  marginal  notes  and  references. 

But  far  more  popular  than  any  of  the  woib 

already  mentioned  was  the  Bible  wiUi  oommeotajy 

edited  by  Rev.  Thomas  Scott  (q.v.).    It  had  the 

largest  drculatioa  and  sustained  it  through  many 

years.    It  appeared  under  the  title,  The  Holy  BibU, 

containing    the    Old    and    New    Testaments;  viik 

original  notes,  practical  observations,  and  afj/iou 

marginal  references.    By  Thomas  Scott,  Reetar  oj 

Aston    Sandford  (London,  1788,  and 

8.  Thomaa  often).    As  a  commentary  Dr.  Soott's 

*8o^t      work  was  superior  to  any  that  had 

Q^pg      appeared    before    its    time.    Home. 

to  1810.  usually  a  discriminating  judge,  speaks 
of  it  in  high  praise  (cf.  his  Mamtd 
of  Biblieal  Bibliography,  London,  1839,  p.  259).- 
In  1799  appeared  A  Revised  Translaiion  and  Inter- 
pretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  after  the  Eoatern 
manner,  from  concurrent  authorities  of  critics,  itiUr- 
preters,  and  '  commentators*  copies  and  versions ; 
shewing  that  the  inspired  writings  contain  the  teedt 
of  the  valuable  sciences,  being  the  source  v^iena 
the  antient  philosophers  derived  them,  also  the  vunt 
antient  histories  and  greatest  antiquities,  and  en 
the  most  entertaining  as  weU  as  instructing  to  bcA 
the  curious  and  serious  (by  David  Macrae,  or 
J.  M.  Ray,  J.  McRay,  or  D.  McRae;  Glas- 
gow, 1799;  2d  ed.,  1815;  4to,  also  in  3  vols.  8m). 
The  author  introduced  many  approved  renderings, 
but  marred  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  Uie 
Authorised  Version. — ^Another  noteworthy  anno- 
tated Bible  is  that  of  John  Reeves,  which  appeared 
in  ten  volumes  in  London,  18Q2.  The  explana- 
toiy  notes  are  based  on  Wells's  Paraphrase^  and  the 
commentaries  of  Patrick,  Lowth,  Whitby,  and 
others.  A  similar  work  was  the  so-called  "Re- 
formers' Bible,"  The  Holy  BibU,  containing  tk 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorized 
Version,  with  short  Notes  by  several  learned  and 
pioiLS  Reformers,  as  printed  by  Royal  Authority 
at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  with  additional  Ncta 
and  Dissertations,  London,  1810.  The  notes  in 
the  Old  Testament  in  this  edition  are  taken  from 
the  (jeneva  Bible,  the  annotations  of  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Latin  of  Theodore  Beaa. 

Ako  in  1810  there  began  to  be  published  Thi 
Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testamenit : 
the  Text  carefully  printed  from  the  most  eorred 
copies  of  the  present  authoriged  trandation,  including 
the  marginal  readings  and  parallel  texts ;  with  a 
Commentary,  and  Critical  Notes,  designed  <u  a 
help  to  a  better  understanding  of  Ote 

0-  Adam   Sacred  Writings.    By  Adam   CUait, 

Soyiy     ^^•^•'    FAJ3.,     London,     1810-26. 

and        The  author,  a  Wesleyan  minister  (see 

Kant,      CuLRKK,  Adam),  attained  a  hi^  repu- 

BeUamT     Nation  as  a  student  of  Oriental  lan- 

1810-84!  Stages.  The  scope  of  the  commentary 
is  expressed  in  its  own  words:  "In 
this  work  the  whole  of  the  text  has  been  col- 
lated with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  and  afl 
the   ancient   versions;  the    most   difficult  word^ 


161 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BlblM,  Annotated.  «nd 
[Bible  SnmmarieB 


analyzed    and    explained;  the    most    important 
readings  in  the  Hebrew  collections  of  Kennicott 
and  De  Rossi  on  the  Old  Testament,    and  in  those 
of  Mill,  Wetstein,  and  Griesbach  on  the  New,  are 
noticed;  the  date  of  every  transaction,  as  far  as 
it   has    been   ascertained    by  the    best    chronol- 
ogers,   is   marked;    the  peculiar   customs  of   the 
Jews    and    neighboring    nations,    so    frequently 
alluded  to  by  the  prophets,  evangeUsts,  and  apostles, 
are  explained  from  the  best  Asiatic  authorities; 
the  great  doctrines  of  the  Law  and  Gospel  of  God 
are  defined,   illustrated,   and   defended;  and  the 
whole  is  Implied  to  the  important  purposes  of  prac- 
tical   Christianity ."    A    considerable    popularity 
was  achieved  also  by  D'Oyly  and  Mant's  com- 
mentary.  The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the  Authorized 
Version,    wUh    Notes    explanalory    and    practical, 
taken  principally  from  the  most  eminent  writere  of 
the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland  ;  together 
vith    appropriate    introductiona,    tables,    indexes, 
maps,  tatd  plans,  prepared  and  arranged  by  the  Rev. 
G,  D'Oyly,  B.D.,  and  Rev.  Richard  Mant,  DJ)., 
Oxford  and   London,  1814,  3  vols.,  and   various 
iubaequent   editions   printed   at   Cambridge   and 
Oxford.     "  This  work,  which  was  published  under 
the  sanction  of  the  venerable  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,   professes   to   conmiunicate 
only  the  results  of  the  critical  inquiries  of  learned 
men,  without  giving  a  detailed  exposition  of  the 
inquiries  themselves.    These  results,  however,  are 
selected  with  great  judgment,  so  that  the  reader 
who  may  consult  them  on  difficult  passages  will 
rarely  be  disappointed.  Of  the  labour  atten^g  this 
publication  some  idea  may  be  formed,  when  it  is 
Btated  that  the  works  of  upward  of  one  hundred 
and  sixty  authors  have    been  consulted    for  it, 
amounting  to  several  hundred  volumes.  On  the  fun- 
damental articles  of  Christian  verity — the   Deity 
and  atonement  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  personality 
and  offices  of  the  Holy  Spirit — this  work  may  be 
pronounced  to  be  a  library  of  divinity"  (Home, 
ut  sup.,  pp.  261-262). — A  work  of  a  similar  character 
was  The  Holy  Bible,  newly  translated  from  the  orig- 
inal Hebrew,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory. 
By  John  Bellamy,  London,  1818-94.    Orme  con- 
siders  it   a  strange   hodgepodge  of    error,   confi- 
dence, misrepresentation,  and  sJbuse  of  learned  and 
valuable  writers  in  all  the  departments  of  Biblical 
literature. 

Rev.  B.  Boothroyd  edited  A  New  Family 
Bible,  and  Improved  Version,  from  corrected  Texts 
of  the  Originals,  with  Notes  criticdl  and  expUma- 
tory;  and  short  Practical  Reflections  on  each  Chap- 
ter^ Pontefract  and  London,  1818-23,  3  vols.  The 
author  has  very  happily  blended  critical  disqui- 
sition with  practical  insthiction,  and  an  invariable 
regard  to  the  spirit  and  design  of  revelation. — 
In  1821  there  appeared  The  Plain  Reader's  Help 
w  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  consisting  of 
Notes,  explanatory  and  illustrative,  chiefly  selected 
or  abridged  from  the  Family  Bible,  published  by  the 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  By 
the  Rev.  William  Thomas  Bree,  M.A.,  Coventry, 
W21-22.  The  aim  was  to  supply  brief  and  un- 
^^chnical  notes  at  a  moderate  price  for  readers 
who  could  not  procure  or  consult  larger  works. — 

n.— a 


In  1824  appeared  The  Holy  Bible,  arranged  and 
adapted  for  family  reading,  with  notes,  etc.  by  a 
Layman  of  the  Church  of  England  (2 
^W^k^*'  vols.,  London). — Another  popular 
1818-88.  ^^^I®  ^^  ^^®  so-called  Cottage  Bible 
and  Family  Expositor;  containing 
the  Authorized  Translation  of  the  Old  and  New 
.  Testaments,  with  Practical  Reflections  and  short 
Explanatory  Notes,  calculated  to  elucidate  difficult 
and  obscure  Passages.  By  Thomas  Williams, 
London,  1825-27,  3  vols.,  and  various  subsequent 
editions.  This  unassuming  but  cheap  and  useful 
commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  pro- 
fessedly designed  for  persons  and  families  in  the 
humbler  walks  of  life. — ^There  is  also  to  be  men- 
tioned The  Comprehensive  Bible;  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorised 
Version,  ibUh  the  various  readings  and  marginal 
notes  ustuslly  printed  therewith;  a  general  intro- 
duction, containing  disquisitions  on  the  genuineness, 
authenticity,  and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, — 
various  divisions  cmd  marks  of  distinction  in  the 
sacred  Writings, — antient  versions, — coins,  weights, 
and  measures, — varums  sects  among  the  Jews  j 
introductions  and  concluding  remarks  to  each  book  ; 
the  parallel  passages  contained  in  the  Rev.  J.  Scot^s 
Commentary,  Canne's  Bible,  Rev.  J.  Brown*s  Self^ 
Interpreting  Bible,  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary, 
and  the  English  Version  of  the  Polyglott  Bible  system" 
aUcaUy  arranged  ;  philological  and  explanatory  notes. 
With  chronological  and  other  indexes  (by  William 
Greenfield,  London,  1827). — In  1828  there  was 
published  The  Holy  Bible  .  .  .  principally  designed 
to  facilitate  the  audible  or  social  reading  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures;  illustrated  wUh  notes,  historical,  geo- 
graphical, and  otherwise  explanatory,  and  also  point- 
ing  out  the  fulfilment  of  various  prophecies.  By 
Wmiam  Alexander — vol.  i — the  Pentateuch — ^York, 
1828;  two  other  volumes  were  planned  but  did 
not  appear).  This  Bible  owed  its  origin  to  efforts 
of  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  Passages 
"  unsuitable  for  a  mixed  audience  "  were  printed 
in  italics  below  the  text. — C.  Girdlestone  edited 
The  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  a  comment 
tary,  consisting  of  short  lectures  for  the  daily  tue 
of  families,  London,  1835-42. — ^Another  Bible  of 
the  same  style  was  the  Treasury  Bible.  First 
division  :  containing  the  aulhorUed  English  Version 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  printed  in  Bagster^s  Poly- 
glott Bible,  with  the  same  copious  and  original  sdeo- 
tion  of  references  to  parallel  and  illustrative  passages, 
and  similarly  printed  in  a  centre  column.  Second 
division :  containing  the  Treasury  of  Scripture 
Knowledge,  consisting  of  a  rich  and  copious  assem- 
blage of  upwards  of  five  hundred  thousand  pcarallel 
texts,  from  Canne,  Brown,  Blayney,  Scott,  and  others, 
with  numerous  illustrative  notes,  London,  1835. — 
In  1837  there  was  published  The  Condensed  Com- 
mentary and  Family  Exposition  of  the  Holy  Bible : 
containing  the  best  criticisms  of  the  most  valuable 
Biblical  Writers,  with  practical  reflections  and  mar- 
ginal references;  chronology,  indexes,  etc.,  etc.  By 
the  Rev.  Ingram  Cobbin,  M.A.,  London,  1837. 
This  work  is  literally  a  condensed  coounentaiy, 
derived  from  the  best  accessible  sources.  The 
notes  are  brief,  but  well  ehoaen,  and  are  partly 


Bibles,  Annotated 
Bible*;  Hifltorioal 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


162 


critical  and  explanatory,  partly  practical.  They 
are  taken  from  nearly  two  hundred  writers,  British 
and  foreign. — ^Another  annotated  Bible  was  edited 
by  the  Rev.  C.  Wellbdoved,  The  Holy  Bible,  a 
New  Translation,  with  introductory  remarks,  notes 
explanatory  and  critical,  and  practical  reflections,  2 
vols.,  London,  1838.  It  is  Unitarian  and  designed 
principally  for  the  use  of  families. 

The  standard  Ekiglish  version  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  (the  "Douai"  Bible;  see  Biblb  Vbb- 
BiONS,  B,  IV,  §  5),  was  provided  with  notes  setting 
forth  and  defendhig  the  Roman  standpoint.  The 
later  annotated  English  Bibles  of  the  Catholics  are 
based  chiefly  upon  these  notes.  Richard  Challoner 
(q.v.)  and  George  Leo  Haydock  (The  Holy  Bible, 
2  vols.,  Bfanchester,  1811-14;  revised  Rdms  and 
Douai  text  with  extensive  notes)  are  well-known 
Roman  Catholic  annotators.  Most  of  the  "minor 
versions"  enumerated  in  §  8  of  the  article  on  Eng- 
lish versions  (Biblb  Vbbsignb,  B,  IV)  are  anno- 
tated. 

The  popular  works  of  England  were  reissued  in 
America.  The  first  American  edition  of  Scott's 
oonmientary  was  printed  and  published  by  W.  Wood- 
ward of  Philadelphia  in  1804  in  4  vols.  Other 
issues  followed  by  different  publishers,  most 
of  them  from  the  press  of  Woodward  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  that  of  Samuel  T.  Armstrong  of  Boston. 
The  most  popular  form  of  the  book  was  an  octavo 
of  six  volumes.  Scott's  Bible  had  a  continuous 
sale  for  more  than  forty  years,  and  as  late  as  1844 
W.  E.  Dean,  2  Ann  Street,  New  York,  published 
an  edition  in  three  volumes. — ^Adam  Clarke's 
oonunentary  was  published  by  Ezra  Sargeant,  86 
Broadway,  New  York,  in  1811. — Osterwald's 
Observations  appeared  in  1813  with  this  imprint: 
"  New  York:  Published  by  Evert  Duyckinck,  John 
Tiebout,  G.  &  R.  Waite,  and  Websters  &  Sldnners 
of  Albany.  George  Long,  Printer." — ^The  first 
American  edition  of  Matthew  Henry's  Exposition 
i^peared  in  Philadelphia  in  1816, 
11.  Bepub-  published  by  Towar  and  Hogan  in  six 

lioaUon     volumes.    They  also  issued  a  stereo- 

Amerioa  *3Tt>®d  edition  in  three  volumes  in  1829. 
Burder  and  Hughes  of  the  same  city 
issued  a  six  volume  edition  in  1828,  with 
preface  by  Archibald  Alexander. — D'Oyly  and 
Mant's  Bible  with  commentary  was  reprinted  in 
New  York  in  181^-20  by  T.  and  J.  Swords,  160 
Pearl  Street.  This  edition  has  additional  notes 
from  the  pen  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  H.  Hobart,  D.D., 
bishop  of  New  York,  who  quotes  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  Biblical  scholars,  mainly  in  the  Anglican, 
Scottish,  and  American  Episcopal  Churches,  who 
had  not  been  noticed  by  the  Ekiglish  editors. — 
Thomas  Williams's  Cottage  Bible,  reedited  by  the 
Rev.  William  Patton,  was  printed  in  two  octavo  vol- 
umes by  Conner  &  Cooke,  New  York,  in  1833.  It 
contains  numerous  engravings  and  several  maps, 
and  was  intended  chiefly  for  the  use  of  Sunday- 
schools  and  Bible-dasses.  The  plates  were  sold 
by  the  New  York  printers,  and  in  after-years  the 
editions  were  issued  at  Hartford,  Conn. — Green- 
field's Comprehensive  Bible  was  issued  in  1839  with 
the  imprint  of  "  Robinson  &  Franklin,  successors 
to  Leavitt,  Lord  &  Co.,   180  Broadway."    The 


book  is  a  thick  quarto  of  1 ,460  pages.  The  America 
issue  was  also  published  by  Lippinoott,  Gambo 
&  Co.,  Philadelphia,  in  1854,  and  by  J.  B.  Lippin- 
oott &  Co.  in  1857.  Canne's  mar]^nal  notes  asd 
references  s^peared  in  many  editions  of  Americas 
household  and  family  Bibles,  and  John  Brown'a 
Self'Interpreting  Bible  was  frequently  reproduced. 
The  American  Tract  Society  eariy  published  a 
family  Bible  with  brief  notes  and  instructiozis  and 
many  editions  were  printed.  Eugene  Cummiakej, 
of  Philadelphia,  published  various  editions  for  Bo- 
man  Catholics,  such  as  The  Holy  Bible,  translatti 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  with  annotations,  referencu, 
etc.  Isaiah  Thomas,  the  famous  author  of  the 
History  of  Printing  in  America,  published  and  add 
the  Authorised  Version  with  notes  at  his  press  in 
Worcester  Mass.;  various  editions  appeared  after 
1791. 

One  of  tne  earliest  productions  of  the  Phfla^ 
delphia  press  was  The  Christum's  New  and  Cm- 
plOe  Family  Bible,  published  by  William  Wood- 
house  in  1790.  It  was  issued  in  numbers,  and  the 
Rev.  Paul  Wright,  D.D.,  vicar  of  Oakley,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  editor. — The  Columbian 
Family  and  Pulpit  Bible  bears  the  imprint,  ''Boston: 
Published  by  Joseph  Teal,  printed  by  J.  H.  A.  Frost, 
opposite  U.  S.  Bank,  Congress  Street,  1822."  It 
claims  to  be  a  "  corrected  and  improved  American 
edition  of  the  Popular  English  Family  Bible." 
supplied   "  with   concise   notes   and    annoUtioos, 

theological,    historical,    chronological, 

^^'Jj*'^  critical,    practical,    moral,    and   ex- 

Woplw!^  planatory";  also  containing  "  sundiy 

important  received  various  readings 
from  the  most  ancient  Hebrew  and  Greek  manu- 
scripts and  the  most  celebrated  versions  of  Scrip- 
ture. Also,  simdry  corrections  and  improvementa 
of  our  excellent  E^nglish  version  (g^erally  admitted 
by  learned  Christians  of  every  name)  with  referenoes 
to  authors,  versions,  and  manuscripts;  also,  an 
illustrative  argument  prefixed  to  each  sacred  book 
or  epistle,  from  the  best  authorities."  The  volume 
is  a  folio,  embellished  with  thirty-six  engravingi 
The  book  was  issued  in  numbers  and  had  more  than 
three  thousand  subscribers.  The  Rev.  Jonatban 
Homer,  D.D.,  of  Newton,  Mass.,  revised  the  ob- 
servations, and  condensed  some  of  the  notes  and 
enlarged  others.— In  1826  The  CoUatertd  BjHi 
made  its  appearance  with  the  following  imprint: 
"Philadelphia:  Printed  by  Samuel  F.  Bradford, 
and  by  E.  Bliss  and  E.  White,  New  York.  J.  Hard- 
ing, Printer,  1826."  This  book  was  edited  by 
William  McCorkle,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Em  Stiles 
Ely,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  and  the  Bev. 
Gregory  T.  Bedell,  A.M.,  rector  of  St.  Andrew's 
Church,  Philadelphia.  "In  this  work  the  b«t 
marginal  references  are  printed  at  large,  and  in 
connection  with  eveiy  passage,  by  wUch  means 
eveiy  parallel  or  related  phrase  in  the  sacred  volume 
is  brought  at  once  under  the  eye,  so  as  to  present 
the  whole  scope  and  subject  of  every  text  at  a 
single  view  "  (Home,  Biblical  Bibliography,  p.  S6). 
The  three  volumes  comprised  only  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  the  New  Testament  part  was  never 
attempted.— 7^  Devotional  Family  Bible  was 
edited   by  the   Rev.  Alexander   Fletdier,  D.D., 


163 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


iiSist^tsa^tf 


"  with  practical  and  experimental  reflections  on 
each  verse  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
rich  marginal  references."  An  edition  in  quarto 
with  fifty-seven  illustrations  was  published  with 
this  imprint:  ''London  and  New  York:  "Wrtue, 
Emmins  and  Company."  The  title-page  has  no 
date,  though  O'Callaghan  assigns  the  publication  to 
the  year  1835. 

Of  mOTe  modem  works  of  a  similar  character 
the  foUowing  may  be  mentioned:  the  Lange  com- 
mentary, translated  and  edited,  with  additions,  by 
Philip  Schaff  and  others  (25  vols., 
w'ti"  ^^  ^^^^'  1866-88);  the  work  com- 
^^<^K  ™®°^y  known  as  the  "  Speaker's  Com- 
^^  mentary  "  (because  suggested  by  the 
^^ai^ri^i^a^  Ri^t  Hon.  J.  Eveljm  Denison, 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons), 
ed.  F.  C.  Cook  (10  vols.,  London,  1871-81); 
the  Cambridge  Bible  for  SchooU  and  CoUegn,  ed. 
J.  J.  S.  Perowne  (48  vols.,  Cambridge,  1877  sqq.); 
Bishop  Ellicott's  Commentary  for  English  Readers 
(8  vols.,  London,  1877-84);  J.  H.  Blunt's  Anno- 
taUd  Bible  ...  a  Household  Commentary  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (3  vols.,  London,  1878);  Clark's 
Handbooks  for  Bible  Classes,  ed.  M.  Dods  and  A. 
Wbyte  (47  vols.,  Edinbui^gh,  1879  sqq.);  the 
American  Commentary  (Baptist;  N.  T.  complete, 
ed.  Alvah  Hovey,  7  vols.,  O.  T.,  4  vols. — Lev.  and 
Num.,  Job,  Eecles.,  Prov.  and  Song  of  Songs — 
published  at  present,  1881  sqq.);  the  International 
Illustrated  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  ed. 
PhiUp  Schaff  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1889);  J.  G. 
Butler,  BibU  Work  (11  vols.,  1892);  the  New  Cen- 
tury Bible,  ed.  W.  F.  Adeney  (N.  T.  complete, 
13  vols.;  O.  T.,  10  vols,  issued,  London,  1901  sqq.); 
and  the  Temjile  BibU  (31  vols.,  London,  1901-03; 
especially  useful  for  reading  because  the  text  is 
paragraphed  according  to  the  sense,  and  chapter 
and  verse  divisions  are  relegated  to  the  margin). 
The  so-called  "  Teachers'  Bibles,"  of  which  many 
were  published  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  may  also  be  mentioned. 

BnuoQBAPHT:  O.  W.  Piouer,  OctdbMAfa  der  d^utatksn  Bi- 
bdSbtraelguno  Dr.  M.  Lufhtn  von  1S17S1,  NursmlMrv. 
1791;  J.  A.  Com.  UebtHdidt  iOm  Lutktrt  .  .  .  Dolmtitth- 
wv  der  keiUff^n  Seknft  und  die  ,  .  .  eeiner  Zeiigenoe- 
■M,  Nuramberv*  1824;  W.  Onne.  BiUiotkeea  BiMica, 
Ediaborsh,  1824;  F.  H.  Home,  Manual  of  Bibiiad  Bib- 
Uograpky,  London.  1839;  M.  GObel.  OeeAiehie  dee  ehriel- 
Udien  Lebane  in  der  rkein^weelfdliediien  evanaeUedt/en  Kirehe, 
Tola.  ii.  iii,  Cobleni,  1852MX);  A.  Beck,  Bmet  der  Fromme, 
2  vote..  Womnr,  1806;  A.  Ritaohl.  Oeet^idUe  dee  Pie- 
IMNU.  vok.  i,  ii,  Bonn,  1880-84;  W.  BOhne,  DiejOdaoo- 
ffuehcm  BteSrehunpen  Heraog  Bmet  .  .  .  von  Gotha,  Qotha, 
1888;  O.  Fimnk,  Die  Weriheimer  BibeiObereeleuno  vor  dam 
BeidukatnU  in  Wian,  In  ZKQ,  zii  (1891),  2. 

BIBLES  FOR  CHILDREN:  Various  attempts 
bave  been  made  to  present  the  Bible  in  the  form 
of  a  '*  child's  book."  The  selection  of  parts  best 
adapted  to  inmiature  minds  and  the  omission  of 
the  unsuitable,  with  simplification  of  language, 
UB  the  chief  aims  in  such  attempts.  Illustrations, 
coarse  print,  and  other  typographical  devices  are 
naturally  used  freely.  Such  books  spring  from  the 
ooDviction  that  the  Bible  contains  spiritual  truth 
for  all  and  is  the  greatest  instrument  for  awakening 
religious  feeling  and  quickening  moral  perception, 
bat  that  its  usefulness  for  these  ends  is  necessarily 


conditioned  upon  the  form  of  presentation  and  that 
the  latter  may  well  be  varied  for  different  classes  of 
readers.  The  following  list  mentions  some  note- 
worthy books  of  this  sort  in  Eki^ish,  but  makes 
no  claim  to  completeness. 

An  Abridoemeni  of  tKe  Holy  Senpturee.  By  the  Rev,  Mr. 
Sdlon,  UUe  MinUter  of  8L  Jamee*e,  ClerkenweU,  pubhnhed 
in  1781  and  many  Utter  eds..  at  Hartford  by  Hale  and  Hoe- 
mer.  1813. 

The  Bi62a  for  Children,  Arranged  from  Ihe  King  Jamae 
Vereion,  With  a  Preface  by  the  Rev.  Franeie  Brown,  D.D., 
and  an  Introduction  by  the  Right  Rev.  Henry  C.  Potter,  D.D. 
[compiled  by  Mrs.  Joseph  B.  Gilder],  New  York  [19021. 

The  BihU  Story  Re-told  for  Young  People;  th/e  Old  Teeta- 
ment  Story  by  W.  H.  Bennett;  the  New  Teetament  Story  by 
W.  P.  Adeney,  London,  1897. 

The  BibU  for  Young  People,  tranelated  from  the  Dutch 
of  H.  Oort  and  I.  Hooykas  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed.  6  vole., 
London,  1873-79;  2d  ed.,  1882. 

The  Children'e  BibU,  or  an  History  of  the  Holy  Seripturee, 
to  wkiih  ie  added  a  new  manual  of  devotione  for  dvUdren;  by 
a  divine  of  the  Chur^  of  England,  London,  1759. 

The  Child*e  BibU.  With  platee.  By  a  Lady  of  Cinein- 
nati,  Philadelphia.  Henry  F.  Anners,  1834. 

A  Compendium  of  the  Religioue  Doctrines,  Religioue  and 
Moral  Preeepte,  Hietorical  and  DeecripHve  Beautiee  of  the 
Bible;  with  a  Separate  Moral  Selection  from  the  Apocrypha; 
being  a  Tranecript  of  the  received  Text:  Intended  for  the  uee 
of  Fa$niliee,  but  more  particularly  ae  a  Reading  Book  for 
Schoole.  By  Rodolphus  Dickinson,  Esq.,  .  .  .  Greenfield, 
Haas.,  Horace  Graves,  Printer.  1814. 

A  eurioue  HieroglypMek  BibU,  or  SOect  Paeeagee  in  the 
Old  and  New  Teetamente,  represented  with  emblematical 
flguree,  for  the  amueemont  of  youth;  designed  chiefly  to 
fomiliariwe  tender  age,  in  a  pleaeing  and  diverting  manner, 
with  early  ideae  of  the  Holy  Seripturee — a  very  popular  work 
which  appeared  in  many  editions  (12th  ed.,  London,  1792; 
Worcester,  Mass.,  IsaiahThomas,  1788;  Dublin,  1789;  etc.). 
It  is  a  child's  book,  containinc  short  passages  of  Scripture 
in  which  some  of  the  words  are  represented  by  small  cuts. 

The  Holy  BibU  abridged:  or  the  Hietory  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testam/ent.  Illuetrated  with  Notee,  and  adorned  with 
cute.  PortheUeeof  Children.  To  whiA  ie  added,  A  Comr 
pleat  Abetraet  of  the  Old  and  New  Teetamsnt,  ioith  the  Apoc- 
rypha, in  Eaey  Veres,  New  York,  Hodfe,  Allen,  and  Gamp- 
beU.  1790. 

The  Sdiool  and  Chiliren'e  BibU;  prepared  under  the  eu- 
perintendonee  of  the  Rev.  William  Rogere,  .  .  .  London,  1873. 
It  presents  the  Bible  in  a  shortened  form,  "adapted  for  the 
use  of  children,  and  rearranses  the  matter." 

The  BibU  for  Young  PeopU,  New  York.  1902,  n.  e..  1900. 
Scripture  Leeeone  for  echoole  on  the  BritiA  eyetem  of  mutual 
inetrueUon.  Adopted  in  Ruesia  by  order  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  /.,  London,  1820.  According  to  the  preface, 
these  selections  were  originally  made  in  Russian  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1818-19.  and  adopted  in  Russian  schools  at 
the  instance  of  Prince  Alexander  Galitiin.  minister  of  in- 
struction. The  Committee  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
School  Society  then  determined  to  issue  them  in  the  chief 
languages  of  Europe.  The  extracts  are  divided  into:  (1) 
Historical  Lessons  from  the  Old  Testament;  (2)  Lessons  on 
Duty  toward  God  and  Man;  (3)  Lessons  from  the  Evangel- 
ists and  the  Acts* 

BIBLES,  HISTORICAL  (ST0R7-BIBLBS):  The 
usual  tenn  applied  to  a  compilation  of  Holy 
Scripture  which,  confining  itself  chiefly  to  the 
historical  portions,  adapts  them  to  educational 
purposes.  This  may  be  done  either  by  a  faithful 
repetition  of  the  Biblical  narratives  or  by  thorough- 
going changes  in  the  selection  of  the  material^  by 
the  representation  of  facts,  and  by  devotioncJ 
application.  In  this  article  Uie  term  is  confined  to 
certain  medieval  works  which,  written  in  the 
language  of  the  people  and  in  popular  style,  con- 
stituted in  their  time  the  chief  literary  media  for 
disseminating  the  knowledge  of  Bible  hlstoiy. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  historico-devo- 
tional  mode  of  considering  the  Bible  received  atten- 


BiblM,  Hiatorioftl 
BiblM,  r 


>  niiuitntted 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


164 


tion  only  when  the  people  themflelves  began  their 
spiritual  and  religious  emancipation.  As  soon  as 
the  vernacular  was  allowed  to  become  the  language 
of  religious  instruction,  among  the  Ang^o-Saxons 
and  in  Germany  at  the  time  of  Charie- 
The  Earliest  magne,  literary  phenomena  appear 
Story-Bibles,  which  at  least  to  a  certain  extent  fall 
under  the  conception  of  Story-Bibles. 
It  is  said  that  the  poetical  productions  of  CsBdmon 
(q.v.)  in  their  original  form  treated  the  whole 
Bible  history  to  the  day  of  judgment;  in  the 
KriU  of  Otfrid  of  Weissenburg  (q.v.)  and  in  the 
Low  Saxon  Heliaind  (q.v.)  not  only  was  sacred 
history  given  in  poetical  form,  but  in  pictureeque- 
ness  and  minuteness  of  details  it  appealed  di- 
rectly to  the  spirit  of  the  people.  Several  other 
Story-Bibles  in  poetical  form  were  subsequently 
composed,  especially  in  Qermany;  among  them 
the  work  of  Rudolf  of  Ems  (q.v.)  seems  to 
have  become  most  popular.  In  the  Biblical  lit^ 
erature  of  Holland  may  be  mentioned  the  "  Riming 
Bible"  of  Jacob  of  Maerlant.  Much  older  are 
the  poetical  compilations  of  Biblical  history  in  the 
French  language,  especially  that  of  Herman  of 
Valenciennes  and  the  popular  Roman  de  S.  Fanud 
which  piquantly  interweaves  evangelical  histozy 
with  apocryphal  and  miraculous  stories.  Com- 
pilations in  prose  were  also  written;  it  may  be  said, 
however,  that  the  strictly  literal  method  of  trans- 
lation made  slow  progress  and  fully  asserted  itself 
only  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  It  is  strange 
that  the  histoiy  of  the  Old  Testament  was  treated 
more  frequently  than  that  of  the  New  Testament; 
probably,  being  the  older  and  more  unknown 
record,  it  was  better  adapted  for  a  free  compilation. 

The  space  devoted  to  Genesis  was  large  in  pro- 
portion to  that  given  to  the  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  At  times  an  attempt  was  made  to 
insert  in  chronological  order  the  few  facts  known 
of  secular  history.  As  to  the  sources,  many  leg- 
endary elements  from  older  times  may  have  heai 
incorporated  from  popular  tradition. 
Their       But  most  of  these  works  presuppose 

Character  a  written  source.  The  material,  so  far 
and        as  it  can  not  be  traced  immediately 

Sources,  to  the  Vulgate,  may  easily  be  found 
in  the  popular  collection  of  grosses  of 
Walafrid  Strabo  or  in  the  historical  works  of 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  of  Gottfrid  of  Viterbo,  and 
others.  Moreover,  later  Story-Bibles  used  earlier 
works  of  the  same  nature.  Thus  the  Hisloria 
scholaaHca  of  Peter  Comestor  (q.v.)  was  the  source 
of  several  German  and  French  works.  Similariy, 
poetical  works  became  the  sources  of  worics  in  prose. 
A  popular  Story-Bible  of  Germany  may  be  traced 
to  the  poetical  production  of  Rudolf  of  Ems,  and 
French  literature  possesses  prose  compilations  of 
older  riming  Bibles;  even  in  the  QuatrB  Livres 
des  roia  of  the  twelfth  centuiy  there  are  found 
occasional  rimes  or  even  larger  passages  in  verse, 
all  of  which  clearly  show  that  the  original  form  of 
the  Biblical  story  in  popular  literature  was  poetic. 
It  was  only  gradually  that  higher  theological 
education  found  its  way  back  to  the  Bible  text  in 
its  proper  form. 

In  Spain  orig^ted  the  HisUnia  general,  under 


the  influence  of  King  Alfonso  the  Wise  (1252-84). 
He  entrusted  to  certain  scholars  the  task  of  writing 
a  great  collective  woric  on  the  basis  of  the  Hiatcna 
KhokuHca  of  Peter  Comestor,  in  which  the  whole 
history  of  the  worid  should  be  represented  in  the 
framework  of  the  Biblical  stories  with  the  additkm 
of  extensive  portions  from  secular  histoiy. 

There  is  a  distinction  between  th6  Frendi  ex- 
pressions bibUB  hutariiea  and  biblea  higtoriala. 
HiiUnre  in  Old  French  means  "  picture/'  becuiae 
to  people  of  no  education  history  in  the  form  of 
pictures  was  most  easily  available.  Hence  btUe 
hiatarUe  means  "  illustrated  Bible  "  (see  Bibles, 
Illustratbd),  while  bible  histariaU  denotes  "  StoT7- 
Bible."  Biblee  hietorialee  are,  then,  the  worb 
treated  above.  Of  this  sort  was  the  translatioii  of 
the  Hietoria  echoUutiea  of  Peter  Comestor  into  the 
dialect  of  Picard  by  Guyard  des  Moulins,  canon  of 
Aire  in  Artois  (1295),  a  work  which,  in  oonnectioa 
with  a  literal  translation  of  the  Bible  dating  from 
the  thirteenth  century,  formed  for  hundreds  d 
years  one  of  the  most  popular  Story-Bibles  (see 
Bible  Verbionb,  B,  VI,  §  2). 

It  was  reserved  for  tlie  Reformadon  to  place  in 
th6  hands  of  Christian  people  the  whole  Bible 
according  to  the  original  texts,  without  grosses  and 
additions,  and  thus  with  the  beginning  of  thst 
period  the  Story-Bible  had  fulfilled  its  nii8Bio&. 

(S.  BEBOSBt.) 

Bzbuoobafht:  M.  QOdenuum,  Haggmdak  und  MidnaA- 
Haooadah,  Berlin,  1884;  D.  H.  Mflller  and  J.  t.  Scfaloiaef. 
Dis  Haooadak  van  Sanfevo,  Vieiuia.  1896;  T.  lUndorf. 
BibKothekarudis  UfU9rhaUuiio»H,0\dmA9r%,  1850;  E.  Reui. 
Dii  dmUBeh€  Hittorimhibel,  Jena,  1866;  idem,  Omckidik 
der  hmiio^  8€Jtrifien  dea  N.  T.,  f  i  463-464.  Bninnnck. 
1887;  Lm  QimAv  LCvtm  dn  row,  ed.LeR.de  Liner. 
Fwia,  1841;  E.  Reuae,  in  Rmme  de  tkMogU  cf  pU0> 
mMm.  xvi  (1867).  1  aqq.;  H.  Palm,  £m  mOkOipdt 
deuHachB  Hiatorwnhibd,  Bredau.  1867;  J.  Bannari  Lu 
TraduOUmt  de  la  BilfU  en  van  franfaU,  Pfene,  1884:  U 
Roman  de  8.  FawuO,  ed.  C.  Qutbaneau.  ib.  1889;  L.  De- 
Uale,  Livree  d'tmaotB  duUniB  h  VinttrueUon  reiioUum  da 
loiffiMt,  Plwia,  1890:  &  Beiier,  Lee  B4bU»  CaaHaaim,  is 
JtomasMO,  zzTiii,  1899. 

BIBLES,  ILLUSTRATED. 

Illuetrated  ManuMripta,  Roman  and  Byfluttina  (f  1). 
Teutonic  and  Celtic  Manuecripta  (|  2). 
Manuaoripto  of  the  Eleventh  Century  (|  3). 
Biblia  Pauperum  (f  4). 

Ittuatrated  Biblea  of  the  Refonnation  aad  lAter  (I  5). 
The  Nineteenth  Century  (|  6). 

The  history  of  illustration  goes  back  beyond  the 
Christian  era;  the  ancients  adorned  manuscripts 
of  Homer,  Vei^,  and  Livy  with  drawings  and  ricfal/ 
painted  designs,  and  illustrations  were  introduced 
for  educational  purposes  into  the  works  of  Vitru- 
vius  on  architecture,  Aratus  on  astrology,  and  Vege- 
tius  on  the  art  of  war.    In  like  manner,  from  the 
time  of  Oonstantine  and  probably  eaiiier,  illus- 
tration was  applied    to   msnuscripte 
z.  niustra-  of  the  Bible.      Presumably  to  this 
tedManu-  decoration    may    be    referred  whst 
scripts,     Jerome  and  Chiysostom  say  in  repro- 
Roman  and  bation   of  the  luxury  which  people 
Byzantine,  allowed  themselves  in  the  omameDta- 
Uon  of  the   Scriptures.     The  h^ 
veneration  paid  to  the  Bible  explains  the  seal  with 
which  miniature-painting  was  pursued  in  the  eulj 


165 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BlblM,  Historical 
Blblan,  niufltrated 


Church.     The  extant  illustrated  manuscripts  do 
not  apparently  go  further  back  than   the  fourth 
century   (the  fragment  of  Genesis  in  the  Vienna 
library;  Uie  Vatican  Joshua;  the  evangeliariimi  of 
Roasano;  and  a  Syriac  evangeliarium  of  586  in  the 
Laurentian  library  at  Florence).    In  these  many 
features,  such  as  the  architecture,  costume,  action, 
the  introduction  of  allegorical  figures  and  personi- 
fications, indicate  the  nature  of  the  scene  or  its 
locality,  which  are  derived  from  ancient  art  and 
reveal  tiie  prevalence  of  a  good  tradition.    Among 
them  are  small  pictures  executed  in  body-colors 
with  idyllic  artistic  feeling,  after  the  manner  of  the 
older  mural  painting.    The  miniatures  of  the  Vienna 
Genesis  are  still  partly  in  the  purely  illusionist 
style  which  had  been  dominant  since  the  Flavian 
p^iod,  like  the  paintings  in  the  Baths  of  Con- 
Btantine;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  are  in  a  style 
specially   adapted  to  book  illustration,   more   a 
draftsman's  than  a  painter's.    They   exhibit  the 
continued  influence  of  the  narrative  art  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  second  and  third  centuries,  as  shown 
in  the  pictures  from  the  Odyssey  on  the  Esquiline, 
on  Roman  sarcophagi,  and  in  the  pictures  of  Philos- 
tratus;  this  defined  the  specific  style  of  all  Chris- 
tian   compositions   until    the   sixteenth    century. 
The  illustrations  of  the  Paris  P&alter  and  other 
manuscripts  which  may  be  assigned  to  the  end  of 
the  fourth  century  are  characteristic  of  the  end 
of  Greek  and  the  beginning  of  Roman  painting. 
The  Joshua  continues  the  Itoman  triumphal  style, 
with  strong  affinity  to  the  reliefs  of  Trajan's  Column. 
In  the  Byzantine  empire  the  influence  of  the  ancient 
civilisation  was  long  felt;  but  a  more  ornamental 
tendency  came  in  with  the  iconoclastic  contro- 
veny.    It  is  true  there  are  some  illustrations  of 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  a  psalter  and  a 
commentary  on  Isaiah  in  the  Vatican,  another 
psalter  and  the  sermons  of  Gregory  Nasiansen  in  the 
Biblioth^ue  Nationale  at  Paris,  which  are  worthy 
to  stand  by  the  side  of  the  eariy  Christian  specimens ; 
but  as  a  rule  the  drawing  grows  harder  and  stiffer. 
Omamentat-' >n,  on  the  other  hand,  is  richer;  the 
gold  ground  becomes  more  usual,  the  initial  letters 
are  made  prominent,  and  the  ornamental  borders 
are  more  noteworthy.    Mosaic  and  enamel  paint- 
ing set  the  style  for  the  miniatures  as  well.    The 
standard  of  Bysantine  painting  is  laid  down  in  the 
Mount  Athos  *'  Guide  to  Painting  "  (1458;  trans- 
lated into  German  by  G.  Sch&fer,  Treves,  1855). 
The  development  of  illustration  in  the  West  was 
altogether  different.    Here,  too,  the  influence  of  the 
early  Christian  tradition  was  operative;  but  the 
entrance  of  the  Teutonic  nations  into  the  Church 
brought  new  impulses  and  new  problems.    They 
were,    indeed,    bart)arians,    without    any  native 
artistic  style;  but  they  brought  with  them  a  joyous 
power  of  accomplishment,  a   feeling  for  nature, 
and  a  bold  love  of  truth  which  had  fai^reaching 
effects. 

The  Roman  tradition  continued  among  the  Lom- 
bards and  the  Franks;  but  art  became  ruder  and 
less  refined.  In  the  eariy  Christian  and  Byzan- 
tine manuscripts  the  decoration  had  been  usually 
confined  to  tluB  addition  of  pictures;  the  Teutonic 
peoples  extended  it  to  the  text  itself.    The  initials 


are  almost  buried  in  bright  colors  and  elaborate 
decoration,  the  leaves  framed  in  colored  designs. 
The  scribe  was  often  the  painter. 
2.  Tetttonic  These  characteristics  appear  plainly 
and  Celtic  in  the  Irish  manuscripts — the  "  Book 
Manuscripts,  of  Kells  "  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  those  of  Wftrzburg,  '^ves,  and 
St.  Gall.  The  influence  of  Gregory  the  Great 
helped  to  preserve  the  early  Chnjstian  traditions 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Franks  until  within 
the  Carolingian  period  (the  Purple  Gospel  in  the 
British  Museum  and  an  evangeliarium  at  Cam- 
bridge, seventh  century).  An  independent  con- 
ception comes  out  first  in  the  illustrations  proper, 
without  any  feeling  for  perspective,  but  with  an 
attractive  effort  to  attain  truth  and  naturalness 
(Ashbumham  Pentateuch,  seventh  century).  Un- 
der the  Carolingians  great  schools  were  founded 
for  artistic  copying  of  manuscripts  at  To\irs,  Orleans, 
Mets,  Reichenau,  St.  Gall,  Treves,  etc.  Their 
work  was  connected  with  the  old  tradition  by  its 
sober-minded  simplicity  and  its  careful  technique 
(evangeliarium  of  Gcxlescalc,  Paris;  another  at 
Vienna;  another  of  St.  M^aid,  826,  at  Soissons; 
another  of  King  Lothair,  843,  and  the  Bible  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  850,  both  in  Paris).  In  the  prov- 
inces the  development,  though  less  beautiful,  was 
more  independent  (Bible  of  Alcuin,  British  Mu- 
seum). Here  the  draftsman  takes  precedence  of  the 
painter,  but  the  work  is  marked  by  originality  and 
poetic  imagination  and  power  (Utrecht  Psalter,  ninth 
century;  a  benedictionale  at  Chatsworth;  evangelism 
riaof  Otto  I  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  of  Egbert  at  Treves, 
c.  980,  of  Echtemach  at  Gotha,  c.  090,  and  of  Otto 
III  at  Aix-la-Chapelle).  Then  the  decoration  be- 
comes gradually  more  elaborate,  the  pictorial  and 
ornamental  parts  begin  to  interchange  their  qual- 
ities, the  initials  and  borders  are  rich  and  gay. 

In  the  eleventh  centuiy  the  Cluniac  mood  of 
struggle  and  renunciation  prevails;  the  spiritual 
excitement  and  vivid  fancy  of  the  tune  are  shown 
in   the   Bible-illustrations;  wasted   forms  in   stiff 
garments  set  forth  the  ascetic  ideal  of  their  creators; 
truth  to  nature  disappears  entirely.    And  yet  there 
is  great  progress  in  eveiy  domain  of  the  intellectual 
life— it  is  the  age  of  Bernard.    Even  in  the  mini- 
atures there  are  signs  of  the  awakening 
3.  Manu-  of  the  individual  life;  beneath  all  the 
scripts  of  passion  and  combat  there  are  a  quiet 
the        melancholy   and    lon^g    for    peace. 
Eleventh    Henry    II    endowed     his    Bamberg 
Century,    foundations  with  beautifully  painted 
books,  and  at  Hildesheim  an  important 
scriptorium,  influential  throughout  the  north  of 
Europe,  was  founded  by  Bern  ward,  himself  a  pioneer 
in  painting.    Here  the  forms  are  hard  and  tradi- 
tional,  but  the  content  is  new  and  full  of  deep 
and  animated  feeling.    After  the  rise  of   general 
civilization  under  the  Hohenstaufens,  the  bars  of 
form  were  to  a  great  extent  broken  down.    The 
joy  of  living  came  back,  and  led  the  imagination 
once  more  into  the   comprehension  of   beautiful 
things,   both  graceful  and   dignified.    There  is  a 
better  feeing  for  outline,  and  the  study  of  the  heri- 
tage of  antiquity  seems  to  revive.    The  Bruchsal 
evangeliarium    at   Oarlsruhe    shows    surprisingly 


BlblM,  Illustrated 
Bibles,  Polyglot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


166 


good  drawing  and  natural  movement,  as  does 
another  of  about  1200  in  the  cathedral  library  at 
Treves;  best  of  all  is  that  of  Henry  the  Lion, 
formerly  in  the  cathedral  treasury  at  Prague  but 
now  in  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
and  the  Merseburg  Vulgate.  A  brilliant  period  for 
miniature-painting  was  opening;  but  its  tone  was 
characterized  rather  by  breadth  than  by  depth,  and 
the  more  popular  it  became,  the  more  the  profound 
symbolism  of  the  early  times  disappeared.  Illustra- 
tion was  now  bestowed  less  on  Bibles  than  on  books 
used  in  public  worship,  until  at  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages  artistic  interest  once  more  covered  the  whole 
Bible;  but  new  life  really  came  into  this  branch  of 
illustration  with  the  invention  of  wood-engraving. 

The  transition  to  illustrated  Bibles  for  the  i>eople 

18  seen  in  the  Biblia  pauperum  of  the  thirteenth 

and  fourteenth  centuries — short  representations  of 

the  earthly  life  of  Christ  in  simple 

4.  Biblia    drawings,    generally    uncolored,  ran- 
Pauperum.  ging  in  number  from   thirty-four  to 

fifty.  Each  event  depicted  is  accom- 
panied by  two  antitypes  from  the  Old  Testament 
and  by  four  prophets  with  appropriate  citations, 
and  the  pictures  are  explained  in  Latin  or  in  Ger- 
man. The  most  important  examples  of  these 
"  Bibles  of  the  Poor  "  are  those  of  St.  Florian  in 
Lower  Austria,  of  the  Lyceum  library  at  Constance, 
in  the  Vienna  and  Munich  libraries  [and  in  the 
ducal  library  at  Wolfenbttttel]. 

With  the  invention  of  printing  and  engraving, 
especially  wood-engraving,  both  the  Bible  and  art 
b^same  conmion  property.  Reproductions  of  the 
Biblia  pauperum,  wldch  now  first  became  really 
accessible  to  the  "poor,"  are  among  the  most 
celebrated  of  early  block  books.  The  German 
Bibles  before  Luther  (Augsburg  1477,  Cologne  c. 
1480,  Nuremberg  1483,  Ltlbeck  1494)  ha^e  wood- 
cuts. Finally  Dtirer,  with  the  wonderful  vision 
which  could  realise  even  the  majestic  pictures  of 
the  Apocalypse,  raised  Biblical  illustration  to  its 
highest  dignity.  With  the  vernacular  text,  eagerly 
sought  after  as  it  was,  a  great  variety  of  illustra- 
tions went  hand  in  hand.  Luther  recognized  their 
importance  to  the  Reformation  cause  and  pro- 
moted illustration  zealously,  and  Melanchthon 
drew  rough  sketches,  which  he  gave  to  Lucas 
Cranach  for  execution.  Bible-illustration  has 
never  had  such  a  vogue  as  in  the  first  half  of  the 

sixteenth  century.    The  most  splendid 

5.  niua-    edition  was  published  by   ICiafft   of 
trated      Wittenberg  in  1576  and  1584.    With 

Bibles  of    the  middle   of   the    centuiy  Biblical 
the  Refor«  illustrating  took  a  new  direction,  when 
mation     line-engraving  gradually  forced  wood- 
and  Later,  engraving  into  the  badcground.    The 
latter  was  used  mainly  for  cheap  pop- 
ular editions,  while  artistic  tendencies  were  mainly 
displayed  by  the  former.    In  1607  the  fifty-two 
pictures  from  the  logge  of  the  Vatican,  the  so-called 
Raffael  Bible,  engraved  by  Badalocchio  and  Lan- 
franco,  were  published,  followed  by  another  impor- 
tant series  of  line-engravings,  the   Icones  hiblicoB^ 
and  Historia  sacra  published  by  Merian  at  Frank- 
fort, 1625-27,  and  a  long  list  of  similar  works  in 
Germany,  France,   and  Italy.    In  the  eighteenth 


oentuiy  wood-engraving  almost  entirely  died  out, 
except  for  cheap  ephemeral  productions,  while  line- 
engraving  flourished  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch 
school,  who  shared  the  renown  of  the  Frendi. 
German  art  was  mainly  imitative,  and  produced 
littie  that  is  noteworthy  in  Biblical  iUustnitaoa. 
Good  editions,  on  the  other  hand,  were  published 
during  this  period  in  Holland  by  Mortier,  1700; 
Danckers,  1700;  Luyken,  1740;  Schots,  1749.  In 
France  the  best  were  those  of  Basnage,  1705,  and 
Martin,  1724.  In  England,  besides  the  Oxford 
Bible  of  1717,  there  were  the  editions  of  Royau- 
mont,  1705;  Qarke,  1759;  and  Fleetwood,  1769. 
In  all  these  the  Dutch-Flemish  spirit  ai^>ear8,  with 
its  wide,  free,  joyous  life;  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  illustration  are  based  on  imitation  of  paint- 
ing; Rubens,  and  Rembrandt  for  etching,  are  the 
highest  authorities.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
Bible-illustration  took  a  new  impulse  from  Eng- 
land. The  modem  romantic  manner  and  strain- 
ing after  effect  entered  into  it,  laigdy  as  a  result 
of  the  great  Holy  BibU  wUh  Engromngs  from  Pie- 
turea  mid  Designs  by  the  most  Eminent  Artists, 
published  in  London,  1800.  (This,  however,  had 
been  anticipated  by  the  Historical  Pari  of  the  Holy 
Bible  with  illustrations  engraved  by  John  Cole 
(London,  1730)  and  a  volume  with  the  same  title 
illustrate  by  John  Sturt,  as  well  as  by  the  James 
Tittier  Bible  (4  vols.,  1794-05).  It  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  efforts,  such  as  the  Pictorial 
Bible  by  Charles  Knight,  with  woodcuts  (London, 
1828-29,  New  York,  1843),  another  of  the  same 
name,  but  with  steel  engravings  (London,  1847-49), 
a  numerous  series  of  BMe  Picture  Books  issued  by 
the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
and  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  and  Bible  lUus- 
irations,  issued  by  Frowcle  (London,  1896).] 

The  interest  in  the  Orient  which  came  up  with 
Ni^leon's  Egyptian  campaign,  in  aUianoe  with 
the  strong  realistic  tendency  of  the  oentuiy,  brought 
in  a  wholly  new  sort  of  illustrated  BO>le,  Uke 
Brown's  Family  Bible  (London  and  New  York), 
with  views  of  towns  and  landscapes  in  addition 
to  historical  pictures.  Later,  wood-«ngraving  re- 
vived ^reached  once  more  an  unexpected  height 
of  excellence,  and  succeeded  in  getting  in  touch 
with  the  great  masses  of  the  people. 
6.  The  Notable  products  of  this  revival 
Nineteenth  (in  Germany)  were  Oliver's  Bible  of 

Centuiy.  1834 ;  Overbeck's  forty  fine  illustratioiu 
to  the  NewTestament  (1841);  theCotta 
edition  of  1850,  with  175  wood-engravings  after  the 
first  artists  of  (Germany;  and,  best  of  all  the  Gennan 
editions,  that  published  by  Wigand  (Leipsic,  1852- 
1860),  with  240  illustrations  by  Julius  Schnorr  von 
Carolsfeld  (Eng.  ed.,  Leipsic,  1856-60;  London, 
1869).  ThetechmcallybriUiantbuttootheatricalde- 
signs  of  Dor6  won  great  popularity.  The  CiennaDB 
have  recently  published  several  noteworthy  editions, 
such  as  the  "  Ffeilstacker  Bible  "  in  1887,  with 
many  explanatoiy  archeological  drawings,  and  the 
"  Star  Bible  "  published  by  Hinrichs  (Leipsic)  in 
1892,  with  reproductions  of  classical  pictures  for 
the  Old  Testament  and  Hofmann's  for  the  New. 
[One  of  the  latest  attempts  at  Biblical  illustration 
is  the  work  of  the  Frendi  artist  J.  J.  J.  Tissot  (d. 


167 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bibles,  niufltratad 
Biblei^  Folyerlot 


1902),  who,  during  a  ten  yean*  reddenoe  in  Pale»- 
tine,  prepared  a  series  of  sketches  based  upon 
study  of  the  Biblical  places  and  environment. 
The  Life  of  our  Lord  Jeeue  Chnel,  with  365  com- 
positions in  color  and  black  and  white,  was  pub- 
lished in  4  vols,  in  189»-1Q00,  and  The  Old  Testa- 
menl,  with  396  similar  illustrations,  in   1904  (2 

ToIb.).]  (H.  H0L8CHXB.) 

BnuoaEAPHT:  A.  d«  BMtard,  PHniuret  9t  omtmeniB  dee 
M8S.,  copMiaJly  vdL  Hi,  8  vols..  Paris,  1832-(»  (4th-16th 
ceniuriea,  a  very  oomplete  work);  idem,  Peiniuree,  cr^ 
ntmenie  .  ,  ,  de  la  Bible  de  CharUe  le  Chauve  ...  & 
Port*,  ib.  1883;  H.  Shaw.  lUuminated  OmamenJte  of  the 
Middle  Agee,  London.  1833  (etb-17th  eenturies,  elabo- 
rate and  costly);  idem.  Handbook  of  &ie  Art  of  lUumina- 
HoH,  ib.  1800;  J.  O.  Weetwood,  lUuminated  lUuetratione 
of  the  Bible,  copied  from  Seleei  M88.  of  &ie  Middle  Aqm, 
ib.  1846  (with  deeeriptiTe  letterpreM);  H.  N.  Humphreys. 
lUuminated  Booke  of  ffie  Middle  Agee,  ib.  1849  (historical 
and  tlhtstratiTs):  H.  A.  M(Uler,  Dae  Bvanodietarium 
Heinricke  III.  in  der  Stadlbiblioihek  eu  Bremen,  Bremen. 
1862;  W.  R.  Tymms.  Art  of  lUuminaHng,  London,  1866 
(noteworthy);  J.  O.  Weetwood,  Faeeimilee  of  the  Mini- 
aiuree  and  Ornamenie  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Irieh  MS8., 
ib.  1868;  J.  H.  Todd,  DeeerijfHve  Remarke  on  lUumina- 
turns,  ib.  1860  (deals  largely  with  the  Book  of  Kells); 
J.  E.  Woeel,  Die  BildeHribel  dee  Belielae,  Prague.  1871; 
A.  Frind,  Seriptum  supsr  Apoealyjmin  cum  imaginibue, 
ib.  1872;  F.  W.  Delamotte,  PHmer  of  ike  AH  of  lUu^ 
stmolfton,  London,  1874;  W.  de  O.  Birch  and  H.  Jenner. 
JBorly  Drawinge  and  lUuminaiione;  IniroduetUm  to  the 
Study  of  /ttmninatef  M88.,  ib.  1879  (**a  handsome  book 
for  specialists");  A.  Springer.  Pealierilluetraiionen  im 
fmhen  MiUOalier,  Leipeio.  1881;  idem,  Dii  Oeneeiebilder 
in  der  Kvnel  dee  frUhen  MiUelaltere,  ib.  1884;  O.von  (3eb- 
hardt.  The  Miniaiuree  of  Oie  Aahbwmham  PenloteucA. 
London,  1888;  R.  Muther,  Die  OUeelen  deuieehen  Bilder- 
ftiMa,  Munieh,  1883;  F.  X.  Enus.  Die  Miniaturen  dee 
Codex  Bgberti  ,  ,  ,  eu  Trier,  Freiburg.  1884;  idem,  Oe- 
•ehidUe  der  tArieUiehen  Kunet,  i.  447  sqq..  ib.  1896;  Ge- 
•ehiehU  der  deuieehtn  Kunet,  vol.  iii.  H.  Janitsohek.  Die 
Malerei,  Berlin,  1890;  K.  von  Lfltsow.  Geeehiehie  dee 
deuladien  KupfereHehe  und  Holeeehnitte,  vol.  iv.  ib.  1891; 
8.  Beissel,  Dae  .  .  .  EvangeUenbueh  im  Dome  eu  Hildee- 
JMsi.  Hildesheim,  1891;  J.  Straygowski^  Dae  EteduniadHn 
BvengeUar,  Vienna.  1891;  C.  von  KobeD,  Miniaturen  und 
Imihalen  aue  M8a.  dee  4.-16.  JahrhunderU,  Munich,  1892; 
J.  H.  Middleton,  lUuminaSed  M88.  in  Claeeieal  and  Mod- 
cm  Timee,  London,  1892  (letterpraas  elaborate  and  com- 
Pfehensive);  W.  von  Hartel  and  F.  Wiokhoif.  Die  Wiener 
Oeeeeie,  Vienna.  1896;  8.  Berger,  Lee  Manvele  pour 
nUuetation  du  Peautier,  in  Mimovree  de  la  eocUti  dee  an- 
tiquUie,  1888.  Wii;  O.  E.  Warner.  lUuminaied  M88.,  Lon. 
don,  1900;  the  illustrations  of  the  Evangeliarium  of  Ros- 
ano  are  icpioduoed  in  the  exaot  liae  of  the  originals  by 
A  MonoB,  Rome,  1907. 

On  the  BibUa  Pauperum  eonsult:  S.  L.  Sotheby,  Prin- 
dpie  iypographiea,  London.  1868;  J.  T.  Berjeau,  Biblia 
Vaeperem,  London,  1869;  A.  Camesina  and  Q.  Heider, 
DiB  bUdUchen  DareidlungeH  der  BiUia  paiipsrum  .  ,  .  in 
BL  Pierian,  Vienna.  1863;  E.  la  Roche,  Dit  dUeete  Bil- 
deibSbd,  die  eogenannle  Biblia  pauperum,  Basel,  1881; 
W.  L.  Schieiber.  Manuel  de  Vamaleur  de  la  gravure  .  .  . 
sv  sM.  eibde,  7  vols..  Leipsio,  1891-1900;  F.  Laib  and 
F.  J.  Sohwars.  Biblia  pauperum,  Freiburg.  1899;  E.  M. 
Thompson,  On  a  M8.  of  the  Biblia  pauperum,  in  Biblio- 
ttseo,  iii,  1807;  Biblia  pauperum.  Unieum  der  Heidel- 
hergm^  Umv^eiiOte-Bibliothek,  in  54  LidUdrucktafdn  und 
4  Tefeln,  Berlin,  1906. 

BIBLES,  POLYGLOT. 

L  The  Comphitensian  Polyglot. 
IL  The  Antwerp  Polygtot. 
m.  The  Pteis  Polygk>t. 
IV.  The  London  Polygtot  (Walton's  Polyglot). 

V.  Minor  Pblygk>ts. 

pDlyg^t  Bibles  are  editions  of  the  Bible 
presenting  the  text  in  several  languages  side  by 
ade.  The  practical  needs  of  the  Jews  after  Hebrew 
eased  to  be  a  living  tongue  led  to  the  preparation 


of  manuscripts  giving,  with  the  origmal  Hebrew, 
translations  or  paraphrases  in  Aramaic,  Greek, 
Arabic,  Persian,  and  the  languages  of  Europe.  Like 
conditions  in  the  Church  were  met  in  similar  manner. 
Certain  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  in  both 
Greek  and  Latin  are  mentioned  in  the  article 
Biblb-Tbxt,  II,  1,  §  9.  An  edition  in  the  original 
and  in  modem  Greek  was  printed  in  1638  at  the  in- 
stance of  Cyril  Lucar  (see  Bible  Vebsions,  B,  Vin), 
and  the  needs  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Armenia  are 
met  in  like  manner  by  editions  still  issued  by  Rome 
and  by  Protestant  Bible  Societies.  The  so-called 
glossaries  (see  Glosses,  Biblical)  and  interlinear 
versions  giving  the  Vulgate  and  the  vernacular  text 
of  the  Middle  Ages  may  also  be  mentioned  in  this 
connection.  And  there  are  numerous  modem 
copies  of  the  Vulgate  accompanied  by  an  En^ish, 
German,  French,  Spanish,  or  Italian  translation. 

The  name  Poly^ot,  however,  can  not  strictly 
be  given  to  editions  presenting  but  two  languages 
(Gk.  polys  s=  "  many  ")»  and,  in  common  usage,  is 
restricted  to  certain  particular  works,  viz.: 

L  The  Complutensian  Polyglot,  one  of  the  most 
noted  and  rarest  of  Biblical  works,  was  undertaken 
under  the  supervision  and  at  the  expense  of  Car- 
dinal Francisco  Ximenez  de  Cisneros,  archbishop 
of  Toledo  and  chancellor  of  Castile  (d.  1517),  and 
was  prepared  by  the  most  famous  scholars  of  Spain, 
such  as  Demetrius  Ducas  of  Crete,  Antonio  of 
Lebrija,  IHego  Lopez  de  Stunica,  Ferdinand  Nufies 
de  Guzman,  and  Alphonso  of  Zamora.  After  years 
of  labor  the  work  was  printed  at  Alcala  (Latin, 
CompltUum)  between  1513  and  1517,  being  finished 
only  a  few  months  before  the  death  of  the  cardinal, 
and  was  published  in  1520  with  the  sanction  of 
Pope  Leo  X.  It  consists  of  six  folio  volumes, 
the  first  four  including  the  Old  Testament,  the 
fifth  the  New  Testament,  and  the  sixth  being  a 
Hebrew-Chaldee  lexicon  with  grammatical  and 
other  notes  (printed  separately  as  Alphonsi  Zamo- 
rensia  introducHones  artie  grammaticcB  Hebraica, 
Alcala,  1526).  The  languages  are  (1)  the  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament;  (2)  the  Targum  of  Onkelos; 

(3)  the  Septuagint  (here  printed  for  the  first  time 
and  with  remarkable  alterations  of  the  manuscriptc 
to  make  the  text  fit  the  Hebrew  or  the  Latin); 

(4)  the  Vulgate;  (5)  the  Greek  New  Testament. 
Latin  translations  of  the  Targum  and  Septoagint 
are  appended.  The  title-page  and  last  page  are 
given  in  reduced  facsimile  in  Schaff's  Companion 
to  the  Greek  TeHament  (New  York,  1885). 

IL  The  Antwerp  Polyglot  {Biblia  Regia)  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  Philip  II  of  Spain  by 
the  famous  Antwerp  printer  Christophe  Plantin  (8 
vols.,  folio,  1569-72).  Benedictus  Arias  Montanus 
(see  Arias,  Benedictus)  had  charge  of  the  work, 
with  the  help  of  Spanish,  Belgian,  and  French 
scholars,  among  them  Andi^  Maes,  Guy  le  F^vre  de 
la  Boderie,  and  Francois  Rapheleng.  Volumes  i-iv 
contain  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  v  the  New;  be- 
sides the  original  texts,  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Septu- 
agint with  Latin  translation,  Aramaic  targums  of 
the  Old  Testament  (with  the  exception  of  Daniel, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles)  are  given, 
with  Latin  translation;  also  the  old  Sjrriac 
(Peshito)  veiBion  of  the  New  Testament,  lack- 


Biblea, 


Polyglot 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


168 


ing  II  Peter,  n  and  in  John,  Jude,  and  the 
Apocalypee;  it  is  printed  with  both  Syriac  and 
Hebrew  characters  and  has  a  Latin  translation. 
Volumes  vi-vii  contain  the  Hebrew  lexicon  of  Sanctes 
Pagninus,  the  Syriao-Chaldee  lexicon  of  Le  Fdvre 
de  la  Boderie,  a  Syriac  grammar  by  Ifaes,  a  Greek 
dictionary  and  archeological  treatises  by  Arias 
Montanus,  and  many  brief  philological  and  critical 
notes.  The  last  volmne  repeats  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  texts  with  interlinear  Latin  translations, 
by  Sanctes  Pagninus  of  the  former,  and  the  Vulgate 
for  the  latter;  this  part  of  the  work,  especially  the 
New  Testament,  has  often  been  reprinted.  The 
critical  preparation  was  defective  and  the  manu- 
scripts used  were  of  secondary  importance;  in 
many  places  there  is  dependence  on  the  Complu- 
tensian  work. 

IIL  The  Paris  Polyglot,  the  most  magnificent 
but  scientifically  least  important  of  all,  was  printed 
at  the  expense  of  Guy  Michel  le  Jay  in  seven  lan- 
guages (10  vols.,  1629-45).  Volumes  i-4v  are 
merely  reprints  of  the  Antwerp  Bible.  Volumes 
v-vi  contain  the  New  Testament  from  the  same 
edition,  augmented  by  the  Sjrriac  Antilegomena 
and  an  Arabic  version  with  Latin  translation. 
The  other  volumes  contain  (1)  the  so-called  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch  with  its  Samaritan  translation 
(see  Bible  Vebsionb,  A,  IV);  (2)  the  Syriac; 
and  (3)  an  Arabic  version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
all  with  Latin  translations.  The  Oratorian  Jean 
Morin  prepared  the  Samaritan  texts  and  the 
Maronite  Gabriel  Sionita  did  most  of  the  Syriac 
work. 

IV.  The  London  Polygk>t  (Walton's  Polyglot), 
the  most  scholarly  and  the  oonmionest  of  aU,  was 
undertaken  by  Brian  Walton  (q.v.),  afterward 
bishop  of  Chester,  and  completed  in  1657  (6  vols., 
London).  Walton  had  the  help  of  nearly  all  con- 
temporary Ekiglish  scholars,  particularly  the  Ori- 
entalists Edmund  Castell,  Edward  Pococke, 
Thomas  Hyde,  Dudley  Loftus,  Abraham  Weelocke, 
Thomas  Greaves,  and  Samuel  Clarke.  The  excel- 
lence of  this  Polyglot  over  others  consists  in  the 
greater  number  of  old  Oriental  versions  and 
the  much  greater  and  more  intelligent  work 
of  the  editor.  The  '  first  four  volumes  con- 
tain the  Old  Testament  in  the  Hebrew  with 
the  Antwerp  interlinear  version,  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  the  Septuagint  from  the  Vatican 
edition  of  1587  with  the  variants  of  the  Alex- 
andrine codex,  the  fragments  of  the  Itala  col- 
lected by  Flaminius  Nobilius,  the  Vulgate  from 
the  Vatican  edition  with  the  corrections  of  Lucas 
of  BrUgge,  the  Peshito  augmented  by  the  trans- 
lation of  certain  apocr3rpha,  a  better  edition  of  the 
Arabic  version,  the  Targums  from  Buxtorf,  the 
Samaritan  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  the 
Ethiopic  version  of  the  Psalms  and  Song  of  Songs. 
These  texts  (nine  in  all),  with  Latin  translations 
of  the  Greek  and  the  Oriental,  are  arranged  side 
by  mde  or  one  under  the  other.  Two  additional 
Targums,  that  of  Pseudo-Jonathan  and  that  of 
Jerusalem,  with  a  Persian  translation  are  given  in 
vol.  iv.  The  New  Testament  appears  in  vol.  v, 
the  text  with  few  changes  from  Robert  Stephens's 
folio  edition  of  1550;  then  are  given  Arias's  version 


and  the  variants  of  the  Alexandrine  codex,  Syiiac, 
Latin,  Ethiopic,  and  Arabic  versicHis,  and  the 
(jospels  in  Persian,  with  literal  Latin  tranriataons. 
Walton's  Apparatus,  a  critical-historical  intro- 
duction in  vol.  i,  was  not  superseded  for  more  than 
a  century,  and  was  several  times  republished. 
Volimie  vi  contains  critical  collections  to  all  the 
texts  published.  Finally  Edmund  Castell's  Lexicon 
HeptagloUum  (2  parts,  Cambridge,  1669)  is  usually 
counted  as  an  int^;ral  part  of  this  Pol^qi^t. 

V.  Minor  Polyglots:  Less  important  are  (1)  the 
Heidelberg  Pdyglot  {Polyglotta  Sandandreana ; 
Old  Testament,  1586;  New  Testament  added,  ISS^\ 
probably  edited  by  Bonaventure  Comeille  Bertnm, 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  (Geneva  1566-84,  afterward 
preacher  at  Frankenthal.  It  contains  the  origins] 
texts  and  Septuagint,  with  Latin  transUtions,  and 
the  Vulgate,  all  from  the  Antwerp  Polyg^t.  (2) 
The  Hamburg  Pclygloi  (1596)  consists  of  six  volumn 
by  David  Wolder,  giving  in  four  columns  the  Greek 
texts,  the  Vulgate,  Pagninus's  Latin  translatioQ  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  Besa's  of  the  New,  with 
Luther's  German  version,  to  which  Elias  Hutter's 
Hebrew  Bible  of  1587  was  added  with  new  title- 
page  bearing  the  date  1596.  (3)  The  A^urem^ 
P^yglot,  the  work  of  Elias  Hutter  (q.v.),  comprises 
(a)  an  Old  Testament  in  six  languages  (1599), 
carried  only  to  the  Book  of  Ruth;  (6)  a  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German  Psalter  (1602);  (c)  s 
New  Testament  in  twelve  languages  (2  parts,  1599) 
— Syriac,  Italian,  Hebrew,  Spanish,  Greek,  French, 
Vulgate,  English,  German,  Danish,  Bohemian, 
and  Polish;  (d)  a  New  Testament  in  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  taken  from  the  pie- 
ceding  (1602).  (4)  The  Leipsic  Polyg^  of  C:fari&- 
tianus  Reinecdus,  rector  at  Weissenfels,  has  the 
New  Testament  in  five  languages  (1713)  and  the 
Old  Testament  in  four  (2  vols.,  1750-51).  (5)  The 
BieUfeld  Polyglot,  ed.  R.  Stier  and  C.  G.  W.  Theik 
(4  vols.,  ii  and  iii  in  two  parts,  1846-55),  contains 
the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
German,  the  New  Testament  in  the  last  three 
languages,  with  variants  of  different  German  ver- 
sions in  the  fourth  column;  there  are  also  copies 
with  the  English  version  in  place  of  the  German. 
Lastly,  mention  may  be  made  of  the  BiJblia  Hexor 
gloUa  of  E.  R.  de  Levante  (6  vols.,  London,  1874- 
1876),  and  Bagster's  BMia  sacra  polyglotta,  with 
prolegomena  by  S.  Lee  (London,  1831).  Other 
works  including  only  portions  of  the  Bible  do  not 
fall  within  the  scope  of  this  article.       £.  Nebtlk. 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  Le  Long,  Biblioikeea  Saeta,  emteniaki  .  •  • 
abA.G.  Maach,  tmrt  i,  ohap.  4«  pp.  331-406.  Halle,  1778; 
idem*  Diteoura  hiaioriguB  mr  2m  prineipales  idi^ont  da 
BihU§  polyglotUa,  pp.  564  sqq.,  FftriB,  1713;  B.  Pick.  Hih 
tory  of  Priniad  BdiHona  .  .  .  and  P&lyglot  BiblM,  in  Bt- 
braiea,  ix  (1892>03).  47-110. 

BIBLES,  RABBINIC,  called  also  Oreat  BiUes 
(Mi^ra'ot  Gedolol):  Hebrew  Bibles  containing. 
besides  the  original  text,  the  commentaries  of  sun- 
dry Jewish  rabbis.  The  first  of  these  Bibles  was 
published  by  Daniel  Bomberg,  edited  by  Felix  Pra- 
tensis  (4  parts,  Venice,  1517-18);  it  oontains,  beadeB 
the  Hebrew,  the  Aramaic  paraphrases  andoonamen- 
taries  of  eight  different  writers  on  certain  books, 
Masoretic  notes,  and  other  matter.    As  tiie  editor 


169 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Bible.,  Polyglot 
BlbUaader 


waa  a  convert  to  Christianity,  his  work  did  not 
prove  acceptable  to  the  Jews.  Its  faults  induced 
Bombeig  to  undertake  another  edition,  for  which 
he  employed  as  editor  the  celebrated  Masoretic 
scholar  Jacob  ben  Hayyim,  who  in  after-life  also 
embraced  Christianity.  This  edition,  the  Hebrew 
title  of  which  means  "  The  Holy  Gate  of  the  Lord," 
was  published  at  Venice  (4  vols.,  1524-25)  and, 
like  the  first  edition,  contains  the  Hebrew  text, 
the  Aramaic  conmientaries,  and  the  Masoretic  notes. 
The  editor's  introduction,  containing  a  treatise  on 
the  Maaorah,  has  been  translated  into  En^^ish  by 
Christian  I^vid  Ginsburg  (Jacob  ben  Chajim's 
IfUrodtuiion  to  the  Rabbinic  Bible,  London,  1865), 
who  based  The  Maeaoreiic  Critical  Text  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  (1894)  on  this  edition  of  Hayyim. 

A  revised  and  improved  edition  of  the  second 
Bomberg  Bible  was  published  (Venice,  1545-48) 
under  the  supervision  of  Cornelius  AdeUdoid.  The 
changes  made  in  this  edition  were  the  omission  of 
some  commentaries  and  the  substitution  of  others. 
Bomberg's  fourth  Rabbinic  Bible,  by  J.  de  Gara, 
was  carried  through  the  press  and  corrected  by 
Isaac  ben  Joseph  Salam  and  Isaac  ben  Gershon 
Treves  (4  voU.,  Venice,  1568).  The  correctors 
remark  at  the  end  of  the  work  that  they  have  rein- 
serted in  this  edition  the  portion  of  the  Masorah 
omitted  in  the  edition  of  1546-48.  Appended  to 
this  is  the  so-called  Jerusalem  Targum  on  the  Pen- 
tateuch. 

A  Rabbinic  Bible  (4  voLb.,  Venice,  1617-18) 
was  published  by  Pietro  and  Lorenso  Bragadini 
and  edited  by  the  celebrated  Leon  of  Modena. 
It  contains  the  Aramaic  paraphrases,  the  Masorah, 
and  the  Rabbinic  commentaries  of  De  Gara's 
edition.  This  edition,  however,  is  of  less  value  to 
the  critical  student,  being  censored  by  the  Inqui- 
ntion. 

Buztorf  s  Rabbinic  Bible  or  Biblia  eacra  Hebraica 
d  Chaldaica  cum  Maeora,  qwe  eritica  Hebrceorum 
uera  eet,  magna  et  paroa  ac  eeUctiseimis  Hebraorum 
tnUrpretum  eomtnentariie  (4  parts,  2  vols.,  Basel, 
1618-19)  has  a  Latin  preface  by  Buxtorf,  a  table 
of  the  number  of  chapters  in  the  Bible,  and  a  poem 
of  Aben  Esra  in  the  Hebrew  language.  Besides 
the  Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic  paraphrases,  it  con- 
tains the  commentaries  of  Rashi,  Aben  Ezra,  and 
others,  and  Buztorf's  Tiberiae  eive  commentariua 
maeoretkicue  triplex.  The  whole  is  formed  after 
Jacob  ben  Hayyim's  second  edition  (1546-48), 
with  some  corrections  and  alterations  by  Buxtorf. 
Buztorf s  Bible  is  imperfect,  but  in  spite  of  its 
defidendes,  the  student  must  still  thank  the  editor 
for  his  work,  which,  however,  was  criticised  by  R. 
Smon  in  his  Hietoire  crUijue  du  Vieux  Teetament 
(p.  513). 

The  next  Rabbinic  Bible  was  the  Sepher  KehH- 
lot  Moehe,  or  **  Book  of  the  Congregation  of  Moses," 
edited  by  Moses  Frankfurter  (4  vols.,  Amsterdam, 
1724-27).  This  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Rabbinic  Bibles.  It  is  founded  upon  the  Bomberg 
editions,  and  gives  not  only  their  contents,  but  also 
those  of  Buztorfs,  with  much  additional  matter. 

The  latest  Rabbinic  Bible  is  the  MiJpra^ot  Gedo- 
lot  published  at  Warsaw  (12  voLb.,  1860-68)  by 
LebeDson.    This  gigantic  work  contains  thirty- 


two  commentaries,  old  and  new,  among  others 
the  critical  commentary  of  Norai.  The  Hebrew 
tezt  is  on  the  whole  very  correct,  the  siae  is  more 
convenient  than  that  of  its  predecessors,  and  the 
edition  is  recommended  by  the  best  Jewish,  au- 
thorities in  Poland  and  Austria.  B.  Pick. 

BiBUooaAPBT:  The  one  book  for  consultation  is  C.  D. 
Ginsburs,  IrUroduction  to  the  MaeeonUeo-criHeal  BdiUon 
of  tho  Htbrow  Bibte,  London.  1897;  ef.  B.  Pick,  in  Hobraiea, 
ix  (1892-03),  47-116. 

BIBUA  PAUPERUM  ('* Bible  of  the  Poor"). 
See  BiBLBB,  Illustrated,  §  4. 

BIBLIAHDBR  (BUCHMANN),  THEODOR:  Swiss 
theologian  and  teacher;  b.  at  Bischofssell  (11  miles 
s.s.e.  of  Constance),  Switzerland,  1504  (15007);  d. 
at  Zurich  Nov.  26,  1564.  He  studied  Hebrew 
under  Jacob  Ceporinus  in  Zurich,  in  1526  under 
Pellican  and  (Eoolampadius  at  Basel,  and  later  on 
under  Capito.  When  Duke  Frederick  II  of  lieg- 
uits  in  1527  asked  for  teachers  for  his  high  school, 
the  Council  of  Zurich  sent  him  Bibliander,  who 
served  there  two  years  with  distinction.  He  then 
returned  home  and  was  appointed  Zwingli's  suc- 
cessor in  the  theological  professorship  at  Zuridi 
in  1531. 

Bibliander's  specialty  was  linguistics,  and  he  used 
to  call  himself  homo  grammoHcue  ;  he  was  versed  in 
the  Semitic  dialects  and  was  master  of  several 
modem  languages.  From  the  beginning  his  ren- 
dering of  the  Prophets  was  successful,  was  indorsed 
by  Bullinger  and  Pellican,  and  caused  J.  H.  Hot- 
tinger  to  call  him  the  father  of  ezegetical  theology 
in  Switzerland.  He  wrote  also  on  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar and  on  Comparative  Linguistics.  Perhaps 
the  greatest  sensation  he  caused  was  that  produced 
by  his  publication  of  the  Koran  (1543,  rev.  ed., 
1550);  the  magistrates  at  Basel  tried  to  prohibit 
the  book,  but  Luther  interfered  in  defense  of  it  and 
of  the  translator.  Bibliander  issued  studies  on  the 
Gospel  of  Mark  and  the  Protevangelium  Jaeobi, 
translating  them  into  Latin.  His  works  betray  a 
rich  historical  knowledge.  Especially  worthy  of 
mention  in  this  regard  are  his  De  BaHone  Tern- 
porum  (1551)  and  Temporum  SuppuUOio  (1558). 
Most  of  his  writings  were  never  published,  but  are 
preserved  in  manuscript  at  Zurich. 

Nezt  to  Bullinger,  Bibliander  appears  as  the  most 
respected  representative  of  the  Church  at  Zurich. 
He  participated  in  all  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
discussions,  preserving  the  heritage  of  Zwingli. 
He  assisted  in  the  publication  of  ZwingU's  and 
CEcolampadius's  letters  (1536).  In  some  trea- 
tises he  openly  attacked  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  Tridentinum  (De  Legitima  Vindicatione  Chrie- 
tianiami,  1553),  and  antagonised  the  Roman 
propaganda,  appealing  to  England  as  the  land  of 
Chnstian  liberty.  He  advocated  missions  to  the 
Jews  and  Mohiunmedans,  and  went  so  far  as  to 
start  on  mission  work,  being  restrained  only  by 
Bullinger's  representations.  He  was  made  emeritue 
aifid  given  a  pension  in  1560.  (Emil  Eoli.) 

BiBLiobaA.PBT:  A  list  of  the  writing!  of  Bibliander  is  given 
in  H.  J.  Leo.  AUaomoinot  Lexicon,  it,  11-14.  20  vols.. 
Zurieh.  1747-66.  For  his  life  oonsult  J.  J.  Christinger, 
T,  Bibliander,  ein  hiooraphia^ee  Denkmal,  Frsuenfeld. 
1667;  £.  Egli,  Analeeta  reformaioria,  voL  ii,  Zurieh,  1001. 


Aroheoloffy 
OrltioUi 


IbUoal  OriUoUm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


170 


BIBLICAL   ARCHEOLOGY.     See  Abchdoloot, 

BiBUCAL. 

BIBLICAL  CAIION.     See  Canon  of  Scrxpturb. 
BIBLICAL  CRinCISlL 


Linguistio  Critidon  (|  8). 
Historioal  Critidana  (1 4). 
Critidon  of  Style  (f  6). 
BeooDBtruetive  Critidsm 

(16). 
rV.  History  of  Critidnn. 
Mtrtmim  And  TJw%ifAti^n« 

(ID. 
Hellenittio  and  Ffttriatio 

Gritidsm  (|  2). 
Critidam  from  the  Time 

of    the    Reformation 

(18). 
Modern  Gritidsm  (i  4). 
V.  Biblical      Critidsm     in 

the    Boman   Gatholio 

ChuidL 


I.  Conoeption    and    Ftob- 

lem. 
The  Hiatoryof  the  Term 

(ID. 
Limitations  and  Sphere 

of  the  CriUe  (f  2). 
BibUoal  Critidsm  (|  8). 
II.  The  Critical  Method. 
Fundamental     Assump- 
tions (I  1). 
Clasdfication  (f  2). 
Function  (|  3). 
III.  The      Departments     of 

Criticism. 
Critidsm  of  the  Cbnon 

(ID. 
Textual    Critidsm    and 

Apparatus  (f  2). 

L  Conception  and  Problem:  Criticinn,  like  in- 
terpretation, ia  an  art;  the  two  are  related  to  each 
other  as  aisters,  and  both  are  nourished  by  sdenoe. 
Interpretation  is  the  art  of  bringing  to  the  compre- 
hension what  has  really  been  handed  down  and  of 
grasping  it  as  it  really  is;  critidsm  is  the  art  of 
rightly  estimating  what  has  been  actually  appre- 
hended according  to  its  real  value.  Interpretation 
without  criticism  befogs  and  enervates;  criticism 
without  interpretation  is  vague  and  mere  intelleo- 
tual  play,  ^ce  man  can  not  understand  without 
exercising  the  faculty  of  judgment,  in  work  that 
deals  with  spiritual  verities  the  two  are  not  separa- 
ted, yet  the  point  of  view  from  which  they  approach 
the  same  object  is  as  di£Ferent  as  their  method. 
Interpretation  proceeds  inductively,  collecting  eveiy- 
thing  which  bean  upon  the  understanding  of  the 
matter;  criticism  proceeds  deductively,  furnishing 
the  canons  by  which  to  value  that  understanding. 
While  one  asks  about  the  fact,  the  other  asks  about 
the  truth  of  it;  one  builds,  the  other  classifies  and 
estimates  the  material  and  tests  the  building 
process.  Criticism  is  the  inverse  of  interpretation, 
and  more.  While  it  pronounces  upon  the  results 
of  interpretation,  it  opens  new  questions  about  the 
trustworthiness  or  untrustworthiness,  the  com- 
pleteness or  fragmentariness,  the  genealogy  and  the 
significance  of  the  object;  and  thus  it  affords  a 
starting-point  for  final  valuation  and  definition. 
It  is  skill,  partly  natural,  paitly  acquired,  in  dis- 
tinguishing and  appropriating  true  from  false, 
good  from  bad,  beautiful  from  ugly,  whether  derived 
from  contemplative  perception  and  revelation  or 
through  chance  or  tradition.  Its  purpose  is 
positive,  though  its  result  may  often  be  negative. 
It  knows  no  other  authority  than  that  of  the  case 
before  it,  no  other  method  than  that  demanded 
by  the  same. 

The  word  has  been  in  use  since  Plato's  time; 
ha  distinguished  between  criticism  and  construc- 
tion, the  two  being  employed  in  the 
\o^ot^  science  of  knowledge.    Aristotle  intro- 
^^^rm.      duced  a  distinction  between  the  crit- 
ical and  the  literary  arts,  which  was 
taken  up  by  the  Alexandrian  school  in  connection 
withliteratureandparticulariy  withpoetiy.  Clement 


of  Alexandria  established  in  his  review  of  Greek 
culture  the  fact  that  grammatikaa  as  a  tedmical 
term  is  later  than  kritikoa.  Terminology,  however, 
was  unstable  in  the  ancient  worid.  PhUologos 
was  differentiated  from  pkilo9opho8,  meaning  not 
the  independent  inquirer  but  the  critic  and  ex- 
pounder of  classical  productions.  As  the  art  of 
valuing,  criticism  is  the  product  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  E^ncydopedists  called  it  in  particular 
the  restorer  of  andent  literature,  in  general  the  art 
of  open-eyed  examination  of  human  productioos 
and  of  judging  them  justly. 

The    critic   stands   in    an   opposition    between 
subjective  and  objective.    The  obscure,  the  ugly, 

the  disorderiy,  the  arrogant,  the 
8.  Limita-  artifidal-^everything  which  tends  to 
^onm  distort  a  pure  impression — arouse 
uS^m  ^^  critical  function,  which  manifests 
of  the  itself  in  simple  aversion  or  blame,  or 
Ozltio.      in  a  deliberate  exposition  of  the  causes 

of  distorticm.  Limitations  to  under- 
standing lie  also  in  the  person.  Complex  and  diffi- 
cult to  grasp  are  the  conditions  and  impulses  which 
deceive,  divert,  and  suborn  the  faculty  of  judg- 
ment. Personal  taste,  inexperience,  dogmatic  pie* 
supposition,  arrogance — such  hindrances  are  as 
numerous  as  the  emotions  of  the  soul.  A  valuable 
inheritance  sometimes  suffers  injury  by  the  en- 
croachments of  critical  ineptitude.  Whoever  re- 
gards a  thing  as  worthy  has  a  sense  of  loss,  even 
if  the  criticism  be  pertinent;  much  more  is  that  the 
case  if  in  the  critical  process  insincerity  and  aifoi- 
trariness  be  present.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  esthetic  and  religious  natures  are  filled  with 
aversion  to  criticism  and  distrust  of  it.  Goethe 
once  said  that  a  book  which  had  accomplished 
great  results  was  simply  above  the  operations  of 
criticism,  and  that  criticism  is  generally  a  mere 
habit  of  moderns.  Such  an  attitude  seems  to  the 
critic  mere  obedience  to  blind  authority.  Great 
events  and  much  of  literature  have  rested  on 
fictitious  bases.  Apocrypha  and  peeudepigrapha 
daim  genuineness.  Such  facts  are  warrant  enough 
for  the  activities  of  critical  sdence. 

The  general  standards  of  criticism,  like  those  of 
interpretation,    rest    on    logic,    philosophy,    and 

rhetoric.  It  applies  those  standards 
8.  Biblical  to  the  particular  case,  and  the  general 
Oritiolsm.  rules  are  modified  to  accord  with  the 

demands  of  the  occasion.  Snoe  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments 
have  a  special  importance  as  a  rdated  whole, 
Biblical  criticism  is  a  special  and  independent 
branch.  It  deals  with  sources,  history,  and  rdigion; 
it  tests  the  historical  worth  of  liie  documents 
which  set  for^  the  religion  of  the  two  Testaments. 
It  has  as  its  object  the  discovery  of  the  religious 
life  operative  therein  by  reason  of  which  this 
literature  has  its  special  meaning.  There  is  a  double 
outlook  here;  insight  into  the  essence  of  religicHi 
and  into  the  essence  of  historic  fact. 

Biblical  criticism  is  on  its  other  side  historical 
criticism.  Hence  its  function  is  to  separate  the 
natural  progress  of  events  and  the  religious  luoita- 
tions  of  the  Biblical  expomtion  of  histoiy  in  order 
to  oompzeheod  thdr  rdations  upon  the  bssia  of 


171 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blblioal  Aroheolovy 
BlbUoal  Oritioim 


this  ■eparatum.  Religious  ooeunenoes  it  must 
seek  to  explain  upon  psychological^  pathological, 
and  historioo-religious  grounds.  Lessing  says  that 
"the  dramatic  poet  is  not  a  historian;  historical 
verity  is  not  his  purpose,  only  the  means  to  it." 
Is  this  poet  then  a  falsifier  of  history?  Similarly 
for  the  Biblical  writers  historical  truth  is  only 
a  means  for  offering  religious  truth;  it  is  the  channel 
of  the  revelation  from  God.  Consequently  the  task  is 
to  examine  case  by  case  in  order  to  determine  how 
far  historical  reality  carries  revelation.  Its  own 
standpoint,  therefore,  is  assured  to  this  science. 
It  asks  with  what  ri^t  and  under  what  conditions 
and  limitations  the  Scriptures  exist  as  a  religious 
collection.  It  gives  historical  rating  to  the  con- 
tents. Its  leading  word  is— discriminate,  which  it 
uses  in  promoting  recognition  of  worth  or  its  oppo- 
site, of  fact  or  mere  appearance. 

n.  The  Critical  MetluHl:  To  achieve  real  service 
in  Biblical  criticism  appreciation  of  the  religious 
factor  is  necessary.  The  critic,  however,  may  not 
walk  in  a  rut  if  he  is  to  attain  a  right  position. 
After  he  has  through  interpretation  grasped  the 
object  of  investigation,  he  gives  it  rating  according 
to  the  conditions  and  warrant  of  the 
1.  Fund*-  facts  of  the  case.    He  proceeds  upon 

J^^~^  the  immanent,  not  the  transcendent. 
And    after    the    rig^t    criterion    is 


found,  he  has  to  remember  that  a 
complete  and  not  a  partial  or  fragmentary  in- 
vestigation is  required,  and  further  that  fast  hold 
must  be  laid  upon  equipoise  between  critical  acute- 
ness  and  the  perception  of  what  is  possible  and  plain. 
Ecdes.  vii,  20  has  its  application  here,  "  God  made 
man  upright,  but  he  h&B  sought  out  many  inven- 
tions." What  is  the  inherent  standard  of  Biblical 
criticism?  The  historical  narratives  of  the  Bible 
are,  so  far  as  they  deal  with  religious  life,  inter- 
pretations of  history  and  testimonies  to  faith. 
To  express  a  right  judgment  the  critic  must  deter- 
mine the  relation  between  the  historical  and  the 
reli^ous  and  decide  which  is  the  more  prominent. 
De  Wette  regarded  the  Pentateuch  as  poetry; 
the  opposite  view  makes  the  Bible  historical  only. 
Between  these  extremes  lies  the  recognition  that 
the  Bible  employs  history  for  religious  purposes. 
Is  this  religious  significance  to  be  regarded  as 
expert  emphasis  upon  the  worth  and  force  of  a 
real  occurrence  or  was  it  used  to  support  some 
dogmatic  purpose?  Is  it  found  in  or  read  into  the 
case?  Is  it  in  the  main  possible  to  recognise  the 
fact  in  the  religious  dress? 

These  possibilities  the  critic  must  take  into 
accomit  as  he  holds  the  scales  of  truth,  testing  the 
composite  parts  of  the  Bible  and  proceeding  thence 
to  a  consideration  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole.  Upon 
this  ground  only  can  the  decision  be  rendered  how 
far  the  historic  facts  which  the  Bible  reports  stand 
in  organic  connection  with  their  religious  valua- 
tion and  whether  they  may  be  regarded  as  history 
or  as  legend,  fable,  or  myth.  The  varying  ratio 
of  the  admixture  of  the  historical  and  the  religious 
and  the  degree  of  its  significance  must  be  observed; 
and  especially  the  interval  between  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  New  in  their  historical  relations, 
original  limitations,  and  purposes  must  be  kept  in 


mind.  It  is  one  thing  to  appreciate  the  essential 
qualities  of  Hebrew  national  literature,  covering 
a  thousand  years  in  its  development,  and  another 
to  apprehend  the  worth  and  character  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  the  literature  of  a  religious 
propaganda  covering  but  two  generations.  Yet 
the  critic's  methods  are  essentially  the  same, 
corresponding  to  the  varied  historical  limitations 
of  the  subject-matter.  When  the  question  of  the 
essence  of  Christianity  arises,  the  bearing  of  the 
Old  Testament  religion  upon  Christianity  is  to  be 
decided  and  grasped. 

The  fundamental  axiom  shows  that  each  literary 

production,  as  well  as  each  body  of  writings  which 

has  a  common  bond,  requires  its  a{H 

8.  Claaal-  propriate  method   both  of  interpre- 

floation.  tation  and  of  criticism.  Means  and 
end  will  agree  when  the  character  of  the 
whole  presents  itself  in  the  parts;  the  last-named  will 
separate  and  individualise  themselves  where  origins 
and  relations  differ.  The  classifications  of  Biblical 
criticism  arise  not  out  of  logical  abstractions  but 
out  of  the  demands  made  by  the  individualistic 
Biblical  qualities.  Criticism  of  the  canon  asks 
how  and  with  what  right  the  two  Testaments  were 
united  in  one  book,  how  and  by  what  methods  the 
correct  text  of  that  which  has  come  down  is  to  be 
ascertained,  what  was  the  origin  and  what  is  the  his- 
torical worth  and  what  the  relation  of  the  present 
form  of  the  books  to  the  original  form.  It  draws 
conclusions  from  the  data  furnished  by  interpre- 
tation. On  the  basis  of  the  recognition  (1)  of  the 
suitability  of  means  to  ends  and  (2)  of  the  literary 
individuality,  it  pronounces  upon  the  worth  of  a 
document  as  a  source  and  upon  its  relation  to  the 
whole  to  which  it  belongs  and  which  it  serves. 
The  science  divides,  therefore,  into  criticism  of  the 
text,  of  the  language,  of  the  history,  of  the  style, 
and  constructive  criticism. 

Since  subjectively  criticism   finds  its  occasion 

in  the  limits  of  the  understanding,  its  starting-point 

is   doubt  about  the   trustworthiness 

8.  Fnno-  and  the  arrangement  of  what  has  come 
tion.  down.  This  doubt  proceeds  to  ask 
the  reason  for  this  impression.  If 
the  reason  lies  not  in  the  spiritual  being  of  the 
doubter  but  in  the  object,  then  some  defect  is 
understood  to  exist  in  expression,  contents,  or  style. 
The  critic  has  then  to  discover  the  kind  of  defect 
and  to  discern  its  cause.  As  a  means  to  this, 
Jerome  directs  the  critic  to  digest,  arrange,  deduce, 
construct.  In  other  words,  the  critic  first  diag- 
noses the  case  and  then  applies  the  remedy.  And 
in  this  process  comparison  is  constantly  employed, 
holding  in  view  the  separate  parts  and  the  united 
whole.  The  division  of  the  field  of  the  critic  into 
external  and  internal,  higher  and  lower,  does  not 
have  any  essential  truth  at  its  root,  and  should  be 
rejected  for  that  given  at  the  end  of  the  last 
paragraph. 

in.  The  Departments  of  Criticism:  That  the 
Old  Testament  existed  as  a  holy  authority  for  the 
synagogue  and  that  the  New  in  connection  with 
the  Old  had  the  same  value  for  the  Church  is 
the  fact  the  success  and  the  right  of  which  criti- 
dsm  has  to  investigate.     It  notes  the  process  of 


BlbUoal  Orlttetm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


172 


formation  of  the  canon  and  Uie  internal  testimony 
of  the  canonical  writings  as  related  to  the  author- 
ity attributed  to  them.  It  asks  whether  the  canon 
was  made  or  whether  it  g;rew,  whether 

1.  Oriti-  and  how  far  its  parts  are  pseudepi- 
^?e      S^^V^c-    For  the  Old  Testament  there 

Oanon.  "  outside  testimony  only  from  late 
Judaism  and  the  Talmud;  for  the  New 
there  is  a  wealth  of  evidence  arising  from  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  it  came  into  existence  by 
about  180  A.D.  One  result  of  criticism  is  to  revetd 
the  motive  of  canon-formation  and  also  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  s^aration  of  the  literature  made 
authoritative  by  comparison  of  it  with  the  non- 
canonioil  (see  Canon  of  ScBiPTUBa). 

A  preliminaiy  in  this  work  is  the  collection  of 
the  text-critical  apparatus  which  shall  present  an 
orderly  and  complete  picture  of  the 
•i  JJ«^«*1  condition  of  the  text.  The  documents 
ud^^M-  °^^"*  ^  described  and  their  charao- 
ratna.  teristics  brought  to  light.  The  sources 
of  text-criticism  are  manuscripts  in 
the  original  languages,  lectionaries  of  selected 
parts,  translations,  citations;  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  Masorah,  for  the  Septuagint  and  the  New 
Testament  also  patristic  commentaries  and  scholia. 
The  variant  readings  in  this  mass  of  materials  are 
to  be  arranged  and  classified,  a  preliminary  to  which 
is  the  valuation  of  the  text-sources  on  the  basis  of 
age,  genealogy,  and  trustworthiness.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  difference  of  the  Masoretic  text  from 
that  of  the  Septuagint  proves  the  two  to  be  indcp 
pendent  witnesses;  but  the  fact  that  the  text  of  the 
latter  is  not  yet  settled  makes  difficult  the  task  of 
arbitrating  between  the  two.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  New  Testament  writings  were  not,  before  the 
time  of  Origen,  handled  with  the  care  bestowed 
by  the  Jews  on  the  text  of  the  law.  The  collection 
of  i^paratus  for  the  New  Testament  text  presents 
not  only  an  agitated  sea  of  differences  in  orthog- 
raphy and  word-forms  which  create  little  or  no 
difference  in  sense,  but  also  a  series  of  variations 
which  affect  the  meaning  and  educed  the  wail  of 
Origen  that  they  were  the  result  not  only  of  care- 
lessness on  the  part  of  the  scribes  but  also  of  wil- 
fulness and  design.  The  task  is  to  bring  order  into 
this  mass  of  variations.  There  have  be^  discerned 
three  principal  types  of  text,  the  Alexandrian,  the 
Western,  and  the  Constantinopolitan.  The  text 
of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  shows  the  most  serious 
variations,  in  which  purpose  is  manifest  to  make 
parallel  passages  read  in  the  same  way  and  to  supply 
omissions.  The  text  of  Revelation  and  of  the  Lucan 
writings  also  is  in  a  bad  condition.  Great  differ- 
ences exist  between  the  text  of  the  Alexandrian 
and  the  Greco-Latin  types.  The  last  word  on 
relative  values  has  not  yet  been  said,  and  the 
matter  is  still  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that 
the  minuscules  have  not  yet  been  taken  fully  into 
consideration,  and  they  contain  very  many  excellent 
and  independent  reading?.    See  Bible  Text. 

The  purpose  of  comparison  of  variant  texts  is 
i^>proximation  to  the  original.  The  critic  esti- 
mates the  age  of  a  document.  For  this  much  help 
has  been  received  from  the  papjrri  and  parchments 
recovered  in  Egypt,  from  which  it  has  been  learned 


that  the  earliest  texts  were  ¥nitten  in  oajntals  and 
without  accents  or  marks  of  punctuation,  and  th^ 
the  word  or  syllable  was  brokoi  at  the  end  of  tbe 
line  as  the  demands  of  space  required.  Study  of  the 
processes  of  reproduction  of  manuscripts  has  sboini 
that  errors  are  either  mechanical  or  designed. 
The  former  are  illustrated  by  the  doubling  of  a 
word  or  a  passage  or  the  omission  of  the  same 
either  by  an  error  of  the  eye  or  of  the  ear,  or  bt 
the  substitution  of  one  word  or  letter  for  another 
which  resembles  it  either  in  form  or  sound.  Of 
conscious  or  designed  variations  from  the  ori^nal, 
some  were  brought  about  by  attempts  to  smooth 
a  rough  passage  or  to  illumine  an  obscure  one, 
to  correct  real  or  supposed  errors,  to  make  tvo 
parallel  passages  read  in  the  same  way,  or  to  change 
the  reading  so  as  to  support  some  dogmatic  interest. 
The  Old  Testament  was  originally  written  without 
punctuation  or  helps  to  reading  and  pronundatioa; 
the  possibility  of  error  is,  therefore,  greatly  increased 
as  compared  with  the  Greek  text,  the  vowda  of 
which  were  always  written. 

After  interpretation  has  set  forth  the  lexico- 
graphic and  grammatical  character  of  the  language, 
criticism  inquires  into  the  relation  of  expresaioD 
to   thought,   unity   in   the   methods 

^^J^J     of  expresfldon,  and  individual  charac- 

oSSoiam.  teristics  in  writing  as  rdated  to  tbe 
general  character  of  the  language, 
and  into  the  various  influences  which  have 
controlled  the  form.  Dissimilarity  in  style  in 
parts  argues  dissimilarity  in  authorship;  dis- 
arrangement or  disorder  suggests  interpolation. 
Especially  valuable  are  the  testa  which  depend 
upon  uniformity  in  the  use  of  certain  fundamental 
notions  such  as  those  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  life, 
faith,  righteousness,  spirit,  fledi.  Similarly  use 
is  made  of  collection  and  comparison  of  idioms 
which  characterise  a  writing  or  a  group  of  writing, 
and  in  this  case  critical  judgment  is  of  great  im- 
portance. Individuality  ia  thus  discovered,  since 
the  idiosyncrasies  of  writers  are  in  the  main  un- 
conscious and  undesigned.  And  rhetorical  quali- 
ties also  come  into  play,  the  tendency  to  a  type 
of  expression  or  fondness  for  certain  words  or  kinds 
of  figures  or  turns  of  sentence.  Recognition  of 
characteristic  ways  of  using  language  adds  to 
text-critical  apparatus,  since  it  not  only  presents 
the  facts  of  different  readings  and  of  peculiarities, 
but  also  notes  their  effects,  influences,  and  modi- 
ficatbns.  So  that  text-criticism  and  criticism  of 
the  language  work  together  in  correcting  an  unin- 
telligible or  corrupt  text  by  employing  conjecture. 
By  this  is  not  meant  merely  subjective  sagacity  or 
ineptly  used  technical  skill.  Conjecture  is  the 
result  of  study  of  the  causes  of  error  in  the  text 
which  marks  them  as  mechanical  or  designed,  and 
then  seeks  a  reading  in  accordance  with  the  bahit 
and  character  of  the  document  under  examination, 
a  reading  which  on  known  principles  of  error  in 
transmission  will  produce  the  particular  error. 

Historical  criticism  is  s^plied  not  merely  to 
works  on  history  but  to  any  literary  product  o( 
the  past  which  claims  or  really  has  importance 
for  any  historical  reason.  The  result  of  this  proc- 
ess is  pronouncement   upon   the   worth  of  any 


178 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BibUoal  OriUoUm 


particular  document  as  a  source.    It  deals    with 
the  genuineness,  unity,  integrity,  and  trustworthi- 
ness   of  a  writing,  adcs  whether  it  is  as  the  au- 
thor wrote  it  or  whether  it  has  been 
^^JJ^     corrupted  or  falsified,  whether  it  re- 
Oritloism.  ^^^^  ^^  habit  of  the  author  assumed 
or  of  the  times  in  which  it  is  placed. 
Since  it  is  seldom  that  explicit  external  testimony 
to  a  document  Is  available,  criticiBm  usually  pro- 
ceeds upon  internal  evidence.    But  this  is  not 
always    dedsive.    Conceivably,  the    tradition    of 
Isra^'s  sojourn  in  Egypt  might  have  arisen  out 
of  the  story  of  the  Babylonian  exile.    So  of  the 
New  Testament  writings,  the  decision  whether  they 
are  really  documents  of  the  apostolic  age  depends 
finally  upon  the  judgment  of  their  character  as  a 
whole   and   upon   appraisement   of   the   distance 
between  them  and  the  postapostolic  and  apocry- 
phal literature. 

The  three  points  upon  which  the  critic  is  intent 
are  not  of  equal  weight.    Thus,  though  the  authen- 
ticity of  a  writing  be  denied  on  internal  grounds, 
the  worth  of  the  writing  as  a  source  is  not  thereby 
necessarily  denied,  for  the  dociunent  may  have 
been  produced  anonymously,  may  be  a  genuine 
witness  for  the  times  in  which  it  was  written,  and 
yet  have  had  a  name  wrongly  attached  to  it  later. 
Examples  of  this  are  the  Books  of  Samuel,  the  Gos- 
pd  of  Matthew,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
which  last  is  a  genuine  document  of  the  apostolic 
age,  thou^  the  authorship  is  undetermined.    So 
integrity  does  not  of  itself  determine  source-value. 
Investigation  in  this  direction  discovers  gaps  or 
additions  and  relates  them  to  historic  crediility. 
The  final  test  has  reference  to  this  quality.    Inves- 
tigation into  a  writing  as  a  whole  leads  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  its  composition.    Criticism  of  sources 
enters  here,  which  on  the  basis  of  the  linguistic 
character  of  the  finished  work  and  of  its  parts 
decides  whether  the  work  is  a  unit  or  is  composite. 
In  the  latter  case  the  questions  arise  what  was  the 
original  form  and  how  far  it  has  been  changed  by 
the  successive  hands  through  which  it  has  passed; 
whether  the  parts  are  in  thdr  original  form  or  have 
been  worked  over,  and  in  the  latter  case  whether 
in  some  dogmatic  interest.    Such  are  the  prob- 
lems which  arise  respecting   the  Pentateuch  and 
the  Gospels.    Decision  in  favor  of  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  a  document  in  itself  a  unit  and  complete  is 
carried  a  step  further  toward  assurance  by  com- 
parison with  the  general  whole  to  whidi  it  belongs. 
This  involves  consideration  of  linguistic  charac- 
teristics, of  the  drde  of  ideas  in  which  it  moves, 
the  general  trend  of  thought.    Account  is  taken 
of  external  testimony.    In  this  case  error  has  to  be 
guarded  against,   since   the   trustworthiness   and 
competence  of  the  witness  is  itself  a  subject  for 
investigation.    The  criticism  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
PbilipfHans  gives  an  illustration  of  the  difficulties 
of  the  process,  where  irreconcilably  di£Ferent  oon- 
dufliofns  have  been  reached  by  Baur,  Holsten,  and 
P.  W.  Schmidt. 

The  most  important  problem  affecting  credi- 
bility arises  frc»n  the  specific  character  of  the  Bib- 
lical narratives.  What  attitude  shall  be  assumed 
toward  miradeeT    How  far  are  the  reports  legend- 


ary or  mythical?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  relig- 
ious idea  to  the  question  of  the  historicity  of  the 
reports  and  of  their  worth  as  sources?  The  position 
taken  will  depend  upon  the  philosophical  position 
of  the  critic.  The  theist  does  not  disavow  belief 
in  miracles  and  values  the  divine  self-consciousness 
of  Jesus  as  testimony  to  his  living  participation  in 
deity.  But  the  historic  spirit  of  the  times  enters 
a  caveat  by  noting  the  limitation  placed  on  the 
reporters  by  the  characteristics  of  the  times  in 
widch  they  lived.  Moreover,  he  who  accepts 
Jesus  as  a  wonder-worker  is  not  called  on  as  a  critic 
to  prove  the  reports  of  miracles  reliable;  nor  is  he 
who  accepts  Jesus  as  God's  son  required  to  prove 
the  stories  of  the  infancy,  analogies  of  whidi  are 
so  abundantly  available.  But  with  the  recognition 
that  there  are  obscurities  in  the  reports  of  miracles 
and  that  poetry,  legend,  and  myth  are  used  by  the 
Bible,  the  last  word  has  not  been  spoken  on  the 
historicity  of  Biblical  narratives.  When  the  Eng- 
lish minister  Mitchell  said  in  relation  to  the  wars 
of  Frederick  the  Great  that  the  latter  was  fighting 
for  the  freedom  of  the  human  race,  he  gave  an 
interpretation  of  history  but  did  not  alter  the  his- 
toric fact.  It  is  then  possible  that  without  altering 
the  facts  the  Gospds,  under  the  impression  made 
by  the  person  of  Jesus,  acknowledge  him  as  Son  of 
God  and  Savior  of  the  worid.  If  the  theologian 
speaks  of  salvation  as  a  fact  which  has  become 
Imown  in  history,  that  is  not  a  dogmatic  dislocation 
but  a  correct  valuation  of  the  historical  order  in 
which  the  Christian  religion  and  its  Old  Testament 
precursor  reveal  themselves. 

"  Style  is  only  the  order  and  progress  in  which 
thought  takes  form;  it  supposes  the  union  and  exer- 
cise of  all  the  intellectual  faculties, 

C^Wtl-  and  it  is  the  man  "  (Buffon).  This 
^^S'^  utters  the  fmal  decision  in  the  reaching 
Style,  of  which  the  critical  and  hermeneutical 
faculties  unite  more  closely  than  in 
the  processes  named  above.  It  asks  the  question, 
what  purposes  did  the  writing  have  and  how  did 
it  attain  them?  It  takes  into  account  the  total 
impression  made  by  the  document,  the  progress 
of  thought  and  the  conception  of  history  it  em- 
bodies; it  notes  clearness  and  force  or  indefinite- 
ness  and  unwieldiness,  originality  or  accord  with 
accustomed  forms.  And  in  the  background  is  ever 
a  reference  to  the  historical  setting  and  relation- 
ships. Historical  critidam  may  show  composite- 
ness  in  a  document  and  answer  the  question  whether 
the  elements  are  united  by  a  loose  idea  or  are  worked 
into  each  other.  In  the  latter  case  criticism  of 
style  shows  the  reUtion  of  the  parts  to  the  whole. 
When  historical  criticism  has  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated historical  conditions  and  order,  the  question 
of  credibility  in  a  new  sense  arises.  Was  the  pur- 
pose objective  or  personal,  did  the  ideal  enter  into 
the  personal,  did  personsd  interests  and  passion 
modify  the  objectivity  of  the  writing?  For  docu- 
ments run  to  Tenderu  whenever  they  are  not  purely 
objective  narrative. 

The  results  from  the  processes  so  far  re- 
viewed are  now  positive,  now  negative.  They 
produce  decisions  upon  the  completeness,  reli- 
ability, and  value  of  what  has  been  transmitted. 


BibUoal  OriUoinn 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


174 


That  done,  the  relation  of  the  product  under  dis- 
cuafidon  to  the  original  actuality  in  particular  and 
in  general  remains  to  be  investigated.  What  is 
historic  reconstruction  7  Niebuhr's 
^^J**2"*"  ^wtonf  ^1  Rome  was  the  first  con- 
CMtioiaai.  ^'^^^  example  of  the  results  of  the 
process.  It  embodied  his  endeavor 
to  pierce  through  the  displacements  and  exag- 
gerations of  national  pride  which  influenced  the 
historical  form  of  the  statements  and  to  discover 
actuality  as  it  was  and  developed.  His  method 
is  and  remains  the  method  of  constructive  criti- 
cism. The  first  step,  then,  is  criticism  of  sources, 
which  not  only  revcds  their  nature  and  value,  but 
grasps  also  their  connection  with  the  original  fact, 
their  original  relations,  their  mutual  dependence  or 
independence.  In  religious  literature  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  regard  to  the  conceptions  embodied 
to  see  whether  these  are  the  original  gift  of  the 
religion  or  whether  they  have  entered  during  the 
course  of  the  development.  Hence  the  sources  have 
to  be  traced  to  their  original  form,  conceptions  are 
abstracted,  the  historical  course  of  events  displayed, 
and  the  method  by  which  events  have  worked  out 
of  the  objective  and  essential  oondftions  discovered. 

The  dominant  method  of  source-criticism  is 
literary.  It  deals  with  documentary  indication, 
traces  backward  paralld  traditions  and  distinguishes 
their  relationship,  genealogy,  and  dependence;  it 
shows  their  orig^ial  or  secondary  character,  seeks 
the  occasions  of  their  deviations;  in  documents 
it  would  discern  the  seams  of  joining,  the  numner 
and  form  of  the  insertions.  And  then  often  the 
question  arises  whether  an  oral  or  a  written  source 
lies  in  the  background.  And  besides  this  there  is 
in  Biblical  literature  the  complicating  factor  of  the 
editors;  so  that  modem  criticism  is  well  repre- 
sented gn^hically  by  the  "Rainbow  Bible."  In 
the  foreground  of  interest  now  is  the  proving  of 
the  relationship  of  Biblical  presentations  and  con- 
ceptions to  the  original  form  and  sense  and  the 
attempt  to  show  their  interrelationship.  Are  the 
leading  Biblical  conceptions  original  and  in  their 
original  form?  Do  the  terms  used  carry  their 
original  meanings,  or  has  the  original  sense  become 
detached  and  connected  itself  with  some  other 
term?  The  answers  to  such  questions  will  lead 
back  to  the  early  forms  of  the  religion  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  of  Christianity,  will  produce  a 
history  of  religious  ideas;  but  the  work  is  yet  in 
its  infancy.  Even  the  prehistoric  cult-motive, 
foimd  in  totemism,  animism,  and  belief  in  demons 
will  not  close  the  inquiry;  there  is  the  background 
of  the  self-seeking  impulses  which  led  men  to  placate 
ghosts  and  employ  magic  and  sorcery.  And  the 
relations  of  these  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New  are  yet  under  discussion.  They  indeed  point 
out  in  which  direction  critidsm  must  direct  its 
researches. 

The  highest  and  most  difficult  task  u  the  recon- 
struction of  the  historic  process,  the  monuments 
of  which  are  found  in  the  criticised  writings.  It 
purposes  a  presentation  of  the  entire  circle  of  ideas, 
and  seeks  to  discover  from  the  deficient  sources 
the  original  connection,  and  from  the  reports  brought 
togeth^  the  original  development.    The  results 


then  are  historical,  the  basis  sought  is  the  most 
ultimate  facts  attainable,  but  the  degree  of  assur- 
ance necessarily  varies.  In  Biblical  science  the 
two  objective  points  are  the  recovery  of  the  history 
of  Israel  and  of  the  history  of  the  origins  of  the 
Christian  Church.  The  crux  of  the  first  is  the  re- 
lationship of  the  prophetic  literature  to  the  Penta- 
teuch. Is  the  latter  preprophetic  or  postprophetic 
and  postexilic?  Another  question  still  under  discus- 
sion is  the  historical  value  of  the  body  of  tradition 
about  the  patriarchs  and  Moses;  estimates  of  the 
highest  importance  and  bearing  upon  character 
huig  upon  the  decision.  The  reconstruction  of 
New  Testament  history  depends  upon  the  decision 
as  to  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  usable 
sources  of  history  in  the  New  Testament.  The  new 
Dutch  school  returns  a  negative  answer  on  the 
ground  that  New  Testament  literature  is  mostly 
pseudepigraphic.  Everything  here  depends  upon 
criticism  of  sources,  upon  the  decision  about  the 
bases  of  the  Sjmoptic  Gospels,  the  Johannine  fat- 
erature,  the  Christology  of  the  Epistles.  Upon 
decisions  rendered  here  hangs  also  the  estimate 
of  the  person  and  work  of  the  founder  of  Chris- 
tianity. For  the  conception  of  apostolic  times 
critical  valuation  of  the  worth  of  Acts  as  a  source 
is  required,  and  a  determination  of  its  relation  to 
the  Pauline  Epistles  and  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
latter.  In  this  case  also  conclusions  the  most 
opposite  are  reached  with  necessarily  opposite 
results  in  the  construction  of  history.  The  diffi- 
culties of  the  reconstruction  of  Biblical  history 
are  thus  suggested,  and  in  the  work  only  a  beginning 
has  been  made.  Real  progress  is  possible  only 
if  the  critic  is  not  self-deceived  in  respect  to  the 
continuity  and  completeness  of  the  sources  and 
the  objective  basis  of  his  hypotheses,  and  if  he  does 
not  forget  that  the  history  which  he  undertakes 
to  reconstruct  neither  claims  to  nor  can  supply 
the  religious  force  which  is  operative  in  history. 

IV.  History  of  Criticism:    This  might  be  made 
to  embrace  aJl  work  conducted  with  critical  insight 

as  well  as  of  all  branches  of  Biblical 

in    **d"   *^*®^**  ^^  ^^®  hypotheses  and  con- 

Umlte-     ^^^^^i^-    Decision    must    be    made 

tlons.      between  a  review  of  the  results  and 

of  the  conditions  and  valuations 
which  have  given  the  impulse  to  a  new  series 
of  questions.  With  the  latter  goes  a  description 
of  the  methods  necessitated  by  the  newer  condi- 
tions. It  is  also  to  be  remarked  that  criticism 
and  interpretation,  so  to  speak,  alternate  and  relieve 
each  other.  Interpretation  flourishes  when  tra- 
dition is  accepted  at  its  face  value;  critidsm, 
when  doubt  has  called  in  question  that  value, 
though  indeed  criticism  is  never  beyond  call. 

The  Greeks  were  the  fathers  of  criticism.    No 
other  people  of  the  ancient  worid  employed  critical 

methods;  the  memory,  not  judgment, 
i«tt  *d'  ^^^  sway,  Judaism  was  no  exoep- 
Patristio  ^^^'  ^^^  ^®  Masorah  is  text-criticism 
Oritloism.  ^  ^  limited  sense  only.    But  among 

the  Greeks  criticism  was  the  hand- 
maid of  interpretation.  Homer  was  their  canon, 
furnishing  the  modA  of  the  completest  expres- 
sion of  human  relationships.     Consequently,  text- 


175 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblioal  CMtloimn 


criticisin  found  there  its  task  and  elaborated 
its  methods,  while  interpretation  was  also  at^work. 
The  questions  of  integrity,  authenticity,  and  credi- 
bility were  raised,  but  of  course  the  answers  were 
such  as  the  age  was  qualified  to  give. 

It  has  often  been  denied  that  in  the  patristic 
age  criticism  existed.  But  patristic  literature  set 
itself  the  task  of  suppressing  the  old  canon  and 
replacing  it  by  the  new  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  New.  And  in  this  task  criticism  was  a 
necessary  agent.  Alexandria  and  Antioch  were 
the  two  seats  of  the  new  learning,  the  headquarters 
where  the  methods  of  the  Greeks  were  applied 
in  pursuit  of  the  new  object  (see  Alexandria, 
School  of;  AimocH,  School  of).  Even  the 
fourfold  division  of  the  science  employed  by  the 
Greeks  was  adopted,  though  the  whole  work  pro- 
ceeded from  a  different  standpoint.  For  the  Greeks 
the  esthetic  was  the  principal  thing,  for  the  Church 
Fathers  the  religious;  in  both  cases  criticism  served 
interpretation.  The  great  imdertaking  of  Origen 
to  bring  order  into  the  corrupt  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  remained  incomplete  and  only  introduced 
further  confusion.  What  opinion  is  to  be  enter- 
tained of  the  recensions  of  Ludan  and  Hesychius 
is  not  yet  certain.  Jerome's  efforts  to  obtain  a 
better  text  of  the  Vulgate  advanced  text-criti- 
cism but  little.  In  the  matter  of  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  genealogy  of  texts,  the  public 
use  of  the  Scriptures,  and  their  genuineness  were 
discussed.  Explanations  were  offered  of  the  dif- 
ferences found  in  the  writings  ascribed  to  John. 
And  in  the  councils  and  synods  the  matter  of 
canonidty  was  raised  for  churchly  authority  to 
decide. 

With   the   Reformation   criticism  took  a  new 
start  upon  a  basis  prepared  by    humanism,   but 
8.  Crltl-     ^^1^  ^o  boimds  set  by  patristic 
cism       criticism.    The    inspiration    of    the 
from  the    Bible  was  assumed,  for  the  need  felt 
Tlxne       was   for  nourishment   of   the   spirit. 
of  the      Criticism  assumed  more  definite  forms 
*•*»""•-   after  attempts  were  made  to  fix  the 
tion.       t.eaching  of  the  Evangelical  Chureh. 
The    eariy    Protestant    doctrine    of    inspiration 
attempted  to  exalt  into  law  what  had  been  till 
then   simple    religious    statement.    A    wall    was 
built  upon  the  F^testant  doctrine   of  Scripture 
sgaiDst  the  Roman  Catholic  oonceptionB.    Apolo- 
Ketics  and  harmonistics  were  created.   The  doctrine 
of  verbal  inspiration  came  into  play  until  text- 
critical   apparatus   began   to   accumulate.    Then 
dogmatic  pronouncement  upon  the  contents  of 
Scripture,  upoa  its  deamess  and  suffidency,  stum- 
bled over  fact,  and  the  earlier  dogma  of  inspiration 
came  to  grief. 

Under  such  conditions  Biblical  criticism  developed 
and  became  more  opposed  to  dogmatism.  Its 
apostle  was  Spinosa,  who  in  his  Tractatua  Iheologico- 
poliHcug  authoritativdy  formulated  the  problem 
for  the  future.  The  skepticism  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  deism  and  rationalism  of  the  dght- 
cenih  centuries  changed  not  the  form  of  the  prob- 
lem, but  only  the  tone  of  the  critic.  Spinosa  had 
given  a  comprehensive  description  of  the  exigency 
produced  by  a  theology  benumbed  by  dogmatioi. 


His  desire  was  to  produce  an  undogmatic  Chris- 
tianity through  criticism  of  the  documents.  Chris- 
tianity was  to  be  apprehended  as  teaching  for 
practical  life  and  not  as  philosophy.  Religion 
was  not  to  contradict  reason.  Criticism  attacked 
the  problem  of  the  text  and  proceeded  to  discussion 
of  the  canon  and  its  contents.  Meanwhile  the  view 
was  held  that  religion  was  something  different 
from  theology. 

The  first  attempts  to  build  up  a  critical  method 
were  in  the  region  of  the  Roman  dassics.  J.  Robert 
tellus  {De  arte  tive  raHone  corrigendi  anHquorum 
libroa  diajnUatio,  Padua,  1557)  defined  the  sources 
of  error  in  the  text  as  additions,  eliminations, 
transpositions,  extensions,  condensations,  separa- 
tions (of  parts  bdonging  together),  joinings  (of  parts 
which  should  be  kept  apart),  and  variations. 
Caspar  Sdoppius  (15d7)  argued  against  the  "  rash 
and  audacious  attempts  to  better  the  text." 
Johannes  Clericus  (16d7)  connected  criticism  of  the 
classics  and  of  the  Bible.  Perhaps  he  was  the 
first  to  see  that  the  canon  had  a  history.  L.  Cap- 
peUus  (1634),  A.  Pfdffer  (1680),  and  J.  G.  Carpsov 
(1728)  argued  for  the  unassailable  authority  of 
Scripture,  but  Carpiov's  conjectural  emendation 
of  the  Masoretic  text  aroused  the  scorn  of  the 
orthodox,  who  dedared  this  text  inviolable,  as  Ball 
and  Erasmus  had  that  of  the  Vulgate.  But  a  new 
turn  was  given  when  the  Oratorian  J.  Morinus 
(1633)  exalted  the  text  of  the  S^tuagint  over 
that  of  the  ICasoretes  because  derived  from  purer 
sources,  though  this  valuation  was  discredited  by 
the  insecure  readiags  of  the  Septuagint.  Mill 
(1707)  and  Wetstdn  (1751)  coUected  a  rich  ap- 
paratus for  the  New  Testament,  and  Bengd 
proposed  to  alter  the  Textua  recephis  upon  tiie 
basia  of  manuscript  readings  property  diacrimi- 
nated.  The  great  Bentlejr's  proposal  to  form  a 
new  recension  of  the  Greek  text  (on  the  basis  of 
MS.  A  and  of  the  Vulgate)  was  wrecked  on  the 
rocks  of  the  oppodtion  of  the  theologians. 

The  criticism  of  sources  was  estaolished  in 
Bentley's  disproof  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Letters 
of  Phcdarie.  That  method  was  applied  to  Biblical 
literature  only  in  individual  instances  among  the 
Arminians  and  Sodnians,  an  example  of  which  is 
found  in  H.  Grotius's  work  on  Thessalonians. 
The  application  of  this  to  the  Old  Testament  was 
first  made  in  Astruc's  discussion  of  Genesis  (1753). 
The  antidogmatio  pomtion  of  critidsm  became 
ever  more  pronounced  in  the  dghteenth  century. 
English  deism  attacked  dumsUy  the  historidty 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  Skepticism  re- 
joiced over  the  proof  of  variety  in  origin  of  Bibli- 
cal writings.  Rationalism  sought  to  prove  that 
history  is  no  pussle  and  all  proceeds  in  rational 
order.  Lessing's  discusdon  with  Goetse  over  the 
'*  WolfenbQttd  Fragments  "  fathomed  deep  waters. 
Against  the  reckless  criticism  of  English  deism 
appeared  Lardner's  Ancient  Jevriah  and  Heathen 
TeeHmaniea  to  the  TruOi  of  the  Christian  Reliffion 
(1764-67),  while  through  Michaelis  and  Semler 
critidsm  sought  to  find  equipoise. 

The  modern  age  of  critical  research  began  with 
the  end  of  the  dghteenth  centuiy.  Its  aim  is 
an  undogmatic  method  founded  on  fact,  and  its 


BibUoal  Oritioinii 
BibUoal  HUtory 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


176 


task  is  reconstruction  of  history  on  the  basis  of 
a  grasp  of  original  conditions  and  of  the  actual 
course  of  development.  It  makes  use  of  psychol- 
ogy, linguistics,  literary  art,  and  hi»- 
Critt^"™  toiy,  and  it  attempts  to  guard  against 
tioiam.  ^j^  one-sided  application  of  any  or 
all  of  these,  recognizing  that  subjective  criticism 
would  produce  results  inconsonant  with  the  spirit 
of  the  times  in  which  the  literature  discussed  was 
produced.  The  historical  point  of  view  as  applied 
to  the  Bible  was  first  expressed  by  Herder.  Schleier- 
macher  and  Eichhom  made  contributions  to  it, 
but  not  without  error.  Strauss's  intellectual 
method  overlooked  criticism  of  sources.  Bruno 
Bauer's  reconstruction  of  the  early  history  of 
Christianity  on  the  basis  of  Philo,  Seneca,  and 
Greoo-Roman  philosophy  was  bettered  by  F.  G. 
Baur,  who  sought  a  factual  basds.  Vatke'swork 
on  the  Old  Testament  has  been  confirmed  and  ex- 
tended by  Reuss,  Graf,  Wellhausen,  and  Kuenen. 
How  Biblical  criticism  has  chang^  its  center  of 
gravity  is  illustrated  by  the  dictionaries.  Teller's 
W&rUrbuch  des  AUen  TestamenU  (6th  ed.,  1805) 
was  ultrarationalistic.  Winer's  work  (3d  ed., 
1847)  expressed  the  materialistio  doubt  of  De 
Wette.  Schenkel's  BtbeUeziam  (1869-75)  repre- 
sented the  Tubingen  school.  Riehm-Baethgen 
(1807)  shut  the  latter  out  as  much  as  possible, 
in  which  line  the  new  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  of 
Hastings  follows,  while  the  Enqfdopwiia  Biblica 
occupies  the  most  advanced  position  and  com- 
plains that  criticism  of  the  New  Testament  is  less 
advanced  than  that  of  the  Old. 

(G.  Heinrici.) 
V.  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church :  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  subject  of 
Biblical  criticism  has  never  received  so  much  atten- 
tion among  Roman  Catholic  as  among  Protestant 
scholars.  This  disparity  of  interest  in  a  topic  so 
important  is  doubtless  largely  due  to  the  funda- 
mentally different  attitude  of  the  two  Churches 
toward  the  Bible  itself.  While  the  early  Reformers 
claimed  to  set  aside  tradition  and  church  authority, 
and  to  make  the  Bible — and  the  Bible  alone — ^the 
foimdation-stone  of  their  respective  creeds,  the 
Catholic  theologians  and  controversialiBts,  on  the 
other  hand,  emphasized  anew  the  principle  of  cen- 
tral organic  authority.  For  Catholics  the  supreme 
and  ultimate  guide  in  matters  of  religion,  faith, 
and  morals  is  the  infallible  authority  of  the  living 
Church — authority  which  in  their  view  has  been 
inherited  from  the  Apostles  and  the  Divine  Founder 
of  Christianity.  This  organised  society  is  con- 
sidered as  the  divinely  appointed  custodian  of  all 
revelation,  whether  contained  in  the  Scriptures  or 
in  the  storehouse  of  Christian  tradition,  and  to  this 
society  belongs,  under  divine  guidance,  the  official 
and  authoritative  interpretation  of  Holy  Writ. 
The  great  and  exclusive  importance  given  to  the 
Bible  in  the  Protestant  commimions  naturally 
called  for  a  deep  and  comprehensive  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  this,  in  the  nature  of  things,  was 
boimd  to  develop  on  critical  lines;  whereas  Catho- 
lics, resting  content  with  the  principle  of  church 
authority,  continued  to  look  upon  the  Bible  as 
something  incidental  and  secondary  in  comparison 


with  the  living,  teaching  organization.  Henoe  less 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  latter  in  the  various 
branches  of  Biblical  investigation,  and  likewise  less 
alarm  at  the  changes  wrought  by  the  so-called 
destructive  criticism  in  the  traditional  views  con- 
cerning the  Bible. 

But,  while  the  general  interest  in  the  topic  has 
been  less  marked  among  Catholics,  it  is  true  that 
scholars  belonging  to  that  faith  have  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  rise  and  growth  of  scientific 
Biblical  criticism.  The  first,  perhaps,  who  de- 
serves mention  is  the  French  Oratorian  Richard 
Simon  (1638-1712)  who,  setting  aside  the  abstract, 
a  priori  methods  previoiisly  in  vogue,  began  a  study 
at  once  historical  and  critical  of  the  principal  topics 
pertaining  to  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Bible. 
The  results  of  his  investigations,  which  were  too 
far  in  advance  of  his  age  to  receive  intelligent 
appreciation  from  his  contemporaries,  were  em- 
bodied in  a  series  of  volumes,  which,  however  much 
they  may  have  been  superseded  by  writings  of  later 
scholars,  are  nevertheless  extremely  interesting  as 
setting  forth  the  true  critical  method  and  applying 
it  with  a  freedom  which  was  bound  to  provoke 
opposition  and  censure  on  the  part  of  orthodox 
theologians  such  as  Bossuet  (see  Simon,  Richabo). 
It  was  the  Catholic  physician  Jean  Astruc  (q.v.) 
who  gave  a  valuable  key  and  a  startin^point  to  the 
modem  dociunentary  analysis  of  the  Pentateuch 
by  his  essay  published  in  1753.  Another  Catholic 
clergyman  who  figures  prominently  among  the 
pioneers  in  the  field  of  scientific  Biblical  study  is 
the  Scotchman  Alexander  Geddes  (1737-1802;  see 
Geddes,  Alexander).  Foremost  among  modem 
and  contemporary  Catholic  scholars  who  have  dis- 
tinguished themselves  in  the  field  of  Biblical  crit- 
icism must  be  placed  the  abb^  A.  F.  Loisy  (q.v.), 
who  to  a  vast  erudition  and  a  remarkably  keen 
critical  acumen  has  unfortxmately  joined  a  sarcasm 
of  exposition  and  a  rashness  of  speculation  which 
have  brought  him  into  serious  disfavor  with  the 
authorities  of  the  Church.  The  more  moderate 
school  of  Catholic  Biblical  scholars  includes  a 
relatively  large  and  ever  growing  niunber  of  ad- 
herents who,  always  subject  to  the  limitations  im- 
posed by  church  authority,  frankly  accept  the 
well-authenticated  results  of  scientific  critical  inves- 
tigation. Obviously  these  scholars  are  not  so  free 
and  independent  in  their  researches  as  their  non- 
Catholic  brethren,  but  Catholic  apologists  claim 
that  while  the  restrictions  imposed  do  at  times 
curtail  unduly  the  freedom  of  investigators  whose 
views  though  correct  may  not  harmonise  with 
traditionally  received  opinions,  they  serve,  on  the 
other  hand,  as  a  salutary  check  on  critical  specu- 
lations of  the  more  radical  and  advanced  type. 

Moved  by  the  acute  controversies  which  within 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century  have  grown  up  in  the 
field  of  Bible  study  and  caused  so  much  alarm  in 
most  of  the  orthodox  communions.  Pope  Leo  XIII 
instituted  a  Biblical  Conunission  which  was  to  be 
a  standing  tribunal  composed  of  Scripture  special- 
ists and  theologians,  for  the  settlement  on  scien- 
tific as  well  as  authoritative  groimds  of  the  various 
knotty  questions  raised  by  higher  criticism.  Under 
the  present  pope,  however,  while  the  number  of 


177 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


BlbUcal  Oritiolsm 
BibUoal  History 


members  and  consultore  of  this  tribunal  was  greatly 
augmented,  a  large  majority  was  conceded  to  the 
theologians  as  distinguished  from  the  Biblical 
Bcholars;  and  the  decisions  rendered  thus  far  have 
little  or  no  interest  for  the  scientific  world,  as  they 
constitute  simply  a  reaffirmation,  without  specified 
reasons,  of  the  traditional  positions.  In  the  Church 
at  present  the  trend  of  authoritative  direction  as 
regards  the  Scriptures  is  unfavorable  to  Biblical 
criticism,  as  is  plain  from  the  Syllabus  of  Modem 
Errors  and  the  encyclical  against  Modernism  issued 
by  Pius  X  in  1907  (see  Syllabub). 

James  F.  Driscgll. 

Bibuoorapht:  For  works  on  textual  criticism  see  Biblc 
Tkjct;  on  the  history  of  criticism  consult:  H.  Oaye,  The 
BatOe  of  A«  SiandpoinU;  ihe  Old  Teatament  and  the 
Higher  Critieiem,  London,  1892  (brief  and  popular); 
H.  S.  Nash.  The  HUtary  of  the  Higher  CriHciem  of  the 
Sew  Testament,  New  York.  1900.  new  ed..  1907  (an  argu- 
mmt  for  scieDtifio  Bible  study). 

For  exposition  of  methods  consult  C.  A.  Briggs.  General 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  New  York, 
1809  (exhaustive);  A.  C.  Zenos.  Blemenie  of  the  Higher 
Critieiam,  ib.  1895  (useful);  F.  Ast.  WieeenaehafUiehe 
Dartt^ung  der  OramnuUikt  Hermeneutik  und  Kritikt 
Landahut,  1806;  F.  Hitsig.  Begriff  der  Kritik  am  AUen 
Teetament,  Heidelberg.  1831;  F.  D.  E.  Schleiermacher. 
Veber  Begriff  und  EinteUung  der  phiioeophiedten  Kritik, 
in  hij  S/hmntUche  Werke,  III,  iu.  387^404,  Berlin.  1835; 
A.  Kuenen,  Critieea  et  hermeneuiiea  librorum  Ncvi  Teela- 
menti  lineamenta,  Leyden,  1889;  F.  Blass.  Hermeneutik 
und  Kritik,  in  Handhueh  der  klaeaieehen  AUertumewieeen^ 
ukaft,  I.  i.  127-128.  Muuieh.  1891;  F.  Qodet  and  others. 
Higher  Criticiem,  Six  Paper;  New  York,  1893;  C.  W. 
Ri»heU.  Higher  Critieiem,  Cincinnati.  1893  (needs  revi- 
sion);  E.  Bemheim.  LehHnich  der  hiatoriedien  Meihode, 
Uipsic.  1894;  H.  Hildebrand.  DU  hdhere  BibeUaritik,  Fa- 
derbom.  1902;  W.  Mdller.  Btbiieoi  Critieiem,  London.  1903; 
G.  W.  Gilmore.  Bibiical  Critieiem,  in  The  Moniet,  xiy 
(1904).  215  sqq. 

For  criticism  of  higher-critical  methods  and  results 
consult :  E.  Bdhl.  Zum  Oeeete  und  turn  Zeugniee,  eine  Ab- 
whr  vider  die  neurkritiecke  Schriftforediung  im  AUen 
Teeiament,  Vienna,  1883;  O.  Naumann.  Wellhauaen'e 
Meihode,  Leipsic,  1886;  F.  Vigouroux,  Lee  Livree  eainie  et 
la  critique  rationaliete,  4  vols..  Paris,  1886-90;  J.  J.  Blunt. 
Undeeigned  Coineidencee  in  the  WriHnge  of  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Teetamente,  republished.  New  York,  1890; 
R.  F.  Horton,  Revdation  and  the  BiUe,  London.  1892; 
E.  Rupprecht,  Die  Anechauung  der  kritiechen  Sehule 
Weilhaueena,  Erlangen.  1893;  A.  Zahn.  EmeU  Blidee  in 
dtn  Wahn  der  modemen  Kritik  dee  AUen  Teetamente, 
Gatenloh.  1893;  F.  R.  Beattie.  Radical  Critieiem,  an 
Bxpoeition  and  Examination  of  the  Radical  Critical  Theory, 
C!hlcaco.  1694;  L.  Munhall,  Antirhigher  Critieiem,  New 
York.  1894  (extreme  in  its  conservatism);  8.  Leathes. 
Claime  of  the  Old  Teetament,  ib.  1897;  W.  H.  Green.  Gen- 
eral JntrodueOon  to  the  Old  Teetament,  New  York,  1899 
(Dr.  Green  waa  the  exponent  of  the  most  conservative 
type  of  Biblical  study,  and  his  strictures  on  higher  criti- 
cism will  be  found  in  his  Moeee  and  the  Prophete,  1883, 
The  Hebrew  Feaete  in  their  Relation  to  Recent  Critical  Hy- 
voikeeee,  1886.  Higher  Critieiem  of  the  Pentateutk,  1895. 
sod  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Oeneeie,  1895);  W.  MOller,  ilre 
tt«  Critice  Rightf  ib.  1903;  F.  D.  Storey,  Higher  CHtir 
om  Cron  examined,  Philadelphia,  1905;  J.  Orr.  The 
Problem  of  the  O.  T ,  London.  1906  (conservative). 
For  application  and  statement  of  critical  methods 
consult:  G.  D'Eiohthal,  MHangee  de  critique  biUique, 
Pari*,  1896;  Smith.  OTJC,  cf.  R.  Watts.  The  Nevcer 
Cri^eiem  and  fhe  Analogy  of  the  Faith,  Edinburgh.  1883 
(Wstto  is  a  reply  to  Smith);  J.  P.  Smyth,  The  Old  Docu- 
ntnti  and  the  New  Bible,  London.  1890;  T.  K.  Cheyne. 
Aid9  to  the  Depout  Study  of  Cntieiem,  ib.  1892;  W.  San- 
day,  /nsptrafum,  ib.  1896  (advanced  in  dealing  with  the 
0.  T..  conservative  as  respects  the  N.  T.) ;  idem,  Criti- 
eiem of  the  Fourth  Ooepel,  ib.  1905;  W.  F.  Adeney.  How  to 
RtadtheBibU,  ib.  1897  (a  helpful  handbook);  G.  A.  Smith, 
Modem  Critieiem  and  the  Preaching  of  the  Old  Teetament, 
ib.  1901;  R.  Balmforth,  The  BibU  from  the  Standpoint  of 
IL— 12 


Higher  Critieiem,  2  vols..  New  York.  1904-05;  T.  W.  Doane, 
Bible  Mythe  and  their  ParaUele  in  Other  Religiona,  ib.  1905. 
On  the  interrelations  of  criticism,  the  Bible,  and  arche- 
ology consult:  H.  A.  Harper,  The  Bible  arui  Modem  Die- 
coveriee,  Boston.  1889;  H.  E.  Ryle,  Early  Narrativee  of 
Oeneeie,  London,  1892;  T.  Laurie,  Aeeyrian  Echoes  of  Ois 
Word,  ib.  1894:  A.  H.  Sayoe,  Higher  Critidem  and  the 
Verdict  of  the  Monun^ents,  ib.  1894  (archeological,  reach- 
ing the  same  conclusions  as  the  critics,  yet  violently  as- 
sailing them);  W.  St.  C.  Boscawen,  Bt52e  and  the  Monu^ 
mente,  ib.  1895;  F.  Hommel.  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
as  lUuetrated  by  the  Monuments,  ib.  1897  (the  standpoint 
is  similar  to  Sayce's);  D.  G.  Hogarth,  Authority  and 
Archeology,  ib.  1899  (in  its  Biblical  parts  sober,  and  a  cor- 
rective of  Sayoe  and  Hommel);  I.  M.  Price.  Monuments 
and  the  Old  TentamerU,  Chicago.  1900;  T.  G.  Pinches.  The 
Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  Hietorical  Recorde  and  Legends 
of  Aseyria  and  Babylonia,  London,  1902;  Schrader,  KAT. 

BIBLICAL  HISTORY.   See  Israel,  Histort  of,  I. 

BIBLICAL      HISTORY,      INSTRUCTION      IN: 

Fundamental  to  all  Christian  teaching  and  attain- 
ment, especially  according  to  the  Protestant  view, 
is  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible;  and  this  knowledge 
naturally  begins  with  the  characters,  events,  and 
institutions  of  the  Bible — a  sum  total  of  knowl- 
edge which  may  be  comprehended  under  the  general 
expression  Bible  history.  Thence  the  individual 
is  led  on  to  the  weightier  matters  of  Christian 
doctrine  and  the  manner  of  the  Christian  life. 
The  organized  and  premeditated  efforts  of  the 
earlier  Church  to  impart  Christian  instruction 
(see  Catechumenate;  Catechesis,  Catechetics; 
Catechisms;  HoiiiLEncs;  etc.)  aimed  more  directly 
at  the  latter,  assuming  that  the  former  already 
existed.  In  the  New  Testament,  knowledge  of 
Old  Testament  history  is  presupposed.  This 
knowledge  was  communicated  at  home 
Conditions  (II  Tim.  iii,  15)  or  by  readings  at 
Before  the  public  services  (I  Tim.  iv,  13).  The 
Reforma-  aim  of  a  portion  of  the  New  Testa- 
tion, ment  Scripture  (the  Gospels  and 
Acts)  was  to  keep  alive  in  the  con- 
gregations the  knowledge  of  the  New  Testament 
history.  In  the  primitive  Church,  besides  public 
service,  home  training  (Eusebius,  Hist,  ecd,,  vi,  2; 
Chrysostom  on  Eph.  vi,  4)  and  private  reading 
(Cyril,  Catech,,  iv,  35;  Apostolic  Constitutions, 
vii,  30)  were  means  of  imparting  Biblical  history 
to  beginners  in  Christianity.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  no  systematic  school  instruction  in  Biblical 
history  could  be  furnished  for  lack  of  common 
schools,  and  self-instruction  was  not  possible  for 
the  people  because  the  Bible  was  commonly  in 
Latin  and  costly,  and  but  few  of  the  laity  could 
read  even  the  works  provided  for  them  in  their 
mother  tongue  (see  Bibles,  Historical).  The 
great  mass  were  limited  to  the  translations  by 
preachers  of  the  texts  of  their  sermons,  or  nar- 
rations of  Bible  stories  in  the  sermon;  also, 
scenes  especially  from  the  life  of  Jesus  or  dramatic 
spectacles  from  the  Biblical  record  helped  to  pre- 
serve in  the  lay  world  the  knowledge  of  Biblical 
essentials  (see  Religious  Dramas).  In  Refor- 
mation time  as  well  as  in  the  following  centuries, 
there  was  no  general  systematic  schooling  in  Biblical 
history;  the  common-school  system  was  as  yet  a 
merely  formative  conception,  and  text-books  of 
Bible  history  (for  list  cf.  Reu)  were  designed  for 
higher  schools  or  for  the  home 


BibUoal  History 
Biblioal  Introduction 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


178 


Not  until  Christian  common  schools  were  intro- 
duced did  instruction  in  Biblical  history  become 
a  systematized  branch  of  public  education.  Among 
the  text-books  thus  used  may  be  mentioned  the 
BiUische  Historien  of  Justus  Gesenius  (1656), 
and  the  Zweimal  6$  auMrUsenen  hiblischen  His- 
torien  of  Johann  Hflbner  (1714).  These  books 
are  the  prototypes  of  modem  German  manuals, 
and  such  manuals  have  now  generally  taken  the 
place  of  the  Bible,  from  which  in 
Biblical  eailier  times  Biblical  history  was 
Instruction  taught  by  reading  aloud.  The  Roman 
in  Schools.  Catholic  Church  also  teaches  Biblical 
history;  a  text-book  widely  in  vogue 
was  that  of  Christoph  von  Schmid  (d.  1856).  At 
present  the  Bible  histories  of  the  Catholics  are 
combined  with  their  diocesan  catechisms.  Their 
new  catechism,  which  according  to  the  desire  of 
Pius  X  is  to  become  the  Catholic  standard  or  uni- 
fonn  catechism  {Compendia  della  doUrina  Chris- 
tiana, 1905),  contains  a  Breve  etoria  deUa  religume. 
It  thus  appears  that  modem  Churches,  in  contrast 
with  the  primitive  Church,  have  reached  the  con- 
viction that  catechumens  should  gain  the  necessary 
amount  of  knowledge  of  Bible  history  not  imme- 
diately from  the  Bible,  but  from  a  text-book  pre- 
pared for  this  educational  object.  But  the  fact 
is  still  more  significant  that  the  Churches  are  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  Biblical 
history. 

This  conviction  rests  on    the  knowledge  that 

Christian  belief  is  the  product  of  a  history  which 

came  to  pass  between  God  and  humanity,  and  that 

the  knowledge  and  understanding  of  this  salvation 

on  the  part  of  individual  Christians  must  proceed 

from  acquaintance  with  this  history.  The  selection 

of  Bible  stories  for  catechumens  is 

Methods    adapted  to  this  principle.    The  various 

and        manuals  of   Biblical   history  deviate 

Principles,  from  one  another  in  details  of  selection, 

but  are  in  substantial  agreement  in 

the  matter  of  setting  forth  the  main  events  of  sacred 

history   according   to   their   historical   succession. 

An  exception  occurs  in  the  case  of  compilations 


intended  for  children  who  are  not  yet  catechetical 
scholars;  for  these  there  is  need  of  particular 
Bible  narratives  adapted  to  the  years  of  childhood 
and  related  to  the  church  festivals.  With  reference 
to  the  connection  between  instruction  in  Biblical 
history  and  instruction  in  the  catechism,  a  change 
has  come  about,  since  in  earlier  times  instruction 
in  the  former  had  practically  no  independent 
significance,  but  was  designed  to  subserve  the  cate- 
chism; the  contrary  sitiiation,  however,  obtains 
to-day,  certain  modem  instructors  making  Biblical 
history  the  main  issue,  while  catechetical  schcdare 
are  confined  to  the  fundamentally  illustrative  or 
especially  adi^ted  Biblical  relations.  Coaceming 
the  method  of  instmction,  there  is  a  consensus 
of  modem  conviction  to  the  effect  that  the  text- 
book should  coincide  as  far  as  possible  with  the 
wording  of  the  Bible  as  genendly  in  use.  The 
earlier  method  of  reading  the  narrative  from  the 
Bible,  or  having  it  read  aloud  by  a  pupil,  has  been 
discarded.  It  is  better  to  have  a  stoiy  related 
by  the  teacher;  and  the  preferable  method  is  that 
his  oral  discourse  should  adhere  altogether  or  with 
dose  approximation  to  the  phrasing  of  the  text- 
book. In  particular  the  decisive  and  atnking 
utterances  of  the  dramoHs  pereona  should  be  repto- 
duced  exactiy.  Opportunity  for  explanation  and 
application  is  afforded  by  the  subsequent  db- 
cussion.  The  use  of  maps  and  pictures,  with 
which  modem  Biblical  text-books  are  provided, 
tends  to  give  the  matter  more  of  an  objective 
background,  but  pictures  are  not  so  necessary  as 
they  formerly  were,  when  pupils  had  fewer  books. 
[In  the  United  States,  religious  instruction  betog 
necessarily  excluded  from  the  public  schools,  the 
teaching  of  Bible  history  belongs  to  the  Church 
and  the  home.     See  Sunday  Schools.] 

W.  Caspari. 

Bxbuooraprt:  C.  A.  O.  von  Zenehwiti,  KatK^ik,  n,  X 
ehaps.  2-4.  Leiprio,  1872-74;  K.  H.  Holtach.  5faMiini  fifcr 
den  MMtMften  OMc^uAteunltfirtcAi.  Breslau.  1870;  W.  H. 
G.  TfaomM.  M^iodM  of  BihU  Study,  New  York.  1003; 
L.  Emery,  Introduction  h  VHude  de  la  OUclooU  proiedank, 
pp.  122-132.  PariB,  1904;  J.  M.  Reu.  Qudlen  sw  O 
Bchiekte  dea  biUiadim  UnttrrichU,  Giitenloh,  1006. 


Old  Testament. 

Nature  and  Scope  of  the  Diadplint 

(ID. 
Method  of  Treatment  (f  2). 
History  (f  3). 
To  the  Renaissance  (f  4). 
The  Reformation  Period  (f  6). 
The  Seventeenth  Century  (f  0). 


BIBLICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

The  Eighteenth  Century  (f  7). 
The  Nineteenth  Century  (f  8). 
II.    New  Testament. 
1.  History  of  the  Discipline. 
To  the  Reformation  (f  1). 
The   Sixteenth    and    Seventeenth 

Centuries  (f  2). 
Michaelis  (f  3). 


L  Old  Testament:  The  science  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Introduction,  like  that  of  Biblical  Introduction 
in  general,  has  developed  from  indefinite  beginnings, 
and  has  not  yet  won  the  assured  and  universally 
recognized  form  which  most  other  theological 
disciplines  have  assumed.  The  name  eisagOgl 
was  used  in  the  fifth  century  by  the  Syro-Greek 
monk  Adrian,  the  terms  iniroductorii  libri  and 
itUrodudores  in  the  sixth  by  Cassiodorus.  But 
these  terms  carried  the  meaning  of  a  general  and 
instructive  direction  how  to  read  the  Bible,  a  guide 
to  its  correct  understanding,  an  exposition  of  the 
oorrect  principles  of  exegesis.    A  complete  under- 


Semler,  Schmidt,  and  Others  (f  4> 
Baur  (f  5). 
Later  Work  (f  6). 
2.  The  Conception  and  the  Tuk. 
History  of  New  Testament  Scrip- 
tures (f  1). 
History  of  the  Ganon  (f  2). 
Textual  Criticism  and  Veraooi  (f  31 

standing  of  the  Bible  involves,  however,  a  numbtf  i 

of  auxiliary  sciences — ^linguistics,  ex^esis,  faistotT 

of  literature,  general  history,  archeology,  geography* 

Biblical  theology,  etc.,  all  useful  in  | 

1.  Katnre  obtaining    a    right    apprehenfloo  of 

Soope      Scripture.    But  so  large  a  conception 

of  the      ^^  ^^^  science  waa  not  reached  all  at 

Bisoipline.  °^^-    ^*  ^^  J-  ^^  Carpiov  who  fiwt 

appreciated  the  comprehensive  naturs 

of  the  discipline  and  defined  it  aa  the  precise  setting 

forth  of  those  matters  a  knowledge  of  which  pre* 

pares  the  approach  to  the  reading  of  the  sacred 

books.    SiniiLuly  De  Wette  understood  by  Intr^ 


179 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblical  History 
Biblioal  Introdnotion 


duction  all  knowledge  which  contributed  to  the 
intelligent  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  which  set  it 
forth  ajB  a  whole  and  in  its  parts  in  relation  to  his- 
toTy.  Keil  regarded  it  as  an  exposition  of  those 
matters  the  understanding  of  which  prepares  for  a 
fruitful  reading  of  Scripture,  by  which  he  under- 
stands only  a  history  of  the  text,  of  the  origin  of 
the  individual  writings,  the  story  of  the  rise  of  the 
canon,  and  of  the  general  conception  of  Scripture. 
A  new  start  was  made  by  H.  Hupfeld,  who  held  that 
Introduction  sought  to  discover  what  were  the 
writin^i  embraced  in  the  Bible  and  how  they  had 
come  to  be  what  they  are.  In  other  words,  what 
is  sought  are  the  extent  and  original  character  of 
the  writings,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  vicissitudes 
through  which  they  have  passed  in  attaining  their 
present  form,  unity,  worth,  and  effectiveness.  But 
care  is  needed  in  following  such  a  formulation 
lest  one  make  of  Old  Testament  Introduction 
simply  a  history  of  Hebrew  literatiu«,  a  mistake 
made  by  Reuss,  who  included  in  his  work  the  letter 
of  Aristeas  and  the  writings  of  Philo.  The  first 
consideration  of  this  science  must  be  its  service  to 
theology;  its  principal  concern  is  with  the  books 
of  the  canon  held  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine,  and 
only  secondarily  with  the  drde  of  writings  derived 
from  Hellenistic  sources.  Care  must  also  be  taken 
not  to  limit  the  task  of  Introduction  so  as  to  take 
away  its  freedom  and  to  bind  it  in  effect  to  the 
pronouncements  of  tradition  as  to  authorship. 
On  the  other  hand.  Introduction  is  not  what  Riehm 
would  make  it,  the  literary-historical  characteriza- 
tion of  the  Bible  as  the  authentification  of  a  divine 
revelation.  It  has  its  own  functions  to  perform 
in  the  service  of  theological  science,  and  its  use- 
fulness must  not  be  diminished  by  setting  it  at 
tasks  which  it  may  not  undertake.  Its  work  is 
a  preparation  for  that  of  exegesis  and  for  that  of 
Biblical  theology.  As  Reuss  has  well  expressed 
the  fact,  the  science  of  Introduction  is  not  the  house 
itself,  but  is  the  set  of  calculations  and  estimates 
necessary  for  the  actual  processes  of  building. 

From  the  preceding  it  follows  that  the  articu- 
latbn  of  this  discipline  in  the  general  science  of 
theology  is  fixed.    In  the  arrangement  and  handling 
of  its  subject-matter  it  demands  and  requires  great 
freedom;  on  the  other  hand,  certain  lines  are  laid 
down  along  which  it  must  operate.    Thus,  while 
the  origin  of  the  separate  writings  and  the  story 
of  their  transmission  (history  of  the  text)  are  its 
concern,  it  is  a  matter  of  choice  whether  considera- 
tion of  the  individual  writings  precede  or  follow 
consideration   of   their   collection   into   a   canon. 
Not  unimportant  is  the  question  of 
2.  Xethod  method  of  investigating  the  individual 
_J^        writings.    Thus,  the  chronological  or- 
j^^^^^      der  certainly  lies  near  to  hand,  as  in 
the    treatment    by    Wildeboer    and 
KautsBch;  yet,    illuminating   as   this   method   is, 
weighty  considerations  may  be  urged  for  another 
way  of  proceeding.    If  one  is  disposed  to  empha- 
siie  the  theological  character  of  the   discipline, 
concentrating    his    attention    upon    the    writings 
received  into  the  canon,  the  chronological,   his- 
torical-literary  order   assumes    a    complexion   of 
incompleteness,  since  only  a  small  part  of  Hebrew 


literature  found  place  in  the  canon  and  that  part 
was  not  composed  with  the  object  of  being  gathered 
into  a  collection.  By  a  simpler  grouping  the 
advantage  is  gained  of  awakening  no  expectations 
which  are  doomed  to  disappointment.  Then,  too, 
there  are  practical  difficulties  attending  such  a 
method.  Over  the  origin  of  most  Old  Testament 
writings  rests  a  darkness  not  yet  dispelled  and 
probably  never  wholly  to  be  banished.  Moreover, 
many  of  the  writings,  such  as  the  historical  books, 
are  complex  in  origin,  and  refer  to  preceding  com- 
positions of  which  too  little  is  known  to  admit  of 
their  being  taken  into  a  history  of  the  literature. 
These  same  books  also  bear  traces  of  being  trans- 
mitted and  worked  over  by  hands  the  methods  of 
operation  of  which  are  altogether  uncertain.  This 
historical  method  consequently  leads  frequently  in- 
to a  cul-de-sac.  It  is,  therefore,  not  without  reason 
that  many  have  adopted  the  literary-historical 
method,  following  the  grouping  of  the  canon  so 
far  as  to  consider  the  historical  books  by  them- 
selves, the  Prophets  in  another  section,  and  so  on, 
while  the  three  departments  of  Introduction  are 
history  of  the  canon,  of  the  separate  books,  and  of 
the  text.  Whether  a  history  of  exegesis  is  to  be 
included  in  this  branch  of  study  is  debatable. 
For  the  history  of  the  Bible  in  a  narrower  sense  it 
is  not  important;  yet  in  itself  and  its  relationship 
it  has  such  value  that  there  is  some  justification 
for  including  in  Introduction  what  properly  belongs 
in  hermeneutics. 

The  history  of  this  science  shows  in  all  its  phases 
the  same  marked  trait;  viz.,  that  the  Church, 
which  would  fain  remain  in  restful 
8.  History,  and  thankful  enjoyment  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  handed  down,  has  been 
compelled  by  outside  pressure  to  take  up  the 
problems  of  the  origins  of  those  Scriptures  and 
either  to  modify  or  discard  the  traditions  re- 
garding them.  In  the  earliest  times  this  pressure 
came  partly  from  Jewish  sources,  later  from  lin- 
guistic science  and  philosophy,  and  later  still  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  Chureh,  which  sought  to 
undermine  the  Protestant  principle.  Only  the 
salient  points  of  the  development  of  Introduction 
can  be  here  given. 

The  beginnings  are  found  in  the  treatment  of  the 
canon  in  the  prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus,  in  Josephus 
and  the  Talmud,  and  in  the  controversy  between  the 
Jews  and  some  of  the  Chureh  Fathers  respecting 
the  Palestinian  and  the  Alexandrian  canon.  This 
led  up  to  the  text-critical  labors  of  Origen.  The 
next  name  is  that  of  Jerome,  about  whose 
time  began  work  on  Introduction,  but  with  the 
limits  in  treatment  already  referred  to  above, 
by  Adrian  and  Cassiodorus,  the  latter  of  whom 
dealt  briefly  with  the  history  of  the 
;.^*1;-  text  and  of  the  canon.  A  slight 
advance  was  made  in  the  work  of 
Junilius  Africanus  (about  550)  called 
InatUtUa  regtUaria  divincB  legis.  This  classified 
the  books  according  to  their  contents  as  history, 
prophecy,  proverbs,  and  simple  teaching,  and 
according  to  their  degree  of  authority  as  perfect, 
medium,  or  of  no  authority;  it  distinguished  also 
between   poetical    and   prose   writings.    In    this 


Benaia- 
■anoe. 


Biblloal  Introdnotlon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


180 


connection  must  be  mentioned  Augustine's  De 
doctrina  Christiana,  which  treated  of  the  extent  of 
the  canon  and  of  the  use  of  translations.  The 
Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  content  with  the 
work  done  by  Cassiodonis,  Augustine,  and  Junilius. 
But  among  the  Jews  there  were  the  stirrings  of  a 
more  vigorous  life,  exemplified  in  the  investi- 
gations of  Ibn  Ezra  in  the  region  of  special  intro- 
duction. 

By  the  revival  of  learning  the  Chrislians  were 
made  familiar  with  the  results  of  Jewish  investiga- 
tions which  were  soon  to  lead  to  the  enrichment 
of  isagogical  science.  The  interest  in  the  Hebrew 
language  grew  into  a  wider  concern  for  Oriental 
philology,  which  had  a  fertile  fidd  in  the  trans- 
lations of  the  Old  Testament,  soon  to  become  of 
use  in  the  department  of  text-criticism.  The 
earliest  fruits  ripened  among  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  work  of  a  convert  from  Judaism,  Sixtus  of 
Sienna  (d.  1509),  the  Btbliotheca  sancta,  which  dis- 
tinguished between  protocanonical  and  deutero- 
canonical  writings,  and  which  dealt  also  with 
matters  of  special  intnxluction.  The 
*r '^^  Reformers  did  not  enter  this  field, 
^~™*"  though  the  exegetical  works  of  Calvin 
Period,  ooi^tain  materials  for  special  intro- 
duction, and  Luther  necessarily  had 
to  do  with  the  extent  of  the  canon.  Important 
was  the  work  of  Carlstadt,  De  eanonicis  9criptuiri9 
(1520),  in  which  he  showed  the  superiority  of  the 
Jewish  canon  and  made  the  canonicityof  a  Biblical 
writing  depend  not  upon  the  authorship  but  upon 
its  relation  to  that  canon.  The  period  inunediatdy 
following  the  Reformation  produced  nothing  notable. 
A.  Rivetus  (d.  1062)  represents  the  standpoint  of 
the  age  in  his  definition  of  Scripture  as  that  which 
proceeds  from  God  as  the  special  author,  who  not 
only  impelled  (the  scribe)  to  write  and  gave  the 
thoughts,  but  even  suggested  the  order  and  the 
words. 

Out  of  this  dogmatic  quiet  the  theologians  were 
shaken  by  the  newer  criticism,  which  began  in  the 
realm  of  the  text.    The  Reformer  Cappellus  under- 
took investigations  which  showed  that  the  tra- 
ditional text  was  not  altogether  trust- 
2^^J|^*     worthy,  and  he  was  followed  by  the 
"•^•'^'     Catholics  Morinus  and  Richard  Simon 
(d.  1712).    The  latter^s  Histoire  cri- 


taenth 
Oentnry. 


tique  was  epoch-making  in  that  it 
employed  the  literary-historical  method,  and  showed 
that  the  Pentateuch  could  not  be  wholly  the  work 
of  Moses  and  that  other  historical  books  had  been 
worked  over.  Simon  had  been  preceded  by  Hobbes, 
whose  Leviathan  had  used  the  method  of  inter- 
nal testimony,  and  Spinoza,  whose  Traetatua  theo- 
logico-^polUicua  had  advanced  a  number  of  positions 
which  were  to  be  established  later.  Simon's  book 
awakened  much  opposition  and  was  suppressed, 
only  to  be  reproduced  in  a  Protestant  land  (Rotter- 
dam, 1685).  The  ideas  of  Simon  were  further 
established  in  Protestant  regions  by  the  work  of 
Johannes  Clericus  (q.v.),  though  the  tendencies  of 
Protestantism  were  conservative,  and  its  supporters 
came  later  to  hope  that  the  learning  of  Carpsov 
would  establish  firmly  the  truth  of  the  traditional 
vittws* 


In  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
new  doors  were  opened  to  Biblical  criticism,  espe- 
cially by  the  researehes  of  Semler.  At  that  timetbe 
attitude  of  criticism  toward  the  Old  Testament 
was  unfriendly;  it  treated  the  collection  from  the 
historical  standpoint  only,  but  inosted  upon  under- 
standing the  times  in  which  the  writings  originatfti. 
Of  religion  little  was  discovered  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.    Herder  came  to  the  help  of 

^J^«     the  defenders  of  the  Bible  with  his 

^mthT  <^covery  of  the  poetry  it  omtained, 
Century.  ^^^  ^^  newer  lig)it  was  intensified 
in  the  work  of  Eichhoni,  which  out- 
shone all  the  works  of  his  predeoesson  and  ood- 
temporaries.  Special  interest  attaches  to  the 
researehes  of  Eichhom  in  general  introduction, 
while  the  work  of  special  introduction  gained  from 
his  treatment  of  the  books  as  constituting  a  Hebrew 
national  literature.  Yet  permanent  rnults  were 
lacking  from  that  period,  excepting  only  the  dis- 
covery by  Astruc  which  forecast  the  documentaiy 
analysis  of  the  Pentateuch. 

A  new  era  was  opened  by  De  Wette,  who  com- 
bined the  literary  with  the  historical  method. 
Ewald  carried  the  process  on,  not  indeed  in  a  work 
on  Introduction,  but  in  exegetical  researches  in 
which  he  employed  it,  using  along  with  it  a  sym- 
pathetic appreciation  rather  than  a  rigid  logic. 
Meanwhile  the  Pentateuchal  problem  was  pushing 
to  the  front  in  the  works  of  Vatke  and  Reus, 
to  receive  its  most  advanced  consid- 

8«  The     eration  from  Wellhausen  and  Kuen^. 

r~*'  The  side  of  the  defense  had  mean- 
Century  ^^®  oo<^  been  inactive,  as  the  works 
of  Hengstenberg,  H&vemick,  and 
Keil  abundantly  prove,  all  of  which  contributed 
something  toward  the  solution  of  the  problems 
discussed.  Between  the  two  extremes  represented 
by  the  men  named  come  others  who  i^proach  one 
or  the  other  tendency,  but  the  general  characteris- 
tic of  their  labor  is  to  bring  into  accord  the  assured 
results  of  criticism  and  the  faith  of  the  Church  in 
revelation.  The  most  notable  example  of  this  kind 
of  work  is  Driver's  Introduction,  But  the  final 
solution  of  the  problenos  raised  by  the  science  of 
Introduction  will  come  not  from  that  discipline 
but  from  the  other  branches  of  theology  which 
build  upon  it.  (F.  Buhl.) 

n.  New  Testament — 1.  History  of  the  Disci- 
pUne:  The  employment  of  the  term  "Introduc- 
tion" with  its  present  connotation  in  connection 
with  the  New  Testament  dates  in  modem  times 
from  Michaelis.  But  as  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, beginnings  had  been  made  long  before.  Be- 
sides the  men  mentioned  above  (I,  1 4)  as  working 
in  this  department,  Tyconius  and  Eucherius  of 
Lyons  attempted  to  supply  the  needed  information 
about  the  origin,  occasion,  purpose,  and  history 
of  the  New  Testament  writings.  The  antagonism 
to  the  apocryphal  books  and  heretical  parties  such 
as  the  Marcionites  with  their  variant  canon  and 
the  Montanists  with  their  new  prophecy  en- 
hanced in  the  second  and  third  centuries  the 
Churoh's  valuation  of  the  Christian  books  which 
had  come  to  it  from  the  apostolic  age.  The 
Muratorian  Canon  employed  a  legendary  report  of 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblloal  Introdnotion 


the  origin  of  the  Gospels,  not  to  explain  individual 
peculiarities,  but  to  establish  the  dogmatic  unim- 
portance of  variations  in  the  Gospel 
h^^  *^  narratives.  Similarly,  the  church  prao- 
^Jj™*"  tise  of  using  in  service  the  private 
letters  of  Paul  as  well  as  the  public 
letters  and  of  excluding  the  spurious  ones  from  use 
was  established.  The  vacillation  of  the  Church 
in  reference  to  such  writings  as  the  Apocalypse 
of  Peter  and  the  Sheperd  of  Hennas,  the  Mardon- 
itic  criticism  of  the  canon  of  the  Gospels  and  of  the 
Pauline  epistles,  the  opposition  of  the  Alogi  to  the 
Johannine  writings  as  being  the  production  of 
a  heretic  of  the  apostolic  age,  the  writings  of  Melitus 
and  Hippolytus  about  the  Fourth  Goipel  and  the 
Apocalypse — all  these  suggest  the  way  in  which  the 
need  for  a  kind  of  Introduction  made  itself  felt 
in  even  those  early  times.  So  a  beginning  was 
made  in  the  writing  of  Dionysius  on  the  Apocalypse, 
while  the  sentiments  and  traditions  of  the  different 
Churches  began  to  take  systematic  form  in  the 
writings  of  Origin.  Eusebius  used  considerable 
space  in  his  works  in  setting  forth  the  varied  views 
and  eariy  testimonies  concerning  the  New  Testa- 
ment books.  Jerome  followed  in  the  steps  of 
Eusebius,  but  without  contributing  much  that  was 
new  in  this  particular  line  of  investigation.  The 
doctrinal  contests  of  the  fourth  and  succeeding 
centuries  turned  the  channel  of  investigation  away 
from  the  history  of  the  canon,  and  for  a  considerable 
time  there  appeared  only  reproductions  of  the  early 
opinions  about  the  New  Testament  books  in  the 
prefaces  to  the  commentaries  or  summaries  and 
synopses  which  came  into  being  and  which  gave  a 
general  view  of  the  arrangement,  contents,  and  ori- 
gin of  the  New  Testament  writings. 

The  silence  of  the  Middle  Ages  gave  place  during 
the  Reformation  to  the  utterances  of  the  Catholic 
scholars SanctesPagninus  of  Lucca  (d.  1541),Sixtus 
of  Sienna  (d.  1509),  and  A.  Rivetus,  who  wrote  an 
laagoge  give  iniroductio  to  both  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments    (Leyden,    1627).    These   works   con- 
tained much  information  in  this  department,  along 
with  dogmatic  discussions  concerning  inspiration 
and  the  relations  of  Scripture  and  tradition.  Richard 
Stmon  (q.v.)  published  (at  Rotterdam)  his  three 
works  upon  the  critical  history  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment {Hittoire  erUiqtse  du  texte,  1689,  dea  veniana, 
1690,  and  dea   prindpaux  commentaieura,  1693,  du 
Souveau  Teatameni),  and  thus  won  his  place  as  the 
2.  The       father  of  New  Testament  Introduction. 
Six-        By    "  critique "    he    understood    the 
taenth      investigations   for   the   establishment 
and        of  the  original  text;  and,  by  his  his- 
Bsvan-      tory  from  the  sources,  he  impugned 
taenth       not  only  the  Protestant  claim  of  "  a 
Centorie*.   witness   of  the  Spirit,"  but  also  the 
scholastic  treatment,  which,  resting  upon  imper- 
fect acquaintance  with  antiquity,  could  not  prove 
that  Christianity  was  a  religion  based  on  facts 
snd  that  the  Bible  was  the  record  of  those  facts. 
In  the  effort    to   establish   the   New   Testament 
^t,  he  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  province  of 
Introduction. 

The  next   name    is   Johann    David    Michaelis 
(q.T.),  who  wrote  the  Einleitung  in  die  gStUichen 


Sckriften  dea  Neuen  Bundea  (GOttingen,  1750). 
He  disclaimed  dependency  upon  Simon,  and 
yet  his  work  was  really,  in  its  first 
eUa  "^P®*  based  upon  Simon.  With 
each  succeeding  edition  it  was  greatly 
improved;  but,  even  in  the  fourth  and  last  edition 
(1788),  its  standpoint  was  a  strongly  rational 
supematuralism.  The  differences  to  be  noted 
between  the  editions  are  mainly  that  his  attacks 
on  the  "  doubters  "  became  milder,  and  that  he 
gave  up  the  inspiration  of  the  historical  books, 
denied  also  the  inspiration  of  the  non-apostolic 
books  (among  which  he  reckoned  apparentiy  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),  and  dedax^  that  the 
'*  inner  witness  of  the  Spirit "  was  of  as  little  worth 
as  the  witness  of  the  Church  in  proof  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  any  book. 

Johann   Salomo  Semler   (q.v.)  made   the  next 

contribution   of   importance    (in   his   Abhandlung 

von  freier  UrUerattchung  dea  Karumaf  4  parts,  Halle, 

1771-75),    when    he    distinguished    between    the 

word  of  God,  which  contained  the  doctrines  of 

directly  spiritual  value,  and  the  ^oly 

^  h^id?'  Scriptures,     which    contained     them 

imd        ^^y  sporadically.      There    is,    how- 

Q^^j^^  ever,  no  historical  proof  that  any 
particular  passage  was  the  word  of 
Qod;  the  inner  witness  for  the  truth  was  the 
only  source  of  proof.  The  Church  had  the  right, 
exercised  by  the  ancient  Church  and  by  the  Re- 
formers, to  say  what  books  should  constitute  the 
canon.  It  can  not  be  said  that  Introduction  was 
influenced  permanently  by  Semler;  the  greater 
impulse  was  given  by  Michaelis,  who  was  followed 
by  J.  E.  C.  Schmidt  (1804),  Eichhom  (1804-14), 
Hug  (1808),  Berthold  (1812),  and  De  Wette  (1826), 
while  in  En^and  Home  (1818)  had  included  in  his 
work  the  domains  of  Biblical  geography  and  an- 
tiquities, which  were  excluded  by  the  Germans. 
Schmidt  applied  the  phrase  "  historico-critical  " — 
since  so  widely  used — ^to  his  Introduction;  Eich- 
hom started  his  fraitful  "  original  Gospel  "  theory; 
Hug,  in  an  unexcelled  manner,  investigated  the 
relations  of  the  synoptists.  Schleiermacher  (1811) 
called  attention  to  the  need  of  a  reconstruction 
of  this  branch  of  study,  declaring  that  its  object 
was  a  history  of  the  New  Testament,  so  that  its 
present  readers  might  be,  in  their  knowledge  of 
the  origin  of  the  books  and  their  text,  on  a  level 
with  the  first.  Credner  ( 1832  sqq.)  projected  a  fairly 
complete  scheme  for  a  treatment  of  the  subject,  em- 
bracing the  history  of  the  science  of  Introduction, 
history  of  the  origin  of  the  New  Testament  Scrip- 
tures, history  of  the  canon,  of  translations,  of  the 
text,  and  of  interpretation.  This  scheme  he  was 
not  permitted  to  carry  out,  though  his  posthumous 
publications  completed  the  history  of  the  canon. 
Reuss  followed  Credner's  lead  in  the  Oeachichte 
der  heUigen  Sckriften  dea  Neuen  TeatamerUa  (Bruns- 
wick, 1842),  while  Hupfeld  made  a  contribution 
in  his  Begriff  und  Methode  der  ,  ,  .  bibliachen 
EirUeUung  (Marburg,  1844). 

Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  (q.v.;  d.  1860)  has  had 
by  far  the  most  influence  upon  New  Testament 
studies  of  any  man  of  modem  times.  He  attempted 
nothing  less  than  a  reconstruction  of  all  apostolic 


Bltlical  Introduotioix 
BibUoal  TheoloflT 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


182 


and  postapostoUc  history  and  literature,  from 
the  four   Pauline    epistles    (Galatians,  I    and   II 

Corinthians,     and      Romans)     which 
6.  Banr.    alone  he  considered  genuine.     Starting 

with  the  idea  that  the  difference 
between  Paul  and  the  rest  of  the  apostles  was 
fundamental,  he  declared  that  those  New  Testa- 
ment writings  which  either  put  the  relations  of  the 
apostles  in  a  more  favorable  light  or  seemed  to 
ignore  their  differences  altogether  were  either 
forgeries  or  the  products  of  a  later  time.  But  his 
historical  considerations  were  derived  from  Hegel's 
philosophy,  and  his  criticism  rested  upon  dogmatic 
convictions.  New  discoveries  of  vital  importance 
in  the  field  of  church  history  and  patristics  and  the 
recovery  of  the  Codex  Sinailicua  and  of  parts  of 
Tatian*^  Diatesaaron  from  Ephraem's  commentary 
have  given  a  new  basis  for  a  historical  discussion 
of  the  New  Testament  and  its  origin  and  contents. 
It  is  the  irony  of  history  upon  Baur's  methods  that 
the  modem  Dutch  school  have  used  Baur's  methods 
to  discredit  the  four  **  genuine "  epistles.  These 
four  points  may  be  made  against  Baur:  (1)  He 
reasoned  in  a  circle;  for  he  examined  critically, 
first  the  sources  of  the  history,  and  then  the  history 
of  the  sources.  The  reasoning  which  reduced  the 
genuine  Pauline  epistles  to  four  reduces  the  four 
to  none;  so  that  Paul  is  robbed  of  his  title  to  have 
produced  any  writing  which  lasted.  (2)  Baur 
certainly  was  extraorcynarily  familiar  with  the  old 
Christian  literature;  but  he  read  it  with  prejudice, 
and  not  with  a  desire  to  learn  anything  different 
from  his  preconceptions.  (3)  He  was  lacking  in 
the  sense  of  the  concrete  and  the  value  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  therefore  could  not  grasp  complicated 
relations  and  their  results.  (4)  If  it  is  self-evident 
that  one  must  understand  what  he  criticises,  and 
that  his  criticism  must  rest  upon  thorough  exegesis, 
then  Baur  surely  was  unfitted  for  his  labor;  for  he 
was  weak  as  an  exegete  and  his  school  has  done 
little  in  exegesis. 

It  may,  however,  be  added  that  the  deficiencies 
in  Baur's  method  of  work  were  supplied  by  others. 
B.  F.  Westcott's  General  Survey  of  the  History  of 
the  Canon  (London,  1855  and  often),  E.  Heuss's 
Uistoire  du  canon  (Strasburg,  1863),  A.  Hil- 
gcnfeld's  Kanon  und  die  Kritik  dee  Neuen  Tes- 
tamente    (Halle,   1863),  T.   Zahn's  Geachichie   dee 

neuteetamentlichen    Kanone    (2    vols., 
^w**^'    Leipsic,  188^-92),  and  A.  Loisy's  Hie- 
^  ioire  du  canon  du  Nouveau  Testament 

(Paris,  1891)  are  productions  of  this  character. 
Huch  works  as  W.  M.  Ramsay's  Church  in  the 
lloman  Empire  (London,  1893)  have  served  also 
aM  correctives  of  much  of  the  work  which  has  been 
accomplished  in  Germany.  The  studies  of  F»  Bleek 
roth  ed.,  1893;  Eng.  transl.  of  2d  Germ,  ed.,  1869), 
Hilgcnfeld  (1875),  Holtzmann  (1892),  Salmon  (1894), 
8,  Davidson  (1894),  Godet  (1893-99;  Eng.  transl. 
1894-09),  Zahn  (1900),  and  JoUcher  (1901;  Eng. 
trurml,  1904),  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics  Trenkle 
(\W.n)  and  Schflfer  (1898)  in  Introduction  are 
ifn(K/riant  contributions  to  the  science. 

2,  Th«  Conception  and  the  Task:  In  order  to 
//♦/♦/^in  an  adequate  comprehension  of  the  books 
t^/*./Jj  together  make  up  the  New  Testament  as 


witnesses  for  a  historical  mov^nent  and  to  secure 
for  them  safe  utilisation  as  historic  sources,  there 
is  required  a  scientific  investigation  of  their  origin. 
That  is,  there  must  be  inquiry  into  the  time  in 
which,  the  circumstances  under  which,  the  purpose 
for  which,  and  the  personal  relations  of  the  persoiu 
by  whom  they  were  produced.  In  other  words, 
the  method  of  research  is  literary-historical. 
Whether  this  can  be  called  a  science  is  d^Mtable, 
since  criticism  is  the  art  of  distinguishing  the  gen- 
uine from  the  spurious.  But  if  it  be  granted  that  an 
examination  from  a  historical  standpoint  of  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  and  an  adequate 
exposition  of  the  history  of  their  origin  is  really 
^^  His-  scientific,  it  is  none  the  less  a  fact  that 
tory  of  ^^®  process  has  a  theological  character. 
New  For  the  fact  that  this  literature  is 
Teeta-  Greek  and  sprang  up  in  the  Roman 
ment  worid  does  not  do  away  with  the  other 
Scrip,  fact  that  it  originated  in  certain 
*'*'•••  communities  which  had  in  certain 
vital  respects  their  existence  apart  from  the  worid 
about  them.  The  religious  element  marks  it  off 
from  the  other  productions  of  the  time,  and  the 
history  of  this  literature  is  one  aide  of  the  history 
of  the  Church.  If  Christianity  depends  upon  the 
historic  reality  of  a  revelation  mediated  by  Christ 
and  authoritatively  expounded  by  the  i^Mstles, 
it  is  no  unimportant  result  that  it  can  reach  his- 
torical foundiations  for  the  eariy  productions. 
And  those  foundations  are  found  in  the  writings 
brought  together  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
supereminent  value  in  this  respect  of  these  writings 
is  sufficient  justification  for  considering  them  apart. 
But  the  investigation  must  not  start  from  a  dog- 
matic conception  of  what  the  canon  is.  The  ground 
fact  is  that  even  from  the  second  century  thu: 
collection  has  existed  in  the  Church  and  has  been 
accepted  as  the  one  legitimate  source  for  the  history 
of  the  revelation  made  through  Christ.  But  if 
it  should  appear  that  there  are  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings  which  in  general  character  and  in 
origin  separate  themselves  widdy  from  the  rest 
of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  or  if  there  were 
outside  that  collection  writings  which  affiliate 
themselves  with  the  New  Testament  Scriptures, 
Introduction  can  not  content  itself  with  disregard- 
ing those  facts.  It  is  hardly  likely,  however,  that 
such  discoveries  will  be  made  as  will  compel  a 
radical  departure  from  the  aco^ted  procedure, 
that  there  will  come  to  light  such  writings  as  are 
referred  to  in  Luke  i,  1  sqq.,  or  the  correspondence 
of  Paul  with  the  Corinthians  implied  in  I  Cor.  v, 
9,  vii,  1.  Even  such  discoveries  as  those  last 
mentioned  would  not  be  likely  materially  to  change 
accepted  results,  and  the  business  of  the  discipline 
would  still  be  with  the  New  Testament  Scriptures. 
Along  with  the  history  of  the  separate  writing 
which  make  up  the  New  Testament  goes  as  a 
second  part  the  history  of  the  com- 
8.  Hie-  bination  of  these  into  the  canon  in 
*?^  which  they  have  been  transmitted 
Canon  ^  ^**®  present  time.  It  is  of  impor- 
tance to  examine  and  exhibit  the 
historical  antecedents  and  developments  which 
compassed  the  formation  of  this    collection,  the 


183 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblical  Introdnotioii 
BibUoal  Theology 


irregularity  and  vacillation  which  existed  during 
several  centuries,  and  the  adjustment  which  pro- 
duced a  final  and  uzuversally  accepted  result. 

The  examination  of  the  origins  of  the  individual 
writin^i  and  that  of  the  origin  of  the  collection 
supplement  each  other.  The  one  brings  to  light  the 
common  spirit  which  animated  the  individual 
writers,  the  other  reveals  the  influence  which  those 
writers  exercised  over  the  churches.  And  it  is 
noteworthy  that  the  collection  was  begun  almost, 
if  not  quite,  before  the  latest  writers  had  finished 
their  work,  so  that  no  i^predable  interval  of  time 
separated  the  two  operations  of  writing  and  of 
collection.  And  so,  notwithstanding  the  different 
areas  in  which  these  two  processes  work,  they 
belong  together  as  sections  of  the  one  discipline 
of  the  literary  history  of  the  New  Testament. 

As  to  the  inclusion  of  other  departments  in  this 
branch  of  study,  usage  differs.  Some  liave  in- 
duded  therein  noi  only  the  history  of  the  text 
and  of  translations,  but  also  the  history  of  the 
theological  handling  of  the  same.  But,  strictly 
i^eak^g,  neither  the  story  of  the  vicissitudes  of 
transmission  nor  the  history  of  translations  belongs 
here.  If  with  Credner  and  Reuss  the  history  of 
translations  is  put  as  a  part  of  the 
*crf«!?^**^  history  of  the  propagation  of  the  New 
—"*  Testament,  its  proper  place  is  in  the 

Yeraiona.  ^^^T  ^^  missions.  So  far  as  the 
versions  assist  in  the  recovery  of  the 
original  text,  the  treatment  of  them  belongs  in 
a  guide  to  the  exercise  of  text-criticism  or  in 
the  prolegomena  to  editions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. To  be  sure,  the  history  of  the  earlier  text 
and  that  of  the  old  versions  have  importance  for 
the  history  of  the  canon  because  of  the  fact  that  not 
BO  much  individual  books  as  the  entire  collection 
or  at  least  great  parts  of  the  collection  were  copied 
and  translated.  Were  greater  certainty  than  is 
yet  the  case  attainable  concerning  the  Syriac  and 
the  Latin  versions,  great  gains  would  be  made 
in  the  history  of  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  not  all  branches 
which  contribute  to  results  in  any  given  line  of 
research  are  to  be  included  in  the  department  of 
science  in  which  they  are  used.        (T.  Zahn.) 

Biblioo«apbt:  On  the  general  introduction  to  the  whole 
Bible  ooneolt:  C.  A.  Briggs,  Shuiy  of  Holy  Seriphare,  New 
Yoric,  1800  (the  best  book  for  a  comx»rehen8iye  survey); 
G.  T.  Ledd.  DoetrifM  of  Sacred  Scripture,  ib.  1883  (full 
but  dry);  E.  Rapin,  Lee  Livree  de  VAnden  et  du  Nouoeau 
TeekmetO,  Moodon,  1800;  A.  SohUtter,  BinUUung  in  die 
BihA,  Stuttgart,  1804  (conservative). 

On  the  (}anon  of  the  O.  T.  it  is  sufficient  to  mention: 
A.  Kuenen,  HiatorieihrkrHiedi  ondereoek  naar  het  onelaan 
der  verettunelinQ  van  de  bo^een  dee  Ouden  Verbonde,  3  vols., 
Leyden,  1886-03  (the  fullest  discussion);  F.  Buhl,  Kanon 
««d  Text  dee  Alien  Teetamente,  Leipsic,  1801,  Eng.  transL, 
Edinburgh,  1802  (a  model);  H.  E.  Ryle,  Canon  and  Text 
«/  Ote  O.  T.,  London,  1802  (reliable,  indispensable);  G. 
Wtldeboer,  Het  Onetaan  van  den  kanon  dee  Ouden  Ver- 
bondt,  Groningen,  1880,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1885  (all 
■todenU  should  have  it);  E.  Kautssch,  Abriee  der  Oe- 
•e^iAle  dee  alUeeiamenaiehen  Schrifttame,  in  his  Heilige 
Schrift  dee  A,  T.,  Freiburg,  1806,  Eng.  transl.,  OtMine 
of  As  BieL  of  the  LUeratare  of  the  O.  T.,  New  York,  1800 
(fnsh  and  interesting). 

On  O.  T.  Introduction  the  one  indispensable  book  is 
I^river,  Introduction,  latest  impression,  London,  1807. 
Consult  also  J.  P.  P.  Martin.  Introduction  h  la  critique  gS' 
K^rab  de  VA.  3*..  3  vols.,  Paris,  1888-80;  A.  F.  Eirkpat- 


rick.  The  Divine  Library  of  the  O.  7*.,  London,  1802  (con- 
servative); 8.  Davidson,  Introduction  to  the  O,  7*.,  3  vols., 
ib.  1804  (the  antithesis  of  Kirkpatrick);  H.  L.  Strack, 
EinUituno  in  dae  A.  7*.,  Munich,  1808;  W.  H.  Green, 
General  Introduction  to  the  O.  7*.,  2  vols..  New  York, 
1808-00  (the  extreme  in  conservatism);  W.  R.  Smith, 
O.  7*.  in  Jetoieh  Churth,  Edinburgh.  1002;  C.  H.  Comill. 
Eifdeituno  in  dae  A,  7*.,  Freiburg.  1005,  Eng.  transl.. 
1007;  J.  E.  McFadyen,  Introduction  to  the  O.  7*.,  New 
York,  1006;  K.  Budde,  GeechidUe  der  aUhOr&iechen  Lil- 
teratur,  Leipsic,  1006;  C.  L.  Gautier,  Introduction  & 
VA,  7*.,  2  vols.,  Lausanne.  1006. 

On  the  N.  T.  the  works  have  been  sufficiently  indicated 
in  the  text,  though  worthy  of  mention  are  A.  Loisy.  Hietoire 
du  Canon  du  N.  T.,  Paris.  1801;  Biblical  Introduction; 
N.  r.,  by  W.  Adeney,  London.  1800;  B.  W.  Bacon.  Intro- 
duction to  N,  r..  New  York.  1000;  H.  von  Soden.  Urchriet- 
lidie  Literatur-Oeediichte,  i.  Die  Sdiriften  deeN,T.,  Berlin, 
1005,  Eng.  transL,  1005. 

BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY. 

Origin  and  History  (f  1).        The  Old  Testament  (f  3). 
Study    of  New  Testament    Limitations  (f  4). 
Theology  (f  2).  Constructive  Work  (f  5). 

The  True  Aim  (f  6). 

Biblical  theology,  or  the  orderly  presentation  of 
the  doctrinal  contents  of  Scripture,  is  a  compara- 
tively modem  branch  of  theological  science.  In 
general  the  tenn  expresses  not  so  much  the  con- 
struction of  a  theology  which  is  Biblical  in  an 
especial  sense  as  a  method  of  dealing  with  the  Bib- 
lical matter  which  is  midway  between  exegesis  and 
dogmatics.  Its  object  and  limitation  can  be 
shown  best  by  tracing  its  history. 

So  long  as  the  Church  felt  or  admitted  no  dis- 
cord between  its  tradition  and  the  Biblical  tradition, 
there  was  no  need  to  compare  or  contrast  the 
contents  of  the  Bible  with  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  On  this  account  the  beginningis  of  a 
Biblical  theology  appear  in  the  circles  of  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  Reformation,  who  perceived  in  Scrip- 

2aJl  ''""'*^^  tradition.  Since  to  them 
History.  *^®  Bible  was  the  sufficient,  self-ex- 
plaining basis  of  dogmatics,  by  this 
juxtaposition  the  possibility  was  given  of  a  separ 
rate  treatment  of  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
Bible.  The  first  timid  effort  confined  itself  to 
a  discussion  of  the  customary  quotations  (Sebas- 
tian Schmidt,  Collegium  BibHcum  in  quo  dicta 
Veteria  et  Novi  Testamenti  juxta  aeriem  locorum  .  .  . 
explicantur,  1671).  Under  the  influence  of  Pietism 
the  close  connection  of  dogmatics  and  the  Bible 
was  relaxed,  because  in  the  latter  was  seen  less  an 
infallible  source  of  knowledge  than  a  means  of 
grace  (A.  F.  Basching,  Oedanken  von  der  Beschaffen- 
heit  und  dem  Vorzuge  der  bibliechen  Theologie  von 
der  scholastischen,  Lemgo,  1758,  and  similar  works). 
When  in  the  eighteenth  century  J.  S.  Sender  and 
his  school  busied  themselves  in  discovering  the 
differences  in  date  and  characteristics  of  the  dif- 
ferent books  of  the  Bible,  and  brought  to  light  the 
dissonance  between  crystallized  dogma  and  New 
Testament  teaching  (a  dissonance  greater  still  in 
the  case  of  the  Old  Testament),  the  desire  naturally 
arose  to  show  the  essential  agreement  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Church  and  that  of  the  Bible  by  an  un- 
prejudiced study  of  the  latter  (Q.  T.  ZachariA, 
BiUieche  Theologie  oder  UnUreuchung  dee  hibliechen 
Orundes  der  vomehnuten  kircMichen  Lekren,  5  vols., 
GOttingen,  1771-86).    The  rationalistic  school,  in 


BlbUoal  Thaolonr 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


184 


opposition  to  the  formulated  dogma  of  the  Church, 
endeavored  to  read  its  own  views  (those  of  natural 
religion)  into  the  Bible  (C.  F.  Ammon,  ErUwiddung 
einer  reinen  hibliachen  Theologie,  Erlangen,  1792; 
Q.  P.  C.  Kaiser,  Die  bibliache  Tkeoloffie  oder  JudaU" 
mu8  tmd  CkrisHaniamtLa  nach  einer  freimiUigen 
SteUung  in  die  kriH8chr^)ergleichende  Univenal- 
geechichte  der  Religumen  und  in  die  univenale 
Religion,  2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1813).  In  contradis- 
tinction to  this  there  was  during  the  nineteenth 
century  an  eager  desire  to  give  the  purely  historical 
results  of  examination  of  the  Bible.  In  this  way, 
the  fact  of  differences  of  conception  in  the  parts  of 
the  Bible  was  fully  brought  to  light. 

Probably  under  the  influence  of  Schleiermacher 
(q.v.)  especial  attention  was  directed  to  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  "sjnstems"  of  the  different 
apostles  were  separately  treated  (the  Pauline  by 
Meyer,  1801,  L.  Usteri,  1824;  the  Johannine  by 
K.  Fronmiann,  1839).  Along  with  this  an  effort 
was  made  to  show  the  unity  of  the  Ciospel  in  the 
very  variety  of  individual  conceptions  (of  the  many 
important  works,  note  A.  Neander,  OeechichU  der 
Pflantung  ,  .  .  der  chrietlichen  Kirche,  Hamburg, 
1832;  B.  Weiss,  lAhrbuch  der  IMiechen  Theologie, 

^   ^  Berlin,   1868;    W.  BeyscWag,  Neutea- 

f  N  ^  '®*"*^*^  r*arf<V*«,  Halle,  1891). 
TMtamfloat  ^^  ^^  same  time  another  class  of 
TheoloffF.  theologians  was  eagerly  engaged  in 
tracing  the  differences  of  the  individ- 
ual conceptions  to  their  very  roots.  According 
to  Hegel's  formula  the  crystfdlised  dogma  was  a 
synthesis  of  the  two  sharp  opposites  of  Paulin- 
ism  and  the  primitive  apostolate,  and  this  develop- 
ment was  followed  up  in  all  its  details  from  a 
literary-historical  point  of  view  (F.  C.  Baur; 
H.  E.  G.  Paulus;  F.  C.  A.  SchwegjLer,  Nachapos- 
toliechee  Zeilalter,  Tabingen,  1846;  O.  Pfleiderer, 
Pandiniemue,  Leipsic,  1873;  C.  Holsten,  Evange- 
lium  dee  Patdua  und  Petrue,  Rostock,  1868;  A. 
Hilgenfdd,  Urchristenium,  Jena,  1854).  In  like 
manner  the  life  of  Jesus  and  its  sources  were  treated, 
in  connection  with  which  work  there  originated  a 
countless  number  of  monographs  on  the  self- 
consciousness  of  Jesus  and  the  titles  he  assumed. 
The  result  from  this  point  of  view  was  the  con- 
viction that  New  Testament  theology  has  to  deal 
not  with  a  completed  whole,  but  with  a  mobile  and 
developing  Chnstianity.  Hence  "Biblical  The- 
ology "  and  "  Introduction "  together  represent 
simply  a  part  of  the  apparatus  of  general  church 
history  (cf.  A.  Hausrath,  NeuteetamenUiche  Zett- 
geechichte,  Heidelberg,  1868;  O.  Pfleiderer,  C/rcfcris- 
ientuM,  Berlin,  1887). 

Paralld  to  this  development  of  New  Testament 

theology  was  that  of  Old  Testament    theology. 

Students  came  to  discern  the  narrowness  and  one- 

sidedness  of  the  Old  Testament  religion,   upon 

which  Hengstenberg  vainly  insisted  in 

rwi  T  *     ^  obliteration  of  the  limits  between 

tJLentl  ^^®  ^^^  ^^  *^  ^®^  Testament.  In 
acknowledging  the  prindple  of  slow 
historical  genesis,  others  sought  to  understand  the 
development  of  the  Old  Testament  religion  by  the 
principle  that  no  doctrine  is  completed  in  the  Old 
Testammt,  no  doctrine  in  the  New  Testament  is 


altogether  new  (G.  F.  Oehler,  Theologie  du  Albai 
Teetamente,  TQbingen,  1873-74;  similaiiy  ScfaulU 
and  Riehm).  J.  Wellhausen  (Prolegomena  nr 
Oeechichte  Israde,  Berlin,  1886)  and  A.  Kueoen 
produced  a  revolution  in  the  treatment  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Under  the  influence  of  their  rdigiotts- 
historical  suppositions  and  literaiy-critical  ooq- 
dusions.  Old  Testament  theology  served  to  describe 
how  from  the  supposed  original  conditions,  from 
animism  and  totemism,  the  prophetic  moDotbeiam 
of  the  prophets  and  ultimately  the  theocratic 
ceremonialism  of  postexilic  Judaism  gradually 
developed  (B.  Duhm,  Theologie  der  Propi^am, 
Bonn,  1875;  R.  Smend,  AlUeatamenaichB  Bdigion*- 
geeckichte,  Freibui^,  1893;  S.  Kayser  and  Haiti). 
In  this  way  the  Old  Testament  religion  was  placed 
on  a  level  with  other  religions,  and  the  suiprisngty 
rich  discoveries  concerning  the  ancient  Onent  and 
the  rising  science  of  the  hktory  of  religion  grasped 
hands  with  this  method  of  treatment.  It  was  a 
natural  consequence  to  show  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment possesses  a  rich  heritage  of  religious  fancy 
common  to  ethnic  religions  (cf .  especially  H.  Gunkd, 
Schdpfung  und  Chaoe,  Gottingen,  1895;  BeligioM- 
geechichUiehe  Ahhandlung  dee  Neuen  Teetaments, 
1904).  The  idea  of  unity  and  special  individ- 
uality of  the  New  Testamoit  thus  goes  by  the 
board. 

In  glancing  over  the  devebpment  of  Biblical 
theology,  it  is  surprising  to  see  how  this  branch 
has  worked  out  its  own  disintegration.  In  the 
beginning  the  aim  was  to  make  the  Bible  the  only 
and  sole  source  of  Christian  doctrine  in  the  Be- 
formers'  understanding  of  the  phrase,  by  allowing 
it  to  speak  for  itself  without  introducing  any 
diluting  medium.  The  investigator  sought  to 
penetrate  its  polymorphous  nature,  and  finally 
saw  that  under  his  touch  the  uniting 

tktiM."    ^^^  *^  disappeared  which  fonneriy 

tanon  ^^^  together  the  disparate  parts 
and  made  it  an  undivided  object  of  scientific  re- 
search. This  self-immolation  the  discipline  owes 
to  a  oncHsided  maintenance  of  the  historical  and 
religious-historical  method.  Biblical  theology  must 
indeed  be  a  historical  science;  but  the  adjective 
must  not  become  a  noun  and  the  method  must  not 
master  the  subject.  For  in  this  study  there  are 
fundamental  perceptions  which  can  not  be  obtained 
by  literary  criticism  and  general  historical  researches. 
Thus  the  subject  itself — ^namely,  the  whole  Bible— 
suggests  the  question  whether  the  subject-niatter 
is  the  remains  of  a  religious  literature  or  documents, 
productions,  and  descriptions  of  a  history  which  is 
fixed  by  a  revelation  from  God.  And  the  answer 
to  this  question  is  of  the  greatest  import  for  the 
investigation.  How  different  must  be  the  verdict 
of  higher  criticism,  provided  the  miracles  or  the 
declarations  of  Jesus  are  regarded  as  a  priori 
historically  possible  or  impossible;  how  mudi  the 
selection  of  the  matter  decides  whether  one  shall 
find  only  religious^thical  views,  or  historical  facts 
of  the  "  religion  of  Jesus,"  or  that  ''  the  belief  in 
Christ "  belongs  to  the  essence  of  Christianity. 

For  this  reason  there  has  always  existed  an 
opposition  to  the  development  described  above. 
T^  history  of  salvation  with  its  literary  deposit 


185 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BibUcal  Theolo  J7 


ought  not  to  be  resolved  into  a  purely  human 
development.  The  impression  is  gained  rather 
that  the  Bible  contains  a  primary 
5.  C<m»  lifg  Qf  faith,  having  the  character  of 
Work,  uncorrupted  self-consistency  and  un- 
broken independence,  and  that  con- 
sequently there  is  underneath  a  uniform  and 
fundamental  idea.  As  standing  for  this,  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  K.  I.  Nitzsch,  System  der 
chrisdichenLehr^  (Bonn,  1829),  and H.  Ewald,  Lehre 
der  Bibel  von  OoU  (3  vols.,  Leipsic,  1871),  and  par- 
ticularly of  J.  C.  K.  von  Hofmann,  whose  great 
work  (Die  hetlige  Schrift  dee  Neuen  TestamenU 
nteammenhdngend  wUersucht,  completed  by  Volck, 
Munich,  1886)  culminated  in  the  description  of  the 
history  of  the  entire  New  Testament  preaching  as  a 
historical  development  of  the  uniform  word  which 
is  not  the  product  of  the  individual  authors.  Her- 
mann Cremer  {BiblUchrtheoloqisches  WCrterbuch 
der  neiUeeiamenUichen  GrdcUdtf  8th  ed.,  Gotha, 
1895)  endeavored  in  a  new  way  to  bring  into  view 
the  unity  of  the  contents  of  Scripture  by  collecting 
the  individual  notions  of  the  Bible  and  following 
their  development  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek. 
According  to  him  there  are  not  only  different  modes 
of  expression  at  different  times,  but  there  is  a  Bible- 
language,  a  linguistic  body  of  the  divine  word, 
ever  developing  itself.  It  is  a  scientific  necessity 
that  Biblical  theology  regard  the  individuality  of 
the  Bible  as  the  basal  principle  of  its  entire  activity. 
For  the  religion  of  the  Bible  is  not  merely  a  part  of 
the  historical  past;  it  is  an  active  factor  in  the  pres- 
ent. In  like  manner  the  Bible  is  not  merely  a 
document  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  Chris- 
Uan  Church  originated;  it  is  the  authentic  tradition 
of  the  word  of  God,  out  of  which  the  Church  is 
ever  originating  (M.  Kaehler,  Der  historieche  Jestu, 
2d  ed.,  Ijeipsic,  1896).  On  this  account  Biblical 
theology  must  always  proceed  from  the  unexcep- 
tionable agreement,  which  can  only  be  reached  at 
the  end  of  a  devdopment;  its  way  leads,  therefore, 
from  the  New  to  the  Old  Testament,  through  the 
whole  to  the  parts.  Since,  however,  that  result 
is  nowhere  offered  in  complete  form,  it  is  the  task 
of  this  branch  to  educe  from  that  which  exists  what 
is  essential — the  entirety — so  that  the  examination 
of  the  particular  is  ever  a  means  to  an  end,  and  is 
always  under  the  control  of  the  final  aim  of  the 
work. 

Accordin^y  it  is  not  the  task  of  Biblical  theology 
to  criticize  the  theology  of  the  Bible  and  to  judge 
it  by  the  measure  of  a  probable  understanding  of 
the  original  to  be  obtained  scientif- 
ically, but  to  show  as  a  matter  of  fact 
what  the  contents  of  the  Bible  are 
and  at  the  same  time  to  bring  into 
view  the  flifferent  forms  and  shapes  in  which  these 
contents  are  offered.  It  owes  to  the  Church  a  pure 
exhibition  of  the  "  word  "  by  the  preaching  of  which 
tbe  Church  has  lived  in  all  ages.  On  this  account 
no  help  is  gained  by  considering  some  **  probable 
gofipel  of  Jesus,"  sought  behind  the  sources,  but  the 
necessity  is  that  the  Jesus  Christ  of  primitive 
tradition  be  described,  and  that  in  the  various 
fomiB  in  which  it  has  been  handed  down.  Again, 
the  highest  aim  is  always  to  produce  a  theology 


e.  The 
Tme 


of  the  entire  Bible  (such  an  effort  is  K.  Schlottmann, 
Kompendium  der  biblischen  Theologie,  2d  ed., 
Leipsic,  1895).  But  the  separate  treatment  of  the 
Testaments  will  generally  recommend  itself  for 
practical  reasons,  since  a  great  deal  of  preliminary 
work  is  necessary  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  because 
the  difference  of  degrees  of  revelation  must  be  in- 
dicated. But  the  correlation  between  the  two  must, 
after  all,  never  be  overlooked.  It  is  a  matter  of 
course  that  the  Biblical  theology  of  the  whole 
Bible  can  never  dispense  with  exegesis.  But  it 
raises  itself  above  the  purely  exegetical  by  its 
relation  to  systematic  theology.  It  is  released  from 
the  duty  of  exhibiting  all  the  mazes  and  changes 
of  development  which  are  not  essential  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  unified  whole.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  must  not  be  misled  into  compressing  Biblical 
riches  into  a  narrow,  one-sided  system,  which  will 
take  the  form  of  contemporary  dogmatics,  for  the 
dogmatic  interest  will  take  charge  of  the  process 
of  digesting  the  inmiense  amount  of  subject-matter. 
One  task  of  Biblical  theology  is  to  open  the  way  of 
return  from  contemporary  crystallization  into 
formulas  in  dogmatics  to  the  source  itself.  In  this 
sense  it  will  be  of  very  great  service  to  evangelical 
theology,  provided  it  directs  us  to  disclose  more 
clearly  and  richly  God's  word  in  Holy  Scripture 
and  thus  protests  in  the  name  of  the  docmnent  of 
revelation  against  every  claim  of  human  infal- 
libility, for  "  God  alone  is  infallible  "  (Zwingli). 

M.  Kaehler. 
Bibugobapht:  DiBOiusions  on  the  methoda  of  the  disci- 
pline are  in:  C.  A.  Brigga,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp. 
509-^06,  New  York.  1899  (hiBtorical  and  oritical,  dis- 
criminating);  Q.  R.  Crooks  and  J.  F.  Hurst,  Theological 
BneydopeKiia  and  Methodology,  pp.  249-265,  New  York. 
1894;  A.  Cave,  Introdtietion  to  Theology,  pp.  406-421, 
Edinbuish.  1890;  W.  Wrede.  Ueber  Aufgabe  und  Me- 
Ihode  der  eogenanrUen  neuteetafnetUlichen  Theologie,  Gdt- 
tingen,  1897;  L.  Emery,  Introduction  it  I'Hude  de  la  thSologie 
proteetante,  pp.  122-127,  Paris,  1904  (the  foregoing  all 
contain  bibliographies).  An  exoellent  reriew  of  recent 
literature  is  furnished  in  the  Theologiaehe  Rundechau, 
May,  1907  (an  excellent  periodical  deyoted  to  the  review 
of  works  on  theology). 

Works  additional  to  those  in  the  text  which  deal  with 
the  whole  of  Biblical  theology  or  of  some  phase  of  both 
the  O.  and  the  N.  T.  are:  L.  Noaok,  Die  biblieche  Theolo- 
gie, HaUe,  1863;  F.  Gardner,  The  Old  and  the  N.  T.  in 
their  Mutual  Relatione,  New  York.  1886;  H.  Schults, 
Altteekunentliehe  Theologie,  (36ttingen,  1886.  Eng.  transl., 
Edinburgh,  1892;  W.  L.  Alexander,  A  Syetem  of  Bibli- 
cal Theology,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1888;  C.  L.  Fillion, 
L'ld^  centraU  de  la  Bible,  Paris,  1888;  C.  Q.  Cha- 
rannes,  La  Reliffion  dane  la  Bible,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1889; 
C.  H.  Toy,  Judaiem  and  ChrieHanity,  Boston,  1890 
(called  by  Dr.  Briggs  '*  the  best  book  on  the  subject "); 
A.  Duff,  O.  7*.  Theology,  Edinburgh,  1891  (original); 
R.  H.  (Charles.  Critical  Hietory  of  the  Doctrine  of  a 
Future  Life  in  lerael,  Judaiem  and  Chrietianity,  Lon- 
don, 1899  (the  one  book  in  the  field). 

Additional  and  worthy  books  on  O.  T.  theology  are: 
C.  H.  Piepenbring,  TMologie  deVAncien  Teetament,  Paris, 
1886,  Eng.  transl..  New  York.  1893;  A.  Dillmann.  Hand- 
buck  der  altieetamentlichen  Theologie,  Leipsic,  1896  (post- 
humous); W.  H.  Bennett,  Theology  of  the  O.  T.,  London, 
1896  (a  handbook);  R.  Smend.  Lehrbueh  der  altteetament- 
lichen  Religionegeediiehte,  Freiburg.  1899;  A.  B.  Davidson, 
The  Theology  of  the  O,  T.,  Edinburgh,  1904  (somewhat 
disappointing). 

Additional  works  on  the  N.  T.  are  W.  F.  Adeney,  The- 
ology  of  the  N.  T.,  London,  1894  (corresponds  to  Bennett 
on  the  O.  T.);  H.  J.  Holtsmann.  Lehrbueh  der  neuieeta- 
menUidien  Theologie,  2  vols.,  Tttbingen,  1897  (one  of  the 
best  on  the  subject);  G.  B.  Stevens.  Theology  of  the 
N,  7*.,  New  York,  1899;  E.  P.  Gould,  BMical  Theology  of 


BibUoisto 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


186 


ih»  N.  r..  New  York.  1000;  D.  F.  Estes,  An  OuUifM  of 
N.  T,  Th§oloay.  ib.  1901;  J.  Bovon,  ThMoffie  du  N.  T„ 
2  yols.,  Lauaaime,  1803-04.  toI.  i,  2d  ad..  1002. 

BIBLICISTS,  BIBUCAL  DOCTORS:  A  name 
sometimes  given  to  those  who,  during  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  demonstrated  religbus 
truths  by  the  Scriptures  and  by  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers,  in  contrast  to  others,  who  aban- 
doned Scripture  and  tradition  in  order  to  gjve 
full  rein  to  their  fancy  and  philosophy.  The  most 
of  the  latter  were  Dominican  and  Frandscan  monks 
who,  since  their  orders  held  no  property,  had  no 
libraries,  and,  owing  to  their  unsettled  and  vagrant 
lives,  had  little  opportunity  for  the  study  of  books. 
Some  of  the  Biblical  doctors  were  scholars,  and  pro- 
duced valuable  works;  but  the  majority  of  them 
were  servile  imitators  of  their  predecessors. 

BIBRAy  BICHOLAS    OF.     See     Nicholas    of 

BiBRA. 

BICKELL,  OnSTAV:  German  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  and  Orientalist;  b.  at  Cassel  July  7, 
1838;  d.  at  Vienna  Jan.  15,  1906.  In  1862  he  be- 
came privat-docent  of  Semitic  and  Indo-Germanic 
philology  at  Marburg,  and  in  the  following  year 
went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Giessen.  Two  years 
later  he  became  a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1866,  and  from  1867  to  1874 
taught  Oriental  languages  in  the  academy  of  MQn- 
ster,  where  he  was  appointed  associate  professor 
in  1871.  From  1874  to  1891  he  was  professor  of 
Christian  archeology  and  Semitic  languages  in  the 
University  of  Innsbruck,  and  from  the  latter  year 
until  his  death  was  professor  of  Semitic  philology 
at  the  University  of  Vienna.  He  wrote:  De  indole  ac 
ratione  versumia  Alexandrina  in  interpretando  W)ro 
Jobi  (Marbui^,  1862);  SanctiEphraemiSyricarmina 
Nisibena  (Leipsic,  1866);  Grundri88  der  hebr&iachm 
Orammaiik  (2  vols.,  1869-70;  Eng.  transl.  by  S.  I. 
Curtiss,  1877);  GrUnde  fur  die  UnfehOHxrkeit  dee 
Kirchenoberhauptee  (MOnster,  1870);  Conepedue 
rei  Surorum  litercaricB  (1871);  Meeee  und  Paecha 
(1872,  Eng.  transl.  by  W.  F.  Skene,  Edinburgh, 
1891);  Sancti  leaaci  AnHocheni  opera  omnia  (2 
vols.,  Giessen,  1873);  Kalilag  und  Damnag,  aUe 
eyrieche  UebereeUung  dee  indiechen  FUretenepiegele 
(text  and  translation,  Leipsic,  1876);  Metricee 
biblica  regula  exemplie  iUuetrata  (Innsbruck,  1879); 
Synodi  Brixineneee  ecBculi  quindedmi  (1880); 
Carmina  Veterie  TeetamenH  metrica  (1882);  Dicht^ 
ungen  der  Hebrder  (1882);  Kohdethe  Untersuchung 
vber  den  Wert  dee  Daeeine  (1884);  and  Dae  Buck 
Job  nach  ArUaee  der  StrophUs  und  der  Septuaginta 
auf  eeine  ureprUngliche  Form  tuhUkgefUhrt  und  im 
Veremaeee  dee  Urtextee  iibereeUt  (Vienna,  1894). 

BICKELL,  JOHAHN  WILHELM:  Writer  on 
canon  law;  b.  at  Marburg  Nov.  2,  1799;  d.  at 
Cassel  Jan.  23,  1848.  He  studied  law  at  Marburg 
and  Gdttingen;  was  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
Bfarburg,  1824--34;  president  of  the  supreme  court 
of  Hesse-Cassel,  1841,  and  minister  of  state,  1846. 
He  wrote  Ueber  die  Entetehung  ,  ,  ,  dee  Corpue 
Jurie  Canonid  (Marburg,  1825);  Ueber  die  Reform 
der  proteetantiechen  Kirdienverfaseung  ( 1 83 1 ) ;  Ueber 
die  Verpflichiung  der  evangeliechen  Oeietlichen  auf 
die  eymbolischen  Sckriften  (Cassel,   1839;  2d  ed.. 


1840);  of  his  Geechichte  dee  Kvrchenrechte,  only  one 
volume  was  completed  (part  i,  Giessen,  1843; 
part  ii,  Frankfort,  1849). 

BICKERSTETH,  EDWARD:  The  name  of 
three  deigsrmen  of  the  Church  of  England. 

1.  A  leader  of  the  Evangelicals;  b.  at  IGrkby 
Lonsdale  (60  m.  n.  of  Liverpool),  Westmoreland, 
Mar.  19,  1786;  d.  at  Watton  (21  m.  w.s.w.  of 
Norwich),  Hertfordshire,  Feb.  28,  1850.  He  was 
at  first  a  lawyer  and  practised  at  Norwich,  but  he 
was  always  of  deeply  religious  temperament  and  in 
1815  received  priest's  orders  and  was  sent  to  Africa 
by  the  Church  Missionary  Society  to  inspect  Uie 
work  there.  Returning  in  Aug.,  1816,  he  became 
one  of  the  society's  secretaries  and  for  the  rest  of 
his  life  spent  much  time  traveling  in  the  service 
of  the  society;  in  1830  he  became  rector  of  Watton. 
He  was  an  active  opponent  of  the  Tractarian  Move- 
ment, and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangriicai 
Alliance  and  of  the  Irish  Church  Missions  Society. 
His  published  works  were  numerous  and  many 
were  very  popular;  the  more  important  (A  Help 
to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptwree,  21st  edition;  A  Treor 
tiee  on  Prayer,  14th  edition;  A  Treatiee  on  the 
Lord's  Supper,  13th  edition;  A  Guide  to  the  Propkr 
eeiee,  8th  edition;  and  others)  were  collected  in 
sixteen  volumes  (London,  1853).  He  also  com- 
piled Christian  Psalmody  (Hereford,  1833),  a  much- 
used  hymn-book,  and  edited  the  Christian's  FamUy 
Library  (50  vols.). 

Bibuoorapht:  T.  R.  Birka,  Memoir  cf  B,  Biekenldk,  3 
▼oIb.,  London,  1856  (by  his  son-in-Uw);  DNB,  ▼.  3-4. 

8.  Dean  of  Lichfield,  nephew  of  the  preceding; 
b.  at  Acton  (12  m.  s.  by  e.  of  Bury  St.  Edmund's), 
Suffolk,  Oct.  23,  1814;  d.  at  Leamington  (80  m. 
n.w.  of  London)  Oct.  7,  1892.  He  studied  at 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge  (BA.,  1836; 
M.A.,  1830;  D.D.,  1864),  and  at  Durham  Univer- 
sity; became  curate  of  CJhetton,  Shropshire,  1838; 
at  the  Abbey,  Shrewsbuiy,  1839;  Penn  Street, 
Buckinghamshire,  1849;  vicar  of  Asrlesbury  and 
archdeacon  of  Buckinghamshire,  1853;  honoraiy 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1866;  dean  of 
Lichfield,  1875;  resigned  in  1892.  In  1864,  1866, 
1869,  and  1874  he  was  prolocutor  of  the  lower  house 
of  convocation  of  Canterbury,  and  as  such  was  a 
member  of  the  conmiitteeof  New  Testament  revisers. 
He  was  a  High-churchman.  He  published  Diocesan 
Synods  in  Relation  to  Convocation  and  Parliament 
(London,  1867);  My  Hereafter  (1883);  edited  the 
fifth  edition  of  R.  W.  Evans's  Bishopric  of  Souls 
(1877),  with  a  memoir  of  the  author;  and  contrib- 
uted the  commentary  on  Mark  to  the  PuipU  Com- 
mentary (1882). 

3.  Bishop  of  South  Tokyo,  Js^an,  eldest  son  of 
Edward  Henry  Bickersteth  (q.v.);  b.  at  Banning- 
ham  (10  m.  n.  of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  June  26, 
1850;  d,  at  Chisledon  (30  m.  n.  of  SaKsbury),Wat- 
shire,  Aug.  5,  1897.  He  was  educated  at  C^am- 
bridge  (B.A.,  1873),  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1874. 
He  was  curate  at  Hampstead,  London,  1873-75: 
fellow  of  Pembroke  College,  Cambridge,  from  1875 
till  1877,  when  he  headed  the  Cambridge  Mis- 
sion for  Delhi,  India.  In  this  mission  he  so  im- 
paired his  health  that   he  waa  obliged  to  return 


187 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biblioists 
Biddle 


to  En^and  in  1882,  and  he  became  rector  of  Fram- 
iingham,  Suffolk.  In  1886  he  was  consecrated  bish- 
op of  Japan.  He  was  an  extreme  High-churchman 
and  strove  to  reproduce  this  type  of  church  life 
among  the  Japanese.  The  result  was  the  so-called 
**  Catholic  Church  of  Japan"  {Nippon  Sei  Kokwai). 
In  1887  a  visit  to  Korea  bore  fruit  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  mission  in  that  coimtry.  In  1892  his 
visit  to  the  Anglican  mission  stations  in  Japan 
convinced  him  that  there  should  be  more  bishops; 
accordin^y  his  diocese  was  made  that  of  South 
Tokyo.  Again  his  health  gave  way  and  he  retiuned 
home  to  die.  His  lectures  for  Japanese  divinity 
students  were  published  under  the  title  Our  Heritage 
in  the  Church  (London,  1898). 

Bibuogbafbt:  S.  Biokerateth,  Life  and  Lettert  of  Edward 
Bickentetk,  Biahop  of  South  Tokjfo,  London,  1006  (by  his 
brother). 

BICKERSTETH,  EDWARD  HENRY:  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  son  of  Edward  Bickersteth,  1;  b.  at  Isling- 
ton, London,  Jan.  25,  1825;  d.  in  London  May 
16, 1906.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge (BA.,  1847),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in 
1848,  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following  year. 
He  was  curate  of  Banningham,  Norfolk  (1848-51); 
rector  of  Hinton  BlarteU,  Dorset  (1852-55);  vicar  of 
Christ  Church,  Hampstead  (1855-85);  rural  dean  of 
Highgate  (1878-85),  and  dean  of  Gloucester  (1885). 
He  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1885,  but 
resigned  five  years  later  on  account  of  age.  He 
wrote  Water  from  the  WeU  Spring  (London,  1852); 
The  Rock  of  Ages  (1857);  Commeniary  on  the  New 
Testament  (1864);  Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever 
(poem  in  twelve  books,  1866;  prized  as  a  devout 
revelation  of  heaven);  The  Spirit  of  Life  (1869); 
Hymnal  Companion  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(1870);  The  Two  Brothers  and  Other  Poems  (1871); 
The  Reef  and  Other  Parables  (1873);  The  Shadowed 
Home  and  the  Light  Beyond  (1874);  Words  of 
Counsel  to  the  Clergy  and  Laity  of  the  Diocese  of 
Exeter  (1888);  Charge  at  Third  VisitaOan  (1895); 
From  Year  to  Year  (1895);  The  Feast  of  Divine 
Love  (1896);  and  Charge  at  Fourth  Visitation 
(1898).  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  well- 
Imown  hymns. 

BiBLioomAPHT:  F.  K.  Aglionby,  Life  of  B.  H,  Biekeretetti, 
London.  1907. 

BICEERSTETHy  SAMUEL:  Church  of  Eng- 
land, second  son  of  Edward  Henry  Bickersteth 
(q.v.);  b.  at  Hampstead  Sept.  9,  1857.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford  (B  A.,  1881), 
and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1881  and  ordained 
priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  successively 
curate  of  Christ  Church,  Lancaster  Gate  (1881-84); 
chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Ripon  (1884-87);  vicar  of 
Belvedere,  Kent  (1887-91);  and  vicar  of  Lewisham 
(1891-1905).  Since  1905  he  has  been  vicar  of 
Leeds  and  rural  dean.  He  has  written  Life  and 
Letters  of  Edward  Bickersteth,  DJ).,  Bishop  of 
South  Tokyo  (his  brother,  London,  1899),  and  is 
the  editor  of  the  Preachers  of  the  Age  series. 

BIDDING  PRATER:  Originally  bidding  of  pray- 
ers, signifying  "  the  praying  (offering)  of  prayers," 
one  of  the  meanings  of  the  verb  "  to  bid"  down 
to  the  Reformation  being  "to  ask  pressingly,  to 


beg,  to  pray."  As  this  meaning  became  obsolete 
the  phrase  was  interpreted  to  mean  "the  ordering 
or  directing  of  prayers";  i.e.,  an  authoritative 
direction  to  the  people  concerning  what  or  whom 
they  should  pray  for,  such  directions  being  not  im- 
common  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Still  later  "bidding"  was  taken  as  an  adjective 
and  the  phrase  "bidding  prayer"  came  to  mean 
the  prayer  before  the  sermon,  which  the  preacher 
introduced  by  directing  the  congregation  to  pray 
for  the  Church  catholic,  the  sovereign  and  the 
royal  family,  different  estates  of  men,  etc.  (Con- 
stitution and  Canons  of  the  Church  of  England, 
I  55).  A  collect  is  now  usually  substituted  for  it, 
as  the  sermon,  except  on  rare  occasions,  is  preceded 
by  the  common  prayers,  which  include  the  petitions 
prescribed  by  the  canon.  When,  however,  these 
prayers  are  not  sud  before  the  sermon  (as  at  univer- 
sity sermons),  and  on  occasions  of  more  than  usual 
solemnity,  the  "  bidding  prayer"  is  used. 

Bxbuoobafht:  Fomu  of  the  Bidding  Prayer  are  to  be 
found  in  Matiuale  ef  Proceaaionale  .  .  .  eedeeia  Ehoror 
eenMie,  ed.  W.  G.  Henderson  in  Surteee  Society  Publica- 
tions, no.  63,  Dtirham,  1875,  and  in  F.  Procter.  Hist  of 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  .  .  .  revieed  by  W.  H.  Frere, 
p.  304,  London,  1005.  Consult  C.  Wheatley,  Bidding  of 
Prayere  before  Sermontt  London,  1845;  D.  Rock,  Churdi 
of  our  Fathere,  3  vols.,  ib.  1840-53. 

BIDDLE,  JOHN:  A  founder  of  modem  English 
Unitarianism;  b.  at  Wotton-under-Edge  (15  m.  a. 
of  Gloucester),  where  he  was  baptized  Jan.  14, 
1615;  d.  in  a  London  jail  Sept.  22,  1662.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  appointed  head  master 
of  the  free  school  in  the  parish  of  St.  Mary  le  Oypt, 
Gloucester,  1641.  Study  of  the  Scriptures  led  him 
to  disbelieve  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and,  his 
unsoundness  being  reported  to  the  city  magistrates, 
he  was  summoned  before  them.  Fearing  imprison- 
ment, he  made  a  confession  of  faith  (May  2,  1644) 
which  was  not  satisfactory,  and  so  he  made  a  second 
in  which  he  used  more  conventional  language 
and  was  allowed  to  go  free.  He  then  committed 
to  paper  Twelve  Arguments  Drawn  out  of  Scripture : 
wherein  the  commonly  received  opinion  touching 
the  Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  clearly  and  fully 
refuted,  and  to  these  views  he  was  faithful  the  rest 
of  his  life.  A  friend  informed  the  magistrates  of 
the  existence  of  this  p^>er  and  so  he  was  cited  before 
the  oonmiittee  of  Parliament  then  at  Gloucester, 
and  put  in  the  common  jail  Dec.  2, 1645.  Happily 
a  prominent  citizen  bailed  him  out.  In  1646  he 
was  summoned  to  appear  before  Parliament  at 
Westminster  to  explain  his  position,  and  boldly 
avowed  his  belief.  He  was  committed  to  the  cus- 
tody of  one  of  the  officers  of  the  House  of  Commons 
and  so  continued  for  five  years.  Meanwhile  a 
committee  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  sitting  at 
Westminster  considered  his  case  and  to  them  he 
gave  a  copy  of  his  Twelve  Arguments,  They  made 
answer  to  it,  but  did  not  move  him.  So  in  1647  he 
published  his  paper,  which  makes  a  tract  of  thirty- 
eight  small  pages.  It  stirred  up  great  indignation 
and  was  suppressed  and  burned  by  the  common 
hangman.  Next  he  published  A  Confession  of 
Faith  Touching  the  Holy  Trinity,  according  to  the 
Scripture  (1648),  a  tract  of  seventy-five  small 
pages,  in  which  in  six  articles,  accompanied  by 


Biedermana 
BiUioan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


188 


expontionB,  he  plainly  states  his  views,  making 
GkKl  the  Father  the  first  person  of  the  Holy  Trinity; 
one  chief  Son  of  the  most  high  God,  with  only  a  hu- 
man nature,  though  our  Qod  by  reason  of  his  divine 
sovereignty  over  us,  yet  subordinate  to  the  most 
high  God,  the  second  person;  and  one  principal 
minister  of  God  and  Christ  the  third.  Next 
came  another  tract  (eighty-six  pages)  containing 
alleged  testimonies  in  favor  of  fads  views  from  the 
Fathers.  In  1648  Parliament,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Westminster  divines,  made  denial  of  the  Trinity 
a  capital  offense,  yet  Biddle  was  not  only  not 
put  to  death,  but  in  1649  was  released  on  bail.  He 
became  a  chaplain  and  preacher  in  Staffordshire, 
but  was  shortly  recalled  and  remained  in  prison 
till  Feb.,  1651.  On  his  release  he  publicly  advo- 
cated his  views  and  continued  his  publications 
with  A  Two-fold  Catechiam ;  the  one  simply  called 
a  Scrvpture  Catechiam;  the  other  a  brief  ScripUire 
Catechiem  for  Children  (1654,  the  first  of  141  small 
pages,  the  second  of  thirty-four,  both  with  a  pref- 
ace). The  answers,  being  entirely  in  quoted  Scrip- 
ture, could  not  be  gainsaid,  but  the  questions  were 
open  to  serious  criticism.  Consequently  he  was 
examined  by  the  House  of  Commons  and  com- 
mitted to  prison  on  Dec.  3,  1654,  and  was  not  re- 
leased till  May  28, 1655.  The  Catechism  was  burned 
by  the  common  hangman  Dec.  14, 1654.  Again  pub- 
licly advocating  his  beliefs  on  July  3,  1655,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  and  a  little  later  was  tried  for  his 
life  on  the  ordinance  above  mentioned.  Crom- 
well, unwilling  to  put  him  to  death,  banished  him 
to  the  Scilly  Islands  (Oct.  5, 1655),  and  allowed  him 
100  crowns  a  year  for  maintenance.  In  1658 
he  was  released,  and  resumed  preaching.  In  the 
latter  part  of  Aug.,  1662,  he  was  again  imprisoned 
and  after  five  weeks  died. 

Biblioorapht:  The  principal  souroe  of  information  resp«oi- 
ing  Biddle  is  the  Life  by  Joshua  Touhnin,  London,  1780, 
which  analyses  all  his  writings,  including  several  transla- 
tions not  mentioned  above.  There  are  earlier  accounts, 
such  as  /.  BideUi  Vita,  by  J.  Farrington,  ib.  1682,  and 
A  Short  AeeoufU  of  the  Life  of  John  Biddle,  ib.  1001.  Con- 
sult also  A.  k  Wood,  AAenm  OxonionaeB,  ed.  P.  P.  Bliss, 
iii,  503-603,  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20;  J.  H.  Allen,  Hietorioal 
Sketch  of  the  UnUarian  Movement,  pp.  131-135.  New  York, 
1804;  DNB,  v,  13-16.  Some  additional  information  is 
in  Walter  Lloyd's  Bioenienary  of  Barton  Street  Dieeenting 
Meeting  Houee,  Qlouceeter,  pp.  40-50,  Gloucester,  1800. 

BIEDERMAinr,  btMer^mdn,  ALOIS  EMAITUSL: 
Swiss  Protestant;  b.  near  Bendlikon,  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich  (4  m.  from  the  city). 
Mar.  2,  1819;  d.  at  Zurich  Jan.  25,  1885.  He 
studied  at  Basel  1837^9,  and  then  at  Berlin; 
became  pastor  at  M6nchenstein  (3  m.  s.  of  Basel) 
1843;  professor  extraordinary  at  Zurich  1850, 
ordinary  1860,  where  he  lectured  at  first  upon 
theological  encyclopedia  and  New  Testament  in- 
troduction, later  chiefly  upon  dogmatic  theology. 
He  was  the  leading  theologian  of  the  neo-Hegelians, 
and  was  deeply  influenced  by  the  TQbingen  school, 
especially  by  Strauss.  He  was  a  prolific  writer 
for  the  religious  press,  but  obtained  his  greatest 
repute  by  his  Christlidie  Dogmaiik  (Zurich,  1869; 
2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1884-85,  vol.  ii  edited  by  Rehmke), 
in  which  he  denies  the  historicity  of  the  Gospels, 
yet  holds  to  the  eternal  ideas  which  the  supposed 
facts    of    the    Gospels    embody;  denies  Christian 


doctrine,  but  advocates  Christian  practise;  denies 
personality  to  God  and  personal  immortality  to 
man,  yet  holds  that  love  to  God  and  man  consti- 
tutes the  essence  of  religion.  He  took  a  deep 
interest  in  education  and  public  affairs,  preached 
often  and  by  preference  to  small  and  weak  congre- 
gations, and  was  tactful  and  courteous  in  his  asso- 
ciations with  men  of  all  classes;  he  was  a  lover  of 
athletics  and  a  robust  mountain-climber.  Many 
of  his  briefer  publications  were  collected  under  the 
title  AttsgewMie  Vortrdge  vmd  Aufsdtte,  with  a 
biogn^hical  introduction  by  J.  Kradolfer  (Beriin, 
1885). 

Bibuoobapht:  For  further  notes  on  Biedennann's  life  con- 
sult J.  J.  Oeri,  Peredniiehe  Erinnerungen  an  Biedormanm, 
in  KirtkenUaU  fUr  die  reformierle  Schufoit,  1886.  noa.  7- 
18.  On  his  theology  and  philosophy  oonsult  O.  Pfldderer. 
ReligionephHoeophie,  i,  504,  Berlin,  18H3;  idem,  in  Preajt- 
tieehe  JahrblUher,  Jan..  1886,  pp.  63-76;  T.  Moosberr. 
ii.  B.  Biedermann  naeh  eeineraUgemeinenphiloeophiaehn 
SieUung,  Jena,  1893. 

BIEL,  btl,  GABRIEL:  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able theologians  of  the  late  Middle  Ages;  b.  at 
Speyer;  d.  at  Tabingen  1495.  He  studied  at 
Heidelberg,  became  preacher  at  St.  Martin's  Church 
at  Mains,  provost  of  Urach  in  WQrttemberg,  and 
after  1484  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy 
in  the  newly  founded  Uniyersity  of  Tdbingen. 
In  his  old  age  he  joined  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  (see  Common  Lifb,  Brethben  of  the). 
In  theology  Biel  followed  the  nominalism  of  Occam 
(q.v.),  whose  system  he  reproduced  in  his  EpUom 
et  ooUeetorium  ex  Oocamo  super  quattuor  libros 
sententiarum  (TQbingen,  1495).  In  anthropology 
and  soteriology  he  was  a  Semi-Pelagian,  teaching 
that  "  merit  depends  on  man's  free  will  and  God's 
grace"  (sermo  xiv,  7);  the  sacraments  operate 
not  only  ex  opere  operantiSf  but  also  ex  opere  op^ 
rata  "  (Sent.,  IV,  i,  3).  The  Church,  therefore,  was 
for  him  a  mechanically  operating  sacramental 
institution;  in  its  priests  he  glorifies  a  "  mighty 
dignity."  In  questions  affecting  the  constitution 
of  the  Church,  Biel  took  the  position  assumed  by 
the  councils  of  Constance  and  Basel.  As  a  preacher 
he  surpassed  his  predecessors  in  the  practicality 
of  his  views;  his  knowledge  of  political  economy 
also  deserves  recognition .  Besides  the  work  already 
noticed,  he  wrote  Lectura  super  canonem  missa 
(Heutlingen,  1488);  Expositio  cananis  misscB  (Tu- 
bingen, 1499);  Sermones  (1499);  and  other  works. 

Paul  Tschaciosrt. 

BiBUOORAPirr:  F.  X.  Linaenmann,  Oabriel  Bid  der  lebie 
SeholaeHker  und  der  Nominaliemue,  in  TObinger  thuith 
giedte  QuarlaUckrifU  1865,  pp.  440  sqq.;  idem,  in  KL.  il 
804-^806;  K.ViA\Mih\,DiechiriMieheL«hrewnder  ReAifert^ 

.  gung  und  Veredhnung,  U  102  sqq.,  Bonn,  1889;  H.  Plitt, 
Gabriel  Biel  ale  Prediger,  Erlangen.  1870;  Schults,  Drr 
eitUiche  Begriff  dee  Verdienatee,  in  TSK,  1894.  pp.  304  tqq. 

BIERLmO,  br&r-ling,  ERlfST  RUDOLF:  Ger- 
man Protestant  jurist;  b.  at  Zittau  (49  m.  8.e.  of 
Dresden)  Jan.  7,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  the 
imiversities  of  Leipsic  (1859-63)  and  Gdttingen 
(1864-65),  and  after  being  a  lawyer  in  his  native 
city  in  1868-71  was  privat-docent  at  Gdttingen  for 
two  years.  Since  1873  he  has  been  professor  of 
canon  and  criminal  law  at  Greifswald.  In  addition 
to  being  a  member  of  the  Pomeranian  provincial 
synod  in  1878-99  and  of  the  general  synod  in  1875 


180 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BiedeirmAim 
BUUoan 


and  1884-1902,  he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Deputies  in  1881-85  and  of  the  Upper  House  after 
1889.  His  publications  include  GeseUgdnmgsrecht 
evangeliscker  Kirchen  im  GMete  der  Kirchenlekre 
(Leipsic,  1869);  Zur  KrUik  der  juristiachen  Grund- 
hegriffe  (2  vols.,  Gotha,  1877-82);  Die  konfea- 
noneUe  Sehule  in  Preussen  und  ihr  Recht  (1885); 
and  Jwiatiaehe  Pringipienlekre  (3  vols.,  Tubingen, 
1894-1905). 

BIGELMAIER,  bf'gel-mal'er,  ANDREAS:  Ger- 
man Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Oberhausen  (a  suburb 
of  Augsburg)  Oct.  21,  1873.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Munich  (Th.D.,  1899)  and  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1897.  From  October 
to  November,  1897,  he  was  chaplain  at  Hdrzhausen, 
and  in  1904  became  privatr-docent  for  church  his- 
tory at  the  University  of  Munich.  Since  1905 
be  has  also  been  university  preacher,  and,  in  ad- 
dition to  nimieTous  contributions  to  literary  and 
theological  periodicab,  has  written  Die  BeteUi- 
gungen  der  Christen  am  dffenUicken  Lehen  in  vorkcnr 
ttantiniacher  Zeit  (Munich,  1902)  and  Zeno  von 
Verona  (1904). 

BIGG,  CHARLES:  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Manchester  Sept.  12, 1840;  d.  Oxford  July  15, 1908. 
He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1862), 
where  he  became  tutor.  He  was  master  in  Chelten- 
ham College  (1866-71),  head  master  of  Brighton  Col- 
lege (1871-81),  and  rector  of  Fenny  Compton,  Leam- 
ington, 1887-1901,  and  honorary  canon  of  Worcester 
from  1889  to  1901,  when  he  was  appointed  regius 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Oxford  Univer- 
sity. He  was  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishops 
of  Worcester  (1889-91),  Peterborough  (1891-96), 
London  (1897-1901),  and  Man  (1903),  Hampton 
lecturer  in  1886,  and  has  been  canon  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  since  1901.  He  has  edited  a  number  of 
Greek  classics  and  the  **  Confessions  "  of  St.  Augus- 
tine (London,  1896);  the  Didache  (1898);  the  De 
lmiUUi4me  CkrisH  of  Thomas  k  Kempis  (1898); 
and  Law's  Serious  Coil  (1899);  and  has  written 
The  Christian  PlaUmiete  of  Alexandria  (London, 
1886);  NeoplaUmiem  (1895);  Unity  in  Diversity 
(1899);  Commentary  on  the  Epietlea  of  Peter  and 
Jude  (Edinburgh,  1901);  and  The  Churches  Task 
under  the  Roman  Empire  (London,  1905). 

BIGRE,  btfi,  MARGUERIN,  mOr^'ge^'rah,  DELA: 
French  theologian;  b.  at  Bemidres-le-Patiy,  in  Nor- 
mandy, 1546  or  1547;  d.  at  Paris  1589.  He  came  of 
noble  Norman  parentage;  studied  at  Caen  and  be- 
came rector  of  the  university  there;  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  theology  at  the  Sorbonne  and 
received  the  doctorate.  To  refute  the  authors  of 
the  Magdeburg  Centuries  in  June,  1576,  he  under- 
took to  give  a  fuller  edition  of  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church  than  had  been  yet  made.  For 
this  work  he  was  appointed  canon  of  the  chiu*ch  of 
Bayeux,  and  some  time  after  professor  of  the 
chapter-school;  resigned  to  succeed  his  uncle, 
Francois  du  Pare,  who  had  died,  as  dean  of  the 
church  of  Mans.  In  1576  he  was  sent  as  deputy 
from  the  clergy  of  Normandy  to  the  States  Gen- 
eral of  Blois.  In  1581  he  went  as  canon  of  Ba- 
yeux to  the  provincial  council  there,  and  defended 


vigorously  his  chapter  against  the  usurpation  of 
Bemardin  de  St.  Francois,  bishop  of  Bayeux. 
The  death  of  the  bishop  (July  14,  1582)  appeared 
to  end  the  conflict;  but  the  bishop's  successor, 
Mathurin  de  Savonnidres,  eventually  forced  Bigne 
to  resign.  He  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  the 
same  year.  He  was  a  great  patristic  scholar  and 
an  eloquent  preacher.  G.  Bonet-Maurt. 

BuuoaKAPKT:  His  works  were:  Vetenmi  pairum  tt  antiquo- 
rum  9eripUjirum  ecdenaatieorum  eoUeeiio  (Paris.  1676-70); 
Stahda  Bynodalia  Pariaienaium  eptuoporum,  Oaionit  car- 
difuUia,  OdonU  et  WiXMmi;  item  Petri  et  Oalteri  Senonen' 
Hum  arekitpUeopdrumdecreta  primum  edita  (1678);  3.  lai- 
dori  HiapaUnaia  Opera  (1680).  Consult:  J.  Hermant,  L'Hia- 
ioire  du  dioctae  de  Bayeux,  Cmii.  1706;  P.  D.  Huet. 
Lea  Orioinea  de  la  villa  de  Caen,  Rouen,  1706;  Nio^ron, 
MSmoirea,  xxx,  270;  J.  G.  de  Chauffepie,  Nouveau  die- 
Honnaira  kiaU)lriq^e  at  eriHqua,  vol.  i,  Amsterdam,  1750. 

BILUCAK,  THEOBALD  (Diepold  Gemolt  or 
Gerlacher):  German  theologian;  b.  at  Billigheim 
(4  m.  S.S.W.  of  Landau),  Bavaria,  toward  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century;  d.  at  Marburg  Aug.  8, 
1554.  He  took  his  surname  from  his  birthplace; 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  where  Melanchthon  was  his 
fellow  student;  lectured  at  Heidelberg;  became 
provost  of  the  college  of  arts  (1520)  and  had  among 
others  Johann  Brenz  (q.v.)  as  his  pupil.  When, 
in  1518,  Luther  came  to  Heidelberg,  Billican, 
Brenz,  Schnepff,  and  Martin  Butzer  (q.v.)  were 
among  his  admirers.  Billican  left  Heidelberg  in 
1522  and  went  to  Weil  as  preacher.  But  his  ser- 
mons against  the  mediatorship  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  against  purgatory  brought  about  his  deposition 
and  he  went  to  NOrdlingen  (1523),  where  he  re- 
mained till  1535.  Billican  opened  there  a  way  for 
the  Reformation  and  published  Von  der  Mess 
Gemein  Schtussred  (1524),  in  which  he  sharply 
rebuked  the  "  fraud  "  of  the  mass  as  a  sacrifice 
for  the  living  and  the  dead.  Billican,  who  corre- 
sponded with  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Rhegius,  Brenz, 
(Ecolampadius,  and  Zwingli,  was  regarded  as  a 
leader  of  the  Evangelical  cause  in  South  Germany. 
But  future  events  showed  the  instability  of  his 
character.  In  his  controversy  with  Carlstadt, 
who  had  come  to  NOrdlingen,  he  sided  with  Luther 
against  Carlstadt  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  stated  in  his  RenovaOo  ecdesia  (1525) 
that  ''  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the  flesh  and  blood  of 
the  Lord  are  present."  Induced  by  Urbanus 
Rhegius  (q.v.)  openly  to  defend  the  Lutheran 
doctrine,  Billican  sent  a  statement  to  Rhegius, 
which  the  latter  published  (in  mutilated  form,  as 
Billican  complained)  together  with  his  answer 
Dec.  18,  1525,  under  the  title  De  verbis  ecmm 
dominiecB  et  opinionum  varietate  Theobaldi  BiUir 
caniad  Urbanum  Regium  (1526).  But  while  they  of 
Wittenberg  were  rejoicing  over  this  new  ally,  Billican 
changed  his  views  in  a  letter  addressed  to  GSco- 
lampadius  Jan.  16,  1526;  and  two  months  later, 
in  letters  addressed  to  Schleupner  at  Nuremberg 
and  to  Pirkheimer,  he  expressed  still  other  views. 
While  Billican  did  not  fully  agree  with  Zwingli, 
he  stated  that  he  learned  more  from  the  Zwinglians 
than  from  the  Lutherans,  and,  adopting  in  part 
the  views  of  Carlstadt  and  (Ecolampadius,  he  pre- 
tended to  teach  the  only  correct  doctrine  because 
he  stood  between  the  two  parties.    His  vacillating 


^t*'- 


lintdrlm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


190 


position  is  best  illuBtrated  in  a  booklet  entitled 
Epistola  Theobaldi  Billicani  ad  Joannem  Hubelium 
qua  Hlo  de  eucharUtia  cogiiandi  materiatn  ecmscripsU 
(1528)  which  remained  imnotioed. 

BilUcan,  of  whom  ao  much  had  been  expected, 
waB  now  avoided  by  both  parties.  In  1529  he  ap- 
plied to  Heidelberg  University  for  the  doctorate, 
presenting  at  the  same  time  a  confession  in  which  he 
acrimoniously  rejected  Lutheran,  Zwin^^ian,  and 
Anabaptist  doctrine,  and  expressed  his  firm  belief 
in  the  teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Being  refused  by  the  faculty,  he  married  a  woman 
of  wealth,  and,  regardless  of  what  had  taken  place, 
he  had  the  boldness  to  ask  Melanchthon  to  procure 
him  the  doctorate  at  Wittenberg.  The  latter 
replied,  "  [The  authorities]  advance  no  one  before 
he  has  set  forth  his  doctrinal  views  "  (CR,  i,  1112). 
Since  he  was  repelled  by  the  Reformers  and  not 
fully  trusted  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  Billican's 
position  became  untenable,  and  so  in  1535  he  left 
NOrdlingen  and  went  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  jurisprudence.  He  was  made 
licentiate  in  jurisprudence  and  for  a  time  took  the 
place  of  a  professor  who  was  disabled  on  account 
of  sickness.  When  in  1543  that  professor  died 
and  Billican  sought  the  position,  the  entire  faculty 
opposed  his  nomination,  but  through  the  influence 
of  liargaret  von  der  Layen,  whose  ''  chancellor  " 
h&  was  considered,  he  was  permitted  to  give  inde- 
pendent lectures  on  law.  On  account  of  his  rela- 
tions with  Margaret,  the  elector  Frederick  II  deposed 
Billican  from  his  office  July  26,  1544,  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  Heidelberg.  He  went  to  Biarburg 
and  was  made  professor  of  rhetoric,  a  position  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  (T.  Koldb.) 

Bibuoobapbt:  O.  BMsenmeyer,  Kleins  BeUrdge  rar  Ot- 
aehiehie  dee  Reuh^ags  su  AvoAurg^  tSSO,  pp.  69  sqq., 
NurembeiK,  1830;  A.  Steichele,  Da»  Bitium  AugAurg, 
iii,  047  sqq.,  Augsburg,  1872;  T.  Klein,  Die  SteUung  der 
eekiodbiadien  Kirdien  aur  awingiiadi^Mtheriedien  SpaUung, 
in  TJB,  idr,  1804;  C.  Geyer,  Die  NSrdUnger  evange- 
liedien  Kirehenordnungen  dee  16.  Jakrhunderte,  Munioh, 
1806. 

BILNET  (BTLHEY),  THOlftAS:  Early  Eng- 
lish Protestant;  b.  of  a  Norfolk  family  about  1495; 
burned  at  the  stake  at  Norwich  Aug.  19,  1531. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  gave  up 
law  for  theology  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1519. 
He  adopted  the  belief  in  justification  by  faith  alone 
and  was  a  leader  in  a  company  of  Cambridge  men 
who  were  inclined  to  the  views  of  the  Reformation; 
Hugh  Latimer  was  added  to  the  number  by  Bilney's 
influence  and  became  his  lifelong  friend.  Con- 
cerning the  mass,  transubstantiation,  and  the  pow- 
ers of  the  pope  and  the  Church,  Bilney  remained 
orthodox;  but  he  preached  unromittingly  in  Cam- 
bridge, London,  and  neighboring  counties,  denoun- 
cing the  invocation  of  saints  and  relic-worship, 
pilgrimages  and  fastings,  at  the  same  time  leading 
a  most  austere  life  and  devoted  to  deeds  of  charity. 
He  was  arrested  and  confined  in  the  Tower  Nov. 
25,  1527;  brought  to  trial,  he  denied  having 
wittingly  taught  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  was 
finally  persuaded  to  abjure  his  alleged  heresies 
and  as  penance  was  kept  imprisoned  for  more  than  a 
year.  Released  in  1529,  he  went  back  to  Cambridge, 
suffered  much  from  remorse  for  his  abjuration,  and 


in  1531  resumed  preaching,  but  was  immediatdy 
arrested,  and  was  executed  as  a  relapsed  heretic 

Bibuoosapht:  The  aouroes  for  a  life  mxe  in  leUen  and 
Papere  .  .  .  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  yoL  v.  ed  James 
Gairdner.  in  Record  PubUeatione,  London,  1863-60.  Oon- 
Bult  alBO  C.  H.  Cooper,  AAenm  CantaMgienea,  i.  42,  ib. 
1858;  DNB,  y.  40-43. 

BILSON,  THOlftAS:  Bishop  of  Winchester; 
b.  at  Winchester  1546  or  1547;  d.  there  June  1^ 
1616.  He  studied  at  New  College,  Oxford  (BA^ 
1566;  MA.,  1570;  B.D.,  1579;  D.D.,  1581);  was 
made  prebend  of  Winchester  1576,  and  became 
warden  of  the  college  there;  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  Worcester  1596,  translated  to  Winchester  1597. 
He  was  a  noted  preacher,  a  man  of  much  learning, 
and  defended  the  Church  of  Eng^d  against  both 
Roman  Catholics  and  Puritans.  At  the  command 
of  Queen  Elisabeth  he  wrote  The  Trite  Difffrerux 
between  ChrieHan  Subjection  and  Unchristian  RAd- 
lion  (Oxford,  1585),  in  answer  to  Cardinal  William 
Allen's  Defence  of  the  English  CcOholics  (Ingoldstadt, 
1584),  and  The  Survey  of  Chrises  Sufferings  for 
Man's  Redemption  and  of  his  Descent  to  Hades  or 
HeU  for  our  Deliverance  (London,  1604),  a  reply  to 
the  Brownist  Henry  Jacob;  in  The  Perpetual 
Oovemment  of  Chrises  Church  (1593;  new  ed., 
with  memoir,  Oxford,  1842)  he  defended  episco- 
pacy. With  Dr.  Miles  Smith  he  revised  the  King 
James  translation  of  the  Bible  before  its  publication, 
and  he  added  the  summaries  of  contents  at  the  head 
of  each  chapter. 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  k  Wood.  Athena  Oxonieneee,  ed.  P.  Blia^ 
ii,  169-171,  4  vols.,  London.  1813-20;  DNB,  ▼.  49-44. 

BINDING  AND  LOOSING,  POWER  OF.  See 
Kbtb,  Power  of  the. 

BINDLEY,  THOlftAS  HERBERT:  Church  of 
England;  b.  at  Smethwick  (3  m.  n.w.  of  Biiming- 
ham),  8ta£Fordshire,  Oct.  21,  1861.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Brownsgrove  College,  Worcestershire, 
and  Merton  College,  Oxford  (BA.,  1884),  and  iras 
ordered  deacon  in  1889  and  ordained  priest  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  assistant  curate  of  Ix- 
worth,  Suffolk,  in  1889,  and  since  1890  has  been 
principal  of  Codrington  College,  Barbados,  and 
examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Barbados. 
He  became  canon  of  Barbados  in  1893  and  arch- 
deacon in  1904,  while  in  the  following  year  he  was 
made  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  In  theology 
he  is  a  liberal  High-churchman.  In  addition  to 
numerous  contributions  to  theological  periodicals, 
he  has  translated  St.  Athanasius  de  ineamatione 
Verbi  Dei  (London,  1887);  TertuUian's  Apology 
(London,  1889);  EfksOe  of  the  GaUican  Chwthi^ 
(1900);  and  St.  Cyprian  on  the  LanTs  Prayer  {190A)- 
He  has  also  edited  TertuUiani  Apologeticus  (Ox- 
ford, 1889);  TertuUiani  De  Prctscriptiane  (1893); 
and  (Ecumenical  Documents  of  the  Faith  (LondoOr 
1900);  and  has  written  The  Creeds  (1896)  and  Ei 
incamahis  est  (New  York,  1896). 

BINGHAM,  HIRAM:  Congregational  missiooaiy; 
b.  at  Honolulu,  Hawaii,  Aug.  16,  1831;  d.  at  Balti- 
more Oct.  25,  1908.  He  was  educated  at  Yale 
College  (B.A.,  1853)  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary (1854-55),  and,  after  acting  as  principal  of  the 
Northampton  High  School  in  1853-54,  entered  the 


191 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bilney 
Blnterlm 


service  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions  in  1856.  He  began  his  missionary 
activity  in  the  Gilbert  Islands  in  1857,  and  from  1866 
to  1868  was  in  command  of  the  missionary  brig 
Morning  Star.  He  was  corresponding  secretary  of 
the  board  of  the  Hawaiian  Evangelical  Association 
from  1877  to  1880.  From  1880-^2  he  was  Hawaiian 
government  protector  of  South  Sea  immigrants.  In 
theology  he  was  a  conservative.  He  has  written 
Slaryqfthe  Morning  Star  (Boston,  1866);  0tlber*e8e 
Bible  (New  York,  1893);  Gilbertese  Bible  Dictionary 
(Honolulu,  1895);  Gilbertese  Hymn  and  Tune  Book 
(New  York,  1897);  GUberteu  Commentary  on 
Matthew  (1904);  and  Gilberteae  Commentary  on  the 
Four  GoepeU  (1905). 

BINGHAIC,  JOSEPH:  Church  of  England; 
b.  at  Wakefield  (9  m.  s.  of  Leeds),  Yorkshire, 
Sept.,  1668;  d.  at  Havant  (6  m.  s.e.  of  Pprtsmouth), 
Hampshire,  Aug.  17,  1723.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
and  was  fellow  of  University  College  1689-95, 
when  he  resigned  and  withdrew  from  the  university 
because  his  controversial  sermon  on  the  Trinity 
preached  before  the  university  had  led  to  the 
charge,  wholly  unmerited,  of  heresy.  He  was 
immediately  appointed  rector  of  Headboum- 
Worthy  (2  m.  n.  of  Winchester),  which  made  the 
rich  cathedral  library  accessible  to  him.  In  1712 
he  was  transferred  to  the  better  living  of  Havant. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  Origines  EcdeeiaaticcB, 
or  the  AnHquities  of  the  Christian  Church  (8  vols., 
London,  170^22).  This  is  exhaustive  for  the  field 
it  covers  and  can  never  be  superseded,  as  it  is  derived 
from  the  sources  and  interestingly  written.  It  has 
been  a  quarry  for  many  books  and  itself  several 
times  reprinted;  the  best  edition  is  by  the  great- 
great-grandson  of  the  author.  Rev.  Richard  Bing- 
ham (vols,  i-viii  of  Bingham's  Works,  10  vols., 
Oxford,  1855).  There  is  a  separate  edition  of  the 
AnHquUiee  in  the  Bohn  Library  (2  vols.),  a  Latin 
trandation  by  Johann  Heinrich  Grischow  (Grischo- 
vius;  11  vols.,  Halle,  1724r38),  and  an  abridged 
German  translation  by  an  anonymous  Roman 
Catholic  author  (4  vols.,  Augsburg,  1788-96). 
Unfortunately  Bingham  invested  his  savings  in 
the  South  Sea  Bubble  and  so  lost  them  in  1720. 

Bibuoobapbt:  Binsham's  biography  by  his  great-grand- 
son ifl  giTwi  in  the  Oxford  ed.  of  his  works.  Consult  also: 
J.  Darling.  Cydopadia  BiUiographica,  pp.  312-315,  Ion- 
don,  1854;  8.  8.  AlUbone,  Critical  DicHonary  of  Eng, 
Lifarofur*,  i,  189-190.  Philadelphia.  1891;  DNB,  y,  48-60. 

BIHIIEY,  THOlftAS:  English  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  Apr.  30,  1798;  d.  at 
Clapton,  London,  Feb.  24,  1874.  He  was  for  seven 
years  a  bookseller's  clerk  at  Newcastle,  during  which 
time  he  learned  Greek  and  Latin  and  accomplished 
considerable  reading.  He  studied  at  the  theological 
seminary  at  Wymondley,  Hertfordshire,  and  was 
minister  for  a  year  at  Bedford;  became  minister 
at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight,  1824,  of  the  King's 
Weig^-House  Chapel,  E^eistcheap,  London,  1829, 
and  remained  there  forty  years.  After  retiring 
from  his  pastorate  he  was  professor  of  homiletics 
and  pastoral  theology  at  New  College,  London. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  Congregational  Union  in 
1848.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  an  established 
Church,  and  in  1833  at  the  laying  of  the  corner- 


stone of  a  new  chapel  for  the  Weigh-House  congre- 
gation expressed  hhnself  on  the  subject  in  language 
which  led  to  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  He 
felt  that  the  sermon  occupied  too  large  a  place  in 
the  service  of  the  non-ritualistic  Churches  and 
favored  the  introduction  of  responsive  readings 
and  similar  changes  in  the  form  of  worship;  his 
Service  of  Song  in  the  House  of  the  Lord  (London, 
1848)  exercised  much  influence  in  the  development 
of  a  richer  and  better  musical  service,  and  he  en- 
riched the  hymnals  by  the  hymn  "  Eternal  light, 
eternal  light."  He  edited  Charies  W.  Baird's 
Chapter  on  Liturgies,  adding  a  preface  and  an  appen- 
dix, ''  Are  Dissenters  to  Have  a  Liturgy  7  "  (1856). 
His  other  publications  include  a  Memoir  of  Stephen 
MoreU  (1826);  Disseni  Not  Schism  (1835);  a  life 
of  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton  (1849);  le  it  Possible 
to  Make  the  Best  of  Both  Worlds?  (1853);  LighU 
and  Shadows,  or  Church  Life  in  Australia,  obser- 
vations made  during  a  visit  in  1857-59  (1860); 
Money,  a  Popular  Exposition  in  Rough  Notes  (1804); 
St.  Paul,  his  Life  and  Ministry  (1866);  Micah 
the  Priest  Maker,  a  handbook  on  ritualism  (1867); 
From  Seventeen  to  Thirty,  a  book  for  young  men 
(1868).  Two  series  of  his  Sermons  Preached  in 
the  King's  Weigh-House  Chapel,  18£9~e9,  were  pub- 
lished, the  second  with  biographical  sketch  by 
the  Rev.  H.  Allon  (1869-75). 

Bibuoobapbt:  Berides  the  sketch  in  the  volume  of  hie 
eermona.  the  following  may  be  consulted:  A  Memorial  of 

^  th*  late  Rev,  Thomae  Biftney,  ed.  J.  Stoughton,  London, 
1874;  E.  P.  Hood,  Thomae  Binney,  hie  Mind,  Life  and 
Ojnnione,  ib.  1874;  DNB,  y.  67-fi9. 

BINTERIMy  ANTON  JOSEF:  German  Catholic 
theologian;  b.  at  DOsseldorf  Sept.  19,  1779;  d.  at 
Bilk  (s.  suburb  of  DOsseldorf)  May  17, 1855.  After 
receiving  his  first  education  in  fads  native  city,  he 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  1796  and  studied 
philosophy  and  theology  at  Ddren  and  Aachen 
for  five  years  and  a  half.  Returning  to  DOsseldorf, 
he  was  ordained  priest  at  Cologne  (Sept.  19,  1802). 
The  suppression  of  the  monasteries  on-  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine  in  the  following  year,  however, 
obliged  him  to  become  a  secular  priest,  and  in  1805, 
after  passing  the  required  examination,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  ancient  and  extensive  parish  of 
Bilk,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Binterim 
was  an  enthusiastio  propagandist  of  ultramonta 
nism,  and  to  this  cause  he  devoted  the  greater  part 
of  his  prolific  literary  activity.  He  also  defended 
the  Jesuits  and  upheld  the  authenticity  of  the  Holy 
Coat  of  Treves,  while  with  equal  consistency  he 
opposed  the  followers  of  Georg  Hermes  (q.v.) 
and  Catholic  '*  rationalism."  In  1837,  with  his 
elder  brother,  he  had  founded  and  endowed  the 
vicarage  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  at  Bilk,  and  in 
honor  of  his  jubilee  the  first  impulse  toward  the 
establishment  of  the  Historischer  Verein  ftlr  den 
Niederrhein  was  given  in  1852.  In  his  devotion 
to  the  Church  he  was  imprisoned  for  six  months 
in  1838  for  opposing  mixed  marriages. 

(VlCTOB  ScHui;rKB.) 

Bibuoobafht:  Among  the  numerous  publioations  of  Bin« 
t«rim  epedAl  mention  may  be  made  of  the  foUowing: 
Ueber  Ehe  und  Eheedmduno  «kmA  OoUeewort  und  dem 
Oeiete  der  katholiedien  Kirche  (DOeeeldorf,  1819);  Catetk- 
darium  eedeeia  Oermamem  ColoMeneie  eaadi  noM  (Go- 


Biroh 
Bishop 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


198 


logne,  1824);  Die  v&nOgliehtten  DenkuHtrdioheUen  der 
chriaaieMMlholiwehen  Kirehe  (7  yoIb.,  Mainji.  1825-41); 
Die  koAoliMd^e  Kirdte,  ein  QegenaaU  dee  Raiionaliamue 
uni  Aftermy9tieiMmu9  (DflBseldorf,  1827);  DieaUe  und 
neue  Endidceae  Kdln  (4  vols..  1828-30);  Ueber  die  tweJc- 
mdeeige  EinridUung  dee  vralien  kaiholieehen  Ootteedienelee 
und  den  keUeamen  Oetraudi  der  laieinieehen  Spradie  bei 
demeOhen  (1832);  UAer  dm,  Oebraueh  dee  Chrietenbltaee 
bei  den  Juden  (1834)\  PraamoHeche  OeeehidUe  der  deuUeh- 
en  ConcUien  (7  yoIb.,  183&-40);  Der  kiUholieehe  Bruder- 
und  Schweelerbund  eu  einer  rein  katholiechen  Ehe  (1838); 
De  proepieeojne  eive  euflraganeie  CoUmienaibue  extroar^ 
dinaeriie  (Mains,  1843);  Zmi^UM  /flr  die  EcktheU  dee 
heiliiien  Roekee  tu  Trier  (3  partB.  Dtlsieldorf.  1846-46); 
Die  0eMtiieA«n  GeridUe  vam  19.-t9,  Jahrhundert  (2  parts, 
1849);  Der  heUi4fe  Hilariue  (Leipsic,  1861);  Hermann  II., 
Enebieehaf  von  Kdln  (Dttsseldorf.  1861);  Ueber  den  Hoe- 
Henhanda  in  Deuteddand  und  Frankreidi  (2d  ed..  1862); 
and  Die  oekeimen  Voreduriften  der  JeeuHen  (MonOa  Se- 
creta\  ein  aUee  LUgenwerk  (1863). 

For  his  life  consult:  ADB»  vol.  ii;  K.  Werner,  OeeehidUe 
der  katkoliedten  Theotoffie  eeii  dem  Trienier  KonsU  bie  sur 
Oegenwart,  pp.  391-303;  KL,  ii,  848-864  (in  considerable 
detaU). 

BIRCH,  THOlftAS:  Church  of  England  clergy- 
man and  author;  b.  in  London  Nov.  23,  1705; 
d.  there  Jan.  0,  1766.  He  was  ordained  priest 
in  1731,  although  of  Quaker  parentage  and  with- 
out a  university  education;  was  an  ardent  Whig 
and,  having  influential  patrons,  received  many 
good  preferments,  holding  at  the  time  of  his  death 
the  rectories  of  St.  Margaret  Pattens,  London,  and 
Depden,  Suffolk.  He  was  an  indefatigable  writer, 
and  his  works  have  been  critidxed  as  showing 
more  industry  than  judgment;  they  include  a 
number  of  volumes  relating  to  Eng^h  history; 
lives  of  Robert  Boyle  (London,  1744),  Archbishop 
Tillotson  (1752),  and  others,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
English  biographies  in  the  General  Dictionary 
(10  vols.,  1734-41);  editions  of  Milton's  prose 
(1738),  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  works  (1751),  and  the 
works  and  letters  of  Lord  Bacon  (1765);  Hietory 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  (4  vols.,  1756-67); 
numerous  communications  in  the  ''Philosophical 
Transactions"  and  other  periodical  publications. 
Bibuoobapht:  J.  Nichols,  Literary  Aneodoiee  of  the  Eight- 
eenth CentuT]/,  i.  686-637,  ii.  607,  iu.  258.  Y,  40-43,  63. 
282-200,  London,  1812-16;  DNB,  ▼,  68-70. 

BIRD,  FREDERIC  HATER:  Protestant  Epis- 
copalian; b.  at  Philadelphia  June  28,  1838;  d.  in 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  Apr.  3,  1908.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (B.A., 
1857)  and  Union  Theological  Seminary  (I860).  He 
was  ordained  to  the  Lutheran  ministry  in  1860,  and 
after  serving  as  an  army-chaplain  in  1862-63,  held 
several  pastorates.  In  1870  he  became  Protestant 
Episcopal  rector  of  Spotswood,  N.  J.,  from  1870  to 
1 874 .  Seven  years  later  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  psychology.  Christian  ethics,  and  rhetoric  in 
Lehigh  University,  remaining  there  in  this  capacity, 
as  well  as  in  that  of  chaplain,  until  1886.  He  was 
also  acting  chaplain  there  in  1896-98,  and  from 
1893  to  1898  was  editor  of  Ldppincotfa  Magagine, 
In  the  latter  year  be  became  associate  editor  of 
Chandler's  Encyclopedia.  In  addition  to  numerous 
contributions  to  periodicals  and  encyclopedias, 
including  most  of  the  American  matter  in  Julian's 
Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (London,  1892),  he  has 
edited  Charlea  Wesley  Seen  in  his  Finer  and  Less 
Familiar  Poems  (New  York,  1867) ;  the  Hymns  of  the 
Lutheran  Pennsylvania  ministerium  (Philadelphia, 


1865;  in  collaboration  with  S.  M.  Schmucker); 
and  Songs  of  the  Spirit  (New  York,  1871;  in  col- 
laboration with  Bishop  W.  H.  Odenheimer).  He 
made  a  noteworthy  collection  of  hymnology,  oow 
in  Union  Theological  Seminaiy,  New  York  City. 

BIRETTA.    See  Vsbtmenib  and  Insignia,  £c- 

CLEBIASTTGAL. 

BIR6ITTA9  ST.,  AHD  THE  BIRGITTniE  OR- 
DER.   See  Bridget,  Saint,  of  Swsdsn. 

BmnrUSy  saint  :  First  bishop  of  the  West 
Saxons;  d.  Dec.  3,  650.  He  was  a  Benedietioe 
monk  at  Rome  and  was  given  a  missionary  com- 
mission by  Pope  Honorius  I.  After  being  ood- 
seerated  bishop  at  Genoa  by  Astehus,  archbishop 
of  Bfilan,  he  landed  in  Wessex  about  634.  He 
baptised  its  king,  Cynegils,  in  635,  Oswald  of 
Northumbria  standing  as  sponsor.  He  fixed  hia 
see  at  Dorchester  (now  a  small  village,  8  m.  B.e.  of 
Oxford),  and  gained  influence  in  Wessex  and  Mer- 
cia.  Cwichelm,  the  son  of  Cynegils,  was  baptised 
in  636;  Cuthred,  Cwichelm's  son,  in  639;  Cenwalh, 
the  brother  and  successor  of  Cynegils,  in  646. 
BiBUOomAPHT:  Bede,  HieL  eed.,  iii,  7. 

BISHOP:  A  spiritual  overseer  in  the  CSuistian 
Church.  The  origin  of  the  office,  its  historic  devel- 
opment, and  theories  of  its  relative  dignity  will 
be  found  discussed  in  the  article  Politt;  for  views 
of  different  communions  concerning  the  office,  see 
Epibcopact;  this  article  will  deal  mainly  with  the 
selection  of  bishops  and  their  duties. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  bishop  holds 
the  first  place  in  the  hierarehy,  not  as  belong- 
ing to  a  separate  order,  but  as  having  the  ful- 
ness of  the  priesthood.  Conditions  for  consecra- 
tion are  the  following:  legitimate  birth,  the  age  of 
thirty  years,  eminent  learning,  and  moral  probity. 
In  the  ordinary  case  the  candidate  is  supposed  also 
to  be  a  native  of  the  country  and  acceptable  to 
the  government.  The  choice  of  the  person  belongs, 
on  the  curialist. theory,  to  the  pope;  but  in  practise 
it  is  generally  left  to  the  chapter,  either  by  dection, 
or  when  there  are  canonical  impediments  to  be 
removed,  as  when  translation  from  another  see  is 
required,    by    Postulation    (q.v.);  or 

Election  it  may  occur  through  nomination 
and        by  the   government.   The    candidate 

Consecra-  must  then  receive  the  papal  oon- 
tion.  firmation,  after  examination  as  to 
his  fitness.  This  is  made  first  by  a 
papal  delegate  in  the  place  of  the  election  (pro- 
cessus informativus  in  partHms  electi),  after  which 
a  second  investigation  takes  place  at  Rome,  by 
the  committee  of  cardinals  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose (congregatio  examinis  episcoporum) ;  this  second 
examination  is  called  processus  electionis  dejinitivut 
in  curia.  If  both  prove  favorable  to  the  candidate, 
he  is  confirmed,  preconized,  and  put  in  possession 
of  his  powers  of  jurisdiction,  though  not,  of  course, 
of  those  pertaining  to  orders  until  his  consecration, 
which  is  supposed  to  occur  within  three  months. 
It  is  administered  by  a  bishop  designated  by  the 
pope,  with  the  assistance  of  two  other  bishops  or 
prelates,  in  the  cathedral  of  the  new  bisbopV 
diocese.    The  candidate  takes  the  andent  oath 


198 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Biroh 
BUhop 


of  fidelity  to  the  pope  (substantially  the  same  as 
that  prescribed  by  Gregory  VII  in  1079),  si^ns  the 
profession  of  faith,  and  then,  after  he  has  been  duly 
consecrated  according  to  the  form  laid  down  in  the 
Roman  Pontifical,  is  solemnly  enthroned.  An 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  government  of  the  country 
is  also  usually  administered  before  consecration. 

The  rights  or  powers  of  a  bishop  may  be  con- 
sidered under  three  heads — aa  pertaining  to  his  or- 
ders, to  his  jurisdiction,  and  to  his  dignity.  As 
to  the  first,  he  has  all  the  jura  ordinia  of  the  fulness 
of  the  priesthood,  including,  besides  those  powers 
which  every  priest  shares  with  him,  the  special 
episcopal  prerogatives  of  administering  ordination 
and  confirmation,  of  consecrating  the  holy  oils, 
churches,  and  sacred  objects  in  general,  of  bene- 
diction of  abbots  and  abbesses,  and  of  anointing 
sovereigns.  The  rights  of  jurisdiction,  in  the  broad 
sense,  embrace  the  bishop's  whole  power  of  ruling 
his  diocese  as  its  chief  paator.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  term  lex  jurMictionis  is  applied  specially 

to  his  legislative  and  executive  func- 

Rights      tions  (for  the  fmrisdictio  corUentioaa  and 

and        coereUiva — ^i.e.,  the  power  of  hearing 

Duties,     cases  and  pronouncing  and  enforcing 

judgment — see  Audientia  Episco- 
paleb;  JnRi8DicnoN,£cciiBBiASTicAL),  while  the  ex- 
pression lex  diaceeana  refers  to  his  right  to  the  vari- 
ous church  taxes.  These  rights  belong  to  the  bishop 
as  bishop,  and  in  regard  to  them  he  is  judex  ordino' 
Hus,  "  the  ordinary ";  but  he  often  holds  other 
powers  specially  delegated  to  him  as  represent- 
ative of  the  pope  (see  Faculties).  Finally,  in 
regard  to  his  dignity,  he  takes  ecclesiastical  rank, 
in  virtue  of  his  exalted  office,  immediately  after 
the  cardinals,  and  bears  various  customary  titles 
of  honor,  being  addressed  as  "  Right  Reverend," 
''  My  Lord,"  etc.  In  many  places  he  also  enjoys 
secular  precedence;  and  he  has  his  special  insignia 
and  vestments  (see  Vestments  and  Insignia, 
Ecclesiastical).  To  these  prerogatives  corre- 
sponding duties  are  attached,  including  not  only 
the  cure  of  souls,  but  residence  in  his  diocese,  and 
a  visit  to  Rome  to  report  upon  its  condition  at 
fixed  intervals,  varying  with  the  distance.  Since 
the  bishop  is  naturally  unable  to  exercise  all  the 
rights  and  duties  above  described  in  person  through- 
out his  entire  diocese,  he  has  always  had  special 
assistants — in  early  times  the  archdeacons  and 
archpriests,  later  his  chapter  and  variously  desig- 
nated functionaries,  vicars-general  and  the  like, 
as  well  as,  for  those  things  which  pertain  to  the 
power  of  orders,  coadjutor  or  assistant  bishops. 
See  the  articles  under  these  titles. 

In  the  Plrotestant  Churches  the  episcopate  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  sense  has  not  be«a  preserved. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany, 
the  assaults  of  the  Reformers  were  directed  not  so 
much  against  the  episcopal  power  in  itself  as 
against  abuses  in  its  exercise;  until  1545  the  ques- 
tion was  debated  on  what  conditions  the  adherents 
of  the  evangelical  doctrine  could  agree  to  submit 
to  the  existing  bishops  of  the  old  Church.  The 
Lutheran  confessions  of  faith  recognise  as  of  divine 
right  only  the  pastoral  function  in  the  bishop's 
oflBce;  all  else  is  of  merely  human  institution,  and 
IL— 13 


may  be  abolished  by  the  same  power  that  created 
it.  Since,  however,  they  laid  down  no  definite 
form  of  ecclesiastical  polity  as  ordained  by  God, 
they  could  and  did  declare  themselves  willing  to 
recognize  these  powers  still,  so  long  as  the  bishops 
would  allow  freedom  to  teach  the  pure  doctrine 
and  tolerate  the  priests  who  preached  it.  Some 
bishops  fulfilled  the  condition  and  accepted  the 
evangelical  doctrine;  but  this  semblance  of  episco- 
pal government  had  clearly  nothing  in  common 
with  the  pre-Reformation  episcopate  except  the 
name  and  certain  forms.  Elsewhere,  as  in  Schwerin 
and  later  at  OsnabrQck  and  Lttbeck,  the  name 
bishop  was  definitely  used  for  an  official  appointed 
by  the  ruling  power,  in  no  sense  ecclesiastical. 
The  attempt  to  prove  that  the  German  Reformation 
deliberately  intended  to  retain  episcopal  govern- 
ment is  quite  useless,  though  the  tendency  which  it 
represents  has  had  adherents,  among  whom  were 
Frederick  William  IV  and  Bunsen.  Where  the 
title  has  been  employed  in  the  modem  evangelical 
Church  of  Crermany,  it  represents  nothing  more 
than  a  general  superintendent.  The  bishops  of  Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Denmark  are  also  not  bishops 
in  the  strict  sense  understood  by  the  Roman 
Catholics;  their  institutions  rest  on  special  historical 
grounds  which  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  article. 

(E.  Friedberg.) 
In  the  Church  of  England  there  are  three  claraes 
of  bishops:  the  diocesan  bishops,  taking  their  titles 
(with  a  few  exceptions  of  recently  founded  sees) 
from  the  old  pre-Reformation  dioceses;  suffragan 
bishops,  bearing  likewise  territorial  titles;  and 
assistant  bishops.  The  diocesan  bishops  are  nom- 
inally elected  by  the  chapters  of  their  cathedrals, 
but  practically  are  appointed  by  the  Oown,  which 
sends  a  nomination  to  the  chapter  with  the  congi 
d'dire.  Sufifragan  bishops  are  also  nominated  by 
the  Oown,  while  assistant  bishops  are  appointed 
by  the  prelate  under  whom  they  are  to  serve. 
Their  appointment  is  revocable  at  his  pleasure; 
that  of  suffragans  is  for  life.  None  of  these  classes 
has  any  jurisdiction  independent  of  its  superior. 
With  the  first  extension  of  the  Anglican  colonial 
episcopate,  the  English  government  attempted  to 
claim  the  same  right  of  nomination  as  at  home; 
but  this  claim  was  abandoned,  and  the  colonial 
bishops  are  now  elected  either  by  the  cleigy  or  by 
the  deliberative  assemblies  of  their  dioceses.  In  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  bishops  are 
elected  by  the  diocesan  conventions:  their  election 
must  then  be  confirmed  by  two-thirds  of  the  other 
bishops  and  **  standing  committees."  Assistant 
bishops  in  this  Church  are  now  known  as  bishops- 
coadjutor,  and  have  the  right  of  succession  on  the 
death  of  the  diocesan  bishop.  In  England  bishops 
are  frequently  "translated"  from  one  see  to  an- 
other; in  the  United  States,  bishops  of  missionary 
jurisdictions  may  be  elected  to  a  diocesan  see,  but 
this  is  all.  Throughout  the  Anglican  communion 
consecration  by  three  other  bishops  is  required. 
Every  English  bishop  at  his  consecration  takes  the 
oaths  of  allegiance  to  the  sovereign  and  canonical 
obedience  to  his  metropolitan;  in  the  United  States 
each  bishop  is  independent,  subject  only  to  the 
general  law  of  the  Church  as  formulated  by  the 


BUhop 
Blackwood 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


194 


General  Convention,  the  office  of  presiding  bishop 
being  almost  purely  honorary.  Throughout  the 
Anglican  communion  the  administration  of  certain 
quasisacramental  rites  (confirmation,  ordination, 
consecration  of  churches,  etc.)  is  strictly  reserved  to 
the  bishop,  who  also  has  a  power  of  ordinary  juris- 
diction in  some  measure  resembling  that  exercised 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  prelates.  The  two  Eng- 
lish archbishops,  the  bishops  of  London,  Winchester, 
and  Durham,  and  most  of  the  other  bishops  (the 
number  corresponding  to  that  of  the  more  ancient 
sees),  as  "  spiritual  lords,"  have  seats  in  the  upper 
house  of  parliament.  The  American  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  also  has  its  bishops,  who  are 
elected  in  any  munber  required  by  the  General  Con- 
ference. They  have  joint  jurisdiction  throughout 
the  Church,  being  confined  to  no  diocese  or  districts, 
though  for  practical  reasons  the  General  Conference 
designates  episcopal  residences  at  its  quadrennial 
sessions.  Their  functions  are  purely  executive — 
they  preside  at  conferences,  arrange  districts  for 
presiding  elders,  fix  appointments  of  preachers,  and, 
especially,  travel  throughout  the  Church  to  pro- 
mote its  spiritual  and  temporal  interests.  No  dis^ 
tinction  of  order  is  recognized  between  them  and 
other  ministers. 

Bibuoobapht:  Conault  Binsham,  OriginBt,  books  iv,  y,  be, 
xvi,  xvii,  for  the  election  of  bishope  and  the  exercise  of 
discipline;  P.  Hergenrdther,  Lehrfnidi  dea  katholUd^tn 
KirehenredtU,  Freibuis,  1905.  On  the  general  subject 
consult  works  cited  in  Gbubch  Qovsrnmbnt. 

BISHOP,  NATHAN:  Baptist  layman;  b.  of 
New  England  stock  at  Vernon,  Oneida  County, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  12,  1808;  d.  at  Saratoga  Aug.  7,  1880. 
He  was  graduated  at  Brown  1837,  and  elected  tutor; 
was  superintendent  of  schools  in  Providence  1838-61, 
in  Boston  1851-57.  Removing  to  New  York,  he 
became  an  active  member  of  the  Sabbath  Commit- 
tee, manager  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  a 
member  of  the  Christian  Commission  during  the 
Civil  War,  and  of  the  Indian  Commission  appointed 
by  President  Grant  in  1869;  he  was  also  a  member 
of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Charities,  a  dele- 
gate of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  to  the  Czar  of 
Russia  in  behalf  of  religious  liberty  in  the  Baltic 
provinces  in  1871,  a  trustee  of  Brown  University 
from  1842,  and  one  of  the  original  board  of  trustees 
of  Vassar  College.  For  two  years  he  served  gra- 
tuitously as  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist 
Home  Mission  Society,  and  he  was  chairman  of  the 
finance  conmiittee  of  the  American  Bible  Revision 
Committee  till  his  death. 

(P.  SCHATFt)  D.  S.  SCHAPP. 

BISHOP  (EPISCOPUS)  IN  PARTIBUS  INFIDE- 
LIUM.    See  Bishop,  Titular. 

BISHOP,  HTULAR:  According  to  the  old  law 
of  the  Church,  only  one  bishop  was  consecrated 
for  a  diocese;  and  none  was  consecrated  at  large 
or  without  a  definite  diocese  (First  Council  of 
Nicsea,  canon  viii).  If,  therefore,  occasion  arose 
for  the  designation  of  a  representative  to  perform 
episcopal  fimctions  in  the  place  of  an  incapacitated 
bishop,  it  was  necessary  to  call  upon  some  neigh- 
boring bishop  or  one  who  happened  to  be  in  those 
parts  (see  Cgadjtttor).    In  the  ninth  and  tenth 


oentiuries,  certain  Spanish  bishops  who  had  been 
driven  from  their  sees  by  the  Saracens,  and  in  the 
tenth  some  from  Prussia  and  Livonia  who  were  in 
a  similar  position,  served  in  this  capacity.  The 
same  service  was  rendered  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury by  the  bishops  of  sees  foimded  in  the  East 
during  the  crusades  and  afterward  occupied  by  the 
Mohammedans.  So,  even  after  all  hope  of  the 
recovery  of  these  territories  had  been  abandoned, 
bishops  continued  to  be  consecrated  for  these 
dioceses,  called  epitcapi  in  partibus  infiddium 
("  bishops  in  the  regions  of  the  unbelieving ") 
until  1882,  when  Leo  XIII  ordered  the  use  of  the 
designation  epiacopi  HhUares,  Their  functions  are 
various.  In  the  first  place,  they  serve  as  ausdli^ 
or  coadjutor  bishops  in  dioceses  where  the  need 
exists,  when  the  diocesan  makes  a  request  to  the 
pope  for  such  an  assignment,  naming  a  suitable 
person,  and  giving  assurance  for  his  support. 
The  coadjutor  of  course  possesses  all  the  /vni 
ordinia  like  any  other  bishop,  but  exercises  them 
only  at  the  direction  of  his  superior,  and  he  has  not, 
ex  officio,  the  other  prerogatives  of  a  diocesan  bishop 
(see  Bishop).  Apostolic  vicars,  who  administer 
missionary  districts  not  formed  into  dioceses,  are 
usually  consecrated  bishops,  and  so  are  certain 
Roman  functionaries  who  are  members  of  the  great 
congregations,  and  papal  nuncios  and  other  diplo- 
matic representatives.  Titular  bishops  are  also 
consecrated  for  certain  special  purposes,  such  as 
the  administration  of  holy  orders  to  the  Uniat 
Greeks  of  Italy,  and  the  spiritual  oversight  of  the 
military  and  naval  forces  of  certain  countries  (see 
Exemption).  (P.  HiNscHiust.) 

Biblioorapht:  L.  Thomaasin,  Vttu  «l  nova  eednia  diti- 
pUna,  part  I.  book  i,  ohap«.  27-28»  Luoca,  1728;  A.  H. 
Andnucoi,  Tractatut  de  epiaoopo  Hbdari,  Rome,  1732; 
J.  C.  Mdller.  GeadiidaB  der  WeihbUch^fe  wm  Otnabr^ 
Liniien,  1887. 

BISHOPRIC,  or  DIOCESE:  The  territory  over 
which  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop  extends.  The 
origin  of  such  divisions  goes  back  to  the  foundatioo 
and  growth  of  the  very  early  Christian  oommunities. 
When  the  apostles  founded  a  church  in  a  dty,  the 
faithful  living  there  (Gk.  paroikoi,  parepidimoi; 
cf.  Eph.  ii,  19;  I  Pet.  ii,  11)  formed  a  community 
Iparoikia)  which  gradually  took  more  definite 
shape  under  the  leadership  of  the  presbyters  or 
bishops,  and  gained  adherents  outside  the  town. 
At  first  these  latter  attended  divine  service  in  the 
dty,  until  their  numbers  increased  sufficiently  to 
form  a  separate  dependent  community,  the  Una 
paroikia  being  applied  to  the  larger  territory 
equally.  In  the  West  the  name  parochia  retained 
tUs  sense  imtil  the  ninth  century,  when  it  became 
restricted  to  single  parishes  in  the  modem  sense, 
the  bishop's  jurisdiction  being  known  as  diffcesis 
(already  in  use  to  designate  a  civil  governor's  juris- 
diction) .  The  latter  word  in  the  East,  following  ^ 
analogy  of  civil  divisions,  was  applied  to  the  district 
ruled  by  a  patriarch.  In  Gaul  the  ecclesiastical  unit 
was  constituted  out  of  the  chief  town  of  a  district 
and  its  annexed  territory  (conveniuSf  Gk.  dioikisii), 
which  in  the  Prankish  period  corresponded  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  count.  In  Germany  the  original 
diocese  was  larger,  and  the  Oau  was  ooterauDOUS 


196 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bishop 
Blaokwood 


with  iU  subdivision  of  archdeaconry  or  deanery. 
The  erection  or  redistribution  of  dioceses  was  from 
the  fourth  century  a  function  of  the  metropolitan 
and  the  provincial  synod;  in  Germany  from  the 
eighth  century  it  was  carried  out  under  papal 
supervision.  From  the  eleventh  century  it  has 
been  reserved  to  the  pope;  but  in  Germany  the 
joint  action  of  the  state  has  been  required,  the 
matter  being  considered  a  causa  mixta. 

(E.  Friedbbro.) 
Bibuoobapht:  L.  ThomAsmn,  F«(u«  et  nova  eedmia  ditei- 
plina,  part  I.  book  iii.  Luoca.  1728;  R.  Hooker,  EccUHa*- 
Heal  Polity,  book  yiii.  chap.  8.  b«8t  ed.,  by  Keble,  3  vols., 
Oxford.  1845;  H.  Milman,  Hiatory  of  Chrittianiiy,  book 
iv.  London,  1867;  W.  T.  Arnold.  Roman  SyHem  of  Pro- 
vincial Administration,  London,  1870;  Bingham.  OrigineSt 
Books  iv-T,  ix;  KL,  il,  878-888. 

BISHOPS'  BOOK,  THE:  A  work  published 
at  London  in  1537,  compiled  by  a  commission  of 
En^ish  bishops  and  clergymen,  of  which  the  full 
title  is  The  InstihUion  of  a  ChritHan  Man,  am- 
taintTig  the  expogitum  or  interpretation  of  the  common 
creedf  of  the  seven  eacramentSf  of  the  x  command- 
ments wnd  of  the  pater  noeter,  and  of  the  ave  maria, 
justification,  and  purgatory.  It  reflects  the  con- 
ditions of  the  time  in  maintaining  that  the  authority 
of  the  pope  is  a  human  institution,  while  not  denying 
that  the  Church  of  Rome  is  a  part  of  the  Church 
rniversal.  It  is  reprinted  in  Formularies  of  Faith 
Put  Forth  by  Authority  during  the  Reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  edited  by  C.  Lloyd,  bishop  of  Oxford  (Oxford, 
1825).  Consult  C.  Hardwick,  A  History  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  during  the  Reformation  (6th  ed.,  London, 
1877). 

BISSELLy  EDWm  CONE:  American  Congre- 
gatlonalist;  b.  at  Schoharie,  N.  Y.,  Mar.  2,  1832; 
d.  at  Chicago  Apr.  10,  1894.  He  was  graduated 
at  Amherst  1855,  and  at  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New  York,  1859;  was  pastor  of  Congregational 
churches  at  Westhampton,  Mass.,  1859-64,  San 
FrandsGO,  1864-69,  Winchester,  Blass.,  1871-73; 
missionary  of  the  American  Board  in  Austria 
1874-79;  became  Nettleton  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  the  Hartford  Theo- 
logical Semmary  1881,  and  of  Old  Testament 
exegesis  and  literature  in  McCormick  Theological 
Seminary,  Chicago,  1892.  During  his  pastorate 
at  Westhampton  he  raised  a  company  of  the  fifty- 
seoond  regiment,  Massachusetts  volunteers,  and 
served  as  its  captain  under  Gen.  Banks  at  Port 
Hudson  1862-63.  In  1869-70  he  supplied  the 
pulpit  of  the  Congregational  Church  at  Honolulu, 
Sandwich  Islands.  He  published  The  Historic 
Origin  of  the  BibU  (New  York,  1873);  The  Apoc- 
rypha of  the  Old  Testament  (a  revised  translation, 
introduction,  and  notes,  vol.  xv  of  the  American 
Lange  series,  1880);  The  Pentateuch,  its  origin 
and  structure  (1885);  Biblical  Antiquities  (PhiU- 
delphia,  1888);  A  Practical  Introductory  Hebrew 
Grammar  (Hartford,  1891);  Genesis  Printed  in 
Colors,  showing  the  original  sources  from  u^ich  it 
is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled,  with  introducHon 
(1892). 

BITHYlflA.  See  Asia  Minob  nr  thx  Afostouc 
Time,  VI. 

BIZOCHL    See  Fraticklu. 


BJORLING,  bixn/ling,  CARL  OLOF:  Swedish 
theologian;  b.  at  Wester&s  (60  m.  w.n.w.  of  Stock- 
hohn),  Sweden,  Sept.  16,  1804;  d.  there  Jan.  20, 
1884.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Upsala; 
became  bishop  of  Wester&s,  1866,  having  long  been 
connected  as  teacher  and  rector  with  the  Gefle 
gymnasium.  He  was  the  author  of  several  learned 
works,  including  a  treatise  on  Christian  dogmatics 
(2  parts,  1847-75),  which  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention in  Germany,  and  shows  his  firm  adherence 
to  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

BLACK  FATHERS.    See  Holt  Ghobt,  Orders 

AND  CONaREGATIONB  OF  THE,  II,  6. 

BLACK  FRIARS:  A  name  given  in  England 
to  Dominican  monks  because  of  the  color  of  their 
dress. 

BLACK,  HUGH:  Scotch  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Rothesay  (40  m.  w.  of  Glasgow),  Buteshire,  Mar. 
26,  1868.  He  was  graduated  from  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity in  1887  and  the  Free  Church  College,  Glas- 
gow, in  1891,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian 
ministry  in  the  latter  year.  He  was  pastor  of 
Sherwood  Church,  Paisley,  1891-96,  and  became 
associate  pastor  of  St.  Geoi^'s  Free  Church,  Edin- 
burgh, 1896.  He  lectured  on  homiletics  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1905,  and  in 
1906  became  professor  of  practical  theology  in  that 
institution.  He  has  written  The  Dream  of  Youth 
(London,  1894);  Friendship  (1897);  CuUure  and 
Restraint  (1901);  Work  (1903);  The  Practice  of 
Self-Culture  (1904);  and  Comfort  (1906). 

BLACK  JEWS.    See  C^hurch  of  Gk)D,  2. 

BLACK  RUBRIC:  The  popular  name  for  the 
declaration  enjoining  kneeling  at  the  end  of  the 
order  for  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
the  prayeivbook  of  the  Church  of  England,  so  called 
bebause  it  was  printed  in  black  letter  in  the  prayeiv 
book  as  revised  by  William  Sancroft  (q.v.)  in  1661. 
It  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  rubric  at  aU  as  it  is 
intended  for  the  direction  of  the  people  and  not  for 
the  ofiiciating  clergy.  Nor  did  Sancroft  originate 
it,  as  it  dates  back  to  the  second  prayer-book  of 
Edward  VI  (1552),  whose  council  ordered  that  the 
conmiunicants  should  receive  the  elements  kneeling, 
and  explained  in  the  "  rubric  "  that  this  attitude 
was  not  used  to  express  belief  in  transubstantiation. 
The  "  rubric "  was  omitted  in  the  Elizabethan 
prayer-book  of  1559,  and  this  omission  was  one  of 
the  cherished  grievances  of  the  Puritans.  In  the 
Savoy  Conference  of  1661  the  Presbyterians  de- 
manded its  restoration,  but  the  bishops  were  not  at 
the  time  inclined  to  grant  it;  at  the  last  moment, 
however,  it  was  replaced  and  so  it  appears  in  the 
revised  prayer-book  of  Charles  II  and  is  still  re-> 
tained  in  the  English  prayeivbook.  It  was  removed 
from  the  prayer-book  as  revised  for  the  American 
Episcopal  Church  in  1789. 

BLACKWOOD,  WILLIAM:  Presbyterian;  b.  at 
Dromara,  Coimty  Down,  Ireland,  June  1,  1804; 
d.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Nov.  13,  1893.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Royal  College,  Belfast,  1832; 
became  pastor  successively  of  the  Presbyterian 
churches   of   Holywoodi   near   Belfast;    1835;  o! 


BlaUde 
Blasphemy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


196 


Trinity  Church,  Newcaatle-on-Tyne,  1843;  and 
of  the  Ninth  Church,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  1850. 
He  was  secretary  to  the  Education  Committee  of 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church,  1834-40;  mathe- 
matical examiner  of  students  under  care  of  the 
Synod  of  Ulster,  1839-43;  and  was  moderator  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  En^and,  1846.  He 
published,  with  other  works,  essays  on  Missions 
to  the  Heathen  (Belfast,  1830);  Atonement,  Faith, 
and  Assurance  (Philadelphia,  1856);  BeUarmine's 
Notes  of  the  Church  (1858);  and  edited  the  papers 
of  the  late  Rev.  Richard  Webster,  with  intro- 
duction and  indexes,  and  published  them  under 
the  title  Webster's  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
(Philadelphia,  1857);  also  the  BiUical,  Theological, 
Biographical,  and  lAterary  EncydopcBdia  (2  vols., 
1873-76). 

BLAIKIB,  WILLIAM  GARDEN:  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Aberdeen  Feb.  5,  1820;  d.  at 
North  Berwick  June  11,  1899.  He  studied  at 
Marischal  College  and  at  Edinburgh  (M.A.,  Aber- 
deen, 1837);  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  at  Drumblade,  Aberdeenshire,  1842; 
joined  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  1843;  was 
minister  of  Pilrig,  Edinburgh,  1844-68;  professor 
of  apologetics  and  pastoral  theology  in  New  College, 
Edinburgh,  1868-97.  With  the  Rev.  WiUiam  Ar- 
not  he  was  delegate  from  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States  at  Philadelphia  in 
1870  to  convey  congratulations  on  union;  he  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Churches;  was  deeply  interested  in  measures  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  and  the  working 
classes;  and  active  in  behalf  of  home  missions, 
temperance,  church  extension,  and  all  the  work 
of  the  Free  Church.  In  1892  he  was  moderator  of 
the  Creneral  Assembly.  He  edited  The  Free  Church 
Magazine  1849-53,  The  North  British  Review  1860- 
1863,  The  Sunday  Magazine  1873-74,  and  The 
Catholic  Presbyterian  1879-83. 

Biblioobapht:  The  more  importent  of  his  many  books 
were  Bibls  HiHory  in  ConnMiion  toUh  tks  Oenaral  Hiatory 
at  tks  World,  London,  1850;  Better  Day  for  tke  Workino 
People,  1803  (originally  published  as  Six  Leduree  Ad- 
dreeeed  to  Vte  Woiinno  Ctaeeee  on  A«  Improvement  of  their 
Temporal  Condition,  Edinbuzsh.  1840);  Heade  and  Hand* 
in  the  World  of  Labor,  1865;  For  the  Work  of  the  Minie- 
try,  a  Manual  of  HomUeHeal  and  Paatoral  Theolooy,  1873; 
Glimpeee  of  A«  Inner  Life  of  our  Lord,  1876;  The  Per- 
eonal  Life  of  David  Livingetone,  1880;  The  Public  Minie- 
try  and  Paeioral  Methode  of  our  Lord,  1883;  Leadere  in 
Modem  PhUanthropy,  1884;  Robert  RoUoek,  firtt  PHnei^ 
pal  of  the  Univereiiy  of  Edinburgh,  1884;  The  Preaehere 
of  Scotland  from  the  Sixth  to  Vte  Nineteenth  Century  (Cun- 
ningham Leoturas  for  1888);  Thomae  Chalmere,  Edin- 
buigh,  1806;  David  Brown,  a  Memoir,  London.  1808.  He 
also  edited  Memoriale  of  the  Late  Andrew  Crichton,  1868. 
and  James  Walker's  Theology  and  Theologiane  of  Scot- 
land, 1872;  wrote  five  of  the  Preeent  Day  TraeU,  1883- 
1885;  contributed  the  **  Escpositions  and  Homiletios"  for 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  in  the  PulpU  Commen- 
tary, and  prepared  the  Books  of  Joshua  and  Samuel  for 
the  Bxpoeitor*e  BiUe,  For  his  life  consult  his  AutMog- 
raphy,  edited  with  introduction  by  N.  L.  Walker,  Lon- 
don. 1001.  and  DNB,  supplement  yoI.  i,  212-213. 

BLAIR,  HUGH:  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  in 
Edinburgh  Apr.  7,  1718;  d.  there  Dec.  27,  1800. 
He  studied  in  the  local  university;  became  minister 
of  Colessie,    Fifeshire,  1742;   second    minister  of 


the  Canongate  Church,  Edinburgh,  1743;  minister 
of  Lady  Tester's  1754;  was  transferred  to  the  High 
Church  1758.  From  1759  he  lectured  in  the  Uni- 
versity so  acceptably  on  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres, 
that  in  1760  he  was  appointed  the  town  council 
professor  in  that  department,  and  from  1762  to 
1783  was  the  royal  professor;  when  on  resigning  be 
published  his  lectures  (2  vols.)  he  became  one  of  the 
most  famous  authors  of  woriss  on  rhetoric  in  the 
English  language  and  retained  the  position  for  a 
oentuiy.  In  1780  he  received  a  pension  of  £200 
a  year.  To  his  own  generation  he  was  a  most 
acceptable  preacher  and  his  sermons  continued  to 
be  read  and  to  be  translated  far  into  the  nine- 
teenth oentuiy.  Their  simplicity,  excdlent  style, 
and  high  morality  account  for  their  vogue,  but 
their  lack  of  depth  in  thought  and  spirituality 
have  caused  them  to  lose  popularity. 

Bibuoobapht:  Sketohee  of  Blair's  life  were  appended  to 
vol.  y  of  his  sermons  by  J.  Finlayson,  London,  ISOl;  oon- 
sult  also  John  Hill,  An  Aeeou$U  of  the  Life  and  WriAitfi 
of  H,  Blair,  £dinbui«h,  1807;  DNB,  y.  160-161. 

BLAIR,  JAMES:  Virginia  colonial  Episcopal 
clergyman;  b.  in  Scotland  in  1656;  d.  at  Williams- 
burg, Va.,  Apr.  18,  1743.  He  was  graduated  MA. 
at  Edinburgh  in  1673;  became  a  dergyman  of  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland  and  was  rector  of 
Cranston  in  the  diocese  of  Edinburi^.  In  the  Utter 
part  of  the  reign  of  Charies  II  he  went  to  England 
and  was  persuaded  by  Dr.  Compton,  bishc^  of 
London,  to  emigrate  to  Viiginia,  where  he  arrived 
in  1685;  he  was  minister  of  Henrico  parish  till 
1694,  at  Jamestown  till  1710,  and  at  Williamsburg 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1689  he  was  i^pointed  by 
the  bishop  of  London  conunissaiy  for  Virgima, 
the  highest  church  office  in  the  colony,  the  duties 
of  which  were  practically  those  of  a  bishop  ex- 
clusive of  ordination.  After  1793  he  was  meniber 
of  the  colonial  Council  and  for  nuiny  yean  its 
president.  He  was  a  man  of  sterling  character 
and  great  ability,  and  worked  with  persistent  seal 
and  energy  to  promote  the  religious  and  material 
welfare  of  Virginia.  He  did  much  to  devate  tbe 
character  of  the  colonial  clergy.  With  several  of 
the  governors  he  had  bitter  disputes  and  was  | 
influential  in  securing  their  removal.  He  was 
founder  and  first  president  of  William  and  Mary  j 
College,  for  which  he  procured  a  charter  in  England 
in  1693,  and  which  he  made  a  success  in  spite  of  j 
great  difficulties  and  discouragements.  He  pub- 
lished four  volumes  containing  117  sermons  on  | 
Our  Savior's  Divine  Sermon  on  Sie  Mount  (London, 
1722)  and  with  Heniy  Hartwell  and  Edward 
Chilton  prepared  The  Present  StaU  of  Vvpnia 
and  the  College  (London,  1727). 

BiBuooaAPHT:  D.  E.  Motley,  7^  Life  of  Commnimary  JeM» 
Blair,  in  Johne  Hopkine  Univereiiy  Studiee  in  Hukrieal 
and  Political  Science,  aeriet  six,  no.  10,  Baltimore,  1901: 
DNB,  v.  161-1«2. 

BLAIR,  SAMUEL:  American  Presbyterian;  b. 
in  Ireland  June  14, 1712;  d.  at  Londonderry,  P^f 
July  5,  1751.  He  came  early  to  America;  studied 
at  Tennent's  "  Log  College  "  at  Neshaminy;  was 
ordained  pastor  of  Hfiddletown  and  Shrewsbury, 
N.  J.,  1734;  in  1739  removed  to  Londonderry  or 
Fagg's   Manor    (40    m.  wjb.w.    of   Phfladelphu)> 


197 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blaikle 
Blasphemy 


Chester  County,  Penn.,  and  established  there  a 
school  after  the  model  of  the  "  Log  College.''  He 
was  an  adherent  of  Gilbert  Tennent  in  the  contro- 
versies of  his  time.  His  principal  writings  were 
collected  by  his  brother,  Rev.  John  Blair  (Phila- 
delphia, 1754);  they  include  sermons,  a  treatise 
on  predestination  and  reprobation,  and  an  account 
of  a  revival  in  his  congregation  at  Londonderry. 

Bxbuoobapht:  Conault  the  biographioal  sketch  in  A.  Alex- 
ander. The  Founder  and  Principal  Alumni  of  tke  Log  Col- 
leoe,  pp.  1M>196,  PhilMlelphia.  1851. 

BLAIR,  WILLIAM:  United  Free  Church  of 
Scotland;  b.  at  Climy  (23  m.  s.w.  of  St.  Andrews), 
Fifeshire,  Jan.  13, 1830.  He  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrews  (M.A.,  1850),  and  in  1856  was 
ordained  to  the  United  Presbyterian  ministry  at 
Dunblane,  Perthshire.  He  was  clerk  to  the  Stirling 
Presbytery  for  twenty-five  years,  and  to  the  United 
Presbyterian  Synod  1894-1900;  since  1900  he  has 
been  clerk  to  the  United  Free  Church  Creneral  As- 
sembly, and  was  moderator  of  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Synod  in  1898-99.  He  has  been  chaplain 
to  the  famous  Black  Watch  since  1892,  a  member 
of  the  University  C!ourt  of  St.  Andrews  University 
since  1903.  In  theology  he  adheres  strictly  to  the 
Westminster  Confession.  He  has  written  Chrontclea 
of  Aberbrolhoc  (Arbroath,  1853);  Rambling  RecoUec- 
tions:  or,  Scenes  worth  Seeing  (Edinburgh,  1857); 
Archbishop  LeigkUm,  Life  with  Selections  (London, 
1883);  Jubilee  Memorial  Volume  (Edinburgh,  1887); 
History  and  Principles  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  (1888);  and  RobeH  Leighton,  Extracts  and 
Introduction  (London,  1907). 

BLAISE,  SAIBT.    See  Helpebb  in  Need. 

BLAKESLEEy  ERASTUS:  Congregatfonalist;  b. 
at  Plymouth,  Conn.,  Sept.  2,  1838;  d.  at  Brookline, 
UasB.,  July  12,  1908.  While  a  sophomore  at  Yale 
in  1861  he  enlisted  as  a  cavalryman.  He  was  mus- 
tered out  in  1865  as  brevet  brt^ier^neral  of  vol- 
unteers. After  a  business  career  he  studied  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  from  1876  to  1879, 
and  entered  the  Congregational  ministry.  He  had 
three  efaaiges,  at  Greenfield »  Mass.,  Faiiiu&ven, 
Conn.,  and  at  Spencer,  Mass.  (1887-92),  and  re- 
signed the  last  that  he  might  give  his  whole  time 
to  the  preparation  and  publication  of  the  "  Bible 
Study  Union  Lessons/'  which  are  not  only  wide^ 
used  in  this  country,  but  translated  into  several 
missionary  languages.  With  the  teachers'  aids, 
issued  separately,  more  than  160  volumes  of  lessons 
were  published.  Frank  Samdbbs. 

BLARCKMEISTBR,  FRANZ  THEODOR:  Qep- 
man  Lutheran;  b.  at  Plauen  (21  m.  s.w.  of  Zwickau) 
Feb.  4,  1858.  After  studying  at  Leipsic  from  1877 
to  1880  and  teaching  for  a  year,  he  entered  the 
ministry,  and  has  been,  smoe  1897,  pastor  of  Trinity 
(Jhurch  in  Dresden.  In  theology  he  is  extremely 
Protestant  and  an  adverse  critic  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Of  his  numerous  publications  may 
be  mentioned  AUe  Oeschichte  aus  dem  Sachsenlande 
(3  vols.,  Barmen,  1886-89);  Saehsenepiegd  (Dres- 
den, 1897;  2d ed.,  1902);  and SOn^ieiechs Kirdienge- 
•chiehte  (1899;  2d  ed.,  1906). 


BLAIfDINA,  SAUfT:  A  martyr  who  was  among 
the  victims  of  the  persecution  in  Lyons  imder 
Marcus  Aurelius.  In  the  acootmt  of  that  persecu- 
tion given  by  the  Christian  community  there,  and 
preserved  by  Eusebius  (Hist,  ecd,,  v,  1),  the  courage 
of  the  young  slave  girl  is  specially  extolled;  and  she 
is  singled  out  for  mention  by  name,  an  honor  which 
she  shares  with  only  seven  of  the  other  martyrs, 
including  the  bishop  Pothinus.  (A.  EUncK.) 

BLAlfDRATA,  GEORGIUS:  Italian  Unitarian; 
b.  about  1515  at  Saluzzo  (17  miles  n.w.  of  Coni), 
Piedmont;  d.  after  1585.  He  migrated  to  Poland, 
where  he  became  physician  to  Sigismtmd  I,  then 
went  to  Transylvania  and  served  the  widow  of 
Jan  Zapolya  in  a  like  capacity.  Having  returned 
to  Italy,  he  went  to  Pavia,  and  became  an  object 
of  suspicion  on  account  of  his  radical  utterances  on 
theology,  but  escaped  the  Inquisition  by  going  to 
Geneva.  There  he  debated  with  Martinenghi, 
the  preacher  of  the  Italian  congregation,  also  with 
Calvin,  especially  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  which  he  regarded  as  endangering  the 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God.  He  regarded  specu- 
lation on  the  relation  of  the  three  persons  as  un- 
necessary (F.  Trechsel,  ProteslanHsche  AntUrini- 
tarier,  4  parts,  Bern,  1841-42,  ii,  467;  CR,  xvii, 
2871).  Calvin  replied  in  his  Responsum  ad  quoBs- 
Hones  0,  Blandrata  (Geneva,  1559).  As  some  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  sided  with  Blandrata, 
Calvin  had  a  confession  signed  which  condemned 
the  antitrinitarian  doctrine.  Blandrata  went  to 
Zurich,  then  again  to  Poland,  where  he  was  received 
by  Prince  Radsiwill  and  took  part  in  several 
synods  (cf.  H.  Dalton,  Lascianct,  BerUn,  1898,  iv), 
but  Calvin's  repeated  warnings  against  him,  stig- 
matizing him  as  "  a  foul  pest,"  prevented  any 
lasting  activity.  In  1563  Blandrata  went  again 
to  Transylvania  and  openly  professed  Unitarianism, 
being  assisted  by  Pnnoe  Stephen  Bathori,  after- 
ward king  of  Poland.  Faustus  Socinus  accused 
Blandrata  of  having  separated  from  his  coreligion- 
ists out  of  avarice;  at  any  rate,  tired  of  the  con- 
flict, he  ceased  to  take  part  in  public  affairs. 

K.  Benrath. 

Bibuographt:  Many  of  the  letters  of  Blandrata  are  printed 
in  CR^  vols,  xyii-xjd.  Sources  for  a  biography  are:  C. 
SandiuB,  Bibliotheea  anHtrinOariorutn,  Freistadt,  1684; 
8.  Lubienski.  Hiatoria  reformoHonie  Polonica,  ib.  1686. 
Consult  V.  Malaoame,  Commentario  delle  opere  e  delia 
vicendi  di  G.  Biandraia,  Padua,  1814;  O.  Fook,  Der  So- 
cinianiemua,  Kiel.  1847;  and  J.  H.  Allen,  Hi»torical 
Skelbh  of  the  UnUarian  Movement,  New  York,  1804. 

BLASPHEHY  (Gk.  hlasphimia,  ''a  speech  or 
word  of  evil  omen  "):  Properly  any  species  of 
calumny  and  detraction,  but  technically  limited 
to  evil-«peaking  of  God  or  things  held  sacred.  The 
conception  that  such  an  act  is  a  crime  may  be  traced 
back  to  Judaism,  whose  code  imposed  death  by 
stoning  as  a  punishment  (Lev.  xziv,  15-16;  Matt, 
xxvi,  65;  John  x,  33).  The  later  Roman  law  also 
attached  the  death  penalty  (Nov,  Ju«ftn.,LXXVII, 
i,  1-2).  In  the  earlier  church  law,  blasphemy  is  not 
mentioned  as  a  punishable  offense.  Pope  Gregory 
IX  (1227-41)  prescribed  penance  for  public  blas- 
phemy against  (}od,  the  saints,  or  the  Virgin; 
the  guilty  person  must  stand  for  seven  Sundays 


Blass 
Bledsoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


198 


at  the  church  porch  during  the  maaa,  on  the  last 
of  the  seven  without  doak  or  shoes;  he  must  fast 
the  Fridays  preceding  on  bread  and  water,  and  give 
ahns  according  to  his  means.  The  civil  authorities 
were  also  admonished  to  impose  a  fine.  By  the 
end  of  the  century  the  offense  came  to  be  more 
definitely  defined  as  any  depreciatory  or  oppro- 
brious expression  concerning  God,  Christ,  or  the 
Holy  Spirit,  such  as  the  denial  of  a  divine  attribute, 
or  the  ascription  of  something  unseemly  (as  false- 
hood or  revenge),  or  wishing  ill  to  or  in  any  way 
dishonoring  God,  the  saints,  or  the  Virgin.  Leo 
X  (1513-21)  imposed  fines  according  to  the  ability 
of  the  offender  and  bodily  punishments  which 
included  flogging,  boring  the  tongue,  and  condem- 
nation to  the  galleys  in  extreme  cases.  Later  a 
tendency  to  substitute  admonition  and  exhortation 
for  severe  penalties  becomes  apparent.  By  the 
common  law  of  England,  and  in  many  of  the  United 
States  by  statute  law,  blasphemy  is  an  indictable 
offense;  prosecutions,  however,  have  become  infre- 
quent. (P.  HmscHiust.) 

The  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  which 
is  pronounced  unpardonable  (Matt,  xii,  31;  Mark 
iii,  29;  Luke  xii,  10)  is  best  understood  to  be  wilful 
and  persistent  resistance  to  the  influences  and 
warnings  of  God,  which  renders  the  subject  in- 
capable of  repentance  and  pardon.  See  Holt 
Spirit,  IL 

Biblioorapht:  J.  D.  Miehaelis,  MotikUchM  Reeht,  part  y, 
i  261.  Frankfort.  1770-76.  Eng.  tranal.,  London.  1810; 
P.  Hinschius,  Daa  Kirehttnrecht  in  DeuUchland,  iy,  p.  703, 
n.  3,  ▼,  184.  318-319,  326.  690,  vi.  188.  Berlin,  1860-08; 
Blackstone,  Commentaries  IV.  4,  iv;  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen, 
Hiatory  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England,  ii.  460-476,  Lon- 
don. 1883:  Bishop.  CommeniariM,  X,  z;  DB,  i.  306-306; 
EB,  i.  680-600. 

BLASS,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM:  German  Prot- 
estant classical  scholar;  b.  at  Osnabrack  (30 
m.  n.e.  of  Manster)  Jan.  22,  1843;  d.  at  Halle 
Mar.  5,  1907.  He  studied  in  Gdttmgen  (1860-61) 
and  Bonn  (1861-^;  Ph.D.,  1863),  and  after  being 
a  teacher  in  gymnasia  at  Bielefeld  (1864r-66), 
Naumburg-an-der-Saale  (1866-70),  Magdeburg 
(1870-73),  and  Stettin  (1873-74),  became  privat- 
docent  at  Kdnigsberg  in  1874.  Two  years  later 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  at  Kiel,  where 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  full  professor  in 
1881.  From  1892  he  was  professor  of  classical 
philology  at  Halle.  Besides  editions  of  Greek 
authors  and  inscriptions,  and  several  works  on 
strictly  classical  themes,  he  published  Philology  of 
the  Gospels  (London,  1898)  and  Grammatik  dea 
neiUestamenUichen  Griechisck  (Gdttingen,  1896; 
Eng.  transl.  by  H.  St.  J.  Thackeray,  London,  1898), 
and  edited  Acta  Apostolorum  (Gdttingen,  1895; 
minor  edition,  Leipsic,  1896);  Evangelium  secun- 
dum Lucam  (Leipsic,  1897);  Evangelium  secundum 
MaUkceum  (1901);  Evangelium  secundum  Johan- 
nem  (1902);  and  {Barnabas)  Brief  an  die  H^nHer 
(HaUe,  1903). 

BLASTARES,  HATTHiEIJS:  At  first  a  secular 
priest  and  later  a  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Basil, 
who  made  about  1335  a  collection  of  laws,  both  civil 
and  ecclesiastical,  known  as  "Alphabetical  Col- 
lection," Syntagma  alphabeticum  rerum  omnium 
qua   in   sacris   canonilms   camprehenduntur.    The 


dvil  part  ("political  laws")  is  based  upon  the 
Novella  of  Justinian,  the  ecclesiastical  ("  canons  ") 
upon  the  collection  of  Photius,  with  the  commen- 
taries of  Zonaras  and  Balsamon.  Such  a  diction- 
ary of  law  filled  a  practical  want,  and  so  was  uni- 
versally used  by  the  Eastern  clergy,  and  even 
translated  into  Slavic.  A  complete  reprint  is  found 
in  Beveridge's  Synodicon,  ii,  2,  and  in  vol.  vi  of  the 
Syntagma  tOn  thei&n  kai  hierSn  kanon&n  (Athens, 
1859).  (E.  Friedbeso.) 

BLAURER  (BLARER,  BLAARER),  AMBRO- 
SUSS:  German  Reformer;  b.  at  Constance  Apr. 
12, 1492;  d.  at  Winterthur  (12  miles  n.e.  of  Zurich), 
Switierland,  Dec.  6, 1 564.  He  studied  at  Tubingen, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  Melanchtbon; 
about  1510  he  entered  the  monastery  at  Alpirsbach, 
and  continued  his  studies  at  TObingen  till  1513. 
Through  study  of  the  Bible  and  of  Luther's  writings, 
to  the  reading  of  which  he  was  led  by  his  brother 
Thomas,  who  while  studying  at  Wittenberg  had 
become  intimate  with  Luther  and  Melanchtbon, 
he  embraced  the  principles  of  the  Reformation, 
which  he  tried  to  introduce  into  the  monasteiy. 
Being  opposed  by  the  abbot,  he  went  to  Con- 
stance Jidy  5,  1522,  and  at  the  instance  of  the 
cotmcil  of  the  dty  began  to  preach  in  1525.  He 
became  the  leader  of  the  Reformation  there. 
From  1528,  Blaurer  labored  for  the  Reformation 
outside  of  his  native  dty.  He  was  present  at  the 
colloquy  in  Bern  (Jan.  6,  1528),  was  at  Memmingen 
Nov.,  1528-Feb.,  1 529,  and  presided  over  the  conven- 
tion of  the  friends  of  the  Reformation  in  Upper 
Gennany  which  met  in  Memmingen  F^.  27-Mar. 
1,  1531.  From  May  to  July,  1531,  he  was  at  Ulm 
with  (Eoolampadius  and  Butaer,  afterward  at  Ges- 
lingen,  and  (Sept.  1531-July,  1532)  at  Esslingeo. 
He  ever3rwhere  displayed  ability  in  organiiation. 
In  July,  1532,  his  native  dty  recalled  him,  and  in 
1533  he  married  a  former  nun. 

In  1534  he  was  called  by  Duke  Ulrich,  together 
with  the  Lutheran  Erhard  Schnepf ,  to  further  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation  in  the  duchy  of  Wurttem- 
berg.  The  two  men  came  to  an  agreement,  Aug.  2, 
1534,  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
paving  thereby  the  way  for  the  coming  union  of 
the  German  Evangelical  Church.  To  Blaurer 
was  assigned  the  south  of  Wtlrttembeig  with  resi- 
dence at  TObingen.  He  encountered  there  certain 
difficulties:  (1)  the  agreement  with  Schwenckfeld. 
1535;  (2)  the  reformation  at  the  University  of 
Tabingen,  which  Brena  had  undertaken;  (3)  the 
image-question,  which  Blaurer  solved  by  re- 
moving all  of  them  from  the  chuitshes,  but  the 
"  idol-diet "  at  Urach  left  the  dedsion  to  the  duke. 
At  Schmalkald  Blaurer  refused  in  Feb.,  1537,  to 
sign  the  artides  of  Luther,  but  approved  those 
of  Melanchtbon.  Court  intrigues  brought  about 
Blaurer's  dismissal  in  Jime,  1538.  Not  till  1556 
did  Duke  Christopher  compensate  him  for  his 
four  years'  services.  He  was  at  Augsburg  June  , 
27-Dec.  6,  1530,  where  he  earnestly  labored  against 
the  luxury  of  the  rich,  pleaded  for  benevolence  to 
the  poor,  and  for  the  cause  of  morality.  He  went  to  j 
Kempten  and  labored  there  (Dec.,  1539,  to  the  end 
of  Jan.,  1540)  for  the  peace  of  the  Churdi,  and  also 
at  Isny,  1544-55. 


199 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BlaM 
Bledsoe 


By  the  Interim,  Constance  lost  its  independence. 
The  Spaniards  took  the  city  Aug.  6,  1548,  and 
made  it  an  Austrian  town,  speedily  crushing  the 
Reformation.  Blaurer  left  there  Aug.  28,  and 
preached  in  Biel  (1551-59),  Leutmerken,  and 
finally  at  Winterthur,  where  he  died.  He  declined 
calls  to  Bern,  Augsburg,  Memmingen,  and  the 
Palatinate,  and  influenced  large  circles  by  his 
correspondence.  His  twenty-two  hymns  give  evi- 
dence of  poetical  power  and  fervor. 

G.  BOSSBBT. 

Bibuoorarht:  D.  C.  Pfister,  DenkwOrdigkeiitn  der  wOrUetn- 
btrffi^ehen  und  9dnff0bi9dten  B€formaiUm9oe9chielUB,  port 
1.  Tabiofeh.  1817;  T.  Keim,  Ambr.  BUtrmr  dtr  mAidA- 
hiatht  lUtcrmatar,  Stuttcart,  1860;  T.  Prenel.  Ambro9iua 
Blminr*9  LtUn  und  Schriften,  ib.  1861;  Ltben  und  au9- 
oeuOklU  Sckriften  der  ViUer  der  reformierten  Kirehe,  vol. 
xhr.  Elberfeld.  1861;  E.  Schneider,  WUrUemberoiedie  Refor- 
wmtianegeeckidUe,  Stuttgart.  1887;  E.  Inel,  Die  Reforma- 
Hon  in  Konetane,  Freiburg,  1888;  F.  Roth.  Auotburge 
ReformaHonegeeehiehie,  yols.  i,  ii,  Munich,  1901,  1904; 
Zwin4fUana,  1900.  no.  2,  p.  163,  1902.  no.  2,  p.  317. 

BLAURER,  MARGARETHA:  Sister  of  Am- 
brosiua  Blaurer  (q.v.),  one  of  the  most  intelligent 
and  deeply  religious  women  of  the  Reformation 
time;  d.  in  Constance  1542.  She  became  deeply 
interested  in  the  person  and  work  of  Pilgram  Mai^ 
beck  (q.v.)  during  his  residence  in  Strasburg  (1528- 
1532)  and,  whether  she  sympathised  with  his  anti- 
pedobaptist  teaching  or  not,  reproached  Butzer  for 
his  intolerant  proceedings  against  Marbeck  and 
refused  to  be  convinced  by  Butser^s  arguments  that 
Marbeck  was  a  heretic  or  a  hypocrite.  She  died 
while  mimstering  to  the  plague-stricken  poor  of 
(instance,  and  has  the  honor  of  being  one  of  the 
first  Protestant  women  to  engage  in  diaconal 
service.  A.  H.  Newican. 

Biblioobapbt:  J.  W.  Baum,  Cajfilo  und  BiOmt,  paosim, 
Elberfeld,  1860;  C.  Gerbert,  Geeehiehie  der  atraaeburger 
SeeUfAewegumg  gur  Zeiider  ReformaHon,  1694-1634,  pp.  97 
aqq.,  StrMburg,  1889;  and  literature  under  Blaurxb,  Am- 


BLAVATSK7,  HELENA  PETROVNA:  Theoso- 
phist;  b.  at  Ekaterinoslav  (250  m.  n.e.  of  Odessa), 
Russia,  July  31  (O.  S.),  1831;  d.  in  London  May  8, 
189 1.  Supposed  to  have  been  the  child  of  a  Russian 
officer  named  Peter  Hahn,  she  married,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  a  Russian  official,  Nicephore  Blavatsky, 
from  whom  she  separated  after  a  very  few  months. 
For  the  next  twenty  years  her  life  was  a  wandering 
one,  mixed  with  spiritualism  and  similar  cults. 
During  this  time  she  visited  Paris,  Cairo,  New  Or- 
leans, Tokyo,  and  Calcutta,  and  she  claimed  to  have 
resided  for  seven  years  in  Tibet,  whence  she  pre- 
tended to  draw  the  mysteries  of  theosophy  (q.v.). 
In  1858  she  started  a  spiritualistic  movement  in  Rus- 
sia, and  in  1873  was  again  in  the  United  States.  In 
1875  she  founded  at  New  York,  in  collaboration  with 
Col.  Henry  Steel  Olcott,  the  Theosophical  Society. 
Her  chief  works,  which  have  run  through  repeated 
editions  and  have  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages, both  in  Europe  and  India,  are  Isis  Unveiled : 
The  Master  Key  to  Ancient  and  Modem  Mysteries, 
the  standard  text-book  of  the  Theosophists  (2  vols.. 
New  York,  1877);  Secret  Doctrine  :  The  Synthesis 
of  Science,  Reliffion,  and  Philosophy  (2  vols.,  1888); 
Voice  of  the  Silence  (1889);  Key  to  Theosophy,  in 
the  Form  of  Question  and  Anstper  (1889);   and  the 


posthumous  From  the  Caves  and  Jungles  of  Hin" 
dostan  (1892;  originally  contributed  to  the  Russian 
Russky  Vye^ik);  Nightmare  Tales  (London,  1892) 
Theosophical  Glossary  (1892);  and  Modem  Panarion 
Collection  of  Fugitive  Fragments  (1899). 

Bibuoorapbt:  E.  Coulomb,  Sotne  Aeecuntof  my  Intercourse 
viSh  Madame  Blavoteky  fnmCJ&/B  to  1884,  London,  1886;  A. 
P.  Sinnett,  Ineidente  in  the  Life  cf  Madame  Blavateky,  ib. 
1886;  C.  WaohtmeiBter,  Reminiecencce  of  H,  P.  Blavataky 
and  **the  Secret  Doctrine/'  ib.  1893;  A.  Ullie.  Madame 
BkmaUkvand  her  "  Theoeophy":  A  Study,  ib.  1895;  V. 
8.  SolovyoflF,  Modem  Prieeteee  of  leie,  from  the  Runrian.  by 
W.  Leaf,  ib.  1896  (an  expoei)\  H.  Freimark, '  Heltfna 
Peiroviia  Blavatsky,  Leipeic,  1907. 

BLAYNE7,  BENJAMIN:  Church  of  En^and 
Hebrew  scholar;  b.  1728;  d.  at  Poulshot  (22  m. 
n.w.  of  Salisbury),  Wiltshire,  Sept.  20,  1801.  He 
studied  at  Worcester  and  Hertford  Colleges,  Ox- 
ford (B.A.,  1750;  M.A.,  1763;  B.D.,  1768;  D.D., 
1787);  was  appointed  regius  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  1787  and  was  made  canon  of  Christ  Church. 
He  revised  the  text  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Bible  to  secure  typographical  accuracy  and  added 
to  the  marginal  references;  the  edition  appeared 
in  1769  and  is  the  standard  for  the  Oxford  press. 
He  also  published  A  Dissertation  by  Way  of  Inquiry 
into  the  True  Import  and  Application  of  the  Vision 
Called  Daniel's  Prophecy  of  Seventy  Weeks  (Oxford, 
1775);  two  sermons,  on  The  Sign  Given  to  Ahaz 
(1786)  and  Christ  the  Greater  Glory  of  the  Temple 
(1788);  translations  of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations 
(1784)  and  Zechariah  (1797);  and  an  edition  of 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  (1790). 

BLEDSOE,  ALBERT  TAYLOR:  American 
Southern  Methodist;  b.  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Nov.  9, 
1809;  d.  at  Alexandria,  Va.,  Dec.  8,  1877.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  1830,  became  lieu- 
tenant of  infantxy,  and  resigned  1832;  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  mathematics  at  Kenyon 
College,  Gambler,  O.,  1834;  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  rector  at 
Hamilton,  O.,  and  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Miami  University,  Oxford,  O.,  1835-36;  practised 
law  in  Springfield,  111.,  and  in  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  at  WasMngton,  1840-48;  was  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Mississippi, 
1848-54,  and  in  the  University  of  Virginia,  1854- 
1861 ;  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  as  a  colonel, 
but  was  soon  made  assistant  secretary  of  war; 
lived  in  England  1863-66;  after  1867  published 
The  Southern  Review  at  Baltimore,  which  un- 
der his  management  became  one  of  the  leading 
periodicab  of  the  Methodist  Church,  South.  He 
was  ordained  a  Methodist  minister  in  1871,  but 
never  took  charge  of  a  church.  He  was  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  free  will  and  a  stem 
opponent  of  atheism  and  skepticism;  the  doctrine 
of  predestination  he  consideied  a  reflection  upon 
the  divine  glory,  and  a  cause  of  unbelief;  his  views 
are  set  forth  in  his  Examination  of  Edwards  on  the 
Will  (Philadelphia,  1845)  and  his  Theodicy,  or 
Vindication  of  the  Divine  Glory  (New  York,  1853). 
He  also  published  Liberty  and  Slavery  (Philadelphia, 
1857);  The  Philosophy  of  Mathematics  (1868); 
Is  Davis  a  Traitor  f  or  was  secession  a  constitu- 
tional right  previous  to  the  war  of  1861  f  (Baltimore, 
1866). 


Bleek 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


200 


BLEEK,  FRIEDRICH:  Protestant  theologian  and 
exegete;  b.  at  AhrensbOk,  Holstein,  July  4,  1793; 
d.  at  Bonn  Feb.  27, 1859.  He  studied  theology  and 
philology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin,  1812-17,  and  began  to 
lecture  aa  repetent  in  theology  in  the  latter  place 
in  1818.  Hjs  lectures  on  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments  attracted  attention,  and  in  1821  he 
was  made  extraordinary  professor;  he  succeeded 
LUcke  as  professor  at  Bonn,  1829,  receiving  the 
same  year  his  doctorate  from  Breslau.  For  thirty 
years  Bleek  lectured  at  the  university  in  Bonn. 
He  was  extremely  painstaking  in  the  preparation 
of  his  lectures,  which  were  so  carefidly  written 
that  after  his  death  they  could  easily  be  used  for 
publication,  and  continue  in  much  larger  circles 
the  influence  they  had  already  exerted.  His  works 
printed  during  Ms  lifetime  include:  Ueber  die  Ent" 
sUhung  und  Zuaammeruetgung  der  SibyUinischen 
Orakd,  Ueber  VerfasMr  und  ZweckdeaBuchee  Daniel, 
and  Beitrag  twr  Kritik  vnd  Deutung  der  Offenbarttng 
Jokannis,  three  valuable  essays  published  in  the 
theological  review  edited  by  Schleiermacher,  De 
Wette,  and  LOcke  (Berlin,  1819-22);  Versuch  einer 
voUetdndigen  Einleihmg  in  den  Brief  an  die  Hebrder 
(Berlin,  1828),  followed  in  1836  and  1840  by  a 
translation  of  Hebrews  and  commentary  on  the 
book;  BeUrOge  xur  Evan^ienkrOik  (Berlin,  1846). 
Of  his  posthumous  works  mention  may  be  made  of 
EinleUung  in  doe  AUe  Testament  (edited  by  his  son  J. 
F.  Bleek  and  A.  Kamphausen,  Beriin,  1860;  3d  ed., 
by  Kamphausen,  1870;  4th,  5th,  and  6th  ed.,  by  J. 
Wellhausen,  1878, 1886, 1893;  Eng.  transl.  by  G.  H. 
Venables,  2  vols.,  London,  1869;  on  the  last  three 
editions  cf .  H.  L.  Strack,  Einleitung  in  daa  AUe  Tea- 
lament,  Munich,  1895,  11);  Einleitung  in  doe  Neue 
Testament  (1st  and  2d  editions  by  his  son,  J.  F. 
Bleek,  1862,  1866;  3d  and  4th  editions  by  W. 
Mangold,  Berlin,  1875,  1886;  Eng.  transl.  by  W. 
Urwick,  London,  1870);  Synoptieche  Erkldrung  der 
drei  ersten  Evangelien  (ed.  H.  Holtzmann,  2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1862);  VorUeungen  mber  die  Apokalypee 
(ed.  T.  Hossbach,  Beriin,  1862;  Eng^.  trand.,  Lon- 
don, 1874);  VorUeungen  Ober  die  Brief e  an  die 
Koloaaer,  den  Philemon  und  die  Epheeer  (ed.  F. 
Nitssch,  Berlin,  1865);  Vorlesungen  vber  den  He- 
hrderbrief  (ed.  A.  Windrath,  Elberfeld,  1868).  Bleek's 
writings  are  especially  distinguished  for  thorough- 
ness in  investigation  and  clearness  of  expression. 
His  standpoint  in  criticism  was  conservative. 

A.  Kamphausen. 

BLEMM7DES,  NIKEPHOROS:  Greek  monk; 
b.  at  Constantinople  about  1197;  d.  (near  Ephesus?) 
1272.  He  founded  a  monastery  near  Ephesus,  and 
became  its  archimandrite.  His  many  writings  were 
philosophical  treatises,  discourses  on  the  procession 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  on  the  Trinity,  on  Christology, 
on  the  duties  of  the  king,  and  an  exposition  of  the 
Faalms.  [He  is  principally  noted  for  his  defense 
of  the  Roman  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit  from  Father  and  Son  before  the  emperor  John 
III  Vatatzes  at  Nicsea.]  Blemmydes  was  honest 
and  incorruptible,  but  harsh  in  character.  Out  of 
devotion  to  the  ascetic  life,  he  declined  the  patri- 
archate. Philipp  Meyer. 

BmuooBAPHT:  The  works  of  Blemmydes  are  in  MPO, 
exUi,  And  also  in  A.  Heisenberg's  N.  Bkmmyda,  eurri- 


culum  viiag  et  earmina,  Letpsac,  1896,  which  eomtsioB  the 
newly  disoovered  autotnography.  Consult  Kmmbscher, 
Gesc^foUe,  pp.  445  sqq.,  et  ] 


Biblical  Basis  (I  1). 
Foundation  in  Ethies  (I  2). 


In  Gommunion  with  (Sod  (1 3). 
Degrees  of  Blessednen  ({  4). 


The  term  "  blessedness  "  is  the  usual  rendering  in 
the  En^h  Bible  for  the  idea  of  the  Hebrew  a«^  and 
Greek  makarioa.  The  German  iSe/if/A^eif  represents  be- 
sides the  content  of  those  words  also 
X.  Biblical  the  idea  of  the  Greek  adtetn,  "to 
Basifl.  save."  The  Latin  equivalent  of  nuka- 
rioa  is  heatue,  which  has,  however,  passed 
in  usage  to  designate  the  state  of  Christians  who  have 
fallen  asleep  (cf.  Rev.  xiv,  13);  while  beaiUudo 
in  scholastic  usage  designates  the  aim  and  the 
highest  good  of  the  Christian.  The  union  of  two 
Biblical  conceptions  in  one  expression  gives  to  the 
latter  its  unique  Christian  content,  as  is  realized 
when  the  two  ideas  are  traced  to  their  junction. 
Illuminative  of  this  point  is  Paul's  use  (Roti. 
iv,  7-8)  of  Ps.  xxxii,  1-2.  The  Old  Testament 
passage  bases  "  blessedness  "  on  forgiveness  of  sin, 
and  goes  to  the  root  of  human  felicity  or  its  oppo- 
site. The  Reformed  theology  traced  the  idea  of 
blessedness  to  the  salvation  implied  in  that  forgive- 
ness, and  the  fact  is  evinced  in  Luther's  use  of 
SeligkeU  to  express  the  state  consequent  upon 
forgiveness.  Thus  the  union  of  the  ideas  of  blessed- 
ness and  salvation  is  manifest. 

The  term  suggests  also  the  idea  of  a  condition  of 
abiding  satisfaction  fully  realized  in  oonsdousness. 
This  is  attributed  to  God  in  I  Tim.  vi,  15-16  (cf. 
i,  11),  with  which  dogmatics  agrees  on  the  ground 
of  his  absoluteness  and  completeness.  In  this 
respect,  to  man  may  be  attributed  only  a  relative 
blessedness.  By  reason  of  his  constitution  man 
may  pursue  and  attain  a  sort  of  arbitrary  satis- 
faction; and  in  consequence  of  his  being  a  creature 
he  can  attain  full  satisfaction  only  in  a  way  in 
accord  with  his  inner  nature.  A  purpose  which  for 
him  reaches  beyond  the  present  life  involves  a 
blessedness  not  to  be  reached  here,  where  only  a 
conditioned  form  is  for  him  attainable.  This  is  the 
point  of  view  of  the  Biblical  presentation.  Man 
holds,  on  the  one  hand,  relations  with  God,  and  on 
this  depends  his  blessedness;  he  is  also,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  race  of  Adam,  a  sinner  and  so  under  the 
impress  of  evil,  and  his  blessedness  is  contingent 
upon  salvation  from  this  condition. 

On  the  foregoing  basis  is  built  Christian  usage, 

in  which  "  eternal  life,"  "  eternal  blessedness/'  and 

"blessed   eternity"   are   variant   expressions  for 

the  same  concept.    Life  in  its  fulness  is  the  idea. 

The  Bible  and  philosophy  agree  in  the  ethical  as 

the  source  of  blessedness  (Jaa.  i,  25;  Acts  xz,  35), 

but  the  former  annexes  also  a  religioug 

2.  Founda-  relationship  (Jas.  i,  27).    If  the  most 

tionin      significant    limitation    in    life,    that 

Ethics,      which  distinguishes  man  from  God, 

viz.,  guilt,  be  removed,  on  this  line 

of  thought  blessedness  may  be  attributed  to  man. 

Out  of  this  comes  the  emphasis  constantly  Uid 

in  the  language  of  the  Gospels  upon  the  identity 

of  salvation  and  blessedness,  the  latter  resting  upon 

freedom  from  guilt  and  from  the  proscription  ari- 


201 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bleek 
Blesslff 


dng  from  sin.    Thus  blessedness  and  life,  in  this  way 
reaching  its  fulness,  are  regarded  as  equivalents. 

A  special  dogmatic  terminology  has  developed 
from  this  usage,  as  when  Schleiermacher  {CkrUt- 
licht  Glaube,  Beriin,  1821,  §§  100,  101,  108,  110) 
describes  the  activity  of  Christ  in  that  he  receives 
believers  up  into  his  own  God-consciousness  and 
into  participation  in  his  serene  blessedness,  into 
the  "peace"  of  the  New  Testament.  Similarly 
J.  C.  K.  von  Hofmann  (Theoloffigche  Ethik,  NOrd- 
lingen,  1878,  p.  80)  asserts  that ''  faith  as  obedience 
is  freedom,  faith  as  certainty  is  blessedness."  So 
the  tenn  designates  the  religious  side  of  the  Chris- 
tian's condition  as  distinct  from  the  ethical.  The 
eudemonistic  side  is  expressed  by  J.  Kaftan 
(Wesen  der  ehrisUichm  Religionf  Bielefeld,  1881,  pp. 
67,  292)  in  the  form  "  blessedness  is  enjo3rment  of 
the  highest  good."  Into  Christian  usage  there  has 
come  a  transcendent  element,  implying  the  satis- 
faction of  all  needs  which  present  themselves 
to  the  people  of  God.  If  among  these  needs  is 
classed  complete  communion  with  God  in  the  com- 
pletely realised  kingdom  of  God,  or  intercom- 
munion of  mankind  made  one  in  God,  the  satis- 
faction of  this  need  goes  on  to  God  as  the  source, 
and  to  communion  with  him  as  the  means  of  attain- 
ing such  satisfaction.     Hence  in  Bib- 

3.  In  Com-  li^    representations    intimate    com- 
munion    munion    with    him    is    the    highest 

with  God.  privilege  of  which  man  may  think 
in  his  Godward  relations.  Compan- 
ionship with  God  appears  therefore  as  an  implicit 
ground  of  blessedness,  and  the  Old  Testament 
conception  comes  out  in  the  manifestation  of 
theophanies  and  in  the  intimate  intercourse  had 
by  Moses  with  God  (Ex.  xxxiii,  11;  Num.  xii,  8; 
Deut.  xxxiv,  10).  The  idea  is  still  further  carried 
out  in  later  books,  as  in  Ps.  xvii,  15,  cxl,  14  ("  I 
shall  be  satisfied  "),  and  is  expressed  by  Job  as 
a  desire  (xix,  26).  The  opposite  effect  is  the  result 
of  separation  from  God  (Isa.  xxxviii,  11).  Ps. 
Ixxxiv  exuberantly  sets  forth  the  blessedness 
arising  from  this  companionship  with  God.  In 
the  New  Testament  the  same  notion  of  the  con- 
sciousness of  God's  presence  and  of  faith  in  him  is 
in  evidence  (John  xiv,  9;  II  Cor.  iv,  6;  I  Pet.  i,  8). 
Yet  in  this  life  knowledge  of  Grod  and  communion 
with  him  is  but  partial  (I  Cor.  xiii,  12,  cf.  II  Cor 
V,  7 ;  Matt,  xi,  27).  It  is  the  sons  who  see  the  father, 
and  so  the  sons  of  the  Heavenly  Father  are  called 
blessed  (Matt,  v,  9).  This  intimacy,  which  is  condi- 
tioned upon  ethi(»l  oneness  with  God,  is  the  source 
throughout  the  development  of  the  man  of  God  from 
which  he  draws  the  completion  of  his  happiness. 

A  difficulty  has  been  encountered  in  the  question 
whether  there  are  steps  or  grades  of  blessedness  or 
glory.  To  this  an  affirmative  answer  is  given  on  the 
basis  of  such  passages  as  Matt,  x,  41,  xiv,  28-29, 
XXV,  14-15.  Such  a  conclusion  is  fortified  by  the 
consideration  that  blessedness  indudes 

4.  Degrees  wfthin  itself  a  kingdom  whose  subjects 
of  Blessed-  are  men  of  God,  and  that  such  a  ooncep- 

ness.        tion  involves  (^vermtyin  which  differ- 
ences must  exist  in  relation  to  blessed- 
ness.   Such  differences  imply  variety  in  order  of  fo- 
lidty  to  accord  with  persoiud  gifts  and  individuality. 


The  figurative  language  of  Heb.  iv,  10  makes 
mention  of  a  final  Sabbath  rest.  The  question  has 
been  raised  whether  by  this  is  meant  a  state  of 
inactivity  or  of  continued  activity.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  passage  refers  to  the  rest  following 
upon  creation;  therefore,  not  the  stagnation  of 
absence  of  life  b  represented,  but  the  quietude  of 
the  achievement  of  an  end.  And  in  the  Christian 
imagery  of  Rev.  xxi,  3-4,  what  is  implied  is  the 
absence  of  evil,  grief,  and  toil  with  the  imrest  which 
they  entail.  Similarly  the  conception  of  the  res- 
toration of  all  things  {apokcUastasU  pantSn),  in 
which  there  is  stated  an  eternity  of  punishment 
as  well  as  of  satisfaction  or  peace,  raises  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  latter  will  not  be  marred  because 
of  pity  on  acooimt  of  the  misery  of  the  condemned. 
Relief  is  afforded  by  the  consideration  that  the  region 
is  one  in  which  ethical  measures  apply,  not  those 
of  emotion.  Dante  has  the  blessed  look  into  the 
mirror  of  God's  heart,  which  last  is  the  source 
from  which  the  ethical  world  diraws  its  being  and 
order.  In  ancient  times  Tertullian  (De  apectaculis, 
xxx),  in  modem  times  Jonathan  Edwards  held  that 
among  the  causes  of  the  blessedness  of  the  redeemed 
will  be  the  sight  of  the  misery  of  the  wicked.  Ed- 
wards declared  that  the  "sight  of  hell  torments 
will  exalt  the  happiness  of  the  saints  forever" 
(Works,  vol.  vi,  pp.  120,  426). 

Biblxoobapht:  H.  L.  Marteoaen.  Doffmatik,  ||  283-284, 
Berlin,  1856,  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1865;  E.  Riehm, 
Lehrbeoriff  det  HebrOerbriefa,  BaaeU  1867;  B.  Weias,  The- 
otoffie  dM  N,  T.,  H  144,  149,  157.  Berlin,  1880,  Eng. 
tranal.,  Edinburgh,  1882-83;  I.  A.  Domer,  Sywiem  der 
diriMtUehen  GlaubenaUhre,  ii,  864,  Berlin,  1887;  H.  Schults. 
AlttetlanterMiche  Ttieologie,  pp.  370-^371,  G6ttingen,  1896, 
Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1892. 

BLESSI6,  JOHAHH  LORENZ:  German  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  Strasburg  Apr.  15,  1747;  d.  there 
Feb.  17,  1816.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his 
native  dty;  traveled  extensively  in  Italy,  Himgary, 
and  Crermany ;  began  to  preach,  and  was  continually 
promoted  till  he  was  in  charge  of  the  principal 
Protestant  church  of  Strasburg;  became  professor 
in  the  philosophical  faculty  in  1778,  and  in  the 
theological,  1787.  He  was  three  times  rector;  his 
lectures  covered  Greek  literature,  history  of  phi- 
losophy. Old  Testament  exegesis,  dogmatics,  and 
homiletics,  and  in  them  all  he  made  the  practical 
dominate.  His  activities  carried  him  into  the 
field  of  politics  also,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  city 
council.  The  French  Revolution  brought  upon 
him  exile,  a  fine,  and  imprisonment  for  eleven 
months.  Robespierre's  downfall  restored  his  lib- 
erty and  he  returned  to  his  labors.  Church  and 
school  were  reorganised,  Blessig's  influence  being 
felt  everywhere.  He  left  no  great  work,  but  not  less 
than  forty  minor  writings,  including  several  memo- 
rial addresses,  which  were  highly  esteemed  in  their 
time.  Worthy  of  special  mention  are:  Ueber  Un- 
^uben,  Aberglaubentmd  Olauben  (Strasburg,  1786); 
De  cenau  Davidieo  pesteque  hunc  censum  secuia 
(1788) ;  and  De  evangeliie  eecundum  Ebraoe,  JEgypiios 
atque  Juetini  MartyprU  (1807).  (A.  ERiCHSONf.) 
BxBUOoaAPBT:  C.  M.  Frits,  LAtn  Dr.  J.  L.  BUuia;  2  vols., 
Strasburg,  1819;  A.  Froelich.  Dr.  J.  L.  BUfio,  Ein  Vor- 
kltmpfer  de»  rdigidten  Liberalinnua  im  Blaa99,  in  Sehriften 
det  proteHaniuehien  UberaUn  VtrtifU  in  Elaaa^-Lothringent 
no.  36,  ib.  1891. 


BleMdnff 
Bliss 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


202 


BLESSING  AND  CURSINO. 

Ethnic  ConoeptionB  (|  1).      In  the  Old  Testament  (|  2). 
Higher  and  Lower  View  (|  3). 

The  conception  of  blessing  and  cursing  has  a  large 

part  in  every  religion.       It  refers  to  the  supeiv 

natural  or  divine  promotion  or  hindrance  to  human 

action  and  welfare.    Sometimes  it  is  predicated  of 

man  himself  as  possessing  through  his 

z.  Ethnic    connection  with  deity  the  ability  to 

Concep-  exercise  over  another  the  power  orig- 
tions.  inally  possessed  only  by  deity  (cf. 
Gen.  xii,  3;  Num.  vi,  24,  27).  In  this 
latter  case,  the  power  is  often  exercised  by  means 
of  verbal  expression,  though  it  is  not  confined  to 
that  means.  It  is  apparent  that  in  the  religion 
of  the  peoples  who  were  neighbors  of  the  Hebrews 
as  well  as  elsewhere  the  conception  of  blessing 
and  cursing  belonged  in  the  sphere  of  magic. 
Wizards  commanded  the  blessing  and  furthering 
force  of  deity,  which  they  could  exercise  at  a  given 
point  for  good  and  still  more  often  the  power 
resident  in  a  host  of  evil  spirits,  to  damage  or  to 
cause  damage  at  the  desired  place  and  time. 
While  often  power  to  bless  comes  not  from  an 
equipment  gained  for  a  special  occasion  and  then 
lost,  continuance  of  power  and  conditions  for  evil  are 
especially  frequent.  The  curse  lurks  in  the  back- 
ground of  earthly  existence,  enshrined  in  the 
form  of  hannful  and  malicious  demons,  into 
whose  power  a  careless  word  or  heedless  step  may 
instantly  cast  the  unfortunate.  According  to 
ethnic  belief,  only  the  most  painstaking  care,  the 
most  punctilious  caution,  observance  of  a  host  of 
rules  and  practises  can  enable  one  to  escape  danger. 
Frequently  without  any  overt  act,  by  merely  men- 
tioning these  spirits  or  by  entering  their  domain 
without  adequate  protection,  the  spirits  are  sum- 
moned and  their  power  let  loose  on  man,  animal,  and 
possessions. 

Within  the  Old  Testament  there  are  many  traces 
of  the  contact  of  Israel  with  such  conceptions. 
The  prophetic  religion  was  especially  emphatic 
in  its  opposition  to  witchcraft,  necromancyi  and 
the  like,  and,  especially  in  the  Babylonian  age, 
was  not  successful  in  combating  them. 
2.  In  the    Earlier  examples  are  found  in  Saul's 

Old  Tea-    resort  to  the  witch  of  Endor  and  the 

tament  cases  su^sested  by  Deut.  xviii,  10-14, 
and  Isa.  ii,  6.  It  is,  then,  not  surprising 
that  the  conceptions  of  blessing  and  cursing  are 
foimd  together  among  the  Hebrews,  though  they 
come  to  have  a  more  spiritual  content.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  tendency  of  the  development  was 
toward  a  narrowing  of  the  region  in  which  the  idea 
was  operative,  and  it  was  thrust  more  and  more 
into  the  backgroimd. 

In  examining  the  cases  presented  in  the  Old 
Testament,  it  becomes  evident  that  use  was  made 
both  of  the  word  of  power  and  of  an  instrument. 
The  staff  was  used  frequently,  its  use  being  attrib- 
uted to  Moses  and  Aaron  and  to  the  Egyptian 
ma^cians  (Ex.  iv,  2,  vii,  8  sqq.),  while  in  Hos.  iv, 
12,  it  seems  to  have  been  used  to  obtain  oracles, 
and  possibly  it  was  a  magical  staff  which  Balaam 
carried  (Nimi.  xxii,  27).  It  is  possible  that  the 
origin  of  the  staff  is  to  be  connected  with  the  idea 


of  the  tree  as  the  seat  of  deity  (cf .  the  Asherah  and 
the  stake  customary  at  the  grave).  A  branch  from 
a  tree  was  either  the  seat  of  deity  or  the  symbol 
of  his  power.  A  farther  means  of  operating,  espe- 
cially for  evil,  was  the  glance  of  the  eye  (cf.  the 
common  notion  of  the  "  evil  eye  ")•  Cases  of  this 
in  the  Old  Testament  are  suggested  by  Prov.  xxiii, 
6,  xxviii,  22  (cf.  Ecdus.  xiv,  3;  Pir*c  Abot  v,  13). 
The  laying  on  of  hands  seems  to  have  had  dose 
connection  with  the  operation  of  bleaaing  (Gen. 
xxvii,  xlviii,  14  sqq.),  the  idea  being  that  in  this 
way  the  person  bestowing  the  blessing  caused  to 
pass  to  the  redpient  some  of  the  power  which  was 
his,  especially  if  he  were  a  man  of  (}od. 

Blessing  and  cursing  were  often  connected  with 
things  holy,  particularly  with  sacrifice.  By  means 
of  these  a  blessing  or  a  curse  were  often  bespoken. 
So  in  Judges  ix,  27  the  cursing  of  Abimelech  was 
evidently  dosely  bound  up  with  the  feast  in  the 
temple  of  the  deity.  The  episode  of  Balaam  also 
makes  evident  the  connection  between  sacrifice 
and  curse  (or  blessing,  Num.  xxiii,  1  sqq.),  and 
the  same  fact  has  been  noted  among  Arabs  of 
ancient  and  modem  times.  A  special  case  Is  that 
of  the  ordeal  by  water,  narrated  in  Num.  v,  11  sqq. 
Blessing  and  curse  operate  also  through  the  spoken 
word,  which  may  take  either  the  phase  of  a  magical 
formula  or  of  a  prayer  of  which  the  content  is 
spiritually  pure.  The  latter  1b  of  very  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  blessing, 
or  eqiially  the  curse,  is  besought  of  God. 

This  practise  of  seeking  blessing  or  curae  had 
continuing  vogue  in  the  conmion  religious  ideas  of 
Israel,  remaining  in  evidence  down  to  prophetic 
times.  As  elsewhere,  so  among  the  Hebrews, 
superstition  and  the  practise  of  noagic  never  com- 
pletely died  out,  and  not  only  deity  but  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  (I  Sam.  xxviii)  and  of  ancestors  were  in- 
voked to  give  effect  to  the  invocation  or  the  impre- 
cation. The  ddty  is  in  mind  in  Samuel's  blessing 
of  the  meal  (I  Sam.  ix,  13),  in  Eli's  blessing  of 
Hannah  (I  Sam.  i,  17),  in  the  blessing  of  Rebecca 
by  her  brothers  (Gen.  xxiv,  60),  and  in  Solomon's 
blessing  (I  Kings  viii,  15  sqq.).  There  is  every 
reason  to  assume  that  on  occasions  of  gathering 
such  as  sacrifices  and  feasts  the  priests  besought  a 
blessing  for  the  people.  While  such  invocations 
did  not  always  take  a  fixed  form,  there  must  have 
been  a  tendency  in  that  direction,  as  is  proved  by 
the  priestly  blessing  in  Num.  vi,  24-26.  And  there 
is  a  suggestion  of  a  fixed  formula  for  the  curse  in 
I  Kings  viii  and  in  the  alternate  words  of  blessing 
and  cursing  in  Deut.  xxviii. 

If  it  be  asked  who  are  the  persons  who  may 
bless  or  curse,  it  is  always  found  that  they  are  those 
in  especially  dose  relation  to  deity,  dther  seer  or 
priest  or  man  of  (}od.  Of  these  Moses,  Balaam, 
Joshua  (Josh,  vi,  26),  Elisha  (II  Kings  ii,  24-25) 
are  examples.  And  like  persons  are  among  the 
Arabs  concdved  as  possessing  the  power.  Spedai 
power  in  this  matter  is  also  ascribed  to  the  dying. 
who  are  already  on  the  border  between  the  human 
and  the  divine.  Thus  Moses  when  dying  blesses 
his  people  (Deut.  xxxui),  and  the  dying  patriarchs 
Isaac  and  Jacob  distribute  both  blesdng  and  its 
oppodte  when  on  the  eve  of  dissolution  (Gen. 


203 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blesslnff 
BUM 


xxvii,  10  sqq.,  xlviil,  8  sqq.,  xlix,  2  sqq.).  Under 
special  stresB  the  power  to  bless  or  curse,  especially 
the  latter,  is  attributed  to  almost  any  one,  as  when 
the  Arabs  assert  that  one  influenced  by  anger  may 
effectively  pronounce  a  curse.  Such  a  case  is  pre- 
sented in  II  Sam.  xvi,  5  (cf.  verse  10),  and  another 
in  the  narrative  of  II  Sam.  xxi,  1  sqq.  Prov.  xzvii, 
14  presents  a  peculiar  case,  in  which  the  early  and 
loud  call  may  be  thought  of  as  arousing  the  spirits 
of  malice  and  letting  them  loose  on  the  object  of 
the  call.  A  similar  conception  is  involved  in 
Amos  vi,  10.  The  name  of  Yahweh,  who  lingers 
near  occupied  in  the  work  of  the  plague,  is  not  to 
be  spoken  lest  by  the  mere  utterance  he  be  sum- 
moned to  the  spot  and  slay  the  only  surviving 
member  of  the  household. 

Investigation  into  the  way  in  which  blessing  and 
cursing  operate  in  the  Old  Testament  shows  a 
lower  and  a  higher  view.  Not  infrequently  the  mere 
vocal  expression  of  the  wish  works  out  the  fulfil- 
ment in  a  kind  of  blind  compulsion  such  as  takes 
place  in  ethnic  magic  (cf.  Gen.  xxvii,  33  sqq. — 
the  blessing  has  been  uttered  over  Jacob  and  can 
not  be  recalled — and  Num.  xxii  sqq.,  especially 
xzii,  6,  "  I  know  that  he  whom  thou  blessest  is 
blessed,  and  he  whom  thou  ciu^est 
3.  ffiglier  is  ctuved,"  the  words  of  Balak  to 
and  Balaam).  An  illuminating  case  is 
Lower  given  in  the  connection  of  Josh,  vi, 
View.  26  with  I  Kings  xvi,  34,  in  which  the 
ancient  curse  pronounced  upon  him 
who  should  rebuild  Jericho  works  itself  out  in  the 
death  of  the  youngest  and  the  eldest  sons  of  Hiel 
the  Bethelite.  And  a  similar  instance  is  Saul's 
breach  of  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites  in  which 
the  curse  operates  after  his  death  until  reparation 
is  made  with  blood  (II  Sam.  xxi).  David's  charge 
to  Solomon  (I  Kings  ii,  5  sqq.;  cf.  II  Sam.  xvi,  13) 
furnishes  other  examples.  Solomon  is  to  take  venge- 
ance on  Shimd  and  on  Joab.  The  fonner  had  pro- 
nounced a  heavy  curse  on  David.  Since  it  was  yet 
operative  but  had  not  fallen  on  David  himself,  it 
must  work  itself  out  on  his  house.  But  it  can  be  so 
diverted  as  to  fall  on  the  head  of  its  foraiulator  and 
become  changed  into  a  blessing  for  David's  family. 
On  the  other  hand,  Joab's  deeds  of  blood  laid  David, 
Joab's  lord,  under  a  curse  which  could  be  relieved 
only  by  expiation  exacted  from  the  perpetrator  of 
the  deeds  [cf.  on  this  EB,  i,  1034,  note  1]. 

While  this  inevitability  is  to  be  recognised  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  inherent  by  the  mere  formulation  of 
blessing  and  cursing  or  curse,  the  act  takes  on  more 
and  more  the  character  of  the  expression  of  a  wish 
to  be  fulfilled  by  Yahweh,  and  so  it  becomes  dis- 
tinguished in  form  and  character  from  magic  and 
witchcraft.  And  while  the  method  of  operation 
is  thus  transferred,  the  character  of  the  blessing 
sought  changes  from  the  material  to  the  spiritual. 
Thus  in  the  priestly  blessing  of  Num.  vi,  24-26 
there  b  doubtless  in  mind  the  highest  good  of 
God's  grace  and  peace,  and  in  this  light  is  to  be 
construed  verse  27.  A  similar  content  is  to  be 
recognised  in  Gen.  xii,  3  and  parallel  passages: 
"  In  thee  shall  all  families  of  the  earth  bless  them- 
selves," i.e.,  shall  wish  for  themselves  the  very 
blessing  which  Abraham  had  obtained. 


As  oracles  were  quoted  among  the  heathen,  so 
sayings  attributed  to  Yahweh  or  spoken  in  his  name 
were  dted  among  the  Hebrews,  and  blessings  and 
curses  appear  almost  in  profusion  in  the  Old  Testa^ 
ment,  derived  from  prophetic  or  ancestral  authority. 
These  take  on  often  a  cryptic  character  and  antici- 
pate the  more  extended  apocalyptic  writings  of 
later  times  (cf.  the  sayings  ascribed  to  Moses  and 
to  Jacob  in  Gen.  xlix  and  Deut.  xxxiii). 

The  uncertainty  of  the  original  significance  of 
the  practise  is  disclosed  by  an  examination  of  the 
et3rmology  of  the  words  used.  The  technical 
Hebrew  term  for  cursing  is  araVf  the  meaning  of 
which  was  evidently  to  press  heavily  upon  one. 
Alongside  this  was  used  for  the  curse  a  word  derived 
from  alah,  connected  with  the  word  el,  "  God." 
This  last  implies  a  calling  upon  deity  or  a  reference  to 
him  as  agent,  a  meaning  which  recalls  the  idea 
in  the  German  segnen,  "  to  (make  the)  sign  (of  the 
cross  over  one)."  But  another  root  also  used, 
Ipalalf  had  no  inherent  reference  to  the  deity,  mean- 
ing simply  "  to  vilify."  So  the  original  sense  of  the 
word  Jkababhf  meaning  "  to  curse,"  is  uncertain.  Not 
less  obscure  b  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  for 
blessing,  berakhah.  It  has  been  referred  to  berekh, 
**  knee,"  suggesting  the  meaning  "  to  bow  the 
knee."  But  that  the  idea  of  worship  was  originally 
connected  with  the  word  or  that  it  meant  **  to 
pray"  does  not  appear  probable.  It  b  possible 
to  relate  it  to  berikhah,  meaning  an  accumulation  of 
the  growth  and  fruitfulness  attributed  to  water 
and  then  the  attainment  of  prosperity. 

A  noteworthy  expression  is  that  which  appears 
quite  frequently  (e.g..  Gen.  ix,  26),  "  Blessed  be 
Yahweh."  Is  thb  only  a  manner  of  speech  equiv- 
alent to  "  Yahweh  be  praised  "?  While  thb  may 
be  the  sense  in  later  ages,  it  was  hardly  so  in  early 
times.  It  has  doubtless  come  down  as  a  survival 
of  the  conception  that  even  deity  might  be  blessed 
by  the  utterance  of  some  highly  endowed  individual. 

(R.  KiTTBL.) 

Bdugobapbt:  P.  SohoU,  OOttendienH  und  Zauberweaen 
bei  den  HtbrHern,  Resensburv.  1877;  C.  F.  Keil»  Biblical 
Arehmoioov,  ii,  457,  Edinburgh,  1888;  R.  Smend,  AlUe9- 
kmentHehe  Rdioiont0e9chiehU,  §  334,  Fxeiburv,  1893; 
DB,  U  307,  634-636;  BB,  i,  691-i592;  JB,  iu.  242-247. 
For  ethnie  fMumllels  consult:  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Cul- 
ture, pp.  112-132,  New  York,  1877;  I.  Goldsiher,  Mu- 
hammidaniMche  Sttidien,  2  yoIs..  Halls.  1889-00;  Wellhau- 
aen,  HeideiUum;  F.  T.  Elworthy,  The  BvU  Bye,  London, 
1895;  F.  B.  Jeyons,  Introduction  to  HiaL  of  R^igion, 
ohapa.  iii-iT,  ib.  1896;  G.  B.  Fraier,  Oolden  BougK  i,  97, 
ib.  1900;  8.  I.  CurtiM,  PriimUive  SemitU  Reliifion,  New 
York,  1902. 

BUSS,  DAIHEL:  Congregational  missionary; 
b.  at  Georgia,  Vt.,  Aug.  17,  1823.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  College  in  1852  and  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1855.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  minbtry  in  1855,  and  imme- 
diately went  to  Syria  as  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
remaining  there  in  thb  capacity  until  1862.  Four 
years  later  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Syrian  Protestant  College,  Beirut,  and  retained  thb 
position  until  1902,  when  he  resigned  and  became 
president  emeritus.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number 
of  works  in  Arabic,  particularly  a  text-book  of  menr 
tal  philosophy  and  another  of  natural  philosophy. 


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THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


204 


BUSS,  EDWIN  MJHSELL:  Gongregationalisi; 
b.  at  Enenim,  Turkey,  Sept.  12,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  Robert  College,  Constantinople,  High 
School,  Springfield,  Mass.,  Amherst  College  (B  Jl., 
1871),  and  Yale  Divinity  School  (B.D.,  1877).  He 
was  assistant  agent  of  the  American  Bible  Society 
for  the  Levant  in  1872-88  (excepting  1875-77, 
when  he  was  completing  his  theological  studies  in 
America),  and  after  his  return  to  America  in  1888 
edited  The  Enq^dapedia  of  MUsiona  (New  York, 
1880-91)  and  was  associate  editor  of  The  Inde- 
pendent  in  1801-1001.  He  was  an  editorial  writer 
on  Harper^ 8  Weekly  and  The  New  York  Timee  in 
1001-02,  and  was  field  secretary  of  the  American 
Tract  Society  for  New  Eng^d  in  lOOa-04.  He 
was  then  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Sanford,  Fla.,  in  1004r^,  and  general  secretary 
of  the  Foreign  Missions  Industrial  Association 
in  1005-06.  In  1007  he  became  connected  with  the 
United  States  Census  Bureau  in  Washington.  In 
theology  he  is  liberal-orthodox.  He  has  written 
Turkey  and  the  Armenian  AtrociHes  (Philadelphia, 
1806);  The  Ttwk  in  Armenia,  Crete,  and  Greece 
(1806);  and  Coneiee  History  of  Miseione  (Chicago, 
1807). 

BUSS,  FREDERICK  JOHES:  American  arche- 
ologist;  b.  at  Mount  Lebanon,  Syria,  Jan.  22, 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  Axnherst  College 
(B.A.,  1880),  and  was  for  three  years  principal 
of  the  preparatory  department  of  the  Ssrrian  Prot- 
estant CoUege,  Beirut,  Syria.  He  then  studied  at 
Union  Theological  Seminiary,  where  he  was  grad- 
uated in  1887.  Returning  to  Syria,  he  was  an 
independent  explorer  until  his  i^pointment,  in 
1800,  as  explorer  to  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund  (London).  During  the  ten  years  in  which  he 
held  this  position,  he  excavated  the  mound  of 
Tell-el-Hesy  (Lachish)  in  1801-03,  and  from  1804 
to  1807  was  engaged  in  excavations  at  Jerusalem. 
In  1808-1000  he  excavated  four  Palestinian  cities. 
In  addition  to  numerous  brief er  contributions,  he 
has  written  A  Mound  of  Many  Citiee ;  or  Tell- 
eirHeey  Excavated  (London,  1804);  Excavations  at 
Jerusalem,  1894r-i897  (1808);  Excavations  in  Pal- 
estine during  189S-1900  (1002;  in  collaboration 
with  R.  A.  S.  Macalister);  and  The  Development  of 
Palestine  Exploration,  the  Ely  lectures  at  Union 
Seminary  for  1003  (New  York,  1006). 

BUSS,  HOWARD  SWEETSER:  Congregational 
missionaiy;  b.  at  Mount  Lebanon,  Syria,  Dec. 
6,  1860.  He  was  educated  at  Amherst  College 
(B.A.,  1882),  Union  Theological  Seminary  (1884- 
1887),  and  the  universities  of  Oxford  (1887-88), 
Gdttingen,  and  Berlin  (1888-80).  He  taught  at 
Washburn  College,  Topeka,  Kan.,  in  1883-84,  and 
after  his  return  from  Europe  to  the  United  States 
was  successively  assistant  pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (1880-04),  and  pastor  of 
the  Christian  Union  Congregational  Church,  Up- 
per Montclair,  N.  J.  (1804^1002).  Since  1002  he 
has  been  president  of  the  Syrian  Protestant  College, 
Beirut,  Syria. 

BLISS,  ISAAC  GROUT:  Congregational  foreign 
missionary;  b.  at  Springfield,  Metss.,  July  5, 1822; 
d.  at  Assiut,  Egypt,  Feb.  16, 1880.    Educated  at 


Amherst  College  (B.A.,  1844)  and  at  Yale  and 
Andover  (1847)  theological  seminaries,  he  served 
as  missionaiy  of  the  American  Board  at  Enerom, 
Eastern  Turkey,  1847-^2,  when  the  failure  of  his 
health  compelled  his  return  to  the  United  States. 
In  1857  he  returned  to  the  foreign  field  as  agent 
for  the  Levant  of  the  American  Bible  Society,  with 
residence  in  Constantinople. 

BLISS,  WILLIAM  DWI6HT  PORTER:  Ameri- 
can Protestant  Episcopalian;  b.  at  Constantinople 
Aug.  20,  1856.  He  was  educated  at  Robeit  Col- 
lege, Constantinople,  Phillips  Academy,  Andover, 
Mass.,  Amherst  College  (B.A.,  1878),  and  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary  (1882).  He  was  ordained 
to  the  Congregational  ministry,  but  after  holding 
pastorates  in  Denver,  Col.,  and  South  Natick, 
Mass.,  he  entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  1885,  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1886  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  min- 
ister at  Lee,  Mass.,  in  188&-^,  and  was  then  suc- 
cessively rector  of  Grace  Church,  South  Boston 
(1887-90),  Linden,  Mass.  (1890),  Church  of  the 
Carpenter,  Boston,  Mass.  (1890-94),  Church  of  Our 
Savior,  San  Gabriel,  Cal.  (1898-1902),  and  Amity- 
ville,  L.  I.  (since  1902).  He  has  taken  an  active 
interest  in  social  reform,  and  in  1889  organised  the 
firat  Christian  Socialist  Society  in  the  United  States, 
and  has  since  been  its  secretary,  while  he  has  been 
president  of  the  National  Social  Reform  League 
since  1899,  and  was  the  Labor  candidate  for  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  Massachusetts  in  1887.  He  has  also 
been  secretary  of  the  Christian  Social  Union  since 
1891,  and  in  1905  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Labor  Department  on  the  Unemployed. 
In  theology  he  is  a  radical  Broad-churchman.  He 
edited  The  Dawn  (1889-96),  The  American  Fabian 
(1895-96),  The  Civic  Councillor  (1900),  and  the 
Encydopedia  of  Social  Reform  (New  York,  1898; 
1908);  and  has  written  Hand-Book  of  Socialism 
(London,  1895). 

BLODOET,  HEKRT:  Congregational  foreign 
missionary;  b.  at  Bucksport,  Me.,  July  13,  1825; 
d.  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  May  23,  1903.  Educated 
at  Yale  College  (B.A.,  1848)  and  at  Yale  Divinity 
School,  he  was  a  missionary  in  China  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bioard  from  1854  to  1894,  living  in  Peking 
from  1864  on.  He  shared  in  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Mandarin  colloquial  of 
Peking,  and  independently  translated  much  in  prose 
and  verse. 

BLOMFIELD,  CHARLES  JAMES:  Bishop  of 
London;  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  May  29, 
1786;  d.  at  Fulham  Palace  Aug.  5,  1857.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  CoUege,  Cambridge  (B.A.. 
1808);  was  ordained  1810;  became  chaplain  to 
Bishop  Howley  of  London  1819;  archdeacon  of 
Colchester  1822;  bishop  of  Chester  1824;  bishop  of 
London  182a  He  retired  from  office  in  1856  after 
a  vigorous  and  efifective  administration.  He  was 
a  noted  Greek  scholar,  edited  a  Greek  grammar 
(Cambridge,  1818),  and  a  number  of  Greek 
texts  (the  dramas  of  .£schylus,  1810-24;  Calli- 
machus,  1815;  Euripides,  1821;  fragments  of  Sap- 
pho, Alcseus,  and  Stesichorus  for  Gaisford's  Poetit 
minores  Graci,  1823),  and  wrote  much  for  the 


205 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BUM 
Blood 


reviews  on  classical  subjects.  His  theological 
works  comprise  Five  Lectures  on  John's  Gospel 
(1823);  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Ads  (1828);  several 
collections  of  sermons;  and  A  Manual  of  Private 
and  Family  Prayers  (1824). 

Bibuoorapht:  A.  Blomfield,  A  Memoir  of  C.  7.  Blomfidd, 
.  .  .  wth  Sdeetuma  from  hia  ComopondencB,  2  vols., 
London,  1863  (by  his  ton);  G.  E.  Biber,  Biahop  BlomfUld 
and  kU  Timet,  London,  1857;  DNB,  ▼.  22^-230.  The 
BritUh  Mumum  Caiaioguo  devotes  five  pages  to  a  list  of 
Blomfield't  works. 

BLOMFEBLD,  WILLIAM  ERNEST:  English 
Baptist;  b.  at  Rayleigh  (24  m.  s.w.  of  Colchester), 
Essex,  Oct.  23, 1862.  He  was  educated  at  Regent's 
Park  College,  London  (B.A.,  University  of  Lon- 
don, 1883),  and  after  being  assistant  (1884-^5) 
and  sole  minister  (1885-86)  of  Elm  Road  Baptist 
Church,  Beckenham,  was  pastor  of  Turret  Green 
Church,  Ipswich,  1886-95  and  of  Queen's  Road 
Church,  Coventry,  1895-1904.  Since  1904  he  has 
been  president  of  the  Baptist  College,  Rawdon, 
Leeds. 

BLOMMAERDINE,  blem''m&r-di'ne,  HADEWICH 
or  HADEWI JCH :  A  heretical  mystic  whose  religious 
activity  and  writings  caused  great  excitement  in 
Brussels  early  in  the  14th  century.  Her  adherents 
venerated  her  as  a  saint  and  her  writings  as  divine 
revelations;  her  opponents  charged  her  with  heretical 
teaching  on  the  freedom  of  the  spirit,  and  with 
mingUng  religious  devotion  and  sensual  passion. 
During  his  stay  in  Brussels  (1317-43),  Ruysbroeck 
conducted  a  strong  polemical  campaign  against 
ber,  which,  however,  did  not  prevent  people  from 
coming  after  her  death  to  seek  the  cure  of  diseases 
by  touching  her  shroud.  The  scanty  notices  which 
Ruysbroeck's  biographer  gives  of  her  life  and 
writings  have  be^  recently  filled  out  by  the 
scholarly  investigations  of  K.  Ruelens  and  P. 
Fredericq.  They  have  shown  it  to  be  extremely 
probable  that  the  mystic  was  identical  with  the 
important  Flemish  poetess  Hadewijch  (erroneously 
called  "  Sister  Hadewijch  ")f  whose  remains  in 
prose  and  verse,  known  only  in  part  heretofore, 
have  been  published  in  full  by  J.  Verooullie  (Ghent, 
1877).  The  principal  theme  of  all  these  writings 
is  love  (Minne)  for  God.  The  specimens  given  by 
Fredericq  display  the  tempestuous,  sometimes 
actually  sensual,  passion  with  which  she  longs  for 
mystical  union  with  him.  In  describing  her  nu- 
merous visions  the  poetess  boasts  of  very  intimate 
relations  with  Christ  and  the  saints,  and  claims  the 
ph  of  prophecy  and  the  power  of  working  miracles. 
6he  expresses  herself  bitteriy  in  regard  to  the  perse- 
cutions set  on  foot  by  her  enemies,  the  vremden, 
against  herself  and  her  adherents,  whom  she  calls 
vriende,  the  nuwen  or  volmaalUen  der  Minne  (per- 
feeti).  In  one  place  she  gives  the  number  of  her 
then  living  followers  (principally  nuns  or  Beguines) 
as  ninety-seven,  of  whom  twenty-nine  were  out- 
side the  Netherlands.  Apparently  the  domioella 
HeUwiffis  dicta  BUmunardine,  the  daughter  of 
William  Blommaert,  a  rich  and  noble  citizen  of 
Brussels,  who  died  about  1336,  is  the  same  as  the 
mystic  and  the  poetess.  It  appears  that  as  late  as 
the  b^;inning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Inqui- 
dti(m  in  Bruuels  was  still  obliged  to  proceed  against 


adherents  of  the  heresies  promulgated  by  her,  which 
were  not  far  removed  from  the  views  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit  (q.v.).  (Herman  Hauft.) 

Biblioorapht:  Henricus  Pomerius,  De  orioine  monatUrii 
ViridiavaUia,  in  Analecta  BoUandiana,  iv.  286,  Parit, 
1886;  H.  C.  Les.  Uiatory  of  tho  InquiatHon,  u.  877,  Phila- 
delphia, 1888;  P.  Fredericq,  Corpua  documerUorum  in- 
quiaiUonia  .  .  .  Neerlandieta,  I,  186  tqq.,  266  tqq.,  The 
Hacue,  1889;  idem,  De  geheimxinniae  keUerin  Blamar- 
dinna  en  da  eaete  der  '*  Nuwe  "  ta  Bruaaal,  in  VereUn/en  en 
MededeeUngen  der  koninkl.  Akademie  tfon  Wetenaehap- 
pen  to  Amaterdam,  tenet  3,  xii  (1896),  77  tqq.;  W.  A. 
JonckbloBt.  Oeaehiedenia  der  Nederlandaeha  leUerkunde,  ii, 
270  tqq.,  1889;  A.  Auger,  Atude  eur  lea  myaUqnea  dee 
Paya-Baa  au  mot/en  dge^  in  Mimoirea  oouronnia  .  .  .  par 
Vaeadhnie  royalo  de  Belgique,  xlvi  (1892),  149  tqq.,  164. 

BLOIVDEL,  DAVID:  French  Protestant  theo- 
logian; b.  at  ChAlons-sur-Mame  1590;  d.  at 
Amsterdam  1655.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family 
of  Champagne;  studied  classics  at  the  College  of 
S^dan  and  theology  at  the  Academy  of  Geneva; 
was  called  as  pastor  to  Houdan  (lie  de  France), 
then  to  Roucy  on  the  estate  of  La  Rochefoucauld. 
Because  of  his  great  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
and  of  ecclesiastical  history,  he  was  chosen  more 
than  twenty  times  secretary  of  the  provincial 
synod  of  tie  de  France.  His  writings  in  defense  of 
the  Protestants  against  their  Roman  Catholic  op- 
ponents won  for  him  a  great  reputation  for  scholar- 
ship. In  1631  he  was  appointed  professor  of  divin- 
ity at  Saumur,  but  his  parish  of  Roucy  declined 
to  give  him  up.  For  his  contributions  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  Reformation,  the  National  Council  of 
(^arenton  allowed  him  an  annuity  of  1,000  livres, 
enabling  him  to  devote  himself  to  his  studies 
without  fear  of  want.  After  the  death  of  Vossius 
in  1650,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  at 
the  Scale  lUustre  at  Amsterdam.  Pierre  Bayle  said 
of  him:  "  He  was  a  man  who  had  an  unbounded 
knowledge  of  religious  and  profane  history."  He 
was  accused  by  the  orthodox  party  of  Arminian- 
ism  and  of  indifference  to  his  church;  he  also  en- 
dured much  from  political  opponents  on  account  of 
an  article  against  Cromwell  written  during  the  war 
between  Great  Britain  and  Holland.  His  works 
were  in  part:  Modeste  didaratian  de  la  sinciriU  et 
viriU  des  Eglises  riformies  de  France  (S^dan,  1619); 
Pseudo-Isidorus  et  Turrianus  vapulantes  (Geneva, 
1628);  Eclaircissements  familiers  de  la  controverse 
de  VEucharistie  (Quevilly,  1641);  De  la  primauti 
en  Viglise  (Geneva,  1641);  Des  SiJbyUes,  cOOries 
tant  par  VanHquUi  payenne  que  par  les  Saints- 
Pbres  (Charenton,  1649);  Actes  authentiques  des 
£glises  rifomUes  de  France,  Oermanie,  Orande- 
Bretagne  (Amsterdam,  1655). 

G.  Bonxt-Maurt. 

BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD.  See  Coicparahyb 
Relioion,  VI,  1,  b,  1 6. 

BLOOD-REVENGE:  A  custom  neariy  imiver- 
sal  in  the  tribal  or  clan  stage  of  society,  often  sur- 
viving later,  binding  the  kin  of  a  murdered  man  to 
secure  satisfaction  for  the  murder  by  the  death  of 
the  slayer  or  of  one  of  his  clan,  llie  custom  de- 
pends upon  two  fundamentals  of  that  stage  of 
civilization:  (1)  the  sacredness  of  life  and  the 
solidarity  of  the  clan;  (2)  the  lex  talionis.  Its 
essence  is  execution  of  the  slayer  or  some  of  his 


Blood 
Boohairt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


d06 


kin  by  the  representatives  of  the  slain,  not  by  public 
authorities;  it  belongs  therefore  to  private  as 
opposed  to  public  justice.  In  nomadic  society  the 
perpetuation  of  the  clan  depends  upon  its  fighting 
strength  and  its  sense  of  unity.  Hence  assault 
upon  a  member  of  the  clan,  if  attended  with  even 
unintended  fatal  results,  involves  the  tribe,  clan, 
or  family  of  the  slain  in  what  is  felt  to  be  a  sacred 
duty,  the  avenging  of  the  shedding  of  blood.  The 
custom  is  important  from  the  standpoint  of  utili- 
tarian ethics,  since  the  knowledge  that  reparation 
will  be  demanded  by  the  clan  of  the  assailed  re- 
strains a  potential  assailant  from  wanton  attack 
and  makes  men  more  careful  in  ordinary  inters 
course.  The  duty  set  by  the  institution  is  binding, 
and  so  close  is  the  relationship  in  the  clan  (see 
CoMPARATivB  RsLioiON,  VI,  1,  b,  {  1)  that  all  its 
members  may  become  involved,  the  result  being  a 
blood-feud  between  the  clans  of  the  assailant  and 
the  victim.  Usually,  however,  the  duty  devolves 
upon  the  next  of  kin.  Refusal  on  his  part  to  exer^ 
else  his  right  and  perform  his  duty  subjects  him 
to  utter  contempt  and  even  to  outlawry. 

In  the  advance  of  civilisation  the  State  assumes 
exclusively  the  function  of  Capital  Punishment 
(q.v.)  and  the  custom  becomes  obsolete.  The 
Hebrew  legislation  furnishes  an  example  of  an 
intermediate  condition,  by  which  the  right  of  the 
family  of  a  man  deliberately  (not  wantonly)  mur- 
dered to  execute  justice  was  recognized  and  the 
murderer,  when  captured,  was  delivered  by  the 
authorities  to  the  avenger  of  blood  {go'el  haddam, 
Lev.  xix,  11-13;  Num.  xxxv,  19,  21,  27;  for  the 
general  law  of  murder  among  the  Hebrews  consult 
Gen.  ix,  6;  Ex.  xxi,  12;  Lev.  xxiv,  17;  Josh.  xx). 
Even  in  the  case  of  accidental  killing,  the  avenger 
of  blood  might  kill  the  slayer  if  before  the  death  of 
the  high  priest  he  found  him  outside  the  city  of 
refuge  in  which  he  had  taken  sanctuary.  See  Law, 
Hebrew,  Civil  and  Criminal,  III. 

Geo.  W.  Gilmorb. 

Bxbliookapht:  A.  H.  Post,  Studien  but  BtUwiekluno^o^' 
9chieht8  d€9  FamiUmreehU,  pp.  113-137,  Oldenbuxv.  1889; 
Smith,  Kinahip  (invaluable  for  the  Semitic  peoplee,  of. 
also  hia  Rti.  of  8em.)\  and  for  modem  savage  practise, 
Spencer  and  F.  J.  Gillen,  Native  Tribet  of  Cwlral  Ata- 
iraUa,  London,  1899;  idem,  Northtm  TVibet  of  CtfUral 
Avatrdia,  ib.  1904;  DB.  ii,  222-224;  EB,  ii,  1746-47. 

BLOUirr,  CHARLES.    See  Deibm,  I,  {  3. 

BLUHHARDT,  CHRISTIAN  GOTTLIEB:  Geiv 
man  Protestant;  b.  in  Stuttgart  Apr.  20, 1779; 
d.  in  Basel  Dec.  19, 1838.  He  studied  at  Tubingen; 
in  1803  became  secretary  of  the  Deutsche  Ckris- 
teniumaffeseUschaft  in  Basel;  minister  at  Bdrg, 
WQrttemberg,  1807;  returned  in  1816  to  Basel 
as  director  of  the  missionary  school.  From  1816 
he  edited  the  Mieeionemagazin,  and  from  1828 
also  the  Heidenbote;  he  published  Verauch  einer 
aUgemeinen  Mieeionegeschichte  der  Kirche  Christi 
(5  vols.,  Basel,  1828-37),  reaching  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation. 

BLUMHARDT,  JOHAHN  CHRISTOPH:  Ger- 
man  Lutheran;  b.  at  Stuttgart  July  16,  1805;  d.  at 
Boll  (5  miles  s.w.  of  GOppingen)  Feb.  25, 1880.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen;  became  teacher  at  the  mis- 
isionary  institution  at  Basel  1830;  succeeded  Pastor 


Barth  at  MottUngen,  near  Calw,  1838.  By  the 
reported  cure  by  prayer  of  a  girl  named  GotUiebin 
Dittus,  supposed  to  be  a  demoniac,  which  cure  was 
effected  after  a  two  years'  struggle,  Blumhardt 
gained  great  fame.  A  revival  followed,  attended 
by  so  many  people  from  so  large  an  area  that  on 
Good  Friday,  1845,  no  less  than  176  localities 
were  represented  at  the  service.  At  his  services, 
so  it  is  reported,  healing  of  physical  infirmities 
resulted  from  Blumhardt's  laying  on  of  hands  in 
token  of  absolution.  Blumhardt  received  caUs 
to  other  places,  but  felt  that  his  gifts  and  time 
belonged  to  the  "  distressed  ";  in  order  to  be  able 
to  devote  himself  entirely  to  them,  he  bought  in  1853 
the  royal  watering-place  Boll,  which  became  an 
asylum  for  sufferers  of  all  kinds,  and  from  all  ranks 
of  society.  The  girl  he  had  cured  went  with  him 
as  an  assistant,  accompanied  by  a  brother  and  a 
sister  whom  Blimihardt  had  also  cured.  In  1869 
and  1872  his  sons  joined  him  in  the  work.  From 
all  countries  the  afflicted  flocked  to  his  asylum, 
where  his  unique  treatment  seemed  to  give  them 
new  vital  eneigy.  At  last  sickness  attacked  him, 
and  he  ordained  his  son  to  the  work  with  the  words, 
**  1  consecrate  thee  to  victory."  In  1899  this  son 
withdrew  from  the  clergy,  but  continued  to  main- 
tain the  establishment  at  Boll.  (J.  Hebbe.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  F.  ZOndel,  Pfarrer  J.  C.  BUtmKardt,  Zurich, 
1887;  T.  H.  Mandel,  Dsr  8iao  von  HHmlinoen  im  Lichle  da 
Olaubong  und  der  Wi$§en9chaft,  Leipeio,  1895;  C.  Blum- 
kardt,  Oedanken  aut  dem  IUich»  Oottet  im  Anaehlusa  an 
die  OeetMchie  von  MdMinoon  und  Bad  BoU  und  unaere 
heuHoe  Stmuno,  Bad  BoU.  1895. 

BLUirr,  JOHN  HENRT:  C3iurch  of  Eng^d 
scholar;  b.  in  Chelsea,  London,  Aug.  25,  1823; 
d.  in  London  Apr.  11,  1884.  He  gave  up  a  busi- 
ness career  for  the  ministry,  studied  at  University 
College,  Durham  (M.A.,  1855),  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1855;  after  filling  a  number  of  curacies, 
he  became  in  1868  vicar  of  Kennington,  near 
Oxford,  and  in  1873  rector  of  Beverston,  Glouces- 
tershire. He  was  a  pronounced  High-churchman, 
and  an  indefatigable  writer  both  of  articles  for 
the  periodicals  and  of  books;  among  his  works  are 
a  nimiber  of  useful  theological  and  Biblical  com- 
pends,  such  as  The  Anruiated  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  (2  vols.,  London,  1866;  new  ed.,  1895); 
Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theology 
(1870);  The  Book  of  Churdi  Law  (1872;  9th  ed., 
revised  by  W.  G.  F.  Phillimore  and  G.  E.  Jones, 
1901);  Dictionary  of  Sects,  Heresies,  Ecdesiastical 
Parties,  and  Schools  of  Religious  Thmght  (1874); 
The  Annotated  Bible :  being  a  household  commen- 
tary upon  the  Holy  Scriptures,  comprehending  the 
restdts  of  modem  discovery  and  criticism  (3  vols., 
1879-82);  A  Companion  to  the  New  Testament 
(1881);  A  Companion  to  the  Old  Testament  (1883); 
also  an  importemt  history  of  The  Reformation  of 
the  Church  of  England  (2  vols.,  1869-82).  At  the 
time  of  lus  death  he  was  working  upon  a  Cydo- 
podia  of  Religion  (1884). 

BLUirr,  JOHN  JAMES:  English  theologian; 
b.  at  Newcastle-under-Lyme  (15  m.  njn.w.  of 
Stafford),  Staffordshire,  1794;  d.  at  Cambridge 
June  18,  1855.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge  (BA.,  and  feUow,   1816;  MA.,  1819; 


207 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Blood 
Boohart 


B.D.,  1826);  traveled  in  Italy  and  Sicily;  became 
curate  to  Reginald  Heber  at  Hodnet,  Shropshire, 
in  1821;  rector  of  Great  Oakley,  Essex,  1834; 
Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge 
1839.  He  wrote  many  books  and  contributed 
much  to  the  periodical  press;  some  of  his  works 
have  passed  through  many  editions.  They  include 
A  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  England  (London, 
1832);  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  Oie  Writings  both 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  New  Testament  an  Argument 
for  their  Veracity  (1847);  A  History  of  the  Christian 
Church  during  the  First  Three  Centuries  (1866); 
The  Duties  of  the  Parish  Priest  (1856);  Two  Intro- 
ductory Lectures  on  the  Study  of  the  Early  Fathers 
(with  memoir,  Cambridge,  1856). 

BLTTH,  GEORGE  FRANCIS  POPHAM:  AngU- 
can  bishop  in  Jerusalem  and  the  East;  b.  at  Bever- 
ley (9  m.  n.n.w.  of  Hull),  Yorkshire,  in  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1854),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1855,  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  suc- 
cessively curate  of  Westport  St.  Mary's,  Wiltshire 
(1855-61),  and  Siggjesthome,  Yorkshire  (1861-63), 
and  chaplain  to  the  earl  of  Kimberley  (1863-66). 
He  then  went  to  India,  was  chaplain  of  the  eccle- 
siastical establishment  at  Allahabad  (1866-67), 
and  was  attached  to  the  cathedral  of  Calcutta 
and  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Calcutta  (1867-68). 
He  was  then  stationed  successively  at  Barrackpur, 
Bengal  (1868-74),  Naini-Tal,  North-West  Prov- 
inces (1874-77),  and  Fort  William,  Bengal  (1877- 
1878),  after  which  he  was  archdeacon  of  the  pro- 
cathedral  at  Rangoon  from  1879  to  1887.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop  in  Jeru- 
salem and  the  East.  He  has  written  The  Holy 
Week  and  Forty  Days  (2  vols.,  London,  1879). 

BOARDMAN,  GEORGE  DANA:  1.  Baptist  for- 
eign missionary;  b.  at  Livermore,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 
1801;  d.  at  Tavoy,  Burma,  Feb.  11,  1831.  In 
1824  he  was  a  resident  licentiate  in  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary.  In  1825  he  went  out  to  Burma 
under  the  Baptist  Board  of  Missions,  which  had 
accepted  his  services  in  1823,  but  owing  to  the 
Burmese  war  he  could  not  reach  that  country  till 
1827.  After  a  year  at  Maulmain  he  opened  the  new 
station  at  Tavoy,  150  miles  north,  and  there  he 
immersed  the  first  Karen  convert — Ko  Tha  Byu. 
From  this  center  he  prosecuted  a  very  successful 
missionary  work,  but  pulmonary  disease  caused  his 
death  after  less  than  three  years. 
Bibuoobapht:  A.   Sans.  Oood  Fight,  or  G.  D,  Boardman 

and  th$  Bvrman  Miuion,  Boston,  1875. 

2.  American  Baptist,  son  of  the  preceding ;  b. 
at  Tavoy,  Burma,  Aug.  18,  1828;  d.  at  Atlantic 
City,  N.  J.,  Apr.  28,  1903.  He  was  graduated  at 
Brown  in  1852  and  at  the  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution 1855;  was  pastor  in  South  Cfarolina  1855- 
1856;  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1856-64;  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church,  Philadelphia,  1864-94.  He  was 
president  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union 
(1880-84),  and  of  the  Christian  Arbitration  and 
Peace  Society  of  America.  His  publications  were 
for  the  most  part  studies  of  Biblical  texts  of  an  exe- 
getical  character  and  include  Studies  in  the  Creative 
Week  (New  York,  1877),  in  the  Model  Prayer  (1879), 


and  in  the  Mountain  Instruction  (1881);  Epipha- 
nies of  the  Risen  Lord  (1879);  The  Divine  Man 
from  the  Nativity  to  the  Temptation  (1887);  Uni- 
versity Lectures  on  the  Ten  Commandments  (1889); 
The  Kingdom  (1899);  The  Church  (1901);  Our 
Risen  King's  FoHy  Days  (Philadelphia,   1902). 

Bzbuoqrapht:  Life  and  LiohL  ThoughU  from  the  TTri- 
tino»  of  Owrge  Dana  Boardman,  toith  MemorabiUa,  Phila- 
delphia, 1906. 

BOARDMAN,  GEORGE  NYE:  American  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Pittsford,  Vt.,  Dec.  23, 
1825.  He  was  graduated  at  Middlebury  College, 
Vt.  (B.A.,  1847),  and  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1852).  He  was  tutor  at  Middlebury  College, 
in  1847-49,  and  after  the  completion  of  his  theo- 
logical studies  was  appointed  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  English  literature  in  Middlebury  College,  also 
acting  as  temporary  professor  of  intellectual  phi- 
losophy. Six  years  later  (1859),  he  accepted  a 
call  to  the  pastorate  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained 
until  1871,  when  he  was  chosen  professor  of  system- 
atic theology  in  Chicago  Theological  Seminary. 
He  resigned  from  this  position  in  1893,  with  the 
title  of  professor  emeritus.  He  was  the  first  mod- 
erator of  the  new  s3mod  after  the  reunion  of  the  Old 
School  and  New  School  Presbyterian  Churches,  being 
also  chairman  of  the  committee  for  the  formation  of 
new  presbyteries.  He  was  also  moderator  of  the 
Congregational  General  Association  of  Illinois  in 
1881,  and  has  been  a  corporate  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  since  1869.  He  prepared  the  section  on 
systematic  theology  in  the  seven  volumes  of  Cur- 
rent Discussion,  issued  by  the  faculty  of  the 
Chicago  Theological  Seminary  (Chicago,  1883-89), 
and  has  also  written  Lectures  on  Natural  Theol- 
ogy (1881);  Congregationalism  (1889);  Regeneration 
(1891);  and  History  of  New  England  Theology 
(New  York,  1899). 

BOOHART,  bd^'shOr',  SAMUEL:  French  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Rouen  1599;  d.at  Caen  1667.  His  father 
was  the  learned  Ren6  Bochart,  pastor  at  Rouen,  and 
his  mother  Esther  du  Moulin.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen he  made  Greek  verses  in  honor  of  his  masters. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  S^dan,  theology  at  Sau- 
mur  under  Cameron,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
London  in  1621.  He  did  not  stay  long,  but  soon 
returned  to  Leyden,  where  he  took  up  theology 
and  the  study  of  the  Arabic  language  under  Erpe- 
nius.  He  was  appointed  Protestant  minister  at 
Caen,  but  gave  private  lessons  in  a  Roman  Catholic 
family.  His  controversy  with  the  Jesuit  V^ron, 
in  1628,  gave  him  a  great  name,  and  he  edited  an 
accoimt  of  it  (2  vols.,  Saumur,  1630)  to  refute 
V^ron's  teachings.  In  1652  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden  wished  his  presence  and  he  followed  her 
call,  accompanied  by  his  pupil  Huet,  later  bishop 
of  Avranches.  He  remained  in  Stockholm  one  year, 
studying  Arabic  texts  in  the  queen's  library.  Re- 
turning to  Caen,  he  became  the  representative  of 
Normandy  at  the  National  Calvinist  Synod  of 
Loudun.  He  died  suddenly  during  a  session  of 
the  academy  at  Caen.  His  works  include  Theses 
theologiGCB  ds  verbo  Dei  (Saumur,  1620);  Actes  d$ 


Bookhold 
Boehme 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


208 


la  confirence  tenue  d  Caen  erUre  Samuel  Bochart 
et  Jean  BaiUehache,  ministres  de  la  parole  de  Dieu 
en  V6gl%8e  rifamUe  ,  .  .  et  Francois  Viron  (2  vols., 
1630);  R&ponse  h  la  leUre  du  p^e  de  la  Bane, 
Jisuite,  sur  la  prisence  rielle  (1661);  Hierozotcon 
sive  hiatarta  animalium  8.  Scripturce  (London, 
1663);  Opera  omnia,  hoc  est,  Phaleg,  Canaan,  et 
Hierozoicon,  quibus  accessere  varice  dissertationes 
(Leyden,    1675).  G.  Bonbt-Maury. 

Bibuoobapht:  P.  D.  Huet,  Let  Orioinea  de  la  viUe  de  Caen, 
Rouen,  1706;  Niotfron«  Mhnovree;  W.  R.  Whittingham, 
The  Life  and  WriHnae  of  8,  Bochart,  in  Eeeaye  on  BibliaU 
Literature,  London,  1829;  Smith,  Samuel  Bothart,  Caen, 
1833;  E.  and  £.  Haa«,  La  France  proteetante,  ed.  H.  L. 
Bordier,  vol.  ii,  Paris.  1879;  KL,  u,  96(M>62. 

BOCKHOLD,  J0HA5N  (JAK  BEUKELS- 
ZOON).    See  Musnbteb,  ANASAPTiBre  in. 

BOD,  bed,  PETER :  Hungarian  theologian  and  ec- 
clesiastical historian;  b.  atFelsO-Gsemdton  (a  village 
of  Transylvania)  Feb.  12,  1712;  d.  at  Magyar-Igen 
(40  m.  8.W.  of  Klausenburg)  Mar.  3,  1769.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Reformed  college  of  Nagy- 
Enyed  and  the  University  of  Leyden,  and  in  1743 
became  pastor  at  H6viz,  whence  he  was  called,  six 
years  later,  to  Magyar-Igen.  He  was  the  author 
of  fifty-six  works,  of  which  twenty-three  were 
printed,  but  by  a  decree  of  Maria  Theresa  restricting 
the  liberty  of  the  press  cert^  of  his  books  of  a 
patriotic  and  Protestant  tendency  were  confiscated. 
Among  his  works  in  Hungarian  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  following,  the  titles  being 
translated  into  English:  **  History  of  the  Holy 
Bible"  (Hermannstadt,  1748);  ''History  of  the 
Church  of  Qod"  (Basel,  1760);  ''History  of  the 
Reformed  Bishops  of  Transylvania  "  (Enyed,  1766); 
"The  Magyar  Athens"  (Hermannstadt,  1767); 
biographies  of  485  Hungarian  authors,  and  "The 
Hungarian  Phenix  "  (Ekiyed,  1767);  biography  of 
the  printer  Kiss;  while  his  Latin  works  include: 
Hiatoria  Unitariorum  in  Transylvania  (Leyden, 
1776),  a  vivid  description  of  the  struggles  of  the 
Socinians  in  Hungary;  Historia  Hungarorum  ecde- 
siastica  (ed.  Rauwenhoff  and  Prins,  3  vols.,  1888- 
1890,  from  a  manuscript  recently  discovered  in  the 
library  of  the  university);  and  two  treatises  on 
the  promoters  and  defenders  of  the  Hungarian 
Reformation  (in  Gerdes,  Scrinium  Antiquarium, 
ii,  Groningen,   1763).  F.  Balooh. 

Biblioorapht:  O.  D.  Teutaoh,  Korreapondentblatt  dee 
Vereine  fUr  eiebenb.  Landeekunde,  no.  xi,  1888,  nos.  ▼, 
vi,  1891;  Preebyterian  and  Reformed  Review,  vols,  i-ii, 
1891-92. 

BODELSCHWnfGH,  bO'del-shving,  FRIEDRICH 
VON:  German  Lutheran;  b.  near  Tecklenburg  (20 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Mttnster),  Westphalia,  Mar.  6,  1831,  son 
of  Ernst  von  Bodelschwlngh-Velmede,  a  distin- 
guished Prussian  statesman.  After  gaining  prac- 
tical experience  of  mining  and  agriculture,  he 
studied  theology  (from  1854)  in  Basel,  Erlangen, 
and  Berlin,  and  in  1858  became  pastor  of  the  Ger- 
man congregation  in  Paris,  at  Dellwig  in  West- 
phalia 1864.  During  the  wars  of  1866  and  1870- 
1871  he  served  as  army  chaplain.  Since  1872  he  has 
devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  the  Innere  Mission 
(q.v.)  at  Bielefeld,  and  the  following  institutions 
have  been  founded  by  his  exertions:    the  Bethel 


house  for  epileptics  with  1,800  inmates;  the  Sarepta 
deaconesses'  house  with  980  sisters  located  in  326 
stations,  of  which  eleven  are  in  foreign  countries; 
the  Nazareth  house  for  training  male  nurses  with 
350  deacons  in  120  stations,  six  not  in  Europe  and 
six  more  outside  Germany;  the  "  workingmen's 
colony  "  Wilhelmsdorf  (a  practical  attempt  to  deal 
with  the  tramp  problem),  the  first  of  its  kind  in 
Germany,  having  at  present  five  branches  and  400 
inmates;  a  "  workingmen's  home "  with  164 
houses  and  400  dwellings;  a  missionary  seminary 
for  candidates  in  theology. 

Bibuoobapht:  M.  Siebold,  Kurte  OeechUhte  und  Beaehrn- 
buno  der  AnstaUen  Bethd  ...  6m  BiOefeld,  Betfasl  pub- 
lishing house,  1898,  and  the  annual  reports. 

BODEirSTEm,  AllDREAS  RUDOLF  VOH. 
See  Cablbtadt. 

BODY,  CHARLES  WILLIAM  EDMUHD:  Prot- 
estant Episcopalian ;  b.  at  Cli^ham  (a  [suburb 
of  London)  Oct.  4,  1851.  He  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge  (BA.,  1875),  where 
he  was  fellow  from  1877  to  1881.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  chosen  provost  and  vice-chancellor 
of  Trinity  University,  Toronto,  where  he  remained 
until  1894,  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Old  Testament  literature  and  interpretation  in 
the  General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York  City. 
He  has  written  The  Permanent  Value  of  Genesis 
(the  Paddock  Lectures  for  1894;  New  York,  1894). 

BODY,  GEORGE:  Church  of  England;  b.  at 
Cheriton  Fitzpaine  (9  m.  n.w.  of  Exeter),  Devon- 
shire, Jan.  7, 1840.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1862),  and  was  curate  of 
St.  James's,  Wednesbury,  Staffordshire  (1863-6d), 
Sedgley,  Staffordshire  (1865-67),  and  Christ  Church, 
Wolverhampton  (1867-70).  From  1870  to  1884  he 
was  rector  of  Kirby-Misperton,  Yorkshire;  and  since 
1883  he  has  been  canon  of  EHirham.  He  was  proc- 
tor in  convocation  of  York  for  Cleveland  in  1880-85 
and  was  select  preacher  to  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge in  1892,  1894,  1896,  1900,  and  1904,  as  well 
as  lecturer  on  pastoral  theology  in  the  same  uni- 
versity in  1897.  He  was  warden  of  the  Community 
of  the  Epiphany,  diocese  of  Truro,  in  1891,  and 
is  also  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  St.  Andrews  and 
vice-president  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel.  He  has  written:  Life  of  Justificar 
tion  (London,  1884);  Life  of  TempiaHon  (1884); 
The  Appearances  of  the  Risen  Lord  (1890);  The 
School  of  Calvary  (1891);  AcHvUies  of  the  Ascended 
Lord  (1891);  The  Life  of  Lave  (1893);  The  Guided 
Life  (1894);  and  The  Work  of  Grace  in  Paradise 
(1896). 

BOECKENHOFF,  bOk^en-hef,  WILHELM  BER- 
NARD ALOYSIUS  KARL:  Gennan  Roman  Catho- 
lic; b.  at  Schermbeck  (37  m.  s.w.  of  Mtlnster)  July 
10,  1870.  He  was  educated  at  MOnster  (1890-93), 
the  Gregorian  University,  Rome  (1897-1900; 
Doctor  Juris  Canonid,  1899),  and  the  University 
of  Berlm  (1900-01;  D.D.,  MOnster,  1901).  He 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1894  and  was  a 
vicar  in  Dolberg  from  that  year  until  1897,  when 
he  resumed  his  studies.  He  became  a  privat- 
docent  at  Mtlnster  in  1902,  but  three  yean  later 
went  in  a  similar  capacity  to  Strasburg,  where  he 


209 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bookhold 
Boehxne 


was  appointed  afisociate  professor  of  canon  law 
in  the  following  month.  In  addition  to  oontribu- 
tioDs  to  theological  periodicals,  he  has  written 
De  individuitate  matrimonii  (Berlin,  1901)  and 
Das  apoatoliache  SpeiaegeaeU  in  den  ersten  fUnf 
Jahrhunderten  (Paderbom,  1903). 

BOEGRER,  btrg'ner,  ALFRED  EDOUARD: 
French  Protestant;  b.  at  Strasburg  Aug.  2,  1851. 
He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  city 
and  at  the  theological  faculty  at  Montauban,  after 
which  he  studied  at  the  German  universities  of  Leip- 
sic,  Eriangen,  and  TObingen  in  1873-74.  From  1876 
to  1879  he  was  pastor  of  the  Protestant  church  at 
Fresnoy-lfr^xrand,  and  in  the  latter  year  became 
subdirector  of  the  Paris  Society  of  Evangelical 
Missions,  of  which  he  has  been  director  since  1882. 
In  this  capacity  he  made  tours  of  inspection  of 
South  Africa  in  1883,  Senegal  and  the  West  Coast  in 
1890-91,  and  Madagascar,  the  Transvaal,  Orange 
Free  State,  and  Cape  Colony  in  1898-99.  He  is  also 
director  of  the  Paris  House  of  Evangelical  Missions, 
and  in  addition  to  editing  the  Journal  des  miseUms 
^vangtiiquea  de  Paris  since  1879  and  publishing 
or  editing  a  number  of  minor .  contributions,  has 
written  Patterson,  le  missionnaire  de  la  M&anisie 
(Paris,  1881);  LeMiesi4nmaxredeMeihlakaila{\9S2)\ 
Lee  Bassoutos,  atUrefois  et  aujowrd'hui  (1885); 
Quelques  riflexions  sur  Vautoriii  en  motive  de  foi 
(1892);  and  Rapport  sur  la  d^Ugation  d  Madagas- 
car (in  collaboration  with  P.  Germond;  1900). 

BOEHL,  bol,  EDUARD:  German  theologian;  b. 
at  Hamburg  Nov.  18,  1836;  d.  at  Vienna  Jan.  24, 
1903.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin  (1855),  Halle 
(1856-58),  and  Erlangen  (1858-60),  and  became 
licentiate  and  privat-docent  at  Basel  in  1860, 
whence  he  was  called  to  Vienna  four  years  later 
as  professor  of  Befonned  dognuiUcs  and  symbolics, 
and  also  of  pedagogics,  philosophy  of  religion,  and 
apologetics,  in  the  Protestant  faculty  of  theology. 
In  1864  he  also  became  a  permanent  member  of 
the  Synod  of  the  Befonned  Church  of  Austria, 
and  was  in  1883  president  of  its  fourth  General 
Sjmod.  He  edited  the  Evangelische  Sonntagsboten 
fur  Oesterreieh,  and  published  De  Aramaismis  libri 
KoheUth  (Eriangen,  1860);  Vaticinium  Jesajas  c. 
t^r-S7  commentario  illu^ratum  (Leipsic,  1861); 
Zw6lf  messianisehe  Psalmen  erkldrt;  n^>st  einer 
gntndlegenden  ehristologischen  EinleUung  (Basel, 
1862);  Confessio  Helvetiea  posterior  (Vienna,  1866); 
AUgemeine  Pddagogik  (1870);  Forschungen  nach 
einer  Volksbibel  zur  Zeit  Jesu  und  deren  Zusam- 
menhang  mil  der  SeptuagintorUeberseUung  (1873); 
Die  aUtestamenUiehen  Citate  im  Neuen  Testament 
(1878);  Christologie  des  Alien  Testaments,  oder 
AusU^/ung  der  urichtigsten  messianischen  Weissa- 
gungen  (1882);  Zum  Oesets  und  zum  Zeugniss; 
tine  Abwekr  wider  die  neukritischen  Schriftfarschun- ^ 
gen  im  Alien  Testament  (1883);  Von  der  Incar-' 
nation  des  gdtUichen  Wortes  (1884);  Christliche 
GlavbensUhre  (Amsterdam,  1886);  Dogmatik;  Dor- 
tteUung  der  ckristlichen  Glaubendehre  auf  reformirt- 
kirehhcher  Orundlage  (1887);  Zur  Abwekr :  etliche 
Bemerkungen  gegen  Prof,  Dr,  A,  Kuyper's  Einr 
leilung  gu  seiner  Sckrift  "Die  Incarnation  des 
Wortes  "  (1888);  Von  der  Reehtfertigung  durch  den 
II.— 14 


Glauben  (Leipsic,  1890);  Beitrdge  eur  Oeschichte  der 
Reformation  in  Oesterreich  (Jena,  1902). 

BOEHM,  HANS:  A  popular  preacher  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  known  as  the  Drummer  of  Nik- 
lashausen;  executed  July  19,  1476.  He  was 
originally  a  shepherd  at  Helmstadt,  between  WUrz- 
burg  and  Wertheim.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  1476, 
he  had  been  used  to  play  the  drmn  and  fife  for 
rustic  dances,  but  what  he  heard  of  the  preaching 
of  the  Franciscan  Capistrano  (see  Capibtrano, 
Giovanni  di)  worked  a  great  change  in  him.  He 
alleged  that  the  Virgin  Mary  had  appeared  to  him 
and  called  him  to  be  a  prophet  and  preacher  of 
repentance.  In  the  village  of  Niklashausen*  near 
his  home  there  was  a  picture  of  her  already  reputed 
miraculous  and  visited  by  pilgrims.  Here,  at 
the  end  of  March,  he  began  to  preach,  having  burnt 
his  drum  in  token  of  conversion.  Lacking  not 
only  secular  education  but  even  elementary  religious 
knowledge,  he  yet  made  a  deep  impression  on  his 
hearers  by  the  innocence  and  purity  of  his  nature. 
He  did  not  stop  with  calling  the  peasants  to  repent- 
ance, but  showed  increasing  bitterness  against  the 
clergy  and  nobles,  who,  he  said,  would  find  no  place 
in  the  kingdom  announced  to  him  by  the  Virgin; 
taxes  were  to  be  abolished,  no  one  was  to  liAve 
more  than  another,  and  all  men  were  to  live  as 
brothers.  His  fame  soon  spread  throughout  cen- 
tral and  southern  Germany,  and  crowds  of  pilgrims, 
put  as  high  as  40,000,  thronged  to  hear  hun.  He 
seems  to  have  intended  to  lead  them  in  an  armed 
rising;  but  Bishop  Budolf  of  WQrsburg  had  him 
arrested  on  July  12,  and  warded  off  the  danger  of 
a  great  peasants'  war.  Two  days  later,  16,000  of 
his  followers  appeared  to  rescue  him,  but  were 
dispersed;  and  on  the  19th,  a  recantation  having 
be^  extorted  from  him,  he  perished  on  the  scaf- 
fold as  a  heretic  and  enchanter. 

(Herman  Haitpt.) 

Bibuoorafht:  C.  A.  Bamek,  Hans  Behn  und  die  WaU- 
fakn  naeh  Nikkuhauaen  im  Jahr§  1476,  WOriburs.  1868; 
C.  Ullmaim,  Reformen  before  Ae  Reformation,  i.  377-392, 
Edinburgh,  1877  (a  Tsry  detailad  aooount);  E.  Gothein, 
PoliHecke  und  xelioiaeB  Volkebeweffunoen  vor  der  Reforma- 
Hon,  pp.  10  aqq.,  Breslau.  1878;  H.  Haupt,  Die  rait^dMn 
Sekien  in  Frdnken  vor  der  Reformation,  pp.  67  Miq.,  WOri- 
buiv,  1882. 

BOEHME,  bO'me,   JAKOB. 

Early  Tendanoy  Toward  Myo-   Finds  Sympathy  in  Dreiden 

tidam  (f  1).  (f  4). 

MyBtio  VisionB  (f  2).  Death  of  BOhme  (f  6). 

Opposition      to     his     First    His  Writings  (f  6). 

Book  (f  3).  His  Transcendentalism  (f  7). 

His  Essential  Orthodoxy  (f  8). 

The  famous  Gennan  mystic  Jakob  Bdhme  (often 

written  Behmen  or  Boehme  in  English),  bom  at 

Alt-Seidenberg,  near  Gdrliti,  Nov.,  1575;  d.  at  GOr- 

litz  Nov.   17,   1624.    His  parents  were  peasants, 

from  whom  he  inherited,  it  seems,  a 

X.  Early     strain  of  visionary  mysticism.    Unable 

Tendency    to  bear  the  rough  outdoor  life  of  the 

Toward     farm,  he  was  put  to  shoemaking  in  the 

Mysticism,  little  town  of  Seidenberg,  where  he 

had    a   hard    apprenticeship  with    a 

family  that  had  no  Christian  principles,  and  got  an 

early  insight  into  the  controversies  of   the   age. 

With  diligent  reading  of  the  Bible  and  prayer  for 


Boehrlngvr 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


210 


the  illumination  of  the  Holy  Spirit  he  combined 
eager  study  of  the  works  of  fanatical  visionaries, 
such  as  Paracelsus,  Weigel,  and  Schwenckfeld,  by 
means  of  which  he  felt  himself  elevated  above  the 
strife  of  tongues  around  him  into  the  light  and  joy 
of  the  contemplation  of  God.  He  settled,  as  master 
of  his  trade,  at  Gdrliti  in  1599.  He  had  his  shop 
there  until  1613,  and  must  have  prospered  to  a 
certain  extent,  since  he  bought  a  house  in  1610 
and  had  fully  paid  for  it  in  1618.  He  married 
a  master  butcher's  daughter  in  1599,  and  had  four 
sons  and  two  daughters,  passing  as  a  model  hus- 
band and  father  among  his  neighbors.  All  these 
things  go  to  show  that  he  had  a  practical  hold  on 
life,  and  was  far  from  being  a  mere  crazy  visionaiy. 
A  visionary,  however,  he  remained.  He  tells  the 
story  of  a  stranger  coming  into  his  shop  and  calling 
him  by  name,  taldng  him  aside  to  tell  him  he  should 
be  so  great  that  the  world  should  wonder  at  him, 
and  warning  him  to  reouiin  true  to  the  Word  of 
God  and  to  a  life  of  virtue.    Other  visions  followed. 

One  day  the  reflection  of  the  sim  from 
3.  Mystic  a  bright  metal  vessel  in  his  shop  seemed 
Visions,     to  infuse  such  spiritual  light  into  his 

soul  that  the  inner  mysteries  of  things 
were  laid  open  to  his  sight.  He  went  out  into  the 
fields  to  seek  the  revelation  of  God's  will  in  earnest 
prayer,  and  found  his  peace  and  joy  only  grow  the 
deeper.  None  the  less,  ten  years  passed  before  he 
ventured  to  put  down  in  writing  what  he  had  seen, 
and  then  he  did  so  only  on  the  encouragement  of  a 
new  vision  and  as  a  memorandum  for  himself. 
The  incomplete  manuscript,  written  in  great  haste, 
which  he  called  Aurora  oder  die  MorgenroU  im  Auf- 
ganQf  began  to  circulate  among  his  acquaintances 
at  the  instance  of  Kari  von  Ender,  a  friendly  noble- 
man who  was  an  adherent  of  Schwenckfeld's.  In 
this  way  it  came  under  the  notice  of  Gregorius 
Richter,  the  pastor  of  Gdrlitz,  who  at  once  began 
a  fanatical  war  upon  the  presumptuous  shoemaker, 
and  urged  the  local  magistrate  to  suppress  him, 
lest  the  wrath  of  God  should  fall  upon  the  town. 

Bdhme  was  minutely  examined  be- 

3.  Oppo-    fore  the  council,  and  only  dismissed 

sition  to  his  on  promising  to  write  no  more  books. 

First  Book.  The    observance    of    this    promise, 

however,  was  not  only  made  diffi- 
cult by  the  insistence  of  his  friends,  but  by 
his  own  inner  feeling  that  the  fear  of  men  had 
driven  him  to  deny  the  grace  of  God  that  was  in 
him.  The  bitter  abuse  of  Richter,  too,  still  con- 
tinued, and  after  five  years  of  silence,  during  which 
he  had  learned  a  good  deal  and  developed  more, 
BOhme  could  bear  it  no  longer,  and,  encouraged 
by  a  fresh  vision,  again  took  up  his  pen.  His  new 
writings  were  at  first  circulated  only  in  manuscript 
copies.  Richter,  who  thought  himself  the  i^pointed 
guardian  of  orthodoxy,  thundered  against  him  from 
the  pulpit  and  attacked  him  in  a  vulgar  lampoon, 
which  Bdhme  answered  in  a  tone  naturally  excited, 
but  still  showing  a  nobler  spirit  than  the  absurdly 
haughty  and  unchristian  contempt  of  the  attack. 
Far  from  having  broken  with  the  word  of  God  and 
the  sacraments,  he  was  trying  to  live  as  an  upright 
Christian,  in  strict  self-discipline;  and  although 
among  his  twen^-eight  works  there  are  some  which 


directly  attack  the  visible  Church  as  Babel,  the  dty 
of  collusion,  and  set  forth  Christ  in  ub  as  the 
mjrstical  ideal,  his  general  attitude  by  no  meaDs 
justifies  the  scornful  "  Shoemaker,  stick  to  thy 
last"  of  his  opponent.  In  1624  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  Gdrlits,  and  went  to  Dresden,  where  he 
found  shelter  in  the  house  of  the  director  of  the 
Elector's  chemical  laboratory  "nd  enjoyed  the 
society  of  many  of  the  most  intellec- 

4.  Finds    tual  people  of  the  court  and  the  capital. 
Sympathy   In  May  he  had  a  hearing  before  several 

in  distinguished   clerics    and   professors, 

Dresden,  who  fully  recognized  his  mental  endow- 
ments, and  encouraged  him  to  go  home, 
especially  as  his  family,  deprived  of  its  head,  had 
been  exposed  to  no  little  sufifering  in  the  confusion 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  He  returned  to  GdrliU, 
but  his  end  was  near.  When  he  asked  for  com- 
munion upon  his  death-bed,  the  successor  of  Richter, 
a  man  like-minded,  vrould  only  give  it  to  him  after 
a  searching  examination,  of  which  the  report  is  still 
extant.  Full  of  confidence,  however,  and  with 
heavenly  voices  ringing  in  his  ears, 

5.  Death    Bdhme  took  leave  of  his  wife  and 
of  Bohme.  children  and  died  with  the  joyful  ay 

"I  go  to  Paradise!"  In  spite  of 
clerical  opposition,  a  befitting  funeral  was  pro- 
vided by  the  town  authorities;  a  cross  was  put  up 
over  the  grave  by  his  friends,  to  be  defiled  and 
thrown  down  by  the  populace. 

Thus  despised  and  rejected  in  his  own  day, 
Bdhme  has  been  honored  by  some  of  the  greatest 
minds  of  Germany  in  a  later  age;  such  men  as 
Friedrich  von  Hardenberg,  Jung-Stilling,  Fried- 
rich  Schlegel  andLudwig  Tieck,  Hegd  and  Sehelling 
received  valuable  intellectual  impulses  from  his 
vrorks,  which  also  attracted  much  attention  in 
England,  where  a  complete  translation  appeared 
between  1644  and  1662.  Besides  those  already 
named,  the  most  important  are  Von  den  drei  Prin- 
cipien  gdUlichen  Weeens  ;  Vom  dreifachen  Leben  des 
Menechen ;  Viertig  Fragen  von  der  Sede ;  Yon 
wahrer  Buaee ;  Dae  Oeeprdch  einer  unerleuchteieti 
Stele;  and  Der  Weg  gu  Christo;  including  two 
against    predestinarianism    and    two 

6.  His  against  pantheism.  BOhme's  infiu- 
Writings.  ence  has  never  been  a  popular  one,  be- 
cause his  train  of  thought  is  fre- 
quently difficult  and  sometimes  almost  impossible 
to  follow.  This  is  due  partly  to  his  lack  of  education, 
which  prevented  him  from  expressing  himself 
clearly,  but  partly  also  to  the  depth  and  intensity 
of  his  thought,  which  has  to  strug^e  for  adequate 
representation  in  words.  With  sincere  longing, 
with  real  hunger  of  the  soul  he  plunges  into  the 
depths  of  God's  being.  The  traditional  theology 
of  the  schools,  with  its  strife  about  the  letter, 
could  not  content  him.  "  As  the  many  kinds  of 
flowers  grow  in  the  earth  near  each  other,  and  none 

contends  with  the  other  about  color, 

7.  His  smell,  or  taste,  but  they  let  the  earth 
Transcen-  and  the  sun,  rain  and  wind,  heat  and 
dentalism.  cold,  do  what  they  will   with   them. 

while  they  grow  each  according  to 
its  own  nature,  so  is  it  with  the  children  of  God." 
And  he  was  simply  a  child  of  God,  that  longed  to 


211 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boehxinffwr 


grow  and  approach  more  closely  to  God.  In  thiB 
effort  he  studied  the  Bible  and  clung  to  it,  but 
nature  and  life,  to  say  nothing  of  the  writings 
of  earlier  enthusiasts,  contributed  their  part. 
He  held  fast  to  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
his  Church,  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  the  Atone- 
ment. "That  which  is  said  of  God,  that  he  is 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  is  truly  said;  but  it 
must  be  explained,  or  the  imenlightened  can  not 
comprehend  it."  "  Thou  must  not  think  the  Son 
is  another  God  from  the  Father,  or  that  he  is  out- 
side the  Father,  as  when  two  men  stand  side  by 
side.  The  Father  is  the  source  of  all  forces, 
and  all  forces  are  in  each  other  as  one  force;  and 
thus  he  is  called  one  God.  The  Son  is  the 
Father's  heart,  the  heart  or  center  of  all  the  powers 
of  the  Father.  From  the  Son  rises  the  eternal 
heavenly  joy,  having  its  source  in  all  the  powers 
of  the  Father,  a  joy  that  no  eye  has 

&  His  S»-  seen,  and  no  ear  heard."  Christ,  the 
tential      Father's    heart,    descended   into    the 

Orthodoiy.  midst  of  the  conflagration  which  had 
broken  out  in  the  world,  extinguished 
it  by  his  death,  and  by  his  resurrection,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  God-Man,  raised  man  to  participation 
in  the  Godhead.  The  Scripture  is  the  receptacle 
of  the  truth;  he  holds  to  it,  and  its  sense  alone  (cf. 
Col.  i,  15-20)  teaches  a  cosmic,  universal  conception 
of  Christianity;  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  are 
means  of  grace  to  him.  He  remains,  in  spite  of  all 
obscurities,  a  man  of  inspiration  who  raised  Protes- 
tant mysticism  to  a  great  height,  and  not  only 
endowed  it  with  the  riches  of  hiiB  own  meditations 
but,  through  his  "  theosophic  Pentecostal  school,  in 
which  the  soul  is  taught  by  God,"  has  shown  many 
others  the  way  to  a  deep  and  abiding  happiness. 

(F.  W.  DiBBLIUS.) 

fixBuooRArar:  The  works  of  BOhma  were  ooUeeted  in 
Gennany  by  J.  Q.  Qiehtel.  1682,  and  an  edition  in  7  vols. 
WBfl  edited  by  Sohiebler.  Leipdc,  1831-47.  The  Eng. 
ed.  is  mentioned  in  the  text.  Early  aooounts  in  Eng.  of 
his  life  were  by  D.  Hotham,  London,  1654,  and  by  F. 
Okeley,  Northampton.  1780;  in  Germ,  by  J.  A.  Calo, 
WittenberXi  1707.  For  later  aooounts  consult:  J. 
Claasen,  /.  Bdhmt.  Snn  Ltben  und  9gine  tfksotopAiscAs 
Wm-ke,  3  vols..  Stuttcart.  1886;  H.  L.  liartensen,  /. 
BMme.  Copenhagen,  1882,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1886; 
R.  A.  Vaughan.  Hourg  vfUh  the  MytHcB,  vol.  ii,  ib.  1888; 
Bchdnw&lder,  LeUrubMehreibung  J,  BdhmM,  Qdrlits. 
1806.  More  nearly  ooncemed  with  his  philosophy  are: 
J.  HamberK«r,  Die  Lehre  dee  deutteken  PhUoeoph  J. 
Bdhme,  Munich,  1844;  C.  F.  Baur,  Zur  OeachidUB  der 
jmteatatUiMthen  Myetik,  in  T*hsoloifi»dis  JahrbQchm,  Tii- 
Tiii,  1848-49;  A.  Peip.  /.  Behma  ,  ,  ,  dtr  VorlAufer 
ekruOiehtr  WUaenBehaft,  Leipsic,  1860;  idem.  /.  Bdhme 
.  .  .  in  eeiner  SteUung  Mur  Kircke,  Hamburg,  1862; 
J.  Tulloch.  RaUanal  Thsoloffy  and  Chrietian  PhiUfophy 
in  Ote  Seventeenth  Century,  Edinburgh,  1874;  F.  von 
Baader,  Verleeumfen  aber  J.  Bdhme,  in  S&mnUliche  Werke, 
voL  xiii.  Leipeic.  1865;  F.  Hartmann.  Life  and  Doetrinee 
of  Behme,  the  Ood^uoht  Philoeopher,  London.  1893;  J. 
F.  Hurst.  Hietory  of  Rationaliem,  chap.  i.  New  York, 
1902.  McClintock  and  Strong.  Cydopadia,  ii.  842.  gives 
in  Enc.  complete  list  of  his  works. 

BOEHMER,  bO'mer,  EDUARD:  German  the- 
ologian and  Romance  scholar ;  b.  at  Stettin  May  24, 
1827.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Halle 
and  Berlin,  and  in  1854  became  privat-dooent  for 
theology  in  the  former  university.  He  later  turned 
his  attention  to  Romance,  however,  and  in  1866  was 
^pointed  associate  professor  in  that  subject  in 


Halle,  becoming  full  professor  two  years  later. 
In  1872  he  was  called  to  Strasburg  in  the  same 
capacity,  but  retired  with  the  title  of  professor 
emeritus  in  1879.  Among  his  numerous  works 
those  of  theological  importance  are  Ueber  Ver- 
faseer  und  Ahfassungszeit  der  johanneischen  Apo- 
kalypae  (Halle,  1855);  Das  erste  Buck  des  Thora 
(1862);  Framisca  Hernandez  und  Frai  Framisco 
Ortiz  (Leipsic,  1866);  Bibliotheca  Wiffeniana  : 
Spanish  Reformers  of  two  Centuries  from  15£0  (2 
vols.,  Straaburg,  1874-83);  and  Des  Apostels  Paulus 
Brief  an  die  R&mer  (Bonn,  1886). 

BOEHMER,  JUSTUS  HENNING:  A  jurist  who 
made  important  contributions  to  the  study  of 
Roman  and  still  more  of  canon  law;  b.  at  Han- 
over Jan.  29,  1674;  d.  at  Halle  Aug.  23  or  29, 
1749,  as  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg 
and  head  of  the  faculty  of  law  at  Halle.  He 
rendered  a  great  service  to  the  continuity  of  Prot- 
estant church  law  in  that  he  was  the  first  to  show 
the  adaptability  of  the  older  canonical  principles 
to  post-Reformation  conditions.  This  was  made 
possible  by  his  profoimd  knowledge  of  church 
history  and  his  extensive  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical acquaintance  with  both  the  common  and 
the  statute  law.  In  the  question  of  the  relation 
of  Church  and  State  he  declared  for  the  territorial 
system.  Out  of  the  large  nimiber  of  his  writings 
may  be  mentioned  the  Duodecim  dissertationes 
juris  ecdesiastici  ad  Plinium  Secundum  et  Tertul' 
lianum  (2d  ed.,  Halle,  1729);  Enlwurf  des  Kirchen- 
staats  der  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderten  (1733);  In- 
stitutiones  juris  canonici  (5th  ed.,  1770);  Jus 
ecdesiasticum  Protestantium  (6  vols.,  1714);  and  an 
edition  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici  (2  vols.,  1747), 
valuable  for  its  notes,  index,  and  appendices. 
He  also  made  some  contributions  to  church  hym- 
nody.  He  was  the  founder  of  a  family  of  jurists, 
two  of  whom  deserve  mention  for  their  contribu- 
tions to  the  study  of  canon  law.  These  are  his  son, 
Georg  Ludwig,  b.  1715;  d.  1797,*  as  head  of  the  law 
faculty  at  GOttingen;  author  of  Principia  juris 
canonici  (Gdttingen,  1762),  which  was  used  in  the 
revision  of  the  Prussian  laws;  and  Georg  Ludwig's 
son,  Georg  Wilhehn  (1761-1839),  who  published 
Grundriss  des  protestantischen  Kirchenrechts  (GOt- 
tingen, 1786)  and  other  cognate  works. 

(E.  Friedbero.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Nie^ron,  Mhnoiree;  C.  G.  Haubold,  Ineti- 
tutionee  jurie  Romani  lUeraria,  p.  153.  Leipsic,  1819; 
ADB,  iii.  79  sqq..  1876;  J.  F.  Schulte.  OeechiehU  der 
QueUen  und  Litteratur  dee  eanoniedken  Reehte,  vol.  iii,  part 
2.  pp.  92  sqq.,  Stuttgart.  1880;  W.  Schrader.  Geeehiehte 
der  Friedriehe-UnivereiUU  gu  HaUe,  i,  146  sqq..  Berlin, 
1894. 

BOEHRINGER,  bO-ring'er,  GEORG  FRIED- 
RICH:  Swiss  Protestant  (Tubingen  school);  b. 
at  Maulbronn,  WUrttemberg,  Dec.  28,  1812;  d.  at 
Basel,  blind  and  crippled,  Sept.  16,  1879.  He  stud- 
ied at  Tubingen,  took  part  in  the  insurrectionary 
movements  in  1833,  and  was  in  consequence  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  Switzerland;  became  pastor  at 
Glattfelden,  Canton  Zurich,  1842;  resigned,  1853; 
removed  to  Zurich,  and  then  to  Basel.  He  wrote, 
from  the  sources  and  in  a  scholariy  manner,  a 
of  biogn^hies  which  constituted  a  church 


Boethiufl 
Bohemian 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


8151 


hifltoiy  down  to  pre-Refonnation  times,  under  the 
general  title  Die  Kirche  Chruti  und  ihre  Zeugen 
(24  voU.,  Zurich,  1842^68;  2d  ed.,  1860-79). 

BOETHIUS,    b6-nhi.U8,    ANICIUS    MAlfUUS 
SEVERIHTJS:    Statesman  and  philosopher;  b.  at 
Rome,  of  wealthy  and  influential  family,  c.  480; 
executed  at  Pavia  626.    He  received  as  good  an 
education  as  the  time  could  give,  and  acquired  a 
dose   acquaintance   with    Greek   philosophy.    In 
610  he  was  consul,  and  for  several  years  occupied 
a  prominent  position  in  the  Roman  worid,  equally 
revered  by  the  people  and  esteemed  by  the  Ostro- 
gothic  king,  Theodoric,  the  ruler  of  Italy  (480- 
626).    After  the  decree  of  the  Emperor  Justin  I 
(618-627)   against  the  Arians,  Theodoric  became 
suspicious  of  all  Romans  and  Catholics;  he  im- 
prisoned Boethius  at  Pavia  on  a  charge  of  desiring 
to  restore  the  old  Roman  freedom,  and  finally 
put  hun  to  death.    By  his  translations  and  com- 
mentaries (including  the  entire  six  books  of  the 
Organan  of  Aristotle  and  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry) 
and   by   his   independent   works    (Jntrodvctio   ad 
categorieoB    ajflogimos,    De    syUogismo  eategorico, 
De  tyllogismo  hypothetico,  De  divieione,  De  defi- 
nitiane,  De  mneica,  De  arUhmetica,  etc.),  Bofithius 
became  the  connecting  link  between  the  logical 
and  metaphysical  science  of  antiquity  and    the 
scientific  attempts  of  the  Bliddle  A^.    His  influ- 
ence on  medieval  thought  was  still  greater  through 
his  De  coneoUUione  philoaophice  (written  while  in 
prison   at   Pavia)   and   the    theological    writings 
attributed    to    him.    Whether  Bofithius    was    a 
Cliristian  has  been  doubted;  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  Coneolatio  makes  no  mention  of  Christ,  and 
all  the  comfort  it  contains  it  owes  to  the  optimism 
of  the  Neoplatonic  school  and  to  the  stoicism  of 
Seneca.    Nevertheless,  for  a  long  time   the  book 
was  read  with  the  greatest  reverence  by  all  Chris- 
tendom, and  its  author- was  regarded  as  a  martyr 
for  the  true  faith.  .  Having  advanced  from  a  mere 
logician  to  a  moralist,  he  next  came  to  be  regarded 
as  a  theologian;  but  it  is  not  probable  that  he  wrote 
any  of  the  theological  works  attributed  to  him. 
The  tradition  is  very  old,  however;  he  is  mentioned 
by  Alcuin  as  the  author  of  De  eanda  iriniiaU,  and 
by  qinwrnftT  of  Rdms   as   author  of  a  treatise, 
Utrum  pater  et  filiua  et  epirUua  aanetue  de  divinitaU 
substcmHalUer  proedicentur. 

Biblioobafht:  The  complete  work*  of  Bogthius  first  ap- 
peared at  Venioe,  1402;  a«ain  at  BaMl,  1646  and  1670; 
they  are  leproduoed  in  MPL,  Uiii-bdv.  The  ContolaUo 
phiUMophia  waa  first  printed  at  Nuremberg.  1473;  a 
good  edition  ia  by  Peiper.  Leipaio,  1871;  there  have  been 
many  Englieh  iranalationB,  beginning  with  King  Alfred's 
Anglo-Saxon  version*  and  including  one  by  Chaucer  and 
one  ascribed  to  Queen  Elisabeth;  a  late  translation  is  by 
H.  R.  James,  London,  1897.  The  translations  from 
Aristotle  were  published  by  C.  Meiser.  2  vols..  Leipeio. 
1877-80;  the  De  arWmeiiea,  De  mueiea,  and  De  geome- 
trim  by  Q.  Friedlein,  ib.  1867.  The  theological  writings 
appeared  at  Louvain  in  1633  and  are  in  Peiper 's  edition 
of  the  ConeolaUo  (ut  sup.).  Consult:  F.  Nitsseh*  Dae 
Syetem  dee  Boelhiue,  Berlin,  1860;  Jourdain,  De  Voriffine 
dee  tndiHane  eur  U  durieHanieme  de  Bohe,  Paris,  1861; 
A.  Hildebrand,  Boelhiue  und  eeine  Stdluno  turn  Ckrielen^- 
tkum,  Regensbuig,  1886;  H.  F.  Stewart,  Boetkiue:  an 
Beeay,  Edinburgh,  1891  (valuable;  an  analysis  of  the 
ConeoUMon  and  other  theological  tracts,  discusses  the 
question  of  BoSthius's  Christianity,  gives  literature  at 
hewl  of  eMh  ehM>t«r);  E.  K.  Rand,  Joh,  Beoltut.    I.  Dsr 


KammmOar  dee  Johcmmee  SeoUue,  11.  Dee  ^emi^  ^ 
Auxerre  eu  dm  opueeuia  eaera  dee  BoeQ^xue,  Mumeh,l«0«. 

B06ATZET,  KARL  HEIHRICH  VOH:  German 
Pietist;  b.  at  Jankowe  (a  village  of  Lower  Sfleaia) 
Sept.  7,  1600;  d.  at  Halle  June  15,  1774.    When 
fourteen  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  ducal  court 
of  Saxe-Weissenfels  as  a  page,  but  at  the  instance 
of  the  pious  count  Henry  XXIV  of  Beuss-KSstnta, 
he  began  to  complete  his  education  in  his  twentieth 
year.    From  1713  to  1716  he  studied  law  at  Jeoa 
and  then  devoted  himself  to  theology  at  Halle, 
where  Francke,  Anton,  Freylinghausen,  and  other 
Pietists  greatly  influenced  him.    After  completing 
his  theological  studies  in  1718,  he  lived  for  several 
yean  among  the  nobility  of  Silesia,  and  exerdaed 
much  influence  as   a  spiritual   leader.    He   also 
resided  for  a  number  of  years  at  the  Silesian  village 
of  Glaucha,  where    he  aided  in  building  an  or- 
phan-asylum, and  from  1740  to  1746  he  Uved  at 
the  ducal  court  of  Saalfeld,  and  finally  at  Halle, 
engaged  in  literary  work  of  a  devotional  character 
and  in  the  practical  furtherance  of  Pietistic  life. 
The  most  popular  of  his  many  works  was  his  Gul- 
ctenss  5cfc<itefc<totfctn  der  Kinder  Gottes,  whic^ 
posed  for  his  own  edification  while  at  the  univerrity 
(Breslau,  1718;  65th  ed.,  HaUe,  1904;  Eng.  transl., 
London,    1745,   and  many  subsequent  editions); 
while  among  his  other  books  special  mention  may 
be  made  of  his   Td^Zicto  Hautbuch  der  Kind£r 
Oottes  (2  vols.,  HaUe,  1748-49)  and  of  his  Betrach- 
tungen  und  G^beU  aber  doe  Neue  TeetamerU  (7  parts, 
1755-61).    Several  of  his  h3rmns  obtained  a  place 
in  the  popular  hymnals  of  the  German  people,  and 
were  collected  in  his  Uebung  der  GoUediqkeU  in 
aUeriei  geMichen  Liedem  (Halle,  1749),  while  a  se- 
lection of  160  was  published  by  Johannes  aaasaen, 
(Stuttgart,  1888),  together  with  a  biography  of 
Bogatiky.  (GBORa  MOllbr.) 

Bibuooeafht:  Bo«atiky'i  autobiography  wae  pnbliohed 
by  Knapp.  Halle.  1801.  Eng.  tranal.by  8.  Jackson.  Lon- 
don. 18M.  Coneult:  O.  Frank.  (TmcAmMs  der  pro- 
ieetanUedien  Theologie,  iii.  201-202.  Leipeic.  1875;  ADB, 
iii.  37-89,  Leipeic,  1876;  A.  F.  W.  Fiaoher.  iC««*«»-£/i«lw^ 
Lexikon,  ii.  430-431.  Qotha,  1879;  Julian,  Hymnoiogtf.  i>. 
162. 

BOGERMAN,  W^ger-man,  JAN:  Dutch  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Oplewert,  East  Friesland,  1576;  d. 
at  Franeker  Sept.  11,  1637.  He  was  professor  of 
divinity  at  Franeker  after  1033.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Arminian  controversy  and  presided  at 
the  Synod  of  Dort  (q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the 
workers  on  the  Old  Testament  of  the  SUuOenbibel 
(see  BiBLB  Vbbsionb,  B,  III).  He  wrote  a  polemic 
against  Grotius,  AnnotaHones  contra  H.  Orotiwn^  and 
translated  Besa's  De  la  puniiian  dee  hiriiiquee,  under 
the  title  Van  het  keUer  etraffen  (Franeker,  1601). 

BOOOIOLES.    See  New  Manichk.\iib,  I. 

BOOUE,  DAVID:  English  Oongreg^onalist; 
b.  at  Hallydown,  near  Coldingham  (10  m.  n.w.  of 
Berwick),  Berwickshire,  Feb.  18,  1750;  d.  at 
Brighton  Oct.  26, 1825.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh 
(MJ^.,  1771),  waa  licensed  to  preach,  and  taught 
school  in  England;  in  1780,  while  minister  of  a 
Congregational  chapel  at  Gosport  (opposite  Ports- 
mouth), he  undertook  the  instruction  of  young 
men  for  the  ministry,  and  from  this  be^nning 


S13 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoHthiiui 
Bohemian 


developed  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He 
was  also  active  in  founding  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  and  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 
In  1796  with  two  other  ministers  and  Robert 
Ilaldane  he  offered  to  go  to  India  as  a  missionary, 
but  the  plan  was  not  approved  by  the  East  India 
Company.    Besides  sermons  and  tracts  he  pub- 


lished An  Eaaay  on  the  Divine  Authority  of  the  New 
Testament  (London,  1801),  and  with  James  Bennett 
wrote  the  History  of  Dieeenters  from  the  Revobdion 
to  1808  (4  vols.,  1808-12;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  )833). 
Bxblioobapht:  Jamae  Bennett,  Memoira  of  tke  Life  of  Rev. 
David  Bogue,  London,  1827;  DNB,  v,  302-303. 

BOHEMIA.    See  Aubtbia. 


I.  Origin  and  History  to  1490. 
Orisin  of  the  Sect  (f  1). 
Early  Orguiiiation  (f  2). 
First  Priesta  of  the  Brethren  (f  3). 
Relationfl   with    the    WftldenBiana 
(§4). 

L  Origin  and  History  to  1496:  The  Gompactata 
of  Prague,  which  marked  the  political  end  of  the 
HuBBite  Wars  in  1433  (see  Huss,  John,  HussrrEs), 
proved  unsatisfactory  to  the  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical demands  of  the  majority  of  the  Bohemians. 
Many  scattered  communities  accordingly  arose 
throughout  the  country,  seeking  to  carry  out  the 
Reformation  in  life  and  doctrine,  independent 
of  the  Waldensians  who  had  long  been  settled  in 
Bohemia.  In  1453-54,  moreover,  the  preaching 
of  tke  Utraquistic  archbishop  Rokycana  (pastor 
of  the  Teinkirehe  at  Prague  after  1448)  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  a  oonununity  at  Prague,  headed 
by  his  nephew  Gregory.  The  conviction  that  the 
validity  of  the  sacraments,  sermons,  prayer,  and 
the  like  depended  on  the  moral  and  religious  char- 
acter of  the  priest  caused  them  to  seek  for  "  good  " 
pastors,  and  this  congregation,  together  with  others 
and  at  the  suggestion  of  Rokycana,  became  closely 
allied  with  the  Cheldic  Brethren,  the  followers 
of  a  layman  named  Peter  of  Chel6ic,  who  first  ap- 
peared at  Prague  in  1419  and  seems  to  have  died 
before  1457.  He  had  refused  to  join  any  of  the 
Hussite  parties,  since  he  rejected  all 
^'of2e  *®™P^"^  defense  of  the  Gospel,  and 
g^^  recorded  his  peculiar  views  in  his  wri- 
tings, of  which  the  most  important 
were  his  Netz  dee  wahren  Glavbena  (1455)  and 
his  PoeHUa  (1434-36).  His  ideal  of  Christian  life, 
the  fulfiknent  of  the  "law  of  Christ"  (Matt, 
xxii,  37-39;  Gal.  vi,  2)  in  public  and  in  private 
life  without  regard  to  consequences,  and  his  re- 
jection of  all  that  could  not  be  reconciled  with  this 
law,  such  as  temporal  power,  wealth,  war,  and 
trade,  made  a  profound  impression  on  Gregory 
and  his  followers,  and  inspiz^  them  to  attempt 
to  realise  this  ideal.  At  their  request  their  friend 
and  counselor  Rokycana  secured  permission  from 
King  George  PodSbrad  for  them  to  settle  in  the 
village  of  Ktmwald  in  the  district  of  Lititi,  which 
belonged  to  him,  and  they  accordingly  established 
their  colony  there  in  1457  or  1458,  Michael,  the 
pastor  of  the  neighboring  town  of  Senftenberg, 
becoming  their  spiritual  head.  How  large  it  was, 
whether  including  only  individuals  or  entire  fam- 
ilies, is  not  known,  although  the  latter  seems  to 
have  been  the  case.  At  all  events,  families  were 
soon  attracted  to  Kunwald,  for  the  oldest  docu- 
ment of  the  Brethren,  a  synodical  resolution  of 
1464,  presupposes  the  existence  of  households 
with  civil  occupations,  as  well  as  of  widows  and 
ozphans. 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN. 

II.  The  Brethren  under  Lukaa. 

OppreeeiTe  Meaaures  of  Yladielav 

(ID. 
Overtures      to      the     Proteetante 

(§2). 
Later  Organiiation  (f  8). 


III.  Development  from  1528  to  1621. 
Johann  Auffueta  (f  1). 
Cewation  of  Persecution  (f  2). 
The  Brethren  Merged  in  the  Utra- 

quists  (f  3). 

IV.  The  Brethren  in  Prussia  and  PoUnd. 

This  sketch  of  the  origin  of  the  Bohemian  Breth- 
ren renders  it  dear  that  the  current  view  which 
represents  them  as  remnants  of  the  Taborites  is 
incorrect.  In  1471  they  designated  themselves 
as  disciples  of  Rokycana  and  his  colleagues,  and 
declared  that  they  had  been  developed  from  the 
older  communities  mentioned  above.  The  main 
outlines  of  the  organization  are  contained  in  cer- 
tain synodical  resolutions  of  1464r-67.  The  com- 
munity was  divided  into  three  groups:  beginners 
or  penitents,  comprising  children  under  the  age 
of  twelve  and  all  who  sought  to  enter  the  com- 
munity from  the  time  they  made  profession  of  their 
desire  until  they  were  received;  the  advanced, 
forming  the  majority  of  the  community  and  devo- 
ting themselves  to  various  civil  callings,  with  mas- 
ters and  matrons  appointed  to  supervise  and 
counsel  them;  and  the  perfected  (also  (»lled  priests, 
although  the  community  then  had  no  specially 
appointed  priesthood),  who  had  re- 
8.  Barly  nounced  private  property  and  given 
Orffaa-  their  possessions  to  the  poor,  par- 
Isation.  ticulariy  to  those  who  "journey  for 
the  sake  of  the  word  of  God."  It 
was  the  duty  of  the  perfected  to  proclaim  the  word 
and  to  hear  confessions;  they  were  required  to 
travel  in  pairs,  instead  of  alone,  to  earn  a  Uvelihood 
by  the  work  of  their  hands,  and  to  collect  alms 
regularly,  which  were  destined  partly  for  the  poor 
and  partly  for  themselves,  in  case  their  work  was 
insufficient  to  support  them.  Those  of  the  laity, 
either  male  or  female,  who  had  voluntarily  chosen 
poverty,  also  belonged  to  this  dass.  At  the  head 
of  the  communities  stood  one  or  more  elders,  al- 
thou^  no  details  of  their  duties  are  known,  and  infor- 
mation is  equally  scan^  regarding  the  composition 
of  their  frequent  synods.  The  Brethren  at  Kun- 
wald gained  an  increasing  nmnber  of  adherents  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  while  their  opposition  to  the 
dominant  Church  became  stronger  and  stronger, 
espedally  as  a  result  of  the  persecution  instituted 
against  them  by  King  George  in  1460.  They 
accordingly  felt  themselves  obliged,  seven  years 
later,  to  break  entirely  with  the  Church  by  the 
creation  of  an  independent  priesthood,  the  his- 
torical course  of  events  being  as  follows,  according 
to  GoU's  proposed  combination  of  the  sources, 
which  are  not  always  in  entire  agreement. 

By  a  meeting  with  the  Waldensians  and  their 
''  bishop  "  Stephen,  with  whom  they  had  become  ac- 
quainted through  Rokycana,  the  Bohemian  Brethren 
had  entered  into  relations  with  the  Waldensians 


Bohemiaa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


214 


previous  to  1467.  These  negotiations  proved 
fruitless,  however,  since  the  Waldensians  as  a 
body  would  not  countenance  an  open  break  with 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Some  of  them,  on 
the  other  hand,  joined  the  Brethren,  and  among 
this  nimiber  was  an  old  Waldensian  priest,  who  was 
present,  together  with  certain  representatives  of 
the  German  Waldensians,  at  a  conference  of  about 
sixty  Brethren  from  various  parts  of  Bohemia  and 
Moravia  which  was  held,  according  to  a  later  tra- 
dition, at  Lhotka,  a  village  near  Eeichenau,  in 
1467  to  choose  and  ordain  priests  of  their  own. 
Fully  aware  of  the  momentous  nature  of  their 
proceeding,  they  wished  God  himself  to  decide  by 
lot  whether  the  time  had  come  for  them  to  venture 
the  step,  and  which  persons  should  be  the  first 
priests.  Nine  candidates  were  proposed,  each  of 
whom  was  required  to  draw  one  of  twelve  slips, 
nine  blank  and  three  containing  the  word  jest 
("  he  is  '').  In  case  all  the  candidates  drew  blanks, 
the  synod  was  to  be  adjourned  for  a  year.  Thomas, 
Matthias,  and  Elias,  however,  drew  the  three 
written  slips,  whereupon  they  were  ''  confirmed  " 

by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  the  old 

8.  First     Waldensian  priest,  apparently  assisted 

Priests     by  the  priest  Michael  (?),  in  the  name 

of  the      and   authority  of  the  synod.    By  a 

Brethren,  more  restricted  lot  Matthias  was  chosen 

from  the  three  to  have  "  the  first 
place  in  authority,"  or  as  "bishop,"  as  Michael 
called  himself  in  a  conference  with  the  Utra- 
quistic  consistory  in  1478.  It  was  not  until  May 
of  the  following  year  (1468)  that  the  Brethren 
informed  Rokycana  of  what  had  occurred,  and  they 
then  seem  to  have  broken  definitely  with  him. 
They  themselves,  however,  were  soon  divided  as 
to  "  whether  it  should  so  remain,"  and  the  result 
wafl  the  decision  that  Matthias  should  be  consecra- 
ted bishop  by  the  Waldensian  bishop  Stephen. 
Strangely  enough,  the  priest  Michael  was  sent,  in- 
stead of  Matthias  himself.  Michael  met  Stephen  in 
southern  Moravia,  received  consecration  from  him, 
and  gave  it,  when  he  returned,  to  Matthias,  where- 
upon he  resigned  both  the  authority  of  bishop, 
which  he  had  received  only  for  this  purpose,  and  also 
his  Catholic  priesthood,  having  himself  reordained 
by  Matthias  as  a  priest  of  the  Brethren,  while  the 
new  bishop  likewise  ordained  Thomas  and  Elias. 
This  is  the  account  of  Michael  and  other  eye-wit- 
nesses, while  later  sources,  even  of  the  early  six- 
teenth century,  present  many  deviations,  partly 
in  an  endeavor  to  conceal  the  cooperation  of  the 
Waldensians  so  far  as  possible. 

The  members  of  this  newly  constituted  com- 
munity called  themselves  "  Brethren,"  and  were 
known  in  different  portions  of  the  country  by  the 
names  of  their  chief  centers,  such  as  Kunwalders, 
Bimzlau  Brethren,  and  the  like.  As  a  whole  they 
termed  themselves  Jednota  Bratrskdy  which  they 
later  rendered  into  Latin  as  Unitas  Fratrwn, 
Their  characteristic  designation  was  Brethren, 
which  had  already  been  current  in  various  older 
Bohemian  communities.  The  name  Fratres  legis 
ChrisH  first  arose  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  never  became  general.  Their  oppo- 
nents usually  termed  them  Waldensians  or  Pick- 


ards  (a  corruption  of  Beghards),  and  this  desig- 
nation, found  even  in  the  royal  decrees,  became 
so  general  that  they  themselves  employed  it  in 
the  titles  of  many  of  their  writings,  terming  them- 
selves **  the  Brethren  who  for  envy  and  hatred  are 
called  Waldensians  or  Pickards."  The  first  result 
of  the  events  of  1467  was  a  renewal  of  the  perse- 
cutions, which  lasted  until  the  death  of  George  and 
Rokycana  in  1471,  and  which  also  involvnl  the 
Waldensians,  Stephen  being  burned  at 

4.  Bela-  ^^o  stake  in  >^enna  during  this  perioi 
tionfl       This  persecution  may  also  have  been 

with  the    the  cause  of  the  renewed  attacks  on 

Walden-  them  in  Brandenburg,  and  about 
■ians.  1473  ^^q  Waldensians  accordingly 
went  from  that  country  to  the  Breth- 
ren, thus  inaugurating  an  intercommunication  be- 
tween the  two  sects  which  resulted  in  a  number  of 
Waldensians  joining  the  Brethren  after  1480  and 
settling  at  Landskron  in  Bohemia  and  at  Fulneck 
in  Moravia.  In  the  latter  coimtry  both  sects  were 
tolerated  under  King  Matthias,  imtil  the  end  of  his 
reign,  when  a  decree  of  expulsion  was  issued  in 
1488,  although  it  was  soon  revoked  at  the  petition 
of  some  patrons  of  high  rank.  A  portion  of  the 
Brethren  had  already  emigrated  to  Moldavia,  but 
apparently  returned  within  a  few  years. 

Internal  strife,  centered  about  the  ideal  of  Peter 
mentioned  above,  was  more  perilous  to  the  main- 
tenance of  imity  than  external  oppression.  A 
*'  small  "  party  clung  to  this  ideal,  and  accordingly 
rejected  temporal  power,  law,  service  in  war,  the 
oath,  and  the  like  as  unchristian,  while  a  "  great " 
party  regarded  all  these  as  dangerous,  yet  not 
to  be  rejected  unconditionally.  The  controversies 
ended  in  1494  with  the  victory  of  the  "great" 
party,  the  "  small  "  party,  who  called  themselves 
Amosites  After  their  leader  Amos,  separating  as 
an  independent  community  and  preserving  an 
existence  for  several  decades.  Dunng  these  dis- 
sensions two  leaders  of  the  "  great "  party,  Lukas 
and  Thomas,  journeyed  to  North  Italy  to  visit  the 
Lombard  Waldensians  in  their  own  homes,  possibly 
seeking,  in  view  of  their  disagreement  with  the 
"  small "  party,  to  make  a  final  effort  to  induce 
the  Waldensians  to  break  openly  with  Rome. 
A  correspondence  between  the  Brethren  and  the 
Waldensians  was  associated  with  this  journey, 
the  three  Waldensian  treatises,  preserved  either 
entire  or  in  fragments,  La  epistola  al  serenissimo 
Bey  Lancdau;  Aycxo  es  la  cauea  del  nostre  departi' 
merU  de  la  gleysa  Romana ;  and  De  VArUichrid, 
as  well  as  the  catechism  La>8  interrogaUona  menors, 
being  apparently  translations  or  revisions  of  Bohe- 
mian writings  composed  by  the  Brethren,  although 
the  mutual  relations  are  not  yet  altogether  dear. 

XL  The  Brethren  imder  Lukas:  The  period 
between  1496  and  1528  is  marked  by  the  activity 
of  LukajB.  Although  he  was  not  appointed  presiding 
bishop  until  1517,  his  influence  was  potent  during 
the  administration  of  his  predecessors  in  office, 
Procopius  (1507)  and  Thomas  of  Pifelou5  (1517). 
His  special  task  was  the  restoration  of  the  Unity 
which  had  become  necessary  in  consequence  of 
the  secession  of  the  "small"  party.  Amass  of 
ordin:ances,  touching  on  all  the  relations  of  life, 


210 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bobsmiui 


wajB  prepared  to  build  up  the  Christian  oommunity 
cm  the  principles  newly  won.  The  doctrines,  which 
had  thus  far  been  formulated  but  feebly,  were  now 
systematiied  on  other  foundations,  and  from  these 
various  points  of  view  Lukas  developed  a  note- 
worthy literary  activity.  The  external  existence 
of  the  Unity  was  seriously  threatened  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Vladislav, 
who  had  tolerated  them  hitherto,  was  induced  to 
proceed  against  them  by  Bohuslav  of  Lobkowitz, 
the  foremost  representative  of  Bohemian  human- 
ism, who  saw  the  roots  of  manifold  evils  in  religious 
disunion.  At  the  same  time  Alexander  VI  sent  the 
Dominican  Heinrich  Institoris  to  OlmUti  as  censor 
of  books  for  Bohemia  and  Moravia  (bull  of  Feb.  4, 
1500),  and  he,  after  a  fruitless  disputation  with 
certain  representatives  of  the  Brethren,  preached 
against  them  with  extreme  severity.  Tlie  over- 
tures toward  a  reconciliation  between  Rome  and 
the  Utraquists  (1501)  led  the  latter  to  make  com- 
mon cause  in  opposition  to  the  Brethren,  and  a 
decree  of  the  king,  dated  July  5,  1503,  forbade  all 
further  toleration  of  the  sect  in  Prague  and  the 
royal  cities,  while  the  Roman  Catholic  estates 
voluntarily  enforced  this  prohibition  in  their  dis- 
tricts. A  conference  held  at  Prague  between  the 
Utraquistic  clergy  and  some  of  the  Brethren  failed 
to  convince  the  latter  of  their  "  errors,"  nor  did  a 
Latin  creed  given  them  by  the  king  in  1503  meet 
with  their  approval.  He  was  still  more  incensed  at 
them  by  two  venomous  letters  of  the  OlmUts  canon 
Augustine  Kftsebrot,  so  that  he  issued  a  sharp  decree 
against  them  in  1507.  These  decrees,  however, 
could  not  become  valid  until  accepted  by  the  diet, 
and  Vladislav  accordingly  proposed  a  law  against  the 
Brethren  at  the  diet  convoked  on  July  25,  1508. 
This  was  accepted  by  the  estates  and  placed  on  the 
code,  as  in  force  throughout  the  country.  It 
forbade  all  public  and  private  gatherings  of  the 
"  Pickards,"  and  ordereid  the  destruction  of  all 
their  books  and  writings,  while  they  were  com- 
manded to  attend  Roman  Catholic 
1.  Op-  OT  Utraquistic  chiux^hes,  their  clergy 
pressive  and  teachers  being  prisoners  of  the 
XeunrM  king  unless  they  should  consent, 
of  after  receiving  instruction,  to  join 
VladlslaT.  one  of  these  religious  bodies.  The 
law  is  said  to  have  been  obeyed  by  all 
estates  until  Christmas,  and  those  who  still  tolerated 
"  Pickards  "  were  mulcted.  This  measure  condi- 
tioned the  position  of  the  Brethren  in  Bohemia  for 
almost  the  entire  period  of  their  existence,  but  the 
Moravian  diet  refused  to  accept  it.  In  1541  the 
code  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  at  Prague,  so  that  it  be- 
came necessary  to  dntf t  the  laws  anew  at  following 
diets.  Thereupon  the  Brethren  endeavored  to  se- 
cure the  abolition  of  the  law,  but  in  vain;  nor  was 
it  repealed  until  an  imperial  letter  of  Rudolf  II 
in  1600.  It  is  strikingly  suggestive  of  the  political 
conditions  of  Bohemia  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
however,  that  a  oonununity  which  was  legally 
prohibited,  like  the  Brethren,  could  attain  such 
wide  extension  and  importance.  This  was  possible 
only  because  the  nobles  obeyed  the  laws  as  they 
pleased,  for  the  king  was  generally  too  much  occu- 
pied with  foreign  affairs  to  be  able  to  insist  rigidly 


on  compliance  with  his  statutes,  and  in  case  he  did 
attempt  to  execute  them,  he  was  resisted  by  a 
coalition  of  the  estates,  who  sought  to  check  all 
growth  of  the  royal  power.  At  first  the  law  was 
strictly  observed,  and  the  Brethren  were  severely 
oppressed,  their  meeting-places  being  closed, 
their  priests  expelled,  and  imprisonment  and  even 
occasional  execution  serving  as  deterrent  meas- 
ures. Lukas  himself  was  imprisoned,  and  was 
freed  only  by  the  death  of  Vladislav  on  Mar.  13, 
1516.  Tlus  event  lessened  the  severity  of  a  perse- 
cution which  had  been  opposed  by  some  estates 
from  the  very  beginning.  During  the  reign  of 
Vladislav's  son  Louis,  which  marked  a  further 
decay  of  the  royal  power,  the  persecution  of  the 
Brethren  ceased  altogether,  and  the  governmental 
center  of  the  Unity,  which  had  been  transferred  to 
Prerau  in  Moravia  during  the  period  of  oppression, 
was  again  removed  to  Bohemia,  and  located  at 
Jungbunzlau,  the  residence  of  Lukas.  While  he 
was  presiding  bishop,  the  Brethren  first  came  into 
contact  with  the  German  Reformation,  when  Luther 
learned  of  their  short  catechism,  of  which  he  seems 
to  have  received  a  German  translation  in  1521. 

Although  Luther  at  first  declared  himself  at  least 
in  sympathy  with  their  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
he  became  estranged  from  the  Brethren  after  1524, 
while  their  tendency  to  remain  aloof,  so  far  as 
possible,     from    the    Lutheran    movement    was 
strengthened  by  the  vagaries  of  Gallus  Cahera  in 
Plague  (1523-29),  especially  since  it 
2.  Over-    resulted  in   the  enforcement  by  the 
tares  to    diet  of  the  decree  of  Vladislav  (1525). 
the  Prot-   The   Brethren   also   sent   a   fruitless 
estants.    deputation  to  Erasmus,  apparently  in 
1520.    In   the   closing   years   of   his 
life  Lukas  found  himself  obliged   to  break  with 
the  Habrovanites  or  Lultish  Brethren  in  Moravia, 
who  were  closely  associated  with   the   "  small " 
party,  and  rejected  celibacy,  spiritual  and  temporal 
authority,  and  the  taking  of  oaths,  in  addition  to 
following  Carlstadt  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  wishing  to  substitute  baptism  of  the 
spirit   for  baptism   by  water.    After    a  fruitless 
conference,  letters  were  exchanged  with  consider- 
able frequency  for  a  number  of  years,  while  an  effort 
made  by  the  Anabaptists  who  had  emigrated  from 
the  Tyrol  to  Moravia  to  unite  with  the  Brethren 
ended  in  1528  in  a  complete  schism.    Lukas  died 
at  Jungbimzlau  on  Dec.  11,  1528,  and  was  buried 
in  the  local  house  of  the  Brethren,  which  had  for- 
merly been  a  monastery.    The  organization,  how- 
ever, which  he  had  given  the  Unity  remained  un- 
changed until  its  end. 

In  principle  the  supreme  judicial  power  was 
lodged  with  the  s3mod,  which  consisted  of  all  the 
clergy,  although  it  contained  no  delegates  chosen 
from  the  communities.  It  was,  at  the  same  time, 
the  supreme  court  of  appeal,  although  the  chief  ad- 
ministrative body,  the  "Close Council"  {Hxkd  rada), 
which  was  composed  of  some  ten  members  chosen 
by  the  synod  for  life,  apparently  constituted  the 
real  government.  The  le^  relation  of  the  "  Close 
Council "  to  the  synod  seems  never  to  have  been 
accurately  defined.  At  the  Sjrnod  of  1497  the 
"  dose  Council "  was  treated  with  all  submission 


Bohemian 
Boifl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


216 


and  obedience,  and  was  empowered  to  make 
whatever  changes  and  ordinances  it  deemed  best 
without  awaiting  a  decision  of  the  synod.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition,  it  never  abused  its  privileges,  and 
held  a  general  council  yearly  whenever  this  was 
possible,  while  other  synods  also  existed  in  individ- 
ual districts.  The  presiding  officer  of  the  "  dose 
Council"  was  called  a  "judge"  (audi),  and  this 
office  was  originally  imited  with  that  of  bishop  in 
the  person  of  Matthias,  although  he  proved  himself 
unequal  to  the  position  in  the  strife  with  the 
"  small "  party,  so  that  Procopius  was  appointed 
tudi,  Katthias  retaining  only  the  episcopal  power 
of  ordination.    Authorised  by  the  "  Close  Council," 

he    associated    Thomas    and    Ellas, 

8.  lAter    whom  he  had  already  ordained  priests, 

Orvaaiaa-  and  after  the  death  of  Matthias  and 

tion.       the  resignation  of  Procopius  in  1500, 

t^he  power  of  direction  and  ordination 
was  again  united,  and  given  to  four  newly  chosen 
Brethren,  Thomas,  Ellas,  Lukas,  and  Ambrose, 
the  first  two  already  possessing  the  episcopal  ordi- 
nation and  the  last  two  now  receiving  it.  Each  of 
them  was  placed  over  a  diocese  which  he  controlled 
and  in  which  he  ordained  the  priests.  The  priest 
next  in  age  to  these  four  was  called  the  judge,  and 
had  spedal  functions.  Jafet,  writing  in  1605, 
sought  to  show  that  this  organization  existed  from 
the  first  and  that  four  bishops  had  ruled  simul- 
taneously since  1467,  and  this  erroneous  view  was 
so  widely  disseminated  by  Wengierski  (Regen- 
volsdus)  that  it  is  still  found  sporadically.  At 
the  head  of  each  commimity  stood  the  priest  or 
director  (sprdvce),  who  lived  in  the  "  house  of  the 
Brethren  "  and  supported  himself  as  an  artisan  or 
farmer.  He  might  possess  property,  although  he 
was  bound  by  oert^  restrictions,  so  that  when,  for 
example,  he  received  a  legacy,  he  was  required 
to  deposit  it  with  the  "Close  Council,"  which 
deprived  him  of  it  in  case  of  need  or  inability  to 
discharge  his  office.  While  there  was  no  insistence 
on  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  it  was  regarded  as 
desirable,  in  view  of  the  unsettled  position  of  the 
community,  and  was  the  rule  until  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  With  the  priest  lived 
his  assistant  or  deacon,  who  aided  him  both  in  his 
daily  toil  and  in  teaching  school,  and  especially  in 
the  instruction  of  the  acolytes  (young  men  in  train- 
ing for  the  priesthood),  who  resided  in  the  "  house 
of  the  Brethren."  The  deacon  accompanied  the 
priest  in  all  his  pastoral  journeys,  and  was  per- 
mitted to  preach,  to  baptise  in  case  of  need,  and  to 
aid  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  although  he  could  neither 
consecrate  the  elements  nor  pronounce  the  bene- 
diction at  the  close  of  the  service  of  the  community. 
A  council  of  the  community  aided,  and  in  part 
supervised,  the  priest  in  controlling  the  property 
of  the  congregation  and  in  distributing  alms.  The 
income  consisted,  in  addition  to  gifts  and  founda- 
tions, of  two  coUections,  taken  at  Christmas  and 
St.  John's  Day.  Three  persons  were  deputed  to 
oversee  the  giving  of  alms,  while  the  council  of  the 
community  was  required  to  reconcile  antagonistic 
members  of  the  congregation  with  each  other  or  with 
the  priest,  to  control  morals,  and  to  maintain  the 
discipline  of  the  church.    The  bodies  next  in  rank 


were  the  "  Close  Council "  and  the  synods.  The 
council  of  the  community  foimd  its  counterpart  in 
a  committee  of  aged  widows  and  spinsters  appointed 
to  supervise  the  morals  and  the  conduct  of  the  sisters. 
This  organisation,  the  genesis  of  which  is  known 
chiefly  from  the  Dekirety,  remained  unchanged 
after  Lukas.  It  was  first  described  in  full  detail 
by  Laaidus  in  the  eighth  book  of  his  history  of  the 
Brethren,  and  was  officially  formulated  by  them 
at  the  General  Sjrnod  of  Smivic  in  Moravia,  held 
in  1616. 

nL  Development  from  1528  to  1621:  The  in- 
dependent development  of  the  UnUas  Fratntm 
closed  with  the  death  of  Lukas.  The  Lutheran 
party  among  the  Brethren,  headed  by  such  men  as 
Johann  Horn  (Roh),  Michael  Weisse,  Johann 
Augusta,  and  Biach  Sionsky,  now  became  more 
prominent  and  assumed  the  leadership.  After  the 
brief  administration  of  the  insignificant  Martin 
Skoda,  Horn  became  judge  in  1532,  but  was  sur- 
passed in  importance  by  his  colleague  Johann 
Augusta,  a  man  characterised  by  meager  educa- 
1  J  han  ^^^'  ^*  ^'  ^'^^^^  firmness,  energy, 
Aoffusta?  a^d  eloqu®J^<5e>  *^d  deeply  impressed 
with  a  sense  of  the  peculiar  advan- 
tages of  the  community.  He  sought  to  associate 
the  Brethren  with  the  foreign  Evangelicals,  and 
found  a  favorable  opportunity  shortly  after  1530, 
when  the  margrave  George  of  Brandenburg  re- 
quested Conrad  of  Krajek  to  instruct  him  in  the 
doctrines  of  his  sect.  A  confession  was  prepared, 
and  Luther  was  induced  to  have  it  printed  at  Witten- 
berg with  a  eulogistic  preface.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  Augusta  made  overtures  to  the  Strasburg 
theologians,  and  Matthias  Cervenka,  his  envoy 
to  Butaer,  unexpectedly  met  Calvin.  On  the  other 
hand,  his  relations  with  the  Utraquistic  Church  of 
Bohemia  were  strained,  especially  during  the 
administration  of  Mistopol.  Another  trait  which 
characterises  the  history  of  the  Brethren  after 
Lukas  (1528-17)  is  the  prominence  of  their  nobility. 
The  country  estates  were  required  to  take  part  in 
the  country  diets  just  as  the  estates  of  the  kingdom 
shared  in  the  royid  diets,  and  it  thus  became  neces- 
sary for  the  estates  of  the  Brethren  to  enter  the 
former  to  defend  the  existence  of  their  ecclesias- 
tical union.  In  1535,  therefore,  they  gave  King 
Ferdinand  the  creed  of  the  Brethren,  signed  by 
all  members  of  the  nobility  among  them,  twdve 
lords  and  thirty-five  knights.  Since  ten  of  the 
twenty-six  nobles  tried  by  Ferdinand  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  so-called  Bohemian  revolt  in  1547 
were  members  of  the  Unity,  he  found  a  long-desired 
pretext  to  crush  the  community  so  far  as  possible. 
The  decree  of  Vladislav  was  reenforced,  certain  es- 
tates which  had  been  the  centers  of  the  brotherhood 
were  confiscated  by  the  king,  and  the  former  pro- 
tectors of  the  Brethren  were  no  longer  able  to  evade 
the  execution  of  the  decree  under  the  exusting  dr- 
cmnstances.  The  community  was  practically  des- 
troyed in  Bohemia.  Its  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  to  Moravia,  but  the  majority  of  the  Breth- 
ren were  banished  from  the  entire  Idngdom.  Au- 
gusta himself  was  betrayed  to  Ferdinand,  and  re- 
gained his  freedom  only  after  repeated  tortures  and 
an  imprisonment  of  sixteen  years. 


817 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bohemian 
Bolfl 


The  sixth  decade  of  the  centuiy  ushered  in  a  period 
of  comparative  peace  for  the  Brethren,  and  they  now 
sought,  under  the  leadership  of  Johann  Blahoslav, 
to  gain  state  recognition  of  their  Church,  their 
chances  seeming  especially  favorable  in  view  of 
the  supposed  Protestant  tendency  of  Maximilian. 
In  1355  and  the  following  years  they  accordingly 
endeavored  to  win  the  favor  of  the  archduke  through 
repeated  conferences  between  Blahoslav  and  Maxi- 
milian's court  preacher,  Pfauser  of  Vienna,  but 
their  efforts  to  secure  definite  promises  for  the 
future  bore  little  fruit.  The  same  object  was  pur- 
sued by  Utraquism,  which  had  no^f 

2.  Oeasa-  become  essentiallyLutheran,  and  which 
tlon  of     had  prepared  a  new  creed  for  the  Lu- 

Penecn-  theran  Church  in  Bohemia  in  1575,  after 
tion.  the  compacts  had  been  annulled  by  the 
diet  of  deputies  in  1567  as  antiquated. 
Through  their  representatives  the  Brethren  sought 
to  have  their  independence  dearly  expressed  in  the 
preface  of  the  new  creed,  but  their  chance  of  recog- 
nition by  the  side  of  the  "  Neo-Utraquists  "  steadily 
decreased,  while  their  essential  commimi^  of 
interest  with  the  new  body  became  more  and  more 
dear.  In  1600,  when  the  estates  forced  Rudolf 
to  issue  his  charter,  the  Brethren  shared  the  relig- 
ious liberty  which  it  granted  by  joining  in  the  Bo- 
hemian Confession  of  1576,  after  having  already 
given  a  full  explanation  of  its  acceptance  in  the 
previous  year. 

All  special  names  were  now  to  cease,  and  the 
members  of  the  united  Bohemian  Evangelical 
Church  were  henceforth  to  be  called  "  Utraquistic 
Christians."  The  Brethren  were  represented  in 
the  oonmion  consistory,  but  despite  the  abolition 
of  a  separate  name,  this  was,  strictly 
8.  The     speaking,  not    a  union,    but    rather 

Brethren  a  confederation  between  the  UnUaa 
K«rvad  in  Fratrum  and  the  Bohemian  Church. 

the  XTtra-  xhe  Brethren,  therefore,  retained  their 
^^°^*^  own  organisation  and  regulations, 
and  even  their  independent  creed 
(1564),  while  the  Bohemian  Lutherans,  in  like 
manner,  held  to  the  Augsburg  Confession,  although 
both  creeds  arededared  to  be  in  fuU  harmony  with 
the  Bohemian  Confession  of  1575.  Definitive 
form  was  accordin^y  given  the  dhurch  disdpline 
of  the  Brethren  at  the  Synod  of  Zeravic  in  1616 
under  the  title  RaHo  diaciplina  ordiniaque  eccUh 
tiastici  in  unitaie  fratrum  Bohemorum,  but  the  plan 
of  making  this  valid  for  the  whole  Bohemian  Church 
was  not  realised.  This  organisation,  however, 
had  but  a  brief  period  of  prosperity,  for  the  battle 
at  the  White  Hill  (Nov.  8,  1620)  destroyed  Protes- 
tantism in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  for  more  than  a 
century  and  a  half. 

IV.  The  Brethren  in  Pmnia  and  Poland:  The 
Brethren  expelled  from  Bohemia  in  1547  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Schmalkald  War  emigrated  partly 
to  Moravia  and  partly  to  Prussia,  where  they  were 
received  by  Duke.  Albert.  After  his  death  in  1568 
they  retimied  to  Moravia  and  Poland,  exercising  an 
important  influence  on  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation  in  the  latter  country,  and  attempting 
to  establish  friendly  relations  between  the  various 
Evangelical  bodies  at  a  synod  held  at  Sendomir  in 


1570.  Their  scanty  remnants  still  exist  in  the 
five  so-called  communities  of  Unity  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Posen:  Posen,  Lissa,  Lasswiti,  Waschke, 
and  Orseszkowo.  Jobef  Mueller. 

Bibuoorapht:  For  full  bibliography  of  the  mibject  con- 
sult W.  G.  Ifalin.  Catalooue  of  BookBrdaHno  to  or  iUuatro' 
Una  the  HiHory  of  the  Unitaa  Fratrum  or  United  Breth- 
ren now  generaUy  known  as  the  Moravian  Church,  Philadel- 
phia, 1881. 

For  general  history  consult:  J.  Gamerarius,  Hiatoriea 
narraiio  de  fratrum  orthodoxorum  ecdeaiie  in  Bohemia, 
Morana,  et  Polonia,  Heidelberg.  1605;  J.  Lasioius,  D« 
crigint  et  inUituHe  Fratrum  Ubri  viii  (only  tba  eighth 
book  waa  published,  ed.  J.  A.  Comenius,  1649);  Hiaioria 
fMTMcutionvm  eeeieeim  Bohamiem,  Amsterdam,  ld48,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1060;  J.  A.  Comenius,  Eedetim  Sla- 
voniem  hietoriota,  Amsterdam,  1660;  idem,  Hiataria  fra- 
trum Bohemorum,  ed.  Buddeus,  Halle,  1702;  Martyrolo- 
gium  Bohemieum,  oder  die  bUhmiatAe  Verfokrunoegeeehichte, 
894r-ie$9,  Berlin,  1766;  D.  Crans.  Alte  und  neue  BrUder 
Hietorie,  Barby.  1771,  Eng.  transl.,  London.  1780;  The 
ReformoHon  and  Anti-Reformation  in  Bohemia,  ib.  1845; 
V.  Krasinski,  Retigioue  Hiatory  of  the  Slavonic  Nationa, 
Edinburgh,  1861;  A.  Gindely,  Oeat^ichte  der  behmiachen 
BrUder,  2  vols..  Prague,  1857;  A.  Bost.  HiaL  of  the  Bo- 
hemian and  Moravian  Brethren,  London,  1863;  E.  W. 
CrOger,  OeatAichte  der  alien  BrUderkircha,  Onadau.  1865; 
D.  Benham,  Notea  on  the  Ori4fin  and  BpiaeoptUe  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Brethren,  London,  1867;  B.  Cserwenka,  Geechithte 
der  evangeliachan  Kirche  in  Bdhm^en,  2  vols.,  Bielefeld, 
1870;  E.  Jane  Whately,  Sketdiea  of  Bohemian  Religioua 
Hiatory,  London,  1876;  E.  de  Schweinits.  HiaL  of  the 
Chur^  known  aa  the  Unitaa  Fratrum,  Bethlehem,  1885. 
For  the  church  order  consult:  RtMtio  diaeiplina  ordi- 
niaque  eedeaiaatiei  in  unitate  fratrum  Bohemorum,  Less- 
no,  1632,  Amsterdam,  1660,  and  Halle,  1732;  B.  Beifferth, 
Church  Conatitution  of  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Br«0^ 
ran.     The  Ori4final  Latin  with  a  Tranal.,  London,  1866. 

The  original  text  of  the  Confeeeion  is  reproduced  in  A. 
Gindely,  Quetten  ewr  Geechichte  der  buhmiadten  BrUder, 
p.  854  sqq.,  Vienna,  1861,  and  in  de  Schweinits,  Hiatory, 
ut  sup.,  pp.  648  sqq.  Consult  also  J.  C.  Koecher,  Die 
drey  Isfsten  und  vornehmaten  Olaubenabekenntniaae  der 
6MfNteAm  BrOder,  Leipdo.  1741;  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  Col- 
lectio  eonfeaaionum,  pp.  771  sqq.,  ib.  1840. 

For  oatechisms  oonsult:  J.  Q.  Ehwalt.  Die  alte  und  neue 
Lehre  der  bdhmiachen  BrUder,  Dansig.  1766;  C.  A.  G.  von 
Zeiaohwits,  Die  Katadiiamen  der  Waldenaer  und  bdhmi- 
at^en  BrQder,  Erlangen,  1863;  J.  MOller.  Die  deutaehen 
Kaieehiemen  der  bdhmiaehen  BrUder,  Berlin,  1887. 

On  the  Hymnology  eonsult:  P.  Wackemagel,  Dot 
deutaeha  Kirehenliad,  iii,  229-368.  iv,  346-485.  Berlin, 
1870-75;  J.  Zahn.  Die  ffeiattiehen  Lieder  der  BrUder  in 
Bdhmen,  Mdhren  und  Polen,  Nuremberg*  1875;  Julian, 
Hymneitogy,  pp.  153-160. 

BOIS  (BOTS),  JOHN:  Church  of  England 
scholar;  b.  at  Nettlestead,  near  Hadleigh  (35  m. 
e.s.e.  of  Cambridge),  Suffolk,  Jan.  3,  1561;  d.  at 
Ely  Jan.  14,  1644.  He  studied  at  St.  John's  and 
Magdalen  Colleges,  Cambridge,  was  elected  fellow 
of  the  former  in  IsSbO,  and  was  Greek  lecturer  1684- 
1595;  became  rector  of  Boxworth  (5  m.  n.w.  of 
Cambridge)  1596,  and  prebendary  of  Ely  1615.  He 
was  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Authorized  Vei^ 
sion,  belonging  to  the  Apocrypha  company,  and 
when  his  own  part  was  done  is  said  to  have  assisted 
the  other  Cambridge  company  on  the  section  from 
Chronicles  to  Canticles;  he  was  one  of  the  delegates 
engaged  in  the  final  revision.  He  assisted  Sir 
Henry  Savile  (who  calls  him  "  most  ingenious  and 
most  learned  ")  in  his  edition  of  Ch^rsostom  (8 
vols.,  Eton,  1612  [1610-13]),  and  left  many  manu- 
scripts, but  his  only  published  work  was  VeterU  inr 
terpretis  cum  Beza  oLiitque  receniioribuB  coUaJtio  in 
quattuor  evanffeliia  et  apogtolarum  adia  (London, 
1655). 


Bolinffbroke 
Bolzano 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


218 


Bzbuoorapht:  The  life  of  Bois.  founded  i^rtly  on  his  diary 
and  written  by  Anthony  Walker,  is  printed  in  Francis 
Peek's  Dtnderaia  eurioaa,  ii.  325-342.  London,  1779,  and 
additions  to  it  by  T.  Baker  are  appended  to  Peek's  Mem- 
otrs  of  .  ,  ,  OUv0r  CromtoeU.  London,  1740.  Consult 
alsoDi^B.T.  311^13. 

BOLINGBROKE,  HEHRT  SAINT-JOHlf,  VIS- 
COUNT.   See  Deism,  I,  {  8. 

BOLIVIA :  A  republic  of  western  South  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Brazil;  on  the 
south  by  Paraguay  and  Argentina;  and  on  the 
west  by  Chile  and  Peru.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
from  520,000  to  600,000  square  miles,  the  popula- 
tion from  1,900,000  to  2,600,000,  of  whom  1,250,000 
are  Indians  and  over  500,000  half-breeds.  The 
constitution  adopted  in  1826  after  independence  had 
been  attained  recognized  Roman  Catholicism  as 
the  state  religion  and  prohibited  the  public  exercise 
of  any  other  form  of  faith,  toleration  existing  only 
in  new  colonies.  Nevertheless,  the  properties  of 
the  Church  were  confiscated  and  sold,  only  the 
bishops  being  allowed  a  moderate  annual  sum. 
Complete  religious  liberty  was  granted  by  the  gov- 
ernment in  1905. 

In  its  hierarchical  organization,  Bolivia  forms 
the  province  of  La  Plata,  under  the  archbishop  of 
La  Plata  (Chuquisaca  de  la  Plata)  or  Sucre  (diocese 
since  1551;  archdiocese  since  1609  with  135  par- 
ishes). The  suffragan  bishoprics  are  those  of 
Cochabamba,  La  Paz,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 
Cochabamba,  founded  in  1847,  has  fifty-six  parishes; 
La  Paz,  founded  1608,  haa  thirty-eight;  and  Santa 
Cruz,  founded  1605,  fifty-four.  In  addition  to  the 
secular  clergy,  members  of  orders,  including  the 
Jesuits,  are  actively  engaged  in  missionary  labors 
among  the  Indians,  of  whom  some  200,000  still 
cling  to  their  pagan  faith.  The  schools  among  the 
converted  Indians  are  under  religious  control. 
There  are  four  seminaries  for  the  clergy,  six  "  uni- 
versities," and  sixteen  higher  schools. 

The  inaccessibility  of  Bolivia  renders  inmiigra- 
tion,  especially  from  Europe  and  North  America, 
scanty.  The  number  of  Protestants  in  the  country 
is  accordingly  smalL  There  is  a  Presbyterian 
chapel  in  Sucre.  Canadian  Baptists  have  been 
engaged  in  missionary  work  in  the  country  since 
1898  and  have  organized  churches  at  Onuro,  La 
Paz,  and  Cochabamba.  More  recently  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  has 
entered  the  field  with  headquarters  at  La  Paz.  An 
interdenominational  mission  is  being  conducted  at 
Cochabamba  by  Australians.  The  educational  sys- 
tem is  being  reorganized  under  the  direction  of 
an  American  missionaiy. 

Biblioorapht:  Bolivia^  issued  by  Bureau  of  American 
Republics,  Washington,  1891,  cf.  the  Annual  Reporta  of 
the  Bureau  since  then;  A.  Bellessont,  La  Jeune  Amirique. 
Chili  et  Bolivie,  Paris,  1807;  C.  Matsenauer,  Bolivia  in 
hiatorischer,  geographiacher  und  culiwreUer  HinMUt  Vienna, 
1897;  J.  S.  Dennis.  Centennial  Siarvey  of  Foreign  Mia- 
aiona.  New  York,  1902;  T.  C.  Dawson,  The  South  Ameri- 
can Republica,  vol.  ii.  New  York,  1904;  J.  Lee,  Religioua 
Liberty  in  South  America;  with  apeeial  Reference  to  recent 
Legislation  in  Peru,  Ecuador  and  Bolivia,  Cincinnati,  1907. 

BOLLAND,    JAN,    ABB    THE   BOLLANDISTS: 

The  founder  of  the  monumental   hagiographical 
work   known   as   the   Acta  Sanctorum  BoUandU- 


tarum  (see  Acta  Marttrum,  Acta  Sanctorum),  and 
his  associates.  Bolland  was  bom  at  Julemont,  near 
Li^,  Aug.  13,  1596;  d.  at  Antwerp  Sept.  12, 1665. 
He  enter^  the  Jesuit  order  in  1612,  was  ordained 
priest  before  1625,  and  in  1630  was  sent  to  Ant- 
werp, where  he  began  what  was  to  prove  his  life- 
work,  making  use  of  the  mass  of  accumulated  mate- 
rial left  by  Hubert  Rosweyde  (q.v.),  the  originator 
of  the  idea,  but  largely  extending  the  space  con- 
templated by  him.  After  working  for  thirteen 
years  on  the  two  volumes  of  January,  he  called  to 
his  aid  two  other  Jesuits,  Gottfried  Hensdien  and 
Daniel  Papebroch  (qq.v.),  who  visited  numerous 
libraries  of  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy  in  quest  of 
material,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  magnifi- 
cent collection  of  120,000  volumes  which  the 
Bollandists  now  possess.  The  first  volume  ap- 
peared at  Antwerp  in  1643,  and  the  work  went  on 
without  interruption  until  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits  in  1773.  Their  house  at  Antwerp  was  to 
be  turned  into  a  military  school,  and  there  seemed 
little  prospect  of  continuing  their  task  until  in 
1776  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  made  arrange- 
ments to  help  them,  and  two  years  later  assigned 
them  the  Caudenbcrg  monastery  in  Brussels  as  a 
home.  Here  they  labored  on  as  a  company  of 
secular  priests  until  Joseph  II  interfered  arbi- 
trarily with  their  plans  and  finally,  in  1788,  for- 
bade them  to  continue  the  publication,  as  a  mere 
collection  of  old  documents  which  could  have  but  lit- 
tle interest  for  educated  men.  In  the  following  year 
the  Premonstratensians  of  the  abbey  of  Tangerlo 
in  Brabant  offered  to  buy  their  library  and  con- 
tinue the  work.  The  sixth  volume  of  October 
appeared  there  in  1794;  but  in  1796  the  French 
Republic  took  possession  of  Belgium  and  dissolved 
the  abbey;  the  manuscripts,  however,  were  pre- 
served in  the  Royal  Library  at  Brussels.  Though 
both  Napoleon  and  the  French  Academy  desired 
the  continuation  of  the  work,  it  was  not  found 
possible  until  1837,  when,  under  the  inspiration 
of  De  Ram,  rector  of  the  University  of  Louvain, 
the  Belgian  Jesuits  once  more  took  it  up,  with  the 
promise  of  an  annual  subsidy  of  6,000  francs  from 
the  government.  The  editors  are  now  at  work  on 
the  month  of  November,  and  at  the  present  rate  of 
progress,  it  is  hoped  that  the  end  of  the  twentieth 
century  may  see  the  completion  of  the  gigantic 
work.  The  present  Bollandists  are  also  publishing 
(since  1882)  an  annual  volume  of  Analecta  BoUan- 
diana,  containing  additional  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Syriac  texts,  new  dissertations,  and  corrections 
to  the  earlier  part  of  the  work;  and  since  1890 
they  have  also  published  a  BvUetin  de  pMica^ 
turns  hagiographiqueSf  a  review  of  all  new  books 
bearing  on  the  subject.  They  have  published,  in 
addition,  two  complete  bibliographies  (Greek,  1  vol., 
Latin,  2  vols.)  of  all  the  printed  texts  and  other 
works  on  hagiography. 

Bzblzoobapht:  A  memoir  of  Bolland  is  prefixed  to  vol  i 
for  March  of  the  ASB.  Consult  further  J.  M.  Neale.  Ea- 
aaya  on  Liiurgiology,  pp.  89-97,  London,  1863;  C.  De- 
haisnes,  Lea  Originea  dea  Acta  Sanctorum,  Douai,  18S9; 
G.  T.  Stokes,  The  Bollandiata,  in  CotUemporary  Revkv, 
xliu  (1883),  69-84;  B.  Aub^.  Lea  Demiera  Travaux  dea 
Bottandiatea,  in  Bwue  dea  deux  mondea,  Izviii  (1885),  16^ 
199. 


219 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bolinffbroke 
Bolamo 


BOLSECy  JERdME  HERMES:  French  contro- 
versialist and  physician;  b.  at  Paris  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century;  d.  probably  at  Lyons 
15^.  He  entered  the  Carmelite  order,  but  was 
driven  from  Paris  for  the  boldness  of  his  sermons 
and  fled  to  Ferrara.  In  1550  he  was  physician 
to  M.  de  Falais,  a  nobleman  residing  near  Geneva, 
who  was  a  friend  of  Calvin.  Bolsec  was  fond  of 
dabbling  in  dogmatics,  but  was  repeatedly  admon- 
ished by  the  compagnie  dea  pasteura  that  his  objec- 
tions to  the  doctrine  of  predestination  were  con- 
trary to  the  Bible.  He  seemed  to  submit,  but  on 
Oct.  16,  1551,  he  provoked  a  new  discussion  at 
Geneva  on  the  same  subject  and  was  imprisoned, 
whereupon  he  charged  Calvin  with  ignorance  of 
the  Bible  and  of  teaching  contrary  to  it,  and  the 
council,  in  their  perplexity,  accepted  the  propo- 
sition of  the  clergy  to  ask  the  advice  of  the  Swiss 
churches.  Their  condenmation  of  Bolsec  was 
mild,  but  the  clergy  of  Basel  declared  thai  Bolsec 
was  heretical  in  many  respects,  while  the  pastors 
of  Neuch&tel  declared  that  he  was  an  instrument 
of  Satan.  On  Dec.  22  he  was  sentenced  to  per- 
petual banishment  for  publishing  offensive  doc- 
trines, as  well  as  for  slandering  the  clergy  and 
charging  them  with  preaching  false  dogmas.  He 
was  expelled  from  Thonon  (Chablais)  by  Calvin, 
and  from  Lausanne  by  Beza,  after  having  again 
accused  the  former  of  **  making  God  the  author 
of  sin."  He  then  retiuned  to  France  and  abjured 
Protestantism.  He  was  the  author  of  three  works: 
Le  MiroiTy  envoys  de  Viriti  au  Roi  Charlea  new- 
fihne  (1562),  addressed  to  the  king  to  bring  about 
a  reformation;  Histoire  de  la  vie,  mcmra,  actes, 
doctrine,  Constance  et  mart  de  Jean  Calvin,  jadis 
ministre  de  Genbve  (Lyons,  1577),  which  made 
the  author  infamous;  and  Histoire  de  la  vie,  mcmra, 
doctrine  et  diportemena  de  Th.  de  Bhse,  dU  le  Spec- 
table,  grand  ministre  de  Qenhve  (Paris,  1582),  written 
in  a  tone  of  moderation.  The  entire  life  of  Bolsec 
8bow8  him  to  have  been  a  restless,  vain  spirit,  not 
overscrupulous  in  getting  revenge  or  in  winning 
patrons.  EuoftNE  Choibt. 

Bolsec  may  easily  be  represented  in  a  more  fa- 
vorable light  as  an  honest  opponent  of  Calvinistic 
dogma,  and  an  advocate  of  liberty  of  conscience 
and  freedom  of  speech.  Persecution  (defamation, 
repeated  imprisonment,  banishment  from  Geneva 
and  from  other  places  where  he  attempted  to  settle 
by  the  persistent  efforts  of  Calvin,  Beza,  and 
others)  embittered  his  spirit  and  no  doubt  led  to 
exaggerated  representations  of  the  tyranny  and 
cruelty  of  his  opponents,  and  at  last  drove  him 
hack  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Chiuxsh.       A.  H.  N. 

Bibuoobarht:  CR^  Optra  CalvirU^  yiii,  141;  E.  and  £. 
Hasc,  Ia  France  proteetanU,  ad.  H.  L.  Bordier,  vol.  ii. 
Pkris,  1879;  E.  Choisy,  La  TMocraUe  h  Oenhw  au  tempt 
de  Calvin,  Genera,  1897;  J.  A.  Gautier,  Hietoire  de  Gentve, 
iii.  432  aqq.,  ib.  1899. 

BOLSENA,  MIRACLE  OF:  A  miracle  which, 
according  to  an  account  strongly  affirmed  in  local 
tradition,  occurred  in  1264  in  the  town  of  Bolsena 
the  ancient  Vulsinius;  7  m.  s.w.  of  Orvieto)  in 
Tmbria,  Italy.  The  details  of  the  story  vary  in 
<liTerent  accounts,  but  the  substance  of  the  occur- 
rence is  as  follows:  A  priest,  who  had  been  long 


troubled  with  doubts  as  to  the  real  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  accidentally  let  fall  upon 
the  linen  corporal,  while  sajring  mass,  some  drops 
from  the  consecrated  chalice.  While  endeavoring 
to  conceal  this  mishap,  he  was  amazed  to  perceive 
that  the  stain  was  no  longer  as  of  wine  but  resembled 
fresh  blood,  and  had  not  the  irregular  trace  of  a 
few  spilled  drops,  but  the  form  and  contour  of  the 
consecrated  host  or  wafer.  The  miracle  produced 
a  great  sensation  throughout  the  surrounding 
country.  Pope  Urban  IV,  at  that  time  staying 
in  Orvieto  with  the  pontifical  court,  caused  the 
stained  corporal  to  be  brought  to  the  city,  where  it 
has  ever  since  been  carefully  preserved.  This  miracle 
was  the  determining  reason  which  caused  Urban  to 
make  general  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christi  (q.v.).  .The  composition  of  the  liturgical 
office  of  the  feast  was  entnusted  to  Thomas  Aquinas, 
but  in  it  there  is  no  allusion  to  the  miracle. 

The  miracle  of  Bolsena  has  been  immortalized 
by  the  genius  of  Raffael,  who  made  it  the  subject 
of  one  of  his  frescoes  in  the  second  sala  of  the  Vati- 
can. The  painting  idealizes  the  scene  and  intro- 
duces, not  Urban  IV  but  Julius  II,  under  whose 
pontificate  the  fresco  was  executed,  as  present  at 
the  nuiss.  The  present  cathedral  church  of  Or- 
vieto was  built  on  the  site  of  an  earlier  structure 
to  conunemorate  the  miracle,  and  much  of  the  elab- 
orate decoration  refers  to  it.  The  corporal  is 
preserved  in  a  silver  shrine  enriched  with  many 
figures  in  relief  and  subjects  in  translucent  colored 
enamels.  The  shrine  was  begun  by  Ugolino  Veri 
of  Sienna  in  1338  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
specimens  of  medieval  silversmith  work  in  Italy. 
The  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  is  celebrated  with 
extraordinary  solemnity  each  year  in  Orvieto  and 
the  corporal  is  carried  in  procession  through  the 
town  together  with  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

James  F.  Dbibcoll. 

Bibuoorapht:  Dietionnavre  dm  proplhMiee  et  dee  miradee^ 
vol.  i,  in  Milne's  EneudopSdie  IhSologique,  vol.  xxiv,  Paris, 
1862. 

BOLZANO,  bel-tsd^nO,  BEIUfHARD :  German  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian,  and  noted  mathematician; 
b.  at  Prague  Oct.  5,  1781;  d.  there  Dec.  18,  1848. 
He  took  orders  and  was  made  professor  of  the 
philosophy  of  religion  in  Prague  1805.  He  was  soon 
suspected  of  heterodoxy,  was  accused  at  Rome 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  1820,  on  a  charge  of  connection 
with  certain  student  societies,  was  compelled  to 
resign  his  professorship;  he  was  also  suspended 
from  his  priestly  functions.  Thenceforth  he  de- 
voted hiniself  to  study  and  literary  work.  He 
sought  to  reconcile  the  teachings  of  the  Church 
with  reason  and,  it  was  said,  considered  thfe  reason- 
ableness of  a  doctrine  of  more  importance  than 
its  traditional  belief.  In  philosophy  he  was  influ- 
enced by  Leibnitz  and  Kant.  His  contributions 
to  mathematical  science  were  original  and  im- 
portant. His  works  were  numerous;  the  most 
noteworthy  are  Lehrhuch  der  Reliffianavnasenachaft 
(4  vols.,  Sulzbach,  1834),  a  philosophic  presentation 
of  the  dogmas  of  Roman  Catholic  theology;  Wiaaen- 
achaftalehre ;  Versuch  einer  neuen  Daratellung  der 
Logik  (4  vols.,  1837). 


BoniflM6 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


S20 


BiBUOomArHT:  LAtnAmekniamiHi  dm  Dr,  Bolaano,  new 
•d..  Viemia,  1876  (an  autobiognphy);  Dr,  Bdaano  uni 
MifM  O^gntr,  Bin  BeUrag  nr  nmtuUn  LttanalurvitdktdUt, 
ib.  1839;  A.  WiMhaupt,  Skisatn  au9  dtm  Ubmi  B,  Bel- 

'  '   '  ,  186a 


B0MBER6BR,  JOHN  HERRT  AUGUSTUS: 
Reformed  (Gennan);  b.  at  Lancaster,  Penn., 
Jan.  13,  1817;  d.  at  Collegeville,  Penn.,  Aug.  19, 
1890.  He  was  graduated  at  Marshall  College, 
1837,  and  at  the  Theological  Seminary,  Meroers- 
burg,  Penn.,  1838;  served  as  pastor  of  German 
Reformed  Churches  in  Pemuylvania  till  1870, 
when  he  became  president  of  Ursinus  College  at 
Collegeville.  He  began  a  condensed  translation 
of  the  first  edition  of  Hersog's  Reaienq^klopddie 
of  which  two  volumes  were  published  (Philadel- 
phia, 1856-60),  embracing  vols,  i-vi  of  the  orig- 
inal; he  issued  a  revised  translation  of  Kurtz's 
Texirbook  of  Church  History  (Philadelphia,  1860), 
and  edited  The  Reformed  Church  Monthly  (in 
opposition  to  the  "Mercersburg  theology"), 
1868-77.  He  also  published  Infant  Salvation  in 
its  Relation  to  Infant  Depravity,  Infant  Regeneration, 
and  Infant  BapUem  (1859);  Five  Years  at  the  Race 
Street  Church  [Philadelpfaia],  with  an  ecclesiastical 
appendix  (1860);  The  Revised  Liturgy,  a  history 
and  criticism  of  the  ritualistic  movement  in  the 
German  Reformed  Church  (1867);  Reformed,  not 
Ritualistic :  a  reply  to  Dr,  Nevin's  "  Vindication  *' 
(1867). 

BONA,  GIOVAHNI:  Roman  Catholic  theolog- 
ical writer;  b.  at  Mondovi  (55  m.  w.  of  Genoa), 
Piedmont,  Oct.  19,  1609;  d.  in  Rome  Oct.  28, 
1674.  He  came  of  an  old  French  family,  and  in 
his  fifteenth  year  entered  the  Italian  congregation 
of  reformed  Cistercians,  becoming  later  prior, 
abbot,  and  general.  Clement  IX  made  him  a 
cardinal  in  1669,  and  he  acquired  a  great  reputation 
for  both  piety  and  learning.  His  most  important 
writings  are  ascetical  and  liturgical.  To  the  latter 
class  belong  his  Psallentis  eccUsue  harmonia  (Rome, 
1653),  a  historical,  symbolic,  and  ascetic  treatise 
on  the  psalmody  of  the  Church,  and  the  still  better 
known  Rerum  liturgiearum  libri  ii  (Rome,  1671), 
a  sober  and  learned  investigation  of  liturgical 
antiquities.  The  first  complete  edition  of  his 
works  i^peared  at  Antwerp,  1677,  followed  by 
several  others. 

BONALD,  LOUIS  GABRIEL  AMBROISE,  VI- 
COHTE  DE:  French  political  and  philosophical 
writer;  b.  at  Monna,  near  Millau  (130  m.  w.n.w. 
of  Marseilles),  Aveyron,  Oct.  2,  1754;  d.  there 
Nov.  23,  1840.  He  emigrated  in  1791  and  settled 
at  Heidelberg;  returned  to  France  in  1797,  lived 
in  concealment  for  a  time,  and  then  was  allowed 
to  proceed  to  his  estates;  in  1808  he  was  appointed 
councilor  of  the  Imperial  University,  and,  after 
the  Restoration,  member  of  the  Council  of  Public 
Instruction;  from  1815  to  1822  he  was  member 
of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  in  1822  minister  of 
state,  and  in  1823  was  made  a  peer  of  France; 
after  1830  he  retired  to  private  life.  He  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  reactionary  school  to  which 
belonged  De  Maistre,  D'Eckstein,  Ballanche,  Lamen- 
nais,  and  others,  which  started  with  the  principle 


that  revelation  and  not  observation  is  the  true 
ground  of  philosophy;  absolutism  in  politics  and 
ecclesiastical  despotism  in  religion  were  in  his 
view  the  natural  and  desirable  order  of  things. 
The  most  noteworthy  of  his  many  writings  were 
Thioris  du  pouvoir  politique  et  religieux  (3  vols., 
Constance,  1796);  La  Legislation  primitive  (3  vols., 
Paris,  1802);  Recherches  phihsophiqites  sur  la 
premiers  objets  des  connaiesanees  morales  (2  vok, 
1818).  His  collected  works  were  published  in 
twelve  volumes  in  1817-19  and  again  in  three 
volumes  in  1859.  His  second  son,  Louis  Jaopies 
Maurice,  b.  at  Millau  Oct.  30,  1787,  d.  at  Lyons 
Feb.  25,  1870,  became  bishop  of  Puy  in  1823,  arch- 
bishop of  Lyons  in  1839,  cardinal  in  1841;  he 
was  a  strong  Ultramontane. 

Biblioobapht:  Vietor  de  Bonald,  De  la  vi»  el  des  Saib  d* 
vioomli  d$  B&naU,  Avignon.  1863  (by  hia  son);  J.  Blu- 
ebon,  Le  Cardinal  de  BonaUL  .  .  ,  ,  ea  vie  ei  eee  suvtb*, 
Lyons,  1870. 

BONAR,  AlffDREW  ALEXAITDER :  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Edinburgh  May  29,  1810. 
youngest  brother  of  Horatius  Bonar  (q.v.);  d.  in 
Glasgow  Dec.  30,  1892.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh; 
was  minister  at  CoUaoe,  Perthshire,  1838-56,  of 
the  Finnieston  Church,  Glasgow,  1856  till  his  death. 
He  joined  the  Free  Chiuxsh  in  1843,  and  was  its 
moderator  in  1878.  He  was  identified  with  evan- 
gelical and  revival  movements  and  adhered  to 
the  doctrine  of  premillenialism.  With  the  Rev. 
R.  M.  McCheyne  he  visited  Palestine  in  1839  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  Jews  there,  and 
published  A  Narrative  of  a  Mission  of  Inquiry  to 
the  Jews  from  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1839  (Edin- 
burgh, 1842);  he  also  published  a  Memoir  of  Mr. 
McChejme  (1845);  a  Commentary  on  Lemticus 
(1846);  Redemption  Drawing  Nigh,  a  defence  of 
Premillenialism  (1847);  Christ  and  his  Chwrck 
in  the  Book  of  Psalms  (1859);  edited  Samuel 
Rutherford's  Letters  (1863);  and  wrote  many  tracts, 
pamphlets,  and  minor  biographies. 

Bibuooraprt:  A.  A.  Bonar,  Diary  and  LeUere,  edited  by 
hiB  dAuchter,  Marjory  Bonar,  London,  1805.  who  pab- 
liahed  also  a  volume  of  Reminieoeneee,  ib.  1895. 

BONAR,  HORATIUS:  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  in  Edinburgh  Dec.  19,  1808;  d.  there  July  31, 
1889.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh;  became  minister 
at  Kelso  1837,  at  the  Chalmers  Memorial  Church. 
Edinburgh,  1866;  with  his  congregation  he  joined 
the  Free  Church  in  1843.  He  was  a  premillenanan 
and  expressed  his  views  in  books,  such  as  Prvphd- 
ical  Landmarks  (London,  1847),  and  in  the  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Prophecy,  which  he  founded  in  1849. 
He  is  best  known  for  his  poems  and  hymns  which 
include  "  What  a  friend  we  have  in  Jesus,"  "  I  heard 
the  voice  of  Jesus  say,"  and  others  equally  familiar. 
The  best  known  collections  of  his  verse  are  Hymns 
of  Faith  and  Hope  (3  vols.,  1857-66);  The  Song 
of  the  New  Creation  and  other  pieces  (1872);  Hymns 
of  the  Nativity  (1878);  Songs  of  Love  and  Joy  (1888); 
Until  the  Daxfbreak  and  other  hymns  left  behind 
(1890).  His  prose  publications,  besides  sermons, 
tracts,  etc.,  include  The  Night  of  Weeping,  or  tBords 
for  (he  suffering  family  of  God  (1846);  God's  Way 
of  Peace  (1862);  The  White  Fields  of  France: 
or  the  story  of  Mr.  McAU's  mission  to  the  workwg- 


2di 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


»niliMe 


men  of  Paria  and  Lyons  (1879);    Life  and  Work 
of  G.  T.  Dodds  (1884). 

Bibuoosapht:  Hcratitu  Bonar,  a  Manorial,  London, 
1880;  S.  W.  Duffield.  Eni/li*h  HymnM,  pp.  168-160  and 
paasim.  New  York,  1886;  Julian,  Hymtujiofni*  PP-  161-162; 
DNB,  supplement  vol.  i,  231-232. 

BONAVENTURA  (Giovanni  di  Fidanza,  called 
Doctor  Seraphicus):  Theologian;  b.  at  Bagnorea 
(50  m.  n.n.w.  of  Rome)  1221;  d.  at  Lyons  July 
15,  1274.  He  entered  the  order  of  St.  Francis 
probably  in  1238;  went  to  Paris,  1242  or  1243, 
and  studied  under  Alexander  of  Hales;  lectured 
there  on  the  "  Sentences  "  of  Peter  Lombard  and 
on  the  Holy  Scriptures  till  the  university  suspended 
lectures  in  1255;  was  chosen  general  of  his  order, 
1257;  cardinal  bishop  of  Albano,  1273.  His  last 
public  act  was  an  impressive  i^eech  delivered 
before  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  May,  1274,  for  the 
union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  He 
was  canonised  by  Sixtus  IV  in  1482.  In  defense 
of  his  order,  before  he  became  its  general,  during 
the  contest  between  the  Sorbonne  and  the  men- 
dicant monks,  he  wrote  his  De  paupertate  Christij 
in  reply  to  William  of  St.  Amour's  De  periculis 
novisninorum  temporum  (1256);  by  a  somewhat 
forced  and  sophistical  argumentation  he  represents 
voluntary  poverty  as  an  element  of  moral  perfection. 
Of  his  general  views  on  monastic  life  he  has  given 
an  exposition  in  his  DeterminaHonea  qtuBStionym 
circa  regulam  Francisci.  In  his  administration 
he  was  mild  yet  firm.  As  a  teacher  and  author 
he  occupies  one  of  the  most  prominent  places  in 
the  history  of  medieval  theology;  not  so  much, 
however,  on  account  of  any  strongly  pronounced 
originality  as  on  account  of  the  comprehensiveness 
of  his  views,  the  ease  and  clearness  of  his  reasoning, 
and  a  style  in  which  still  linger  some  traces  of  the 
great  charm  of  his  personality.  His  mystical  and 
devotional  writings — as,  for  instance,  De  eeptem 
Uineribua  aetemitatie — are  almost  imitations  of 
Hugo  of  St.  Victor.  His  dialectical  writings  are 
more  independent.  His  BrevUoquium  (ed.  Da 
Vicenza,  2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1881)  is  one  of  the  best 
expositions  of  Christian  dogmatics  produced  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Bibuoorapht:  Bonaventm's  worka  have  been  pub- 
lished in  many  editiona,  of  which  the  best  are  that  by 
Peltier,  16  vols.,  Paris,  1863-71,  and  that  prepared  by 
the  Franciscans,  10  vols.,  Clairao,  188^-03.  Of  his  real 
or  supposititious  works  accessible  in  English  translation, 
the  followinc  may  be  mentioned:  Ths  Mirror  of  th€  Bleued 
Viroin  Mary,  DubUn,  1840;  P9alter  of  th€  Bleued  Virgin, 
London,  1852;  Ths  lAfB  of  Chriat,  ib.  1881;  Ths  Monih 
of  JmuM  Chriat,  ib.  1882;  Ths  Life  of  SL  FrandU  of  Aa- 
•ist,  4tl&  ed.,  ib.  1808;  St.  Bonmoniura'a  Inairueiiona  for 
A«  ^Saostm  of  Lant,  ib.  1884;  Ths  8oul*a  Prograaa  in  God 
(transL  of  the  IHnerorium  msnHa  in  daum)  is  in  the  Jowr- 
Ml  of  SvadaHoa  PhUoaophy,  vol.  xad  (1887). 

For  his  life  consult:  A8B,  July  14.  vol.  iu.  pp.  838-860; 
Hiatoira  liUiraira  da  la  Franoa,  six,  266-201;  A.  M. 
da  Vicensa,  Dor  haUiga  Bonavaniura  .  .  ,  in  aainam 
Laban  und  Wirkan,  Germ,  transl.  from  the  Italian,  Pader« 
bom,  1874;  La  Cardinal  8.  Bonavantura  ,  .  ,  ac  via,  aa 
wnori  at  aon  euiia  &  Lyon,  Lyons,  1876;  L.  C.  Skey,  Lifa  of 
St  Bonavaniura,  London,  1880. 

On  his  works  consult:  A.  de  Margerie,  Eaaai  aur  la 
phUoaopkis  da  8.  Bonavantura,  Paris,  1866;  W.  A.  HoUen- 
berg.  Btudian  au  Bonavantura,  Berlin,  1862;  J.  Richard, 
6htda  aur  la  myaHeiama  apieuiaHf  da  8.  Bofnavantwra,  Puis, 
1873;  Fidelia  a  Fauna,  Ratio  nova  eoUactionia  oparum  om- 
miftflt  .  .  .  Bonavantura,  Paris,  1874;  A.  liaria  a  Vioetia 


et  Johannes  a  Rubino,  Laiioon  Bonavanturianum  phi- 
loaophieo-lhaolooicum,  Venice,  1880;  J.  Krause,  Dia  Lehra 
daa  haUi4fan  Bonavantura  Hbar  dia  Natur  dor  kOrperlichen 
und  gaiatioan  Weaan,  Paderbom,  1888. 

BOUD,  WILLIAM  BENNETT:  Anglican  arch- 
bishop of  Montreal  and  primate  of  all  Canada; 
b.  at  Truro  (8  m.  n.n.e.  of  Falmouth),  Cornwall, 
England,  Sept.  10,  1815;  d.  at  Montreal  Oct.  9, 
1006.  He  came  to  Newfoundland  while  in  early 
youth  and  was  educated  at  Bishop's  College,  Len- 
nox ville,  P.  Q.,  being  otdered  deacon  in  1840  and 
ordained  priest  in  the  following  year.  After  being 
successively  a  traveling  missionary  in  1840-42 
and  a  missionary  at  Lachine.  P.  Q.,  in  1842-48, 
he  was  curate  of  St.  George's,  Montreal,  from  1848 
to  1860  and  rector  of  the  same  church  from  1860 
to  1878.  He  was  h'kewise  archdeacon  of  Mon- 
treal in  1870-72  and  dean  in  1872-78.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  consecrated  archbishop  of  Montreal, 
and  in  1001  was  elected  metropolitan  of  Canada, 
while  in  1004  he  became  primate  of  all  Canada. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  theological  college  of 
the  diocese  of  Montreal. 

B0NET-MAUR7,  AMY  GASTON  CHARLES  AU- 
GUSTE:  French  Protestant;  b.  at  Paris  Jan.  2, 1842. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lyc^  Napolten  (now  College 
Henri  IV),  the  Sorbonne  (baccalaur^t  ds  lettres, 
1860)  and  the  universities  of  Geneva  and  Stras- 
burg  (1868).  He  was  successively  pastor  of  the 
Walloon  Reformed  Church  at  Dort  in  1868-72 
and  of  the  French  Reformed  Church  at  Beauvais 
(Oise)  in  1872-70.  In  1870  he  became  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  faculty  of  Protestant  the- 
ology of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  now  holds 
the  same  position  in  the  Independent  Divinity 
School  of  Paris.  From  1885  to  1880  he  was  librarian 
of  the  Mus6e  P^dagogique.  In  theology  he  is  a  liberal 
evangelical.  He  wrote:  Les  Origines  de  la  riforme 
h  Beauvais  (Paris,  1874);  Oerard  de  Oroote,  un  pri- 
cuneur  de  la  riforme  au  quatortihne  eihde  (1878); 
E  quibus  fontHms  Nederlandicie  haueerit  ecriptar 
libri  cui  tUvlue  eat  De  Imitatione  Christ  (1878); 
Des  Originee  du  christianieme  unitaire  ehez  lea 
Anglaia  (1881;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1883);  Ar- 
natdd  de  Breacia,  un  rlformalewr  au  dountme  aikie 
(Paris,  1881);  De  opera  acholaaUca  frairum  vita 
communia  in  Nederlandia  (1880);  0,  A.  BUrger  et 
lea  originea  anglaiaea  de  la  haUade  liUiraire  en  AUe- 
magne  (1800);  Ignace  DaUinger,  1799-1890  (1802); 
LeUrea  et  'didoToiiona  de  J.  J.  I.  DceUinger  au  aujet 
deadicreta  du  Vatican,  traduitea  de  VAUemand  (1803); 
Le  Congrka  dea  religiona  6  Chicago  en  189$  (1805); 
Hiatoire  de  la  liberU  de  conacienoe  depuia  VMdit  de 
Nantea  juaqu'h  juittet  1870  (1000);  Lea  Pricur- 
aeura  de  la  riforme  et  de  la  UberU  de  eonacience  dana 
lea  paya  latina  du  douxihne  au  quinzihne  aiMe 
(1004);  Edgar  Quinetf  aon  cmvre  reliqieuae  et  aon 
charadire  moral  (1003);  and  L*Ialamiame  et  le 
chriatianiame  en  Afrique  (1006). 

BONIFACE:    The  name  of  nine  popes. 

Boniface  I:  Pope  418-422.  After  the  death  of 
Zosimus,  a  part  of  the  clergy  and  people  chose  the 
archdeacon  Eulalius  to  succeed  him  (iSec.  27,  418); 
he  was  recognised  by  tbe  prefect  Symmachus  and 
consecrated  in  the  Lateran  two  daya  later.  But 
another  faction  held  an  election  on  the  28th,  and 


BoniilMe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


222 


chose  Boniface,  the  son  of  the  priest  Jocundus, 
consecrating  him  on  the  following  day.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  report  of  Symmachus,  the  em- 
peror Honorius  recognized  Eulalius,  and  Boniface 
had  to  leave  Rome.  His  supporters  appealed  to 
the  emperor,  representing  him  as  the  choice  of  the 
majority.  Honorius  called  a  council  to  meet  at 
Ravenna,  Feb.  8,  419,  to  decide  the  matter,  but 
it  reached  no  conclusion,  and  another  was  sum- 
moned for  May  1,  both  candidates  being  forbidden 
to  enter  Rome  in  the  mean  time.  Eulalius,  how- 
ever, entered  the  city  on  Mar.  18,  and  had  to  be 
removed  forcibly;  and  Honorius  now  recognized 
Boniface,  who  took  up  his  duties  on  Apr.  10.  This 
contest  caused  Honorius  to  decree  that  in  any 
subsequent  case  of  a  contested  election,  both  can- 
didates should  be  set  aside  and  a  new  choice  made. 
When  Boniface  I  intervened  in  any  ecclesias- 
tical disputes,  he  showed  great  justice  and  modera- 
tion. "Die  clergy  of  Valence  accused  their  bishop 
Maximus  of  grievous  crimes;  Boniface  referred  the 
matter  to  a  Gallic  synod,  reserving  to  himself  the 
right  to  review  its  decision.  Considering  the  priv- 
ilege granted  by  Pope  Zosimus  (417)  to  Bishop 
Patrodus  of  Aries,  to  consecrate  bishops  for  the 
provinces  known  as  Viennensis,  Narbonerma  prima, 
and  Narbonenaia  aecundaf  to  be  an  infringement  of 
earlier  canonical  provisions,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
withdraw  it  so  far  as  to  allow  the  bishop  of  Narbonne 
this  metropolitan  privilege  for  the  Provincia  Nor- 
boTierms  prima.  He  was  involved  in  long-drawn- 
out  negotiations  with  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. Certain  Illyrian  bishops,  wishing  to  bring 
charges  against  Bishop  Perigenes  of  Patras,  who 
had  been  chosen  metropolitan  of  Corinth,  get- 
ting satisfaction  neither  from  the  papal  delegate 
for  Ill3rria,  Bishop  Rufus  of  Thessalonica,  nor  from 
the  pope  himself,  turned  to  Atticus  of  Constanti- 
nople for  redress.  The  latter  procured  an  edict 
from  the  emperor  Theodosius  II  (421),  placing 
lUyria  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Constantinople. 
Boniface  made  strong  representations  to  the  By- 
zantine court  (Mar.,  422),  but  would  probably  not 
have  been  successful  had  not  the  influence  of  the 
Western  emperor  Honorius  prevailed  with  Theo- 
dosius, who  withdrew  the  edict.  Finally,  Boniface 
had  inherited  from  his  predecessor  a  difficult  oon- 
troverey  with  the  African  church  (see  Zosimus): 
he  had  no  better  success  than  Zosimus  in  securing 
the  recognition  in  Africa  of  the  right  of  appeal  to 
Rome.  On  the  contrary,  the  Synod  of  Carthage 
in  419  confirmed  the  seventeenth  canon  of  the 
synod  of  418,  which  positively  forbade  to  priests 
and  lower  clergy  any  such  appeals,  and  tolerated 
them  for  bishops  only  on  condition  that  the  pre- 
scription appealed  to  could  be  shown  to  be  Nicene; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  came  from  the  Council  of 
Sardica.  Boniface  died  Sept.  4,  422,  and  is  reck- 
oned among  the  saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  Liber  ponli/kolw,  ed.  Duchesne,  i,  227. 
Paris.  1886;  ASB,  Oct..  xi.  605-610;  F.  Gregorovius,  Ge- 
•ehidUe  der  Stadt  Rom,  i.  170  sqq.,  Stuttgart.  1875.  Eng. 
transl..  London,  1900;  J.  Langen,  OeechichU  der  r&mi- 
eehen  Kirdie  hU  Leo  /..  pp.  763  sqq..  Bonn.  1881;  J»ff^, 
Regeela,  i.  52;  Hefele.  ConeUiefigeeatuiUe,  ii.  122.  Eng. 
transl..  ii.  466;  Bower,  Popes,  i,  162-166;  Neander. 
ChriMHan  Chvn^  ii.  206,  235,  652. 


Boniface  II:  Pope  530-532.  After  the  death  of 
Felix  IV  (middle  of  Sept.,  530),  a  contested  electioQ 
followed.  The  minority,  in  obedience  to  the  djing 
charge  of  Felix,  chose  the  archdeacon  Boniface, 
a  Goth;  the  majority  elected  Dioscunis,  a  Greek, 
and  both  were  consecrated  on  the  same  day  (Sq>t. 
22).  The  Roman  senate  took  cognizance  of  the 
matter,  forbidding  under  heavy  penalties  any 
proceedings  in  the  lifetime  of  a  pope  looking  to- 
ward the  elevation  of  a  successor.  The  schisn 
was  soon  ended  by  the  death  of  Dioscurus,  Oct.  U. 
The  LibeT  pantificalis  asserts  that  Boniface  pro- 
ceeded with  great  violence  against  his  adheraits; 
and  we  have  evidence  that  five  yeais  later  the 
bitterness  caused  by  this  was  not  extinct  among 
the  Roman  clergy.  The  dose  of  the  Semi-Pdagian 
controverey  falls  in  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  II. 
In  a  letter  to  Gesarius  of  Aries  he  pronounced 
against  the  opinion  that  man  could  attain  faith  in 
Christ  by  his  own  resources,  without  the  help  of 
divine  grace;  and  at  the  same  time,  in  accordance 
with  the  wishes  of  Geesarius,  he  confirmed  the 
decisions  of  the  Synod  of  Orange.  He  was  always 
zealous  in  maintaining,  if  it  was  not  possible  to 
extend,  the  papal  claims  to  jurisdiction.  When 
Bishop  Stephen  of  Larissa  in  Thessaly  appealed 
to  him  from  a  sentence  of  deposition  pronounced 
by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Boniface 
endeavored  to  reassert  the  old  rights  of  the  Roman 
See  over  lUyria,  which  had  b^  obsolete  for  a 
hundred  years.  The  proceedings  of  a  synod  held 
in  Rome  for  this  purpose  (Dec.,  531)  seem  to  have 
been  fruitless,  for  soon  afterward  the  see  of  Larissa 
was  filled  by  a  nominee  of  Constantinople.  After 
attempting  in  vain  to  designate  the  deacon  Vigilius 
as  his  successor,  Boniface  died  in  Oct.,  532. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bibuoobapht:  Liber   pontifiadia,  ed.    Duchmne,   i,  281. 
Paris,  1886;  F.  GrasoroTius,  Oeaehu^U  der  Siadi  Rom,  I 
829,    Stuttsart,    1875.    £ii«.    transl.,    London.  1900;  L 
Duehesne,  La  SueoeeeUm  du  pape  FSUx  /F.,  Rome,  1SS4: 
J.  Lancen.  Oe9AUhiederrOmiedt0n  Kirehe  von  Leo  I.  bit 
Nikolaut  /.,  p.  306,  Bonn,  1886;  R.  Baxmann.  Die  PoUtik 
der  PUpete  von  Gregor  I.  bie  auf  Oregor  VII.,  i.  20  wiq.. 
Elberfeld,   1868;  Jaff«,  Reoeeta,  i.   Ill;  Schaff.  Cftritfo* 
Churtk,  iU.  326.  869;  Neander.  ChrieUan  Ckunh,  ii.  711; 
Hefele,  ConeUienoeeehickle,  ii.  737-742.  Eng.  tranal.,  it, 
166.  167.  171  sqq.;  Bower,  Popea,  i,  331-333. 
Boniface  ni:  Pope  607.    He  was  a  Roman  by 
birth,  previously  a  deacon  and  apocrisiarius  at  the 
court  of  Constantinople,  to  which  he  had  been  sent 
by  Gregory  the  Great  in  603.    Apparently  he  was 
still  there  when  the  election  took  place,  as  nearly 
a  year  elapsed  between  the  death  of  his  predecessor 
and  his  consecration  (Feb.  19, 607).    As  (in  modem 
language)  nuncio  at  Constantinople,  he  had  appar- 
ently maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  usurper 
Phocas,  which  would  account  for  the  favorahle 
decision  made  by  the  latter  on  a  point  of  great 
importance  to  the  papal  claims.    One  of  the  com- 
missions given  to  him  by  Gregory  was  the  settle- 
ment of  the  strife  over  the  title  of  "universal 
bishop  "   claimed  by  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, John  the  Faster;  Gregory  did  not  daim  it 
for  himself,  but  he  was  unwilling  that  it  should  be 
borne  by  another.    The  Liber  pontificalis,  Paulus 
Diaconus,  and  Bede  all  assert  that  Phocas  recog- 
nised Borne  8S  captd  oinnittm  ecclesiarum.    Though 


228 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BonifkMe 


the  fact  IB  not  denied,  it  is  to  be  regarded  rather 
as  a  triumph  of  papal  politics,  which  did  not  dis- 
dain the  aUianoe  of  a  base  and  criminal  ruler,  than 
as  a  historical  justification  of  the  claims  of  Rome. 
Boniface  died  Nov.  12,  W7.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  lAbtr  fNmli/IcaZit,  ed.  Duehesne,  i,  816, 
Paris,  1886;  Paoliu  Diaoonus,  H%aL  Laiwobardorum,  iv, 
36.  in  MOH,  ScripL  rer.  Lanoob.,  ad.  G.  Waiti,  Han- 
over. 1878,  £ng.  tranal..  p.  177,  Philadelphia.  1007;  F. 
Gregorovius,  O^^ehiehie  der  Stadt  Rom^  ii,  102,  Btuttgart, 
1876.  Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1000;  J.  Langen,  Qfchiehle 
dmr  rAiNMAm  KirdiM  .  .  .  6t«  Nxkolaua  /.,  p.  500,  Bonn, 
1885:  Bower.  Popet,  i,  426-43:! \  Mann,  Popet,  I,  i. 
260-262. 

Boniface  IV:  Pope  608-615.  He  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  Boniface  III  after  an  interregnum  of  ten 
months.  He  kept  up  the  same  friendly  relations 
with  Phocas,  from  whom  he  acquired  the  Pantheon 
in  Rome,  built  as  a  heathen  temple,  and  transformed 
it  into  a  church.  When  Heraclius,  who  overthrew 
Phocas  in  610,  was  endeavoring  to  find  a  way  to 
reconciliation  with  the  Monophysites,  Boniface 
seems  to  have  approved  of  his  plans;  which  prob- 
ably accounts  for  a  letter  of  Golumban  (q.v.) 
written  from  Bobbio  (c.  613),  informing  him  that 
people  call  him  a  receiver  and  protector  of  heretics 
who  deny  the  double  natinre  of  Christ,  and  warning 
him  that  his  power  will  remain  only  so  long  as  he 
muntains  the  true  faith.  Boniface  died  May  25, 
615.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapbt:  lAber  ponl»/l43atM,  ed.  Duchesne,  i.  817,  Paris, 
1886;  Jaff^  Reoetta,  i.  220;  Paulus  Diaoonus,  HUtoria 
Langobardorum,  iv,  36,  in  MOH,  Script  rer.  Langob., 
ed.  G.  Waits,  Hanover.  1878,  Eng.  transl.,  p.  178,  Philsr 
delphia,  1007;  Bede,  HitL  ecd.,  ii,  4,  ed.  Plummer,  vol. 
i.  p.  88.  Oxford,  1896;  R.  Baxmann,  Dis  Poliiik  der 
P&pate,  i.  150,  Elberfeld,  1868;  F.  Gregorovius,  OeaehichiB 
der  Stadt  Rom,  U.  102,  Stuttgart.  1876.  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1000;  J.  Langen,  OeaehidUe  der  rdmiechen 
Kirdie  .  .  .  hie  Nikolaua  /..  p.  501,  Bonn,  1885;  Neander, 
Chriettan  Ckurth,  iii.  32,  34, 134;  Bower,  Popes,  i,  428-129; 
Mann.  Popes.  I.  i,  268. 

Boniface  V:  Pope  619-625.  The  Li^  pon/i^- 
ealis  tells  that  he  was  a  Neapolitan,  that  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  pope  by  his  love  of  peace 
and  kindness,  and  that  he  issued  a  number  of 
decrees  affecting  the  functions  of  the  different 
orders  of  the  clergy.  Bede  and  William  of  Malmes- 
buiy  mention  several  letters  addressed  to  English 
personages;  the  most  important  is  that  preserved 
by  the  latter,  a  letter  to  Justus,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (625),  confirming  for  all  time  the  posi- 
tion of  his  diocese  as  the  metropolitan  see  of  Britain, 
and  extending  his  powers.  Boniface  died  Oct. 
25,  625.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Liber  ponUfiealia,  ed.  Duchesne,  i,  321, 
Paris,  1886;  Jaff4,  Reoeeta,  i,  222;  Bede,  HieU  eccL,  ii, 
7,  ed.  Plununer,  vol.  i,  pp.  03-05,  Oxford,  1896;  F.  Gre- 
gorovins,  Qethiehie  der  Siadt  Rom,  ii,  122,  Stuttgart, 
1876,  Eng.  trans].,  London,  1002;  Mann,  Popes,  I,  i, 
204;  Bower,  Popee,  i.  430-132. 

Boniface  VI:  Pope  806.  He  was  the  son  of 
Hadrian,  a  Roman,  and  was  elevated  to  the  papal 
throne  in  April  or  May,  896,  by  a  popular  move- 
ment, on  the  death  of  Formos\is,  although  he  had 
twice  been  deposed  from  his  spiritual  functions 
by  John  VIII  on  charges  affecting  his  moral  char- 
acter, and  apparently  was  never  canonically  re- 
stored. He  maintained  his  position  only  for 
fifteen  days,   aa  the  party  hostile  to    Formosus 


carried  through  the  election  of  Stephen  VI,  who 
drove  him  out.  Others  say  that  he  died  fifteen 
days  after  his  election.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuooraphy:  Jafftf,  Regeata,  i,  430;    Annalee    Fuldenaee, 

ad.  Q.  H.  Ports,  in  MOH,  ScripL,  i.  412,  Hanover,  1826; 

R.    Baxmann,  Die  Politik  der  PUptU,  ii.  70.  Elberfeld, 

1860;  J.   Langen,   OeechidUe  der  rOmieehen  Kirche  .  .  . 

bie  Qregor  VI I „  p.  803,  Bonn,  1802;  Bower,  Popee,  ii,  220. 

Boniface  VII:  Pope  974,  984-985.  After  the 
downfall  of  Benedict  VI,  Cresoentius,  the  leader 
of  the  nobles,  caused  the  election  of  the  deacon 
Boniface,  called  Franco  (June,  974).  One  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  order  his  predecessor  to  be  put 
to  death.  But  he  was  able  to  hold  his  own  only  for 
six  weeks,  after  which  he  fled  to  Constantinople. 
Here  he  remained  for  more  than  nine  years — or 
as  long  as  Otto  II  lived  to  protect  the  popes  set 
up  by  him,  Benedict  VII  and  John  XIV.  Otto 
died  Dec.  7,  983,  and  the  fugitive  Boniface  imme- 
diately asserted  his  claims.  He  reappeared  in 
Rome,  and  in  the  following  April  defeated  John 
XIV,  imprisoned  him  in  the  castle  of  Sant'Angelo, 
and  had  him  either  poisoned  or  starved  to  death 
there.  Eleven  months  later,  this  "  horrible  mon- 
ster" (as  a  contemporary  calls  him)  met  a  like 
fate,  dying,  it  seems  probable,  by  assassination 
in  the  summer  of  985;  his  body  was  mutilated  and 
insulted  by  the  infuriated  populace.  GfrOrer's 
hypothesis  that  his  murder  was  caused  by  the 
empress  Theophano  has  no  support  in  the  original 
authorities.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxoorapht:  Jaff^,  Regeeta,  i,  485;  Hemuumus  Augien- 
na.  Ckronieon,  ad.  Q.  H.  Perti,  in  MOH,  ScripL,  v,  116 
■qq.,  Hanover,  1844;  Qerbert,  Acta  eoneilii  Remenaie, 
ad.  G.  H.  Parts,  MGH,  ScnpL,  iU.  672,  ib.  1830;  L.  C. 
Faruod,  Inve»tio<uioni  .  .  .  «u  2a  pereona  ed  il  ponUfiaUo 
di  Bonif.  VII.,  Lugo,  1856  (attampts  to  daar  Boniface 
of  the  charges);  J.  M.  Wattarich,  PonHfieum  Romanorum 
vito,  i,  66,  Laipeio,  1862;  J.  Langen,  Geechiehie  der  rOmi- 
acKen  Kirche  ...  6m  Oreoor  VII.,  Bonn,  1802. 

Boniface  Vm  (Benedetto  Gaetani):  Pope  1294- 
1303.    He  was  bom  at  Anagni  [c.  1235],  and  prob- 
ably studied  dvil  and  canon  law  at  Paris.    He 
began  his  ecclesiastical  career  as  canon  of  Todi, 
held  benefices  in  Lyons  and  Rome,  and  became 
notary  of   the   Curia.    Martin   IV   made   him   a 
cardinal   in    1281,   and   under   Nicholas   IV   and 
Gelestine  V  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
members  of  the  sacred  college,  being  employed 
in    the    most    varied    missions.    He    encouraged 
Gelestine  V  in  his  project  of  retirement  to  ascetic 
seclusion,  and  even  drew  up  the  formula  of  abdica- 
tion, by  which  he  was  to  profit;  for,  less  than  a 
fortnight  after  Gelestine  had  laid  down  the  papal 
dignity,  it  was  bestowed  upon  his  adviser  (Dec.  24, 
1294).    Even   before   his   consecration,   the   new 
pope  asserted  his  prerogatives  by  revoking  many 
appointments  of  his  two  predecessors,  deposing 
archbishops  and  bishops  appointed  by  Gelestine 
without  the  consent  of  the  cardinals,  and  leaving 
Naples  for  Rome  with  all  his  court,  in 
Policy      spite  of  the  efforts  of  Gharles  II  to 
and        detain  him  there.    He  was  consecrated 
Successes    and  crowned  in  St.  Peter's,  Jan.  23, 
in  Italy.     1295,  and  soon  took  an  active  part  in 
the  conflicts  of  the  time,  offering  to 
mediate  between  Genoa  and  Venice  in  February. 
Sicily  occupied  him  next;  it  had  freed  itself  from 


BohIAmm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


884 


Freaeh  domination  in  1282,  chosen  Peter  III  of 
Aragon  as  king,  and  thus  dissolved  the  feudal 
connection  with  Rome.  Peter's  son  and  heir, 
James  II,  showed  himself  ready  to  abandon  Sicily 
after  Aragon  had  fallen  to  him  by  the  death  of 
his  elder  brother.  Another  brother,  however — 
Frederick — stepped  in  and  assumed  the  Sicilian 
crown,  and  neither  repeated  papal  anathemas 
nor  an  armed  league  against  him  could  make  him 
renounce  it;  in  1302  he  obtained  favorable  terms 
of  peace,  and  in  1303  papal  recognition.  Boniface 
also  intervened  in  the  strife  between  the  Blacks 
and  Whites  of  Florence,  in  favor  of  the  former, 
and  sent  a  legate  to  Tuscany.  From  the  sojourn 
of  Dante  in  Rome  as  the  ambassador  of  the  Bianchi 
dates  the  bitter  hatred  which  he  displays  for 
Boniface  VIII.  In  agreement  with  the  Neri, 
Boniface  brought  Charles  of  Valois  to  Tuscany  in 
1301  as  governor;  but  his  five  months'  rule  accom- 
plished nothing  but  the  alienation  of  the  last 
sympathisers  of  the  pope  there.  Boniface  had 
real  power  only  in  the  south  of  Italy  and  some 
central  cities.  Charles  II  of  Naples  became  the 
obedient  servant  of  the  Curia,  while  Pisa,  Velletri, 
Orvieto,  and  Terradna  chose  Boniface  as  their 
ruler.  But  a  hostile  party  was  forming  in  Rome, 
led  by  the  two  Colonna  cardinals,  who  disapproved 
of  the  close  alliance  with  Charles  II  and  secretly 
supported  the  pretensions  of  the  house  of  Aragon 
in  Sicily.  In  1297  the  pope  stripped  them  of  all 
their  ecclesiastical  dignities;  and  on  the  same  day 
they  formally  renounced  their  allegiance  to  him, 
declaring  Celestine's  abdication  to  have  been  in- 
valid and  appealing  to  a  general  council.  Boniface 
deprived  the  whole  family  of  their  possessions,  one 
after  another,  and  soon  Palestrina  alone  held  out 
against  the  papal  anny.  The  Colonna  submitted 
in  1298;  but  when,  the  next  year,  Boniface  des- 
troyed Palestrina,  contrary,  they  asserted,  to  a 
promise  of  ultimate  restitution,  they  took  up  arms 
once  more  against  him.  Again  they  were  defeated, 
and  their  estates  divided  between  their  enemies, 
the  Orsini  and  the  Gaetani. 

Soon  after  his  accession,  Boniface  became  in- 
volved in  complications  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
Italy.    Eric   VIII  of   Denmark   had  imprisoned 

the    arehbishop    of    Lund    in    1294, 

Denmark,  really  to  extort  money  from  him,  but 

Hungary,  nominally   on    the    ground    of    con- 

and        spiracy.    In    1295    Boniface   sent    a 

Poland,     legate  to  demand  his  release  on  pain 

of  excommunication  and  interdict. 
These  penalties  were  imposed  in  1296,  but  Eric  held 
out  until  1302,  though  even  then  the  pope  did  not 
succeed  in  restoring  the  deposed  ardibishop.  In 
the  contest  for  the  throne  of  Hungary,  on  the  ground 
that  he  had  been  "  set  over  princes  and  kingdoms, 
to  put  down  iniquity,"  and  that  Hungary  belonged 
on  special  grounds  to  the  Apostolic  See,  he  claimed 
the  deciding  voice;  in  1300  he  sent  Chaxles  Robert, 
grandson  of  Mary  of  Sicily,  to  the  Hungarians  as 
their  king;  but  they  first  dimg  to  Andrew  III, 
and  after  his  death  elected  the  son  of  Wenoeslaus  II 
of  Bohemia  as  Ladislaus  V.  At  the  moment  of 
Boniface's  death,  Wenceslaus  was  preparing  to 
unite  with  Philip  the  Fair  against  him,  and  his 


interests  clashed  with  the  pope's  in  another  place 
as  well — ^in  Poland,  which  had  elected  Wenonlaus 
in  1300,  to  take  the  place  of  the  deposed  King 
Ladislaus.  Again  Boniface  claimed  suzerain  ri^ts, 
supported  the  exiled  king,  who  had  sought  his  aid, 
and  forbade  Wenoeslaus  to  assume  the  crown  with- 
out the  papal  sanction ;  but,  as  in  Hungaiy ,  his  words 
were  not  heeded. 

He  met  with  somewhat  greater  success  in  Ger- 
many. The  undertaking  given  by  Adolf  of  Nassau, 
in  the  Treaty  of  Nuremberg  (Aug.  21,  1294),  to 
support  Edward  I  of  Eng^d  against  Philip 
IV,  displeased  the  pope,  who  wished 

Germany,  to  see  peace  between  fSrance  and  Eng- 
land. He  wrote  to  Adolf  forbidding  him 
to  take  up  arms,  and  reproaching  him  for  not  hav- 
ing announced  fads  election  to  him.  Adolf  returned 
a  submissive  answer,  and  received  some  privileges 
in  return,  but  the  papal  legates  were  bidden  stiU 
to  insist  on  peace.  He  even  went  so  far  as  to  impose 
a  year's  truce  on  all  three  kings  (1295),  which,  at 
its  expiration,  he  renewed  for  another  two  yean. 
In  1296  he  commanded  them  to  submit  their  dif- 
ferences to  his  decision;  but  only  Adolf  sent  hia 
representatives  to  Rome.  On  June  27,  1298,  Boni- 
face decided  that  neither  Philip  nor  Adolf  must 
overstep  his  boundaries,  and  that  these  must  be 
restored  where  they  faiad  been  violated.  Adolf 
never  heard  of  this  decision;  four  days  before  it 
was  rendered,  he  had  been  deposed  by  the  electoral 
princes,  and  on  July  2  he  fell  in  battle  agunst  his 
rival  Albert  of  Austria.  Boniface  took  a  lofty  tone 
with  Albert,  summoning  him  to  appear  within  six 
months  and  submit  his  claims  to  the  throne,  since  it 
belonged  to  the  pope  to  examine  the  person  chosen 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  reject  him  if  unsuitable. 
Albert  delayed  until  he  made  his  position  secure  in 
Germany,  and  then  sent  his  ambassadors  (Mar., 
1302)  with  liberal  promises  and  the  required  evi- 
dence. Boniface  needed  his  help  against  France  too 
badly  to  raise  any  objection,  and  recognised  him  as 
king  of  the  Romans  and  future  emperor.  Albert, 
in  return,  renounced  his  alliance  with  Philip,  and 
made  all  possible  theoretical  and  practical  con- 
cessions. 

But  a  more  stubborn  obstacle  was  found  in  the 

king  and  parliament  of  Eng^d.    When  Edward  I 

had  conquered  Scotland  for  the  second  time  in 

1298,  Boniface  claimed  that  country 

England,  also  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See,  and 
summoned  Edward  before  his  tri- 
bunal for  having  ventured  to  lay  hands  upon  it. 
Edward  laid  the  bull  before  Parliament  in  1301; 
the  reply  of  the  Engjish  people  was  that  Scotland 
had  never  been  a  papal  fief,  that  their  king  should 
not  answer  the  summons,  and  that,  even  if  he  wished 
to,  they  would  not  permit  it.  On  May  7  Edward 
informed  the  pope  that  he  would  not  give  up  Soot- 
land;  and  Boniface  waa  obliged  to  be  cont^t  with 
the  answer,  because  in  the  mean  time  the  mem- 
orable conflict  with  France  had  broken  out. 

Philip  the  Fair  waa  a  ruler  after  the  very  pattern 
of  Macchiavelli's  later  description,  knowing  no 
law  but  self-interest,  and  sticking  at  nothing  to 
accomplish  his  ends.  His  relations  with  Boniface 
had  at  first  been  friendly,  but  he  was  probably 


32ff 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoniftM>e 


offended  by  the  pope's  above-mentioned  interfer- 
ence with  his  designs  against  En^and.    When  in 

1296  the  clergy  of  both  France  and 
France.     Eng^d  complained  to  Boniface  of  the 

taxes  laid  upon  them  by  their  sover- 
eigns for  warlike  purposes,  he  answered  by  the  bull 
Clericis  laicos  (Feb.  25,  1296).  It  opened  with  the 
offensive  assertion  that  the  laity  had  always  been 
and  still  were  hostile  to  the  clergy,  and  proceeded  to 
forbid  all  princes  to  tax  the  clergy  of  their  domin- 
ions without  papal  sanction,  under  pain  of  excom- 
mimication.  Edward,  though  at  first  protesting, 
declared  in  1297  that  no  further  tax  should  be 
laid  upon  the  clergy  without  their  consent;  but 
Philip  responded  by  forbidding  all  exportation  of 
gold  and  silver,  coined  or  uncoined,  from  France 
(Aug.,  1296).  This  cut  off  so  large  a  portion  of 
the  papal  revenue  that  Boniface  modified  his 
attitude  in  the  bull  IneffabUis  amoris  (Sept.  25), 
and  yidded  more  completely  in  three  briefs  (Feb. 
and  July,  1297)  extremely  conciliatory  in  tone; 
in  the  same  spirit  he  completed  the  canonization 
of  Louis  IX  in  August,  and  the  discord  seemed  in 
a  fair  way  to  be  removed.  But  it  was  not  long  in 
breaking  out  again.  Philip  had  welcomed  to  his 
court  some  of  the  exiled  Colonna  family,  and  had 
lent  a  willing  ear  to  their  unmeasured  abuse  of  the 
pope,  which  did  not  spare  his  moral  character. 
The  king's  misuse  of  the  droit  de  tigale  (see  Regale), 
on  the  other  hand,  had  been  giving  increasing 
provocation  to  the  pope  since  1299.  An  open 
rupture  came  in  1301;  and  by  that  time  both  con- 
testants had  increased  their  pretensions  and  were 
ready  to  wage  a  more  bitter  war  than  ever.  Boni- 
face chose  to  send  as  legate  to  Paris  a  Frenchman, 
Bernard  de  Saisset,  bishop  of  Pamiers,  who  was  for 
several  reasons  pertona  rum  grata  at  the  French 
court,  and  his  haughty  tone  at  this  time  made  him 
no  better  liked.  Philip  refused  to  see  him;  and, 
then,  when  he  had  returned  to  Pamiers,  brought 
him  back  to  Paris,  and  had  him  tried  and  condenmed 
on  a  charge  of  treason  and  lese-majesty.  On  Dec. 
5,  1301,  Boniface  demanded  that  his  ambassador 
should  inunediately  be  set  free  to  come  to  Rome; 
and  at  the  same  time  he  sununoned  the  principal 
French  churchmen  and  jurists  to  assemble  in 
Rome  Nov.  1,  1302,  to  take  counsel  with  him  in 
the  difficulties  of  the  French  question.  Notifying 
Philip  of  this,  amid  the  most  passionate  reproaches, 
in  the  bull  AuscuUa  fili,  he  conunanded  him  also 
to  appear  in  person  or  by  proxy  at  this  assembly; 
the  assertions  were  repeated  that  God  had  set  the 
Vicar  of  Christ  over  princes  and  kingdoms,  thus 
giving  him  charge  to  ordain  what  might  be  needed 
for  the  removal  of  scandals  and  for  the  welfare  of 
the  kingdom  of  France.  To  meet  this,  Philip  sum- 
moned his  estates  to  Paris  for  Apr.  10,  1302,  and 
laid  before  them  not  the  bull  AuacuUa  fiii,  but  a 
docim:ient  purporting  to  be  the  pope's  utterance, 
which  far  surpassed  even  the  real  one  in  matter 
of  offense.  The  estates,  stirred  up  by  this,  voted 
to  stand  by  the  king.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year, 
Philip  notified  the  pope  that  he  would  have  none 
of  his  arbitration  in  the  struggle  with  England; 
and  Boniface  now  urged  Edward  to  war  instead 
of  peace.  Peace,  however,  was  made  in  1303. 
XL— 16 


Meantime,  as  a  result  of  the  synod  which  the  pope 
opened  on  Oct.  30, 1302,  at  which  not  a  few  French 
prelates  were  present  in  spite  of  Philip,  the  bull 
Unam  aanctam  was  drawn  up,  asserting  in  the  most 
definite  terms  the  theory  of  ''  the  two  swords," 
and  the  necessity  to  salvation  of  submission  to  the 
pope.  Some  futile  attempts  at  conciliation  took 
place  in  the  early  part  of  1303,  but  Philip  was 
declared  on  Apr.  13  to  have  rendered  himself  liable 
to  exconmiunication.  Two  months  later,  the  king 
assembled  his  nobles,  prelates,  and  jurists,  and  his 
answer  came  in  the  form  of  a  definite  accusation 
against  Boniface  under  twenty-four  separate  heads 
of  the  most  appalling  nature.  Impr^sed  by  this, 
the  assembly  resolved  to  appeal  to  a  general  coxmcil 
against  him;  but  since  he  would  have  to  be  forced 
to  attend  it,  the  collection  of  funds  for  this  purpose 
was  begun.  William  of  Nogaret,  the  king's  vice- 
chancellor,  went  to  Italy  and  struck  up  an  alliance 
with  Sciarra  Colonna,  who  had  the  wrongs  of  his 
family  to  avenge.  They  enlisted  a  number  of  the 
nobles  of  the  Campagna,  and  used  money  freely, 
winning  adherents  even  among  Boniface's  fellow 
townsmen  of  Anagni,  where  he  was  then  holding 
his  court.  He  had  resolved  to  make  formal  publi- 
cation of  the  anathema  against  Philip  on  Sept.  8; 
but  eariy  on  the  morning  of  the  7th,  William  and 
his  adherents,  a  few  hundred  strong,  gained  an 
entrance  into  the  town,  penetrated  even  into  the 
sleeping  apartments  of  Boniface,  and  when  he 
refused  all  concessions  made  him  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  palace.  On  the  9th  the  citizens  rose  and 
liberated  him;  Nogaret  and  Sciarra  Colonna  were 
forced  to  flee,  while  Boniface  returned  to  Rome 
Sept.  25.  But,  worn  out  by  the  long  strife,  he 
died  Oct.  11. 

His  defeat  is  to  be  seen  not  in  the  drcumstanoes 
of  hiB  captivity  and  his  death,  but  in  the  fact  that  the 
spiritual  weapons  he  wielded  proved  utteriy  unequal 
to  the  conquest  of  the  aroused  national 
Character   feeling  of  France.    The  national  spirit 
and        showed  itself  more  powerful  than  the 
Achieve-    ecclesiastical.     This    defeat    inflicted 
ments  of    a  staggering  blow  upon  the  authority 
Boniface,    of  the  papacy.     Yet  Boniface  was  no 
ordinary  man.    Though  he  was  be- 
tween seventy  and  eighty  when  he  became  pope, 
he  showed  no  trace  of  the  weakness  of  age;  his 
will  was  unbending,  his  mind  clear  and  logical. 
But  his  whole  heart  was  set  on  power.    In  some 
ways  he  reminds  of  Gregory  VII,  and  he  could 
no  more  hope  to  escape  conflicts  than  could  the 
unflinching  Hildebrand.    But  he  did  not  in  the  con- 
flict show  the  moral  loftiness  of  Hildebrand — 
to  say  nothing  of  that  of  such  men  as  Nicholas  I 
and  Innocent  III.    Nor  is  his  personality  without 
moral  flaws.    He  had  no  scruple  in  using  the  funds 
he  had  raised  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land 
in  his  own  wars;  nor  is  the  reproach  unfounded  that 
he  used  the  privileges  of  his  position  to  surround 
his  own  family  with  princely  splendor.    When  he 
strove  for  peace,  as  between  England  and  France, 
his  determining  motive  was  plainly  the  desire  to 
show  himself  the  supreme  arbiter  of  nations;  when 
he  had  nothing  to  gain,  he  was  ready  enough  to 
set  them  against  eadi  other,  as  he  set  Albert  I  and 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


826 


Edward  I  agunst  Philip.  Fair  critidmn  must, 
however,  reject  the  accuBations  of  debauchery 
entirely,  since  they  rest  on  no  trustworthy  testi- 
mony; and  quite  as  groundless  is  the  charge  of 
heresy  brought  against  him  by  his  foes.  Clement 
V  had  good  foundation  for  the  doubtful  praise 
which  he  bestows  upon  Boniface  when  he  calls 
him  a  destroyer  of  heretics;  for  he  not  only  con- 
firmed, but  even  strengthened  the  laws  passed 
against  heresy  by  Frederick  II.  He  had  a  great 
influence  on  the  development  of  the  canon  law 
by  the  issue  in  1298  of  his  so-called  lAber  Mxtua, 
— a  continuation  of  the  five  books  which  Gregory 
IX  had  put  together  in  1234;  it  contains  his  own 
decrees  as  well  as  those  of  his  predecessors  since 
Gregory's  time.  It  must  be  mentioned  to  his 
credit  that  he  erected  higher  schools  at  Avignon 
and  at  Fermo  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  modeled 
after  the  University  of  Bologna,  for  the  study  of 
theology,  civil  and  canon  law,  medicine,  and  the 
liberal  arts;  and  he  has  a  special  title  to  the  grati- 
tude of  Rome  for  the  refoimding  of  the  Roman 
University,  originally  established  by  Charles  of 
Anjou  in   1265.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapbt:  Walter  d«  Heminchburgh.  Chroniam  ds 
gtM^M  rtoum  Anglim,  ed.  H.  C.  Hamilton,  pp.  39  Bqq., 
London,  1848;  Riahanser,  Chronica,  ed.  H.  T.  Riley,  pp. 
146  eqq.,  483  eqq.,  ib.  1806;  AnnalM  Pwrmtnf  majorM, 
in  MOH,  Saripi.,  xviii  (1803),  716  aqq.;  Chromcon  Col- 
mar,  ib.  xvii  (1861).  263;  ChiilelmuB  de  Nangiaoo.  Ckroni- 
eon,  ib.  xxri  (1882),  647  eqq.  The  bulla  CUrieU  laieoa 
and  Unam  aanetam  are  translated  in  Thatober  and  Mo- 
Neal,  Sourer  Book,  pp.  311-313,  314-^17.  and  otber  rele- 
vant doeumente  on  pp.  276,  313;  tbe  bulb  are  also  in 
Henderson,  DocunMiitt,  pp.  43^^-437;  Unam  aanetam  is  in 
Robinson,  European  Hiatory,  i,  346-348;  the  CUrieU 
ZoicM  is  also  in  Qee  and  Hardy,  DoewmtenU,  pp.  87-88; 
the  Lat.  text  is  in  Reich,  DoeummU,  pp.  191-106.  Val- 
uable for  Bouroes  is  also  G.  Digard,  M.  Fauoon,  and  A. 
Thomas,  Let  RigiMlrf  d$  Bonifaea  VIII,  Reeueil  de* 
huXUe  de  ee  pape  .  .  .  d*aprke  lee  M88.  orifKnaux  dss 
ardiivee  du  VaHcan,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1884-00;  T.  H.  Finke, 
Aue  den  Tagen  Bonifaa  VIIL,  MOnster,  1002. 

For  Boniface's  life  and  activities  consult:  L.  Tosti, 
Storia  di  Bonifagio  VIII.,  2  vols.,  Monte  (Saasino,  1846; 
Jorry,  Hietoire  du  pape  Boniface  VIII.,  Plancy,  1860; 
W.  Drumann,  Geet^idUe  Bonifadue  VIII.,  2  vols.,  K6nigs- 
beig,  1852  (critical);  A.  von  Reumont,  Oeeehiehie  der 
Stadi  Rom,  ii,  618.  Berlin,  1868;  A.  Potthast,  Reoeeta 
ponHfieum  Romanorum,  ii,  1023-2024,  2133,  Berlin,  1875; 
F.  Grsgorovius,  Oeet^iekle  der  Stadi  Rom,  v.  502,  Stutt- 
sart,  1878,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1808;  W.  Wattenbaoh, 
Oeeckidiie  dee  rOmietKen  Papettume,  216  sqq.,  Berlin, 
1876;  Balan,  II  Proeeeeo  di  Bonifaeio  VIII.,  Rome.  1881; 
F.  Rocquain,  La  PapautS  aumotfen  do*.  .  .  .  Boniface 
VIII.,  Paris,  1881;  idem,  PhUippe  U  Bel  et  la  huUe  Aue- 
cuUa  fUi,  in  Bibliothique  de  VicoU  dee  duirtee,  1883.  pp. 
303-304;  B.  Jungmann,  />issertalumef  eelecta,  vol.  vi, 
Regensbfurg,  1886;  J.  Berchtold,  Die  BuUe  Unam  eanc- 
tami,  Munich,  1887;  W.  Martens.  Dae  Vaiieanum  und 
Bonifam  VIII.,  Freiburg,  1888;  Neander,  ChrieOan  Church, 
iv,  67, 682,  V,  1-13  and  passim;  Hefele.  Coneilienoeechi^te, 
vi.  281  sqq.;  Bower,  Popee,  iii,  43-55.  64;  R.  Schols, 
Die  Publieietik  eur  ZeU  . .  .  Bonifae  VIII.,  Leiprio. 
1003. 

On  his  relations  to  the  various  European  states  con- 
sult: F.  C.  Dahlmann,  Oeedtiehte  von  DOnemark,  i,  425 
sqq.,  Hamburg,  1840;  R.  Pauli.  Oeeehichte  von  BniUind, 
vol.  iv,  Gotha.  1855;  E.  Boutaric.  La  France  eoue  Phin 
lippe  U  Bel,  pp.  88  sqq..  Paris,  1861;  A.  Baillet,  Hietoire 
dee  dSmfUe  du  pape  Boniface  VIII.  avee  Philippe  le  Bel, 
Paris.  1818;  E.  Engelmann.  Der  Anepntt^  der  P&peU  auf 
Konfbrmation  bei  den  deutet^en  KOnigewahlen,  Breslau. 
1886;  Fessler.  Oeeehichte  von  Uni/am,  i,  451  sqq..  ii.  3 
sqq.,  Leipsic,  1867-60;  J.  B.  SagmQller,  Die  ThiUiokeit 
und  Stelluno  der  CardimOe  hie  Bonifaa  VIII.,  Fxeibuig. 
1806;  J.  Oaro,  GeaehichU  PoUna,  Gotha.  1863. 


Boniface  IX  (Pietro  Tomaodli):  Pope  1389- 
1404.  He  came  of  a  noble  Neapolitan  family, 
and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Uiban  VI,  whcmi  be 
succeeded  Nov.  2,  1389.  He  ia  said  to  have  beeo 
judidoujB,  affable,  and  pious,  but  without  leazning 
or  knowledge  of  affairs.  His  principal  um  was 
the  restoration  of  the  papal  authority  in  Rome  aod 
the  States  of  the  Church,  for  which  he  labored  not 
unsuccessfully.  The  Romans,  it  is  true,  ezpeUed 
him  from  the  dty  in  1392,  but  fearful  that  he  mi^t 
fix  his  residence  permanently  elsewhere,  they 
recalled  him  in  the  following  year.  He  returned 
on  condition  of  the  surrender  of  a  great  part  of  the 
dvio  liberties;  and  another  rising  in  1398  gave 
him  the  opportunity  to  limit  them  still  further. 
He  was  fortunate  also  in  regard  to  Naples,  where 
things  were  in  a  condition  very  unfavorable  to  tbe 
piracy,  owing  to  the  confused  policy  of  Urban  VI. 
Clement  VII  and  Louis  II  of  Anjou  thought  tbe 
time  had  come  to  make  a  thorough  conquest  of 
the  kingdom,  but  Boniface  made  a  dose  alliance 
with  King  Ladislaus  and  finally  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  the  French,  holding  Naples  in  tbe 
Roman  obedience.  By  the  aid  of  his  political 
influence,  Boniface  hoped  to  succeed  in  ending 
the  great  schism,  at  first  depending  on  the  Gemian 
king  Wenceslaus,  whom  he  invit^  to  Rome  for 
coronation  as  emperor;  but  matters  were  in  too 
critical  a  state  in  Germany  for  him  to  leave.  An 
appeal  to  Charles  VI  of  f^rance  in  1392  to  abandon 
his  allegiance  to  Clement  had  no  good  result;  nor 
had  a  similar  attempt  in  Castile.  The  hope  of 
accommodation  raised  by  the  death  of  Qenaent 
VII  (Sept.  16,  1394)  was  destroyed  by  the  action 
of  the  Avignon  cardinals,  who  dected  Benedict 
XIII.  In  the  contests  resulting  in  the  deposition 
of  Wenceslaus  and  the  attempt  to  put  tl^  count 
palatine  Rupert  in  his  place,  Boziiface  wavered 
from  side  to  side,  and  only  expressed  his  willing- 
ness to  recognise  Rupert  in  1403  from  a  fear  that 
he  would  be  thrown  into  the  arms  of  the  king  of 
France.  Boniface  acquired  an  unenviable  reputa- 
tion for  avarice,  nepotism,  and  simoniacal  trans- 
actions.   He  died  Oct.  1,  1404.      (A.  Hauck.) 

BnuooRAPHT:  Some  of  the  ■ouroes  for  a  history  of  Booi- 
tmoa  IX  are  the  foUowing:  The  bulb  are  in  O.  Baynakliifl. 
Annalee  eedeeiaetid,  ed.  BeroniuB,  continued  by  A. 
Theiner,  Paris,  1864  eqq.;  the  Diptomata  are  in  Menar 
m*nta  vaHeana  hietoriam  Hunoarieg  iUuetrantia,  toL  iii, 
Budapest.  1888;  Dietrioh  von  Nieheim,  \De  Sckieauk, 
book  ii,  ehap.  0  sqq.,  ed.  G.  Erler,  pp.  129  aqq.,  Leipae, 
1880;  Qobelinus  Persona,  Coamodromium,  in  H.  Meibom, 
Rerum  Oermani^arum,  i,  316  sqq.,  Helmstadt,  1688;  sod 
a  Vita  in  L.  A.  Muratori,  Rerum  Italicarum  aeripL,  III.  ii, 
830.  25  vols..  Milan.  1723-38.  Consult  further:  M.  Jsnaen. 
Papet  BonifaHue  IX.,  Freiburs,  1004;  Huftoria  .  .  .  de 
Bonifaaio  none,  Venice,  1613;  N.  Valois.  La  France  H  U 
grand  adiiame,  ii,  157,  Paris,  1806;  Gtaichton,  Papacy,  i 
111-183;  Festor,  Popes,  i.  passim;  Neander.  ChruHn 
Churdi,  Tol.  V.  passim;  Bower.  Popea,  iii,  143-152;  Hefde, 
ConcUiengeethidUe,  ri,  812. 

BOHIFACE,  SAIHT:  The  apostle  of  the  Ge^ 
mans;  b.  at  (>editon  (8  m.  n.w.  of  Exeter),  Devon- 
shire, between  675  and  683;  d.  a  martyr  on  the 
banks  of  the  Borne  near  Dokkum  (13  m.  n.e.  of 
Leeuwarden),  in  Friesland,  June  5,  755.  He  was 
an  Englishman  of  a  distinguished  family  of  Wessez, 
and  was  originally  named  Winfrid  or  Wynfrith. 
His  studies  were  begun  at  the  monastety  of  Ade»- 


227 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


BonihLoe 


cancastre  (Exeter?),  and  continued  at  Nutshalling 
or  Nursling,  near  Winchester.  Here  he  won  dis- 
tinction for  learning  and  practical  wisdom,  and 
at  an  early  age  waa  made  master  of  the  monastic 
school. 

Disregarding  brilliant  prospects  at  home,  from 
717  Boniface  gave  himself  to  missionary  work  on 
the  Continent.    After  a  brief  effort  in  Friesland — 
the  field  of   his  countryman  Willibrord  (q.v.) — 
he  went  to  Rome  and  received  a  conmiission  from 
the  pope  (Gregory  II)  as  missionary  to  Central 
Germany.    He  began  his  labor  in  Thuringia  and 
Hessia,  the  easternmost  of  the  lands  of  the  Franks, 
where  he  found  not  only  heathen  but  Christians 
and  priests  who  knew  nothing  and 
Early      wanted  to  know  nothing  of   Roman 
MisBionaxy  discipline  and  order.    They  were  prob- 
Work.      ably  converts   and   disciples   of  Iro- 
Scottish  and  British  monks,  who  had 
long  been   laboring   among  the  tribes  from  the 
Rhine  to  the  Saale  and  southward  to  the  Alps  (see 
Celtic  Chubch  in  Britain  and  Irsland,  II,  2, 
S  3,  III,  2,  §  2).    For  two  or  three  years  Boniface's 
activity  was  diverted  to  Friesland,  but  then  he 
returned  to  the  Franks,  and,  with  the  help  of  two 
landed  proprietors,  founded  a  central  settlement 
for  himself  and  companions  at  Amdneburg  on  the 
Ohm  in  Hessia.    His  success  was  great  and  led  to 
a  Bummoiks  to  Rome  from  Gregory  II.    There  he 
was  consecrated  bishop  and  swore  fidelity  to  the 
canons  of  the  Church;  he  was  charged  to  be  on  his 
guard  against  heretical  priests  and  anti-Roman 
bishops.    About   724   he   returned   to   Germany, 
provided  with  letters  of  recommendation  to  the 
major  domus,  Charles  Ifartel,  to  the  clergy,  chief- 
tains, and  people.    Charles  Ifartel  granted  him 
protection,  and,  after  confirming  recent  converts 
in  Hessia,  and  felling  the  sacred  oak  of  Thor  near 
Geismar,  Boniface  went  eastward  into  Thuringia, 
and  established  its   first  monastery  at  Ohrdruf. 
He  founded  many  churches,  converted  the  heathen, 
expelled  the  anti-Roman  priests,  and  in  ten  years 
had  won  a  new  province  for  the  Church  and  the 
pope. 

Being  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  archbishop, 
Boniface  organised  his  Church  by  founding  the 
sees  of  Wdrsburg,  Buraburg,  and  Erfurt,  and  by 
building  monasteries  and  nunneries,  which  he 
filled  with  monks  and  nuns  from  Eng^d  and 
endowed  and  improved  with  the  help  of  English 
money.  Bavaria  next  claimed  his  attention. 
Anti-Roman  influence  was  strong  there  and  among 
the  neighboring  Alemanni  (q.v.),  but,  with  the 
authorisation  of  Gregory  III,  in  a  few  years,  Boni- 
face placed  men  in  sympathy  with  Rome  in  the 
Bees  of  Regensburg,  Passau,  Sabburg,  and  Freising, 
aud  substituted  the  Benedictine  rules  for  those 
of  Columban  in  the  monasteries.  On 
Organiza-  the  death  of  Charles  Martel  (741), 
tion.  his  sons  Karlman  and  Pepin,  who  had 
been  brought  up  under  monkish  in- 
fluence, succeeded  to  his  power.  In  742  Karlman 
called  upon  the  papal  legate  to  regulate  the  affairs 
of  the  Church  for  the  East  Franks.  Under  the 
guiding  influence  of  Boniface  two  synods  were 
held  and  measures  were  adopted  oonoeming  the 


moiULstic  and  scholastic  discipline,  the  restoration 
of  church  estates  which  had  been  lost,  the  intro- 
duction of  Roman  marriage  laws,  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  the  expulsion  of  the  old  British  itinerant 
priests  and  bishops,  the  extirpation  of  remnants 
of  heathenism,  the  establishment  of  the  hierarchical 
order,  and  the  like.  There  was  some  opposition 
from  the  nobles,  certain  of  the  bishops,  and  the 
people,  who  were  attached  to  their  old  customs, 
but  at  court  and  in  the  Council  the  adversaries 
of  the  "  reformation  of  the  Church  "  lost  all  author- 
ity. 

In  744  Pepin  followed  the  example  of  his  brother. 
A  synod  was  held  at  Soissons,  and  Boniface  was 
given  a  free  hand,  notwithstanding  resistance 
horn  the  Frankish  clergy.  For  a  long  time,  how- 
ever, he  was  unable  to  alienate  the  people  from 
their  old  priests  and  bishops,  such  as  Adalbert 
and  Clement  (qq.v.).  A  general  Frankish  synod 
in  745  published  new  agenda  for  both  divisions  of 
the  country  and  promised  Boniface  the  metro- 
politan see  at  Cologne.  In  747  the  Frankish 
bishops  with  Boniface  at  the  head  signed  in  due 
form  a  bill  of  submission  in  which  they  acknowl- 
edged the  papal  rights,  laws,  and  power, 
Arch-  and  promised  obedience  and  faith- 
bishop,  fulness.  By  this  action  the  bond 
between  the  Frankish  empire  and 
Rome  was  sealed;  the  "  Prince  of  the  Apostles  " 
was  to  be  head  and  master  in  the  countries  north 
of  the  Alps.  Pope  Zacharias  had  every  reason  to 
be  grateful  to  his  legate.  Instead  of  Cologne, 
Boniface  received  Mains  as  his  see.  Here  he  was 
near  his  old  mission  field  in  Hessia  and  Thuringia, 
and  from  Mains  he  could  direct  the  building  of  his 
favorite  foundation,  the  abbey  of  Fulda  (q.v.). 
Worldly  affairs  now  occupied  him  little.  After 
the  death  of  Willibrord  he  desired  strongly  to 
continue  the  Friesian  mission.  In  754  he  spent 
some  time  in  Friesland.  The  next  year  he  again 
descended  the  Rhine  with  a  large  following  and 
pitched  his  camp  on  the  little  river  Borne,  expecting 
the  newly  baptised  would  come  thither  for  con- 
firmation. But  the  camp  was  attacked  by  night 
by  a  band  of  heathen  and  Boniface  and  his  entire 
company  were  massacred.  He  is  buried  at  Fulda. 
An  English  synod  shortly  after  his  death  proclaimed 
him  patron  of  the  EngUsh  Church  by  the  side  of 
Gregory  the  Great  and  Augustine.  Pi\is  IX  in 
1875  ordered  to  invoke  his  name  because  of  troubles 
in  Germany  and  England.  Many  churches  in 
Germany  are  dedicate  to  him.  [A  number  of 
writings  have  been  attributed  to  Boniface.  Those 
most  conmionly  regarded  as  genuine  are  letters, 
a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  statutes,  a  Latin  poem 
called  jSnigmcOa  de  virtutHnUf  and  several  shorter 
poems.]  A.  Werneb. 

Bibuoobapbt:  S,  Bonifadi  op$ra  qua  «xfafil  omnia,  ed. 
J.  A.  Giles,  2  vola..  London,  1844,  oontaina,  beaides  the 
genuine  and  Buiypoeed  works  of  Boniface,  his  life,  written 
within  ten  yean  of  his  death  by  WilUbald,  a  presbyter 
of  ICains.  The  works,  WilUbald's  Ufe.  and  a  life  by 
Othlo.  a  monk  of  St.  Emmeram's  at  Regensburg.  writ- 
ten at  Fulda  between  1062  and  1066,  are  in  Af  PL,  Ixzzix. 
Better  editions  are:  Of  the  letters,  WilUbald's  life,  the 
so-called  PasHo  S.  BonifaHi  (11th  century),  and  extracts 
from  Othlo  and  a  life  by  an  unknown  writer  of  Utrecht 
in  MommnUa  MogunUna,  ed.  P.  Jaffd,  BMiothmsa  nr. 


Bosiiflittius-Vervin 
Bonnet 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


228 


(Term.,  yol.  iii,  1860;  th«  biographical  matter  aim  ifwued 
separately  with  title.  Vita  8.  BonifaHi,  BerUn,  1866;  cf. 
also  Vila  S.  BanifaHi,  ed.  W.  Leviaon.  Hanover,  1906;  of 
the  letters,  ed.  E.  Dammler,  in  MOH.  Epi»t.,  iii  (1892). 
EpiBtola  Menwinffici  e<  Carolini  avi,  i;  of  the  poems,  ed. 
idem,  in  MOH,  Poet,  Lot  avi  Car.,  i  (1881),  pp. 
1-23;  of  Willibald's  life,  ed.  A.  NQmberKer,  Breslau, 
1895,  and,  with  Othlo's  prologue,  in  MGU,  Script.,  ii 
(1829).  For  the  letters  consult  F.  Loofs,  Zur  Chrono- 
logit  dtr  auf  di$  fi^knkiMehen  Synoden  dss  h^Uio^n  Bon^ 
fatiu9  bnUifliehen  Brief e  der  ftofHTasMcAen  Britfmimmluno, 
Leipeie.  1881;  O.  Pfahler.  Die  hornSoHamedf  Bntf- 
mimmlung  dironologiaeh  geordnti,  Heilbronn,  1882. 

For  modem  aooounte  in  (Serman  from  the  Roman 
GathoUe  standpoint,  oonsult:  J.  C.  A.  Seiters,  Bonifadua, 
.  .  .  noih  esifiem  LAen  und  Wirkan  gnthUderU  Mains, 
1846;  O.  Pfahler.  8U  Banifaeiue  und  mins  Zeit,  Regens- 
burg,  1880;  F.  J.  von  Buss,  Winfred  Bonifaciua,  ed.  R. 
▼on  Scherer,  Ghtks,  1880.  From  the  Protestant  stand- 
point: J.  P.  Mailer,  Bom/ociiM.  Bene  kerkhialori»dts 
Studit,  2  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1860-70;  A.  Werner,  Boni- 
faeiua  .  .  .  und  die  RomaniHrung  von  Mittdeuropa, 
Leipsio.  1875;  O.  Fischer,  BonifatiuB  dtr  Apo$tel  dtr 
DtuUehen,  ib.  1881;  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard,  BonitaHut,  der 
Zoratitrer  dea  eolumbaniaehen  Kirehanlhimu  auf  dem 
FeaOande,  Oatersloh,  1882,  of.  his  Iro$dwtH9cha  Mia- 
aionakuxha  daa  etanr^tan  Jakrhundarta,  ib.  1873;  Q. 
Traub,  BomfaHua.  Bin  Labanabild,  Leipsio,  1884.  For 
life  in  Eng.  consult:  Q.  W.  CJox,  Lifa  of  Boniface,  London, 
1853;  Birs.  Hope,  Boniface  and  the  Converaion  of  Oarmany, 
ib.  1872;  Q.  F.  Maclear,  Apoatlae of  Mediaval  Europe,  pp. 
1 10-128,  London,  1888;  I.  Q.  Smith.  Boniface,  in  Falhara  for 
EniH^i^  Raadara,  ib.  1896;  J.  M.  WUliamson.  Ufa  and  Timaa 
of  St  Boniface,  ib.  1904.  (Consult  also:  H.  Hahn.  Boni- 
foM  und  Lvl,  Leipsio,  1883;  G.  Woelbing,  Die  miUdaUar- 
Utkan  LthanthaackraHbungan  daa  BonifaUua  uniaraudU,  ib. 
1883;  Moeller,  Ckriatian  Churdi,  ii.  74-83;  Schaff.  Ckria- 
tian  Church,  iv,  92-100;  DCB,  i,  324-327;  DNB,  ▼. 
346-350;  Neander,  CkriaHan  Church,  iii,  46-06  et  pas- 
sim. 

BOHIFATinS-VERSni  C'Bonifaoe  Society"): 
A  Roman  Catholic  society  of  Geimany,  having  as 
its  object  ''  to  promote  the  spiritual  interests  of 
Catholics  living  in  Protestant  parts  of  Gennany, 
and  the  maintenance  of  sch(x>Is"  (by-laws,  §  1). 
The  tendency  toward  freer  relations  between  dif- 
ferent confessions  and  shifting  of  confessional 
connections  in  Germany  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  aroused  the  anxiety  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  According  to  a  statement  in 
the  Ultramontane  MUnchener  hUtoriscK-poliiiachs 
EUUUt  (Ixviii,  45)  the  Roman  Church  lost  between 
1802  and  1870  more  than  500,000  souls  in  South 
Germany,  whereas  the  loss  in  North  Germany 
between  1802  and  1850  was  estimated  at  one 
million.  The  "  Francis  Xavier  Society/'  which 
had  its  headquarters  at  Lyons  in  France,  and  prop- 
erly speaking  was  a  missionary  society,  took  care 
of  the  "  missions  "  in  Germany  as  far  as  possible; 
but  until  1848  no  Roman  Catholic  church  or  school 
could  be  established  in  Germany  without  the  consent 
of  the  government.  These  restrictions  were  done 
away  with  in  1848,  and  when  the  third  convention 
of  Roman  Catholics  met  at  Regensburg,  Oct.  4, 
1849,  at  the  suggestion  of  DOllinger,  at  that  time 
an  ardent  champion  of  Rome,  and  of  Count  Josef 
von  Stolberg,  son  of  the  famous  convert  Frederick 
Leopold  von  Stolberg,  the  Bonifatius-Verein  was 
founded.  Paderbom  was  chosen  as  the  center  of 
operation.  Pius  IX  approved  the  society,  Apr.  21, 
1852,  and  Leo  XIII  favored  the  priests  belonging 
to  it  with  indulgences.  Mar.  15,  1901.  In  Bavaria 
the  society  was  not  favorably  received  at  first 
on  account  of  similar  societies  already  existing, 


and  in  North  Germany  it  seemed  to  be  a  failure 
by  1853.  But  after  1857,  owing  to  the  ezertioiis 
of  Bishop  Martin  of  Paderbom  and  of  Alban  Stolz, 
it  progressed  rapidly  and  in  1899  celebrated  the 
golden  jubilee  of  its  successful  activity. 

The  society  obtains  the  means  necessary  for 
carrying  on  its  work  in  various  ways:  (1)  from 
collections  in  the  churches;  (2)  from  private  per- 
sons who  obligate  themselves  to  pay  for  a  number 
of  years  the  minister's  salary  in  a  certain  oongre- 
£ation;  (3)  from  donations  to  a  permanent  endow- 
ment fund;  (4)  from  societies  which  collect  seem- 
ingly worthless  objects,  as  cigar  ends,  corks,  and 
the  like;  the  income  from  these  societies,  used 
particularly  for  orphan  asylums  and  like  institu- 
tions, amounted  from  1885  to  1891  to  1,490,539 
marks;  (5)  from  the  profits  of  the  Bonif&tius 
printing-house  and  the  Bonifatius  second-hand 
book-stall  at  Paderbom;  (6)  from  periodicals  and 
pamphlets;  (7)  from  academical  Bonifatius  ao- 
deties,  which  built  the  Catholic  church  at  Gretfa- 
wald;  (8)  from  societies  of  a  like  character,  as 
the  "  Boniface  Society  of  the  Catholic  Noblemen 
of  Silesia,"  the  "Boniface  Society  of  Catholic 
Ladies  for  Chureh  Vestments  and  Furniture " 
and  others.  The  aggregate  receipts  from  all  tiiese 
sources  between  1849  and  1899  were  36,000,000 
marks;  and  between  1849  and  1901  more  than  29,- 
000,000  marks  were  expended  for  2,240  stations. 
In  1902  the  revenues  aggregated  442,000  marks, 
and  expenditures  310,000  marks. 

The  territory  of  the  Bonifatius-Verein  comprises 
Germany,  Austria  with  Bosnia  and  Hersegovina, 
Switserland,  Denmark,  and  Luxembouig.  In 
Germany  special  attention  is  paid  to  the  Protestant 
parts  of  Prussia,  above  all  Berlin;  Saxony,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Mecklenburg  are  also  regarded  as  mis- 
sionary fields.  In  Bavaria,  Nurembeig,  formerly 
wholly  Protestant,  is  especially  an  object  of  the 
propaganda  in  order  to  connect  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  Bavaria.  C.  Fbt. 

Bibuoorapbt:  A.  J.  Kleffner  and  F.  W.  Woker,  Dar  Said- 
fadua-Varain.  Seine  OeadiiAla,  eeine  ArheU  und  mw  At- 
hailafM,  1849-1890,  2  parte.  Paderbom.  1890;  £ont/a- 
duMaU,  ib.  1853  aqq.;  Schleaiaekaa  Bomfadua-Vereiae' 
BUM,  Brealau,  1800  aqq. 

BOlfl  HOMXHES:  A  name  borne  by  several 
monastic  brotherhoods,  particularly  by  the  Gnun- 
montensians  (see  Grammont,  Order  of),  the 
Fratres  saccaH,  or  Sack  Brethren  (q.v.),  and  an 
order  of  canons  regular  founded  in  Portugal  by 
John  Vicensa  (d.  1463),  physician  and  professor  at 
Lisbon,  afterward  bishop  of  Lamego,  and  later 
bishop  of  Viseu.  In  1425  Vicensa  and  his  followers, 
who  had  made  pilgrimages  throughout  Portugal, 
received  the  Benedictine  cloister  of  San  Salvador 
in  Villar  de  Frades.  They  adopted  the  dress  and 
statutes  of  the  canons  regular  of  San  Gioigio  in 
Alga,  at  Venice,  and  received  papal  confirmation 
under  this  title.  In  another  house  near  Lisbon 
they  received  the  name  Canons  Regular  of  the  Con' 
gregation  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  The  Boni 
homines  of  San  Salvador  were  later  included  under 
this  title.  They  gradually  attained  a  strength  d 
fourteen  houses  in  Portugal,  and  also  maintained 
missions  in  India  and  Ethiopia. 


229 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BoniftttluB-Ver«lxi 
Bonnet 


After  the  Minims  (q.v.)  had  come  into  poesession 
of  the  hoiue  of  the  GrammontensianB  at  Vincennes 
they,  too,  came  to  be  called  bona  hommes.  Even 
at  an  earlier  date  it  seema  that  the  Minims  in  Paris 
had  been  contemptuously  called  bona  hommea. 
The  same  name  was  also  appropriated  by  certain 
heretical  sects,  for  instance,  by  the  Cathari  (see 
New  Manicheans)  and  by  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Spirit.  In  Florence,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  twelve  men  elected  to  restore  order  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Ghibellines  were  called  hiumi 
uominif  likewise  the  overseers  of  the  thirteen  city 
districts  in  Rome  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

BOHIZO  (BOnXTHO):  Bishop  of  Sutri;  b.  at 
Cremona  c.  1045;  d.  at  Piaoenza  July  14,  probably 
1090.  As  a  young  cleric  he  joined  the  Patarene 
movement  (see  Patarenes)  ia  Cremona  and  Pia- 
oensa.  He  came  to  Rome  in  1074,  possibly  in  con- 
sequence of  his  conflict  with  Bishop  Dionysius  of 
Piacensa,  and  was  himself  made  bishop  of  Sutri 
in  1075  or  1076.  In  the  spring  of  1078  he  was  in 
Lombardy  as  legate,  and  back  in  Rome  by  No- 
vember, when  he  took  part  in  the  synod  that  dis- 
cussed Berengar's  teachings.  A  sealous  partisan  of 
Gregory  VII,  he  was  imprisoned  by  Henry  IV  m 
1082  and  entrusted  for  sale-keeping  to  the  antipope 
Guibert  of  Ravenna  (Clement  III).  He  contrived 
to  escape,  but  never  returned  to  his  see.  In  1085 
he  found  shelter  with  Countess  Matilda,  and  in  the 
summer  of  1086  was  chosen  bishop  of  Piaoenza  by 
the  Patarene  party.  His  election  being  uncanonical, 
Anselm  of  Milan,  the  metropolitan,  refused  to 
install  him;  but  he  succeeded  in  gaining  the  ap- 
proval of  Pope  Urban  II  in  1088  or  1089.  He 
did  not  long  enjoy  his  triumph,  meeting  a  violent 
death  in  a  rising  of  the  imperialist  party.  The 
most  important  of  his  writiags,  the  Liber  ad  amicum 
(ed.  E.  DQmmler,  MGH,  LibeUi  de  lUe,  i,  1891), 
composed  between  the  death  of  Gregory  VII  and 
the  accession  of  Victor  III  (1085-86),  besides  dis- 
cussing the  question  whether  a  Christian  may  bear 
arms  in  the  defense  of  the  Church  (which  he  answers 
in  the  affirmative),  shows  by  an  extended  historical 
sketch  that  the  Church  grows  under  persecution. 
The  chief  value  of  the  work  is  due  to  its  presen- 
tation of  the  ideas  of  Gregory  and  his  adherents; 
it  informs  us  how  the  papal  camp  judged  of  the 
numerous  theological  and  ecdesiastioo-political 
controversies  of  the  time,  and  as  a  whole  is  one  of 
the  most  noteworthy  productions  of  the  Gregorian 
party.  Often  as  it  has  been  appealed  to  as  a  con- 
temporary source,  it  has  to  be  used  with  caution, 
owing  not  only  to  carelessness  and  errors  of  detail, 
but  to  demonstrable  perversions  of  history,  as  in 
the  account  of  the  Canossa  episode.  In  fact,  it  is 
colored  throughout  by  the  author's  subjective 
standpoint.  The  Liber  in  Hugonem  achiamatieuin 
(presumably  Cardinal  Hugo  Candidus)  has  un- 
fortimately  been  lost.  As  a  canonist  Boniso  left 
a  large  Dtcretum  in  ten  books,  from  which  Mai 
published  extracts  ia  1854.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bxbuoobapbt:  H.  Saur,  Studien  Hber  Bonito,  in  Foradiun- 
gen  tur  dMrftefc«n  OttihithU,  viii,  397^464,  Qdttingen, 
1868;  E.  Steiiidorff,  JakiblUhtr  dea  deuUeken  Reicht 
unitr  Heinridk  III.,  I  467-462,  ii,  473-482,  Leipne. 
1874,  1887;  W.  Martens,   UMter  dU  Getehieht§diftibuno 


BoniMot,  in  T€ibino€r  AMlooUth*  QuartaUchrift,  1883,  pp. 
457-483:  idem,  Oregor  VIL,  2  voIb..  Leiprio,  1804;  H. 
LehmgrObner,  U«ber  de$Lebendea  BonitQ  ....  inBemo 
von  Alba,  pp.  129-151,  Berlin,  1887;  G.  Meyer  von 
Knonau,  JahrbUcher  dea  deuttdun  ReidiB  unier  Heinrich 
IV.,  vols.  i.  ii,  Leipnc.  1890-94;  C.  Bfirbt,  Die  PtMuiMlik 
im  ZeiiaUer  Qreoon  VIL,  ib.  1894;  idem.  Die  WaM  Ore- 
gon VIL,  BCarburg,  1892. 

BONNER,  EDMUND:  Bishop  of  London;  b., 
probably  at  Hanley,  Worcestershire,  about  1500; 
d.  in  the  Marshalsea  prison,  at  Southwark,  near 
London,  Sept.  5,  1569.  He  studied  at  Pembroke 
College  (then  called  Broadgate  Hall),  Oxford 
(B.C.L.,  1519;  D.C.L.,  1525),  and  was  ordained 
about  1519.  He  received  his  first  preferment 
from  Cardinal  Wolsey;  after  the  death  of  Wolsey 
(1530)  he  served  the  king,  received  a  number  of 
benefices,  and  was  employed  at  different  times  as 
ambassador  to  the  pope,  to  the  king  of  France,  and 
to  the  emperor;  he  was  made  bishop  of  London  in 
1539.  He  fell  out  with  the  privy  council,  which 
undertook  to  govern  under  Edward  VI  (1547), 
and  in  1549  was  reprimanded  for  not  enforcing  the 
use  of  the  new  prayer-book,  deprived  of  his  bishop- 
ric, and  imprisoned.  The  accession  of  Mary  (1553) 
brought  his  release  and  reinstated  him  in  his  see. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  by  his  connection  with 
the  religious  persecutions  of  the  reign  of  Mary  and 
it  is  said  that  in  three  years  he  condemned  more 
than  two  hundred  persons  to  the  stake.  In  1559, 
after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy  and  was  imprisoned  and 
kept  ia  confinement  till  his  death.  It  has  been 
usual  to  represent  Bishop  Bonner  as  unprincipled 
and  cruel;  yet  his  firmness  in  following  the  unpop- 
ular course  and  the  suffering  undergone  in  conse- 
quence do  not  iadicate  a  lack  of  principle;  to  judge 
and  condemn  heretics  was  one  of  the  duties  of  his 
position,  and  it  is  not  clear  that  he  took  delight 
in  undue  severity;  there  \a  documentary  evidence 
that  he  acted  under  pressure  from  the  queen  and 
her  husband  (Philip  II  of  Spain).  He  was  un- 
popular in  London  apart  from  the  persecutions. 
He  wrote  a  preface  for  the  second  edition  of  Gar- 
diner's De  vera  obedierUia  (Hamburg,  1536)  and 
published  a  collection  of  HamUiee  for  his  diocese 
(London,  1555,  and  many  later  editions). 

Bibuoobafht:  The  aouroes  for  » life  are  in  the  8UU»  Papan 
of  Hawry  VIII,  in  the  RotU  Serif,  15  vols.,  ed.  by  various 
hande,  London,  189-.  Coneult  also:  S.  R.  Bfaitland, 
SvbjedM  Conneded  mih  ffu  Reformation  in  England,  Lon- 
don, 1849;  DNB,  vi,  356-300. 

BOimET,  beu'^nd',  ALFRED  MAXIMTTiTEN; 
French  classical  scholar;  b.  at  Frankfort  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Bonn,  and, 
after  being  a  professor  at  the  academy  of  Lausanne 
in  1866-74  and  at  the  £cole  Monge  and  the  £cole 
Alsacieime  at  Paris  in  1874-^1,  was  successively 
lecturer  and  instructor  in  the  faculty  of  letters 
at  Montpellier.  Since  1800  he  has  been  professor 
of  Latin  in  the  same  institution.  In  1898  he  was 
elected  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Inscriptions,  and  has  written,  among  other 
works,  NarraHo  de  miracuh  a  Michaele  archangelo 
Chania  patrato,  adjedo  Symeonia  MetapkrastcB  de. 
eadem  re  HbeOo  (Paris,  1890)  and  Le  Latin  de 
Grigovre  de  Tow$  (1890);  and  has  prepared  editions 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


230 


of  the  Liber  de  miraculia  beati  Andrea  apostoU,  in 
MGH,  Scnpt.  rer,  Merov,,  i  (1885),  821-^6,  the 
Acts  of  Thomas  (Leipsic,  1883)  and  of  Andrew 
(1895),  and  the  Acta  apoetolorum  apocrypha  (1891 
sqq.;  in  collaboration  with  R.  A.  Lipsius). 

BONNET,  JULES:  French  Protestant  layman; 
b.  at  Ntmes  (40  m.  n.e.  of  Montpellier)  June  30, 
1820;  d.  at  Paris  Apr.  15,  1892.  He  was  educated 
as  a  lawyer,  but  became  a  professor  in  the  Uniyersity 
of  France  and  gained  recognition  by  his  works 
on  the  history  of  the  Reformation.  He  was  also 
secretary  of  the  Sod^t^  d'Histoire  du  Protestantisme 
Fran^ais  and  editor  of  its  publications.  Among 
his  works  special  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
following:  Olympia  Moraia,  Episode  de  la  renaie- 
eance  en  Italie  (Paris,  1850;  Eng.  transl.,  Edin- 
bur^,  1852);  Lettree  fran^iees  de  Calvin  (2 
vols.,  1854;  Eng.  transl.,  4  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1855-57);  Calvin  au  vol  d^AasU  (1861);  Aonio 
Paleario,  Hude  aur  la  riforme  en  Italie  (1863; 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1864);  RSdta  du  eevnhne 
eiicle  (1864);  Nouvcaux  ricite  du  eeizihne  aikde 
(1869);  La  Riforme  au  chdteau  de  Saint  Frivol 
(1873);  Notice  sur  la  vie  et  lee  icriis  de  M.  Merle 
d'Aubigni  (1874);  Demiere  ricite  du  eeieikme  tikcU 
(1875);  Quelquee  eouvenire  eur  Augustin  Thierry 
(1877);  FamUle  de  Curione,  rfynt  du  eemhne  eikde 
(Basel,  1878) ;  Hietoire  dee  eouffranoee  du  bienheureux 
martyr  Louie  de  MaroUee  (Paris,  1882);  Souvenire  de 
r^gliee  rifomUe  de  la  Calmette  (1884);  and  lUcite 
du  eeizikme  aikie,  troisihne  eirie  (1885).  He  also 
edited  the  M&moiree  delaviede  Jean  de  Parthenay- 
Larchevique,  eieur  de  Soubiee  (Paris,  1879),  while 
his  own  letters  from  1851  to  1863  have  been  edited 
by  E.  de  Bude  (Geneva,  1898). 

BONNIVARD,  ben^'nl'VOr',  FRANCOIS  DE:  The 
"Prisoner  of  Chillon";  b.  at  Seyssel  on  the  Rhone 
(21  m.  B.w.  of  Geneva)  c.  1493;  d.  at  Geneva  1570. 
As  a  younger  son  he  entered  the  Church  and  became 
prior  of  St.  Victor  near  Geneva;  certain  other  bene- 
fices to  which  he  thought  he  was  entitled  he  failed 
to  receive  through  the  intrigues  of  Charles  III, 
duke  of  Savoy;  in  consequence  he  joined  the  party 
of  the  young  Genevan  patriots  who  were  resisting 
the  duke's  attempts  to  gain  control  of  the  city. 
When  the  duke  entered  Geneva  in  1519,  Bonnivard 
fled,  but  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  duke,  and  was 
imprisoned  for  twenty  months.  On  May  26,  1530 
he  was  arrested  near  Lausanne,  taken  to  the  castle 
of  Chillon  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Geneva,  and  kept 
there  for  six  years.  It  is  this  imprisonment  which 
Byron  has  immortalized  in  verse  more  musical 
than  truthful.  The  first  two  years  were  tolerable; 
but  after  a  visit  from  the  duke  in  1532  he  was  put 
in  the  dungeon  now  shown  to  visitors.  It  is  only 
a  local  tradition  that  he  was  chained  to  a  pillar. 
In  the  spring  of  1536  the  Bernese  took  the  castle 
and  freed  Bonnivard.  During  his  incarceration 
the  priory  and  church  of  St,  Victor  had  been  razed 
and  the  income  of  the  estates  applied  to  the  city 
hospital.  As  indemnification  he  was  pensioned 
and  given  a  hberal  simi  to  pay  his  debts.  He 
adopted  the  Reformation  and  married  four  times, 
but  no  time  happily.  He  made  the  city  of  Geneva 
his  heir  on  condition  that  it  should  pay  his  debts; 


but  his  estate  consisted  only  of  certain  books  winch 
formed  the  beginning  of  the  dty  Ubraiy.  Bonni- 
vard's  literary  activity  was  the  diief  reason  for  the 
forbearance  which  his  contemporaries  showed  him; 
his  career  was  somewhat  wavering,  time-serving, 
and  dishonorable.  In  1517  he  was  entitled  **  poet- 
laureate,"  and  after  his  liberation  he  was  com- 
missioned by  the  magistracy  to  write  a  history  of 
the  republic  of  Geneva.  This  work,  Lee  Ckroniquet 
de  Qmkve  (published  at  Geneva,  2  vols.,  1S31), 
ends  with  1551,  is  full  of  anecdotes  and  interesting, 
but  unreliable.  Other  works  which  have  been 
published  are:  Advie  et  devie  dee  languee  (Geneva, 
1849);  Advie  et  devie  de  la  eource  de  Vidolatne  et 
tyrannie  papale  (1856);  De  Vandenne  et  mnadk 
police  de  Oenh>e  (1805). 

Bibuoobapht:  J.  J.  Chaponnifere,  Mimown  mar  Bourn- 
vard,  Qenera,  1846;  F.  Qribble,  Lake  Oenmn  and  tto 
Literwy  Landmarka,  London,  1901. 

BONNUS,  HERlIAHlffUS  (Hermann  Glide?): 
German  Reformer;  b.  at  QuackenbrQck,  in  Osns- 
brQck,  1504;  d.  at  LQbeck  Feb.  12,  1548.  He 
was  educated  s^parently  first  at  Manster,  then  in 
Bugenhagen's  school  at  Treptow,  but  certainly 
entered  the  Univernty  of  Wittenbeig  in  1523, 
coming  under  the  influence  of  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon.  In  1525,  probably,  he  migrated  to  Greifs- 
wald,  and  about  two  years  later  went  to  Gottorp 
to  act  as  tutor  to  the  si^c-jrear-old  son  of  Frederick  I 
of  Denmark.  Thence  he  was  called  to  Ldbeck 
in  1530,  and  (on  Bugenhagen's  oganisation  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  there)  made  superintendent  in 
the  following  February.  Here  he  remained  until 
his  death,  in  spite  of  calls  to  Hamburg  in  1532  and 
to  LQneburg  in  1534.  He  represented  his  town 
in  the  conference  of  the  six  free  cities  of  Ldbedi, 
Bremen,  Hamburg,  Rostock,  Stralsund,  and  Ltine- 
burg,  hdd  at  Hamburg  in  1535  to  concert  measures 
for  dealing  with  Papists,  Anabaptists,  and  Sacra- 
mentarians.  In  1543  he  visited  OsnabrQck  to 
take  part  in  the  establishment  of  a  Reformed 
system  and  liturgy  which  received  the  approval 
of  the  bishop,  Franz  von  Waldeck,  and  was  later 
extended  to  the  whole  diocese.  The  attempt  to 
carry  it  into  that  of  MOnster  was  forcibly  resisted  by 
the  chapter,  but  met  with  partial  suoooas  in  the 
country  districts.  His  influence  was  extended  by 
his  Low  German  catechism  (1539)  and  by  his 
services  to  the  hymnody  of  tlds  dialect.  He  cer- 
tainly edited  and  revised  several  collections  of  both 
German  and  Latin  hynms,  and  probably  contributed 
some  of  his  own.  He  took  a  courageous  part 
against  the  democratic  revolution  in  Labeck  under 
Wullenweber,  and  in  his  Chronika  der  kaieerlichen 
Stadt  Labeck  (1539)  pointed  out  the  dangers  of 
innovating  tendencies.  After  the  fonnal  adoption 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  in  1535,  he  contended 
successfully  against  the  efforts  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  party  to  regsun  control  and  against  the 
propaganda  of  the  Anabaptists.  His  office  re- 
quired him  to  exp>ound  the  Scriptures,  and  his 
discourses  on  the  Acts  and  on  the  liturgical  epistles 
for  the  Sundays  were  published.  In  accordance 
with  the  Hambuii;  decisions,  which  had  required 
preachers  to  dwell  upon  the  examples  of  the  saints, 
he  published  in  1539  a  compilation  of  ha^ographical 


881 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bonnet 
Bonosus 


extracts.  The  king  of  Denmark  tried  to  secure 
him  for  an  important  office  (probably  the  bishopric 
of  Sleswick),  but  he  refused  to  leave  Ltkbeck,  where 
his  body  was  deposited  amid  universal  mourning 
in  St.  Mary's  church.  (G.  Kawerau.) 

Biblioobafht:  H.  Spiegel,  ^ennann  Bonnta,  Qdttingen, 
1802;  G.  Bowert.  in  TLZ,  1892,  pp.  260  aqq. 

BONOSUS   AlffD   THB   BONOSIABS. 
H«i««y  snd  Buapenaion  of  Bo&osos  (i  1). 
Final  Condemnation  of  Bonomu  (i  2). 
Bononana  in  Spain  and  Southam  Qaul  (i  3). 
Sympathy  between  Bononana  and  Ariana  (i  4). 
Relation  betifeen  Bonoeua  and  the  Bonoeiana  (i  6). 

From  a  letter  written  to  Anysius  of  Thessalonica 
and  the  other  Illyrian  bishops,  soon  after  the  Synod 
of  Capua  (winter  of  391-392),  by  either  Pope  Siridus 
or  an  unlmown  Italian  bishop,  we  learn  certain 
facts  about  a  bishop  Bonoeus,  whose  see  is  not  given. 
He  had  been  accused,  apparently  by  neighboring 
bishops,  but  of  what  does  not  clearly  appear  in  the 
letter,  except  that  he  had  asserted  that  Maiy  bore 
other  children  to  Joseph,  after  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
The  case  came  before  this  synod  at  Capua,  called 
by  the  emperor  Theododus  to  put  an  end  to  the 
schism  at  Antioch  (see  IfELEnua  of  Antioch); 
but  the  synod  referred  it  to  the  bishops  whose 
dioceses  bordered  on  those  of  both  parties,  espe- 
cially the  Macedonian  prelates.  The  decision  was 
in  favor  of  suspension,  a  temporary  provision  being 
made  for  the  administration  of  Bono- 

z.  Hereqr   bus's  diocese.    He  wrote  to  St.  Am- 

and  Sua-  brose  to  know  whether  he  was  bound 
pension  of  to  heed  this  sentence,  and  Ambrose 

Bonoaos.  counseled  patience.  Meantime  the 
bishops  hesitated  to  make  the  sen- 
tence absolute,  and  would  have  been  glad  of  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  of  the  letter.  He,  however, 
whether  Siridus  or  some  one  else,  declared  that 
it  did  not  belong  to  him  "  to  dedde  as  if  by  au- 
thority of  a  synod";  the  respondbility,  he  told 
them,  rested  on  them  of  forming  such  a  deddon 
that  ndther  the  accused  nor  the  accusers  should  be 
able  to  evade  it.  So  much  condderation  was  not 
usually  shown  to  "  heretics ";  there  may  have 
been  circumstances  connected  with  the  case  which 
we  do  not  know.  But  to  deny  the  perpetual  vir- 
ginity of  Mary  was  a  serious  offense  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  time  (see  HELvmnrs).  Ambrose 
speaks  {De  inatU.  virg,,  v,  35)  of  a  bishop  being 
accused  of  this  "sacrilege" — ^probably  meaning 
Bonosus.  It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  at  this  time 
Bonoeus  was  accused  of  no  worse  or  further  here- 
sies. 

Some  twenty  yean  later  we  hear  more  of  Bono- 
sus in  two  letters  of  Innocent  I— one  to  Mardan  of 
Naissus,  northwest  of  Sardica,  and  a  later  one  to 
the  bishops  of  Illyria.  From  them  it  appears  that 
Bonoeus  had  been  definitdy  condemned 

2.  Final     l^  his  fellow  bishops,  and  had  then 

Condemna-  founded  a  separate  eccledastical  organ- 

tion  of      ization  of  his  own.    For  the  avoiding 

Bonoans.  of  scandal,  those  who  had  been  or- 
dained by  him  were,  if  they  wished  it, 
recdved  back  into  the  Church  as  clerics.  Innocent 
allows  this  only  in  the  case  of  those  ordained  by 
Bonoeus  before  his  condemnation;  but  here  again 


his  heresy  is  not  spedfied.  Twenty  years  later 
still  (431),  Marius  Mercator  names  Marcdlus, 
Photinus,  "and  lately  the  Sardican  bishop,  Bo- 
nosus, who  was  condemned  by  Pope  Damasus, 
among  the  followers  of  Ebion."  There  is  prac- 
tically no  doubt  that  this  is  the  same  Bonosus;  in 
this  case,  and  accepting  [the  statement  of  Marius, 
we  have  learned  that  Bonosus  was  bishop  of  Sar- 
dica, and  that  his  errors  had  grown,  after  392,  into 
dynamistic  Monarchianism.  We  have  no  further 
information  as  to  the  fate  of  his  following  in  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  The  mention  of  him  in  the 
so-called  Decretum  Odaaii,  even  if  it  was  written 
by  Geladus,  and  the  anathemas  pronounced  against 
him  by  A^gilius  in  552  and  553  prove  nothing  on 
this  point.  If  Gregory  I  in  his  Epistola  ad  Quiricum 
really  named  the  Bomsiaci  with  the  Cataphrygians 
as  heretics  who  needed  rebaptism  because  they 
did  not  believe  in  Christ  the  Lord,  this  is  not  very 
strong  evidence  for  the  continued  existence  of  the 
body,  and  tells  nothing  of  its  locality. 

The  case  is  different  with  the  repeated  mentions  of 
Bonoaiaci  or  Bonoaiani  by  the  writers  of  Spain  and 
southern  Gaul.  Gennadius  quotes  the  Spanish 
bishop  Audentius  (end  of  fourth  century)  as  having 
specially  written  against  them,  which  proves  at 
least  that  Gennadius  knew  them;  he  speaks  in 
another  place  of  "  Photinians,  who  now  are  called 
Bonodans."  A  little  later  Avitus  of  Vienne  men- 
tions them  in  two  well-known  passages;  in  one 
he  expresses   himself  in   relation   to 

3.  Bono-    King   Gundobad  (see  Burqundianb) 

aians    in    as  willing  to  accept  their  baptism. 
Spain  and  The  17th  canon  of  the  so-called  Second 

Southern  Synod  of  Aries  (generally  placed  443- 
OauL  452)  shows  the  same  conciliatory 
attitude;  but  the  Third  Synod  of 
Oritens  (538)  tells  us  that  the  Bonosians  rebap- 
tised  thdr  converts,  which  may  be  taken  to  show 
that  their  baptism  was  not  then  recognised  by 
the  other  dde.  About  the  same  time,  according 
to  Iddore  of  Seville,  Justinian  of  Valencia  was 
writing  against  them  his  lost  lAber  reaponaionum 
contra  Bonaaianoa,  qui  Chriatum  adoptivum  fUium 
et  rum  proprium  dicurU.  While  for  Gaul  the  latest 
reference  is  given  by  the  Synod  of  Clichy  in  626 
or  627,  showing  thus  their  gradual  extinction  there, 
in  Spain  they  were  attracting  attention  fifty  jrears 
later;  the  Synod  of  Toledo  in  675,  declaring  that 
Christ  was  the  Son  of  God  by  nature,  not  by  adop- 
tion, was  plainly  directed  against  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  mention  of  Bonosus — ^not  of  the 
Bonodans — ^in  the  Adoptionist  controverey  (see 
Aooptionibm)  does  not  prove  that  they  lasted  to 
the  eighth  century  in  Spain,  nor  is  the  medieval 
view  that  Adoptionism  was  a  revival  of  the  heresy 
of  Bonosus  worth  conddering.  They  really  dis- 
appear with  the  end  of  the  seventh  centuiy. 

That  these  mentions  of  Bonodans  from  the  fifth  to 
the  seventh  centuries  are  not  merely  the  survival  of 
an  old  term  of  opprobrium,  but  that  they  really 
existed  in  Spain  and  southern  Gaul  at  that  period 
has  long  been  justly  accepted.  It  is  still  further 
confirmed  by  a  passage  of  Avitus,  whose  true  read- 
ing {Bonoaiixcorum  for  h&norum)  has  only  lately 
been  established.    Writing  to  Sigismund,  his  con- 


BoaoBua 
Bora 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


282 


vert,  son  of  the  Arian  king  Gundobad,  he  gives 
the  information  that  the  latter  had  fonnally  prom- 
ised to  set  up  a  Bonosian  community  in  his  kingdom 
by  the  establishment  of  a  bishop  of 

4.  Sympathy  their  faith,  and  that  this  body  was 
between      recruited  from  the  Axians.    This  would 

BonosianB  explain  the  attitude  of  Gennadius 
and  Aiiana.  toward  their  baptism.     Avitus  took 

an  opposite  view,  either  to  conciliate 
the  king,  who  at  that  time  gave  hopes  of 
his  convendon,  or  from  motives  of  general  policy. 
The  Bonosians  began  to  be  absorbed  into  the  Arian 
body;  toward  the  end  of  Gundobad's  reign  Avitus 
had  hopes  that  they  would  entirely  disappear, 
if  the  king  could  be  induced  to  let  his  promises 
to  them  lapse  into  oblivion.  The  later  history 
shows  that  this  hope  proved  false,  because  the  sect 
was  not  confined  to  Burgundian  territory;  and 
it  is  not  surprising  that  sharp  meajsures  were  taken 
against  those  who  remained  obdurate  in  their 
heresy  under  Catholic  rule.  Only  one  thing  can  be 
urged  against  the  correctness  of  the  account  here 
given — the  recognition  of  the  validity  of  Bonosian 
baptism  by  the  synod  said  to  have  been  held  at 
Aries  about  450;  but  this  really  tells  the  other  way, 
for  general  support  is  now  accorded  to  the  theory 
put  forth  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  this  second 
synod  of  Aries  never  had  any  existence,  the  canons 
attributed  to  it  being  nothing  but  a  collection  of 
various  older  synodical  decisions  made  toward  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  canon  xvii  having  then 
first  been  heard  of.  Accordingly  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  Bonosians  in  the  generally  Arian  terri- 
tories of  the  Burgundian^  and  the  West-Goths 
were  the  followers  of  Boi)osus  of  Sardica,  though 
the  name  Bonoeus  was  not  an  uncommon  one. 
Isidore  of  Seville  says  expressly  that  they  had 
sprung  "  from  a  certain  bishop  Bonosus,"  and  the 
"  plague  of  the  Bonosians  "  did  not  b^in  in  the 

Burgundian    kingdom,   since    Avitus 

5.  Relation  speidks  of  it  as  06  infemalOnu  latebrU 
between  excUaia,  The  district  in  which  Bono- 
Bonosus  sus  of  Sardica  labored  bordered  on 
and  the     territories  held  in  his  time  by  the 

Bonosians.  West-Goths,  and  relations  may  well 
have  remained  close  between  that 
region  and  the  West-Goths  of  the  south  of  Gaul; 
BO  that  the  passage  of  his  teaching  from  the  Balkan 
peninsula  into  the  Burgundian  kingdom,  which  was 
in  close  contact  with  the  West-Goths,  is  perfectly 
possible,  and  we  may  safely  conclude  to  accept  the 
statement  of  Marius  Mercator.  (F.  Loofb.) 

The  wide-spread  acceptance  of  the  Adoptionist 
view  of  the  person  of  Christ  from  the  apostolic  time 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  beyond  (Ebionites, 
Shepherd  of  Hennas,  Theodotas  of  Rome,  Paul  of 
Samosata,  the  Paulicians,  most  medieval  sects, 
many  Anabaptists,  and  others)  makes  it  easy  to 
account  for  this  aspect  of  the  teaching  of  the 
Bonosians  as  well  as  for  the  Spanish  Adoptionism 
of  the  eighth  century  without  the  supposition  of 
its  independent  origin  in  either  case.  For  much 
valuable  information  on  the  early  origin  and  the 
persecution  of  Adoptionist  Christology  cf.  F.  C. 
Conybeare,  The  Key  of  Truth;  A  Manual  of  the 
Paulician  Church  of  Armeni4i,    The  Armenian  Text 


edited  and  translated   with  illuatratioe  DoctmenU 
and  Introduction  (Oxford,  1898).  A.  H.  N. 

Bibuoobapbt:  OeiUi«r,  Avtmtn  mtari9,  ▼.  706-711;  C.  W. 
F.  Waloh,  HialorU  dtr  Ketaenien,  iii.  508-4i2S.  Ldpae. 
1766;  A.  Helfferioh,  Dm-  wmtgothiBdie  Ariawmmwi,  Berbn. 
1860;  C.  Bindixic,  Da§  bvrgundiackrivmami9tke  KOmgrtidi. 
vol.  i,  LeiiMie,  1868;  H«fale,  ConeOimioaaehidUt,  Tob.  ii. 
iii;  DCB,  i.  880-881. 

BONWETSCHy  ben'Vetch^  GOTTLIEB  If ATHA- 
NABL:  German  Protestant  theologian;  b.  at 
Nortla,  Russia,  Feb.  17,  1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  univereities  of  Dorpat  (1866-70),  GOtUngeD 
(1874-75),  an(f  Bonn  (1877-78),  the  time  between 
his  residence  at  these  universities  being  spent  in 
practical  pastoral  work.  He  became  privatrdocent 
at  Dorpat  in  1878  and  associate  professor  of  church 
history  four  years  later,  while  from  1883  to  1891 
he  was  full  professor  in  the  same  university.  Since 
1891  he  has  been  professor  of  church  history  at 
GiOttingen.  In  addition  to  numerous  contributions 
to  theological  journals  and  religious  encydopedias,  he 
edited  Thomasius's  Doffmenffeechtehte  der  aUen  Kirekt 
(Eriangen,  1886)  and  the  Studim  zwr  OeediidUe  dtr 
Theologie  und  Kirche  in  collaboration  with  R.  Seeberg 
(Leipsic,  1897  sqq.),  and  has  written  Die  Sckriften 
TertuUiane  untersucht  (Bonn,  1878);  Die  GeeehichU 
dee  Mantaniamue  (Eriangen,  1881);  Unaer  Refer- 
motor  Martin  Luther  (Dorpat,  1883);  KyriU.  wnd 
Methodius f  die  Lehrer  der  Sloven  (Eriangen,  1885); 
Methodius  von  Olympus,  i,  Sckriften  (Leipsie,1891); 
Studien  tu  den  Kommentoren  Hippolytus  gum  Buche 
Daniel  und  Hohenliede  (1897);  ffippolytus  Werke 
(Berlin,  1897;  in  collaboration  with  H.  Achelis); 
and  Die  Apokalypse  Abrahams,  das  Testament  der 
vierzig  Mdrtyrer  (1898).  He  also  edited,  in  collabo- 
ration with  P.  Tschackert,  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth editions  of  J.  H.  Kurtz's  Lehrbuch  der  Kvr- 
chengeschichte  (2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1899,  1906). 

BOOS,  MARTni:  Roman  GathoUc  priest;  b.  at 
Huttenried  near  Schongau,  Bavaria,  Dec.  25, 1762; 
d.  at  Sayn,  near  Coblena,  Aug.  29,  1825.  He 
studied  at  Dilhngen  under  Sailer,  Zimmer,  and 
Weber.  He  followed  the  extreme  practises  of  sb- 
ceticiam  aa  a  penance  for  sin,  all  to  no  avail,  as  he 
believed,  and  then  developed  a  doctrine  of  salva- 
tion by  faith  which  came  very  near  to  pure  Luther- 
anism.  This  he  preached  with  great  effect.  He 
was  driven  from  Bavaria  by  the  opposition  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  and  other  priests  and  lived 
in  Austria  from  1799  to  1816,  when  he  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  that  country.  His  last  years  were 
spent  at  Dttsseldorf  and  Sayn. 

Bibuoobapht:  His  autobiognphy  wms  edited  by  J.  Goa»< 
ner,  Leipsic,  1831,  Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1836.  who  also 
inued  two  volumes  of  hie  eermonB,  Berlin,  1830.  Coo* 
suit  also  F.  W.  Bodemann.  (Tssasimwlte  BrM/s  von,  oa  vmA 
liber  Martin  Bom,  Frankfort,  1854. 

BOOTH,  BALLnCGTON:  G^eral-in-chief  and 
president  of  the  Volunteers  of  America;  b.  at  Brig- 
house  (4  m.  e.s.e.of  Halifax),  Yorkshire,  England, 
July  28,  1859.  He  was  educated  at  a  private 
school  in  Bristol  and  subsequently  at  Trenton  Col- 
legiate Institute  and  Nottingham  Seminary,  Not- 
tingham, England.  He  was  commander  of  the 
Salvation  Army  in  Australia  from  1885  to  1S87, 
and  held  the  same  office  in  the  United  States  from 


233 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bonosos 
Bora 


1887  to  1896.  In  the  latter  year  his  connection 
with  the  Salvation  Army  ceased,  however,  and  he 
established  a  similar  though  not  identical  organiza- 
tion known  as  the  Volunteers  of  America  (q.v.),  of 
which  he  has  since  been  the  head.  He  was  ordained 
at  Chicago  in  August,  1896,  a  presbyter  in  the 
Christian  Church. 

BOOTH,  CATHinUNE  (MUMFORD):  "Mother 
of  ^the  Salvation  Army";  b.  at  Ashbourne  (13 
m.  n.w.  of  Derby),  Derbyshire,  En^and,  Jan. 
17,  1829;  d.  at  Qacton-on-Sea  (13  m.  s.e.  of  Col- 
chester), Essex,  Oct.  4,  1890.  She  was  educated 
chiefly  at  home,  and  in  1844  removed  with  her 
parents  to  London.  In  the  same  yeai  she  joined 
the  Wesleyan  congregation  at  Brixton,  but  four 
years  later  was  debaned  from  that  organization, 
together  with  others.  These  "  Reformers,"  as  they 
called  themselves,  then  formed  a  separate  congre- 
gation, and  in  1851  she  became  acquainted  with  her 
future  husband,  William  Booth  (q.v.),  likewise  an 
excommunicated  "Refonner."  Four  years  later 
they  were  married,  and  in  1858  she  first  took  pub- 
lic part  in  her  husband's  pastoral  work  at  Gates- 
head, Durham,  where  he  was  then  located.  Two 
years  later,  after  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  de- 
fending the  right  of  women  to  preach,  she  delivered 
her  first  sermon  in  her  husband's  pulpit,  and  with- 
in the  next  three  years  began  to  conduct  independ- 
ent religious  meetings,  leading  successful  missions 
at  Margate  in  1867  and  at  Portsmouth  in  1873. 
Meanwhile  the  plan  which  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.)  was  maturing, 
and  the  new  organization  was  definitely  formu- 
lated in  1877.  Mrs.  Booth  herself  took  an  active 
part  in  the  work,  especially  among  women  and  chil- 
dren. Her  greatest  work  as  a  revivalist  was  done 
in  1886-87,  but  in  the  following  year  she  was 
stricken  with  cancer,  which  ultimately  caused  her 
death.  She  wrote  Papers  on  Practical  Religion 
(London,  1879);  Papers  on  Aggressive  Christianity 
(1881);  Papers  on  Godliness  (1882);  lAfe  and  Death 
(1883);  The  Salvation  Army  in  Relation  to  the  Church 
and  State  (1883);  and  Popidar  Christianity  (1887). 

BnuooRAnrr:  F.  St.  Q.  de  L.  Booth  Tucker,  The  Life  of  CatK- 
€rin0  Booth,  2  vob.,  London  and  Chicaco.  1802;  J.  Chap- 
snU4  J^our  NMs  Women  ani  Omr  Work,  ib.  1808. 

BOOTH,  WILLIAM:  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Salvation  Army;  b.  at  Nottingham,  England, 
Apr.  10, 1829.  He  was  educated  by  a  private  theo- 
logical tutor  of  the  Methodist  New  Connexion 
Church,  and  began  his  career  as  an  open  air  preacher 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He  entered  the  ministiy  of 
the  Methodist  New  Connexion  Church  in  1852, 
and  was  successively  a  traveling  evangelist  and  a 
circuit  preacher  until  1861,  when  he  left  the  de- 
nomination to  devote  himself  entirely  to  evangel- 
istic work.  In  1865  he  founded  at  London  the 
Christian  Mission  for  the  amelioration  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  destitute  and  vicious  population  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  London,  and  this  developed, 
in  1878,  into  the  Salvation  Army  (q.v.).  He  has 
traveled  extensively  in  the  interests  of  his  Army, 
and  has  written  Salvation  Soldiery  (1890);  In  Dark- 
est  England  and  the  Way  Out  (1890);  and  Religion 
far  Every  Day  (1902). 


Bibuoobaphy:  F.  St.  G.  de  L.  Booth  Tucker,  Life  of  Oen- 
end  WiUiam  Booth,  Chicago.  1808;  T.  F.  G.  Coates,  The 
Prophet  of  the  Poor;  the  Life  Story  of  General  Booth,  Lon- 
don, 1006. 

BOOTH  TUCKER,  EMMA  MOSS:  Salvation 
Army  worker;  b.  at  Gateshead,  Durham,  Jan.  8, 
1860;  d.  near  Dean  Lake,  Mo.,  Oct.  28,  1903.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  William  Booth  (q.v.),  the 
founder  of  the  Salvation  Army,  and  from  1880  to 
1888  was  in  charge  of  the  international  training 
homes  of  that  organization.  In  the  latter  year  she 
married  Frederick  St.  George  de  Lautour  Tucker 
(see  the  following  article),  and  went  with  him  suc- 
cessively to  India  and  London,  whence  she  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1896.  She  held  the  rank  of 
consul  in  the  Salvation  Army,  and  had  equal  powers 
with  her  husband  in  its  control.  She  died  from  in- 
juries received  in  a  railroad  accident.  A  volume  of 
selections  from  her  writings  has  been  published  under 
the  title  The  Cross  and  Our  Comfort  (London,  1907). 

BOOTH  TUCKER,  FREDERICK  ST.  GEORGE 
DE  LAUTOUR:  Secretaiy  for  Foreign  Affairs 
of  the  Salvation  Army;  b.  at  Monghyr  (80  m. 
e.  of  Patna),  Bengal,  Mar.  21,  1853.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cheltenham  College,  Eki^and,  and  passed 
the  examinations  for  the  India  Civil  Service  in 
1874.  After  two  years  of  additional  study,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Punjab,  where  he  was  successively 
assistant  commissioner  and  treasury  officer.  He 
resigned  from  the  service,  however,  in  1881  to  join 
the  Salvation  Army,  which  he  established  in  India 
in  the  following  year.  He  remained  in  oonunand 
of  the  Army  there  until  1891,  when  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  London  as  secretary  for  international  work. 
He  held  this  office  for  five  years,  and  from  1896  to 
1904  was  commander  of  the  Army  in  the  United 
States.  Since  the  latter  year  he  has  been  Secretary 
for  Foreign  A£Fairs  of  the  Salvation  Army,  with 
headquarters  in  London,  and  is  thus  responsible  to 
General  William  Booth  (q.v.)  for  all  work  of  the 
organization  outside  of  the  British  Isles.  In  1888 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Gen.  William  Booth 
(see  the  preceding  article)  and  subsequently  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Booth  Tucker.  He  has  written 
In  Darkest  India  and  the  Way  Out  (Bombay.  1891); 
The  Life  of  Catherine  Booth  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1892); 
Lt/e  of  General  William  Booth  (1898);  and  Favorite 
Songs  of  the  Salvation  Army  (1899). 


BOOTHS,    FEAST     OF. 

FSABT  OF. 


See    Tabebnaclbs, 


BORA,  KATHARINA  VON:  Luther's  wife;  b. 
of  an  old  family  of  Klein-Laussig,  near  Bitterfeld  in 
Meissen,  Jan.  29,  1499;  d.  at  Torgau  Dec.  20,  1552. 
She  was  placed  in  the  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimpsch 
at  Grimma  (17  m.  s.e.  of  Leipsic)  when  a  child 
and  became  a  nun  in  1515;  with  the  cognizance  of 
Luther  she  and  eight  other  nuns  fled  from  the  con- 
vent Apr.  4,  1523,  and  repaired  to  Wittenberg. 
She  is  said  to  have  refused  an  offer  of  marriage  from 
Dr.  Kaspar  Glatz,  vicar  at  OrlamCnde,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  have  expressed  a  preference  for  Ams- 
dorf  or  Luther.  She  was  married  to  the  latter 
June  13,  1525,  and  bore  him  six  children.  She 
proved  a  true  wife,  was  a  good  housekeeper,  and 
the  marriage  was  a  hi^py  one.    After  Luther's 


IS! 


trborites 
irowskl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


234 


death  (Feb.  18,  1546)  she  remained  at  Wittenberg, 
much  of  the  time  in  poverty.  Her  death  was  due 
to  an  accident  which  occurred  as  she  was  on  the 
way,  with  her  children,  to  Torgau  to  escape  the 
plague  at  Wittenberg. 

BiBUOomAPmr:  W.  Beata,  Die  O^eekidUt  KtOhanwu  von 
Bon,  H»Ue,  1843;  F.  G.  HofmAim.  Kalhanna  von  Bora 
Oder  Luihor  aU  Oatto  und  Voter,  Leipno,  1845;  A.  Stein, 
Kathwrina  von  Bora,  Luther§  Ehegemahl,  Halle,  1807; 
A.  Thorn*.  Katharina  von  Bora,  Berlin,  1900.  Ckmtult 
alflo  the  various  biographies  of  Luther.  The  ehief  of  the 
many  libels  eonoeming  Luther's  marriage  is  Eusebius 
Engelhard's  (Michael  Kuan)  Lucifer  WiUenbergeneU,  2 
vols.,  Landsberg,  1747-49. 

BORBORITBSy  BARBEUTES.    See  Gnobticibic. 

BORDELUMIAES:  A  separatistio  sect  formed 
at  Bordelum,  a  village  of  Sleswick,  about  1739, 
under  the  leadership  of  a  pietistic  Saxon  theological 
student  named  David  B&hr.  They  originally 
consisted  of  fifteen  or  twenty  persons,  and  claimed 
to  be  saints  who  had  advanced  further  than  Paul 
according  to  Rom.  vii,  24.  Since  they  believed  that 
they  had  received  special  gifts  from  God,  they 
decried  the  Church  as  the  house  of  the  devil,  and 
despised  the  sacramants.  As  being  pure,  to  whom 
all  things  were  pure,  they  rejected  marriage  in 
favor  of  free  love,  and  institutkl  a  communism  of 
property  for  their  financial  support.  An  edict  of 
Chnstian  VI,  issued  June  11,  1739,  condemned  the 
leaders  to  imprisonment;  those  who  had  led  an 
immoral  life  were  punished  according  to  the  laws, 
and  the  remainder  were  admonished.  The  leaders 
managed  to  escape  the  pimishment,  however,  B&hr, 
who  had  seduced  a  married  woman,  fleeing  to  Jena. 
Expelled  from  that  city,  he  returned  to  Holstein, 
and  was  imprisoned  at  GlQckstadt.  Having  become 
a  cripple  in  consequence  of  the  rough  treatment  to 
which  he  had  been  subjected  in  prison,  he  was  re- 
leased, and  died  wretchedly,  still  unconverted,  at 
Bredst&dt  in  1743.  His  adherents  caused  much 
trouble  to  the  pastor  of  Bordelum. 

Paul  Tbchackkrt. 
Bibleooeapht:  Ada  kiMlorieo-oodeeiaeHea,  vol.  v,  part  29, 
p.  ess  sqq.,  and  Supplement,  pp.  1014  sqq.,  20  vols., 
Weimar,  1734-88,  eontinued  in  18  vols.,  tiU  1790. 

BORDIER,  h^r^'dy^,  HBURI  LEONARD:  Re- 
formed Church  of  France;  b.  in  Paris  Aug.  8, 1817; 
d.  there  Aug.  31,  1888.  He  was  educated  at  the 
£cole  de  Droit  and  the  £cole  des  Chartes  in  Paris, 
and  licensed  in  law  and  as  paleographic  archivist 
in  1840;  thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  his- 
torical studies.  He  was  successively  assistant 
to  the  historian  AugusUn  Thierry;  assistant  in  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions;  secretary  par  irUerim 
of  the  £cole  des  Chartes;  a  member  of  the  com- 
mission on  the  departmental  archives  of  the  minis- 
ter of  the  interior  (1846);  archivist  of  the  national 
archives  (1850),  and  dismissed  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Empire.  He  was,  during  the  siege  of 
Paris,  on  the  commission  upon  the  papers  of  the 
Tuileries;  and  in  1872  was  nominated  honorary 
librarian  in  the  department  of  manuscripts  in  the 
Bibliothdque  Nationale.  He  was  for  many  years  on 
the  committee  of  the  Soci^t^  d'Histoire  du  Prote»- 
tantisme  Fran9ais,  and  prepared  numerous  works, 
noted  for  their  accuracy.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned;  various    notices    in    the    BtUujihbque 


de  v£c6U  det  Chartes  (Paris,  1841-86);  HiaUnre 
ghUrale  de  tone  lee  dipSte  d'archtves  extatanl  en 
France  (1856);  Lee  £gliees  et  monaaUree  de  Parie 
(1856);  an  edition  of  the  Ltbrt  miraculoTum  aliaque 
opera  minora  of  Gregory  of  Tours,  Latin  text  with 
French  translation  (4  vols.,  1857-64);  a  French 
translation  of  the  Hietaria  Franeorum  of  Gregory 
of  Tours  (2  vols.,  1859-61);  Lee  Inveniairee  dee 
archives  de  VEmpire  (1867);  Une  Fabnque  de  faux 
auioffraphes  (1869);  Chansannier  kuguenot  du  eei- 
tihne  siide  (1869);  UAUemagne  aux  TuOeriee,  de 
1860  d,  1870  f  coUectian  de  documents  Hria  du  tsabinet 
de  PEmpereur  (1872);  La  SauU^BarOUiemy  ef  la 
critique  modeme  (Geneva,  1879);  L*6coU  hiaiorique 
de  JMme  BoUec  (Paris,  1880);  Nicolas  Caetdlin 
de  Toumay,  rifugif  A  Genh>e,  1564-1676  (1881); 
Description  des  peintures  et  autres  omementa  eon- 
tenus  dans  les  manuscrits  grece  de  la  BOHotkhque 
Nationale  (1885).  With  E.  Charton  he  published 
in  1860:  Histoire  de  France  d^aprhs  les  documents 
originaux  et  les  monuments  de  Vart  de  chaque  &poque. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  upon  a 
new  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  brothers  Gug^ne 
and  £mile  Hai^s  La  France  prolestante  (originally 
12  vols.,  Paris,  1845-59),  and  had  brought  out  the 
first  five  volumes  (1877-^). 

BOREEL,  bo''r«l',  ADAM:  Preacher  and  sectary ; 
b.  at  Middelburg,  in  Zealand,  1603;  d.  in  Amsterdam 
1666.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  congregation, 
but  resigned  his  office,  and  became  the  leader  of  a 
separatistic  party,  which  acknowledged  no  other 
religious  authority  than  the  Scripture.  Hia  work. 
Ad  legem  et  testimonium  (1645),  attracted  great 
attention.  Here  he  developed  that  the  written 
word  of  God,  without  any  human  conmientary, 
was  the  sole  means  of  awakening  faith;  that  the 
Church  had  fallen  completely  away  from  the  Lord; 
that  the  Christian  ou^t  to  shun  all  connection 
with  the  Established  Church,  and  confine  him- 
self to  his  private  devotion,  etc.  His  minor  wri> 
tings,  fifteen  in  number,  were  collected  at  Amster- 
dam, 1683.  His  followers,  known  as  Boreelista, 
never  attained  to  much  importance. 

BORKElCAlfN,  bdr'neHndn,  FRIEDRICH  WIL- 
•HELM  BERKHARD:  (German  Lutheran  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Ltlneburg  (68  m.  nji.e.  of  Hanover) 
Mar.  2,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  the  universitieB 
of  G6ttingen  (Ph.D.,  1879)  and  Leipsic,  and  was 
successivdfy  tutor  at  Bremen  (1879)  and  Medinget& 
(1880).  Two  years  later  he  became  inspector  of 
the  seminary  at  G6ttingen,  and  in  1884  was  privat- 
docent  for  church  history  in  the  same  university. 
In  1886  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  seminary 
for  theological  candidates  at  Magdeburg,  where 
he  became  professor  in  the  following  year.  From 
1898  to  1902  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Basel, 
and  since  the  latter  year  has  been  pastor  of  the 
Luther  Church  at  Frankfort.  His  works  indude  In 
investiganda  monachatus  origins  quibus  de  cauaia 
ratio  habenda  sit  Origenis  (GOttingen,  1886);  Die 
UnxuldnglichkeU  des  theologischen  Studiums  (Leip- 
sic, 1886;  anonymous);  Kirchenideale  und  KinJien- 
reformen  (1887);  Schulandachten  (Berlin,  1889); 
Bittere  Wakrheiten  (5th  ed.,  GOttingen,  1891); 
Unterricht  im  ChHstentum  (1891);  Die  Thessaloni- 


285 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Borboritos 
BorowBkl 


cherbriefe  (1894;  in  KriHschrexegeHseher  Kommentar 
uber  daa  Neue  Testament);  Historisehe und  praktische 
Theoloffie  (Bafld,  1808);  Die  AUeg&rie  in  Kurut, 
Wtsseneehaft  und  Kirche  (Freiburg,  1809);  EinfUhr 
rung  in  die  evangeliache  Miseionakunde  (Tdbingen, 
1902);  and  BeU  und  Arbeite !  (Leipsic,  1004;  a 
collection  of  Bermons).  He  likewise  tranislaied  the 
"  GonfeesionB  "  of  St.  Augustine  (Gotha,  1880). 

BORHHAEUSER,  bOm-hoi'zer,  KARL  BERN- 
HARD:  Gennan  Lutheran;  b.  at  Mannheim  (43 
m.  B.w.  of  Frankfort)  May  10,  1868.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Halle  and  Greifs- 
wald,  and  was  pastor  successively  at  Sinsheim 
(1800-04)  and  Carlsnihe  (1804-1002).  In  1002 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  system- 
atic and  practical  theology  at  Greifswald,  and  in 
1905-06  was  also  assistant  to  the  professor  of  prac- 
tical theology  at  Halle,  conducting  the  seminar 
and  delivering  lectures.  He  has  written  Vergo^ 
tungslehre  dee  Athanaeiue  und  Johannes  Damas- 
cenus  (Gatersloh,  1003);  and  WolUe  Jesus  die 
Heidenmission  f  (1003). 

BORHHOLMERS:  Danish  sect  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  During  the  first  part  of  the  cen- 
tury different  parts  of  Sweden  were  penneated 
with  sects  which  emphasiBed  the  gospel  of  the  free 
and  unmerited  grace  of  God  in  Christ.  About 
1805  the  Nua  LOsare  ("New  Readers")  origi- 
nated in  the  congregation  at  Pite&  in  Norrbotten, 
deviating  from  the  old  LOsare,  who  adhered  to  the 
Lutheran  doctrines,  by  asserting  that  saving  faith 
may  be  found  in  those  whose  hearts  are  still  attached 
to  sin  and  the  worid,  and  by  regarding  the  impor- 
tance attributed  to  the  law  as  a  temptation  to 
Pharisaical  self-righteousness.  In  the  course  of 
time  this  party,  headed  by  a  soldier  named  Erik 
St&lberg,  broke  with  the  State  Church,  and  finally 
the  "New  Readers"  declared  that  the  ministers 
of  the  latter  preached  the  doctrine  of  the  devil. 
In  the  fifth  decade  of  the  century,  the  Finnish 
preacher  Frederik  Gabriel  Hedberg,  afterward 
provost  and  preacher  at  Kimito  in  the  archbishop- 
ric of  Abo,  evolved  similar  views  in  a  work  on 
"  Pietism  and  C!hristianity,"  in  which  he  accused 
Spener  and  his  followers  of  teaching  that  man 
must  be  holy  and  pure  before  he  can  rely  on  the 
immerited  grace  in  Christ,  whereas  Hedberg  seems 
to  have  regarded  man  as  a  soul  hungering  for  grace, 
but  utteriy  unable  to  aid  himself  in  the  attainment 
of  salvation.  In  1846  a  party  of  Hedbergians  was 
formed  at  Stockholm  and  Helsingland  which 
rejected  all  preaching  of  repentance.  A  like  tend- 
ency was  manifested  by  the  sect  headed  by  Kari 
Olof  Rosenius  (b.  1816;  d.  1868),  who  had  been 
greatly  influenced  by  the  Methodist  George  Scott, 
who  labored  in  the  Swedish  capital.  Rosenius, 
who  sought  to  remain  a  true  Lutheran  throughout 
his  life,  emphasised  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ. 
His  sermons  and  his  magazine,  which  he  entitled 
Pietisten,  although  he  was  opposed  to  the  legalism 
of  the  Pietists,  exercised  an  important  influence 
on  the  relifpous  life  of  Sweden.  Hedbergianism 
and  the  writings  of  Rosenius  gave  rise  between 
1850  and  1870  to  a  new  evangelical  party  in  many 
parts  of  Sweden,  whose  sole  dogma  was  the  for- 


giveness of  sins  without  merit  of  the  sinner,  and 
whose  watchword,  "  the  worid  is  justified  in  Christ," 
won  them  many  proselytes  not  only  in  Sweden  and 
Norway,  but  also  in  the  American  Synod  of  Missouri. 
The  new  evangelism  found  a  fertile  soil  in  the 
Danish  island  of  Bomholm  (in  the  Baltic  Sea,  00 
m.  e.  of  Zealand),  which  became  the  center  of 
propaganda  for  a  part  of  Denmark.  The  move- 
ment was  inaugurated  by  P.  C.  Trandberg,  a 
powerful  preacher  of  repentance,  who  had  broken 
with  the  State  Church,  and  by  1863  had  gathered 
about  him  almost  a  thousand  followers.  Trand- 
berg sent  out  lay  preachers,  and  the  "  Bomholmers," 
as  they  were  called,  were  soon  found  in  North 
Zealand,  Copenhagen,  LoUand,  Falster,  and  West 
Jutland.  His  adherents  gradually  lost  confidence 
in  him,  however,  and  in  1877  he  resigned.  Later 
he  became  professor  in  the  Dano-Norwegian  de- 
partment of  Chicago  Theological  Seminary  and  died 
in  1806.  As  a  rule,  the  Bomholmers  are  pious  and 
earnest,  and  their  antinomistic  theory  usually  be- 
comes nomistic,  and  even  quasipietistic  in  practise, 
thus  forming  a  bond  of  union  between  them  and 
the  "  Inner  Mission  "  in  Denmark,  and  making  them 
one  of  the  means  to  awaken  spiritual  life  in  many 
of  the  Danish  people.  F.  NxELBENf. 

BOROWSKI,  bo-rev'skt,  LUDWIO  ERKST  VON: 
A  prominent  Prussian  evangelical  preacher;  b.  at 
KOnigsberg  June  17,  1740,  of  a  well-to-do  Polish 
family  which  had  emigrated  on  account  of  its 
religion;  d.  in  Berlin  Nov.  10,  1831.  In  his  four- 
teenth year  he  went  to  the  University  of  KOnigs- 
berg, where  he  was  one  of  Kant's  earliest  pupils, 
practised  oratory,  and  showed  an  inclination  toward 
literature.  His  theological  convictions  were  not 
influenced  by  Kant,  despite  a  lasting  personal 
devotion,  but  rather  by  the  supematuralist  school. 
In  1758  Kant  recommended  him  to  General  von 
Knobloch  as  a  tutor  in  his  family;  but  before  long 
Field-marshal  von  Kunheim,  impressed  by  Bo- 
rowski's  oratorical  gifts,  urged  him  to  become  a 
military  chaplain.  This  career  he  finally  took  up 
in  1762,  being  ordained  by  Stlssmilch,  and  joining 
his  regiment  in  the  camp  at  Sorau  soon  afterward. 
He  remained  with  the  army  until  1770,  when 
Sdssmilch  had  him  appointed  superintendent  of 
the  district  of  Schaaken  in  East  Prussia.  Here  he 
labored  diligently  for  twelve  years,  until  he  was 
called  to  a  pastoral  charge  in  his  native  town. 
The  development  of  his  preaching  powers  and  theo- 
logical knowledge  won  him  increasing  prominence; 
in  1703  the  king  appointed  him  a  member  of  the 
special  commission  on  churches  and  schools,  and 
he  received  the  title  of  consistorial  councilor  in 
1804.  When  the  storms  of  war  burst  over  Ger- 
many, he  rose  to  the  height  of  the  occasion,  and  his 
eloquent  exhortations  had  a  deep  effect  on  Frederick 
William  III  and  his  queen,  who  resided  in  KOnigs- 
berg from  1807  to  1800.  The  king's  warm  affection 
and  respect  continued  to  be  shown  through  the 
years  that  followed.  In  1812  he  made  Borowski 
general  superintendent,  in  1815  first  court  preacher, 
in  1816  a  bishop,  and  in  1820  archbishop  of  the 
Prussian  Evangelical  Church.  These  last  years  of 
his  life,  old  as  hd  was,  were  full  of  incessant  activity; 


Borrhj 
Bosae 


'haiu 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


he  was  prerident  of  the  Bible  Society  and  of  the 
Ifimionaiy  Union  founded  in  1822.  Outside  of 
his  preaching,  however,  he  gave  more  thought  to  the 
training  of  his  candidates  for  ordination  than  to 
anything  else,  and  even  in  the  wanderings  of  his 
last  illness  his  mind  was  occupied  with  them. 
(Hkbmamn  Herino.) 

BnuooKAnrr:  Seloeted  ■ermons  and  tootures,  with  aketebe* 
of  his  MtiTities  by  von  Kahle  and  E.  0«tterr«ieh,  were 
pabllflbed  by  his  grandson,  K.  L.  Volkmann,  K6nigabetg, 
1838.    Oonnilt  also  ADB,  iii,  177. 

BORRHAUS,  MARTIH  (generally  known  as 
CELLARIUS):  German  theologian;  b.  at  Stuttgart 
1499;  d.  at  Basel  Oct.  11,  1564.  Being  educated 
and  adopted  by  his  kinsman  Simon  Gellarius,  he 
called  himself  Cellarius  until  about  forty  years  of 
age,  although  the  name  of  his  parents  seems  to 
have  been  Burress  or  Borriius.  In  1515  he  was 
made  magitter  arHum  at  TQbingen,  where  he  became 
intimately  acquainted  with  Melanchthon,  two 
years  his  senior.  He  was  made  bachelor  of  theology 
under  Reuchlin  at  Ingolstadt  in  1521,  and  became 
a  friend  of  Marcus  Stabner  at  Wittenberg.  The 
eight  sermons  delivered  by  Luther  after  his  return 
from  the  Wartburg  impressed  Cellarius  deeply, 
but  his  seal  in  defense  of  StQbner  was  such  that  he 
left  Wittenberg,  where  he  had  treated  Luther  with 
rudeness,  and  went  to  Switseriand,  whence  he 
traveled  by  way  of  Austria  and  Poland  to  Prussia, 
which  had  just  embraced  the  Evangelical  faith. 
There  he  was  tried,  and  required  to  sign  a  bond 
in  which  he  promised  to  return  at  once  to  Witten- 
berg. His  interview  with  Luther  in  1526  filled 
the  latter  with  respect  for  Gellarius,  who  now 
settled  in  southern  Germany,  winning  the  hearts  of 
Capito  and  Butzer  in  Strasburg.  In  1527  he  pub- 
lished his  first  work,  De  apenbua  Dei,  and  in  1544 
he  was  iq)pointed  professor  of  the  Old  Testament 
at  Basel,  where,  in  collaboration  with  Gastello 
and  Curio,  he  composed  a  polemical  treatise  under 
the  name  of  Martin  Bellius,  directed  against  Galvin 
in  the  Servetus  controversy.  He  rejected  infant 
biq>tism,  but  was  a  firm  beUever  in  predestination. 
Cabl  Albrbcht  Bbrnoulu. 

BnuooBAnrr:  ADB,  iii  (1876),  881;  E.  Esli.  Zwiiy^iana, 
i.  80-81,  Zurieh,  1904;  C.  Qerbert,  OMcKidU^  d«r  8tr<u»- 
hurotr  Stkimbtweffuiio  gur  Zeit  d«r  Reformation,  16Mjh94, 
Strasbuiv,  1888.  Referanoes  will  be  found  in  the  lives 
of  the  Eeformera  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Buteer,  Zwingli. 

BORROMBO,  CARLO:  Italian  prelate  and  re- 
former; b.  at  Arona  (on  the  s.w.  shore  of  Lago 
Maggiore,  37  m.  n.w.  of  Blilan)  Oct.  2,  1538;  d. 
at  Blilan  Nov.  3,  1584.  He  was  the  nephew  of 
Giovanni  Angelo  Medici  (afterward  Pope  Pius  IV), 
and  even  in  his  boyhood  showed  an  inclination  for 
the  priesthood,  receiving  his  first  benefice  at  the 
age  of  twelve  through  the  resignation  of  an  uncle. 
Four  years  later  he  went  to  Pavia,  where  he  studied 
law,  and  had  just  taken  his  degree  in  1559,  when 
the  newly  elected  Pius  IV  invited  him  to  Rome. 
His  rise  was  extraordinary,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two  he  was  a  cardinal  and  the  archbishop  of  Milan. 
When  the  Goundl  of  Trent  was  reopened  on  Jan.  18, 
1562,  Borromeo  used  his  influence  in  securing 
the  sharp  fonnulation  of  questions  relating  to  dis- 
cipline and  faith.    He  also  governed  the  Eomagna 


and  the  March,  both  of  which  had  been  added  to 
the  papal  dominions  in  the  course  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  foreign  politics  nothing  took  place 
without  him  and  he  was  also  an  active  member  of 
the  Gongregation  of  the  Inquisition,  besides  being 
the  protector  of  the  Franciscans,  the  Knights  of 
Malta,  and  the  Gannelites.  He  could  maintain  sudi 
an  activity,  however,  only  while  he  lived  at  Rome; 
confonning  to  the  decision  of  the  Gouncil  which 
required  all  bishops  to  reside  in  their  own  diooeseB, 
he  removed  to  Milan,  where  he  had  already  pre- 
pared a  house  for  the  Jesuits,  who  acted  as  his 
instruments  in  reorganising  his  diocese  of  Milan. 
Borromeo's  activity  here  had  scarcely  begun  when 
Pius  IV  died,  but  his  successor  Pius  V  asssted  the 
archbishop  in  the  reorganisation  of  the  largest  of 
the  Italian  dioceses,  which  was  to  be  a  mc^el  for 
all.  Borromeo  founded  seminaries  for  the  better 
education  of  the  clergy  in  the  strictest  ecclesiastical 
spirit,  and  also  introduced  rigid  church  discipline, 
b^inning  with  the  clergy;  his  efforts  to  popularise 
synodical  work  and  to  improve  the  existing  orders, 
as  well  as  his  introduction  of  others,  such  as  the 
Theatines,  into  Italy  were  all  designed  to  further  the 
same  object.  In  revenge,  some  degenerate  monks 
who  had  been  affected  by  his  reform,  plazmed  his 
murder,  but  by  a  miracle,  as  it  was  claimed,  he 
escaped  the  bullet  of  his  would-be  assassins.  Hand 
in  hand  with  the  reform  within  the  Ghurch  went  a 
merciless  severity  against  every  form  of  "  heresy  " 
in  Lombardy,  the  Valtellina,  and  the  Engadine, 
as  well  as  against  "  witches "  in  Valcainonica. 
During  the  plague  of  1576  he  heroically  cared  for 
the  sick  and  buried  the  dead,  while  the  officials 
fled  in  terror  from  the  city.  His  statue  near  Aiona 
still  recalls  the  memory  of  Borromeo,  who  became, 
by  his  canonisation  in  1610,  the  saint  of  the  Gounte^ 
reformation.  K.  Bknrath. 

BiBUOOBAnnr:  The  Op§ra  omma  appeared  in  Milaa. 
1747.  The  earlier  biographies  are  antiquated  by  tlw 
works  of  A.  Sala:  DocumenH  drea  la  vita  •  U  open  di  San 
C.  Borromoo,  8  vols.,  Milan,  1857-61,  and  Biognfia  di 
C.  Borromaa,  ib.  1868;  TThs  Li/s  of  8L  ChaHeo  Bommto, 
ed.  E.  H.  Thompeon,  London,  1868,  new  ed..  1883;  SL 
Chariot  and  hit  Fellow  Labowron,  ib.  1860;  C.  SylTain. 
Hiakriro  do  8,  ChaHoo  BommM,  3  Tola.,  ib.  1884;  C 
Cameniiwh,  Cario  Borromeo  und  die  Oeoenreformaiion  im 
VeliUn,  Ghur.  1001;  E.  Wymann.  Der  heilioe  Kari  Borro- 
ws, Stans,  1003. 

BORROW,  GEORGE  (HEURT)  :  En|^  adven- 
turer and  writer;  b.  at  Blast  Dereham  (15  m.  wji.w. 
of  Norwich),  Norfolk,  July  5,  1803;  d.  at  Oulton 
(15  m.  s.e.  of  Norwich),  Suffolk,  July  26,  1881. 
His  boyhood  was  unsettled,  his  father,  a  soldier. 
moving  about  the  country  with  his  regiment.  In 
1819  he  was  articled  to  a  solidtor  at  Norwich,  but 
abandoned  the  work,  went  to  London,  and  lived 
as  a  hack  writer  for  the  publishers.  Then  he  took 
to  wandering  about  England,  and  visited  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy.  In  1833  he  was  sent  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  to  St.  Petersburg 
to  superintend  the  publication  of  a  Manchu  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  (published  in  dgiit 
volumes,  1835);  he  continued  in  the  service  of  the 
Society,  most  of  the  time  in  Spain,  till  1840.  Then 
he  married  and  adopted  a  more  settled  life  in 
England.    He  had  much  aptitude  for  languages 


237 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Borrhavs 
Bo«M 


and  acquired  a  knowledge,  though  not  scientific, 
of  many  tongues,  being  particularly  noted  for  his 
acquaintance  with  the  Romany,  the  dialect  of  the 
Gipsies,  with  whom  he  associated  much  both  on 
his  wanderings  and  after  his  return  to  England. 
He  published  a  Romany  word-book  (London,  1874), 
translations,  and  romances  which  tell  the  story  of 
his  life  with  more  or  less  fiction  interwoven.  He 
edited  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
Spanish  (Madrid,  1837)  and  translated  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  into  the  dialect  of  the  Gitanos  (Spanish 
Gipsies;  1837)  and  into  Basque  (1838).  Com- 
plete editions  of  his  works  were  published  in  five 
volumes  in  London  and  New  York.  The  best 
known  of  them  are  The  Zincali;  or  an  Account 
of  the  Gipnee  in  Spain  (2  vols.,  London,  1841)  and 
The  Bible  in  Spain  (3  vols.,  1843). 

Bibuogbaprt:  W.  I.  Knftpp,  Tht  Lif€,  WriHngB,  and  Cor- 
rmpomintcB  of  Charge  Borrow,  2  Tob.,  London,  1890;  W. 
A.  Datt,  (Twrffv  Borrow  in  Boat  iin^Uo,  ib.  1896;  DNB, 
y.  407-4Q6. 

BOSCm,  besOd,  GIULIO :  Cardinal;  b.  at  Perugia, 
Italy,  liar.  2,  1838.  He  was  educated  in  his  native 
city  and  completed  his  studies  at  Rome,  where  he 
became  the  secretary  of  Cardinal  Peed  (afterward 
Pope  Leo  XIII)  in  1861.  In  1888  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Todi,  and  seven  years  later  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Sinigaglia.  In  1900  he 
was  elevated  to  the  archbishopric  of  Ferrara,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  created  cardinal  priest  of 
S.  Lorenao  in  Panispema. 

BOSlfIA  AND  HERZEGOVmA:  Two  provinces 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy.  Previous  to 
the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878)  they  formed  the  extreme 
northwestern  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  but  since 
1908  they  have  been  part  of  Austria.  Bosnia 
has  the  Hungarian  and  Austrian  provinces  of 
Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Dalmatia  on  the  north  and 
west,  Servia  to  the  east,  and  to  the  south  Herze- 
govina, which  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Monte- 
negro and  on  the  south  and  west  by  Dalmatia.  The 
ci4>ital  is  Sarajevo  in  Bosnia,  the  chief  town  and 
former  ci^ital  of  Herzegovina,  Mostar.  The  area 
is  about  16,200  and  3,500  miles  respectively;  the 
populatkm  (1896)  1,591,036,  of  whom  219,511  are 
credited  to  Henegovina.  The  natives  are  nearly 
all  Slavs  of  the  Servian  branch.  The  number  of 
foreigners  living  in  the  land  is  estimated  at  71,000, 
most  of  them  having  entered  the  country  since  the 
Austrian  occupation. 

The  religious  statistics  for  1895  were  as  follows: 
Greek-Orientals,  673,246  (43  per  cent.);  Moham- 
medans, 548,632  (35  per  cent.);  Roman  Catholics, 
334,142  (21  per  cent.);  Jews,  8,213;  other  religions 
(mostly  Protestants),  3,859.  The  Mohanunedans, 
in  the  main  converts  from  Christianity  since  the 
Turkish  conquest  in  the  fifteenth  century,  are  not 
of  the  most  rigid  kind,  although  they  made  a  brave 
stand  against  the  Austrian  government.  They 
are  the  landed  proprietors  of  the  country  and  mer- 
chants in  the  towns.  They  are  under  the  Sheik  ul 
Islam  in  Constantinople  and  a  Rais  al  Ulama  in 
Sarajevo.  They  have  a  large  endowment  fund  for 
mosques,  schools,  hospitals,  and  the  like,  which  is 
now  administered  imder  government  supervision. 


The  free  exercise  of  their  religion  is  guaranteed  to 
them.  The  Roman  Catholics  are  descendants  of  the 
older  population  and  constitute  the  larger  number 
of  the  artisans  in  the  cities  and  the  fanners.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  the  districts  of  Travnik  and 
Mostar.  The  Franciscans  have  been  active  among 
them  since  the  thirteenth  century  and  have  done 
much  for  them.  Their  condition  has  much  im- 
proved since  the  Austrian  occupation.  There  is 
an  archbishop  of  Bosnia,  who  since  1881  has  resided 
at  Sarajevo,  and  there  are  suffragan  bishops  of 
Banjaluka,  Mostar  and  Duvno,  and  Marcana  and 
Trebinje.  The  provincial  seminary  is  at  Banjaluka, 
where  there  are  also  four  schools  for  boys  and  four 
for  girls  and  an  orphan  asylum  under  the  charge  of 
Trappist  monks.  The  adherents  of  the  Greek 
Church  are  under  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
and  the  metropolitans  of  Sarajevo,  Dolnja  Tusla, 
and  Mostar.  They  are  most  numerous  in  the  north, 
are  farmers  and  traders,  and  are  inferior  to  both 
the  Latins  and  Mohammedans  in  education.  Less 
than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  can  read 
or  write,  and  the  church  schools  are  poor.  Publio 
schools  are  being  established  and  there  are  three 
higher  schools  (two  gymnasia  and  a  Realechvie),  ten 
trade  schools,  and  a  normal  school. 

Biblioobapht:  The  church  statiatics  are  included  in  thow 
for  Austria  (q.v.)-  Consult:  V.  Klais,  OeaehiehU  Bo»- 
niMM  Ms  turn  ZorfaU  tUa  Kdntgreieka,  Leipsic,  1886;  Bom- 
ntsns  Oeoenwart  und  tUlduU  Zukunft,  Leipsic  1886;  Die 
Logo  der  Mohamimedaner  in  Boenien,  Vienna,  1900  (an« 
swered  by  KdUay  und  Boenien-Ueruoovinot  Budapest, 
1900). 

BOSO:  Third  English  cardinal;  d.  after  1178. 
His  name  was  Boso  Breakspear  and  he  was  a 
nephew  of  Pope  Adrian  IV  (Nicholas  Breakspear). 
He  belonged  to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  8t. 
Albans,  but  went  to  Rome  probably  under  Eugenius 
III.  From  Nov.  6,  1149,  to  May  3,  1162,  he  calls 
himself  Romanes  ecclesicB  acriptor,  Adrian  IV 
made  him  his  chamberlain  early  in  his  pontificate, 
probably  therefore  in  1154,  and  later  made  him 
cardinal  deacon  of  Sts.  0>smab  and  Damian;  under 
Alexander  III  he  became  cardinal  priest  of  St. 
Pudentiana.  With  the  latter  title  his  signature 
appears  to  a  number  of  papal  bulls  from  Mareh  18, 
1166,  to  July  10,  1178,  soon  after  which  he  appears 
to  have  died.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
policy  of  Adrian  and  Alexander.  He  wrote  nine 
poetical  lives  of  female  saints,  which  are  still  in 
manuscript  and  was  a  poet  of  considerable  merit. 
For  the  papal  biographies  composed  by  him  see 
Liber  Pomtificalis. 

Biblioobapht:  The  souroes  for  a  life  are  in  Thietniar  of 
MeiMbuxs.  Chroniam,  MGH,  Script.,  iii  (1839^.  760. 
Consult  Migne,  Bneydopidie  thMoffique,  vol.  xxxi.  Die- 
tionnaire  dee  Cardinaux,  ■.v.;  T.  Greenwood,  Cathedra 
PeiH,  London.  1866;  DNB,  y.  421;  KL,  ii.  1129-90. 
Consult  also  the  biographies  of  Adrian  IV  and  Alexander 
III. 

B06SE,  FRIEDRICH:  Grerman  Lutheran;  b.  at 
RossU  (38  m.  w.  of  Halle)  Aug.  23, 1864.  He  was 
educated  at  the  tiniversities  of  TQbingen,  Berlin 
(Ph.D.,  1886),  Marburg,  Heidelberg,  and  Qreifswald, 
completing  his  studies  in  1890.  In  the  following 
year  he  became  privat-docent  at  the  University  of 
Greifswald,  and  from  1892  to  1894  was  provisional 


BoQaii«t 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


838 


profesaor  in  K6nigBberg.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  associate  professor  of  church  history 
at  Kiel,  and  five  years  later  returned  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  Greifsveald,  where  he  still  remains. 
He  has  written  PraUgomena  zu  einer  OeachicfUe  dea 
Begriffea  "  Nachfolge  ChrUH  "  (Berlin,  1896). 

B0SSUBT,be8''sQ''d',  JACQUES  BraiGNB:  Bish- 
op of  Meaux  (about  27  m.  e.n.e.  of  Paris);  b.  at  Dijon 
Sept.  27,  1627;  d.  in  Paris  Apr.  12,  1704.  He 
b^;an  his  studies  in  Uie  Jesuit  school  of  Dijon, 
and  finished  at  the  Ooll^  de  Navarre,  Paris.  He 
became  priest  and  doctor  of  theology,  1652;  after 
some  time  spent  in  retirement  at  St.  Lasaie,  he 
went  to  Mets,  where  he  was  canon  and  archdeacon, 
acquired  great  fame  as  a  preacher,  and  engaged  in 
controveny  with  representatives  of  the  Refoimed 
Churches.  At  the  request  of  his  bishop  he  pub- 
tished  his  first  work  (1655),  a  RifutaHon  of  the 
catechism  of  Paul  Ferry  (q.v.).  In  1660  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Condom,  Gascony,  but  resigned 
this  office  after  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
dauphin  (1670).  When  the  education  of  his  pupil 
was  finished,  in  1681,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Meaux.  Bossuet  adopted  the  Cartesian  philosophy, 
to  which  he  added  the  Thomist  theology  and  a  great 
admiration  for  Augustine.  He  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  foremost  of  French  preachers;  and, 
in  so  far  as  the  art  of  eloquence  is  concerned,  his 
six  Oraiaons  funHbrea  (best  collected  eds.,  by 
Lequeux,  Paris,  1762,  and,  with  notes,  etc.,  by 
A.  Gast^,  1883)  must  be  nmked  among  the  finest 
specimens  of  Christian  oratory,  though  they  reflect 
the  splendor  and  greatness  of  Louis  Quatorse 
more  vividly  than  the  power  and  humility  of  the 
Gospel.  As  tutor  to  the  dauphin  he  wrote  De  la 
connaiuance  de  Dieu  et  de  aotHmime  (1722;  better  ed., 
1741)  and  Dieeoun  aur  Vhidoire  univereeUe  depute  le 
eommmoemerU  du  monde  juequ'd,  V empire  de  Charle- 
magne (leSl;  5th  ed.,  enlarged,  1703;  the  continua- 
tion to  1661,  published  1806,  was  printed  from  his 
notes),  the  latter  of  which  is  a  strildng^y  original  at- 
tempt to  construct  a  Christian  philosophy  of  histoiy 
on  the  principle  that  the  destinies  of  nations  are  con- 
trolled by  providence  in  the  interest  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  Among  his  controversial  writings 
against  the  Protestants,  the  two  most  remarkable 
are  ExpoeiHon  de  la  doctrine  de  I'igliae  cathotique 
8ur  lee  matUree  de  controveree  (1671)  and  HieUnre 
dee  variaHone  dee  ^glieee  praieetanUe  (2  vols.,  1688; 
best  ed.,  4  vols.,  1680).  The  latter  was  sharply 
criticised  by  Jurieu  and  Basnage,  and  involved  its 
author  in  a  long  and  vehement  controversy.  He 
characterised  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
(1685)  as  "  le  plus  bel  usage  de  I'autorit^,"  but  he 
was  no  ultramontanist.  He  presided  in  1682  over 
the  assembly  of  the  French  dergy  which  the  king 
had  convened  to  defend  the  royal  prerogatives 
and  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church  against  the 
claims  of  the  pope.  Nor  was  he  in  the  least  tainted 
by  mysticism.  His  attacks  on  Ftoelon  and  the 
Quietists  approached  very  near  to  persecution. 
He  wss  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  many  distin- 
guished men  who  lent  brilliancy  to  the  century  of 
Louis  XIV,  but  he  was  a  representative  of  his  time, 
and  his  ideas  of  church  polity  ooiiesponded  to. 


if  they  were  not  dictated  by,  the  king's  "I'^tat, 
c'est  moi.'' 

Bibuoobapbt:  There  haye  been  many  editions  of  his  vorb; 
the  baais  of  most  of  them  is  that  prepared  by  the  Abb^ 
P^rau,  at  goTemment  expense,  20  vols^.  Paris,  1743- 
1760;  three  yolumes  of  (Euvtm  poathumn,  ed.  by  C.  F. 
Leroy  were  published  in  1753;  the  best  edition  is  tbe 
(BuwM  eomplHf,  by  F.  Leehat  and  others,  31  voU, 
1862-06;  with  appendix  of  (Ewttm  iiUditm,  2  vols..  1881- 
1888.  Besides  many  single  sermons  aoeeasible  in  Engludi 
translation,  the  following  works  may  be  nwntiooed:  &- 
Ud  Sermona  and  Funeral  OratUma,  1801;  A  Survey  «f 
Univenal  Hiatary,  1819;  A  C^m/srenos  [between  Bossuet 
and  J.  Claude,  Mar.  1. 1679]  <m  like  iinAorily  of  lU  CJkureA. 
London,  1841;  An  ExpoaiHon  of  Me  Doebina  of  tt«  CcAo- 
lie  FatHk,  1841;  BUwUiim*  to  Gcd,  1850;  Tha  Hiatary  cf 
tha  Variaiiona  af  tha  Frotaatant  Churtkaa,  2  yob..  Dahlia. 
1836;  MadUaHona,  London.  1901. 

For  a  bibliography  oonsult  H.  M.  Bourseand,  Hittm 
ai  daaeripHon  daa  M8S,  at  daa  SdiiUma  originalaa  dat  om- 
vraaaa  da  Boaauat,  Paris  1888  (ineludes  translatioDB). 

For  his  life  and  writings  and  his  relations  to  F^neloii, 
Jansenism,  Quietism,  eto.,  oonsult:  L.  F.  de  Bansset. 
Hiatoira  da  Jaequaa  BMona  Boaauat,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1814. 
Besangon.  1846;  H.  M.  Tabaraud,  SuppUmani  aua  kiatoim 
da  Boaauat  .  .  .  eompoai  par  .  .  .  da  Bauaaal,  Fsria. 
1822;  F.  le  Dieu  (his  secretary),  Mimoiraa  at  joanui  ma 
laviaatlaa  ouvragaa  da  Boaauat,  4  vols.,  ib.  1856-67;  A. 
E^aume,  Hiatoira  da  J.-B,  Boaauat  at  da  aaa  flmmt.  S 
vols.,  ib.  1869;  Mrs.  H.  L.  (Farrer)  Lear,  Boaauat  and  hit 
Coniamponriaa,  London,  1874;  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  £»- 
•aya  an  Man  and  Woman,  ib.  1890;  R.  de  la  Broise,  Bo»- 
auatatia  BtUs,  Paris,  1891;  O.  Laneon,  Boaauat,  ib.  1891 
(a  study  of  the  writings);  A.  B6belliau«  Boaauat,  kiaktriea 
du  protaataniiama,  ib.  1891;  Sir  J.  F.  Stephen.  Bora  Sah- 
baticm,  vol.  li,  London.  1892;  C.  E.  Freppel.  Boaavel  d 
Vaioquanca  aaerM  cu  xvU,  aiicU,  Paris,  1803;  J.  Denii, 
QuaraUa  da  Boaauat  at  da  Finalon,  ib.  1894;  L.  CrousK, 
Finaion  at  BoaauaL  ttudaa  moraiaa  at  littirauraa,  2toI8l. 
ib.  1894-95;  A.  M.  P.  Ingod,  Bossuet  at  ianaMdama,  ih 
1897. 

B08T,  PAUL  AMI  ISAAC  DAVID:  Swiss  evan- 
gelist; b.  at  Geneva  June  10,  1790;  d.  at  La  Force 
(6  m.  w.  of  Bergerac),  France,  Dec.  14,  1874.  He 
devoted  four  years  to  theology  at  the  Univenrity  of 
Geneva,  but  gained  little  spiritual  profit  fnxn  his 
studies,  and  was  ordained  in  1814  in  a  ^irit  of 
empty  formalism.  In  1816  he  accepted  a  call  as 
assistant  pastor  at  Moutiers-Granval  in  the  Canton 
of  Bern,  where  he  remained  two  years,  ascribing 
to  this  period  his  firm  belief  in  the  doctrines  d 
grace  and  justification.  A  parish  proved  too 
small  for  his  energies,  however,  and  in  1818,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  "  London  Continental  Society," 
he  began  the  missionary  journeys  which  were  to 
occupy  almost  thirty-five  srears  of  his  life.  After 
the  first  of  these  trips,  he  withdrew  from  the  Church 
of  Geneva,  and  in  the  following  year  was  in  Colmar. 
He  was  expelled  from  France,  however,  and  began 
a  roving  lijfe,  oppressed  by  poverty  and  burdened 
with  a  large  family,  yet  preaching  in  Offenbach, 
Frankfort,  Hanau,  Friedrichsdorf,  and  Carianihe. 

In  1825-26  Bost  was  in  Geneva  as  the  pastor  of 
the  free  church  of  Bourg-de-Four.  In  answer  to 
the  attacks  of  the  State  Church,  he  published  his 
Difenee  de  eeux  dee  fidklee  de  Oenine  qui  ee  stmt 
eonetUuie  en  iglieee  indipendantee  (Geneva,  1825), 
charging  the  national  Church  with  abandoning  the 
Gospel  and  adopting  Arianism.  He  was  accord- 
ing^y  tried  for  slander,  but  was  acquitted,  although 
he  was  fined  500  francs  for  his  libelous  statements 
regarding  the  "  Compagnie  dea  pasteurs."  Despite 
the  fact  that  this  trial  marked  a  union  of  the  diver- 
gent elements  of  the  Free  Church,  Bost  resigned 


830 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


his  pastorate  at  Bourg-de-Four  and  founded  a  new 
congregation  at  Carouge  near  Geneva,  which  he 
dissolved  after  two  years  in  favor  of  a  more  di- 
versified activity,  establishing  the  religious  and 
political  maganne  VEsp^ance  in  1838.  Two  years 
later  he  successfully  sought  readmission  to  the 
clergy  of  Geneva,  without  retracting  any  of  his 
views.  After  a  brief  pastorate  at  Asnidies  and 
Bourges  in  France,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
the  prison  of  the  Maison  Centrale  at  Melun,  where 
he  remained  until  1848,  then  living  successively 
at  Geneva,  Ntmes,  NeuchAtel,  Jersey,  and  Paris,  and 
spending  his  last  years  at  La  Force.  The  chief  works 
of  Bost,  who  also  gained  a  certain  amount  of  reputa- 
tion as  a  writer  of  hymns,  are  as  follows:  Oenkve 
rdigieuM  (Geneva,  1819);  Histoire  dea  frtrta  moravea 
(2  vols.,  1831;  abridged  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1834); 
Sur  la  primauU  de  Pierre  et  son  Apiscopat  (3  pam- 
phlets, 1832);  Histoire  g&nirale  de  VitMiuemerU  du 
ChriaHanisme  (a  revised  translation  of  Blumhardt's 
Vertuch  einer  aUgemeinen  MiesianageschidUe  der 
Kirche  ChrisH,  4  vols..  Valence,  1838);  Lea  prophHea 
proieatanta  (Melun,  1847);  and  Mimoirea  pauvarU 
aervir  d  rhiatoire  du  riveU  religieux  (Paris,  1854-55). 

(E.  BABDBf.) 

BnuooaAPBT:  E.  Qmn,  Prtmigr  rivml  h  Oen^M.  Parifl, 
1871;  Lichtonberier.  ESR;^  878-374. 

BOSTON,  THOKAS:  Church  of  Scotland;  b. 
at  Dunse  (13  m.  w.  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed), 
Berwickshire,  Mar.  17,  1677;  d.  at  Ettrick  (40 
m.  8.  of  Edinburgh),  Selkirkshire,  May  20,  1732. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh;  be- 
came minister  at  Simprin,  Berwickshire,  1699; 
at  Ettrick,  1707.  By  circuUting  the  Marrow  of 
Modem  DivinUy  among  his  friends  he  started  the 
Marrow  Controversy  (q.v.).  He  wrote  much  and 
has  exercised  great  influence  in  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  both  of  Scotland  and  England.  The 
works  by  which  he  is  now  best  known  are  Human 
Nature  in  ita  Fourfold  State  of  Primitive  Integrity, 
Entire  Depravation,  Begun  Recovery,  and  Con- 
iummate  Happineaa  or  Miaery  (Edinburgh,  1720), 
commonly  called  "  Boston's  Fourfold  State  ";  The 
Sovereignty  and  Wiadom  of  Ood  Diaplayed  in  the 
Ajflietiona  of  Men  (1737;  reprinted  as  The  Crook  in 
the  Lot,  with  memoir,  Glasgow,  1863).  He  left  an 
autobiography  published  as  Memoira  (Edinburgh, 
1776;  ed.  G.  H.  Morrison,  1899),  and  printed 
from  Boston's  manuscript,  with  inUoduction,  notes, 
and  bibliography  by  G.  L.  Low,  under  the  title 
Qeneral  Account  of  my  Life  (Edinburgh,  1907). 
Hia  Whole  Worka  edited  by  S.  McBfillan  wore  pub- 
lished in  twelve  volumes  at  Aberdeen  in  1848-52. 

Bibuooeapht:  Bewdea  the  autobiocrapliy  mentioned  above, 
eoDsult:  A.  k  Wood,  Ath»na  Oxonitnae;  ed.  P.  Bliat, 
iii.  407-400.  4  vols.,  Oxford,  London,  1819-20;  Jean  L. 
Wataon.  lAfa  and  TimM  of  Thomaa  Botton,  Edinbursh, 
1883;  A.  ThomMMi.  Tkemaa  Boakm,  London,  1805;  DNB, 
T,  424-428. 

BOTTOMB,  MAROARBT  (McDONAID):  Foun- 
der of  the  King's.  Daughters;  b.  in  New  York  City 
Dec.  29,  1827;  d.  there  Nov.  14,  1906.  She  was 
educated  at  a  private  school  in  Brooklyn,  and 
in  1850  married  the  Rev.  Frank  Bottome.  She 
had  already  become  interested  in  religious  and 
philanthropic  woric,  and  in  1876  began  to  give 


Bible  talks  in  the  homes  of  prominent  New  York 
women,  continuing  them  for  twenty-five  years. 
In  1886  she  organiMd  the  order  of  King's  Daughters, 
basing  her  system  on  Edward  Everett  Hale's 
Ten  Timea  One  ia  Ten,  In  the  following  year  the 
society  was  enlarged  to  include  men,  and  the  name 
was  changed  to  the  present  International  Order 
of  the  King's  Daughters  and  Sons.  In  liB96  she 
was  elected  president  of  the  women's  branch  of 
the  International  Medical  Mission.  She  was  also 
an  associate  editor  of  the  The  Ladiea'  Home  Jour' 
nal,  and  in  addition  to  a  few  pamphlets  and  a 
large  number  of  contributions  to  religious  maga- 
sines  wrote  The  Queat  Chamber  (New  York,  1893); 
Crumba  from  the  Ktng'a  Table  (1894);  and  A  Sun- 
ahine  Tnp  to  the  Orient  (1897). 

BOUDINOT,  hf3L"dr'n6',  EUAS:  American  man 
of  affairs  and  philanthropist;  b.  at  Philadelphia 
May  2, 1740;  d.  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Oct.  24, 1821. 
He  was  a  lawyer  and  eminent  in  his  profession; 
represented  New  Jersey  in  the  Continental  Congress 
1778-79  and  1781-84,  was  chosen  president  in  1782, 
and,  as  such,  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain;  he  was  member  of  the  first  three  national 
congresses,  and  director  of  the  United  States  mint 
1795-1805.  He  was  a  member  of  the  American 
Board  of  CommissionerB  for  Foreign  Missions 
(1812*21),  and  first  president  of  the  American 
Bible  Society  (1816-21).  He  was  wealthy  and 
gave  liberally  for  philanthropic  purposes  during 
his  life  and  in  his  wUl.  He  wrote  The  Age  of  Reve- 
lation ;  or  the  age  of  reaaon  ahown  to  be  an  age  of 
infidelity  (Philadelphia,  1801),  in  reply  to  Thomas 
Paine;  The  Second  Advent  or  Coming  of  the  Meaaiah 
in  Olory  ahovm  to  be  a  aeriptural  doctrine  and  taught 
by  divine  revelation  (Trenton,  N.  J.,  1815);  and  A 
Star  in  the  West ;  ora  humUe  attempt  to  diacover  the 
long  lost  tribea  of  larael  (1816),  in  which  he  advocated 
the  view  that  the  American  Indians  are  the  ten 
lost  tribes.  He  also  published  anonymously  in 
the  Evangelieal  Intelligencer  for  1806  a  memoir 
of  William  Tennent  (reprinted  New  York,  1847). 
His  Journal  or  Hiatorical  Recollectiona  of  American 
Eventa  during  the  Revolutionary  War  was  printed 
at  Philadelphia  in  1894. 

Bibuoobafht:  The  Life,  Pvblie  Servieaa,  AddrMMt,  and 
Lttttn  of  Eliaa  Boudinot,  edited  by  Jane  J.  Boudinot,  2 
vole..  Boeton,  1806. 

BOUHOURS,  bQ^'hOr^,  DOMnnQUE:  Jesuit; 
b.  in  Paris  May  15,  1628;  d.  there  May  27,  1702. 
He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  sixteen,  and 
acquired  such  renown  as  a  teacher  that  the  young 
Longueville  princes  and  the  son  of  Colbert  were  put 
under  his  care.  Besides  a  number  of  biographical 
and  other  works,  he  made  (with  two  other  Jesuits, 
Tellier  and  Bemier)  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  the  Vulgate  into  French  (Paris,  1697- 
1703). 

BOUQUET,  bO'^kd",  MARTIH:  Benedictine  of 
St.  Maur;  b.  at  Amiens  Aug.  6,  1685,  d.  in  Paris 
Apr.  6,  1754.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  order 
at  St.  Faron,  Meaux,  in  1706,  and  was  ordained 
priest.  His  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
secured  his  appointment  as  special  assistant  to 
Montfauoon  in  bis  editorial  Ubors.    When   the 


Bcraanin 
Bouwwt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


240 


great  edition  of  the  Scriptores  rerum  GaUicarum 
a  Francicarum  came  to  be  made  (it  had  been  pro- 
jected by  Colbert  as  early  as  1676,  and  was  entrusted 
to  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur  in  1723),  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  it.  Difficulties  were  encountered 
owing  to  his  opposition  to  the  bull  UnigenUus, 
which  caused  the  king  to  banish  him  from  Paris; 
but  he  succeeded  in  preparing  the  first  eight  vol- 
umes for  publication  (1738-62).  Other  members 
of  the  congregation  brought  out  five  more  after 
his  death  (1757-86).  Interrupted  by  the  Revo- 
lution, the  work  was  taken  up  again  by  the  Institute, 
and  later  by  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  by  whom 
ten  more  volumes  were  published  in  the  nineteenth 
century. 

BOUQUnr,  hH'^sah',  PIERRE  (PETRUS  BOQUI- 
NUS):  French  Galvinist;  b.  either  in  the  province 
of  Saintonge  or  in  that  of  Quienne;  d.  at  TJausanne 
1582.  The  first  certain  date  in  his  life  is  his  taking 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at  the  university 
of  Bourges  Apr.  23,  1539.  He  was  a  Carmelite 
monk  at  Bourges  and  rose  to  be  prior;  but,  em- 
bracing the  Reformation,  he  left  his  monastery 
in  1541  and  went  first  to  Basel,  then  to  Leipsic 
and  Wittenberg,  where  he  had  letters  to  Luther 
and  Melanchthon.  The  latter  recommended  him 
to  Butser  when  a  theologian  was  required  to  con- 
tinue the  lectures  which  Calvin  had  delivered  in 
Strasburg.  Here  he  began  to  lecture  on  Galatians 
in  September,  1542.  Later  he  returned  to  Bourges, 
where  he  lectured  on  Hebrew  and  the  Scriptures, 
gMwifig  protection  and  a  pension  from  Biaigaret 
of  Navarre,  and  being  allowed  by  the  archbishop 
to  preach  in  the  cathedral.  The  Protestant  leaders, 
Calvin,  Farel,  and  Besa,  seem  to  have  suspected 
him  of  intending  to  desert  the  Reformation;  but 
his  teaching  brought  him  again  into  conflict  with 
the  Roman  authorities,  and  he  left  Bourges  once 
more  for  Strasburg  in  1555.  Here  he  remained 
until  the  elector  Otto  Henry  appointed  him 
in  1557  to  a  provisional  professorship  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  which  was  made  permanent 
the  next  year.  In  the  internal  dissensions  of 
Protestantism  he  took  an  increasingly  decided 
Calvinistic  stand,  and  in  the  reign  of  Frederick  III 
was  thus  the  only  Heidelberg  theologian  to  retain 
his  position,  and  was  made  head  of  the  faculty 
and  a  member  of  the  new  Reformed  church  council 
(1560).  This  period  of  prosperity  ended,  however, 
with  the  death  of  Frederick  III,  after  which  he 
was  deprived  of  his  position  (1577),  and  became, 
a  year  later,  professor  and  preacher  at  Lausanne. 
His  numerous  works  are  mainly  polemical  treatises 
against  the  Lutherans  and  Roman  Catholics. 
(E.  F.  Karl  MOller.) 

Bibuoobapht:  Biocraphieal  material  is  found  in  hia  Br»- 
vu  notaUo  .  ,  .  ds  coma  dominie  pp.  140-179,  Heidel- 
bers,  1682.  Consult  further:  H.  Adam,  Fito  9n»d%IUiinim^ 
ii,  72  eqq.,  Heidelberg.  1706;  E.  and  E.  Haag,  La  France 
prolMtonte,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier.  Ii.  875  eqq..  Paris.  1879. 

BOURDALOUE,  bOr^'da'ao',  LOUIS:  Jesuit 
preacher;  b.  at  Bourges  Aug.  20,  1632;  d.  in 
Paris  May  13, 1704.  He  was  for  some  time  a  teacher 
in  literature  and  philosophy;  in  1665  he  was  sent 
to  preach  in  the  provinces,  in  1669  was  recalled  to 
Paris;  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 


he  was  sent  to  Languedoc  to  preach  to  the  Protes- 
tants; his  last  3rear8  he  devoted  to  the  service  of 
the  poor  and  unfortunate  in  Paris.  As  a  man 
he  was  justly  esteemed  and  loved;  as  a  preacber 
his  strength  is  in  the  clearness  of  his  argument, 
its  readiness  and  its  cogency.  The  first  edidoa 
of  his  works  was  edited  by  Bretonneau  (16  vols., 
Paris,  1707-34);  a  good  recent  edition  is  that  of 
Lille,1882(6vols.). 

Bibuoobapht:  L.  Fkutbe,  BourddUm$,  d'aprH  lot  doev- 
menu  nowteaux^  Farie,  1900;  A.  Feug^re,  BowddmM^  as 
VrMieaHon  et  «m  fmi|M,  ib.  1874;  M.  lAuraa.  Bourdakmt, 
m  vit  §i  wea  mum,  2  vob.,  ib.  1881;  E.  de  M6iorvil 
BoMTtfaioMe.  Paris,  1897;  F.  Oastets,  La  Via  §t  la  pHdia^ 
Hon  d*un  rrit^ietix  au  xtii.  uiicU^  vol.  i,  liontpeUier,  1901. 

BOURIGNON,  ba"r!"hyon',  DE  LA  PORTE, 
ANTOINETTE:  Fanatical  enthusiast;  b.  at  Rys- 
sel  (Lille),  then  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  Jan. 
13,  1616;  d.  at  Franeker,  Fiiesland,  Oct.  30, 
1680.  She  grew  up  neglected  and  solitary  on 
account  of  a  facial  deformity,  afterward  removed 
by  an  operation,  and  came  to  love  isolation  and 
communion  with  God.  For  a  time  her  older  sister 
drew  her  into  the  world;  but  she  shrank  from 
marriage,  and  once  thought  she  heard  the  voice  of 
God  asking  her,  "  Canst  thou  find  a  lover  more 
perfect  than  I  7 "  She  thought  of  beooming  a 
Carmelite,  but  concluded  that  the  true  ChristianB 
were  not  to  be  found  in  the  doisters,  and  sought 
another  way  to  leave  the  worid.  Her  father  tried 
to  force  a  marriage  upon  her  yi  1636;  she  fled  in 
a  male  disguise,  and  after  many  romantic  adven- 
tures was  brought  home,  but  took  refuge  at  Mons 
under  the  protection  of  the  archbishop.  When 
her  plans  for  founding  an  ascetic  community 
on  a  primitive  model  were  hindered,  she  went  to 
Li^ge  and  made  another  unsuccessful  attempt. 
On  her  father's  death  she  brought  suit  against 
her  stepmother  for  his  entire  property  and  won  it. 
Now  she  fell  under  the  influence  of  a  doubtful 
friend  of  mysticism,  Jean  de  St.  Saulieu,  who 
induced  her  to  take  charge  of  a  home  for  orphan 
girls  (1653),  which  she  put  under  the  Augusdnian 
rule  and  made  cloistered  (1658).  Her  rule  there 
came  to  an  untoward  end  in  1662,  when  she  took 
flight  under  serious  accusations  of  cruelty.  She 
went  first  to  Ghent  and  then  to  Mechlin,  where  ahe 
found  an  adherent  in  the  superior  of  the  Oratoiians, 
Christian  de  Cort.  Soon  she  developed  a  fantas- 
tical system,  based  on  alleged  revelatioDS.  As 
the  "  woman  clothed  with  the  sun  *'  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, she  was  to  revive  the  teachings  of  the  Gospel 
and  gather  her  spiritual  children  around  her  into 
a  communistic,  priestless  brotherhood;  she  was 
the  second  revelation  of  the  Son  of  Man  on  eartL 

The  books  which  Antoinette  now  began  to  publish 
contain  the  bitterest  condemnation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  reject  infant  biq>tism,  and  the 
Trinity  was  exchanged  for  a  sacred  triad  of  truth, 
mercy,  and  justice.  She  had  dealings  with  the  Jan- 
senists,  but  rejected  their  teaching  on  predestination. 
In  1667,  with  De  Cort,  she  went  to  Amsterdam  and 
lived  for  a  while  in  the  happy  exchange  of  views 
with  the  most  various  heretics  and  fanatics.  The 
following  years  are  occupied  with  the  history  of 
the  attempt  to  find  a  home  for  her  elect  on  the 


d4i 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bonauim 
Bousset 


island  of  Nordatrand  in  the  North  Sea,  which  De 
Cort  had  diaoovered  as  the  destined  place.  His  finan- 
cial troubles,  which  make  up  a  large  part  of  the 
stoiy,  ended  only  with  his  imprisonment  at  Amster- 
dam and  his  death  in  1669.  Antoinette,  as  his  heir, 
was  for  several  years  more  much  occupied  with 
courts  of  justice,  not  without  danger  of  imprison- 
ment, and  went  from  Amsterdam  to  Haarlem, 
thence  to  Sleswick,  and  finally  to  Husum  to  be  as 
near  as  possible  to  Nordstrand.  Here  she  might 
have  been  left  in  peace  if  she  would  have  given  up 
her  claims.  But  she  set  up  a  printing-press  and 
carried  on  the  liveliest  literary  controversy,  until 
her  press  was  confiscated  by  the  government. 
So  her  stoiy  proceeds,  amid  quaint  and  vivid 
details  too  numerous  to  give  here,  untO  she  is 
found  at  Hamburg  in  1670  formally  charged  with 
sorcery  by  a  former  adherent,  an  eccentric  colonel 
of  artillery  named  La  Coste.  She  fled  to  escape 
arrest,  and  remained  in  hiding  until  her  death  the 
next  year.  The  points  of  her  quietistic  mysticism 
need  no  discussion;  for  herself  the  important  one 
was  her  own  position  as  bride  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  channd  of  revelation.  Though  she  was  prob- 
ably more  of  an  adventuress  than  even  an  enthusiast 
or  an  insane  woman,  the  solemn  prophetic  tone  of 
her  visions  and  divine  messages  continued  for  some 
time  to  attract  readers  who  believed  in  her  inspira- 
tion; but  her  community  seems  to  have  been 
entirely  scattered  at  her  death.     (G.  Kawerau.) 

Antoinette  had  many  followers  in  Scotland,  more, 
it  is  said,  than  in  any  other  country.  Prominent 
among  them  were  the  Rev.  James  Garden  (1647- 
1726),  who  rose  to  be  professor  of  divinity  at  King's 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  was  deprived  in  1606  be- 
cause he  had  refused  to  sign  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  and  his  younger  brother.  Rev. 
George  Garden  (1640-1733),  who  after  being  one  of 
the  ministers  of  St.  Nicholas,  the  town  parish  of 
Aberdeen,  was  "  laid  aside  "  by  the  privy  council  in 
1602  because  he  refused  to  pray  for  William  and 
Mary  and  in  17Q1  was  deposed  from  the  mitiistry  be- 
cause he  had  aavocated  Bourignonianism  in  his  book. 
An  Apology  for  M.  AnUmia  Bovrignon  (1600),  a  reply 
to  books  by  his  brother-in-law,  the  Rev.  John  Cock- 
bum  (1652-1720),  entitled  Bourignianism  Detected  ; 
or^  the  DduBume  and  Errors  of  A.  Bourignon  and 
h^r  Growing  Sect.  Narrative  i.  (London,  1608), 
Sarrative  iu  (1608),  and  A  Letter  to  hie  Friend 
giving  an  account  why  ths  other  Narratitfee  about 
Bourignianiem  are  not  yet  jmbliehed,  and  answering 
wme  ReflecHone  passed  upon  the  first  (1608). 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
in  1701, 1700,  and  1710  passed  deliverances  against 
Bourignonians  in  which  their  views  are  thus  de- 
scribed: L  They  denied  (1)  the  divine  permission 
of  sin  and  that  divine  vengeance  and  eternal  damna- 
tion were  inflicted  upon  it;  (2)  the  decrees  of  elec- 
tion and  reprobation;  and  (3)  the  doctrine  of  the 
divine  foreknowledge.  II.  They  asserted  (1)  that 
(Christ  had  a  twofold  human  nature,  one  produced 
of  Adam  before  the  woman  was  formed,  and  the 
other  bom  of  the  Virgin  Mary;  (2)  that  in  each 
soul  before  birth  are  a  good  and  an  evil  spirit; 
(3)  that  the  will  is  absolutely  free,  and  there  is  in 
m^n  some  infinite  quality  which  makes  it  possible 

n.— 16 


for  him  to  unite  himself  to  (jod;  (4)  that  Christ's 
nature  was  sinfully  cormpt,  so  that  by  nature  he 
was  rebellious  to  the  will  of  God;  (5)  that  perfec- 
tion may  be  attained  in  this  life;  and  (6)  that 
children  are  bom  in  heaven. 

Notwithstanding  these  deliverances,  the  views 
of  Antoinette  Bourignon  continued  to  exist  in 
Scotland  and  in  1711  Bourignonianism  was  put 
among  the  heresies  which  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try were  required  formally  to  disown  when  applying 
for  ordination. 

Bxbuoobapht:  An  edition  of  the  works  of  Antoinette 
Bouriffnon  was  published  in  19  vols.,  at  Amaterdam. 
1680-86.  She  wrote  two  accounts  of  her  life:  La  ParoU 
dm  Dieu,  ou  sa  vis  inUrieun  (1634-63),  Mechlin,  1663; 
and  La  Vm  exUriewrt  (1616-61).  Amsterdam.  1668. 
Theae  were  continued  by  her  diBcipIe,  Pierre  Poiret,  in 
8a  Vie  eontinuStt  rtprim  depuia  ta  nautance  si  suivw 
}iisgu'&  sa  mart,  appended  to  a  later  edition  of  the  pre- 
oediing.  Her  autobiography  in  Eng.  transl.  under  the  title 
The  Lioht  of  Ms  Worid;  a  Mo$t  True  Relation  of  a  PU- 
ffrimeee  TraoeUing  Totporde  Eternity,  3  parts,  London,  1696, 
reprinted,  ib.  1863;  abridged,  ib.  1786.  Consult  especially 
A.  van  der  Linde,  Antoinette  Bourignon^  Dae  lAdU  der 
Welt,  Leyden.  1895  (of.  on  this  G.  Kawerau,  in  GGA,  1895, 
pp.  428  sqq.). 

BOURNE,  FRANCIS:  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Westminster;  b.  at  Clapham  (a  suburb 
of  London)  Mar.  23,  1861.  He  was  educated  at 
St.  Cuthbert's  CoUege,  Ushaw  (186&-75),  St. 
Edmund's,  Ware  (1875-SO),  St.  Thomas's  Seminary, 
Hammersmith  (1880-^1),  St.  Sulpice,  Paris  (1881- 
1883),  and  the  University  of  Louvain  (1883-84). 
He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1884,  and 
after  serving  as  assistant  at  Blackheath,  Mortlake, 
and  West  Grinstead  for  five  years,  was  appointed 
rector  of  Southwark  Diocesan  Seminary,  holding 
this  position  until  1898,  also  acting  for  several 
years  as  professor  of  moral  theology  and  Holy 
Scripture.  He  was  named  domestic  prelate  to  the 
pope  in  1895,  and  in  the  following  year  was  con- 
secrated titular  bishop  of  Epiphania  and  coadjutor 
to  the  bishop  of  Southwark.  He  was  bishop  of 
Southwark  from  1897  to  1903,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  archbishop  of  Westminster.  He 
practically  refounded  St.  John's  Seminary  at 
Wonersh,  and  has  been  most  active  in  movements 
for  social  reform  in  the  diocese  of  Southwark, 
particularly  in  the  development  of  the  Southwark 
Rescue  Society  and  the  Catholic  Boys'  Brigade. 
He  is  also  president  of  the  Catholic  Canadian  Emi- 
gration Society,  and  represented  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics of  England  at  the  St.  Augustine  celebrations 
at  Aries  in  1897,  as  well  as  the  English  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  at  Autun  in  1899,  and  led  the 
English  pilgrims  to  Lourdes  in  1902. 

BOUSSET,  ba^'set',  JOHANN  FRANZ  WILHELM: 
German  Protestant;  b.  at  LObeck  Sept.  3,  1865. 
He  was  educated  at  Erlangen,  Leipsic,  and  G6ttin- 
gen  (Th.Lic,  1890)  and  became  privat-docent  at 
the  latter  university  in  1890,  being  made  associate 
professor  of  New  Testament  exegesis  six  yetan 
later.  Theologically  he  belongs  to  the  liberal 
historical  school.  In  addition  to  minor  contribu- 
tions, he  has  written  Evangeliencitate  Jw^tins  des 
AfArtyrers  (GOttingen,  1891);  Jesu  Predigt  im 
Gegensatz  turn  Judentum  (1892);  Textkritische  Stti- 
dien  (Leipsic,  1894);  Antichrist  (GOttmgen,  1895; 


BouthlUler 
Boyd 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


242 


Eng.  transl.  by  A.  H.  Keane,  London,  1896); 
KommerUar  eur  Offenbarung  de8  Johannes  (in  the 
KrUi8chr€xegeti8cher  Kommentar  zum  Newen  Testa- 
ment ^  1896);  Religion  deaJtuUntuma  tm  neutestament- 
lichen  ZeUaUer  (BerUn,  1903;  2d  ed.,  1906);  Daa 
Weunder  Religion  (Halle,  1903);  Waewiseenwirvon 
Jesuef  (1904);  Jeaiu  (Halle,  1904;  Eng.  transl.,  Lon- 
don, 1906);  and  ErkldrungdeaOalater'Und  ersten  und 
zweiUn  Koriniherbriefes,  in  J.  Weifis's  Schri/ten  dee 
Neuen  Testaments  neu  vbersettt  (G6ttingen,  1905). 
Since  1897  he  has  edited  the  Theologische  Rund- 
s(^u  in  collaboration  with  W.  HeitmQiIer,  and  the 
Forschungen  tut  Religion  und  Literatvr  des  Alien 
und  Neuen  Testaments  in  collaboration  with  H. 
Gunkel  since  1903. 

BoxrrmLLiER,  ha^tsn'iy^,  de  range,  ar- 

MAND  JEAN  LE.     See  Trappistb. 

BOWEN,  OEOROE:  Methodist  Episcopal  for- 
eign missionaiy;  b.  at  Middlebuiy,  Vt.,  April  30, 
1816;  d.  in  Bombay,  India,  Feb.  5,  1888.  He 
was  graduated  at  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City,  in  1847;  was  ordained  by  the  pres- 
bytery of  New  York,  and  the  same  year  went  to 
Bombay  under  the  American  Board.  He  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  that  city,  but  severed  his  connection 
with  the  American  Board  in  1855  and  was  an  inde- 
pendent missionary  till  1872  when  he  connected 
himself  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  missionaiy 
society.  He  edited  the  Bombay  Guardian  from 
1854  on;  and  was  also  the  secretary  of  the  ReUgious 
Tract  Society  of  Bombay.  By  the  volumes  which 
have  been  made  up  from  his  writings  he  has 
helped  many  spiritually.  They  are:  Daily  Medi- 
tations (Philadelphia,  1865);  Discussions  by  the  Sea- 
side (Bombay,  1857);  Love  revealed.  Meditations  on 
the  parting  words  of  Jesus  vnth  his  disciples  in  John 
xiii.  to  xvii.  (Philadelphia,  1872);  Verity ,  Verily. 
The  Amens  of  Christ  (1879). 

BOWENy  JOHN  WESLEY  EDWARD:  Methodist 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  Dec.  3, 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  New 
Orleans  (B.A.,  1878)  and  Boston  University  (Ph.D., 
1887).  After  acting  as  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages at  Central  Tennessee  College,  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  from  1878  to  1882,  he  held  successive  pas- 
torates at  Boston  (1882-85),  Newark,  N.  J.  (1885- 
1888),  and  Baltimore  and  Washington  (1888-92), 
while  during  the  latter  incumbency  he  was  likewise 
professor  of  church  history  and  systematic  theology 
in  Morgan  College,  Baltimore,  and  also  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  Howard  University,  Washington, 
in  1891-92.  Since  1893  he  has  been  president  and 
professor  of  historical  theology  in  Gammon  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Atlanta,  Ga.  He  was  a  member 
and  examiner  of  the  American  Institute  of  Sacred 
Literature  in  1889-93,  as  well  as  secretary  and 
librarian  of  the  Stewart  Missionary  Foundation 
for  Africa.  He  was  likewise  a  member  of  the  gen- 
eral conferences  of  1896,  1900,  and  1904,  and  from 
1892  to  1900  was  a  member  of  the  board  of  control 
of  the  Epworth  League.  He  is  the  editor  of  The 
VoicSf  The  Negro,  and  the  Stewart  Missionary 
Magazine,  and  has  written  National  Sermons, 
Africa  and  the  American  Negro  (Philadelphia,  1891); 


University  Addresses  (Atlanta,  1895);  Discussions 
in  Philosophy  and  Theology  (1895);  and  The 
United  Negro  (IW2). 

BOWER,  ARCHIBALD :  Professed  convert  from 
Roman  Catholicism  to  Protestantism;  b.  at  Dundee 
Jan.  17, 1686;  d.  in  London  Sept.  3,  1766.  He  vis 
educated  at  Douai,  went  to  Italy,  became  a  Jesuit 
1706,  and  in  1723  was  made  a  counselor  of  the 
Inquisition  at  Macerata,  Italy.  In  1726  he  fled 
secretly  to  England,  and,  after  scnne  years,  joined 
the  Established  Church;  he  gained  influential 
patrons,  who  procured  him  employment  in  litenuy 
work  and  teaching.  In  1745  he  was  readmitted 
into  the  Society  of  Jesus,  but,  after  two  yean, 
again  professed  to  leave  the  Church  of  Rome. 
His  principal  publication  was  the  History  of  the 
Popes  (7  vols.,  London,  1748-66;  reprinted  with 
a  continuation  by  S.  H.  Cox,  3  vols.,  Philaddiphia, 
1844-45),  which  was  attacked  by  Alban  Butler 
and  Jolm  Douglas  as  a  mere  translation  of  Tille- 
mont  and  earlier  writers  without  proper  acknowl- 
edgment. Bower's  character  for  virtue  as  wdl  aa 
veracity  is  not  above  suspicion. 
Biblxoobapht:  The  DNB,  vi.  48-51,  fumiahM  a  soodsct 

account  of  hia  lif e  and  the  efaatgcs  acainst  him,  .with  a  list 

of  literature  upon  him. 

BOWMAN,  THOMAS:  The  name  of  two  oontem- 
poraiy  American  bishops. 

1.  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Berwick, 
Pa.,  July  15,  1817.  He  was  educated  at  Dick- 
inson College  (B.A.,  1837),  and  two  yean  Uter 
entered  the  Baltimore  conference  of  the  Method- 
ist ministry.  He  taught  in  the  granunar-school 
of  Dickinson  College  in  1840-43,  and  five  years 
later  founded  Dickinson  Seminary,  Williamsport, 
Pa.,  of  which  he  was  the  president  until  1858, 
when  he  was  chosen  president  of  Asbuiy  (now 
De  Pauw)  University,  Greencastle,  Ind.  In  1861- 
1865  he  was  also  chaplain  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  He  resigned  the  presidency  of  Asbuiy 
University  in  1872,  when  he  was  elected  bishop, 
and  since  that  time  has  officially  visited  all  the 
conferences  of  his  denomination  in  the  United 
States,  Europe,  India,  China,  J^an,  and  Mexico. 

2.  Bishop  of  the  Evangelical  Association;  b.  in 
Lehigh  township,  Northampton  County,  Pa.,  May 
28,  1836.  He  studied  at  the  Vanderveers  Seminary, 
Easton,  Pa.,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Association.  He  was  pastor  in  the  eastern 
Pexmsylvania  conference  1859-75,  and  was  presi- 
ding elder  of  the  same  conference  1870-75.  He 
has  been  a  bishop  since  1875,  and  since  1^ 
principal  of  the  Union  Biblical  Institute  at  Nfr- 
persville,  111.,  which  is  the  theological  seminary 
of  the  Evangelical  Association.  He  characterises 
his  theological  position  as  "  Arminian-evangelical." 
He  has  published  a  revision  of  the  catechism  of  his 
Church,  also  an  account  of  the  disturbance  in  the 
Evangc^cal  Association. 

BOWlf£,  BORDEH  PARKER:  American  edu- 
cator; b.  at  Leonardville,  N.  J.,  Jan.  14,  1847. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  New  York 
(BA.,  1871),  and  later  studied  for  two  years  at  the 
universities  of  Halle,  GCttingen,  and  Paris.  Since 
1876  he  has  been  professor  of  philosophy  at  Bos- 


248 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BouthlUler 
Boyd 


ton  Univereity.  He  was  chainnan  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Department  at  the  St.  Louis  World's  Fair 
in  1904  and  is  an  honorary  member  of  the  Imperial 
Education  Society  of  Japan.  He  has  written  The 
Philosophy  of  Herbert  Spencer  (New  York,  1874); 
Studies  in  Theism  (1879);  Metaphysics  (1882); 
Philosophy  of  Theism  (1887);  IrUroductum  to 
Psychological  Theory  (1887);  Principles  of  Ethics 
(1892);  Theory  of  Thought  and  Knowledge  (1897); 
The  Christian  Revelation  (Cincinnati,  1898);  The 
Christian  Life  (1899);  The  Atonement  (1900); 
Theism  (Deems  lectures  for  1902;  New  York,  1902); 
an<l  The  Immanence  of  Qod  (Boston,  1905). 

BOWRING,  SIR  JOHN:  English  Unitarian;  b. 
at  Exeter  Oct.  17,  1792;  d.  there  Nov.  23,  1872. 
He  served  his  country  as  member  of  Pariiament 
(1835-37  and  1841-49),  in  the  public  service  in 
China  and  the  Far  East  (1849-59),  and  as  member 
of  various  governmental  commissions;  he  was  an 
ardent  Utilitarian  and  first  editor  of  the  West- 
minster Review  (1825).  He  was  a  remarkable 
linguist  and  an  enthusiastic  student  of  literature. 
His  writing?  relate  to  public  affairs,  give  the  results 
of  his  travels,  and  include  numerous  translations, 
particularly  of  the  popular  poetry  of  Eastern  Europe; 
he  edited  the  works  of  Jeremy  Bentham  with 
biography  (11  vols.,  London,  1838-43).  He  is 
mentioned  here  for  fais  hynms,  many  of  which  are 
in  general  use,  as  "  God  is  love/  his  mercy  bright- 
ens," "  From  the  recesses  of  a  lowly  spirit,"  "In 
the  cross  of  Christ  I  glory,"  "Watchman,  tell 
us  of  the  night,"  "  We  can  not  always  trace  the 
way,"  and  others. 

Bibuogkapht:  AuMnoffraphieatl  lUeoUeetioru,  wUh  Metnoir 
by  [his  son]  Lewin  Bowrinc.  London,  1877;  DNB,  vi, 
76^80;  8.  W.  Duffield,  BnolUh  Hymna,  pp.  260-203.  New 
York,  1886;  J.  Julian,  DieHonary  of  Hymnology,  pp.  166- 
167.  London,  1907. 

BOT-BISHOP:  A  popular  custom  of  the  Middle 
Ages  to  provide  a  diversion  for  the  boys  of  a  church 
or  cathedral  choir  or  school,  and  to  reward  the  most 
deserving.  One  of  the  number  was  chosen  "  bish- 
op," most  commonly  on  St.  Nicholas's  day  (Dec.  6), 
and  in  episcopal  dress  and  attended  by  his  fellows 
as  priests,  he  went  through  the  streets  bestowing 
his  blessing.  Often  he  entered  into  the  church 
and  conducted  some  part  of  the  service,  at  times 
delivering  a  sermon,  prepared  for  the  purpose  by 
an  older  head  (cf .  the  Concio  de  puero  Jesu  of  Eras- 
mus, edited  by  S.  Bentley,  London,  1816,  which 
was  spoken  by  a  boy  of  St.  Paul's  School,  London, 
on  such  an  occasion).  The  boys  occupied  the  seats 
of  the  clergy  while  the  latter  sat  in  the  lowest 
places.  In  some  localities  the  game  lasted  from 
St.  Nicholas's  day  until  Holy  Innocents'  day 
(Dec.  28).  It  was  very  popular  in  En^and,  where 
it  was  observed  not  only  in  the  churches  and 
schools,  but  at  the  court  and  in  the  castles  of  the 
nobility;  the  boys  were  called  **  St.  Nicholas's 
clerks."  The  custom  was  forbidden  in  1542  but 
was  restored  under  liary.  It  was  also  common 
in  France,  although  repeatedly  forbidden  there 
(by  the  papal  legate,  1198;  the  synods  of  Paris 
1212,  Cognac  1260,  Nantes  1431;  the  chapter  of 
Troyes  1445).  In  some  places,  as  Reims  and 
Mainz,  it  lasted  till  the  eighteenth  century.    See 


Fools,  Feast  of,  and  consult  the  works  men- 
tioned in  the  bibliography  of  that  article. 

BOYCE,  JAMES  PETIGRU:  American  Baptist; 
b.  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  Jan.  11,  1827;  d.  at  Pau, 
France,  Dec.  28,  1888.  He  was  graduated  at 
Brown  University  1847;  studied  theology  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  184&-51;  became  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  1851; 
professor  of  theology  in  Furman  University,  Green- 
ville, S.  C,  1855;  chairman  of  the  faculty,  and 
professor  of  systematic  theology  in  the  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  opened  at  the  same 
place  in  1859.  He  was  opposed  to  secession,  but 
went  with  his  State  into  the  Civil  War;  was  chaplain 
of  the  Sixteenth  South  Carolina  volunteers  1861-62; 
member  of  the  legislature  1862-^5;  of  the  State 
ooimdl  and  on  the  staff  of  Gov.  A.  G.  Magrath 
1864-65;  member  of  the  State  convention  for 
reconstruction  1865.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  returned  to  his  duties  in  the  seminary,  re- 
opened it  and  reestablished  it  with  much  labor, 
and  made  considerable  contributions  to  its  support 
from  his  own  means.  In  1872  he  was  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  church  government  and  pastoral 
duties,  but  was  absent  much  of  the  time  for  the 
next  few  years  arrangiag  for  the  removal  of  the 
seminary  to  Louisville,  Ky.,  which  was  accom- 
plished in  1877.  In  1887  he  returned  to  his  old 
department  of  systematic  theology.  He  was 
president  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention 
1872-79  and  in  1888.  Besides  sermons,  speeches, 
and  articles  he  published  Three  Changes  in  Theo- 
logical EdiuMtion  (Greenville,  1856);  A  Brief 
Catechism  of  Bible  Doctrine  (Memphis,  1872);  An 
Abstract  of  Theology  (Louisville,  1882;  rev.  and 
enlarged  ed.,  Baltimore,  1887;  rev.  and  annotated 
by  F.  H.  Kerfoot,  Philadelphia,  1898). 

BxBUoaRAPHT:    J.  A.  Broadus,  Memoir  of  James  Peti§ru 
Boifoe,  New  York.  1893. 

BOYD,    ANDREW    KENNEDY    HUTCHISON  : 

Established  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Auchinleck 
(28  m.  s.  of  Glasgow),  Ayrshire,  Nov.  3,  1825; 
d.  at  Bournemouth,  Hampshire,  England,  Mar.  1, 
1899.  He  studied  at  King's  College  and  the  Middle 
Temple,  London,  and  at  the  University  of  Glasgow 
(B.A.,  Glasgow,  1846);  was  ordained  minister  of 
Newton-on-Ayr  1851;  minister  of  Kirkpatrick- 
Irongray,  near  Dumfries,  1854-59;  of  St.  Bernard's, 
Edinburgh,  1859-65;  first  minister  of  the  city  of 
St.  Andrews  from  1865.  He  won  distinction  both 
as  a  clergyman  and  a  writer  (over  the  signature 
A.  K.  H.  B.,  and  the  sobriquet  "  The  Country  Par- 
son "),  and  was  perhaps  the  most  widely  known 
minister  of  the  Scottish  Church.  In  1866  he  was 
made  chairman  of  a  committee  to  prepare  a  new 
collection  of  hymns  and  filled  the  place  with  much 
judgment  and  tact.  He  was  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  in  1890.  The  most  notable 
of  his  many  books  were  Recreations  of  a  Country 
Parson  (3  series,  London,  1859-78);  Leisure  Hours 
in  Town  (1862);  Graver  ThoughU  of  a  Country 
Parson  (3  series,  1862-75);  The  Commonplace 
Philosopher  in  Town  and  Country  (1862-64); 
Counsel  and  Comfort  Spoken  from  a  City  Pulpit 
(1863);  The  Autumn  Holidays  of  a  Country  Parson 


Boyle 
MridXmy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


244 


(1864);  CriHoal  Esaaya  of  a  Country  Parmm  (1865) ; 
Sunday  Afternoons  in  the  Parish  Church  of  a  Uni- 
versity City  (1866);  Lessons  of  Middle  Age  (1867); 
Changed  Aspects  of  Unchanged  Truths  (1869); 
Present  Day  Thoughts  (1870);  SeaMe  Musings 
(1872);  A  Scotch  Communion  Sunday  (1873); 
Landsca'peSf  Churches,  and  Moralities  (1874);  From 
a  Quiet  Place  (1879);  Our  Little  Life  (2  series, 
1881^84);  Towards  the  Sunset,  Teachings  after 
Thirty  Years  (1882);  What  Set  him  Right,  with 
other  chapters  to  help  (1885);  Our  Homely  Comedy 
and  Tragedy  (1887);  The  Best  Last,  unth  other 
papers  (1888);  To  Meet  the  Day  through  the  Chris- 
tian Year  (1889);  East  Coast  Days  and  Memories 
(1889);  Twenty-five  Years  of  St.  Andrews  (2  vols., 
1892),  autobiographical  leminiscences,  continued 
in  St.  Andrews  and  Elsewhere  (1894),  and  Last 
Years  of  St.  Andrews  (1896). 

BiBUOoBAnrr:  Gonmilt,  bendes  the  ftatobiotnphieal 
aketofaM  mentioned  aboye:  A.  Lens*  in  Longman's  MoifO' 
•iiM.  Max.  1899:  DNB,  rapplement  vol.  i,  244-246. 

BOYLE,  ROBERT,  AND  THE  BOYLE  LEC- 
TURES: Robert  Boyle  was  bom  at  Liamore  Gastle 
(30  m.  n.e.  of  Cork),  Waterford,  Ireland,  Jan.  25, 
1627,  son  of  Richard  Boyle,  eari  of  Goric;  d.  in  Lon- 
don Dec.  30, 1691.  HestudiedatEtonand  (1638-44) 
at  Geneva  and  elsewhere  on  the  Continent;  on  his 
return  to  England  he  lived  at  first  on  his  estate, 
Stalbridge,  Dorsetshire,  after  1654  in  Oxford,  and 
after  1668  in  London.  As  a  scientist  he  holds 
a  high  rank  and  has  been  considered  the  heir  to 
both  the  methods  and  abilities  of  Francis  Baoon. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1662),  and  was  constantly  engaged  in  investiga- 
tions which  resulted  in  numerous  publications.  He 
wrote  many  theological,  moral,  and  religious  essays, 
gave  freely  for  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
various  languages,  and  was  liberal  in  private  charity. 
He  was  governor  of  the  Corporation  for  the  Spread 
of  the  Gospel  in  New  England  (see  Euor,  John). 
In  his  will  he  left  an  endowment  of  £50  annually 
for  the  Boyle  Lectures,  a  series  of  8  sermons, 
to  be  delivered  each  year  in  some  church,  against 
unbelievers.  For  the  lectures  St.  Paul's  was  used 
in  1699  and  1701,  the  parish  church  of  St.  Mary 
le  Bow  1711-1805,  Westminster  Abbey  1852-53,  the 
Chi^l  Royal,  Whitehall,  1864-85,  while  the  lectures 
of  19ai-05  were  delivered  in  the  Chureh  of  St. 
Edmund,  Lombard  St.  The  first  course  was  given 
by  Richard  Bentley  (1692);  his  successors  have  in- 
cluded some  of  England's  most  prominent  theo- 
logians. A  selection  from  the  sennons  was  pub- 
lished by  Gilbert  Burnet,  vicar  of  Coggeshall,  in  4 
vols.,  London,  1737.  A  partial  list  of  the  published 
Boyle  Lectm^s  down  to  1892-93  is  given  in  J.  F. 
Hurst,  Literature  of  Theology  (New  York,  1896). 
Since  then  there  have  been  published  the  lectures 
for  1895,  W.  C.  E.  Newbolt,  The  Oospel  of  Expe- 
rience (London,  1896),  and  for  1903-05  by  R.  J. 
Knowling,  The  Testimony  of  St.  Paul  to  Christ  (Lon- 
don, 1905). 

Boyle's  complete  works  with  life  were  published 
by  Tliomas  Birch  (5  vols.,  London,  1744;  2d  ed., 
6  voU.,  1772). 

Biblioobapht:  Adde  from  the  life  by  Bireh  there  are  avail- 
able: A.  k  Wood.  Athena  Oxamnms,  ed.  P.  Blin,  ii,  286, 


4  vole..  London.  1813-20;  A.  C.  Brown,  DmodaprnmU  ^ 
fkt  IdM,  of  Chmnieal  CompoaiiUm,  VP.  9-14.  Ediabuish, 
1800;  DNB,    vi,    11»-123. 

BRACE,  CHARLES  L0RIK6:  American  philan- 
thropist; b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  19,  1826; 
d.  at  Campfer  in  the  Engadine,  SwitKrland, 
Aug.  11,  1890.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1846; 
studied  at  the  Yale  Divinity  School  1847-48  and 
at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  184S- 
1849;  traveled  and  studied  in  Europe  for  two  years; 
in  1853  he  became  first  secretary  and  execu- 
tive agent  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society  of  New 
York,  and  remained  such  till  his  (kath.  He 
planned  and  developed  the  work  and  supported 
it  in  the  earlier  days  with  much  self-sacrifidng 
labor;  industrial  and  night  schools  were  established, 
lodging-houses  provided  for  newsboys  and  for 
girls,  reading-rooms  opened,  summer  charities 
instituted,  and  nearly  100,000  boys  and  girls 
were  assisted  to  new  homes  and  occupations  with 
healthful  and  moral  surroundings.  By  thus  re- 
moving incipient  criminals  a  marked  diminution 
in  juv^iile  crime  was  shown  in  the  police  reports 
of  New  York.  The  history  of  the  work  was  g;iven 
by  Bfr.  Brace  in  his  aimual  reports  and  in  his  two 
books.  Short  Sermons  to  Neweboys,  with  a  Hilary 
of  the  formation  of  the  Newsboys'  Lodging  House 
(New  York,  1866);  and  The  Dangerous  Classes  of 
New  York,  and  twenty  years'  work  among  them 
(1872;  enlarged  ed.,  1880).  He  published  several 
works  of  travel  of  a  popular  character  such  as 
Home  Life  in  Germany  (1853);  The  New  West 
(1869);  and  as  results  of  considerable  thiwlring 
and  study,  Gesta  Christi,  a  history  of  humane  prog- 
ress  under  Christianity  (1882;  4th  ed.,  1884);  and 
The  Unknown  God,  or  inspiratum  among  prm- 
Christian  races  (IS90). 
BiBUOosArar:  C.  L.  BracB,  HU  Life,  tshUfty  tM  in  him  oupm. 

LtUers,  edited  by  hie  daujihtar,  Emma  Braee,  New  York. 

1804. 

'BRACKHAHir,  ALBERT:  German  Protestant 
historian;  b.  at  Hanover  June  24,  1871.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Leipsic, 
and  QOttingen,  and  occupies  the  position  of  associate 
professor  of  history  at  the  Universi^  of  Marburjg. 
He  is  a  collaborator  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  (j6ttingen  for  the  publication  of  early 
papal  documents,  and  in  addition  to  a  number 
of  contributions  to  historical  periodicals  has  writ- 
ten: Urkundliche  Geschichte  dee  Ualberstadier  Dam- 
kapUals  im  MittelaUcr  (Wemigerode,  1898). 

BRADFORD,  AMORY  HOWE:  American  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  Granby,  N.  Y.,  Apr.  14, 
1846.  He  was  educated  at  G^esee  Cc^ege,  Hamil- 
ton College  (B.A.,  1867),  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  (1870),  and  Oxford  University.  Since 
1870  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  First  Congregationai 
Chureh, Montclair,  N.J.  He  was  associate  editor 
of  The  Outlook  from  1894  to  1901,  member  of  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions deputation  to  J^an  in  1895,  and  moderator 
of  the  National  Council  of  Congregational  Churches 
in  1901-04.  He  is  also  first  secretary  and  sec- 
ond president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chris- 
tian Philosophy,  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
American   Missionary   Association   in    1904.     He 


245 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Boyle 
BnOl&y 


-was  Southworth  Lecturer  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1902-03  and  George  Sheppard  Lec- 
turer at  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  in  1906. 
In  theology  he  is  a  liberal  evangelical.  He  has 
written  SjnrU  and  Life  (New  York,  1888);  Old 
Wine,  New  BotOee  (1892);  The  Piignm  in  Old 
England  (1893);  Heredity  and  CkrisHan  Probleme 
(1895);  The  Growing  Revelation  (1897);  The  Sie- 
Hne  Madonna  (1897);  The  Holy  FamUy  (1899); 
The  Art  of  Living  Alone  (1899);  The  Return  to 
Christ  (1900);  The  Age  of  Faith  (Boston,  1900); 
Spiritual  Leeaons  from  the  Browninge  (New  York, 
1900);  Meeeagee  of  the  Masters  (1902);  The  Ascent 
of  <Ae  Soul  (1905);  and  The  Inward  Light  (1905). 

BRADFORD,  JOHN :  Church  of  England  Protee- 
tant  martyr;  b.  at  Manchester  about  1510;  burned 
at  Smithfield  July  1,  1555.  He  was  in  the  service 
of  Sir  John  Harrington,  the  king's  pajrmaster  in 
France;  began  to  study  law  in  the  Temple  1547,  but 
the  next  year  turned  to  divinity  and  entered  St. 
Catherine's  Hall,  Cambridge  (MA.,  by  special  grace, 
1549);  was  elected  fellow  of  Pembroke  Hall  1549; 
became  prebendary  of  Kentish  Town  in  the  church 
of  St.  Paul,  1551;  was  chaplain  to  Bishop  Ridley, 
in  1552  one  of  the  king's  six  chaplains  in  ordinary, 
and  preached  in  many  localities  with  great  fervor 
and  earnestness.  In  August,  1553  (six  weeks  after 
the  accession  of  Mary),  he  was  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  preaching  seditious  sermons  and  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower;  he  was  examined  before 
Bishops  Gardiner,  Bonner,  and  others  in  January, 
1555,  and  condemned  as  a  heretic.  His  writings 
(chiefly  sermons,  letters,  and  devotional  pieces)  were 
edited  for  the  Parker  Society  by  Aubrey  Townsend 
(2  vds.,  Cambridge,  1848-53). 

Bibuoobapht:  W.  Stepheno,  Memoin  of  John  Bradford, 
London,  1882;  The  Life  of  John  Bradford,  toL  iii  of  Li- 
brary of  Chriatian  Biooraphy,  London,  1866;  DNB,  vi. 
157-160. 

BRADLAUGH,  CHARLES:  English  freethought 
advocate  and  politician;  b.  at  Hoxton  (a  subuib  of 
London)  Sept.  26, 1833;  d.  at  London  Jan.  30, 1891. 
He  was  educated  in  local  schools  until  the  age  of 
twelve,  when  his  business  life  began.  A  few  years 
later  he  became  an  advocate  of  freethought,  and 
rapidly  achieved  notoriety  for  his  propaganda. 
His  attitude  seriously  affected  his  career,  and  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  he  enlisted  as  a  private  soldier, 
remaining  in  the  army  three  years.  He  then  en- 
tered a  solicitor's  office,  and  soon  rose  to  a  position 
of  re8ponsi)>ility.  Meantime  he  had  resumed  his 
campaign  for  freethought,  and  in  1858  began  a 
platform  tour  of  the  provinces,  advocating  not 
only  radicalism  in  religion,  but  also  in  politics. 
From  1862  untU  his  death,  excepting  in  1863-66, 
he  was  the  proprietor  of  the  repubUcan  National 
Reformer,  and  in  his  advocacy  of  radical  politics 
was  secretary  of  the  fund  raised  in  1858  to  defend 
E.  Truelove  for  publishing  a  vindication  of  Orsini's 
attempt  to  assassinate  Napoleon  III.  He  was 
likewise  a  member  of  the  parliamentary  reform 
league  of  1866,  and  drew  up  the  first  draft  of  the 
Fenian  proclamation  issued  in  the  following  year, 
while  three  yean  later  he  was  the  envoy  of  the  Eng- 
lish republicans  to  the  Spanish  republican  leader 
CMtelar,  and  was  likewise  nominated  as  candidate 


for  a  division  of  Paris  on  the  foundation  of  the 
French  republic  in  the  same  year.  He  then  at- 
tempted to  go  to  Paris  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Commune  to  be  an  intermediary  between  Thiers 
and  the  insurrectionists,  but  was  arrested  at  Calais 
and  forced  to  return  to  En^and. 

In  1868  Bradlaugh's  attempts  to  gain  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons  began,  but  his  avowed 
principles  caused  his  defeat  both  in  that  year  and 
in  1874.  Six  years  later,  however,  he  was  returned, 
and  by  his  refusal  to  take  the  required  oath  on  the 
Bible  initiated  a  struggle  which  involved  him  in 
repeated  scenes  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  in 
eight  legal  actions.  He  was  again  and  again 
excluded  from  the  House,  his  willingness  to  take 
the  oath  as  a  mere  matter  of  form,  or  to  affirm, 
being  overruled  by  the  plea  that  he  was  an  avowed 
freethinker.  Nevertheless,  he  was  reelected  for 
Northampton  by  special  elections  after  his  expul- 
sion in  1881  and  1882,  and  at  the  general  election 
in  1886  was  once  more  returned,  being  permitted 
this  time  to  take  his  seat,  which  he  retained  until 
his  death.  During  this  troubled  period  of  his  life 
he  was  also  involved  in  a  contest  for  the  abolition 
of  all  restrictions  on  the  press,  beginning  with  his 
refusal,  in  1868,  to  give  security  to  the  government 
against  the  publication  of  blasphemy  and  sedition 
in  his  National  Reformer,  In  the  following  year 
another  legal  contest  resulted  in  the  passage  of  the 
Evidence  Amendment  Act,  by  which  the  evidence 
of  freethinkers  was  declared  admissible,  a  judge 
having  refused  to  take  his  testimony  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  a  freethinker.  A  few  years  later,  in 
1874,  he  became  associated  with  Annie  Besant 
(q.v.),  who  was  assistant  editor  of  the  National 
Reformer  until  1885,  when  she  resigned  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  socialism.  In  1876  they  were 
sentenced  to  six  months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine 
of  £200  for  the  publication  of  the  Fruits  of  Philoa- 
ophy,  which  advocated  the  artificial  restraint  of 
the  increase  of  population.  The  sentence  was  sus- 
pended, however,  and  the  contest  resulted  in  the 
passage  of  an  act  removing  the  remaining  restric- 
tions on  the  press. 

In  Parliament  Bradlaugh  was  active  in  securing 
the  passage  of  a  number  of  measures,  of  which  the 
chief  was  one  permitting  the  substitution  of  an 
affirmation  for  the  oath  both  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons and  in  the  courts.  In  1880  he  visited  India, 
and  during  his  final  illness  the  resolutions  of  his 
expulsion  from  the  House  of  Conmions  were  unani- 
mously expunged.  The  writings  of  Bradlaugh 
were  chiefly  brief  controversial  pamphlets  and 
contributions  to  the  press.  Among  them  the  most 
important  are  The  Impeachment  of  the  House  of 
Brunswick  (London,  1872);  Autobiography  (1873); 
Land  for  the  People  (1877);  The  New  Life  of  David 
(1877);  Genesis,  its  Authorship  and  Authenticity 
(1882);  and  The  True  Story  of  my  Parliamentary 
Struggle  (1882). 

Bibuogbapht:  A.  8.  Headingley,  Biography  of  CharUo 
Bradlauoh,  London,  1880;  C.  R.  Maokay.  Ufe  of  Charln 
Bradlauih  ib.  1888;  H.  Bonner  (hi«  daughter),  CharUa 
Bradlav^:  A  Record  of  hU  lAfe  and  Work,  2  vols.,  ib. 
1804. 

BRADLET,  GEORGE  GRANVILLE:  Dean  of 
Westminster;  b.  at  High  Wycombe  (30  m.  wji.w. 


Bradshaw 
Brahman  lam 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


246 


of  London),  Buckinghamshire,  Dec.  11,  1821; 
d.  in  London  Mar.  12, 1903.  He  studied  at  Rugby 
under  Arnold  (1837-40),  and  at  Univenity  College, 
Oxford  (BA.,  1844;  MA.,  1847);  was  feUow  of 
University  College  1844-50;  became  assistant  mas- 
ter at  Rugby  1846;  head  master  of  Bfariborough 
College,  Wiltshire,  1858;  master  of  University 
College,  Chrford,  1870;  dean  of  Westminster,  Lon- 
don, succeeding  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley,  1881; 
resigned  his  deanery  1902.  He  edited  and  revised 
Arnold's  Latin  Prose  Compontion  (London,  1881), 
and  published  Aids  to  Writing  Latin  Prose  (1884); 
RecoUectums  of  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley  (1883); 
Lectures  on  Ecdesiastes  (Oxford,  1885;  new  ed., 
1898);  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Job  (1887);  and 
assisted  R.  £.  Prothero  in  preparing  the  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Arthur  Penrhyn  Stanley  (2  vols., 
London,  1894). 

BRADSHAW,  WILLIAM:  Puritan;  b.  at  Market 
Bosworth  (12  m.  w.  of  Leicester),  Leicestershire, 
1571;  d.  at  Chelsea  1618.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  and  became  fellow  of  Sidney 
Sussex  College  in  1599;  took  orders  but  never 
received  a  living  owing  to  bis  Puritan  principles, 
and  spent  much  of  his  time  in  retirement  in  Derby- 
shire, whence  he  made  many  journeys  in  behalf  of 
the  cause  to  which  he  was  devoted.  His  chief 
work  was  English  Puritanism  :  containing  the  main 
opinions  of  Ote  rigid  sort  of  those  that  are  called 
Puritans  in  the  Realm  of  England  (London,  1605; 
Latin  transl.,  by  William  Ames,  Frankfort,  1610; 
an  abstract  is  given  in  Neal's  History  of  ihe  Puritans, 
part  ii,  chap.  i).  The  main  point  of  his  system 
was  that  he  would  subject  no  congregation  to  any 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  "save  that  which  is 
within  itself."  He  would  have  the  members 
delegate  their  powers  to  pastors  and  elders,  retain- 
ing that  of  exoonununication.  No  clergyman 
should  hold  civil  office.  He  was  strongly  opposed 
to  "  ceremonies."  He  was  not  a  separatist  and 
held  that  the  king  as  "the  archbishop  and 
general  overseer  of  all  the  churches  within  his 
dominions"  had  the  right  to  rule  and  must 
not  be  resisted  except  passively.  He  published 
many  other  works  and  tracts,  most  of  thrai  anony- 
mously. 
BiBuoaEAPHT:  A   fair  biography   and  nferenoeB  to   the 

Bomewhat  abundant  liteiatura  may  be  found  in  DNB, 

Yi,  182-186. 

BRADWASDIHE,  THOKAS:  Archbishop  of 
Cantert>ury;  b.  probably  at  Chichester,  Sussex, 
1290;  d.  in  London  Aug.  26,  1349.  His  name  is 
variously  spelled  (Bragwardin,  Brandnardin,  Bred- 
wardyn,  etc.),  in  public  docimients  he  is  usually 
called  Thomas  de  Bradwardina,  and  a  title  often 
given  him  is  Doctor  profundus.  He  studied  theology, 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  astronomy  at  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford;  lectured  there;  became  chan- 
cellor of  St.  Paul's  Church  at  London;  in  1339 
accompanied  Edward  III  as  his  confessor  in  his 
campaigns  in  France;  in  1349  was  chosen  arch- 
bishop of  Canteri>ury,  was  consecrated  at  Avignon, 
and  died  a  few  weeks  afterward.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Wyclif,  Jean  Gerson,  and  Flacius.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  large  work  entitled  De  causa 
Dei  contra  Pelagium  [ed.  Sir  Henry  Savile,  London, 


1618],  In  which  he  attempted  to  show  that  the 
theology  as  well  as  the  Church  of  his  time  were 
Pelagian.  He  gave  the  name  Cainites  to  those  who 
gave  up  hope  in  God  and  depended  upon  their  own 
merits;  his  personal  experience  gave  him  a  differ- 
ent conception:  "  In  the  schools  of  the  philosopherB 
I  rarely  heard  a  word  concerning  grace,  .  .  .  but 
I  continually  heard  that  we  are  the  masters  of 
our  own  free  actions."  Rom.  ix,  16  had  seemed 
to  him  to  be  wrong;  "  but  afterward  ...  I 
came  to  see  that  the  grace  of  God  far  preceded  all 
gcxxl  works  both  in  time  and  in  nature — by  grace 
I  mean  the  will  of  God."  Bradwardine  wished  to 
support  this  position  on  theoretical  grounds.  He 
a<Jmowledged  Augustine  as  his  master.  The  sum 
of  his  teaching  is  as  follows:  God  is  complete 
perfection  and  goodness,  is  good  action  itself, 
free  from  the  potentiality  of  imperfection.  He  is 
not  limited  by  mentality.  He  is  the  first  cause, 
the  absolute  principle  of  being  and  motion.  There- 
fore, no  one  can  act  nor  can  anything  "  happen  "; 
God  works  or  orders  events.  Divine  foreknowl- 
edge is  will  exercised  long  before,  or  predestinatioo 
of  [man's]  will.  God's  will,  moreover,  is  unchan- 
ging. Everything  takes  place  by  virtue  of  the 
immutable  ante^ent  necessity  caused  by  the 
divine  volition.  Hence  man  can  say  nothing  "  more 
useful  or  efficacious  .  .  .  than  'thy  will  be  done.' " 
The  effects  of  predestination  are  the  gift  of  grace 
in  the  present,  justification  from  sin,  a^wd  of  merit, 
perseverance  to  the  end,  and  unending  bliss  in  the 
worid  to  come.  The  result  of  this  line  of  thought  is, 
of  course,  determinism  of  a  Thomistic  type.  In 
spite  of  this  theory,  Bradwardine,  like  Augustine, 
asserted  the  reality  of  freewill.  His  historical 
importance  consists  in  the  fact  that  he  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  champions  of  the  Augustiniao 
movement  which  took  place  toward  the  end  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  This  movement  contributed  to 
the  dissolution  of  scholasticism  and  to  a  new 
understanding  of  Christian  doctrine  from  the  point 
of  view  of  personal  faith.  R.  Seeberq. 

BiBUOOBAnrr:  Tbe  aeanty  notiow  of  his  life  are  collected 
by  Sir  Henry  SaTile  in  the  preface  to  hu  edition  of  the 
CauM  DeL  For  hie  mathematical  works  ooneult  If.  Gan- 
tor,  Ot9daehtM  der  Malhematik,  ii.  102  aqq.,  Leipsic.  1882. 
Consult  further  G.  V.  Lechler,  De  Thoma  Brodwardiste, 
Leipsio,  1862;  idem.  Johann  wm  Wielif  und  dit  Vor^e- 
•c^vAte  der  ReformatUm,  i,  229  sqq.,  Leipsic.  1873; 
Eng.  transl.,  pp.  88-96,  London,  1878:  K.  Werner.  Da- 
^uffusfiriMiiMM  in  der  SdtoUutUt  dee  epSkren  MiUelaUen, 
pp  337  eqq.,  Vienna,  1883;  R.  Seebers.  Dootnerngf 
ediidUe,  ii,  192.  Leipsic,  1888;  DNB,  vi,  188-190. 

BRADT,  HICHOLAS:  Church  of  England  dergy- 
man  and  poet;  b.  at  Bandon  (20  m.  s.w.  of 
Cork),  Comity  Coric,  Ireland,  Oct.  28,  1659;  d. 
at  Richmond,  Surrey,  May  20,  1726.  He  studied 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (BA.,  1682),  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  (BA.,  1685;  M.A.,  1686;  B.D. 
and  D.D.,  1699);  took  orders  in  Ireland  and  received 
two  livings  in  the  diocese  of  Coik.  He  was  a  sealous 
promoter  of  the  Revolution  of  1688  and  soon  there- 
after removed  to  En^and;  became  lecturer  at 
St.  Michael's,  Wood  Street,  London;  minister  at 
St.  Catherine  Cree,  1691;  rector  of  Richmond, 
1696,  and  of  Clapham,  1706.  He  was  also  rector 
of  Stratford-on-Avon,  1702-05,  and  conducted  a 
school  at  Richmond.    He  was  chaplain  to  William 


947 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bradahaw 
Brahmanism 


III,  to  Mary,  and  to  Queen  Anne.  He  published 
a  tragedy.  The  Rape,  or  the  Innocent  Impostere 
(London,  1692),  a  translation  of  the  iEneid  of 
Vergil   (4  vols.,  1726;  now  extremely  rare),  and 


two  volumes  of  sermons  (1704-06);  but  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  share  in  the  New  Vereion  of  the 
Psalme  of  David,  produced  jointly  by  himself  and 
Nahum  Tate  (q.v.)« 


I.  Vedism,  tha  Age  of  the  Vedas  and 

their  AndUary  Literature. 
The  People  of  the  Vedas  and  their  H. 

Code  (I  1). 
The  Ric-Veda  (|  2). 

Brahmanism  is  the  orthodox  religion  of  India, 
the  moat  ancient  of  all  Indo-Germanio  faiths  of 
which  there  is  record.  In  itself  the  most  catholic 
and  elastic  of  cults,  its  test  is  the  recognition  of 
the  divine  authority  of  the  Vedas;  its  outward 
sign  is  reverence  for  the  gods,  some  of  whom  are 
comparatively  late  and  foreign  in  origin;  and, 
for  the  Brahmans,  its  end  is  emancipation  from 
the  sorrow  of  existence  and  the  misery  of  reincar- 
nation through  reabsorption  into  the  divine  essence 
of  the  All-Soul. 

Brahmanism  may  be  divided  into  three  periods: 
I.  The  Age  of  the  Vedas  and  their  Ancillary  Litera- 
ture; II.  Brahmanism  and  the  Pantheism  of  the 
Upanishads;  III.  The  Age  during  which  the 
Buddhistic  and  Jainistic  Heresies  Prevailed.  The 
two  phases  which  are  included  in  the  Brahmanistic 
counterreformation  and  rise  of  the  Hindu  sects, 
and  modem  Hinduism  and  the  tmitarian  move- 
ments are  treated  under  Hinduism  (q.v.). 

I.  Vedism,  the  Age  of  the  Vedas  and  their  An- 
dllaiy  Literature  (the  Brahmanas  and  Sutras — the 
former  a  sort  of  Hindu  Talmud;  the  latter  brief 
verses  in  technical  language,  a  favorite  form  of 
expressing  rules) :    At  a  period  of  remote  antiquity, 
possibly  between  2000  and  1500  B.c.,  a  section  of 
the   Indo-Germanic   peoples    known    by   various 
names,  of  which  the  most  common  are  Indians  and 
Aryans,  broke  off  from  the  kindred  Iranian  stock 
and  wandered  southward  and  eastward  through 
Afghanistan  into  the  Punjab  or  the  '*  Five  Waters," 
in  the  extreme  northwest  of  the  Indian  peninsula. 
Like  the  Iranians  of  Persia,  they  were 
z .  The      divided  into  the  three  classes  of  priests, 
People  of    warriors,   and    husbandmen,    whence 
the  Vedas  were    to  be   formed   later  the  three 
and  their  higher  castes,  and  were  a  nomadic  and 
Gods.       agricultiural  people,  filled  with  the  joy 
of  living,  valiant  in  war,  daring  free- 
booters, hot  in  love  and  reveling  in  wine,  almost 
everything,  in  short,  that  the  later  Hindus  were  not. 
Their  gods  were  like  themselves,  concrete  and  strong: 
Surya,   the  bright  deity  of  the  sun;  Indra,  the 
blinding  lightning  which  ushers  in  the  rainy  season; 
Agni,  the  god  of  fire;  and  Soma,  the  deified  in- 
spiration of  strong  drink  and  of  the  divine  courage 
which  it  gives.    Few  are  the  deities  which  show 
the  softer  side  of  the  early  Aryan  mind,  such  as 
Ushas,  the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  or  Varuna,  the 
god  of   the  sky-ocean,  who  watches  over  all  and 
even  later  in  this  period  receives  praises  which 
almost  savor  of  monotheism. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Aryans  of  this  period  are  con- 
tained in  the  Rig- Veda,  a  book  of  hynms,  the  earliest 
literary   records  of  the   Indo-Germanic   race,   to 


BRAHMANISM. 

The  Baman  and  Yajur-Vedas  (1 3). 
The  Atharva-Veda  (§  4). 
Brahmanism  and  the  Pantheism  of 

the  Upanishads. 
The  Upanishads  (|  1). 


The  Six  Orthodox  Systems  of  Phi- 
losophy (§  2). 
III.  The  Age  of  the   Buddhistic  and 
Jainistio  Heresies. 


which  the  most  probable  date  assigned  is  1500* 

500  B.C.    This  Veda  is  divided  into  ten  books 

containing  1,022  hymns.    Books   ii- 

2.  The      vii  form  the  "  family  books,"  oom- 

Rig-Veda.  posed  by  successive  generations  of 
families  of  bards.  Book  ix  is  restricted 
to  the  Soma  hymns,  while  i  and  viii,  and  especially 
X,  the  latest  of  all,  are  more  diverse  in  contents 
and  authorship.  Within  this  range  of  space  and 
time  are  represented  many  phases  of  religious 
thought,  ranging  from  crass  polytheism  through 
intricate  henotheism  or  syncretism  to  a  quasi- 
monotheism,  or  rather  pantheism;  varying  from 
earnest  faith  to  incipient  skepticism;  touching, 
too,  on  daily  life  as  well  as  on  worship  and  sacrifice. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  faith 
of  the  Veda  is  naive  or  childlike.  It  is,  on  the 
contrary,  quite  developed  and  occasionally  even 
corrupt.  Many  of  the  hynms  were  undoubtedly 
composed  for  the  ritual,  although  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  regard  the  entire  collection  as  sub- 
servient to  the  liturgy.  Untenable  also  is  the 
theory  of  the  French  school  which  reduces  the 
entire  Big- Veda  to  a  mass  of  all^^ry,  nor  are  the 
conclusions  of  the  realistic  school,  which  regards 
this  Veda  as  entirely  Indie  and  interprets  it  rational- 
istically,  altogether  free  from  criticism.  To  the 
ehicidation  of  a  collection  so  extended  both  in 
space  and  time  no  single  method  of  interpretation 
is  adequate.  Naivete  and  mature  thought,  liturgy 
and  hynmology,  allegory  and  realism  must  each 
be  recognized  as  occasion  demands,  must  even 
be  combined  at  times  to  give  a  true  representation 
of  the  Vedic  Hinduism.  ^ 

The  basis  of  the  Vedic  religion  is  nature-worship^ 
Each  element  is  deified,  the  fire  as  Agni,  the  dawn  I 
as  Ushas,  the  sky  as  Varuna,  and  the  lightning  of* 
the  storm  as  Indra.  A  single  object  in  nature  may 
be  represented  by  many  gods,  as  when  the  sun  is 
venerated  under  the  names  of  Surya,  "  the  glowing 
one ";  Savitar,  "  the  enlivener  '*;  Bhaga,  "  the 
bestower  of  boons  ";  Pushan,  "  he  who  causeth  to 
flourish  ";  and  Vishnu,  "the  mighty  one."  While 
these  names  may  represent  the  deity  in  different 
aspects,  as  do  the  Egyptian  Ra  and  Tum,  the 
gods  of  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  variance  in  name  and  even  in 
concept  of  the  same  divinity  may  have  been  in  its 
origin  mere  local  divergence  in  expression  for  one 
and  the  same  god,  for  the  Rig- Veda  was  composed 
by  many  minds,  at  many  places,  in  many  periods. 
Behind  nature-worship  doubtless  lay  the  earlier 
phase  of  animism,  although  its  traces  are  obscured 
in  the  Vedic  texts.  Still  more  scanty  are  the 
evidences  of  ancestor-worship,  or  the  cult  of  ghosts. 


^r%^^  wi  i^n  i  mn^ 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


248 


though  thiB  phase  wm  perhaps  rather  officially 
ignored  than  popularly  absent.  The  eschatology 
of  the  Rig- Veda  is  comparatively  simple,  and 
resembles  in  its  meagemess  the  poverty  of  early 
Semitism  as  represented  by  the  Assyro-Babylonian 
religion.  Allusions  to  the  future  state  of  the 
dead  are  practically  confined  to  the  late  tenth  book. 
Yama,  the  first  of  men  to  die,  is  the  king  of  the 
dead;  and  apparently  the  ble«ed,  i.e.,  the  brave 
and  generous,  go  when  they  die  to  the  sun,  where 
they  engage  in  revelry  like  that  of  the  None  heroes 
of  Asgard.  The  unblessed  dead  merely  disappear, 
for  hell  is,  in  Indian  thought,  a  late  theological 
invention,  devised  to  counterbalance  the  joys  of 
heaven.  In  the  latest  portion  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
moreover,  appear  the  chief  hymns  later  rubridsed 
in  the  ritual,  if  indeed  they  were  not,  at  least  in 
part,  designedly  composed  for  an  already  existing 
liturgy. 

Beside  the  Rig- Veda  exist  two  other  canonical 

Vedas,  and  a  fourth  which  is  uncanonical.    The 

8ama  or   **  Song "   Veda  is  composed  of  verses 

taken  chiefly  from  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of 

the  Rig- Veda  and  arranged  for  the  liturgy.    Far 

more   important   is   the   Yajur   or   "  Sacrificial " 

Veda,  which  exists  in  several  recen- 

3.  The      sions,  the  chief  being  the  Vajasaneyi 

Sama-  and  or  "  White  "  Yajur- Veda,  so    called 

Yajur-      from  being  composed  only  in  verse, 

Vedai.      and    the   Taittirya   and    Maitrayani, 

which  are  termed  '*  black,"  since  the 

verse  of  the  text  is  intermingled  with  a  quasi- 

commentary  and  amplification  in  prose. 

The  arena  impUed  is  no  longer  the  Pxmjab  but 
the  "middle  district/'  around  the  modem  Delhi, 
which  the  Aryans  had  reached  in  their  slow  migra- 
tion eastward.  The  change  of  locality,  however, 
is  dwarfed  into  insignificance  by  the  alteration  in 
religious  tone.  The  frank  delight  in  life  which 
chsjracterizes  the  Rig- Veda  is  chainged  to  mysticism 
and  an  ever-increasing  ritualism.  Religion  has 
given  place  to  magic.  The  principle  of  henotheism 
which  is  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  Rig- Veda, 
through  which  poetic  enthusiasm  comes  to  attribute 
to  one  divinity  the  names  and  attributes  of  another, 
thus  elevating  him  for  the  nonce  into  the  supreme 
and  only  object  of  adoration,  becomes  in  the 
Yajur- Veda  symbolism  carried  to  its  limit.  A 
thing  is  no  longer  like  something  else,  it  is  some- 
thing else.  The  Brahman  is  no  longer  merely  a 
priest,  he  is  a  god  with  ail  the  attributes  of  divinity, 
while  prayer  and  sacrifice  are  now  means  of  com- 
pelling the  deity  to  perform  the  will  of  his  wor- 
shipers, instead  of  being  modes  of  propitiation  or 
bargaining.  The  religion  of  India  now  centers 
in  the  sacrifice,  and  a  ritual  is  developed  which 
is  perhaps  the  most  elaborate  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen.  Wliile  the  power  of  the  Brahmans 
was  thereby  increased  until  they  were  apotheosized, 
the  view  is  antiquated  which  regards  the  develop- 
ment of  the  liturgy  as  the  ecclesiastical  device  of 
a  cunning  and  self-interested  priesthood,  despite 
the  enormous  fees  which  were  £^ven  for  the  per- 
formance of  sacrifice. 

The  pantheon  of  this  period  sufifetp  little  dimi- 
nution as  compared  with  the  epoch  of  ttie  Klg-Veda, 


but  the  gods  have  declined  in  power,  although  some 
have  been  greatly  magnified,  such  as  Kala  (Time), 
who  played  no  part  in  the  earliest  Veda.  The 
epithets  and  the  functions  of  the  gods  become 
separate  divinities  in  many  cases,  and  an  All-God 
now  gains  the  full  recognition  which  is  only  sug- 
gested even  in  the  latest  portions  of  the  Rig- Veda. 
The  legends  of  the  deities,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
richly  developed,  though  their  quantity  is  more 
admirable  than  their  quality.  This,  however,  is  a  re- 
crudescence of  popular  beliefs  previously  not  offi- 
cially recognized,  rather  than  new  speculations  of  the 
Brahmans,  though  this  faith  of  the  people  finds  its 
application  in  the  explanation  and  proof  of  the 
sacrifice.  The  rules  for  the  Brahmanic  ritual  are 
contained  not  only  in  the  various  recensions  of  the 
Yajur- Veda,  but  in  the  still  more  important  Brah- 
manas,  of  which  each  school  of  each  of  the  Vedas 
has  at  least  one,  while  the  Tandin  recension  of  the 
SamarVeda  has  three.  Additional  details  are  con- 
tained in  the  Srautasutras,  and  the  ritual  for  daily 
life  may  be  found  in  the  various  Grihyasutras. 

Beside  the  three  canonical  Vedas  and  their 
ancillary  literature,  representing  the  official  religion 
of  the  Vedic  and  Brahmanic  periods,  stood  a  Veda  of 
magic — the  uncanonical  Atharva-Veda.  The  pan- 
theon of  the  Rig- Veda  is  here  a  jumbled  confusion 
of  divinities,  at  their  head  a  supreme 
4.  The      god  of  all,  while  eschatology  has  so 

Atharva-  far  developed  as  to  recognize  a  place 
Veda.  of  torment  for  the  malignant  dead. 
The  predominant  note  of  the  Atharvar 
Veda  is  magic.  It  is  filled  with  all  maimer  of 
charms  and  incantations  for  wealth  and  for  chil- 
dren, for  long  life  and  good  health,  for  love  and  for 
revenge,  charms  for  plants,  animals,  and  diseases, 
curses  and  maledictions  for  the  destruction  of 
enemies  and  for  counteracting  the  enemy's  black 
magic.  Linguistically  and  chronologically  far  later 
than  the  Rig- Veda,  the  material  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda  is  in  all  probability  as  old  in  some  of  its  parts 
as  the  most  ancient  portions  of  the  Rig.  It  is 
an  invaluable  document  for  early  Hindu  religion 
as  the  oldest  monument  of  its  popular  faith. 

IL  Brahmanism  and  the  Pantheism  of  the 
Upanishads:  The  enormous  structure  of  ritualism 
erected  by  the  Yajiur-Veda,  the  Brahmanas,  and 
the  Sutras  gradually  became  a  burden  too  heavy 
to  be  borne;  htiurgy  was  then  imdermined  by 
philosophical  speculation.  Traces  of  this  are 
already  evident  in  the  later  portions  of  the  Rig- 
Veda,  as  in  the  famous  hymn  (x,  121}  whose  refrain 
runs:  ''  To  whom  (as)  god  shall  we  offer  sacrifice?  " 
thus  affording  a  basis  for  the  Brahmanas  to  create 
a  god  **  Who."  By  this  time,  moreover,  an  All- 
God  was  definitely  recognized  in  Prajapati,  "  the 
lord  of  creatures,"  but  it  was  reserved  for  the  close  of 
the  Brahmanic  period  to  ignore  the  gods  and  arrive 
at  God. 

The  Upanishads,  the  literary  records  of  this 
phase  of  thought,  represent  a  perfection  of  pan- 
theism which  has  never  been  equaled,  and  their 
influence  is  a  mighty  factor  in  Hindu  thought  of 
the  present  day.  Salvation  b  no  longer  to  be 
attsdned  by  works,  but  by  knowledge,  and  the 
entire  teaching  of  the  Upanishads  may  be  com- 


249 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brahxnanimi 


priflcxl   in  the   one  famous  phrase  found  in  the 
Chandogya  Upanishad:   Tai  tvam  an,  "  That  art 
thou,"    or,  in    other   words,  ''  Thou 
I.  The      art  the   Infinite."    Though  the  sum- 
Upani-      mum  honum  of  the  Upanishads  is  this 
shads.      saving  knowledge  and  the  reunion  with 
the  All-Soul  which  it  brings,  such  a 
eoDsummation  is  not  requisite  for  all,  since  there 
are  many  who  do  not  desire  it,  and  for  them  minor 
blessing  are  reserved  in  a  future  life.    The  exist- 
ence of  the  gods  is  not  denied,  though  they  be  but 
phases  of  the  AU-Soul,  nor  is  the  advantage  of 
sacrifice  denied,  for  such  offeringis  are  still  im- 
perative.   Herein  lies,  perhaps,  the  secret  of  the 
origin  of  the  Upanishads. 

The  concluding  portion  of  each  Brahmana  is  an 
Aranyaka,  or  "  forest-book,"  designed  for  the  use 
of  those  forest  hermits  who  had  passed  beyond  the 
need  of  sacrifice,  and  in  each  Aranyaka  is  an 
Upanishad.  Primarily,  therefore,  the  Upanishads 
represented  the  text-books  of  those  who  had  passed 
through  the  sacrificial  stage  of  their  religious  life 
and  were  henceforth  free  to  meditate  on  sacred 
things  as  seemed  best  in  their  own  eyes.  Later, 
however,  the  Upanishads  became  a  special  form 
of  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindus;  and  served 
as  the  basis  of  the  most  lofty  of  all  their  six  orthodox 
systems  of  philosophy.  To  see  in  them  a  religious 
revolt  of  the  second,  or  warrior,  caste  against 
Brahman  control,  as  certain  scholars  have  sought 
to  do,  seems,  on  the  whole,  scarcely  warranted. 

Somewhat  subsequent  to  the  Upanishads  were 
developed  the  six  orthodox  systems  of  Indian  phi- 
losophy, the  Samkhya  and  Yoga,  the  Vaiseshika 
and  Nyaya,  and  the  Purvamimamsa  and  Vedanta. 
Of  these  the  Vaiseshika  and  Nyaya 
a.  The  Six  are  systems  of  logic  rather  thaii  of 
Orthodox    philosophy;  the  Ssunkhya  and  Yoga, 
Systems     which    supplement    each    other,    are 
of  Phi-     essentially  dualistic;  while  the  Pur- 
losophy.     vamimamsa  and  Vedanta,  of  which 
the  former  is  the  least  important  of 
all  the  systems,  represent  the  spiritual  aftermath 
of  the  Upanishads,  and  are,  aocordin^y,  rigidly 
panth^stic. 

nL  The  Age  of  the  Buddhistic  and  Jainistic 
Heresies:  Beneath  the  excessive  ritual  of  the 
Brahmanistic  period  and  the  pantheistic  specu- 
lations of  a  chosen  few  still  lay  the  popular  faith 
of  the  Aryan  invaders  of  India.  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, the  course  of  immigration  had  moved  still 
further  to  the  east  and  become  centered  about  the 
holy  city  of  Benares.  The  doctrine  of  the  misery  of 
all  earthly  existenoe  was  by  this  time  accepted  by 
all,  and  the  teachings  of  metempsychosis  were 
fully  established.  The  worship  of  Siva,  originally 
a  local  godlingof  some  aboriginal  western  tribe, 
was  attaining  such  popularity  that  he  was  opposed 
as  the  Destroyer  to  the  Vedic  sun-god  Vishnu,  who 
was  worshiped  as  the  Preserver  (of  the  universe). 
For  the  sake  of  symmetry,  hrahma,  denoting  in  the 
Rig- Veda  '*  prayer,"  was  developed  by  the  priestly 
theologians  into  Brahma,  the  Creator,  who,  though 
on  the  whole  a  pale  abstract  deity,  respected  rather 
than  worshiped,  formed  the  third  member  of  the 
trimurti,  or  triad. 


The  religious  texts  of  this  period  are  compara- 
tively few,  though  from  them  may  be  gleaned  data 
of  the  greatest  importance  for  a  Imowledge  of 
India's  faith.  The  principal  sources  are  the  law 
books,  especially  the  famous  code  of  Manu,  and 
the  Mahabharata,  the  great  epic  of  India  and  the 
longest  poem  of  all  literature.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  orthodox  Hinduism,  however,  the  epoch, 
possibly  because  of  the  comparative  scantiness 
of  material,  presents  less  of  interest  than  any  of  the 
others.  It  was,  on  the  other  hand,  essentially 
the  age  of  heresy,  this  term  denoting  in  India  simply 
a  formal  denial  of  the  divine  authority  of  the  tlu^ee 
canonical  Vedas.  There  had,  of  course,  been  here- 
tics and  infidels  long  before  this  period;  traces 
of  them  occur  as  early  as  the  tenth  book  of  the 
Rig- Veda,  but  it  was  not  until  the  period  under 
consideration  that  heresies  of  lasting  importance 
were  able  to  develop.  In  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
arose  two  independent  teachers,  both  from  the 
Kshatriya,  or  warrior,  class  and  both  accordingly 
more  or  less  antagonistic  to  the  Brahmans.  Fore- 
bodings of  such  a  strug^e  between  the  two  uppei 
castes  are  not  lacking  in  the  Upanishads,  where, 
in  more  than  one  instance,  a  warrior  rose  superioi 
to  a  Brahman  in  theological  learning. 

Rebelling  against  Brahman  supremacy,  ignor- 
ing salvation  by  sacrifice,  rejecting  the  authority 
of  ^the  Vedas,  teaching  emancipation  from  the 
pain  of  life  and  the  misery  of  rebirth  by  per- 
sonal service  to  all  living  creatures  however 
lowly,  and  choosing,  moreover,  with  pointed 
significance,  as  their  linguistic  medimn  the 
despised  popular  dialects  instead  of  the  hallowed 
Saniskrit  of  the  Brahmans,  Sakya  Muni  (Buddha) 
and  Mahavira  founded  the  religions  which  still 
exist  as  Buddhism  and  Jainism  (qq.v.).  When, 
^fter  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  millennium,  those  two 
religions  lost  their  hold  upon  India,  a  new  form  of 
Brahmanism  arose  in  what  is  known  as  Hinduism 
(q.v.),  the  basis  of  which  was  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  orthodox  and  philosophical  Brahmanism 
of  pre-Buddhistic  times  and  the  religions  of  the 
Dravidian  and  other  non-Aryan  peoples  of  southern 
India.    See  India. 

Bibuoohapht:  The  literature  of  India  itself  is  enormous, 
and  that  upon  it  lb  almost  as  great.  A  bibliography  of 
India  is  mueh  needed.  The  moet  accessible  and  conve- 
nient body  of  sources  for  ttuB  English  reader  is  the  SBB^ 
more  than  half  of  which  is  devoted  to  translations  from 
the  various  departments  of  Indian  literature.  Outside 
of  this  collection,  the  following  texts  and  translations  are 
important:  SaniJcrit  TexU,  Sacred  Hymm,  6  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1840-74,  new  ed.,  1800-02;  H.  H.  Wilson,  Rio- 
Veda  SanhUa,  6  vols.,  ib.  1850  sqq.  (a  translation);  Rig 
Veda,  a  transl.  by  P.  Peterson,  ib.  1888;  H.  Grassmann, 
Ri4iveda  <l6erss<sC  4  vols..  Leipsic,  1876-77;  Rio-Veda,  by 
A.  Ludwig.  in  6  vols..  Prague,  1876-88  (Germ,  transl.,  in- 
troduction and  commentary);  Sama-Veda,  T.  BeniFey, 
Leipeio,  1848  (text  and  Germ,  transl.);  R.  T.  Griffith, 
Hymnt  of  the  Rigveda,  Tranel.  wiO^  Commentary,  4  vols., 
Benares,  1880-02;  idem,  Hymna  of  the  Samaveda,  Tranel. 
with  Commentary,  ib.  1803;  idem,  Hymne  of  the  Atharva- 
Veda,  ib.,  2  vols..  1805-06;  Atharvaveda,  by  A.  Ludwig, 
2  vols.,  Prague,  1876  (Germ,  transl.);  Atharva^Veda,  litre 
vU  (mi.  xiii)  iraduit  .  .  .  par  V.  Henry,  Paris,  1801- 
1802;  The  Aitareya-Brahmana,  transl.  by  M.  Haug,  2  vols.. 
Bombay,  1863;  the  Brahmanae  of  the  Sama  Veda  have 
been  edited  by  A.  G.  Bumell,  6  vols..  London,  TrObner, 
n.d.;  Atharvor-Veda  Samhita,  Tranelation  and  .  .  .  Com- 
mentary by  W.  D.  Whitney,  ed.  C.  R.  Lanman.  2  vols.. 


Bimbmo  Bommj 
BramhfcH 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


250 


Boston.  1006;  THm  V^daniamm,  A  Manval  of  Hindu  Pan^ 
theimn,  transl.  by  G.  A.  Jacob,  ib.  1881.  Parta  of  aome 
of  the  Upaniahad$  have  been  edited  and  translated  by 
E.  Roer,  10  parts,  Caleutto,  n.d.,  and  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  2 
parts,  ib.  1861.  Important  is  J.  Muir,  Orioinal  Sanakrit 
Texia,  5  vols.,  London.  1868-73.  The  Suirat  are  repre- 
sented in  the  Oerm.  transl.  by  A.  F.  Stensler,  Leipsic, 
1876,  in  the  Eng.  transl.  of  W.  D.  Whitney.  New  Haven, 
1871,  and  of  G.  Thibaut.  London,  TVabner,  n.d. 

On  the  history  of  Indian  literature  consult:  A.  Weber, 
The  White  Yai%ar  Veda,  BerUn,  1840;  idem,  A  HiU,  of 
Indian  Literature,  London,  1882  (critical  and  brief);  F. 
Max  Mailer.  HieL  of  Ancient  Saneknt  Literature,  ib.  1860 
(now  out  of  print):  A.  Kaegi,  Der  Rigveda,  Leipsic,  1881, 
Ens.  transl.,  London,  1886;  F.  N6ve,  L«s  Apoquee  hUA- 
rairee  de  VInde,  Paris,  1887;  J.  C.  Oman,  The  Oreat  Indian 
Epiee,  London,  1884  (a  condensation  of  the  stories,  with 
notes);  A.  A.  Macdonell,  HieL  of  Sanekrit  Literature,  ib. 
1000;  E.  W.  Hopkins,  The  Oreat  Bjric  of  India,  New 
Haven,  1001. 

On  the  philosophy  the  best  single  book  is  F.  Max  M<Uler, 
Six  Sveieme  of  Indian  Philoeophy,  London,  1800,  cf.  his 
Three  Lecturee  on  ihe  Vedanta  Philoeophy,  ib.  1804.  Other 
works  are  J.  Davies,  The  Sankhya  Karika  of  lewara 
Kriehna.  A  n  ExpoeiHon  of  the  Syetem  of  Kapilh,  ib.  1881 ; 
A.  E.  Gough,  Philoeophy  of  the  Upaniehade,  ib.  1882; 
Bam  (Chandra  Bose,  Hindu  Philoeophy  popularly  Explained, 
Calcutta,  1888;  M.  Williams,  Indian  Wiedom,  London, 
1803;  R.  Garbe,  Philoeophy  of  Ancient  India,  Chicago, 
1807  (an  excellent  "  first  book  ");  J.  Kreyher,  Die  Weie- 
heit  der  Brahmanen  und  dee  Chrietentume,  Gfltersloh,  1001; 
P.  Deussen,  Philoeophy  of  Ifcs  Upaniehade,  Edinburgh, 
1006;  idem.  Die  Geheimlehre  dee  Veda,  Leipsic,  1007;  idem, 
Outlinee  of  Indian  Philoeophy,  Berlin.  1007;  L.  D.  Bar- 
nett.  Some  Sayinge  of  the  Upaniehade,  London,  1006;  S. 
A.  Desai,  A  Study  of  the  Indian  Philoeophy,  ib.  1007. 

On  the  religion  of  India  the  best  single  book  is  R.  W. 
Fraser,  Literary  HieL  of  India,  New  York,  1808.  H.  T. 
Colebrooke,  Eaeaye  on  the  Relioion  and  Philoeophy  of  the 
Hindue,  2d  ed.  by  his  son,  3  vols.,  London,  1873,  is  a 
classic,  with  which  should  be  put  C.  Lassen,  Indieehe 
Alterthumekunde,  4  vols.,  Bonn,  1847-61.  Of  high  value 
is  J.  H.  Wilson,  Eaeaye  on  the  Religion  of  the  Hindue,  2 
vols..  London,  1861-62.  Other  treatises  are:  8.  John- 
son, Oriental  Religione,  India,  Boston,  1872;  F.  Max 
Mailer,  Lecturee  on  .  .  ,  Religione  of  India,  London, 
1870;  A.  Barth,  Religione  of  India,  ib.  1882;  W.  J.  Wil- 
kins,  Hindu  Mythology,  Vedic  and  Puranic,  ib.  1882;  A. 
W.  WalUs,  Coentology  of  the  Rig  Veda,  ib.  1887;  M.  Will- 
iams, IMigioue  Life  and  Thought  in  India,  ib.  1887;  G. 
A.  Jacob,  Hindu  Pantheiem,  ib.  1880;  J.  Dowson,  Clae- 
eUxU  Dictionary  of  Hindu  Mythology  and  Religion,  ib. 
1801;  Religioue  Syeteme  of  the  World,  ib.  1803;  H.  Olden- 
berg,  Die  Rdigion  dee  Veda,  Berlin,  1804;  idem.  Ancient 
India,  ite  Language  and  Religione,  London,  1806;  E.  W. 
Hopkins,  Religione  of  India,  Boston,  1805  (very  useful, 
systematic  and  clear,  gives  Ust  of  works);  idem,  India, 
Old  and  New,  New  York,  1002;  M.  PhilUps,  The  Tead^ 
ing  of  the  Vedae,  London,  1805;  Z.  A.  Ragosin.  Vedie 
India,  ib.  1805;  A.  Weber,  Vedieehe  BeitrOge,  BerUn, 
1805;  A.  Hillebrandt,  Vediedu  Mythologie,  3  vols.,  Bres- 
lau,  1002;  J.  C.  Oman,  Myetiee,  Aeeetice  and  SainU  of 
India,  London,  1003;  J.  M.  Mitchell,  Oreat  Religione  of 
India,  New  York,  1006;  E.  B.  Havell.  Benaree  the  Sacred 
City.    Sketehee  of  Hindu  Life  and  Religion,  London,  1006. 

BRAHMO  SOICAJ:  A  Hindu  theistic  society. 
Ita  aim  is  the  monotheistic  reform  of  the  Hindu 
poijrtheistio  religion.  The  founder,  Rammohan 
Roy  (b.  1774),  of  Brahman  descent,  through  the 
study  of  the  Koran  and  the  Bible  became  estranged 
from  his  ancestral  belief,  and  was  attracted  by 
Christianity,  without,  however,  getting  beyond 
a  rationalistic  pantheism.  He  endeavored  to 
formulate  a  universal  monotheism  based  upon 
various  ancient  scriptures.  He  denounced  ethnic 
impurities,  but  maintained  the  institution  of  caste. 
In  1816  he  gathered  a  small  community  at  Calcutta, 
the  Atmiya  Sdbha,  of  which  he  was  the  leader 
till  his  death,  Sept.  26,  1833,  at  Bristol,  En^and, 
where  he  acted  as  political  agent. 


The  weakened  reform  party  was  strengthened 
in  1839  by  the  founding  of  the  Tatwabodhini  Sabha, 
whose  leader  was  Babu  Devendranath  Tagoie. 
He  held  aloof  from  Christian  influences  in  the 
patriotic  effort  to  restore  (what  he  regarded  as) 
the  pure  religion  of  the  Vedas,  but  finally  oon- 
ceived  a  deistic  system  on  the  basis  of  reason, 
rejecting  all  scriptures.  In  1862  the  religious  oom- 
munity  was  reorganised  as  the  Adi  Somaj,  Hean- 
while  a  follower  named  Dayanand  Saraswati  had 
turned  again  to  the  Vedas,  which  he  regard&i 
as  teaching  a  purely  theistic  religion,  and  as  an- 
ticipating also  the  results  of  modem  culture.  He 
founded  the  Arya  Somaj,  the  adherents  of  which 
came  afterward  under  spiritualistic  influences. 
The  two  societies  last  named  found  a  competitor 
in  the  adherents  of  Babu  Keshav  Chandra  Sen 
(b.  Nov.  19,  1838,  at  Calcutta),  who,  through 
European  culture  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the 
religion  of  his  ancestors,  and  attempted  to  find  rest 
in  philoeophy.  But  this  brought  no  satisfaction 
to  his  religiously  disposed  mind.  After  much 
study  of  the  Bible  he  came  to  a  decision,  and  in 
1858  joined  the  Adi  Somaj.  For  a  time  he  co- 
operated with  Devendranath  Tagore,  but  finally 
found  himself  at  variance  with  this  conservatively 
disposed  leader,  who  did  not  approve  his  bold 
denunciation  of  the  shameful  practises  of  heathen- 
ism, and  even  of  caste.  After  the  rupture  which 
naturally  resulted,  in  1863  he  founded  the  Brahmo 
Somaj  of  India,  which  soon  developed  an  acti>nty 
that  almost  rivaled  the  Christian  propaganda. 
He  went  to  England  in  1870,  where  he  was  much 
honored.  Many  Christian  ideas  tending  to  promote 
his  cause  were  brought  back  by  him  to  India,  and 
the  Brahmo  Somaj  found  many  adherents.  But 
he  grew  more  conservative  and  gradually  drew 
away  from  Occidental  influences.  The  represent- 
atives of  progress  separated  and  founded  the 
Sadharan  Brahmo  Somaj.  Only  the  less  important 
members  of  the  former  community  adhered  to 
Chandra  Sen,  who  lost  himself  more  and  more 
in  a  dark  mysticism.  Finally  he  appeared  as  the 
founder  of  a  world-religion  C'The  New  Dispen- 
sation "),  as  he  claimed  by  divine  command.  For 
the  new  Church  he  prepared  a  ritual  and  teaching. 
Nevertheless,  his  success  was  not  striking,  though 
by  his  small  circle  of  adherents  he  was  almost 
worshiped.  He  died  January  8,  1884.  His 
successor,  Babu  Proti^  Chandra  Mosumdar,  had 
great  difficulty  in  preventing  the  further  dis- 
ruption of  the  community,  and  little  progress  was 
made.  In  1891  it  numbered  3,051  members,  mostly 
in  Bengal. 

The  Arya  Somaj  had  a  larger  success,  devel- 
oping especially  in  the  United  Provinces  and  the 
Punjab,  numbering  some  40,000  members.  But 
few  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  have  accepted  Chris- 
tianity.   See  India,  III,  1.        R.  Grumdemann. 

Bxbuoorapht:  Soutom:  Indian  Mirror,  Calcutta,  1861- 
1880;  Sunday  Mirror,  ib.  1880-B2;  The  Liberal  and  the  Sev 
Diepeneation,  ib.  1881  sqq.;  Theietie  AnnuaL  ib.  1872 
Bqq.;  Theietie  Quarterly  Retfiew,  ib.  1879.  Conmilt  also: 
Mary  Carpenter,  Laet  Daye  in  England  of  Ramohun  Ro», 
London,  1886;  K.  Chunder  Sen,  Brahmo  Sotnaj,  ib.  1870; 
J.  Hesse,  Der  Brahmo  Soma)  ....  in  Baeler  Miniont 
Magaein,  1876,  pp.  886  sqq.;  Kesavachandra,  Brahmo 
Somai,  Galotttta»  1883;  F.  Max  MOUer,  in  Biographical  E*- 


261 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brahmo  SomiJ 
BramhaU 


•ay«,  London,  1884  (gives  accounts  of  recent  religious 
movements);  T.  E.  Slater,  Keahab  Chundra  Sen  and  Ihs 
Brahma  Samaj,  Madras,  1884;  P.  C.  Mosoomdar,  Life  and 
Teackinoe  of  Chunder  Sen,  Calcutta,  1887;  H.  Baynes, 
Evolulion  of  Reliowve  Thouoht  in  India,  London,  1880  (a 
full  aooount);  L.  J.  Frohmeyer,  Neuere  Reformbeatretmnoen 
in  Hinduiamua,  in  Baeler  Miaeione  Magann,  1888,  pp.  129 
aqq.;  The  Offering  of  Devendranaih  Tagore,  transl.  by 
M.  M.  Chatterji.  Calcutta,  1880;  Rammohun  Roy,  Eng- 
lish Works,  2  vols. ,  London,  1888;  Navakanta  Chattopa- 
dhyaya.  Life  and  Character  of  Ram  Mohun  Roy,  Dacca, 
1890;  C.  N.  Aitchison,  The  Brahmo  Somaj,  in  ChurA 
Mieeionary  Inielligeneer,  1893.  pp.  161  sqq. 

BRAI6,  KARL  VON  BORROMAEO:  German 
Roman  Catholic;  b.  at  Kanzach  (a  village  near 
Buchan,  30  m.  b.w.  of  Ulm)  Feb.  10,  1853.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  (Ph.D., 
1877),  where  he  was  instructor  in  dogmatic  theology 
in  1879-^,  and  was  parish  priest  at  Wildbad  and 
district  inspector  of  schools,  except  for  tours  of 
Austria,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  England, 
from  1883  to  1893.  In  the  latter  year  he  was 
appointed  associate  professor  of  apologetics  and 
dogmatics  at  the  University  of  Freiburg,  and  four 
years  later  was  promoted  to  his  present  position 
of  full  professor  of  the  same  subjects.  He  is  also 
director  of  the  dogmatic  seminar  in  the  univer- 
sity, and  has  written  Zukunftareligian  dee  Unbe- 
wussten  (Freiburg,  1882);  Kunst  dee  GedankenUsena 
(Frankfort,  1886);  Encyklopddie  der  theoretischen 
PhUosophU  (Stuttgart,  1886);  OoUeebeweia  oder 
GoUesbeioeisef  (1888);  Apologie  dee  Christentume 
(Freiburg,  1889);  La  MaHh-e  (Paris,  1891);  Dis 
FreiheU  der  phUosaphiachen  Forschung  (Freiburg, 
1894);  Vom  Denken  (1896);  Vom  Sein  (1896);  Vam 
Erkennen  (1897);  Leibniz,  aein  Leben  und  die 
Bedeuiung  seiner  Lekre  (Frankfort,  1901);  Zur 
Erinnerung  an  Franz  Xavier  Krauee  (Freiburg, 
1902);  Weaen  dee  Chrietentume  (1903);  and  Der 
Papk  und  die  FreiheU  (1903). 

BRAIRERD,  DAVID:  Missionary  to  the  Amer- 
ican Indians;  b.  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  Apr.  20, 
1718;  d.  at  the  home  of  Jonathan  £dw£u-ds  (to 
whose  daughter  Jemima  he  was  engaged),  North- 
ampton, Mass.,  Oct.  9,  1747.  He  entered  Yale 
College  in  1739  and  was  expelled  in  his  jimior  year; 
it  was  the  time  of  the  Great  Awakening  and  Brain- 
erd,  who  was  "  sober  and  inclined  to  melancholy  " 
from  childhood,  sympathized  with  the  '*  New 
Lights  "  (Whitefield,  Tennent,  and  their  followers); 
he  attended  their  meetings  when  forbidden  to  do 
so,  and  criticized  one  of  the  tutors  aB  having  "  no 
more  grace  than  a  chair";  as  a  consequence  he  was 
expelled.  He  was  licensed  at  Danbury,  Conn., 
July  29,  1742;  was  approved  aa  a  missionary  by 
the  New  York  correspondents  of  the  Society  in 
Scotland  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge, 
Nov.  25,  1742,  and  labored  among  the  Indians  at 
Kaunaumeek  (Brainerd,  Rensselaer  County,  N.  Y., 
18  m.  s.e.  of  Albany)  Apr.,  1743-Mar.,  1744;  was 
ordained  as  a  missionary  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  June 
12,  1744;  ten  days  later  began  work  at  what  was 
intended  to  be  his  permanent  station,  at  the  forks 
of  the  Delaware,  near  Easton,  Penn.;  in  October 
he  visited  the  Indians  on  the  Susquehanna,  and 
June  19,  1745,  began  to  preach  at  Crossweeksung 
(Crosswick,  9  m.  s.e.  of  Trenton),  the  scene  of  his 
greatest  success.    His  life  among  the  Indians  was 


one  of  hardship  and  suffering  borne  with  heroic 
fortitude  and  self-devotion;  his  health  gave  way 
imder  the  strain  and  he  relinquished  the  work, 
Mar.  20,  1747,  dying  from  consumption.  The 
portions  of  his  diary  dealing  with  his  work  at  Cross- 
weeksung (Jime  19-Nov.  4,  1745,  and  Nov.  24, 
1745-June  19,  1746)  were  published  before  his 
death  by  the  conmiissioners  of  the  Society  (Af  tro* 
hilia  dei  inter  Indicoe  :  or  the  rise  and  progreee  of  a 
remarkable  work  of  grace  among  a  number  of  the 
Indiane  in  the  provincee  of  New  Jereey  and  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  Divine  Grace  Displayed :  or  the 
continuance  and  progress  of  a  remarkable  work  of 
grace,  etc.,  both  published  at  Philadelphia,  1746, 
and  commonly  known  as  "  Brainerd's  Journal "). 
All  of  his  papers,  including  an  account  of  his  eariy 
life  and  the  original  copy  of  his  diary,  were  left 
with  Jonathan  Edwards,  who  prepared  An  Account 
of  the  Life  of  the  Late  Rev,  David  Brainerd  (Boston, 
1749),  omitting  the  parts  of  the  diary  already 
published.  The  life  and  diary  entire,  with  his 
letters  and  other  writings,  were  edited  by  S.  E. 
Dwight  (New  Haven,  1822)  and  by  J.  M.  Sherwood 
(New  York,  1884).  His  place  aa  missionary  waa 
taken,  at  his  request,  by  his  brother  John  (b.  at 
Haddam,  Ck>nn.,  Feb.  28,  1720;  d.  at  Deerfield, 
N.  J.,  Mar.  18,  1781).  He  was  graduated  at  Yale, 
1746.  His  work  was  hindered  by  disputes  about 
title  to  Indian  lands,  war,  and  opposition  from 
the  Quakers;  he  was  dismissed  by  the  Society  in 
Scotland  in  1755,  reengaged  in  1756,  again  dis- 
missed in  1757,  and  again  asked  to  return  in  1759; 
the  funds  provided  by  the  Society  and  by  the  Synod 
of  New  York  and  New  Jersey  were  insufficient, 
and  he  gave  freely  from  his  own  scanty  means; 
he  served  the  whites  no  less  faithfully  than  the 
Indians  and  was  at  the  same  time  both  foreign  and 
home  missionary;  after  1777  he  had  charge  of  a 
church  at  Deerfield.  Consult  his  life  by  Thomaa 
Brainerd  (Philadelphia,  1865). 

BRAINERD,  THOMAS:  American  Presbyterian; 
b.  at  Leyden,  Lewis  County,  N.  Y.,  June  17,  1804; 
d.  at  Scranton,  Penn.,  Aug.  22,  1866.  He  gave  up 
the  study  of  law  for  theology,  and  was  graduated 
at  Andover  in  1831;  was  pastor  of  the  Fourth 
Presbyterian  Church,  Cincinnati,  1831-33;  of  the 
Pine  Street  (Third)  Presbyterian  Church,  Philar 
delphia,  1837  till  his  death.  He  was  a  leader  of 
the  New  School  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
a  personal  friend  of  Lyman  Beecher  and  Albert 
Barnes;  waa  distinguished  for  patriotic  ardor  and 
services  during  the  Civil  War.  He  wrote  much 
for  religious  periodicals,  edited  the  Cincinnati 
Journal,  a  Presbyterian  religious  paper  (1833-^36), 
and  a  young  people's  paper,  and  wrote  the  Life 
of  John  Brainerd  (Philadelphia,  1865).  His  great- 
great-grandfather  was  an  unde  of  David  and  John 
Brainerd,  the  missionaries. 

Bxbuoorapht:  Mary  Brainerd,  Life  of  Rev.  Thomae  Brain- 
erd, Philadelphia,  1870. 

BRAMHALL,  JOHN:  Protestant  arohbishop  of 
Armagh;  b.  at  or  near  Pontefract  (22  m.  sjs.w. 
of  York),  Yorkshire,  1594;  d.  at  Omagh  (30  m.  s. 
of  Londonderry),  Cioimty  Tyrone,  Ireland,  June 
25,  1663.  He  studied  at  Sidney  Sussex  College, 
Cambridge  (BA.,  1612;  M.A.,  1616;  B.D.,  1623; 


Brandenbuxv 
Brastow 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


252 


D.D.,  1630);  took  orders  about  1616  and  diatin- 
guished  himaelf  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  reoeived 
several  appointments.  In  1633  he  went  to  Ire- 
land as  chaplain  to  Wentworth  (afterward  Earl  of 
Strafford);  became  archdeacon  of  Meath,  and,  in 
1634,  bishop  of  Deny.  He  did  much  to  increase 
the  revenues  of  the  Irish  Church,  and  tried  to 
establish  episcopacy  more  firmly.  Most  of  the 
time  from  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1641  till  the 
Restoration  he  spent  on  the  Continent,  waB  made 
archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1661,  and  as  such  dis- 
played a  commendable  moderation  in  striving  to 
secure  conformity.  His  works  were  collected  by 
John  Vesey,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  and  published 
at  Dublin  in  1677;  they  include  five  treatises  against 
Romamsts,  three  against  sectaries,  three  against 
Hobbes,  and  seven  miscellaneous,  in  defense  of 
royalist  and  Anglican  views.  The  works  are 
reprinted  in  the  Library  of  Angto-CcUholic  Theology 
(5  vols.,  Oxford,  1842-^5)  with  life. 

BRAHDEKBURO,  bishopric  OF:  a  diocese 
established  by  Otto  the  Great  in  948,  including 
the  territory  between  the  Elbe  on  the  west,  the 
Oder  on  the  east,  and  the  Black  Elster  on  the  south, 
and  taking  in  the  Uckermark  to  the  north.  It 
was  originally  under  the  archiepisoopal  jurisdiction 
of  Mains,  but  in  968  waB  transferred  to  that  of 
Magdeburg.  The  disturbances  of  983  practically 
annihilated  it;  bishops  continued  to  be  named, 
but  they  were  merely  titular,  imtil  the  downfall 
of  the  Wends  in  the  twelfth  century  and  the  Ger^ 
man  settlement  of  that  region  revived  the  bishopric. 
Bishop  Wigers  (1138-60)  was  the  first  of  a  series  of 
bishops  of  the  Premonstratensian  order,  which 
chose  the  occupants  of  the  see  until  1447;  in  that 
year  a  bull  of  Nicholas  V  gave  the  right  of  nomina- 
tion to  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  with  whom  the 
bishops  stood  in  a  close  feudal  relation.  The  last 
actual  bishop  was  Matthias  von  Jagow  (d.  1544), 
who  took  the  side  of  the  Reformation,  married,  and 
in  every  way  furthered  the  undertakings  of  Elector 
Joachim  II  (q.v.).  There  were  two  more  ncnninai 
bishops,  but  on  the  petition  of  the  latter  of  these, 
the  electoral  prince  John  George,  the  secularization 
of  the  bishopric  waB  undertsJcen  and  finally  ac- 
complished, in  spite  of  legal  proceedings  to  have 
the  bishopric  declared  inunecUately  dependent  on 
the  empire  and  so  to  preserve  it,  which  dragged  on 
into  the  seventeenth  century. 

BRAKDEIIBURG,  CONFESSIOIIS  or  CONFES- 
SIONS  OF  THE  MARK  (Confessioneamarchica,  i.e., 
BrennoburgenBea):  The  coniessions  of  the  mark 
Brandenburg  during  the  Reformation.  They  are 
three  in  number:  (1)  the  Confession  prepared  by 
order  of  Johann  Sigismund,  elector  of  Brandenburg, 
1614,  which  was  intended  to  reconcile  the  views 
of  Luther  with  those  of  Calvin  (see  Sioisicund, 
Johann);  (2)  the  Leipsic  Colloquy,  1631,  i.e.,  the 
declarations  of  the  theologians  who  took  part  in  the 
Colloquy  of  Leipsic  (q.v.),  1631;  (3)  the  Declaration 
of  Thorn,  1645  (see  Thorn,  Conference  of). 

Bibuoorapbt:  The  text  of  the  three  oonfearions  is  in  J.  C. 
W.  Augueti,  Carpu*  Ubrarum  aymholiooTum,  pp.  300  eqq., 
Elberfeld,  1827.  and  in  H.  A.  Niemeyer.  ColUctio  eonfe»- 
rionum  in  eceUHa  reformaia  pvbUeatarum,  pp.  642  aqq., 
Leipaio.  184a    Ck>Dsult  Sohaff,  Creedt,  u,  664-663. 


BRAIVDBS,  brdn'des,  FRIEDRICH  HEmRICH: 

German  Reformed;  b.  at  Salsuflen  (48  m.  s.w.  of 
Hanover)  Apr.  25,  1825.  Educated  at  the  Univer^ 
sity  of  Berlin,  he  wsb  successively  second  preacher 
and  rector  at  SaLniflen  from  1853  to  1856,  and 
pastor  at  Gdttingen  from  1856  to  1901.  Since  the 
latter  year  he  has  been  court-preacher  at  Backe- 
burg.  Among  his  numerous  writings  those  of 
theological  interest  are:  Wir  werden  Uben,  Ge- 
sprOehe  aber  UtuterbliehkeU  (Gdttingen,  1858); 
John  Knox,  der  BefomuUor  SchotUands  (Elberfeld, 
1862);  Katechismu8  der  ehrisaiehim  Lehre  (GOt> 
tingen,  1865);  Verfauung  der  Kirche  nach  evange- 
liachen  OrundMzen  (2  vols.,  Elberfeld,  1867); 
Zttr  Wiedervereinigung  der  heiden  evangeliBchen 
Kirehen  (Gdttingen,  1868);  Des  Apoetd  Paulus 
Sendtehreiben  an  die  Galater  (Wiesbaden,  1869); 
Geschichte  der  kirchlichen  Polixei  dee  Houses  Bran- 
denburg (2  vols.,  Gotha,  1872-73);  Blicke  in  das 
Seelenleben  dee  Herm  (GQtersloh,  1888);  Unser 
Herr  Christue.  t,  Seine  Person  (1901);  and  Eini- 
gungen  der  evangelischen  Kirehen  ein  Befehl  des 
Herm   (Berlin,    1902). 

BRAHDT,  WILHELM:  Dutch  Protestant;  b. 
at  Amsterdam  July  22,  1855.  He  was  educated 
for  the  ministry  of  the  Dutch  Refonned  Church 
and  was  a  pastor  until  1891,  when  he  went  to  BerUn, 
where  he  resided  for  two  years.  Since  1893  he 
has  been  professor  of  New  Testament  ex^esis 
and  the  history  of  religions  at  the  University  of 
Amsterdam.  In  theology  he  belongs  to  tbe 
historico-critical  school,  and  has  written  Die 
manddische  Religion  (Leipsic,  1889);  Manddische 
Schriften  (G6ttingen,  1893);  and  Die  evan^ische 
Oesehichte  und  der  Urspnmg  des  Chrisienthums 
(Leipsic,  1893). 

BRANN,  HERRT  ATHANASIU5:  Roman  Cath- 
olic; b.  at  Parkstown  (27  m.  s.w.  of  Drogheda), 
Goimty  Meath,  Ireland,  Aug.  15,  1837.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  at  the  age  of  ten,  and  was 
educated  at  St.  Mary's  College,  Wilmington,  Del., 
St.  Francis  Xavier's  CJoUege,  New  York  Qty  (B.A., 
1857),  St.  Sulpice,  Paris  (1857-60),  and  the  Amer- 
ican College,  Rome  (D.D.,  1862).  He  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  at  Rome  in  1862,  being  the  first 
priest  of  the  American  College,  and  from  1862  to 
1864  was  vice-president  of  Seton  Hall  OoUege, 
South  Orange,  N.  J.,  where  he  also  taught  theology. 
Four  years  later  he  became  director  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical seminary  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  where  he 
remained  untU  1870,  when  he  was  appointed  rector 
of  St.  Elisabeth's  Church,  Fort  Washin^^n, 
N.  Y.  Twenty  years  later  he  became  rector  of 
St.  Agnes's  Church,  New  York  City,  where  he  still 
remains.  He  is  archdiocesan  censor  of  books  and 
has  written  Curious  Questions  (Newark,  N.  J.,  1867) ; 
Truth  and  Error  (New  York,  1871);  Essay  on  the 
Popes  (1875);  The  Age  of  Unreason  (1881);  The  Im^ 
mortality  of  the  Soul  (1882);  and  Life  of  Archbishop 
Hughes  (1892). 

BRANN,  KARCUS:  German  Jewish  historian;  b. 
at  Rawitsch  (64  m.  s.  of  Posen)  July  9,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Brekau  (Ph.D., 
1873)  and  the  rabbinical  seminary  in  the  same  city, 
from  which  he  waa  graduated  in  1875.    He  was 


S53 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brandenburff 
Brastow 


then  a  rabbi  in  various  cities  of  Germany  until 
1891,  when  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  H.  Graetz 
as  professor  of  history  and  Biblical  exegesis  in  the 
Jewish  theological  seminary  at  Breslau,  where  he 
still  remains.  He  has  written:  De  Herodia  Magni 
filiis  pairem  in  imperio  aeeuHs  (Breslau,  1873); 
Die  Sohne  des  Herodea  ( 1873);  Geachichte  der  GeaeO- 
achafi  der  Bhider  in  Brealau  (1880);  OeachichU  der 
Juden  und  ihrer  Literatur  (2  vols.,  1893-94); 
(Jeachichle  dea  Rabbinata  in  SchnMemUhl  (1894); 
GeschichU  der  Juden  in  Schleaien  (3  parts,  1895- 
1901);  Ein  kurter  Gang  durch  die  judiache  Ge- 
achickte  (1895);  Ein  kurzer  Gang  dtwch  die  Ge- 
achichie  der  jiidiaehen  Literatur  (1896);  Lekrbuch 
der  jiidiaehen  Geachiehte  (4  vols.,  1900-03);  and 
Geachichte  dea  jiidiaehen  iheologiachen  Seminara 
(1904).  He  has  likewise  edited  the  Jahrbuch 
zur  Belehrung  und  UnterhaUung  since  1890,  and 
from  1892  to  1899,  in  collaboration  with  D.  Kauf- 
mann,  edited  the  Monataachrift  far  Geachichte  und 
Wisaenachaft  dea  Judentuma,  becoming  its  sole 
editor  on  Kaufmann's  death  in  the  latter  year. 
He  likewise  collaborated  with  F.  Rosenthal  in 
editing  the  Gedenkbuch  twr  Erinnerung  an  David 
Kttufmann  (Breslau,  1900). 

BRAUT,  brdnt,  SEBASnAN:  German  satirist;  b. 
at  Strasburg  1457;  d.  there  May  10, 1521.  He  was 
but  ten  years  old  when  his  father  died,  and,  after 
being  educated  privately,  entered  the  University 
of  Basel  in  1475,  where  the  strife  between  realism 
and  nominalism  had  been  revived  as  a  struggle 
between  humanism  and  scholasticism.  There  Brant 
devoted  himself  half-heartedly  to  the  study  of  law, 
but  his  preference  for  phUoeophy  and  poetry 
proved  too  unremunerative  to  yield  him  a  liveli- 
hood, so  he  was  obliged  to  take  up  the  study  of 
jurisprudence  in  earnest,  and  finally  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  civil  and  canon  law  in  1489. 
Meanwhile  he  had  developed  a  literaiy  activity 
which  led  him,  in  addition  to  the  lectures  which  he 
delivered  after  1484,  to  write  book  upon  book, 
partly  on  jurisprudence,  both  in  Latin  and  the  ver- 
nacular, and  partly  in  verse,  chiefly  in  German. 
Filled  with  longing  for  his  native  city,  he  applied 
for  the  vacant  position  of  syndic,  and  secured  it 
in  the  eariy  part  of  1501,  both  through  his  own 
reputation  and  through  the  reconmiendation  of 
Johann  Geiler.  Two  years  afterward  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  municipality,  and  later 
was  made  imperial  councilor  to  the  emperor  Maxi- 
milian. 

Though  Brant  was  either  the  author  or  the  editor 
of  a  long  series  of  books,  there  is  but  one  which 
has  preserved  his  fame  to  the  present  day,  the 
Xarrenachiff  (Basel,  1494).  The  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  which  marked  the  wreck  and  ruin  of  all  the 
ancient  conditions  in  Church  and  State,  as  well  as 
in  moral  and  social  life,  was  felt  most  keenly  in 
Germany,  where  it  evoked  a  spirit  of 
His        satire  which  spared  neither  life  nor 

"Ship  of    death.    The  most  striking  represent- 

FjoU."     ative  of  this  tendency,  next  to  the 

Dance  of  Death,  is  the  Narrenachiff  of 

Brant.    Wherever  the  poet  looked,  he  saw  only 

'oily,  regardless  of  sex,  age,  or  estate,  and  as  at 


carnival  the  mununers  ran  through  the  streets  in 
the  guise  of  fools,  often  with  ships  on  wheels,  he 
regarded  life  as  a  great  carnival,  where  fool  on  fool 
took  his  seat  in  the  ship  of  fools  to  voyage  to  Narra^ 
gonia,  the  land  of  fools.  Brant  was,  therefore,  in 
this  sense  the  spokesman  of  his  time,  and  his  work 
has  become  inunortal  in  that  it  is  a  mirror  of  the 
period.  He  remained  true,  moreover,  to  the  genius 
of  the  German  people,  despite  his  attraction  toward 
humanism  and  his  numerous  sentiments  and  paral- 
lels drawn  from  the  classics.  His  views  and  his 
habits  of  thought  were  taken  from  the  life  around 
him,  and  his  German,  though  evidently  based  on 
his  Latinity,  is  neither  as  awkward  nor  as  unin- 
telligible as  that  of  Niclas  of  Wyle  inunediately 
preceding  him  or  that  of  his  successor  Hutten. 
He  was  so  far  from  intending  to  restrict  his  work 
to  the  learned  that  he  even  considered  those  who 
did  not  know  how  to  read,  and  accordingly  adorned 
his  book  with  pictures  as  a  substitute  fpr  the  letters. 
The  Narrenachiff,  therefore,  alternates  between 
picture  and  text,  thus  giving  a  double  representation 
of  folly,  an  arrangement  which  divides  the  poem 
into  disjointed  fragments  succeeding  each  other 
by  chance  rather  than  by  design,  althouj^  the 
diversity  of  the  material  would  scarcely  have  per- 
mitted the  author  to  mold  it  into  a  homogeneous 
whole.  Yet  Brant  was  swayed  by  two  opposing 
tendencies,  and  while,  on  the  one  hand,  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  expose  the  faults  in  the  external  life  of 
the  Church  with  its  lack  of  faith,  and  its  lack 
of  morality,  he  feared  to  touch  its  inner  and  higher 
teachings,  and  lamented  the  wavering  bark  of  St. 
Peter,  upbraiding  the  heretics  and  regarding  the 
printer  as  an  unmixed  evil.       (E.  Steinmeteb.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Narrenachtif  was  reprinted  many 
times  and  was  as  frequently  revamped,  especially  in  the 
Latin  translation  of  Jakob  Locher  Philomusus  (1497). 
In  1497  it  was  translated  into  Frenoh,  four  yean  later 
into  Latin  verse  by  Jodocus  Badius  Asoensius,  in  1619 
into  Low  German,  and  in  1636  into  Dutch,  while  in  1609 
it  was  rendered  into  English  by  Alexander  Buclay  (q.y.) 
under  the  title  of  the  Ship  of  FooU,  The  best  German 
edition  is  by  F.  Zamoke.  Leipsie,  1864,  next  to  it  b  that 
by  K.  Goedeke.  ib.  1872.  In  1496  a  series  of  sermons 
was  based  upon  the  Narrtnadtiff  by  Geiler  of  Kaisera- 
berg,  and  it  was  repeatedly  imitated,  as  in  the  Von  8, 
UrmdenSehiflUin^  by  the  Brotherhood  of  St.  Ursula 
(Strasburg,  1497),  and  by  Brant's  compatriot.  Thomas 
Mumer,  in  his  NamnbeuKwCruno  (1612).  Bibliogra- 
phies are  given  by  G.  Schmidt.  HiaUnra  liUirairt  dt 
I'AUaea,  i,  189-333,  u,  340-373,  Paris.  1879,  and  K. 
Goedeke,  Orundri$§  tvr  OsscAicMs  dsr  deutaehan  Dichtung, 
i,  .383-392,  Dresden,  1884.  The  best  accounts  of  the 
life  of  Brant  are  to  be  found  in  the  introductions  to  the 
editions  of  the  Narrenaehiff  by  Zamoke  and  Goedeke,  ut 
sup.  Consult  also  C.  Schmidt,  Notiea  aur  SAaatian 
Brant,  in  the  Revus  d*AUaoa,  new  series,  vol.  iii.  1874. 

BRASTBER6£R,IM]CA]IUELG0TTL0B:  Pop- 
ular German  preacher;  b.  at  Sula  (40  m.  s.w.  of 
Stuttgart),  WOrttemberg,  1716;  d.  July  13,  1764, 
aa  Spezialauperintendent  at  Ntlrtingen.  His  ser- 
mons on  the  Gospels,  Evangeliache  Zeugniaae  der 
Wahrheit  tur  Aufmunterung  im  toahren  Chriaten- 
(hum  (Stuttgart,  1758)  are  still  read,  the  eighty- 
fifth  edition  having  appeared  at  Reutlingen  in 
1883,  and  a  translation  into  Polish  in  1005. 

BRASTOW,  LEWIS  ORSMOND:  O)ngregatioii- 
alist;  b.  at  Brewer,  Me.,  Mar.  23,  1834.  He  waa 
educated  at  Bowdoin  Ck>llege  (BA.,   1857)  and 


BnwU 
Bread 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


256 


resented,  especially  in  the  maritime  towns,  where 
there  are  English  churches,  which,  however,  do 
not  always  have  permanent  rectors.  The  Pres- 
byterians, particularly  from  North  America,  have 
settled  in  considerable  numbers  in  Sfto  Paulo, 
where  they  have  established  a  college,  and  the  Amer- 
ican Seaman's  Friend  Society  has  an  agent  in  the 
capital,  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  1899  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  made  the  Rev.  Lucien  Lee  Kin- 
solving  (q.v.)  bishop  of  southern  Braiil,  with  resi- 
dence at  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (Sfto  Pedro) .  In  1907 
his  diocese  was  made  an  integral  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can Episcopal  Church. 

German  Protestantism  is  represented  over  an 
extensive  territory  and  has  numerous  centers,  as 
is  shown  by  the  existence  of  two  great  ecclesias- 
tical bodies,  the  **  Evangelical  German  Synod," 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  higher  church 
council  of  Berlin  since  1869,  and  the  **  Evangelical 
Synodical  Union"  of  1884.  The  latter  receives 
its  clergy  not  only  from  Beriin,  but  also  through 
the  missiooary  societies  of  Barmen  and  Basel, 
especially  in  view  of  the  number  of  Swiss  immi- 
grants to  Brazil.  Many  German  evangelical  com- 
munities, as  well  as  scattered  members  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  are  foimd  both  in  Rio  de  Ja- 
neiro itself  and  the  state  of  the  same  name  (inclu- 
ding Petropolis)  and  the  state  of  Espirito  Santo  (in- 
cluding Leopoldina),  and  espiecially  in  the  four 
iouthem  states  of  Sfto  Paulo,  Parand,  Santa  Catha- 
rina,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  In  the  latter  state 
there  are  forty  congregations,  while  in  Santa 
Catharina  7,500  Protestants  live  in  the  German 
city  of  Blumenau  alone,  and  of  the  100,000  Ger- 
mans in  the  state  about  two-thirds  are  evangelical. 
All  the  districts  with  a  German  population  are 
richly  provided  with  schools,  even  though  all 
branches  of  instruction  are  not  as  thorough  as 
might  be  desired.  Evangelical  schools,  however, 
are  not  infrequently  replaced  by  interdenomi- 
national religious  schools.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
German  communities  careful  provision  is  made  for 
schools,  and  in  a  number  of  colonies  the  educar- 
tional  activity  of  the  clergy  is  such  that  they 
receive  salaries  from  the  State. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  two  archdioceses 
in  Brazil:  (1)  Bahia  or  Sfto  Salvador  (founded  as  a 
bishopric  in  1555,  made  an  archbishopric  .in  1676), 
with  the  suffragan  bishoprics  of  Alagoas  (founded 
1900;  residence  at  Macei6),  Amazon  (1893;  residence 
Maniios),  Belem  or  Pari  (1719),  Fortalesa  orCearA 
(1854),  Goyaz  (1826;  residence  Uberava),  Sfto  Luiz 
(1677;  residence  Maranhfto)  Olinda  (1676),  Parar 
hyba  (1893),  and  Piauhy  (1902;  residence  There- 
zina);and(2)  SfloSebastiftoorRio  de  Janeiro  (1676; 
made  an  archbishopric  1893),  with  the  suffragan 
bishoprics  of  Curitiba  (1893),  CuyabA  (1745),  Dia- 
mantina(1854),  Marianna  (1745),  Sfto  Paulo  (1745), 
Petropolis  (1893),  Sfto  Pedro  (1848;  residence 
Porto  Alegre),  Pouso  Alegre  (1900),  and  Espirito 
Santo  (1896;  residence  Vitoria).  There  is  also  the 
exempt  prelature  of  Santarem  (1903). 

While  secular  priests  are  chiefly  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  Church,  they  are  lacking  in  many 
districts  and  their  training  is  defective.  Despite 
the  suppression  of  the  orders,  therefore,  many  of 


the  larger  ones  have  nimierous  representatives.  Al- 
though they  have  few  stations,  they  are  actively 
engaged  in  the  conversion  of  the  Indians,  among 
whom  the  Jesuits  worked  with  great  success  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  in  the  ranges 
of  the  Cordilleras  and  along  the  Upper  Amazon. 
In  1767  the  Portuguese  expelled  the  Jesuits  from 
Brazil.  The  aborigines  in  the  interior  of  Brazil 
still  remain  uninfluenced  by  any  missionary  activity. 

WiLHELM  Gosn. 

BiBUOoaAPHT:  On  the  ooontry  and  people  conralt:  J.  C. 
and  D.  P.  Kidder.  BraJtU  and  the  BragUia$u,  New  York. 
ISOe;  [Mifls  M.  R.  Wright].  Ths  Nww  BnuO,  iU  Rt»imne$ 
and  AttraduMM,  London,  1001;  Santa-Anna  N67.  T^ 
Land  of  tfis  AmoMonB,  New  York.  1901;  Uniied  Stak$cf 
BrasU:  a  Oeographicai  Skeiek,  viA  epeeial  Refema  to 
Beonomic  CondiHona  and  ProMpecU  of  Fuivn  DetAf- 
ment.  Bureau  of  Am.  Republioe,  Waahington,  1001;  T. 
G.  Dawaon,  The  Soulh  Ammioan  RtpublicB,  toI.  i.  New 
York.  1003  On  reUgioue  matters  consult:  F.  Badero. 
Ut  CowmUa  au  BrUil,  Florence.  1807;  H.  P.  Bndi. 
iVofnCanI  M%Mum»  in  South  America,  New  York,  1900; 
J.  S.  DennJB.  ContennUd  Survey  of  Foreiffn  MieeUmt,  ih 
1002;  H.  C.  Tucker.  BihU  in  Braeil,  ib.  1002.  An  ex- 
haustive work  of  reference  ii  A.  L.  Garraux,  BihUognr 
phie  hrMUenne,  Paris,  1808. 

BREAD  AUD  BASING:  Bread  was  for  the 
Hebrews  the  chief  article  of  diet,  aa  it  is  for  modem 
Palestinian  peasants.  In  early  times  it  was  made 
from  barley,  which  was  later  displaced  by  wheat, 
except  aa  it  remained  the  staple  for  the  poorer 
classes,  though  now  it  is  not  regarded  as  altogeth^ 
wholesome.  Primitive  usage  was  to  roast  the  can 
of  grain,  which  were  so  eaten  especially  at  harvest 
time  (Ruth  ii,  14),  and,  thus  prepared,  still  fomi  a 
convenient  food  for  travelers.  In  primitive  prepa- 
ration of  grain  for  food,  a  sort  of  mortar  was  used  to 
crush  it  into  the  coarser  meal,  a  handmill  for  the 
flour.  The  latter,  of  primitive  form,  is  still  used 
in  the  East  and  consists  of  two  stones,  the  lower 
one  the  harder,  the  middle  surfaces  not  flat,  but 
respectively  concave  and  convex,  the  upper  with 
a  hole  in  the  center  in  which  the  post  of  the  lower 
is  set  and  into  which  the  grain  is  poured  for  grind- 
ing. The  work  of  grinding  fell  to  the  women  or 
to  slaves,  though  the  later  and  larger  mills  were 
turned  by  beasts.  The  preparation  of  meal  or 
flour  was  a  daily  tadc,  done  as  there  was  need  for 
the  product.  The  dough  was  mixed  in  a  wooden 
kneading-trough,  and  in  early  times  was  unleavened, 
as  is  the  case  generally  with  the  modem  Bedouin. 
The  dough  was  made  up  roimd,  flat  or  disk-shaped, 
and  baked  on  a  layer  of  heated  stones  from  which 
the  coals  were  removed  when  the  dough  was  placed 
upon  the  stones  to  bake  and  then  replaced.  Men- 
tion is  made  (Lev.  ii,  5)  of  an  iron  plate  or  pan  for 
baking.  There  came  to  be  finally  two  forms  of 
oven,  both  in  common  use  among  the  modem 
peasantry,  one  of  which  is  heated  from  the  outside, 
the  other  from  the  inside.  The  art  of  baking  was 
developed  with  the  other  arts  till  it  became  a 
handicraft  or  trade,  and  gave  its  name  to  a  street 
in  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxvii,  21;  cf.  Hos.  vii,  4). 
Bread  was  used  in  sacred  offerings  at  first  either 
leavened '  or  unleavened;  later  the  former  was 
excluded  (Ex.  xxiii,  18;  Lev.  ii,  11). 

(I.  BXNZINaXR.) 
Bibuoorapht:  An  excellent  account,  nerhape  the  best,  h 
to  be  found  m  DB,  i.  315-810.     Consult  also:  E.  Robin- 


257 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnudl 
Bread 


son,  Biblieal  ReMeardiM,  ii.  416-417.  New  York.  1856; 
C.  M.  Doughty.  Arabia  DeBerta,  i,  131  and  paraim.  Lon- 
don, 1888;  Benxinger.  ArcKOologie,  pp.  62-66.  2d  ed.;  H. 
VoseUtein.  Die  Landwirtuhaft  in  PaJUUHna,  Berlin,  1804; 
EB,  i,  604-«06. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  JOHN:  American  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Cabell's  Dale,  near  Lexington,  Ky., 
July  4,  1797;  d.  there  Aug.  4,  1841.  He  studied 
at  Princeton  and  was  tutor  there  1820-21;  was 
chaplain  of  Congress  1822-23;  was  ordained  Sept. 
10,  1823,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1823-26;  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church,  Baltimore,  1826-31; 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Philadelphia  1831-36; 
professor  of  pastoral  theology  in  Princeton  Seminary 
1836-38;  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  1838-40.  He  was  president  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  death  was  president-elect  of  Oglethorp  Uni- 
versity, Georgia.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  Old 
School  party  and  an  ardent  controversialist.  He 
published  a  discussion  with  Archbishop  Hughes 
of  New  York  imder  the  title  Roman  Catholic  Con- 
troversy (Philadelphia,  1836)  and  some  minor 
controversial  essays. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  ROBERT  JEFFERSON:  Pres- 
byterian minister,  brother  of  John  Breckinridge 
(q.v.);  b.  at  Cabell's  Dale,  near  Lexington,  Ky., 
Mar.  8, 1800;  d.  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27, 1871.  He 
was  graduated  at  Union  College,  1819;  practised 
law  in  Kentucky,  1823-31,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  State  legislature,  1825-29;  studied  theology 
at  Princeton,  1831-32,  was  ordained  Nov.  26,  1832, 
and  was  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church, 
Baltimore,  1832-45;  president  of  Jefferson  College, 
Pennsylvania,  1845-47;  pastor  of  the  First  Pres- 
byterian Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  at  the  same 
time  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
1847-53;  professor  of  theology  at  Danville  Semi- 
nary, 1853-69.  He  was  a  stanch  Old  School  Pres- 
byterian and  the  author  of  the  ''  Act  and  Testi- 
mony" (1834),  complaining  of  the  prevalence  of 
doctrinal  errors,  the  relaxation  of  discipline,  and 
the  violation  of  church  order,  which  played  an 
important  part  in  the  disruption  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church;  he  opposed  the  reunion  in  1869. 
He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  During  the  Civil  War  he  defended  the 
Union  cause  and  was  president  of  the  national 
Republican  convention  at  Baltimore  in  1864  which 
renominated  Abraham  Lincoln  for  the  Presidency. 
During  his  residence  in  Baltimore  he  edited  The 
Literary  and  Religious  Magazine  (1835-43),  and 
The  Danville  Review  at  Danville  (1861-65); 
hia  principal  literary  work  is  two  volumes.  The 
Kncwledge  of  Ood,  objectively  and  subjectively 
considered  (New  York,  1857-59). 

BRECKLIN6,  FRIEDRICH:  A  forerunner  of 
the  Pietistic  school;  b.  at  Hanved  near  Flens- 
burg,  Sleswick,  1629;  died  at  The  Hague  Mar.  16, 
1711.  He  studied  at  Rostock,  where  he  imbibed 
the  theology  of  Amdt;  then  at  Kdnigsberg,  where 
syncretism  was  dominant,  at  Helmst&dt,  where  his 
relation  Calixtus  then  was,  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic, 
Jena,  and  Giessen.  Here  his  thesis  for  the  master's 
II.— 17 


degree  (1653)  was  criticized  as  savoring  of  Weigel- 
ianism,  but  he  refused  to  alter  it,  and  published  it 
at  Amsterdam  under  the  title  Mysterium  magnum, 
Christus  in  nobis  (1662).  He  became  closely 
allied  with  Tackius,  and  went  deeper  into  theosophy 
by  the  aid  of  Hermes  Trismegistus,  Paracelsus,  and 
Bdhme.  Going  to  JIamburg,  he  read  Betke's 
Aniichristentum,  and  was  much  influenced  by  its 
conception  of  priestless  Christianity.  After  some 
years  of  wandering  in  search  of  knowledge,  he  was 
ordained  to  be  his  father's  assistant  and  ultimate 
successor;  but  violent  attacks  on  the  local  clergy 
caused  his  deposition  and  imprisonment  in  1660. 
Escaping,  he  went  to  Amsterdam  and  got  a  charge  at 
ZwoUe,  where  he  spent  eight  years  of  comparative 
quiet,  but  was  again  deprived  of  his  office,  and  lived 
in  retirement  at  Zwolle  (1668-72),  Amsterdam 
(1672-90),  and  The  Hague  (1690-171 1).  He  main- 
tained a  correspondence  with  Spener  and  with 
Gottfried  Arnold,  whom  he  helped  in  his  church 
history,  and  was  busily  engaged  as  a  writer.  In 
spite  of  his  weaknesses,  he  deserves  remembrance 
as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  mystical  natures  who  pre- 
pared the  way  for  Spener  and  the  Pietistic  move- 
ment. (F.  NlELfiENf.) 

BiBUoaRAPRT:  G.  Arnold,  Kirdien  und  KetMergeachichte, 
iii.  148-149.  iv,  1103-04,  Frankfort,  1729;  A.  Ritschlp 
OtBchichte  de9  PieHnnua,  u.  1.  128,  146,  Bonn,  1884;  L. 
J.  Moltesen,  F.  Breckling,  et  Bidrag  HI  PietimnenM  Udvih- 
lingthiMtorie,  Copenhagen,  1893. 


BREDENKAMP,  KONRAD  JUSTUS:  German 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Basbeck  (a  village  near  Stade, 
22  m.  w.n.w.  of  Hamburg)  June  26,  1847;  d.  at 
Verden  (21  m.  s.e.  of  Bremen)  Mar.  25,  1904. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Erlangen, 
Bonn,  and  Gdttingen,  and  was  pastor  at  Kuppentin, 
Mecklenburg,  from  1872  to  1878.  He  then  resided 
at  Gdttingen  for  a  year,  and  from  1880  to  1883 
was  privat-docent  at  Erlangen.  In  the  latter  year 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Greifswald  aa  professor  of 
theology,  and  remained  there  until  1889,  after  which 
he  was  honorary  professor  of  Old  Testament  exe- 
gesis at  Kiel  until  his  death.  He  wrote  Der  Prophet 
Sacharja  erld&rt  (Erlangen,  1879);  Vatidnium  quod 
de  Immanuele  edidU  Jesaias  (vii,  l-tx,  6)  (1880); 
Gesetz  und  Propheten  (1881);  and  Der  Prophet 
Jesaia  erUutert  (1887). 

BREECHES  BIBLE.  See  Bible  Versionb,  B, 
IV,  §9. 

BREED,  DAVID  RIDDLE:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  June  10, 1848.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Ham- 
ilton College  (BA.,  1867),  and  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary  (1870),  and  was  pastor  of  the  House  of 
Hope  Presbyterian  Church  at  St.  Paul,  Biinn.,  from 
1870  until  1885,  when  he  organized  the  Church  of  the 
Covenant,  Chicago,  of  which  he  was  pastor  imtil 
1894.  In  the  latter  year  he  accepted  a  call  to  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Pittsburg,  and 
since  1898  has  been  professor  of  practical  theology 
in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny, 
Pa.  In  theology  he  is  conservative.  In  addition 
to  numerous  pamphlets,  he  has  written  Ahror 
ham,  the  Typkal  Life  of  Faith  (Chicago,  1886); 
History  of  the  Preparation  of  the  World  for  Christ 


Braithaupt 
Brendan 


THE  NEW  dCHAFF-HERZOG 


358 


(1891);  Heresy  and  Hereey  (1891);  and  The  Hie- 
tory  and  Use  of  Hymna  and  Hymn  Tunee  (1903). 

BRETTHAUPT,  brait'haupt,  JOACHIM  JUSTUS; 
Pint  profesaor  of  theology  at  Halle;  b.  at  Nord- 
heim  (12  m.  n.  of  Gdttingen),  Hanover,  Feb. 
1058;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  Berge  (Kloeter 
Bergen,  a.  of  Magdeburg;  the  dte  is  now  a  public 
park)  Mar.  16,  1732.  He  studied  at  Helmst&dt, 
became  corector  in  WolfenbQttel  in  1680,  and 
went  thence  to  Kiel,  where  he  continued  theo- 
logical studies  imder  Christian  Kortholt  (q.v.) 
and  became  privat-dooent.  Then  he  lived  for 
some  time  in  Frankfort  and  came  completely 
under  Spener's  influence.  He  returned  to  Kid 
as  professor  of  homiletics,  became  court  preacher 
at  Meiningen  in  1685,  went  to  Erfurt  in  1687  as 
preacher  at  the  Dominican  Church  and  became 
professor  of  theology  in  the  imiversity.  His  Piet- 
istie  tendencies  aroused  much  opposition,  and  in 
1691  he  removed  to  Halle,  where  with  August 
Hermann  Francke  and  Paul  Anton  (qq.v.)  he  gave 
the  theological  study  of  the  new  university  its 
peculiar  character  and  direction.  In  1705  he 
added  to  his  other  duties  those  of  superintendent 
of  the  duchy  of  Magdeburg  and  in  1709  was  made 
abbot  at  the  monastery  of  Berge  (then  transfonned 
into  a  school).  He  was  a  man  of  much  faith, 
prayerful,  and  took  a  deep  interest  in  poor  students. 
Besides  minor  writings,  he  published  InstUutionee 
theologica  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1694;  2d  enlarged  ed., 
1723;  vol.  iii,  InstUiUionea  theclogim  moralis,  1732); 
Theses  credendorum  et  agendorum  fundamentales 
(1700).  He  was  not  without  poetic  talent  and 
published  a  collection  of  Poemata  miaceUanea 
(Magdeburg,  1720).  Some  of  his  hymns  are  still 
found  in  the  (Serman  hymn-books. 

(Georo  MOlusr.) 
Bibuoorapht:  The  Kemorial,  ed.  G.  A.  Francke,  Halle, 
1736,  contaios  the  Leben^be^ckreibuno  by  C.  P.  Leporin 
and  Baumgartena  Memoria  ineomparabilis  theolooi  J.  J. 
Breithaupi.  Consult  also  A.  Ritaohl,  Ottchichta  de9 
Pi£tumu9,  iii,  385  et  paasim,  Bonn,  1884;  Julian,  Hym^ 
noiogy,  pp.  100-170;  W.  Schrader,  OmcAmsUb  dtr  Fried- 
ruM-UnivenilM  su  HdUe,  vol.  i,  pasaim,  Halle.  1894; 
ADB,  iii,  201. 

BRETTINGER,  brd'tin-ger,  JOHANN  JAKOB: 
Swiss  theologian;  b.  at  Zurich  Apr.  19,  1575;  d. 
there  Apr.  1,  1645.  Not  until  his  seventeenth  year 
did  his  spiritual  gifts  begin  to  manifest  themselves, 
but  from  1593  to  1596  he  studied  at  Reformed 
seminaries  in  Germany  and  Holland,  and  in  1597 
became  a  member  of  the  clergy  of  his  native  city. 
His  prominence  during  the  pestilence  of  1611 
proved  him  worthy  of  the  appointment  of  deacon 
to  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  Two  years  later  he 
was  made  pastor  of  the  GrossmUnster,  thus  becom- 
ing the  most  important  clergyman  in  Zurich,  and 
in  1614  he  was  appointed  school-rector.  His  im- 
portance was  not  due,  however,  to  his  religious 
or  theological  originality,  but  rather  to  his  political 
intelligence  and  practical  skill  in  organisation  and 
execution,  combining  shrewd  circumspection  and 
patience  with  a  versatile  initiative.  His  sermons, 
though  not  deep,  were  characterised  by  warmth 
of  feeling,  clearness,  pithiness,  and  charm.  The 
most  import.ant  of  his  works  are  his  synodical 
addresses,  in  which  he  sought  to  exalt  the  position 


of  the  clergy.  These  sermons,  delivered  at  tlie 
semiannual  sessions  of  the  synod  and  collected 
by  him  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life,  are  models  of 
pastoral  wisdom,  and  received  practical  applica- 
tion in  Breitinger's  own  activity.  The  status  of 
the  preachers  was  revolutionised  on  the  baas  of 
two  of  his  speeches  before  the  council  in  162S, 
and  he  secured  the  general  adoption  of  muaie  in 
the  churches,  which  Zurich  had  lacked  altogether 
until  1598.  He  likewise  enriched  the  liturgy  with 
sections  which  are  still  in  use,  as  with  the  prayer 
for  the  dead  and  the  morning  prayer  after  the  ser- 
mon of  1638.  Breittnger  also  successfully  urged 
the  need  of  religious  instruction  of  the  young,  as  is 
shown  by  repeated  ordinances  of  1613,  1628, 1637- 
1638,  and  1643.  He  was,  likewise,  the  ultimate  author 
of  the  custom  by  which  the  Swiss  Confederations 
celebrate  the  days  of  thanksgiving,  repentance, 
and  prayer  at  the  same  time,  and  it  was  he  who 
introduced  the  rule  of  making  a  public  announce- 
ment of  marriage.  In  1634  he  introduced  into 
the  churches  of  Zurich  and  eastern  Switserland 
the  use  of  parochial  registers,  which  were  to  be 
returned  every  three  years  to  the  head  of  the  dergjr 
and  thus  served  as  a  sort  of  census-report.  Four 
years  later  he  instituted  parochial  visitations,  and 
finally  established  the  ecclesiastical  archives  of 
Zurich. 

Breitinger  was  deeply  interested  in  education, 
and  was  also  active  in  the  establishment  of  scholar- 
ships for  poor  students.  He  was  no  less  enthu- 
siastic in  his  patronageof  charity,  and  prepared  sta- 
tistics of  the  poor  as  early  as  1621,  while  in  1623, 
at  the  request  of  the  mayor,  he  published  Gviackien 
der  BetUer  und  Armen  haJber,  Three  years  later. 
on  the  basis  of  further  studies,  Breitinger  made 
noteworthy  proposals  for  houses  of  correction  for 
neglected  youth,  and  was  also  active  in  the  im- 
provement of  prisons  and  hospitals.  Ever  watch- 
ful over  the  morals  of  the  people,  he  opposed  lack 
of  refinement  and  excess,  and  sought  to  obviate 
the  evil  influences  of  the  war  in  the  neighboring 
kingdom,  in  addition  to  restricting  lavish  expen- 
diture in  clothing  (1616,  1628),  and  in  wedc^gs 
and  funerals  (1621,  1628,  1640),  as  well  as  the 
drinking  of  toasts  (1632),  and  occasionally  even 
the  stage  and  the  cultivation  of  art.  A  watchful 
opponent  of  the  hopes  and  propaganda  of  Cathol- 
icism and  Anabaptism,  he  refrained  from  excessiTe 
hostility,  contenting  himself  with  remaining  a 
constant  protector  of  the  Reformed.  His  p^^nal 
preeminence  and  his  interest  in  his  church  fre- 
quently involved  him  in  political  problems,  and 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  he  was  the  leader 
of  a  Swedish  party  in  Zurich.  The  fortification 
of  the  city  was  due,  strictly  speaking,  to  him,  and 
had  he  had  his  way,  Switserland  would  have  been 
involved   in    the   struggle.  (Emil  Egu.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  chief  work  ia  by  J.  C.  MArikofer,  /.  J. 
Breiiinger  und  ZUridi,  Leipaio,  1874.  Consult  also  G.  R- 
Zimmennaan,  Di»  Zitrdter  Kirtha^  pp.  143-184.  Zurioh, 
1877-78. 

BREMEN:  A  free  city  and  state  of  the  German 
Empire.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  Weeer,  about 
forty-«ix  miles  from  its  mouth  and  215  miles  by  rail 
wji.w.   of   Berlin.    The   state   includes   also  the 


d60 


REUGI0U8  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Breithaupt 
Bnmdan     - 


harbor-cities  of  Vegesack  and  Bremerhaven  and 
about  ninety-nine  square  miles  of  contiguous 
territory.  The  total  population  in  1900  was  224,- 
697,  of  whom  163,292  belonged  to  the  city  of 
Bremen.  Ninety-four  per  cent,  are  reported  as 
Evangelical  Protestants,  4.9  per  cent,  as  Roman 
Catholics;  the  number  of  Jews  is  about  1,000.  Of 
the  Protestants  neariy  on(»-third  are  Reformed. 
The  Protestants  have  no  ecclesiastical  organisation, 
the  government  standing  at  the  head  of  the  Church 
and  Tnftnnging  its  affairs  through  a  commission, 
whicJi  is  also  the  school  board.  The  various  con- 
gregations are  mdependent  one  of  the  other,  but, 
individually,  take  a  warm  interest  in  missionary 
and  benevolent  work. 

BxBuooaAPHT:  W.  Ton  BippenfGMcAicAte  der  Stadt  Bremen, 
2  vols.,  Bremen,  1892-08;  Jahrhuck  fUr  bremUckB  Statu- 
iik,  ib.  1005. 

BREMEH,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  former  diocese 
of  Germany,  whose  foundation  belongs  to  the 
period  of  the  missionary  activity  of  Willehad  (q.v.) 
on  the  lower  Weser.  He  was  consecrated  July  15, 
787,  at  Worms,  on  Charlemagne's  initiative,  his 
jurisdiction  being  assigned  to  cover  the  Saxon 
territory  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Aller,  northward  to  the  Elbe  and  westward 
to  the  Hunte,  and  the  Frisian  territory  for  a  certain 
distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Weser.  Willehad 
fixed  his  headquarters  at  Bremen,  though  the 
formal  constitution  of  the  bishopric  took  place 
only  after  the  subjugation  of  the  Saxons  in  804  or 
805,  when  Willehad's  disciple,  Willerich,  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Bremen,  with  the  same  territory. 
The  diocese  was  probably  at  that  time  ecclesias- 
tically subject  to  Cologne.  When,  after  the  death 
of  Bishop  Leuderich  (838-^845),  it  was  given  to 
Ansgar,  it  lost  its  independence  (see  Ansoar), 
and  from  that  time  was  permanently  united  with 
Hamburg.  The  new  combined  see  was  regarded 
as  the  headquarters  for  missionary  work  in  the 
north,  and  new  sees  to  be  erected  were  to  be  sub- 
ject to  its  jurisdiction.  Ansgar's  successor,  Rim- 
bert,  the  **  second  apostle  of  the  north,"  was 
troubled  by  onslaughts  first  of  the  Normans  and 
then  of  the  Wends,  and  by  renewed  claims  on 
the  part  of  Cologne.  The  see  of  Bremen  attained 
its  greatest  prosperity  and  later  had  its  deepest 
troubles  under  Adalbert  (see  Adalbert  op  Ham- 
burg-Bremen). The  next  two  archbishops,  Liemar 
and  Humbert,  were  determined  opponents  of  Greg- 
ory VII.  Under  the  latter  the  archbishopric  of  Lund 
(q.v.)  was  erected,  and  Bremen  had  suffragan  sees 
only  in  name,  the  Wendish  bishoprics  having  been 
destroyed.  Schisms  in  Church  and  State  marked 
the  next  two  centuries,  and  in  spite  of  tho  labors 
of  the  Windesheim  and  Bursfelde  congregations 
(qq.v.),  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  Reformation, 
which  made  rapid  headway,  partly  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  last  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
Christopher  of  Brunswick,  was  also  bishop  of  Verden 
and  resided  there.  By  the  time  he  died  (1558), 
nothing  was  left  of  the  old  religion  outside  of  a  few 
monasteries  and  the  districts  served  by  them.  The 
title  of  archbishop,  with  the  secular  jurisdiction, 
was  borne  for  a  time  by  Protestant  princes.  The 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  secularised  it  and  made 


it  (with  Verden)  a  duchy  and  an  appanage  of  the 
crown  of  Sweden.  In  1712  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  Denmark,  and  three  years  later  was 
sold  to  Hanover,  to  which  it  was  restored  in  1813 
after  the  Napoleonic  disturbances.  Its  former 
territory  was  distributed  ecclesiastically  at  this 
time  among  the  neighboring  dioceses  of  Hildes- 
heim,  OsnabrQck,  and  Mttnster,  the  imperial  city 
of  Bremen  and  the  surrounding  district  being 
administered  by  the  vicar-apostolic  of  the  northern 
missions. 

BREHDAN,  SAIRT,  of  CLONFERT  (called 
"the  Navigator"):  Irish  saint;  b.  at  Tralee  (on 
Tralee  Bay,  west  coast  of  Ireland,  County  Kerry) 
484;  d.  at  the  monastery  of  his  sister,  Brigh,  at 
Annadown  (on  the  east  shore  of  Lough  O^rrib, 
County  Galway),  577.  After  studying  with  the 
most  distinguished  Irish  masters,  he  was  ordained 
presbyter,  and  then  undertook  the  expedition  or 
expeditions  which  form  the  basis  of  "  The  Naviga- 
tion of  St.  Brendan,"  one  of  the  most  popular 
legends  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  552  or  553  (accord- 
ing to  others  in  556  or  557)  he  founded  the  monas- 
tery of  Clonfert  (in  the  barony  of  Longford,  Coimty 
Longford)  and  ruled  it  for  twenty  years,  during 
which  time  it  was  the  most  famous  school  in  West 
Ireland.  He  is  said  also  to  have  founded  a  monas- 
tery in  Brittany.  A  visit  to  Columba  on  Hinba 
Island,  near  lona,  is  recorded,  which  must  have 
been  after  563,  and  he  is  last  heard  of  in  570,  when 
he  acted  as  bard  at  the  inauguration  of  the  first 
Christian  king  of  Cashel. 

According  to  an  Irish  life  of  St.  Brendan,  when 
he  was  ordained  he  pondered  on  the  words  in 
Luke  xviii,  20-30,  and  determined  to  forsake 
country  and  brethren  and  seek  a  mysterious  un- 
known land  which  he  saw  in  visions.  Under 
angelic  guidance  he  set  forth  in  a  coracle  of  wicker 
work  and  hides,  but  after  seven  years  was  directed 
to  return,  as  work  was  waiting  for  him  at  home. 
Some  years  later  the  impulse  to  travel  again  sent 
him  forth,  this  time  in  a  fine  ship,  fully  equipped, 
and  with  a  crew  of  sixty.  "  The  whole  story  of 
the  saint's  adventures  bears  neither  repetition  nor 
criticism:  but  in  the  midst  of  much  crude  fiction 
we  find  occasional  touches  which  have  evidently 
been  derived  from  the  reports  of  genuine  voyagers. 
In  the  course  of  their  seven  years'  adventures  they 
visit  the  Isle  of  Sheep,  a  full  fair  island  full  of 
green  pasture:  another  fair  island,  full  of  flowers, 
herbs,  and  trees,  where  they  thank  God  of  his  good 
grace:  a  little  island  wherein  were  many  vines  full 
of  grapes;  they  meet  with  great  tempests,  in 
which  they  are  greatly  troubled  long  time  and 
sore  foriaboured;  at  other  times  calm  airs  and 
water  so  clear  that  they  might  see  all  the  fishes 
that  were  about  them,  whereof  they  are  full  sore 
aghast:  again  they  behold  an  hill  all  of  fire  and 
a  foul  smoke  and  stink  coming  from  thence:  and 
finally  reach  an  attemperate  land,  ne  too  hot  ne 
too  cold,  the  fairest  country  that  any  man  might 
see,  in  which  the  trees  are  charged  with  ripe  fruit 
and  flowers.  Here  they  walk  forty  days,  but 
find  no  end  thereof,  and  at  length  lade  their  ships 
with  its  fruits  and  return  home"  (E.  J.  Payne^ 


Brent 
Brens 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


260 


History  of  the  New  World,  i,  Oxford,  1892, 106-107). 
The  story  was  known  in  France,  Spain,  and  Holland 
in  the  eleventh  oentiuy,  and  was  very  popular 
with  all  daases.  It  exists  in  translation  into  eight 
languages.  Some  of  its  incidents  are  derived  frcMn 
classical  sources;  others  resemble  the  Arabian 
Nights.  An  expedition  to  the  Hebrides  and  northern 
islands  may  have  furnished  the  basis  of  fact. 

Bibuoorapbt:  Lanigan,  Eccl.  IlUt.,  ii,  2&-38:  SL  Brandan,  a 
metrical  and  a  prose  life,  in  Knglish,  ed.  T.  Wright,  in  Percy 
Society  Publications,  vol.  xiy,  London,  1844;  W.  J.  Reea, 
Livea  of  the  Cambro-BriUah  SainU,  pp.  251-254,  575-579, 
Llandovery,  1853;  W.  Reeves's  Adamnan't  Life  of  St.  Colum^ 
ba,  p.  221.  Dublin.  1857;  C.  Schr6der,  Sand  Brandan,  ein  la- 
teiniMcher  und  drei  deutache  Texte,  Erlangen,  1871;  A.  P. 
Forbra,  KaUndan  of  Seottiah  Sainte,  pp.  284-287,  Edin- 
burgh, 1872;  F.  Michel,  Lee  voyagee  merveiUexuc  de  8.  Bran- 
dan^  Paris,  1878;  J.  Healy,  Jneula  eanctarum  et  doctorum,  pp. 
209  sqq.,  Dublin,  1890;  D.  O'Donoghue.  Brendaniana,  Dub- 
lin, 1893:  T.  Olden,  The  Church  of  Ireland,  pp.  63-64,  Lon- 
don, 1895;  C.  Plummer,  Some  New  Light  on  the  Brandan 
Legend,  in  Zeiteehrift  fOr  eeltieehe  Philologie,  Y  (1904), 
124-141;  J.  O'Hanlon,  Livee  of  the  Irieh  Sainie,  v,  389- 
472,  Dublin,  n.d. 

BRENT,  CHARLES  HENRT:  Protestant  Epis- 
copal missionaiy  bishop  of  the  Philippines;  b.  at 
Newcastle,  Ont.,  Apr.  9,  1862.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College,  Toronto,  in  1884,  and  was  or- 
dered deacon  in  1886  and  priested  in  1887.  He 
was  then  curate  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  1887-88,  and  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  Bos- 
ton, 1888-91,  and  associate  rector  of  St.  Stephen's, 
in  the  same  city,  1897-1901,  being  also  a  member  of 
the  editorial  staff  of  The  Churchman  from  1897  to 
1900.  In  1901  he  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
the  missionary  district  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 
On  May  6, 1908,  he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Washington.  He  has  written  With  God  in  the 
World  (New  York,  1899);  The  Consolations  of  the 
Cross  (1902);  The  Splendor  of  the  Human  Body 
(1904);   and  Liberty  and  Other  Sermons  (1906). 

BRENZ,  JOHANN. 
Early  AdvoeaeyoftheRefor-    Opposed    by    the     Emperor 

mation  (f  1).  (|  3). 

Activity  in  behalf  of  the  New    Activity,  1550-53  (|  4). 
Movement  (i  2).  Controveraiea  (i  5). 

Later  Years  (16). 

Jobann    Brenz,    the    German  theologian    and 
Swabian  Reformer,  was   bom   at  Weil  (8  m.  s. 
of  Stuttgart)   June  24,  1499;  d.  at  Stuttgart  Sept. 
11,  1570.    He  received  his  education  at  Heidel- 
berg, where,  shortly  after  becoming  magister  and 
regent  of  the  Realistenbttrsa  in  1518,  he  delivered 
philological   and  philosophical  lectures.    He  also 
lectured  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  only  to  be  pro- 
hibited on  account  of  his  popularity  and  his  novel 
exegesis,  especially  as  he  had  already  been  won 
over  to  the  side  of  Luther,  not  only  through  his 
ninety-five    theses,    but    still    more    by    personal 
acquaintance  with  him  at  the  disputa- 
z.  Early     tion  at  Heidelberg  in  Apr.,  1518.    In 
Advocacy    1522   Brenx  was   threatened  with   a 
of  the  Rdf-  trial  for  heresy,  but  escaped  through 
ormation.    a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Hall.    In 
the  spring  of  1524  he  received  a  strong 
ally  in  his  activity  as  a  Reformer  in  Johann  Isenmann 
(q.v.),  who  became  pastor  of  the  parish-church  at 
Hall.    The  feast  of  Corpus  Ghristi  was  the  first  to 
be  discarded,  and  in  1524  the  monastery  of  the 


Discalced  Friars  was  transformed  into  a  sdiool. 
In  the  Peasants'  War,  on  the  other  hand,  Brenx 
deprecated  the  abuse  of  evangelical  lib^ty  by 
the  peasants,  pleading  for  mercy  to  the  con- 
quered and  warning  the  magistracy  of  their  duties. 
At  Christmas  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered 
in  both  kinds,  and  at  Easter  of  the  following  year 
the  first  regulations  were  framed  for  the  church 
and  the  school.  Brenz  himself  prepared  in  1528 
a  larger  and  a  smaller  catechism  for  the  young, 
both  characterized  by  simplicity,  warmth,  and  a 
childlike  spirit. 

He  first  attained  wider  recognition,  however, 
when  he  published  his  Synqramma  Suevicum  on 
Oct.  21, 1525,  attacking  (Eoolampadius,  and  finding 
the  explanation  of  the  creative  power  of  the  word 
of  Christ  in  the  theory  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  are  actually  present  in  the  sacrament. 
Henceforth  Brenz  took  part  in  all  the  important 
conferences  on  the  religious  situation.  In  Oct., 
1529,  he  attended  the  Colloquy  of  Marburg,  and  in 
the  following  year,  at  the  request  of  the  Margrave 
George  of  Brandenburg,  he  was  present  at  the 
diet  in  Augsburg,  where  he  seconded  Melanchthon 
in  his  efforts  to  reach  an  agreement  with  the  adher- 
ents of  the  ancient  faith,  but  refused 

2.  Activity  all  assodation  with  the  followers  of 
in  behalf   Zwingli.     In  1532  he  collaborated  in 

of  the  New  the    church-regulations    of    Branden- 
Movement  burg  and  Nuremberg,  and  furthered 

the  Reformation  in  the  margravate 
of  Brandenburg-Ansbach,  DinkelsbQhl,  and  Heil- 
bronn,  while  three  years  later  Duke  Ulrich  of  Wurt- 
temberg  called  him  as  an  adviser  in  the  framing 
of  regiidations  for  the  church,  visitations,  and 
marriage.  In  Feb.,  1537,  he  was  at  Schmalkald, 
and  two  months  later  undertook  the  difficult  but 
successful  task  of  the  reformation  of  the  Univer^ty 
of  Tubingen.  He  likewise  attended  the  conference 
on  the  use  of  images  held  at  Urach,  Sept.,  1537, 
where  he  urged  their  abolition.  Brenz  returned 
to  Hall  in  April  of  the  following  year,  in  June, 
1540,  attended  the  conference  at  Hagenau,  wbs 
at  Worms  in  the  latter  part  of  the  same  year,  and 
in  Jan.,  1546,  was  at  Regensburg,  where  he  was 
obliged  to  deal  with  Ck)chlsus,  although,  as  he  had 
foreseen,  he  was  unsuccessful.  He  devoted  himself 
with  great  zeal  to  his  pastoral  duties,  and  side  by 
side  with  his  sermons  was  evolved  a  valuable  series 
of  expositions  of  Biblical  writings. 

After  the  last  remnants  of  the  ancient  regulations 
of  the  church  of  Hall  had  been  aboUshed,  his  new 
rules  appeared  in  1543.  Calls  to  Leipsic  in  1542, 
to  Tubingen  in  1543,  and  to  Strasburg  in  154$ 
were  declined  in  favor  of  his  position  at  Hall. 
Brenz  had  long  opposed  the  adherence  of  Hall 
and  the  margrave  to  the  Schmalkald  League,  since 
he  regarded  resistance  to  the  temporal  authorities 

as  inadmissible.    Gradually,  however, 

3.  Opposed  his  views  changed,  through  the  hostile 
by  the      attitude    of    the    emperor.     In  1538 

Emperor.    Hall  entered  the  League,  and  after  its 

defeat  Charles  V  came  to  the  city  (Dec 

16,    1546),    and   obtained   possession   of  papers, 

letters,  and  sermons  of  Brenz,  who,  despite  the 

bitter  cold,  was  obliged  to  flee,  although  he  re- 


261 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brent 
Brens 


turned  Jan.  4,  1547.  The  new  Interim  of  the  em- 
peror (see  Interim),  which  Brenz  called  interitua 
C*  ruin  ")»  recalled  him  to  the  scene  of  action,  and 
he  earnestly  opposed  its  adoption.  The  imperial 
chancellor,  Granvelia,  demanded  his  surrender,  and 
Brenz,  warned  by  a  note  reading:  "  Flee,  Brenz, 
quickly,  more  qiuckly,  most  quickly!"  escaped 
on  the  evening  of  his  forty-ninth  birthday,  June 
24,  1548.  He  hastened  to  Duke  Ulrich,  who  con- 
cealed him  in  the  castle  of  Hohenwittlingen  near 
Urach,  where,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Joannes 
Witlingius,  he  prepared  an  exposition  of  Ps.  xciii 
and  cxxx.  As  the  emperor  was  everywhere  search- 
ing for  him,  Ulrich  sent  him  by  way  of  Strasburg 
to  Baj9el,  where  he  was  kindly  received  and  found 
time  to  write  an  exposition  of  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah.  Duke  Christopher  called  him  to  M5m- 
pelgard,  where,  in  Jan.,  1549,  Brenz  was  notified 
of  the  death  of  his  wife.  The  condition  of  his 
children  induced  him  to  go  to  Swabia,  but  owing 
to  the  pursuit  of  the  emperor,  he  was  often  in  great 
danger,  and  the  duke  sheltered  him  in  the  castle 
of  Homberg  near  Gutach.  There  he  spent  eighteen 
months  imder  the  name  of  Huldrich  Engster  (En- 
caustius),  always  active  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church, 
both  by  his  advice  to  the  duke  and  his  theological 
labors.  He  declined  calls  to  Magdeburg,  KOnigs- 
berg,  and  England.  In  Aug.,  1549,  he  ventured 
to  go  to  Urach,  where  his  friend  Isenmann  was  now 
minister,  in  order  to  take  counsel  with  the  duke, 
his  advisers,  and  Matthsus  Alber  (q.v.)  regarding 
the  restoration  of  the  evangelical  divine  service. 
In  the  autumn  of  1550  he  married  for  his  second 
wife  Catharine,  the  oldest  daughter  of  Isenmann. 

After  Ulrich's  death  Brenz  was  asked  to  prepare 
the  con/e88to  Wirtembergica  for  the  Coimcil  of  Trent, 
and  with  three  other  Wittenberg  theologians  and 
Johann  Marbach  of  Strasburg,  he  went  to  Trent, 
Mar.,  1552,  to  defend  his  creed  (see 
4.  Activity,  Beurlin,  Jakob).  Great  was  the 
1 550^53*  surprise  of  the  fathers  of  the  council, 
but  they  refused  to  be  instructed 
by  those  who  were  to  obey  them.  The  Interim 
was  abolished.  Brenz  who  had  thus  far  lived  at 
Stuttgart,  Tubingen,  Ehningen,  and  Sindelfingen 
as  counselor  of  the  duke,  was  made  provost  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Stuttgart,  Sept.  24,  1554,  and  ap- 
pointed ducal  coimselor  for  life.  He  was  now  the 
right  hand  of  the  duke  in  the  reorganization  of 
ecclesiastical  and  educational  affairs  in  WUrttem- 
berg.  The  great  church  order  of  1553-59,  con- 
taining also  the  canfessio  Wirtembergica f  in  spite  of 
its  dogmatism,  is  distinguished  by  clearness,  mild- 
ness, and  consideration.  In  like  manner,  liis 
CaUschiemiu  pia  et  utiU  explicaiione  illustrattu 
(Frankfort,  1551)  became  a  rich  source  of  instruction 
for  many  generations  and  countries.  The  propo- 
sition made  by  Kaspar  Leyser  and  Jakob  Andre&  in 
1554  to  introduce  a  form  of  discipline  after  a  Cal- 
vinistic  model  was  opposed  by  Brenz,  since  he  held 
that  the  minister  should  have  charge  of  the  preach- 
ing, the  exhortation  to  repentance,  and  dissuasion 
from  the  Lord's  Supper,  whereas  excommunication 
belonged  to  the  whole  church.  At  the  instance  of 
the  duke,  Brenz  moved  in  1553  to  Neubiu-g,  to 
arrange  the  church  affairs  of  the  Palatinate. 


The  Osiandric  controversy  about  the  doctrine  of 
justification  in  1551  and  the  following  years,  which 
caused  a  scandalous  schism  in  Prussia,  was  a  cause 

of   much  annoyance  and   defamation 

5.  Contro-  to  Brenz,  who  saw  in  this  controversy 

versies.     nothing  but  a  war  of  words.  In  1554- 

1555  the  question  of  the  Religious 
Peace  of  Augsburg  occupied  his  mind;  in  1556  the 
conference  with  Johannes  a  Lasco,  in  1557  the 
Frankenthal  conference  with  the  Anabaptists 
and  the  Worms  Colloquy;  in  1558  the  edict  against 
Schwenckfeld  and  the  Anabaptists,  and  the  Frankfort 
Recess;  in  1559  the  plan  for  a  synod  of  those  who 
were  related  to  the  Augsburg  Confession  and  the 
Stuttgart  Synod,  to  protect  Brenz's  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  against  Calvinistio  tendencies;  in 
1563  and  1569  the  struggle  against  Calvinism  in  the 
Palatinate  (Maulbronn  Colloquy)  and  the  crypto- 
Calvinistic  controversies.  The  attack  of  the 
Dominican  Peter  a  Soto  upon  the  Wilrttemberg 
Confession  in  his  Asaertio  fidei  (Cologne,  1562)  led 
Brenjs  to  reply  with  his  Apologia  confesnonia 
(Frankfort,  1555).  In  1558  he  was  engaged  in  a 
controversy  with  Bishop  Hosius  of  Ermland. 
The  development  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Palati- 
nate led  the  aged  man  to  a  vehement  renewal  of 
his  negotiation  with  Bullinger,  with  whom  he  had 
been  forced  into  close  relation  through  the  Interim. 
The  question  concerned  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  and  also  involved  a  peculiar  development 
of  Christology,  which  was  opposed  by  the  Lutheran 
theologians  outside  of  Wilrttemberg,  since  Brenz 
carried  to  its  logical  conclusion  the  concept  of 
"  personal  imion,"  thus  favoring  an  absolute 
omnipresence  (ubiquity)  of  the  bod/  of  Christ, 
which  did  not  begin  with  the  ascension  but  with 
the  incarnation. 

Brenz  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  Waldensians 
and  the  French  Protestants.  But  all  efforts  in  be- 
half of  the  latter,  the  journey  of  the  Wilrttemberg 

theologians  to  Paris  to  advise  King 

6.  Later     Antony  of  Navarre  in  1561  (see  Beur- 

Years.      un,  Jakob),  the  meeting  of  the  duke 

and  Brenz  with  Cardinal  Guise  of  Lor- 
raine at  Zabem,  the  correspondence  and  the  sending 
of  writings,  all  ended  in  bitter  disappointment. 
The  Protestants  of  Bavaria,  who  had  to  suffer  under 
Albert,  also  had  his  full  sympathy.  To  the  citizens 
of  Strasburg  Brenz  expressed  his  doubts  as  to  the 
advisability  of  following  the  procession  with  the 
monstrance  and  advised  them  not  to  attend  mass. 
He  was  also  deeply  interested  in  the  Protestants 
in  Austria,  for  whom  the  first  Slavic  books  were 
then  printed  at  Urach.  His  last  Reformatory 
activity  was  the  correspondence  with  Duke  Will- 
iam of  Jtilich  and  Julius  of  Brunswick-Wolf en- 
bilttel  (1568-69).  In  addition  to  this  he  continued 
his  exposition  of  the  Psalms  and  other  Biblical 
books,  which  he  had  commenced  at  Stuttgart. 
In  1569  he  was  paralyzed,  and  his  strength  was 
broken.  He  was  buried  beneath  the  pulpit  of 
the  cathedral;  but  the  Jesuits  demolished  his  grave. 

G.  BOSSERT. 

Bibuoorapbt:  An  index  of  the  works,  printed  and  in  MS., 
of  Brens,  and  of  works  about  him  is  furnished  in  W. 
Kdhler.  Bibliographia  Bmtiana,  Berlin.  1904.     There  is 


Bxte 
Br«Tiary 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


no  complete  ed.  of  Brens'a  prodttctiona,  thouch  eelected 
works,  in  8  vola.,  were  publiabed,  TObugen,  1676HK>. 
The  letters  are  given  in  T.  PresseU  Antedola  BrenHana, 
ib.  1868,  and  in  Btiirdg*  gur  baymitehtn  JCircAen^ssdkidUt. 
ed.  T.  Kolde,  i,  278,  ii.  34.  The  earliest  sketch  of  his 
life  is  by  J.  Heerbrand,  Oraiio  fum^bn§,  TQbingen.  1670. 
For  later  accounts  consult:  J.  Hartmann  and  C.  Jiger, 
Johann  Brmu,  2  vols.,  Hamburg.  1840-42  (stiU  the  best 
account);  J.  Hartmann,  Johann  BrenM,  Elberfeld.  1862; 
G.  Boesert,  Dm  InUrim  in  WUrUemberg,  Halle.  1806; 
E.  Schneider.  WlirUembergi9cke  Oe§ehichte,  Stuttgart.  1896. 
On  the  theology  of  Brens  consult:  H.  Schmid.  Der 
Kampf  dtr  hUKerUthen  Kinhe  um  Lulker'w  Ldm  vam 
Abmdmahl  im  RefcrmaHoTUgnkUier,  Leipeic,  1868;  A. 
Hegler,  J.  Brent  und  die  Reformation  im  Hertogtum  Wiriem- 
berg,  Freiburg.  1800;  C.  W.  KQgelgen,  Die  BeehtferUffung^ 
Ukn  de§  J.  Brmu,  Leipsic,  1899;  G.  Traub,  Beitn$  siir 
Getdiichte  dM  Rmktferti4funoab«griff9,  in  TSK,  bodii, 
1900. 

BRte,  br6,  GUY  DE  (Guido  da  Bray):  Reformer 
in  the  Netherlands;  b.  at  Mons  1522;  executed  at 
Valenciennes  May  31,  1567.  He  was  brought  up 
strictly  by  his  Roman  Catholic  mother,  but  before 
his  twenty-fifth  year  had  become  a  thorough 
Protestant.  When  persecution  broke  out  in  1548, 
he  fled  to  England,  where  he  spent  four  years. 
Then  he  came  back  and  settled  at  Ryssel  (Lidge), 
where  he  won  great  popularity  as  a  preacher. 
In  1556  his  congregation  was  dispersed  by  a  fresh 
persecution,  and  he  was  obliged  to  flee,  going 
apparently  for  a  while  to  Ghent,  then  to  Frankfort, 
and  probably  to  Switzerland.  Early  in  1559  he 
returned  to  the  southern  Netheriands,  with  Toumai 
for  his  headquarters,  but  serving  also  Ryssel  and 
Valenciennes,  and  visiting  Antwerp  and  Mons  in 
the  cause  of  his  religion,  often  in  disguise  for  safety's 
sake.  The  public  singing  of  Marot's  psalms 
in  Sept.,  1561,  gave  rise  to  a  judicial  investigation, 
which  exposed  Brte  to  fresh  danger.  Undaunted, 
he  undertook  to  secure  justice  for  his  comrades  by 
laying  before  the  authorities  his  confession  of  faith 
(Imown  as  the  Belgic  Confession,  q.v.)  in  thirty- 
seven  articles,  on  the  model  of  that  adopted  by  the 
French  Reformed  churches  in  1550.  This  modest, 
sober,  positive  statement,  which  he  hoped  would 
show  the  authorities  that  his  friends  were  not 
revolutionary  Anabaptists,  failed  to  stop  the  perse- 
cution; but  the  frequent  editions  of  it  show  that 
it  met  with  popular  approval;  it  won  thousands 
to  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  was  soon 
recognised  as  a  standard  formula.  Once  known, 
however,  as  its  author,  the  Reformer  was  obliged 
to  escape  from  Toumai  to  Amiens,  and  thence 
possibly  to  Antwerp.  In  1564  he  was  in  Brussels 
for  a  conference  with  William  of  Orange,  and  took 
part  in  the  negotiations  at  Metz  for  a  union  of  the 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists.  Then  he  found  a  refuge 
at  S^an  with  Henri  Robert  de  la  Marck,  Sieur  de 
Bouillon,  but  was  called  back  to  a  post  of  danger 
in  the  summer  of  1566  by  the  consistoiy  of  Ant- 
werp. In  August  he  settled  at  Valenciennes, 
where  by  this  time  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
inhabitants  were  in  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 
tion. At  first  he  preached  in  the  open  air,  but  after 
the  iconoclastic  outbreak  of  Aug.  24  took  possession 
of  St.  John's  church.  The  governor's  attempts 
to  suppress  the  movement  led  to  the  siege  of  the 
dty  in  December,  and  its  surrender  in  the  following 
Murch.  Once  more  Brte  was  forced  to  flee,  but 
he  and  his  fellow  preachers  were  captured  a  few 


hours  later  at  Saint-Amand,  and  sent  as  prisoDers 

to  Toumai  and  then  back  to  Valenciennes.    The 

letters  which  he  wrote  to  comfort  his  wife  and  his 

aged  mother  give  an  insight  into  his  faith  and  the 

nobility  of  his  character.    He  was  sentenced  to  be 

hanged  in  front  of  the  town  hall,  and  thus  ended 

a  life  full  of  toil  and  peril,  which  is  one  of  the  glories 

of  the  Reformation  in  the  southern  Netheriands. 

(L.  A.  VAN  Lakgeraad.) 

Bibuoobapht:   L.  A.  van  Langeraad.  Ouido  de  Bray;  tjfu 

leven  en  Uferken,    Bydrage  tot  de  geediiedenie  van  ket  twid- 

Nederlandeehe  FroteetanHeme,  Ziesikaee,  1884;  W.  C.  tab 

Hanen.   Guy  de  Bray;    opetdler  van  de  Belydeniaat  dee 

geloofe  der  tfereformeerde  Kercken  in  Nederiand,  Antfter^ 

dam.  1886. 

BRESLAU,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  diocese  which 
is  shown  to  be  already  in  existence  at  the  date  of 
the  foundation  of  the  archbishopric  of  Gnesen 
(1000).  Probably  it  was  established  not  long 
before  that  date,  presumably  not  by  Otto  III,  but 
by  Duke  Boleslav  Chrobry  of  Poland.  The  original 
extent  of  the  diocese  (ian  not  be  determined,  but 
in  later  times  it  was  nearly  coextensive  with  the 
present  province  of  Silesia,  including  also  the  Meis- 
sen district  on  the  western  side  of  the  Queis. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

A  line  of  unusually  excellent  bishops  adminis- 
tered the  see  with  success  until  the  sixteenth  ceu- 
tury;  but  Jacob  von  Salsa  (1520-39)  was  too  weak 
to  stand  against  the  rising  tide  of  the  Reformationp 
and  his  successor,  Balthasar  von  Promnitz,  was  even 
inclined  to  Lutheran  doctrines.  From  1608  to 
1664  the  see  was  occupied  by  three  archdukes  of 
Austria  and  a  prince  of  Poland,  who  had  little  care 
for  religion,  and  when  Silesia  came  under  Fredei^ 
ick  II  of  Prussia  Protestantism  was  still  more  en- 
couraged. In  1821  the  diocese,  which  is  now  partly 
in  Germany  and  partly  in  Austria  and  nimibers 
about  two  million  souls,  was  made  an  exempt 
bishopric. 

BRETHRElf,  BOHEIOAN;  BRETHREN  OF 
THE  COMMON  LIFE,  and  similar  titles.  See 
Bohemian  Brethren;  Common  Life,  Brethrek 
OF  the,  etc. 

BRETSCHNEIDER,bret'shnai''der,KARL  GOTT- 
LIEB: German  theologian;  b.  at  Gersdori  (40 
m.  e.  of  Dresden),  Saxony,  Feb.  11,  1776;  d.  at 
Gotha  Jan.  22,  1848;  studied  at  Leipsic;  appointed 
minister  at  Schneeberg,  1807,  superintendent  at  An- 
naberg,  1808,  and  superintendent-general  at  Gotha, 
1816.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  and  took  an  active 
part  in  controversies.  Among  his  principal  works 
may  be  mentioned:  Lexicon  manuale  Grceco-Lati- 
num  in  libros  Novi  Testamenti  (Leipsic,  1824;  3d 
ed.,  1840);  Systenuxtische  Entxvickelung  aUer  in  der 
Dogmatik  vorkammenden  Begriffe  (1805;  4th  ed., 
1841);  Handbuch  der  Dogmatik  (1814;  4th  ed.. 
1838).  He  founded  the  series  of  reprints  called  the 
Corpus  reformatorum  (Halle,  1834  sqq.),  in  which 
the  works  of  Melanchthon  and  Calvin  have  ap- 
peared, to  which  Zwingli  will  be  added.  His 
standpoint  was  that  of  the  so-called  rational 
supematuralism — ^a  rather  untenable  ground  be- 
tween rationalism  and  supematuralism. 
Bibliooraprt:  K.  G.  Bretschneider,  Aue   meinem  Lfbtn: 

Selbetbiographie,  ed.  H.  Bretachneider  (hia  boo),  Gothft. 

1862. 


263 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Breviary 


BREVIARY:  The  name  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
aervioe-book  containing  what  is  called  the  **  divine 
office "  or  the  services  for  the  canonical  hours, 
as  distinguished  from  the  missal,  which  contains 
the  altar-service,  and  the  ritual,  which  has  the 
rites  for  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  etc. 
It  is  a  practically  arranged,  well-divided  collection 
of  prayers  with  numerous  brief  extracts  from 
Scripture,  and  the  Fathers  and  ancient  hymns. 
From  the  subdeacon  upward  every  Roman  cleric 
is  bound  to  recite  the  whole  office  daily. 

The  breviary  is  based  on  the  idea  of  realizing, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  at  least  symbolically, 
the  apostolic  oonunand  to  "pray  without  ceas- 
ing"; the  whole  life  of  the  Christian  is  to  appear 
as  a  continuous  prayer,  not  only  in  heart  and  works, 
but  also  in  words;  at  all  hours  and  places  of  the 
earth  the  prayer  of  the  Church  is  to  ascend  to  God. 
The  custom  of  the  synagogue  (Dan.  vi,  10,  13; 
Ps.  iv,  18)  in  regard  to  morning  and  evening  hours 
(I  Chron.  xxiv,  30)  as  well  as  other 
The        times  of  prayer   (Ps.   cxix,   62,   64) 

Canonical  was  taken  aa  a  standard.  At  first 
Hours,  there  were  the  three  hours,  the  third, 
sixth,  and  ninth,  or  9  a.m.,  noon,  and 
3  P.M.  (cf.  Acts  ii,  15,  46;  iii,  1;  x,  9).  To  these 
were  added  midnight,  the  hour  when  Paul  and 
Silas  prayed  in  the  prison  (Acts  xvi,  25),  and  the 
beginning  of  the  day  and  the  night.  This  arrange- 
ment of  prayer  is  mentioned  in  Tertullian,  Cyprian, 
Justin  Martyr,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
ApoetoUc  Constitutions.  In  the  fourth  centuiy, 
Athanasius  (De  virginitate,  xii-xx)  knows  of  seven 
hours;  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  with  approval 
of  the  nightly  vigils  and  the  antiphonal  singing. 
All  these  hours  were  adopted  in  the  monasteries 
especially,  as  Jerome  {Epist.,  vii,  cviii,  cxxx),  Basil, 
and  Augustine  attest.  From  the  monasteries 
these  hours  of  prayer  (called  canonical  ajs  a  part 
of  canonical  life)  spread  to  the  cathedral  and 
collegiate  chapters.  Benedict  added  the  seventh 
(compline,  compleiorium),  and  since  the  sixth 
century  the  order  and  nimiber  of  hours  have  not 
varied.  The  day-hours  are  prime  (normally  at 
6  A.M.),  terce  (9  a.m.),  sext  (noon),  none  (3  p.m.), 
and  vespers  (6  p.m.);  nowadays  compline  and  lauds 
are  usually  reckoned  with  them.  (See  the  articles 
under  these  titles.) 

Matins,  answering  to  the  three  Roman  vigils, 
is  divided  into  three  noctiunes,  and  was  originally 
followed  by  the  present  lauds. 

The  bulk  of  the  prayers  for  all  these  hours  was 
taken  from  the  Psalms,  to  which  antiphons  were 
added,  giving  the  psalms  a  special  meaning  appro- 
priate to  the  occasion.  Afterward  collects  were 
added,  which  were  intended  to  pre- 

Sources     vent  distraction  and  excite  devotion, 

and  Reri-  and  are  accordingly  brief.  The  pos- 
rions  of  the  ture  varied  between  standing,  sitting, 

Breviary,  and  kneeling.  The  whole  structure 
was  enriched  and  completed  by  the 
addition  of  other  prayers,  responsories,  versicles, 
etc.  The  musical  element  was  provided  for  by 
official  books  known  as  antiphonarics,  especially 
that  composed  xmder  Gregory  I,  and  the  so-called 
Mierologtut     (twelfth     century).    Cassian     attests 


that  each  three  psalms  at  matins  were  followed 
by  three  lessons,  taken  from  Scriptiu^,  on  Sunday 
only  from  the  New  Testament;  later  on  the  lives 
of  the  saints  and  exegetical  passages  from  the 
most  prominent  teachers  of  the  Church  were  in- 
serted. The  introduction  of  metrical  hymns  was 
long  opposed  (Council  of  Braga,  553),  especially 
in  Rome.  So  many  arbitrary  additions  made  the 
offices  too  long,  and  Gregory  VII  reduced  them; 
other  revisions  were  made  under  Gregory  IX, 
Clement  VII.  who  had  the  assistance  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan general.  Cardinal  Quignonez  (1536),  Clement 
VIII  (1602),  and  Urban  VIII  (1631).  The  late 
Vatican  Coimcil  also  introduced  some  changes. 

At  present  the  Roman  breviary,  which  has  at 

last  succeeded  in  supplanting  the  many  local  or 

diocesan  uses,  consists  of  four  parts,  corresponding 

to  the  four  seasons  of  the  year.    Each 

Contents  part  again  has  four  divisions:  (1)  The 
of  the  psalter,  or  ordinary  week-day  service 
Roman     for  each  day  and  hour;  (2)  the ''  proper 

Breviary,  of  the  season,"  the  service  for  the  fes- 
tivals of  Christ  and  the  Sundays  of 
the  various  seasons;  (3)  the  "proper  of  saints,"  the 
special  service  for  the  festivals  of  particular  saints; 
and  (4)  the  "  common  of  saints,"  providing,  under 
separate  classes,  services  for  those  saints  who  have 
no  special  one.  Appendices  contain  the  office  for 
the  dead,  the  gradual  and  penitential  psalms, 
prayers  for  the  dying  and  for  travelers,  and  grace 
before  and  after  meals. 

The  analogous  service-book  in  the  Greek  Chiu-ch 
is  called  Horologium.  In  the  Evangelical  Church 
a  similar  service  was  often  retained  in  cathedral 
and  collegiate  chapters,  for  which  Luther's  sug- 
gestions of  1523  and  1526  furnished  a  basis.  The 
matins  and  vespers  were  especially  retained. 
Attempts  have  lately  been  made,  with  varying 
success,  to  restore  the  other  hours;  but  the  prob- 
lem can  not  be  considered  as  solved.  The  Anglican 
Church,  in  its  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  has  made 
skilful  use  of  important  portions  from  the  ancient 
order.  M.  Herold. 

The  calendar  of  the  Roman  breviary  is  a  com- 
plicated affair,  especially  since  the  multiplication 
of  festivals  in  the  last  two  or  three  centuries.  These 
are  classed  as  double  or  simple.  The  simple  form 
the  lowest  class,  and  have  no  second  vespers. 
The  double  (so  called  from  the  antiphons  being 
doubled,  or  recited  entire  both  before  and  after 
the  psalms  and  canticles  at  lauds  and  vespers) 
are  classed  in  order  of  importance  as  doubles  of 
the  first  class  (with  or  without  an  octave),  second 
class,  greater,  and  lesser.  Where  two  feasts  occur, 
i.e.,  fall  on  the  same  day,  or  concur,  i.e.,  the  first 
vespers  of  one  conffict  with  the  second  vespers  of 
the  other,  the  difficulty  is  met,  according  to  detailed 
rules  based  on  the  rank  of  the  feasts,  either  by 
"  transferring "  the  less  important  to  the  first 
unoccupied  day,  or  by  "  commemorating "  it 
with  the  recitation  of  its  chief  antiphon,  versicle 
and  response,  and  collect,  after  the  collect  for  the 
day  at  lauds  and  vespers. 

Bibuoorapht:  A  complete  Eng.  transl.  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  was  made  by  John  Marqueee  of  Bute.  2  vob.. 
London,  1879.     Consult  also:  C.  H.  Collette.    The  Roman 


Brewer 

Bridget 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


264 


Broviory,  London,  1880;  G.  Sohober,  EzplanaHo  criUca 
.  .  breviarii  R<man%t  RegenBhurg,  1891;  S.  B&umer, 
Oeadiiehte  de%  Brevierw,  Freiburg,  1895,  Fr.  transl.,  Paris, 
1906;  P.  Batiffol.  HiMtovn  du  brMaire  Romain,  Paris,  1893, 
Eng.  transl.,  London,  1898;  Bingham,  Oriointt,  book  ziii, 
chap.  9;  J.  Baudot,  Le  BrMaire  romain,  aea  originM,  ton 
hiatoire,  Paris,  1906. 

On  the  Scripture  reading  consult  E.  Ranke,  Dos  ktreh- 
liehe  Perikopenayatem  aua  den  (Uteaien  Urkunden  dar  r&ml- 
aehen  Liiurgie,  Berlin,  1847. 

On  the  hymns  consult:  F.  Probst,  Bravier  und  Breviar- 
gabei,  TQbingen.  1868;  J.  Kayser,  Beiir&ge  aw  OaacMchte 
und  ErklArung  dar  dUen  Kirdienhvmnan,  2  vols.,  Pader- 
bom,  1881-86;  Julian,  Hymnology,  pp.  170-181.  A  rich 
bibliography  of  Breviaries  is  to  be  found  in  the  Briiiah 
Muaeum  CakUoffue,  s.v.  Liturgies. 

BREWER,  LEIGH  RICHMOUD:  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  Montana;  b.  at  Berkshire,  Vt., 
Jan.  20,  1839.  He  was  educated  at  Hobart  College 
(B.A.,  1863)  and  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
(1866),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1866  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  suc- 
cessively rector  of  Grace  Church,  Carthage,  N.  Y. 
(1866-72),  and  Trinity  Church,  Watertown,  N.  Y. 
(1872-80),  and  in  1880  was  consecrated  missionary 
bishop  of  Montana. 

BREWSTER,  CHAUNCEY  BUNCE:  Protestant 
Episcopal  bishop  of  Connecticut;  b.  at  Wind- 
ham, Conn.,  Sept.  5,  1848.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale  CJollege  (B.A.,  1868)  and  Berkeley  Divinity 
School,  Middletown,  Conn.  (1872).  He  was  a  tu- 
tor at  Yale  in  1870-71,  was  ordered  deacon  in 
1872,  and  was  advanced  to  the  priesthood  in  the 
following  year.  He  was  curate  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Meriden,  Conn.,  in  1872,  and  was  then  rector  in 
succession  of  Christ  Church,  Rye,  N.  Y.  (1873-81), 
Christ  Church,  Detroit,  Mich.  (1881-^),  Grace 
Church,  Baltimore  (1885-88),  and  Grace  Church, 
Brooklyn  Heights  (1888-97).  In  1897  he  was 
consecrated  bishop-coadjutor  of  Connecticut,  and 
became  bishop  in  1899.  His  theological  position 
is  that  of  a  High-chiu'chman  with  liberal  sympa- 
thies. He  has  written  The  Key  of  Life  (New  York, 
1894);  Aspects  of  Revelation  (1901;  the  Baldwin 
lectures  for  1900);  and  The  Catholic  Ideal  of  the 
Church  (1904). 

BREWSTER,  WILLIAM:  Leader  of  the  "PU- 
grim  Fathers";  b.  of  good  family  probably  at 
Scrooby  (37  m.  s.  of  York),  Nottinghamshire, 
England,  1560;  d.  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  Apr.  10, 
1644.  He  matriculated  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge, 
but  apparently  did  not  graduate.  From  1584  till 
1587  he  was  in  the  service  of  William  Davison, 
ambassador  to  the  Low  Countries  and  afterward 
secretary  of  state.  About  1587  he  retired  to  Scrooby, 
where  he  lived  in  the  manor-house  and  was 
keeper  of  the  post,  a  position  of  considerable  im- 
portance at  that  time.  He  was  a  prominent  mem- 
ber of  a  separatist  congregation  of  which  Richard 
Clifton  (q.v.)  wajs  pastor,  holding  its  meetings 
regularly  at  Brewster's  house.  Because  of  perse- 
cution in  England  they  made  an  imsuccessful 
attempt  to  flee  to  Holland  in  1607,  and  in  1608 
escaped  to  Amsterdam  with  John  Robinson  (q.v.) 
aa  "  teacher  "  and  Brewster  as  "  elder."  In  1609 
they  settled  at  Leyden,  where  Brewster,  having 
exhausted  his  means,  gave  lessons  in  EInglish  and 
also  set  up  a  printing-press.    He  favored  the  emi- 


gration to  America,  was  influential  in  securing  a 
grant  of  land  in  1619,  and  sailed  with  the  first 
company  in  the  Mayflower,  Sept.,  1620.  He 
continued  as  elder  of  the  congregation  at  Plymouth, 
and  preached  regularly  imtil  the  first  ordained 
minister,  Ralph  Smith,  came  in  1629,  but  as  he 
was  not  ordained,  he  never  administered  the  sacra- 
ments. See  CONORIEOATIONALIBTB,  I,  1,  §{5-7; 
4,§1. 

Bibuoorapht:  Memoir^  written  by  his  colleague,  WiUnm 
Bradford,  the  governor  and  tuBtorian  of  the  Plymouth 
colony  (b.  1500;  d.  1657).  in  Young's  Chronidaa  of  Ac 
PUgrima,  Boston,  ISAl.andm  the  Collectiona  of  the  Maaaa- 
ehuaetta  Hiatorical  Soeiaty,  series  5,  vol.  iii;  A.  Steele, 
Chief  of  the  Pilgrima.  Life  and  Time  of  W,  Brewater,  Phil- 
adelphia, 1857;  J.  Savage,  Genaalooical  Dictionary  of  the 
Firat  Settlara  of  New  England,  4  vols.,  Boston,  186Q-«2; 
W.  Walker,  Hiatory  of  Conoregational  ChurtAea^  pp.  56, 
59,  61-74.  77,  227,  New  York,  1894;  DNB,  vi,  304-305. 

BREYFOGEL,  brd'f o-gel,  SYLVAITOS  CHARLES: 
Bishop  of  the  Evangelical  Association;  b.  at  Read- 
ing, Pa.,  July  20,  1851.  He  was  ordained  to 
the  ministry  of  the  Evangelical  Association  in 
1873,  was  elected  presiding  elder  of  the  same 
organization  in  1886,  and  has  been  bishop  since 
1891.  In  this  capacity  he  has  made  tours  of 
inspection  throughout  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, and  Europe,  as  well  as  China  and  Japan. 
He  is  chancellor  of  the  Correspondence  College 
of  the  Evangelical  Association  at  Reading,  Pa., 
has  lectured  frequently  before  the  Ocean  Grove 
School  of  Theology,  the  Winona  Assembly,  and  sim- 
ilar summer  assemblies,  and  has  written  Landmarks 
of  the  Evangelical  Association  (Cleveland,  1887). 

BRIC0NNET,brt"sen"n6',GUILLAUME:  French 
prelate;  b.  at  Paris  1470;  d.  at  Esmans  (near 
Montereau,  20  m.  e.s.e.  of  Melim)  Jan.  24,  1534. 
He  was  a  descendant  of  a  noble  family  of  Touraine, 
and,  after  completing  his  theological  studies  at  the 
college  of  Navarre,  wajs  appointed  bishop  of  Loddve 
and  was  also  made  abbot  of  St.  Germain-des-Prte 
in  1507.  Four  years  later  he  attended  the  Council 
of  Pisa,  and  during  his  absence  a  spirit  of  licen- 
tiousness spread  among  his  monks,  whom  he  was 
imable  to  control.  Francis  I  then  appointed  him 
bishop  of  Meaux  and  sent  him  on  a  mission  to 
Rome,  where  he  remained  two  years.  On  his 
return,  he  sought  to  improve  the  morals  and  cus- 
toms of  his  diocese,  and  accordingly  convoked 
several  synods,  and  also  extended  invitations  to 
a  niunber  of  evangelical  preachers,  such  as  Lef^vre, 
Roussel,  and  Farel,  who  preached  in  thirty-two 
different  places  in  his  diocese,  and  introduced 
French  translations  of  the  Gospels  and  Elpistles. 
When  Farel  attacked  Rome,  however,  Brigonnet 
deprived  him  of  his  office  and  convoked  two  synods, 
the  first  condenming  the  teachings  of  Luther  and 
forbidding  the  purchase  or  the  reading  of  his  works, 
and  the  second  prohibiting  all  heterodox  inter- 
pretations of  the  Gospel.  Brigonnet  found  himself 
between  two  factions;  one  turning  against  Rome 
by  denying  the  authority  of  the  pope,  the  worship 
of  the  Virgin  and  of  the  saints;  and  the  other 
clinging  to  the  old  traditions.  In  his  effort  to 
avoid  extremes,  he  published  certain  proclamations 
between  Dec,  1524,  and  Jan.,  1525,  threatening 
to  excommunicate  those  who  had  burned  the  bull 


265 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Br0wer 
Bridget 


of  Clement  VII  and  destroyed  images  of  the  Virgin. 
Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  charged  by  the 
Cordeliers  before  the  Parliament  of  Paris  with  be- 
ing in  sympathy  with  the  Lutherans  (Mar.,  1525- 
Oct.,  1526),  whereupon  a  conmiission  ordered  that 
Lefdvre's  translations  be  burned,  and  forbade 
evangelical  preaching.  The  preachers  accordingly 
fled  to  Strasburg,  although  Bri^onnet  himself  was 
acquitted.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence  of 
Francis  I,  who  was  held  captive  in  Madrid,  the 
Cordeliers  renewed  their  charges,  and  two  of  the 
new  preachers.  Jacobus  Pauvan  and  Matthsus 
Saimier,  were  convicted  of  heresy  by  the  Sorbonne 
and  burned  at  the  stake.  Bri^onnet  wrote  a  letter 
of  submission  to  the  Parliament,  and  Francis 
quashed  the  case.  His  works  were  as  follows: 
Synodalis  oratio  (Paris,  1520);  Synodalia  oratio 
(1552);  and  a  correspondence  with  Margaret  of 
Navarre,  some  of  winch,  with  other  fragments, 
is  contained  in  G^nin,  LeUres  de  Marguerite  d'Anffovr- 
Ume  (1841)  and  Nouvellea  lettres  de  la  reine  de 
Navarre  (1842),  and  Herminjard,  Carrespondance 
dee  rlformateurs  (Greneva,  1878). 

G.  Bonbt-Maury. 
Bibuoobaprt:  G.  BretonneftUt  Hiatoire  o^nMogique  de  la 
maUondeeBri^onnett  Paris,  1 620;  M.  T.  C.  Dupleasis.  Hiatoire 
dB  fi^imdeMeaux,  ib.  1731 ;  V.  Dunxy,  HUtoire  de  France, 
i,  675  Bqq.,  ib.  1856;  A.  L.  Herminjard.  Correapondance 
dee  r^ormaleure,  vol.  i,  ib.  1878;  E.  and  K.  Haas,  l^ 
France  proteelante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier,  ib.  1877  sqq.;  Lich- 
tenberier,  ESR,  ii.  423-429;  8.  Berger,  in  BuUeHn  de  la 
eoeiiU  du  proteetantieme  fran^aie,  1895. 

BRICnNANS  (Brittinans,  BrittinianSi  so  named 
from  S.  Blasius  de  Brictinis,  a  desolate  region  not 
far  from  Fano  in  Umbria):  An  Italian  hermit- 
society  founded  during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
IX,  who  confirmed  it  in  1234  by  an  edict,  enjoining 
upon  the  members  the  most  rigorous  asceticism, 
especially  as  to  fasting  and  the  total  abstinence 
from  flesh  in  any  form  between  Sept.  14  and  Easter 
of  every  year.  Innocent  IV  sought,  apparently 
with  success,  to  merge  them,  as  well  as  the  anchorite 
orders  of  the  Williamites  and  John-Bonites  (qq.v.), 
in  the  new  order  of  the  Augustinians  (q.v.).  A 
bull  of  Alexander  IV,  however,  dated  in  1260 
(Potthast,  Regesta,  no.  17,915),  assures  them  the 
right  of  independent  existence.        O.  ZOcEXrERf. 

BRIDAINE  (BRYDAINE),  JACQUES:  French 
Roman  Catholic  preacher;  b.  at  Chusclan  (15  m. 
nji.w.  of  Avignon),  Department  of  Gard,  Mar.  21, 
1701;  d.  at  Roquemaure,  near  Avignon,  Dec.  22, 
1767.  He  studied  at  the  Jesuit  Ciollege  and  the 
Mission  Seminary  of  St.  Charles  de  la  Croix  in 
Avignon;  visited  as  a  missionary  preacher  or  evan- 
gelist neariy  every  city  and  village  of  France,  pro- 
ducing a  profound  impression  by  his  somber  and 
vehement  sermons.  He  almost  always  preached  ex- 
-  temporaneously,  appealed  to  the  emotions  of  his 
hearers,  and  sought  to  terrify  them.  He  prepared 
a  volume  of  CanHquee  spiritueU  (Montpellier,  1748), 
which  has  passed  through  fifty  editions.  Certain 
works  have  been  published  from  his  manuscripts, 
including  Leeturea  et  midUalione  (Avignon,  1821); 
RigUmerU  de  vie  pour  une  pieuee  demoiselle  (1821); 
and  five  volumes  of  sermons  (1823). 

BiBuooaAPHT:  Ahh6  Oarron,  Le  ModkU  dee  prHree,  Paris. 
1804. 


BRIDEL,  brt"del',  PHILIPPE  LOUIS  JUSTIN: 
Swiss  Protestant;  b.at  Lausanne  Nov.  27, 1852.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Academy  (now  the  University) 
of  his  native  city  and  in  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  Free  Church  of  the  same  institution,  being 
graduated  from  the  former  in  1870  and  from  the 
latter  in  1876.  He  also  studied  at  the  University 
of  Gdttingen,  and  after  the  completion  of  his 
education  held  successive  pastorates  in  the  Canton 
of  Vaud  (1875-78),  Paris  (187^-87),  and  Lausanne 
(1887-04).  Since  1894  he  has  been  professor  of 
philosophy  and  the  history  of  theology  in  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  Free  Church  at  Lausanne. 
He  has  been  associate  editor  of  the  Revue  de  (hSo- 
logie  et  de  philoaophie  since  1895  and  of  the  lAberU 
chr^ienne  since  1898.  In  theology  he  is,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  a  follower  of  C.  Secr6tan  and  A.  R. 
Vinet,  and  has  written  La  Philosophie  de  la  religion 
d'Immanuel  Kant  (Lausanne,  1876);  La  Palestine 
illus^ie  (4  vols.,  1888-91);  Roger  HoUard,  pasteur 
d  Paris  (1902);  and  Charles  Renauvier  et  la  phi- 
losophie (1905). 

BRIDGE,  WILLIAM:  Puritan;  b.  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire about  1600;  d.  at  Clapham,  near 
London,  Mar.  12, 1670.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Emman- 
uel Ck>llege,  Cambridge,  and,  as  rector  at  Norwich, 
was  silenced  by  Bishop  Wren  for  non-conform- 
ity (1637),  and  excommunicated;  he  remained  in 
Norwich,  however,  till  the  writ  de  excommunicato 
capiendo  came  out  against  him,  when  he  fled  to 
Holland  and  became  pastor  of  tiie  English  Church 
at  Rotterdam,  succeeding  Hugh  Peters  and  asso- 
ciated with  Jeremiah  Burroughs;  he  returned  to 
England  in  1642  and  was  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly;  was  minister  at  Great  Yar- 
mouth till  ejected  in  1662,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  at  Clapham.  He  was  an  Independent 
(Congregationalist)  and  Calvimst,  a  learned  man, 
and  had  a  library  rich  in  the  Fathers  and  school- 
men. His  collected  works  in  three  volumes  were 
published  at  London,  1649,  and,  with  memorial, 
in  five  volimies,  1845. 

BRIDGET  (Brigit,  Brigida,  Bride),  SAINT,  OF 
KILDARE:  Patron  saint  of  Ireland;  b.  at  Fochart 
(Faugher,  2  m.  n.  of  Dimdalk),  Leinster,  c.  453; 
d.  at  Kildare  (30  m.  w.s.w.  of  Dublin)  Feb.  1,  523. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  certain  Dubhthach  and 
his  bondmaid  or  concubine  named  Brotsech.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  she  received  the  veil  in  Meath 
from  the  hand  of  Bishop  Machille  (Mel),  and  during 
a  long  life  won  renown  for  piety  and  benevolence, 
and  as  a  foimder  of  monasteries.  Her  first  and  most 
important  foundation  was  Kildare  (cill  dara,  so 
named  from  a  large  oak  under  which  her  cell  was 
first  placed),  which  was  followed  by  Breagh  in 
Meath,  Hay  in  Connaught,  Cliagh  in  Munster, 
and  others.  She  was  buried  at  Kildare,  where  the 
nuns  of  her  monastery  (the  "  fire-house ")  kept 
the  so-called  ''  St.  Bridget's  fire "  continually 
burning  in  her  honor  till  1220,  when  the  bishop  of 
the  time  ordered  it  extinguished  to  make  an  end 
of  the  many  superstitions  connected  with  it.  Thus 
far  the  notices  of  her  life  are  well  authenticated; 
but  in  very  early  times  legend  began  to  associate 
marvels  of  the  wUdest  sort  with  her  name — a  tend- 


Bridget 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


266 


ency  not  unknown  to  her  oldest  biographers. 
An  aged  seer  foretold  her  future  greatness  to  her 
mother  before  she  was  bom. 

While  still  a  child  Bridget  prophesied  her  coming 
spiritual  rule  over  Ireland  by  stretching  her  arms 
over  the  green  fields  and  crying  "it  will  be 
mine."  As  nun  and  monastery-head  she  per- 
forms numerous  mirades  of  benevolence  and 
love  like  those  of  Elijah  at  Zarephath  and  Jesus 
in  feeding  the  multitude.  The  milk  which  she 
gives  to  a  poor  man,  instead  of  making  it  into 
butter,  is  restored  in  a  wondrous  way;  so  like- 
wise the  bacon  which  she  gives  to  a  hungry 
dog  instead  of  cooking  it.  She  gives  seven  sheep, 
one  after  the  other,  to  a  beggar  who  comes  to 
her  in  seven  different  forms,  but  the  number 
of  her  flock  is  not  diminished.  She  changes  the 
water  drawn  from  a  spring  for  a  sick  man  into 
a  delicious  liquor.  She  satisfies  a  whole  company 
of  episcopal  guests  with  the  milk  of  a  single  cow 
which  had  already  been  milked  three  times  the 
same  day. 

Some  of  her  dream-mirades  and  visions  are 
more  credible;  but  here,  on  the  one  hand,  a 
Roman-clerical  tendency  is  easily  recognised — 
as  when  she  finds  herself  transported  to  Rome 
and  hears  a  mass  read  there  which  awakens  in 
her  the  desire  to  transplant  the  same  to  Ireland — 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  we  meet  with  characteris- 
tics of  a  benevolent  nature-deity,  which  the  legends 
mentioned  above  also  indicate  by  ascribing  to 
her  manifold  miracles  connected  with  the  giving 
of  food  and  drink.  It  is  thus  not  unlikely  that 
the  old  heathen  nature-goddess  Ceridwen  (the 
Ceres  of  the  Celts),  transformed  into  a  Christian 
saint,  survives  in  Bridget.  The  fire  also  which 
was  kept  burning  in  her  honor  at  Kildare  speaks 
for  this  supposition.  It  is  said  that  the  foundations 
of  a  temple  of  Ceridwen,  with  great  vaults  for  the 
storing  of  fruits,  have  been  found  beneath  the 
chapel  of  the  monastery  (cf.  Transacticna  of  the 
Royal  IrUh  Academy,  iii,  1789,  Ant.,  75-85).  In 
old  Irish  legend  and  song,  Bridget  is  likened  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  or  even  extolled  as  the  Mary  of 
the  Irish  by  expressions  such  as  "  mother  of  Christ," 
"mother  of  the  Lord,"  and  the  like.  A  hymn, 
attributed  to  Bishop  Ultan  (d.  656)  and  in  any 
case  very  old,  calls  her  "  beloved  queen  of  the 
true  God,"  and  the  old  Officium  S,  BrigidcB  (printed 
at  Paris,  1622)  speaks  of  her  as  "  another  Mary," 
"  like  to  Maiy,"  etc.  The  monasteries,  churches, 
and  villages  named  after  her  are  almost  without 
number.  O.  ZdCKLERf. 

Bxbuoobapht:  The  three  oldest  lives  (by  Brogar  Cloen. 
CogitosuB,  and  Ultan),  dating  from  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuriee,  with  three  later  lives,  from  the  ninth  to  the 
twelfth  centuries,  were  published  by  J.Golgan  in  his  Trias 
thavmaturga,  PP.  616-626,  Louvain.  1647;  the  A8B  gives 
three  of  these  lives  with  two  others  and  a  preface,  Feb., 
i.  90-186.  The  life  by  Cogitosus  is  in  Af  PL,  badi.  For 
later  presentations  consult  J.  Yjanigan,  l^ectesiasfieol  Hi§- 
tory  of  Ireland,  i,  68,  336,  and  chaps,  viii  and  ix,  passim. 
Dublin,  1820;  J.  H.  Todd,  The  Book  of  Hymne  of  the  Attr 
dent  Church  of  Ireland,  i.  64-70.  Dublin.  1866;  idem,  St. 
Pairidc,  pp.  10-26,  Dublin.  1864;  A.  P.  Forbes.  Kalendare 
of  ScotHeh  Sainte,  pp.  287-291,  Edinburgh,  1872;  J.  Healy, 
Ineula  eandorum,  pp.  106-121,  Dublin,  1890;  T.  Olden, 
The  Chvreh  of  Ireland,  pp.  38-48,  London,  1896;  J.  O'Han- 
lon,  Livee  of  the  Irieh  Sainte,  ii,  1-224,  Dublin,  n.d. 


BIODGET,  SAINT,  OF  SWEDEN  AND  THE 
BRIGITTINE  ORDER. 

Bridget's  Early  Life  (|  1). 

Bridget's  Revelations  and  Later  Life  (|  2). 

Her  Works  (|  3). 

The  Brigittine  Order  (|  4). 

Bridget,  the  famous  Scandinavian  mystic  and 
monastic  founder,  was  bom  probably  at  Finstad, 
not  far  from  Upsala,  in  1303;  d.  in  Rome  July  23, 
1373.  Her  father,  Birger  Persson,  was  one  of  the 
principal  landowners  of  the  district,  and  chaiged 
with  both  administrative  and  judicial  functions. 
Her  family  on  both  sides  had  been  distinguished 
for  religious  devotion,  and  the  child  received  a 
careful  education  in  spiritual  things.  Her  imagi- 
nation, nourished  on  the  lives  of  the  saints,  brought 
her  her  first  vision  at  the  age  of  seven.  Others  fol- 
lowed, theresdityof  which  neither  she 

X.  Bridget's  nor  her  parents  doubted.  After  her 
Early  mother's  death,  Bridget  was  entrusted 
Life.  to  an  aunt  at  Aspan&s,  whose  strict  dis- 
cipline laid  the  foundation  of  her  asceti- 
cism and  strength  of  will.  In  1316  she  was  married, 
in  pursuance  of  her  father's  political  plans,  to  Ulf, 
son  of  the  governor  of  the  province  of  Nerike,  and 
took  up  her  residence  at  Ulf&sa  in  that  province, 
where  she  acquired  great  influence  by  the  renown 
of  her  piety  and  unselfishness.  By  degrees  she  col- 
lected around  her  a  group  of  devout  and  learned 
men — ^Nicolaus  Hennanni,  renowned  as  a  Latin 
poet,  and  later  bishop  of  Linkdping,  who  was  the 
instructor  of  her  children;  Matthias,  her  confessor, 
the  foremost  theologian  of  the  time  in  Sweden; 
Prior  Peter  of  Alvastra;  and  another  Peter,  who 
succeeded  Matthias  as  her  confessor.  Through 
Matthias,  who  was  the  author  of  a  commentary 
on  Revelation,  she  gained  an  insight  into  the 
religious  movements  and  the  rich  apocalyptic 
literature  of  the  day.  After  King  Magnus  Erics- 
son's marriage  with  Blanche  of  Namur,  Bridget 
became  chief  lady-in-waiting  to  the  queen,  and 
soon  acquired  a  great  influence  at  the  court. 

No  remarkable  visions  or  revelations  seem  to  have 
marked  this  period.  When,  however,  she  was 
approaching  the  age  of  forty  (probably  between 
1341  and  1343),  she  and  her  husband  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  shrine  of  St.  James  at  Compostella 
(see  Compostella).  On  the  way  back,  Ulf  fell 
ill  at  Arras;  and  as  she  watched  by  his  bedside, 
she  thought  she  saw  St.  Denis,  the  protector  of 
France,  who  told  her  that  she  was  under  the  special 
care  of  heaven.  Her  husband's  recoveiy,  which 
was  indicated  as  a  sign  of  this,  was  only  temporaiy. 
He  died  in  1344,  and  Bridget  believed  the  last  tie 
which  bound  her  to  earth  had  been  broken.  Not 
long  afterward,  she  thought  she  saw 

a.  Bridget's  Christ  himself,  who  said  to  her:  ''Thou 
Revela-     art  my  spouse,  and  the  link  between 

tions  and  me  and  mankind;   thou  shalt  see  and 

Later  life,  hear  marvelous  things,  and  my  ^irit 
shall  be  upon  thee  all  thy  days." 
This  was  her  first  revelation,  strictly  so  called. 
She  and  those  around  her  were  fully  convinced  of 
the  reality  and  the  divine  origin  of  these  revelations. 
She  used  to  write  or  dictate  them  in  Swedish; 
later  they  were  somewhat  freely  put  into  Latin 


267 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BTld««t 


by  Matthias,  by  Prior  Peter,  and  after  1365  by 
the  Spanish  prelate  Alphonsus,  formerly  bishop 
of  Jaen.  Bridget  felt  herself  called  to  be  a  divine 
instrument  for  the  religious  and  moral  awakening 
of  her  age.  Soon  she  was  convinced  that  she  should 
foimd  a  new  order  in  honor  of  the  Savior,  and  dic- 
tated to  Peter  the  rules  revealed  to  her.  King 
and  nobles  joined  in  building  and  endowing  a  home 
for  the  order;  the  approval  of  the  archbishop  of 
Upsala  was  secured.  To  obtain  that  of  the  pope, 
Bridget  undertook  the  long  journey  to  Rome  in 
1349,  arriving  in  the  jubilee  of  the  following  year. 
Here  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life,  except  for  pil- 
grimages, in  works  of  mercy  and  in  warning  great 
and  small  against  sin.  She  did  not  gain  the  papal 
sanction  for  her  order  until  1370,  when  her  nile 
was  confirmed  by  Urban  V.  A  pUgrimage  to 
Palestine  in  1372  was  the  last  notable  event  in  her 
life.  She  was  canonized  by  Boniface  IX  in  1391. 
The  connection  between  Sweden  and  the  South  was 
much  furthered  by  her  fame  and  by  the  permanent 
use  of  her  Roman  house  by  monks  from  her  con- 
vent of  Vadstena  (on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Vettem, 
110  m.  s.w.  of  Stockholm);  its  head  in  the  Refor- 
mation period  was  Peter  Magnus,  who,  after  his 
return  to  Sweden,  consecrated  the  Lutheran  bishops 
there,  affording  a  basis  for  a  claim  to  apostolic  suc- 
cession. 

The  authorized  edition  of  Bridget's  works  con- 
tains eight  books  of  revelations,  besides  another 
of  RevelaHonea  extravagarUeSf  or  supplement,  from 
the  collection  of  Prior  Peter,  with  his  own  notes; 
the  rule  of  her  order;  and  a  collection  of  edifying 
readings  for  the  community,  with  certain  prayers 
(known  as  the  QuaUuar  orationes).  The  works 
were  first  printed  at  LQbeck  in  1492 

3.  Her      from  the  official  copy  preserved  at 
Works.      Vadstena;     the    Roman    edition    of 

1628  is  considered  the  best.  The 
"  Revelations "  have  been  translated  into  most 
European  languages  and  into  Arabic.  With  much 
that  is  superstitious  and  fantastic,  they  contain 
a  pure  mysticism,  rich  in  thought,  and  marked  by 
deep  insight  into  the  inner  mysteries  of  the  devout 
life.  Bridget's  views  are  of  course  medieval  and 
those  of  a  submissive  daughter  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  None  the  less,  they  show  traces 
of  admirable  anticipations  of  Refonnation  ideas. 
The  conception  of  the  universal  priesthood  appears 
here  and  there;  in  her  personal  devotion,  she  goes 
back  to  the  eternal  source  of  life  and  truth;  and 
her  rule  commends  the  preaching  of  the  Word  to 
the  people  in  the  vernacular. 

The  Brigittine  Order  {Ordo  SancH  Augtutini 
Moncti  Salvatoris  nuncupaiua)  was  intended  by  her 
as  an  instrument  for  spreading  the  Kingdom  of 
God  upon  earth.  Its  convents  (as,  e.g.,  at  Font4- 
vraud)  were  for  both  monks  and  nuns,  though 
their  dwellings  were  separate.      The 

4.  The      age  of  entrance  was   twenty-five  for 
Brigittine   men  and  eighteen  for  women.    The 

Order.      convent  was  to  be  ruled  by  an  abbess 
selected  by  the   community.    Origi- 
nally the   monks  were  governed  by   a  prior  in- 
dependent of   the  abbess,    but   before   long    the 
pope  subjected  them  also  to  her  rule,  the  former 


prior  being  caUed  only  confessor-general.  At 
the  same  time  they  were  placed  imder  imme- 
diate papal  jurisdiction,  though  provision  was 
made  for  a  yearly  visitation  by  the  bishop. 
They  were  strictly  cloistered;  silence  was  ob- 
served, except  at  certain  hours,  but  the  rule  of 
fasting  was  not  rigorous.  The  monks  were  admit- 
ted to  the  nims'  convent  only  to  administer  the 
sacraments  to  the  dying  or  to  carry  out  the  dead. 
The  rich  endowments  of  the  convent  of  Vadstena, 
which  remained  the  mother  house,  show  the  popu- 
larity of  this  national  foundation  among  all  classes. 
Not  a  few  Brigittine  convents,  however,  sprang 
up  in  other  countries,  prominent  among  which 
were  N&dendal  in  Finland,  MVmkaliv  near  Bergen, 
Mariendal  near  Reval,  Marienwald  near  Labeck, 
Marienkron  near  Stralsund,  and  Sion  House, 
Richmond,  near  London.  The  importance  of  the 
order  during  the  later  Middle  Ages  for  the  civili- 
zation of  the  North,  and  especially  of  Sweden,  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  Vadstena  has  been 
called  the  first  high-school  of  the  North;  on  it 
and  on  its  daughter  house  at  N&dendal  the  literary 
life  of  Sweden  before  the  Reformation  depended. 
Vadstena  had  the  largest  library  in  Sweden;  and 
here  were  made  the  first  attempts  toward  a  com- 
plete Swedish  version  of  the  Bible.  In  1495  a 
printing-press  was  set  up;  but  it  was  destroyed  by 
fire  the  same  year,  and  published  nothing  so  far 
as  known. 

The  order  was  so  deeply  rooted  in  Sweden  that 
it  survived  the  Reformation,  though  with  dimin- 
ished strength.  Not  even  Gustavus  Vasa's  hatred 
of  the  "  popery  "  of  the  Brigittines  could  entirely 
destroy  the  devotion  of  all  classes  to  them.  During 
the  sixteenth  century  his  wife,  sons,  and  daughters, 
and  many  others  of  the  highest  nobility,  as  well 
as  numbers  from  other  classes  are  found  among 
the  benefactors  of  Vadstena,  which,  however,  was 
suppressed  by  Duke  Charles  in  1595.  The  Refor- 
mation abolished  most  of  the  houses  outside  of 
Sweden,  but  an  attempt  was  made  to  revive  it  in 
the  Counterrefonnation,  to  which  period  belong  the 
FrcUres  novissimi  BirgiUini  in  Belgium,  confinned 
by  Gregory  XV,  and  the  reformed  order  for  women 
introduced  only  into  Spain  by  the  visionary  Marina 
de  Escobar  (d.  1633)  and  confirmed  by  Urban  VIII. 
This  is  said  to  have  a  few  houses  in  Spain  now;  and 
four  convents  of  the  original  order  still  exist — at 
AltomUnster  in  Bavaria,  St.  Bridget's  Abbey  in 
Devonshire,  and  two  in  Holland. 

(Herman  Lund8tr5m.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  two  earliest  lives,  by  the  two  oonfee- 
sors  of  Bridget  in  the  year  of  her  death,  were  published 
by  Dr.  C.  Annerstedt  in  Script,  rerum  SvecioMrum  medii 
mvi.  III.  ii.  188-206.  Upsala,  1876.  The  Viia  Hve  ehroni- 
con  by  Margareta  Clausdota  was  published  in  SeripL  Su- 
0ciei  nudii  cm,  ed.  J.  E.  Riets,  pp.  103-240,  Lund,  1844. 
Early  material  is  found  also  in  ASB,  Oct.  4th,  pp.  368- 
660.  The  best  modem  accounts  are  in  H.  Schflck,  8v€n$k 
LUeraturhiwtoria,  pp.  129  sqq.,  Stockholm,  1800,  and  in 
lUiuUrad  Svenak  LiUeraturhittoria,  i,  84  sqq.,  ib.  1806. 
Consult  also  L.  Clams,  Dom  Lcben  der  hMUfen  Birgitta, 
Regensburg,  1856;  J.  B.  Schwab,  Jofumnet  Oer§on,  pp. 
S64  sqq.,  WOrsburec.  1858;  F.  Hammerich,  St.  BtrgiUa, 
dU  fionfiseAs  PropheUn  und  OrdenB9Hft«r%n,  Ootha,  1872 
(Oerm.  transl.  from  the  Swedish);  Bettina  von  Rinsgeis, 
Ltben  der  heUiom  BirgUta,  Regensburg,  1800;  G.  Bin- 
der, Die  heilioe  Biroitta  von   Sdiweden   und  ihr  Kloater^ 


Bridffett 
Briessmann 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


268 


ortUn,  Munich,  1891;  Comteflse  FlAvigny,  Ste.  BrioitU  de 
Suide,  Paris.  1892;  A.  Brinkmann.  Den  hMige  BirgWa, 
Copenhagen,  1893. 

For  the  order  consult:  Rerum  Suevicarufn  teript.  tnedii 
eni,  ed.  E.  M.  Fant,  I,  i,  1818  aqq..  Upsala,  1818;  Hia- 
tory  of  tf*»  Bng.  BrigitUne  NufU,  Plymouth.  1886;  Oe$am- 
mtUe  Nuchriehten  ikber  die  eivuf  be^andenen  Kloeter  vom 
Orden  der  heilioen  BirgiUa,  Munich,  1888;  Binder,  ut 
■up.,  and  OeaehiehtB  der  bayritchen  BirgiUenr-Klotter,  ib. 
1896;  Helyot,  Ordrea  monaaiiquea,  ii,  146  sqq..  Currier. 
Religioua  OrtUre,  pp.  185-187;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und 
KonaregaHonen,  i,  440,  505-610. 

BRIDGETT,  THOMAS  EDWARD:  English  Ro- 
man Catholic;  b.  at  Derby  (35  m.  n.n.e.  of 
Birmingham),  Derbyshire,  Jan.  20,  1829;  d.  at 
Qapham  (a  suburb  of  London)  Feb.  17,  1899. 
His  parents  were  Baptists,  but  in  1845  he  was 
baptized  into  the  Church  of  England.  Two  years 
later  he  matriculated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, but  just  before  taking  his  degree  in  1850 
he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  was 
received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
then  studied  for  six  years  on  the  Continent, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1856,  after  having 
joined  the  Redemptorist  Order.  His  life-work 
lay  in  the  mission  field  to  which  his  order  is  par- 
ticularly devoted,  and  in  1868  he  established  the 
Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family  connected  with 
the  Redemptorist  church  at  Limerick,  Ireland. 
In  addition  to  his  activity  as  a  missioner,  he  wrote 
The  Ritual  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1873); 
Our  Ladjfs  Down/f  or,  how  England  Gained  and 
Last  that  Title  (1875);  The  Discipline  of  Drink 
(1876);  History  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  in  Great 
Britain  (2  vols.,  1881);  Life  of  Blessed  John  Fisher, 
Bishop  of  Rochester  (1888);  The  True  Story  of  the 
Catholic  Hierarchy  Deposed  by  Queen  Elizabeih  (in 
collaboration  with  T.  F.  Knox;  1889);  Blunders 
and  Forgeries:  Historical  Essays  (1890);  The 
Life  and  Writings  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (1891); 
and  Sonnets  and  Epigrams  on  Sacred  Subjects  (1898). 
He  likewise  edited  a  number  of  works,  of  which 
the  most  important  were  Bishop  T.  Watson's 
Sermons  on  the  Sacraments  (London,  1876);  R. 
Johnson's  The  Suppliant  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (1878); 
Cardinal  W.  Allen's  Souls  Departed  (1886);  The 
Wit  and  Wisdom  of  Blessed  Thomas  More  (1892); 
Lyra  Hieratica  :  Poems  on  the  Priesthood  (1896); 
Poems  on  England*s  Reunion  unth  Christendom 
(1896);  and  Characteristics  from  the  Writings  of 
Nicholas  Cardinal  Wiseman  (1898). 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES:  A  series  of 
books  written  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  Francis 
Henry,  eighth  earl  of  Bridgewater  (d.  Feb.  11, 
1829),  who  left  eight  thousand  pounds  to  the  Royal 
Society,  to  be  paid  to  one  or  several  authors, 
selected  by  the  president,  for  writing  a  treatise 
"  On  the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God,  as 
manifested  in  the  Creation."  The  following  eight 
authors  were  selected,  and  their  treatises  published 
(12  vols.,  London,  1833-36):  (1)  Thomas  Chalmers, 
The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral 
^nd  Intellectual  Condition  of  Man  ;  (2)  John  Kidd, 
The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical 
Condition  of  Man;  (3)  William  Whewell,  Astronn 
amy  and  General  Physics  considered  vnth  Reference 
to  Natural  Theology  ;  (4)  Charles  Bell,  The  Hand, 
its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments  as  Evincing 


Design  ;  (5)  Peter  Mark  Roget,  Animal  and  Vege- 
table  Physiology  considered  with  Reference  to  Nat- 
ural Theology ;  (6)  William  Buckland,  Geology  and 
Mineralogy  considered  with  Reference  to  Natural 
Theology;  (7)  William  Kirby,  The  Habits  and 
Instincts  of  Animals  with  Reference  to  Natural 
Theology;  (8)  William  Prout,  Chemistry,  Meteor- 
ology, and  the  Function  of  Digestion  considered 
with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology. 

BRIDGMAN,  ELIJAH  COLEMAN:  Congregar 
tional  foreign  missionary;  b.  at  Belchertown, 
Mass.,  Apr.  22,  1801;  d.  in  Shanghai,  China,  Nov. 
2,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at  Amberst  College 
in  1826  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1829  and  that  year  on  October  14  sailed  for 
Canton  under  the  appointment  of  the  American 
Board.  He  arrived  there  on  Feb.  25,  1830,  and 
lived  there  till  1847,  when  he  removed  to  Shanghai 
to  supervise  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1832 
he  began,  as  a  labor  of  love,  the  valuable  monthly 
The  Chinese  Repository  and  was  its  editor  till  1851. 
In  1841  he  brought  out  his  Chinese  chrestomathy. 
In  1844  he  was  one  of  the  two  secretaries  of  legation 
to  Hon.  Caleb  Cushing  when  on  his  special  mis- 
sion to  China  and  rendered  important  services. 
In  February,  1852,  he  left  Shanghai  for  a  visit  to 
America,  arrived  there  June  16;  on  his  return  be 
left  New  York  on  October  12,  and  arrived  at  Shang- 
hai on  May  3,  1853. 

Bxblxoorapht:   E.  G.  Bridgman,  Life  of  E.  C.  Bridgman. 
New  York.  1864. 

BRIEFS,  BULLS,  AND  BULLARIA:  Written 
mandates  of  the  pope,  differing  in  form,  the  bull 
being  more  solemn  than  the  brief;  bullaria  are 
collections  of  both  kinds  of  docimients.  At  first 
the  Roman  bishops  sealed  documents  with  a  ring, 
but  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  seal-boxes 
or  seal-forms  {huUce),  usually  of  lead,  began  to 
be  attached  to  aU  public  documents,  whereas  for 
the  others  the  signet  stamped  in  wax  by  the  ring 
was  used.  Since  the  thirteenth  century  it  has 
borne  the  same  device,  the  apostle  Peter  casting 
a  net  into  the  sea  (Matt,  iv,  18,  19),  whence  it  is 
known  as  the  "  ring  of  the  fisherman  "  (annulus 
piscatoris,  q.v.).  The  oldest  buUcB  have  on  ODe 
side  the  name  of  the  pope,  on  the  other  the  word 
Papa,  The  present  form  has  on  the  obverse  the 
heads  of  Peter  and  Paul  with  the  distinguishing 
inscription  S.  P.  A. — S.  P.  E.  (i.e.,  Sanctus  Petrus 
or  Paulus  Apostolus,  Sanctus  Petrus  or  Paulus 
Episcopus) ;  on  the  reverse,  the  name  of  the  pope 
with  his  number.  The  string  by  which  they  are 
attached  is  of  red  and  yellow  silk  or  hemp.  From 
designating  the  seal,  the  word  btdla  passed  to 
the  document  itself. 

The  bull  is  written  upon  strong  parchment;  the 
brief  on  thin  parchment  or  paper.  Instead  of 
having  the  seal  attached  to  it,  it  is  issued  sub 
annulo  piscatoris,  which  to-day  is  only  a  stamp 
on  the  paper.  Both  begin  in  an  invariable  forai 
with  the  name  of  the  pope  and  a  salutation.  In 
the  brief  the  number  is  added  to  the  name,  in  the 
bull  the  title  Episcopus  servus  servorum  Dei  takes 
the  place  of  the  number.    At  the  dose  of  the  brief 


269 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bridffett 
Briessmann 


merely  the  place  and  date  are  given;  the  bull 
gives  the  date  according  to  both  the  ancient  Roman 
and  the  Christian  calendars  and  the  year  of  the 
pope's  reign.  The  most  solemn  form  is  used  for 
bulls  issued  in  the  consistory  (fmUcB  consistoriaUs), 
They  are  signed  by  the  pope  and  the  cardinals, 
and  are  sent  out  not  in  the  original  but  in  an  au- 
thorized copy  ((rafucKp<um).  Of  other  bulls  {non 
consistcriales)  the  pope  signs  only  the  minute 
{mintUa),  and  the  completed  document  is  signed 
by  the  various  papal  officers  who  helped  in  its 
preparation.  The  briefs  are  signed  ozily  by  the 
secretary  of  briefs.  Briefs  are  drawn  up  in  accord- 
ance with  the  special  rules  of  the  department  in 
the  apostolic  secretariate  or  dataria  (see  Curia); 
bulls  in  the  chancery.  Leo  XIII  simplified  the 
procedure  in  1878  by  ordering  that  bulls  other 
than  eonsistorial  should  be  written  in  ordinary 
script  on  parchment  and  sealed  only  with  a  red 
stamp  containing  the  pictures  of  Peter  and  Paul 
and  the  name  of  the  reigning  pope. 

The  more  important  briefs  and  bulls  are  con- 
tained in  collections  known  as  buUaria,  The  oldest 
collections  contained  mostly  only  a  small  number. 
To  these  belong:  BiUla  diver aorum  pontificorum  a 
Joanne  XXII  ad  Jvlium  III  a  bibliotheca  Ludovici 
Gomes  (Rome,  1550),  containing  only  some  fifty 
documents;  another  from  Boniface  VIII  to  Paul  IV 
(1559),  with  about  a  hundred  and  sixty;  and  one 
from  GreQ)ry  VII  to  Gregory  XIII  (1579),  with 
723  documents.  The  Magnum  huUarium  Romanumt 
covering  the  period  from  Leo  I  to  the  year  1585, 
was  published  in  1586,  and  since  has  been  continued 
in  revised  and  completed  editions.  The  latest  as 
well  as  most  convenient  and  complete  edition  is 
the  BuUarium  magnum  Romanum^  published  at 
Turin  by  order  of  Pius  IX  and  under  the  auspices 
of  Cardinal  Gaude  (1857-72,  24  vols.,  covering 
the  years  440-1740).  For  delimiting  bulls  {huUcB 
circumscriptionisX  see  (Concordats  and  Delimit- 
ing Bulls.  E.  Friedberg. 

Bibuoorapht:  If.  IfArini,  Diplomatica  ponHfieia,  Rome. 
1841;  H.  Breslau,  Handbuch  der  UrkundenUhre,  i.  67 
■qq..  Leipsic,  1888;  G.  Phillips,  Kirchenreeht,  iii.  640  sqq., 
Ri^DBburK,  1889;  E.  Friedberg,  Lehrbuch  deM  katKoliachen 
und  0vangd.iachien  Kird^enreehtt,  Leifwic,  1895. 

BRIEGER,  bri'ger,  JOHAlfH  FRIEDRICH  THEO- 
DOR:  German  Protestant;  b.  at  Greifswald  June  4, 
1842;  educated  at  the  universities  of  Greifswald, 
Eriangen,  and  Tabingen  from  1861  to  1864  (Ph.D., 
Lcipsic,  1870).  He  became  privat-docent  at  Halle 
in  1870,  and  was  appointed  associate  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  same  imiversity  three  years 
later.  In  1876  he  was  called  to  Marburg  as  full 
professor  of  the  same  subject,  and  since  1886  has 
been  professor  of  church  history  at  Leipsic.  In 
addition  to  numerous  contributions  to  theological 
periodicals,  he  has  written  Gasparo  Contarini  und 
dot  Regenaburger  Concordienwerk  des  Jahres  16 41 
(Gotha,  1870);  De  jormuLa  Ratisbonenaia  origine 
atque  indole  (Halle,  1870);  Constantin  der  Grosse 
ala  ReligumspoliHker  (Gotha,  1880);  Die  angth- 
liche  Marburger  Kirchenordnung  von  1527  (1881); 
Luiher  und  sein  Werk  (Marburg,  1883);  Aleander 
und  Luther,  1521  (Gotha,  1884);  Die  Torgauer 
Artikel  (Leipsic,  1888);  Die  theologischen  Promotio- 


nen  auf  der  Universii&t  Leipzig  WS-15S9  (1890); 
Der  Glavbe  Luihers  in  seiner  Freiheit  von  mensch-  • 
lichen  Autoriidten  (1892);  Die  fortschreitende  Ent- 
fremdung  von  der  Kirche  im  Licht  der  Geschichle 
(1894);  Das  Wesen  des  Ahhsses  am  Ausgange  des 
MiUelaUers  (1897);  and  Zur  Geschichle  des  Augs- 
burger  Reichstages  von  1530  (1903).  He  was  also 
one  of  the  founden*  of  the  Zeitsckrift  fur  Kirchenge- 
schichte  in  1876,  and  has  been  its  editor  to  the 
present  time. 

BRIESSMAITN,  bris'mOn,  JOHANN:  Reformer; 
b.  at  Cottbus  (on  the  Spree,  43  m.  8.s.w.  of  Frank- 
fort), Brandenburg,  Dec.  31,  1483;  d.  at  K6nigsberg 
Oct.  1,  1549.  He  belonged  to  a  prominent  family, 
and  as  a  Franciscan  he  studied  after  1518  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  and  after  1520  at  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  promoted  in  1521  as  licentiate 
and  in  1522  as  doctor  of  theology.  Influenced  by 
Luther's  appearance  at  the  Leipsic  disputation 
with  Eck  (1519),  but  more  especially  by  Luther's 
great  reformatory  writings  of  the  year  1520,  he 
soon  found  himself  one  in  the  Evangelical  faith 
with  his  beloved  friend.  When  the  Franciscans 
had  to  leave  Wittenberg,  Briessmann  went  to  Ck)tt- 
bus,  but  on  the  initiative  of  Luther  he  was  able 
to  return  in  1522.  He  addressed  a  reformatory 
epistle  to  the  congregation  at  Ck>ttbu8,  Unterricht 
und  Ermahnung  (Cottbus,  1523),  and  at  the  in- 
stance of  Luther  wrote  a  powerful  refutation  of 
the  attacks  of  the  Franciscan  Schatzgeyer  upon 
Luther's  De  votis  monasticis  (Wittenberg?,  1523), 
stating  in  his  declaration  to  Spalatin  that  he  could 
not  refuse  the  wish  of  Luther,  "  since  he  felt  him- 
self in  agreement  not  so  much  with  a  Luther  as 
with  the  Evangelical  truth." 

On  the  recommendation  of  Luther,  he  was  called 
in  1523  as  preacher  to  Kdnigsberg  by  Albert,  the 
grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  order  (see  Albert 
OF     Prussia).    A     Kdnigsberg     chronicler     thus 
describes  his  life  and  work:  he  preached  the  word 
with  gentleness  but  with  all  serious- 
Preacher    ness;    many  became  pious  Christians 
in  Koniga-  and  better  men;    "  on  account  of  his 
berg,       godly,  honorable,  moral  life  he  was 
1523-27.    beloved   by  many   and   his  sermons 
were  gladly  heard."     About  the  time 
when  he  entered  upon  his  pastoral  duties  he  pub- 
lished his  Flosculi  de  homine  interiore  et  exteriore 
de  fide  et  operibus  (ed.  P.  Tschackert,  Gotha,  1887), 
containing  110  verses  in  which,  following  Luther's 
work  '' Concerning  Christian  Liberty,"  he  defends 
the   Evangelical   doctrine  against   Rome  and  the 
fanatics.    His  influence   upon   Bishop   George  of 
Polentz  (q.v.)  is  s:?en  in  the  tatter's  sermon  delivered 
on   Christmas   day,    1523,   in   which   he   publicly 
expressed  his  belief  in  the  Evangelical  teaching  of 
justification  by  faith  alone.    As  the  bishop  did 
not  preach  himself,  he  appointed  as  his  substitute 
"  the  learned  Dr.  Johann  Briessmann,  a  man  well 
versed  in  the  holy  scripture."     In  1524  the  bishop 
issued  his  first  reformatory  mandate,  enjoining  the 
ministers  to  use  only  the  German  language  in  their 
ministerial  acts,   and  to  read  Luther's  writings, 
especially  his  translation  of  the  Bible.    Of  lasting 
effect  were  also  certain  writings  of  Briessmann, 


Briasaiiuuia 
Brinokerlnok 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


270 


as  hiB  Umschreibung  und  ErldSrung  des  Voter 
Unsers  aU  Anleitung  zum  wahrhaft  evangeliachen 
GebetsUben  im  Oeffenaatz  gegen  die  Mariengebete; 
a  Sermon  wm  dreierlei  heUsamer  BeichUf  as  guide 
to  Evangelical  confession  in  opposition  to  auricular 
confession;  and  his  sermon  Von  der  Anfechtung 
des  Glavbens  und  der  Hoffnung,  with  reference  to 
the  Gospel4esson  on  the  woman  of  Canaan  •(Matt. 
XV.  21-28).  For  the  benefit  of  the  more  cultured 
members  of  the  congregation  he  delivered  lectures 
on  the  epistle  to  the  Romans.  He  laid  stress 
upon  the  inwardness  of  the  Christian  life  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  impetuous  zeal  of  Amandus  in  forcibly 
doing  away  with  ancient  usages  and  forms.  With 
Luther,  who  greatly  rejoiced  over  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  the  Reformation  in  Prussia,  he  entertained 
a  lively  correspondence,  and  on  June  12,  1524, 
one  day  before  Luther,  he  was  married,  being  the 
first  married  minister  of  Prussia. 

After  the  secularization  of  the  territory  of  the 
Teutonic  Order  (q.v.)  in  1525  under  Polish 
feudal  supremacy,  Briessmann  and  his  colaborers, 
Speratus  and  Poliander,  faithfully  assisted  Duke 
Albert  at  the  diet,  Dec.,  1525.  He  accepted  a  call 
from  the  citizens  of  Riga  to  complete 

In  Riga,    the    reformatory    movement    there, 

1527-31.    with  the  consent  of  the  duke,  Oct., 

1527.    By    preaching    and    teaching 

he  brought  about  the  necessary  reformation   and 

published  in    1530  Kwrze  Ordnung  des  Kirchen- 

dienstes  samnU  einer  Vorrede  van  Cerenumien, 

After  four  years  of  faithful  work  he  returned  to 
Kdnigsberg  in  1531  as  cathedral  preacher.  With 
his  colleagues  he  had  soon  to  oppose  the  fanatical 
tendencies  of  Schwenckfeld,  which  the  ill-advised 
duke  had  favored  at  first.  As  he  labored  for  the 
purity  of  Evangelical  doctrine,  he  also  labored  for 
the  upbuilding  of  the  inner  life  of  the  Church  by 
the  new  Landesordnung  (1540),  by 
Activity  in  the  articles  concerning  the  appoint- 
Kdnigsbeig    ment  and  support  of  the   ministers 

1531-49-  (1540),  by  the  introduction  of  a  new 
order  of  marriage  and  divine  service 
(1544).  He  reoonmiended  the  lectio  coniinuaf  or 
continuous  reading  of  the  whole  Bible  in  divine 
service,  thus  making  the  congregations  acquainted 
with  Holy  Scripture,  and  a  thorough  instruction 
in  the  catechism  besides  the  preachLog;  he  intro- 
duced church-singing  by  the  use  of  a  hymn-book, 
the  first  in  Prussia.  Repeated  calls  to  Rostock 
he  declined.  He  also  devoted  his  energies  to  the 
development  of  the  schools  and  higher  education. 
He  fonned  the  plans  for  the  university  which  was 
founded  in  1544.  During  the  sickness  of  Bishop 
Polentz  in  1546,  the  business  of  the  episoopfd 
see  was  entrusted  to  Briessmann,  and  in  1547  he 
made  a  tour  of  inspection  to  correct  abuses  which 
still  existed  in  the  diocese.  He  opposed  especially 
teachings  brought  thither  by  refugees  from  the 
Netherlands,  represented  by  the  humanist  Guli- 
ehnus  Gnaphseus  (or  Fullonius,  q.v.),  a  sympa- 
thizer with  Carlstadt.  It  was  also  due  to  Briess- 
mann's  energy  that  the  troubles  caused  by  the  first 
rector  of  the  imiversity,  Georg  Sabinus,  had  no 
lasting  influence.  Against  Andreas  Osiander,  whom 
the  duke  had  called  to  Kdnigsberg,  he  defended  the 


genuine  Lutheran  doctrine  and  confession.  Pain- 
ful as  was  this  Osiandrian  controversy  for  Briess- 
mann, yet  he  rejoiced  toward  the  end  of  his  life 
that  the  Moravian  Brethren,  driven  from  Poland 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Polish-Catholic  clergy,  were 
in  1548  received  into  the  Prussian  state  church, 
after  being  settled  in  Prussia  with  the  pennission 
of  the  duke.  In  opposing  the  Osiandrian  errors, 
Briessmann  also  opposed  the  duke  whp  at  first 
adhered  to  Osiander.  To  the  suggestion  of  the 
duke  to  hear  the  opinion  of  churches  from  abroad, 
Briessmann  replied:  "  Since  the  present  contro- 
versy concerns  doctrinal  points  which  have  been 
preached  in  Prussia  for  over  twenty-four  years, 
the  opinion  and  judgment  of  others  is  not  to  be 
awaited."  These  are  the  last  words  from  his 
mouth  and  pen,  "  the  testament  of  the  first  Reformer 
of  Prussia,  and  therefore  especially  valuable  for 
the  history  of  the  Prussian  Reformation"  (Tschack- 
ert).  In  the  spring  of  1540  he  retired  from  his 
arduous  duties.  He  is  buried  in  the  choir  of  the 
cathedral  at  Kdnigsberg.         David  Erdmank. 

Bibuooraprt:  P.  Tschackert,  Urkundenhuch  sur  Refor- 
moHofuoeachidUe  <2m  Henootutna  Pnunen,  vols.  L,  ii.,  in 
Ptiblikationen  aiM  den  kSniglidisn  jpreuttisehen  StaaU- 
arehiven,  vols.  z]iii.-xly..  Leiprio,  1800. 

BRIGGS,    CHARLES    AUGUSTUS:     Protestant 

Episcopalian;  b.  at  New  York  City  Jan.  15,  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
(1857-60),  Union  Theological  Seminary  (1861-63), 
and  the  University  of  Berlin  (1866-69).  From 
1863  to  1866  he  was  in  busineiiBs  with  his  father. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry 
and  was  pastor  at  Roselle,  N.  J.,  from  1870  to  1874, 
when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Union  Theological  Seminary.  In  1891  he  was 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  Biblical  theology,  and 
since  1904  has  been  professor  of  theolo^cal  ency- 
clopedia and  symbolics.  In  1892  he  was  tried 
for  heresy  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  York,  but 
was  acquitted,  although  in  the  following  year  he 
was  suspended  by  the  General  Assembly.  In 
1899  he  was  ordidned  to  the  priesthood  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  the  Deutsche 
Morgenl&ndische  Gesellschaft,  and  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Literaturo  and  Exegesis.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Presbyterian  Review  from  1880  to  1890,  and 
collaborated  with  S.  D.  F.  Salmond  in  editing  the 
Intemational  Theological  Library  (New  York,  1891 
sqq.),  with  S.  R.  Driver  and  A.  Plimmier  in  editing 
the  Intemational  Critical  Commentary  (1895  sqq.), 
and  with  F.  Brown  and  S.  R.  Driver  in  preparing 
the  Htbrew  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (12  parts,  Oxford,  1891-1906).  In  addition 
to  numerous  studies  in  various  theological  period- 
icals, he  has  written  Biblical  Study  (New  York, 
1883);  American  Presbyterianism  (1885);  Mes- 
sianic Prophecy  (1886);  Whither  f  A  Theological 
Question  for  the  Times  (1889);  The  Authority  of 
Holy  Scripture  (1891);  The  Bible,  the  Church,  and 
the  Reason  (1892);  The  Higher  Criticism  of  the 
Hexateuch(18&3);  The  Messiah  of  the  GospeU(199i); 
The  Messiah  of  the  Apostles  (1895);  General  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture  (1899);  The 
Incarnation  of  the  Lord  (1902);    New  Light  on  the 


871 


RELIGIOUS  ExNCYCLOPEDIA 


BneMun&iixi 
Bzinokorinok 


Life  of  Jesua  (1904);  Ethical  Teachings  of  Jesus 
(1904);  and  Critical  Commentary  on  the  Psalms 
(1906). 

BRIGHT,  WILLIAM:  English  church  historian 
and  patristic  scholar;  b.  at  Doncaster  (30  m.  s.  of 
York),  Yorkshire,  En^and,  Dec.  14,  1824;  d.  at 
Oxford  Mar.  6,  1901.  He  studied  at  Ru^y  and 
University  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1846;  M.A., 
1849),  and  became  fellow  1847;  was  theological 
tutor  in  Trinity  Ck>llege,  Glenalmond,  Perthshire, 
1851-68;  tutor  of  University  College,  Oxford, 
1862;  appointed  regius  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  and  canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1868. 
His  publications  were  very  numerous  and  have 
gone  through  many  editions;  besides  sermons 
and  addresses,  poems,  and  devotional  works  they 
include:  Ancient  Collects  and  Other  Prayers  selected 
from  various  rituals  (London,  1857);  A  History  of 
the  Church  from  the  Edict  of  Milan,  AD.  313,  to 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  A  J),  451  (1860);  EigU- 
sen  Sermons  of  St.  Leo  /,  sumamed  the  Oreat,  on 
the  Incarnation,  translation  and  notes  (1862); 
Etieebius^s  Ecclesiastical  History,  text  and  intro- 
duction (1872);  Orations  of  St.  Athanasius  against 
the  Arians,  text,  with  life  (1873);  Socrates's  Eccle- 
siaetieal  History,  text  and  introduction  (1878); 
Chapters  of  Early  English  Church  History  (1878; 
3d  ed.,  1897);  Select  Anti-Pelagian  Treatises  of 
St.  Augustine  (1880);  St.  Athanasius's  Historical 
Writings  (1881);  Later  Treatises  of  St.  Athanasius, 
translation,  notes,  and  an  appendix  of  St.  (^1 
(vol.  xlvi.  of  A  Library  of  the  Fathers,  ed.  E. 
B.  Pusey  and  others,  1881);  Notes  on  the  Canons 
of  the  First  Four  General  Councils  (1882);  Lessons 
from  the  Lives  of  Three  Oreat  Fathers  (1890);  Mo- 
rality in  Doctrine  (1892);  Waymarks  in  Church 
History  {IS&4);  The  Roman  See  in  the  Early  Church 
and  Other  Studies  in  Church  History  (1896);  The 
Law  of  Faith  (1898);  Some  Aspects  of  Primitive 
Church  Life  (1898).  With  P.  G.  Medd  he  edited 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  English  prayer-book 
(1865),  and  he  contributed  the  section  on  the  Litany 
to  J.  H.  Blunt's  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(1866). 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  Bright,  SeUeted  Letter9,  ed.  B.  J.  Kidd, 
with  Mmunr  by  P.  G.  Medd«  London,  1903. 

BRIGHTMAH,  FRANK  EDWARD:  Church  of 
En^and;  b.  at  Bristol  June  18,  1856.  He  was 
educated  at  University  Ck)llege,  Oxford  (B.A., 
1879),  and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1884  and  or- 
dained priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  chap- 
lain of  University  Ck>llege  from  1884  to  1887  and 
assistant  curate  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  Kennington, 
in  1887-^,  while  from  1884  to  1903  he  was  Pusey 
Librarian.  He  was  also  examiner  in  the  Theology 
School  in  1899-1901,  and  since  1902  has  been 
fellow  and  tutor  of  Magdalen  (College,  Oxford,  as 
well  as  prebendary  of  Carlton  with  Thurlby  in 
Lincoln  Cathedral.  He  has  written  Liturgies 
Eastern  and  Western  (vol.  i.,  Oxford,  1896)  and  What 
Objections  have  been  made  to  English  Orders  t 
(London,  1896),  and  has  also  translated  the  Preces 
Privatce  of  Lancelot  Andrewes  (1903). 

BRIGHTMAir,  THOMAS:  Puritan  and  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Nottingham  1562;  d.at  Hawnes  (5  m. 


s.  by  e.  of  Bedford)  Aug.  24,  1607.  He  studied 
at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1581;  M.A., 
1584;  B.D.,  1591),  became  a  fellow  there  in  1584, 
and  rector  of  Hawnes  in  1592.  He  was  one  of 
the  fathers  of  Presbyterianism  in  England;  as 
Thomas  Cartwright  says,  ''The  bright  star  in 
the  Church  of  God."  He  subscribed  the  Pres- 
b3rterian  Books  of  Discipline.  He  was  a  fa- 
mous expositor  of  Revelation  {Apocalypsis  Apo- 
calypseos,  Frankfort,  1609,  Heidelberg,  1612,  Eng. 
transl.,  A  revelation  of  the  Revelation,  Amsterdam, 
1615,  Leyden,  1616)  and  of  Daniel  from  xi.  36  to 
end  of  xii.  (Basel,  1614,  which  edition  has  notes  on 
Canticles;  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1644).  He  opened 
up  a  new  path  in  the  exposition  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse by  making  two  distinct  millenniums:  the 
first,  from  Ck>nstantine  until  1300,  in  this  corre- 
sponding with  the  common  orthodox  view;  the 
second,  from  1300  to  2300,  which  was  a  new  de- 
parture, by  which  he  was  enabled  to  find  a  place 
for  the  future  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  a  more 
glorious  condition  of  the  Church  on  earth,  which 
he  gains  by  a  symbolical  interpretation  of  Rev 
xxi.  and  xxii.  His  views  greatly  modified  the 
Puritan  interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse,  and 
were  expounded  by  different  writers  and  repro- 
duced in  different  forms  long  after  his  death.  His 
collected  works  appeared  London,  1644. 

BRIGIDA,  SAINT,  BRIGITTINES.  See  Bridget, 
Saint,  of  Sweden. 

BRILL,  JAKOB:  Mystic;  b.  at  Leyden  Jan.  21, 
1639;  d.  there  Jan.  28,  1700.  He  was  a  follower 
of  Pontiaan  van  Hattem;  between  1685  and  1699 
he  published  about  forty  works  of  a  mystical- 
devotional  character,  which  were  much  read;  but 
spiritualising  Christ  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
historical  Christ  almost  disappeared,  and  the  sac- 
rifice on  the  cross  became  a  mere  symbol  of  the 
sacrifice  which  shall  take  place  in  us,  he  at  last  got 
lost  in  a  mystical  pantheism,  far  away  from  Chris- 
tianity. 

Biblxoorapht:  A  eulogy  of  Brill  is  found  in  Poiret's  Caia- 
loifu^  dea  ierivaina  myttiqueB  (Lat.  timnal..  Amsterdam, 
1706).  Consult  also  Ypey  en  Dermont,  De  hervormde 
Kerk  in  Nederland,  vol.  iii.,  Breda.  1824. 

BRINCKERINCK,  JAN:  A  popular  preacher 
and  spiritual  director  in  connection  with  the  Breth- 
ren and  Sisters  of  the  Common  Life;  b.  near  Ztlt- 
phen,  Guelderland,  1359;  d.  at  Deventer  Mar.  26, 
1419.  Thomas  k  Kempis,  who  wrote  his  life, 
says  that  he  came  of  a  good  family,  but  tells  nothing 
further  of  his  early  life  except  that,  living  in  the 
days  of  the  great  regions  awakening  under  Groote's 
influence,  he  was  profoundly  impressed  by  it. 
He  came  into  intimate  personal  relations  with 
Groote  and  his  disciples,  and  devoted  himself  to 
forwarding  the  "  new  devotion  "  and  the  education 
of  the  young.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1393, 
and  not  long  afterward  took  charge  as  rector  of 
the  house  for  women  founded  at  Deventer  by 
Groote,  "  Meester  Geertshuis  "  as  it  was  commonly 
called  (see  Common  Life,  Brethren  of  the). 
He  introduced  a  strict  discipline  into  the  life  of 
the  inmates,  and  was  practically  the  founder  of 
the   sisters   whose   houses   afterward   became   so 


British  Church 
Brooks 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


272 


numerous.  Under  his  direction  the  cumbers 
grew  so  considerably  that  new  buildings  were 
needed.  After  three  years  the  church  and  convent 
were  ready  for  occupancy;  at  first  of  wood,  they 
were  rebuilt  of  stone  in  1407.  The  foimdation  was 
placed  under  the  Windesheim  chapter,  who  named 
Brinckerinck  as  its  confessor.  Numbering  in  that 
year  twelve  sisters  and  novices,  by  the  middle  of 
the  centiuy  the  community  had  grown  to  con- 
siderably over  a  hundred,  including  all  classes. 
It  was  selfHSupporting;  the  sisters  copied  and 
illuminated  manuscripts,  or  occupied  themselves 
profitably  in  other  ways  according  to  their  gifts. 
In  1408  a  new  house  was  erected  at  Diepenveen, 
a  few  miles  away,  in  the  choir  of  whose  church 
Brinckerinck  was  buried.  He  was  known  far  and 
wide  for  his  popular  preaching,  which,  according 
to  the  testimony  of  Rudolf  Dier,  one  of  his  hearers, 
and  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Ck>mmon  Life,  gave  to 
all  the  impression  that  he  had  sat  at  the  feet  of 
Jesus.  From  a  manuscript  biography  by  Elizabeth 
of  Delft,  one  of  the  twelve  first  sisters,  we  learn 
that  she  wrote  down  some  of  his  sermons,  and 
Rudolf  Dier  adds  that  out  of  such  materials  eight 
vernacular  "  collations  '*  were  formed,  containing 
his  admonitions  to  the  sisters.  These  were  dis- 
covered not  long  ago,  and  published  by  Moll  in 
1866.  They  read  like  notes  of  spoken  discourses, 
sometimes  apparently  combinations  of  different 
ones.  Like  the  usual  "  collations  "  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life,  they  were  not  formal  sermons 
following  a  rhetorical  method,  but  simple  and 
artless  talks  which  pass  readily  from  one  topic  to 
another,  and  are  rich  in  short,  pithy  sentences  of  a 
kind  to  be  easily  understood  and  remembered  by 
his  hearers.  Taken  as  a  whole,  they  form  a  notable 
memorial  of  this  remarkable  man,  whose  preaching, 
before  their  publication,  was  known  principally 
through  the  account  given  by  Thomas  k  Kempis. 

L.  SCHULZE. 
Bibuoorapht:  The  Vita  by  Thomas  k  Kempis  is  in  the 
Chronioon  monaaterii  S.  Agnetia^  ed.  H.  Rosweyde,  Ant- 
werp, 1616;  another  by  J.  Buschius  is  in  the  latter's  Chroni- 
eon  Windtahmenae,  ed.  K.  Grube,  Halle,  1886.  Consult: 
G.  Dunbar,  AfuUecia,  vol.  i.,  Deventer,  1719;  idem,  Het 
Kerkalyk  en  WertUlyk  Deventer,  ib.  1732-88;  W.  Moll. 
Kerkgea€hiedenia  van  Nederland  voor  de  Hervcrmina,  ii.  2, 
209  sqq..  Utrecht.  1871. 

BRITISH  CHURCH.    See  Celtic  Church. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.    See  CENTRiiL  America. 

BRimNAlfS,  BRiminAlVS.    See  Brictinanb. 

BRIXEV,  BISHOPRIC  OF:  A  diocese  which 
takes  its  name  from  Brixen,  a  town  of  the  Tyrol, 
situated  40  m.  s.s.e.  of  InnsbrQck.  The  present 
Tyrol  became  a  part  of  the  Roman  Empire  15  a.d., 
and  the  rapid  spread  of  Christianity  in  north  Italy 
gives  groimd  for  the  supposition  that  it  penetrated 
comparatively  early  into  the  Alpine  region.  The 
earliest  authentic  mention  of  a  bishopric  in  southern 
Rhsetia,  however,  dates  from  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century.  Among  the  bishops  of  Venetia  and 
Rhffitia  Secunda  who  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
emperor  Maurice  in  501  appears  the  name  of  a  cer- 
tain Ingenuinus,  whom  Paulus  Diaconus  and  the 
author  of  the  Versits  de  ordine  conpromncialium 
pantificum   describe   as   bishop   of   Sabiona,    the 


present  Seben.  The  existence  of  the  bishopric 
seems  to  have  been  continuous  from  this  time. 
It  embraced  to  the  south  of  the  Brenner  the  upper 
Eisackthal  and  the  Pusterthal,  to  the  north  of  the 
Brenner  almost  the  whole  of  what  is  now  the  Tyrol. 
Probably  under  Otto  II.,  the  see  was  removed 
from  Seben  to  Brixen;  in  a  document  of  967 
Bishop  Richpert  is  designated  as  PrihBinensU 
ecclesia  episcopus.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Brixen  counts  among  the  most  ancient  exam- 
ples of  exemption  from  the  secular  jurisdiction, 
having  received  it  from  Charlemagne  and  Louis 
the  Pious.  Its  territory  increased  lai^gely  by  do- 
nations from  successive  emperors,  and  Frederick 
I.  (1179)  gave  its  incumbent  the  prmcely  title  and 
rights.  Henceforth  the  bishops  received  investi- 
txire  immediately  from  the  emperor,  and  had  a 
seat  and  a  voice  in  the  imperial  diet.  The  secular 
privileges,  however,  were  gradually  absorbed  by 
the  powerful  magnates  of  the  Tyrol,  and  at  the 
Peace  of  Lun^ville  the  principality  was  formaUy 
suppressed,  to  be  conferred  the  next  year  on  the 
house  of  Austria.  Brixen  was  the  meeting-place 
in  1080  of  a  council  of  imperialist  prelates  who 
undertook  to  depose  Gregory  VII.  and  elect  Gui- 
bert  of  Ravenna  pope  in  his  place.  Cardinal 
Nicholas  of  Cusa  occupied  the  see  from  1450  to 
1464,  and  Caspar  Ignatius,  Coimt  KQni^  (1702- 
1747),  was  among  the  greatest  and  most  active 
prelates  of  his  day.  The  nomination  to  the  see  is 
vested  in  the  emperor  of  Austria. 

BROAD  CHURCH.    See  England,  Church  or. 

BROADTJS,  JOHN  ALBERT :  American  Baptist ; 
b.  in  Culpeper  County,  Va.,  Jan.  24,  1827;  d.  in 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Mar.  16,  1895.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Vii^ginia  1850,  and 
was  assistant  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  there, 
1851-53,  chaplain  to  the  University  1855-^57,  pas- 
tor of  the  Baptist  church  in  the  place  until,  ia 
1859,  on  its  organisation,  he  became  professor 
of  the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament  and 
of  homiletics  in  the  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary,  then  in  Greenville,  S.  C.  In  1877  the 
seminary  was  removed  to  Louisville,  and  in  1888 
he  became  its  president.  He  attained  high  rank 
as  teacher,  preacher,  and  scholar,  and  published 
two  notable  volumes  in  the  field  of  homiletics, 
The  Preparation  and  Delivery  of  Sermons  (Phila- 
delphia, 1870;  25th  ed.,  by  E.  C.  Dargan,  New 
York,  1905)  and  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Preach- 
ing (New  York,  1876);  also  Sermons  and  kddresM 
(1886;  6th  ed.,  1905);  a  commentary  on  Matthew 
(Philadelphia,  1887);  Jesus  of  Nazareth  (New 
York,  1890);  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  according  to 
the  Revised  Version  (1893);  Memoir  of  James 
Petigru  Boyce  (1893).  He  also  prepared  a  oom- 
mentary  on  Mark  (Philadelphia,  1905),  and  edited 
and  revised  the  Oxford  translation  of  Chrysostom's 
homilies  on  Philippians,  Colossians,  and  Thessalo* 
nians,  with  an  essay  on  St.  Chrysostom  as  a 
homilist,  in  vol.  xiii.  of  Philip  SchafT's  Nicene  and 
Post  Nicene  Fathers  (New  York,  1889). 
Bibuogeapht:  A.  T.  Robertson,  Life  and  LeUera  of  Jchm 

Albert   Broadua,  Philadelphia.  1001. 

BROCHHAND,  brek'mOnd,  JESPER  RASMUS- 
SEN:    Bishop  of  Zealand;   b.  at  Edge  (20  m.  s.w. 


273 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


British  Oliiiroli 
Brooks 


of  Copenhagen),  Zealand,  Aug.  5,  15S5;  d.  at 
Copenhagen  Apr.  19, 1652.  He  studied  at  Herlufs- 
holm,  Copenhagen,  Leyden,  and  Franeker;  became 
rector  of  Herlufshokn  academy  1608;  professor 
psedagogicus,  University  of  Copenhagen,  1610;  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  1613;  member  of  the  theological 
faculty  1615.  In  1617  he  was  appointed  teacher 
to  Prince  Christian,  son  of  King  Christian  IV., 
but  returned  to  the  imiversity  three  years  later. 
At  this  time  Denmark  was  disturbed  by  Roman 
Catholic  propaganda,  and  Brochmand  made  the 
controversy  with  Rome  a  subject  of  his  public 
lectures.  In  1626-28  he  published  Coniroversice 
sacrce  (3  parts),  a  reply  to  Bellarmine's  attacks 
on  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  in  1634,  at  the  king's 
order,  he  engaged  in  a  polemic  with  the  Jesuits, 
who  endeavored  to  defend  the  conversion  of  Mar- 
grave Christian  William  of  Brandenburg  to  Cathol- 
icism. In  their  final  reply  the  Jesuits  stigma- 
tized Brochmand  as  a  "  disturber  of  the  Roman 
empire,  the  boldest  despiser  of  His  Imperial  Majesty 
and  the  Catholic  rulers,  a  poisonous  spider,  and 
a  degenerate  Absalom."  Against  this  pamphlet 
Brochmand  delivered  a  series  of  lectures  which 
after  his  death  were  collected  and  published  under 
the  title  Apologies  apeculi  verittUis  confutaHo  (Copen- 
hagen, 1653).  He  was  ordained  bishop  of  Zealand 
in  1639,  and  during  his  long  and  fruitful  activity 
in  this  office  reorganized  the  Danish  church  serv- 
ice, especially  by  abolishing  the  Latin  choir,  and 
by  introducing  Wednesday  services  during  Lent. 
His  reputation  as  a  dogmatist  was  established  by 
his  Univerace  Iheologia  aystema  (2  vols.,  1633)  in 
which  he  proved  himself  a  bitter  opponent,  not 
only  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  but  also  of  the  Re- 
formed, whom  he  calls  "  enemies  of  God  and  of 
truth."  He  wrote  several  devotional  works,  of 
which  his  Sabbati  sancttficatio  for  more  than  two 
centuries  was  a  favorite  collection  of  sermons 
with  the  Danish  people.  (F.  NiEUSENf.) 

BROEMEL,  brO'mer',  ALBERT  ROBERT:  Ger- 
man Lutheran  pastor  and  author;  b.  at  Teichel 
(15  m.  s.s.e.  of  Erfurt),  Schwarzburg,  Apr.  27, 1815; 
d.  at  Ratzeburg  (12  m.  s.e.  of  LQbeck),  Prussia, 
Oct.  28,  1885.  He  was  educated  at  Gdttingen, 
Jena,  and  Berlin,  and  after  spending  two  years 
helping  Otto  von  Gerlach  (q.v.)  in  both  educational 
and  pastoral  duties  in  the  last-named  place,  was 
called  in  1846  to  be  pastor  of  Lassahn  in  the  duchy 
of  Lauenburg.  In  1854  he  became  superintendent 
of  the  whole  district,  with  special  charge  of  the 
principal  church  of  Ratzeburg.  Besides  the  multi- 
farious duties  which  occupied  him  during  the  next 
thirty  years,  he  found  time  for  a  considerable 
literary  activity.  His  principal  work  was  his 
HomiUHsche  Charakterhiider  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1869- 
1874),  which  is  practically  a  history  of  preaching, 
especially  the  post-Reformation  and  German. 
As  is  natural  from  the  character  of  his  life,  his 
writings  generally  are  more  practical  than  theo- 
retical. (WiLHELM  GlAMANN.) 

BROMLEY,  THOMAS:    English  mystic;    b.  in 

Worcester  1629;    d.  1691.    He  held  a  fellowship 

in  Oxford  until  1660,  when,  as  a  non-conformist, 

he  refused  to  accept  the  Anglican  Liturgy.    But 

IL— 18 


previously  he  had  become  a  follower  of  Jakob 
Boehme  the  mystic  (q.v.),  and  with  John  Pordage 
and  Jane  Lead  had  founded  the  Philadelphian 
Society  (see  Lead,  Jane);  when  he  left  Oxford 
he  came  to  Pordage,  and  lived  with  him  many  jrears. 
Bromley  was  active  in  propagating  his  opinions, 
which  included  the  rejection  of  the  outward  church 
and  of  marriage  not  for  license  but  on  the  theory 
that  the  example  of  Christ  was  in  favor  of 
voluntary  and  holy  virginity  for  all.  He  was 
himself  in  every  respect  an  estimable  man.  His 
works  were  translated  into  German  and  pub- 
lished, in  second  edition,  at  Frankfort  and  Leipsic, 
2  vols.,  1719-^2.  The  most  important  of  them 
was  The  Way  to  the  Sabbath  of  Rest  (London, 
1692;  later  eds.,  with  additions,  1710,  and  as  late 
as  1802). 

BROOKE,  STOPFORD  AUGUSTUS:  English 
Unitarian;  b.  at  Letterkenny  (16  m.  s.w.  of  Lon- 
donderry), County  Donegal,  Nov.  14,  1832.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin  (B.A., 
1856),  and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  Church  of 
England  in  1857.  He  was  successively  curate  of 
St.  Matthew's,  Marylebone  (1857-59)  and  Ken- 
sington Church  (1860-63).  He  was  then  chaplain 
to  the  princess  royal,  Berlin  (1863-65),  and  after 
his  return  to  England  was  minister  of  St.  James's 
Chapel,  York  Street  (1866-75),  and  of  Bedford 
Chapel  (1876-94).  He  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  queen  in  1872,  but  in  1880  he  withdrew 
from  the  Church  of  Englfiftid,  finding  himself  imable 
to  accept  the  orthodox  teaching  concerning  miracles. 
Among  his  writings  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  following:  Life  and  Letters  of  the  late  Fred- 
erick  W,  Robertson  (2  vols.,  London,  1865);  Free- 
dom in  the  Church  of  England  (1871);  Sermons 
(1868-77);  Theology  in  the  English  Poets  (1874); 
A  Fight  of  Faith  (1877);  Spirit  of  the  Christian 
Life  (1881);  UnUy  of  God  and  Man  (1886);  The 
Early  Life  of  Jesus  (1887);  History  of  Early  Eng- 
lish Literature  (1892);  Short  Sermons  (1892); 
History  of  English  Literature  (1894);  Study  of 
Tennyson  (1894);  God  and  Christ  (1894);  Jesus 
and  Modem  Thought  (1894);  Old  Testament  and 
Modem  Life  (1896);  The  Gospel  of  Joy  (1898); 
and  Poetry  of  Robert  Browning  (1902). 

BROOKS,  ELBRIDGE  GERRY:  American  Uni- 
versalist;  b.  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  July  29,  1816;  d.  at 
Philadelphia  Apr.  8,  1878.  He  was  licensed  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1836;  became  pastor  in  West 
Amesbury,  Mass.,  1837;  in  East  Cambridge,  1838; 
in  Lowell  (First  Universalist  Church),  1845;  in 
Bath,  Me.,  1846;  in  Lynn,  Mass.  (First  Univer- 
salist Church),  1850;  in  New  York  (Church  of  our 
Savior),  1859;  in  Philadelphia  (Church  of  the 
Messiah),  1868.  He  was  general  agent  of  the 
board  of  trustees  of  the  Grcneral  (Convention,  1867- 
1868.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher,  courageous 
and  energetic,  an  advocate  of  the  Maine  liquor 
law  and  of  the  cause  of  the  Union  during  the  (3ivil 
War,  as  well  as  of  the  doctrine  of  remedial  pun- 
ishment in  the  future  world.  He  published  Uni- 
versalism  in  Life  and  Doctrine  and  its  Superiority 
as  a  Practical  Power  (New  York,  1863)  and  Our 
New  Departure^  or  the  methods  and  works  of   the 


Brooks 

Brown 


TH£  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


874 


Univertalist  Church  of  America  as  it  enters  on  Us 
eeamd  cenhay  (Boflton,  1874). 

BmioamAfvr:  E.  8.  Brooka.  Life-Work  of  EBbridgo  Otrry 
BrookM,  Borton,  1881. 

BROOKS,  PHILLIPS:  American  preacher  and 
bialu^;  b.  in  Boston  Dec.  13,  1835;  d.  there  Jan. 
23,  1803.  He  was  of  distinguiahed  New  England 
ancestry,  being  descended  on  his  father's  side  from 
John  Cotton  and  on  his  mother's  side  from  Samuel 
PhiUips,  the  founder  of  Phillips  Academy,  Andover. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  1855;  studied  at 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Theological  School,  Alex- 
andria, Va.,  1856-59;  became  rector  of  the  Church 
of  the  Advent,  Phihidelphia,  1859;  of  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  Philadelphia,  1862;  of  Trinity  Church, 
Boston,  1869;  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 1891.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent, 
spiritual,  successful,  and  highly  esteemed  clergy- 
men of  his  time,  and  held  this  position  both  by 
mtellectual  power  and  an  engaging  personality. 
His  preaching  was  preeminently  the  product  of  his 
own  experience;  he  was  of  broad  sympathies  and 
tactful  in  his  dealings  with  men.  He  was  partic- 
ularly courteous  in  cultivating  cordial  relations 
with  those  of  other  than  his  own  denomination. 
He  gave  the  Lyman  Beecher  lectures  on  preaching 
before  the  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1877  (published 
as  Lectures  an  Preaching,  New  York,  1877),  and 
was  Bohlen  lectiuer  at  the  Philadelphia  Divinity 
School  in  1879  {The  Influence  of  Jesus,  1879). 
He  published  five  volumes  of  Sermons  during  his 
life  (1878-90),  and  five  have  been  added  since  his 
death  (1893-1905).  His  Letters  of  Travel  written 
to  his  family  appeared  in  1893,  and  a  volume  of 
Essays  and  Addresses,  religious,  literary,  and  social, 
edited  by  his  brother,  John  Cotton  Brooks,  in 
1894.  Individual  sermons,  addresses,  etc.,  have 
been  printed  in  many  forms  and  the  number  of 
books  of  extracts  from  his  preaching  is  very  large. 
Biblioobapbt:  Th«  best  biography  is  his  Life  and  Lettera 

by  A.  V.  G.   Allen,  2  vola..  New  York,  1000.  oondeiued 

into  1  vol..  ib.  1907. 

BRORSON,  HANS  ADOLF:  Bishop  of  Ribe; 
b.  at  Randrup,  on  the  west  coast  of  northern  Sles- 
wick,  June  20,  1694;  d.  at  Ribe,  Jutland,  Jime  3, 
1764.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen 
(1712-17),  devoting  himself  more  to  history  and 
literature  than  to  theology,  and  acted  as  tutor 
in  the  house  of  an  uncle  at  Ltigum  in  Sleswick, 
where  he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  religious  revival 
at  that  time  making  itself  felt  in  this  province. 
In  1722  he  was  appointed  minister  at  Randrup, 
and  in  1729  he  was  called  as  deacon  to  Tondem. 
Here  he  began  collecting  Danish  hymns  for  the 
use  of  his  congregation,  to  replace  the  German 
ones  previously  sung  before  and  after  the  Danish 
sermon.  In  1732  he  published  a  small  volume 
of  Christmas  hymns  which  contains  some  of  his 
most  excellent  compositions;  later  he  published 
other  booklets,  and  in  1739  the  first  edition  of  his 
Troens  rare  Klenodie  ("  The  Faith's  Rare  Jewel  "), 
a  collection  of  250  hymns,  mostly  translations  from 
the  German.  In  1737  King  Christian  VI.  appointed 
him  dean  of  Ribe  stift,  and  two  years  later  he 
succeeded  to  the  bishopric.  Brorson  was  one  of 
the  greatest  of  Danish  hymn-writers,  and  is  pre- 


eminently the  poet  of  Christmaa.  His  hjrmns  are 
associated  with  the  melodies  of  the  pec^le,  and 
he  was  easentially  a  singer  for  thoee  who  wor- 
ship in  the  privacy  of  their  homes.  While  not 
unable  to  write  original  hymns,  it  was  especially 
the  hymns  and  melodies  of  (jerman  Pietism  that 
he  transplanted  into  the  church  of  Denmark.  Tbe 
best  edition  of  his  hymns  is  by  P.  A.  Aiiand  (Co- 
penhagen, 1867).  (F.  NiKMENt.) 

BiBUOGKArBT:  A.  D.  JarsMuen,  H.  A.  Brormm,  Copea- 
hasen,  1887. 

BROTHERHOODS,  RELIGIOUS.     See  Confha- 

TERNTTIES. 

BROTHERS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAll  SCHOOLS. 
See  Christian  Brothebs. 

BROUGHTON,  brau'tun,  HUGH:  Church  of 
England  Hebrew  scholar;  b.  at  Oldbury  (near  the 
border  of  Wales,  20  m.  s.w.  of  Shrewsbury),  Shrop- 
shire, 1549;  d.  in  Tottenham,  London,  Aug.  4, 
1612.  He  was  helped  in  his  efforts  to  obtain  an 
education  by  Bernard  Gilpin  (q.v.),  and  became 
fellow  of  St.  John's  and  Christ's  colleges,  Cam- 
bridge (BA.,  1570).  In  London  he  gained  fame 
as  a  preacher  of  Puritan  doctrine.  In  1588  be 
published  A  Consent  of  Scripture,  a  treatise  on 
Bible  chronology;  it  was  attacked  at  both  univer- 
sities and  Brouj^ton  imdertook  lectures  in  its 
defense  at  London.  In  1589  or  1590  he  went  to 
Germany  and  thenceforth  spent  most  of  his  life 
on  the  Continent,  where  he  diluted  with  Jews, 
Roman  Catholics,  and  Protestants  who  did  not 
agree  with  him,  and  wrote  letters  to  England  asking 
for  appointments.  His  learning  and  ability  were 
imquestioned,  but  his  unhappy  t^nper  and  bad 
manners  prevented  his  advancement.  He  was 
long  anxious  to  assist  in  preparing  a  new  version 
of  the  Bible,  but  when  the  translators  were  ap- 
pointed by  King  James  in  1604  he  was  not  one  of 
them,  and  when  their  work  was  done  he  made  a 
bitter  attack  upon  it.  His  writings  were  collected 
by  Lightfoot,  with  the  pompous  title  The  Works  of 
the  Great  Albionean  Divine,  Renowned  in  Many 
Nations  for  Rare  Skill  in  Salem's  and  Athens's 
Tongues  and  Familiar  Acquaintance  with  all  Rab- 
binical Learning,  Mr.  Hugh  Broug?Uon  (London, 
1662);    a  sketch  of  his  life  is  included. 

Bibuoorapht:  Besides  the  life  prefixed  to  his  works,  there 
are  available  sketches  in:  B.  Brook,  Livea  of  the  Puriiamt, 
ii.  215  sqq..  London.  1813;  A.  k  Wood,  AAeruB  Oxonienaa, 
ed.  P.  Bliss,  iL  308  sqq.,  4  vols.,  ib.  1813-20. 

BROnSSOV,  brQ"86ri',  CLAXTDE:  French  Prot- 
estant; b.  at  Ntmes  1647;  executed  at  Montpellier 
Nov.  4,  1608.  He  practised  as  a  lawyer  at  Castres, 
Castelnaudary,  and,  after  1679,  in  Toulouse,  and 
employed  his  talent  with  courage  and  self-sacrifice 
to  defend  his  coreligionists  against  the  rigorous 
measures  of  the  government.  In  1683  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  France  and  lived  for  a  time  in 
Lausanne.  He  visited  Berlin  and  Holland  to 
bring  about  a  coalition  between  the  Protestant 
princes  against  Louis  XIV.  In  1689  he  returned 
to  France  and  traveled  through  the  southern  part 
of  the  country  admonishing  and  exhorting  his 
brethren,  though  a  price  was  put  on  his  head,  and 
he  was  hunted  by  the  officials  like  a  beast  of  prey. 


d76 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BrookB 
Srown 


In  1693  he  again  retired  to  Lausanne,  and  was 
ordained  there  (1694).  In  1695  he  reentered 
France  through  S^an,  and  visited  most  of  the 
Reformed  congregations  north  of  the  Loire,  finally 
escaping  through  Franche-Comt^  into  Switzerland. 
Once  more,  in  1697,  he  visited  France,  but  was 
caught  at  Oloron,  and  sentenced  to  death  by 
strangling.  Among  his  works,  of  which  a  list  is 
given  in  LfO  Franre  protestante,  vol.  iii.,  the  most 
promineiit  are:  £tat  des  rifomUs  de  France  (The 
Hague,  1685);  La  Manne  mysHque  du  desert  (Am- 
sterdam, 1695);  Lettres  pastorales  sur  le  cantique 
dee  cantiquee  (Delft,  1697). 

Bibuoobapht:  A.  Borrel,  Biographie  de  C.  BrouMont  Ntmes, 
1852;  H.  8.  Baynes.  The  Evangeliet  of  the  Deeert  Life  of 
C.  Brouaeon,  London.  1868. 

BROWN,  ARTHUR  JUDSON:  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  HoUiston,  Mass.,  Dec.  3,  1856.  He  was 
educated  at  Wabash  College  (B.A.,  1880)  and 
Lane  Theological  Seminary  (1883).  He  was 
ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1883, 
and  held  successive  pastorates  at  Ripon,  Wis.  (1883- 
1884),  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Oak  Park,  HI. 
(1884-88),  and  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Port^ 
land,  Ore.  (1888-95).  Since  1895  he  has  been  one 
of  the  secretaries  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions.  In  addition  to  numerous  con- 
tributions to  periodicals,  he  has  written  The  New 
Era  in  the  Philippines  (Chicago,  1903)  and  New 
Farces  in  Old  China  (1904). 

BROWlf,  CHARLES  REYlfOLDS:  Congrega- 
tionalist;  b.  at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  Oct.  1,  1862. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Iowa 
(B.A.,  1883;  M.A.,  1886)  and  the  School  of  The- 
ology of  Boston  University  (1889).  He  was  pas- 
tor of  Wesley  Chapel  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
Cincinnati,  O.  (1889-92);  of  Winthrop  Congrega- 
tional Church,  Boston  (1892-96);  since  1896  he 
hajs  been  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church, 
Oakland,  Cal.  He  was  special  lecturer  on  ethics 
in  Leland  Stanford  University  in  1900-06,  Lyman 
Beecher  lecturer  at  Yale  in  1905-06,  and  lecturer 
on  ethics  in  Mills  College  in  1906-08.  In  1897  he 
made  a  tour  of  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  has  been 
president  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  Mills  College 
since  1902  and  a  director  of  the  Oakland  Asso- 
ciated Charities  since  1899,  and  chairman  of  the 
oommittee  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  San  Fran- 
cisco churches  after  the  earthquake  of  1906.  In 
theology  he  is  a  liberal,  and  in  addition  to  pam- 
phlets and  sermons,  has  written  Two  Parables  (Chi- 
cago, 1898);  The  Main  Points  :  A  Study  in  Chris- 
tian Belief  (San  Francisco,  1899);  and  The  Social 
Message  of  the  Modem  PvlpU  (Yale  lectures,  New 
York,  1906). 

BROWIf,  CHARLES  RUFUS:  Baptist;  b.  at 
East  Kingston,  N.  H.,  Feb.  22,  1849.  He  was 
educated  at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  (1863-65) 
and  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  (1865-69), 
and  attained  the  rank  of  master.  He  resigned 
from  the  navy,  however,  and  continued  his  studies 
at  Newton  Theological  Institution  (1874-75,  1877- 
1878),  Harvard  University  (B.A.,  1877),  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1878-79),  and  the  universities 
of  Berlin  (1879-80)  and  Leipsic  (1880-81).    He 


was  ordained  to  the  Baptist  ministry  at  Franklin, 
N.  H.,  in  1881,  and  remained  there  as  pastor  until 
1883.  He  was  appointed  associate  professor  of 
Biblical  interpretation,  Old  Testament,  in  the 
Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1883,  and  since 
1886  has  been  professor  of  Hebrew  and  cognate 
languages  there.  He  was  also  librarian  of  the 
institution  in  1884-^,  1889-97,  and  1900-06, 
secretary  of  the  faculty  in  1887-92,  and  registrar  in 
1892-95.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  since  1883, 
and  was  formerly  a  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society  (1886),  the  Archeological  Institute 
of  America  (1899),  and  the  department  of  arche- 
ology in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (1902). 
He  has  written  An  Aramaic  Method  (2  parts, 
Chicago,  1884-86);  in  1893-94  edited  the  course 
of  Sunday-school  lessons  in  the  Bible  Study  Minor 
Graded  Lesson  System,  and  made  a  critical  transla- 
tion of  Jeremiah  (Philadelphia,  1907). 

BROWIf,  DAVID:  Free  Church  of  Scotland; 
b.  at  Aberdeen  Aug.  17,  1803;  d.  there  July  3, 
1897.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
(M.A.,  1821);  was  licensed  1826,  and  was  assistant 
to  Edward  Irving  in  London  1830-32;  was  ordained 
.minister  of  a  country  chapel  six  niiles  southwest 
of  Banff  1836;  he  went  with  the  Free  Chureh  1843, 
and  the  same  year  became  minister  of  St.  James's, 
Glasgow;  was  elected  professor  of  apologetics, 
church  history,  and  exegesis  of  the  Gospels  at  the 
Free  Church  College,  Aberdeen,  1857;  elected 
principal  1876,  and  resigned  his  professorship  1887. 
He  was  a  director  of  the  National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  was  deeply  interested  in  the  Alliance  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  and  a  member  of  the  third 
General  Council  at  Belfast,  1888.  He  was  an 
opponent  of  Robertson  Smith  in  the  controversy 
wUch  resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  the  latter  from 
Aberdeen,  and  as  a  member  of  the  New  Testament 
revision  company  took  a  highly  conservative  posi- 
tion. He  was  moderator  of  the  Grcneral  Assem- 
bly of  the  Free  Church  in  1885.  Besides  numer- 
ous contributions  to  the  periodicals,  he  published 
Christ's  Second  Coming:  Will  it  be  PremiUenialf 
(Edinburgh,  1846;  6th  ed.,  1867),  a  classic;  Crushed 
Hopes  Crowned  in  Death,  a  memorial  of  his  son, 
Alexander  Brown,  of  the  Bengal  dvil  service,  d. 
Jitn.,  1860  (London,  1861);  The  Restoration  of  the 
Jews :  the  History,  Princijies,  and  Bearings  of  the 
Question  (Edinburgh,  1861);  Life  of  the  laU  John 
Duncan  (1872);  The  Apocalypse :  its  structure 
and  primary  predictions  (London,  1891).  He  col- 
laborated with  R.  Jamieson  and  A.  R.  Fausset  in 
preparing  the  Commentary,  Critical,  Experimental, 
and  Practical,  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (6 
vols.,  Glasgow,  1864-70),  fiunishing  the  portion 
devoted  to  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans;  wrote  the  commentary  on  the 
Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  for  Schaff's  Popular 
Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (1882);  and 
prepared  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  for  Dods  and 
Whyte's  Handbooks  for  Bible  Classes  (Edinburgh, 
1883). 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  Q.  BUOde,  David  Brown,  ,  .  .  A  Mem' 
oir,  London,  1808. 


Brvwii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


276 


BROWN,  FRANCIS:  Presbyteriao;  b.  at  Han- 
over, N.  H.,  Dec.  26.  1849.  He  was  educated  at 
Dartmouth  College  (B.A.,  1870),  Uidon  Theo- 
logical Seminary  (1877),  and  the  University  of 
Berlin  (1877-79).  He  was  assistant  master  in 
Ayers'  Latin  School,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1870-72, 
and  tutor  in  Greek  in  Dartmouth  College  in  1872-74. 
From  1879  to  1881  he  was  lecturer  in  Biblical 
philology  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  was 
associate  professor  of  the  same  subject  from  1881 
to  1890,  when  he  was  appointed  Davenport  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  languages  in 
the  same  institution.  He  has  been  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis 
since  1880,  and  was  its  president  in  1895-96;  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Historical  Theology 
(Oxford)  since  1891  and  its  president  in  1899-1900; 
and  a  member  of  the  American  Oriental  Society 
since  1 881 .  In  addition  to  numerous  briefer  studies, 
he  has  written:  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
(New  York,  1884;  in  collaboration  with  R.  D. 
Hitchcock);  Assyriologyf  its  Use  and  Abuse  in  Old 
Testament  Study  (1885);  A  Hebrew  and  English 
Lexicon  of  the  Old  Testament  (12  parts,  Oxford, 
1891-1906;  in  collaboration  with  S.  R.  Driver 
and  C.  A.  Briggs);  and  The  Christian  Point  of 
View  (New  York,  1902;  in  collaboration  with 
A.  C.  McGiffert  and  G.  W.  Knox). 

BROWN,  HUGH  STOWELL:  En^sh  Baptist; 
b.  at  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  Aug.  10,  1823;  d.  at 
Liverpool  Feb.  24,  1886.  He  learned  surveying, 
and  became  a  railroad  engineer;  at  twenty-one  en- 
tered King  William's  College,  Castletown,  Isle  of 
Man,  to  study  for  the  ministry  of  the  Established 
Church;  doubts  oonoeming  the  baptismal  teachings 
of  the  Church  and  the  relations  of  Church  and  State 
led  him  to  think  of  returning  to  his  trade;  in  1846 
he  joined  the  Baptists,  in  1847  became  minister 
of  the  Mjrrtle  Street  Chapel,  Liverpool,  and  re- 
mained there  till  his  death.  He  inaugurated  Sun- 
day afternoon  lectures  for  workingmen,  with  whom, 
owing  to  his  early  experiences,  he  had  great  influ- 
ence. He  was  president  of  the  Baptist  Union 
1878,  an  active  member  of  the  Baptist  Missionary 
Society,  and  president  of  the  Liverpool  Peace 
Society.  He  published  numerous  lectures  and 
sermons. 

Bibuoorapht:  Hugh  Stowell  Brown^  hit  Autobioffraphy,  hi9 
Commonj^ace  Book,  and  BxtraeU  from  h\»  Sermoru  and 
AddreMtB,  a  memorial  Volume,  edited  by  his  Bon-in-law, 
W.  S.  Caine,  London,  1887;  DNB,  supplement  vol.,  i. 
300-301. 

BROWN,  JAMES  BALDWIN:  En^sh  Congie- 
gationalist;  b.  in  London  Aug.  19,  1820;  d. 
there  June  23,  1884.  He  studied  at  London  Uni- 
versity (B.A.,  1839);  studied  law  for  two  years 
and  then  studied  theology  at  Highbury  College; 
became  minister  of  London  Road  Chapel,  Derby, 
1843;  of  Claylands  Chapel,  Clapham  Road,  London, 
1846,  and  remained  with  this  congregation  till 
his  death;  a  new  church  on  Brixton  Road  (Brixton 
Independent  Church)  was  occupied  in  1870.  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  breadth  of  his  theological 
views  and  strongly  opposed  to  Calvinism.  He 
took  an  active  interest  in  public  movements  such 
as  the  relief  of  the  laboring  classes  during  the 


Lancashire  cotton  famine .  He  favored  the  opening 
of  the  Crystal  Palace  on  Sundays,  and  was  a  wann 
advocate  of  the  admission  of  dissenters  to  the 
universities.  He  strenuously  opposed  the  doc- 
trine of  conditional  immortality  as  a  deadly  error. 
In  1878  he  was  chairman  of  the  Congregational 
Union;  at  this  time  a  movement  to  discover  some 
common  ground  on  which  Christians  of  various 
ways  of  thinking  might  unite  in  independence  of 
dogma  and  of  the  historic  side  of  Christianity 
had  made  such  progress  as  to  call  for  repressive 
action  on  the  part  of  the  Union  in  the  opinion  of 
many;  he  strongly  opposed  such  action,  but  was 
overruled  and  outvoted.  His  more  important 
books  were:  The  Divine  Life  in  Man  (London, 
1859),  which  brought  upon  him  a  charge  of  hetero- 
doxy; The  SouTs  Exodus  and  Pilgrimage  (1862); 
The  Divine  Treatment  of  Sin  (1864);  The  Home 
Life  in  the  Light  of  Us  Divine  Idea  (1866);  Idoh- 
tries,  Old  and  New,  their  Cause  and  Cure  (1867); 
The  First  Principles  of  Ecclesiastical  Trvih  (1871); 
The  Higher  Life,  Us  ReaHty,  Experience,  and  Des- 
tiny (1874);  The  Doctrine  of  Annihilatum  in  tin 
Light  of  the  Gospel  of  Love  (1875);  Home,  its  Rela- 
lion  to  Man  and  Society  (1883). 

Biblxoorapht:  For  hia  life  oonsult  Elisabeth  B.  Brtnrn, 
/.  Baldwin  Brown,  Miniaier  of  Brixion  Independent 
Church,  London,  1884  (by  hia  wife). 

BROWIf,  JOHN:  English  Congr^ationalist;  b. 
at  Bolton>le-Moor8  (12  m.  n.w.  of  Manchester), 
Lancashire,  June  19,  1830.  He  was  educated  at 
Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  the  Lancashire 
Independent  College,  Manchester  (B.A.,  London 
University,  1853),  and  was  minister  of  Park  Chapel, 
Manchester,  from  1855  to  1864,  and  of  Bunyan 
Church,  Bedford,  from  1864  to  1903,  when  he 
became  pastor  emeritus.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales 
in  1891,  Congregational  Union  lecturer  in  1898, 
and  Lsnnan  Beecher  lecturer  at  Yale  in  1899. 
He  was  also  president  of  the  County  Association 
of  Free  Churches  in  Bedfordshire  from  1878  to 
1902,  and  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  Con- 
gregational Union  of  England  and  Wales,  1893-95. 
He  represented  the  latter  body  at  the  Triennial 
Union  of  the  United  States  at  Minneapolis  in  1892, 
and  at  the  Congregational  Union  of  Ontario  and 
Quebec  at  Toronto  in  1905.  In  Biblical  criticism 
he  is  a  liberal  conservative,  and  in  theology  bdongs 
to  the  evangelical  school.  In  addition  to  numerous 
pamphlets  and  magasine  articles,  he  has  written: 
Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Revelation  (London,  1866); 
God's  Book  far  Man's  Life  (1881);  John  Bunyan, 
his  Life,  Times,  and  Work  (1885);  The  Pilgrim 
Fathers  of  New  England  (1895);  The  Bedfordshire 
Union  of  Christians  (1896);  Apostolical  Succession 
in  the  Light  of  History  and  Fact  (Congregational 
Union  lectures,  1898);  The  Present  Crisis  in  Ute 
Church  of  England  (1899);  Pwitan  Preaching  in 
England  (Yale  Lectures  for  1899,  New  York,  1900); 
Eras  of  Nonconformity  (2  vols.,  London,  1904). 
He  likewise  edited  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
Holy  War,  and  Grace  Abounding  (3  vols.,  London, 
1887-^),  and  the  same  author's  complete  works 
for  the  Cambridge  University  Press  (2  vols.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1905-06). 


277 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Brown 


BROWN,  JOHN:  The  name  of  several  Scotch 
ministerB,  the  moet  noteworthy  being: 

1.  Jolm  Brown  of  Edinbtirgh:  Scotch  Burgher 
minister,  eldest  son  of  Rev.  John  Brown  of  Whit- 
bum  (21  m.  W.S.W.  of  Edinburgh),  Linlithgowshire 
(b.  1754;  d.  1832),  and  grandson  of  John  Brown 
of  Haddington  (q.v.);  b.  at  Whitburn  July  12. 
1784;  d.  at  Edinburgh  Oct.  13,  1^.  He  studied 
at  Ekiinburgh  and  the  divinity  hall  of  the  Burgher 
Church  at  Selkirk;  was  licensed  1805  and  ordained 
minister  of  the  Burgher  Church  of  Biggar,  Lanark- 
shire, 1806;  became  minister  of  the  Rose  Street 
Church,  Edinburgh,  1822,  and  of  the  Broughton 
Place  Church  in  the  same  city  1829;  was  professor 
of  exegetical  theology  to  the  United  Associate 
Synod  after  1834.  He  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  and  in  1845 
was  tried  (and  acquitted)  before  the  synod  on  a 
charge  of  holding  unsound  views  concerning  the 
atonement.  He  was  a  fine  orator  and  a  voluminous 
writer;  the  most  prominent  of  his  works  are: 
Expository  Discourses  on  First  Peter  (3  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1848);  Exposition  of  the  Discourses 
and  Sayings  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (3  vols.,  1850); 
The  Resurrection  of  Life,  an  exposition  of  I  Cor.  xv. 
(1852);  Expository  Discourses  on  GalaOans  {1S53)] 
Analytical  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the 
Romans  (1857).  He  was  the  father  of  the  well- 
known  John  Brown,  M.D.  (b.  1810;  d.  1882),  author 
of  Rab  and  his  Friends  (Edinburgh,  1859). 
Bibuooraphy:  J.  Cairns,  Memoira  of  John  Brovon^  Edin- 

buisb,  1861;  DNB,  vii.  18-19. 

2.  John  Brown  of  Haddington:  Scotch  Burgher 
minister;  b.  at  Carpow,  near  Abemethy  (on  the 
Frith  of  Tay,  6  m.  s.e.  of  Perth),  Perthshire,  1722; 
d.  at  Haddington  (12  m.  e.  of  Edinburgh)  June  19, 
1787.  He  was  poor  and  self-taught,  but  acquired 
no  small  amount  of  learning;  was  a  herd-boy,  ped- 
ler,  soldier,  and  school-teacher;  studied  theology 
under  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  James  Fisher  of 
Glasgow;  was  licensed  in  1750,  and  in  1751  settled 
as  pastor  of  the  Burgher  branch  of  the  Secession 
Church  of  Haddington,  where  he  remained  till 
his  death,  declining  a  call  as  professor  of  divinity  in 
Queen's  (College,  N.  J.  After  1768  he  was  professor 
of  theology  to  the  Associate  Synod.  His  yearly 
income  from  his  church  never  exceeded  £50,  and 
his  professorship  had  no  salary;  nevertheless  he 
brought  up  a  large  family,  gave  freely  in  charity, 
and  wrote  books  (which  brought  him  no  pecuniary 
profit)  not  only  popular  but  valuable.  They  in- 
clude: Two  Short  Catechisms  Mutually  Connected 
(Edinburgh,  1764);  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (2 
vols.,  1769;  revised  ed.,  1868);  The  Self-inter- 
preting  Bible  (2  vols.,  1778;  often  reprinted);  and 
A  Compendious  History  of  the  Church  of  England 
and  of  the  Protestant  Churches  in  Ireland  and  America 
(2  vols.,  Glasgow,  1784;  new  edition  by  Thomas 
Brown,  Edinburgh,  1823). 

Biblioobapht:  SketchM  of  his  life  are  prefixed  to  yariotu 
editiona  of  his  works;  the  best  is  that  by  his  son,  prefixed 
to  his  Select  Remaine^  ed.  hie  Sotu,  J.  and  E.  Brown,  this 
edited  by  W.  Brown*  Edinburgh,  1866.  Consult  also 
DNB,  vii.  12-14. 

BROWH,  JOHN  IfEWTON:  American  Baptist; 
b.  at  New  London,  C!k>nn.,  June  29,  1803;    d.  at 


Germantown,  Penn.,  May  15,  1868.  He  was 
graduated  at  Hamilton  Institute  (Ck>lgate  Uni- 
versity), Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  1823;  preached  at 
Bufifalo,  N.  Y.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  Maiden,  Mass., 
and  Exeter,  N.  H.;  was  professor  of  theology  and 
church  history  in  the  New  Hampton  (New  Hamp- 
shire) Theological  Institution,  1838-45;  pastor  at 
Lexington,  Va.,  1845-49;  editorial  secretary  of  the 
American  Baptist  Publication  Society  1849  till  his 
death.  He  prepared  (1833)  and  revised  (1852) 
the  "  New  Hampshire  [Baptist]  Confession  of 
Faith."  His  most  important  literary  work  was 
the  EncydopcBdia  of  Religious  KrwwLedge  (Brattle- 
boro,  1835). 

BROWIf,  PETER  HUME:  Scotch  historian,  lay- 
man; b.  at  Haddington  (18  m.  e.  of  Edinburgh), 
Haddingtonshire,  Dec.  17,  1850.  He  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh  University  (M.A.,  1873),  and  had 
originally  intended  to  enter  the  Church.  He  gave 
up  this  plan,  however,  and  ultimately  turned  his 
attention  to  history.  In  1898  he  was  made  editor 
of  the  Register  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Scotland, 
and  three  years  later  was  appointed  to  lus  present 
position  of  professor  of  ancient  (Scottish)  history 
and  paleography  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
He  has  written:  George  Buchanan,  Humanist  and 
Reformer  (Edinburgh,  1890);  Early  Travellers  in 
Scotland  (London,  1891);  Scotland  before  1700, 
from  Contemporary  Documents  (Ekiinburgh,  1893); 
John  Knox:  a  Biography  (2  vols.,  1895);  History 
of  Scotland  (2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1898-1902);  Scot- 
land in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary  (Rhind  Lectures  for 
1903;  London,  1904);  and  George  Buchanan  and  his 
Times  (1906). 

BROWN,  PHCEBE  ALLEN  (HmSDALE):  Hymn- 
writer;  b.  at  Canaan,  Ck>lumbia  County,  N.  Y., 
May  1,  1783;  d.  at  Marshall,  Henry  County,  III., 
Oct.  10,  1861.  She  was  left  an  orphan  at  the  age 
of  two,  and  in  early  life  suffered  great  hardship 
and  even  cruel  treatment  at  the  hands  of  strangers; 
she  first  learned  to  write  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
In  1805  she  married  Timothy  Brown  (d.  1853) 
and  moved  to  East  Windsor,  C!k>nn.  In  1813  the 
family  went  to  the  neighboring  village  of  Ellington, 
and  in  1818  to  Monson,  Mass.  Her  husband  was 
a  village  mechanic,  the  family  was  poor,  and  her 
life  was  hampered  by  care;  nevertheless  she  read 
much,  kept  up  systematic  Bible  study,  and  found 
money  to  devote  to  Christian  work,  especially  to 
the  cause  of  missions.  She  wrote  for  her  own 
amusement,  but  published  newspaper  articles, 
tracts,  and  a  volume  of  tales,  The  Tree  and  its 
Fruits  (New  York,  1836);  she  left  an  autobiog- 
raphy in  manuscript.    Her  best  known  hynm, 

"  I  love  to  steal  awhile  away 
From  every  cumbering  care," 

is  said  to  have  been  written  at  Ellington  at  a  time 
when  poverty  and  domestic  duties  left  little  oppor- 
tunity for  meditation  at  home  and  she  was  in  the 
habit  of  going  out  for  a  walk  every  day  at  dusk; 
some  thoughtless  remarks  of  neighbors  being 
reported  to  her,  she  wrote  "  An  Apology  for  my 
Twilight  Rambles."  The  second  line  originally 
read  "  From  little  ones  and  care."  The  poem 
was  first  printed  (abridged  and  revised)  in  Nettle- 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


278 


ton's  Village  Hymu  (New  York,  1824).  The  tune 
"  Monson,"  to  which  it  is  often  sung,  was  written 
by  her  son,  Samuel  Bobbins  Brown  (q.v.). 

Bibuoohapht:  F.  H.  Bird,  in  ThM  Ind^pendmi  for  Jan.  6, 
Jan.  20.  and  April  14.  1881;  S.  W.  Duffield.  EngHOi 
Hymns,  pp.  242-246.  New  York,  1886  (ciTes  original  text 
of  the  hymn  mentioned  in  the  text);  Julian,  Hymnology^ 
p.  186. 

BROWH,  SAMUEL  ROBBUfS:  The  first  Amer- 
ican appointed  missionary  to  Japan;  b.  at  East 
Windsor,  Conn.,  June  16,  1810,  son  of  Phoebe 
(Hinsdale)  Brown  (q.v.);  d.  ac  Monson,  Mass., 
June  20,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale,  1832; 
studied  at  the  Theological  School,  Columbia,  S.  C, 
1835-37,  and  at  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New 
York,  1837-38;  went  to  China  in  1838  and  took 
charge  of  a  school  founded  and  maintained  by 
the  Morrison  Education  Society  (see  Morrison. 
Robert),  located  first  at  Macao,  in  1842  removed 
to  Hon^ong.  He  returned  to  America  in  1847 
bringing  with  him  three  Chinese  boys,  one  of  whom 
was  Yung  Wing,  afterward  at  the  head  of  the 
Chinese  Education  C!ommission;  he  taught  at 
Rome,  N.  Y.,  1848-51,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  and  principal  of  a  suc- 
cessful school  at  Owasco  Outlet  (Sand  Beach), 
near  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1851-59;  was  one  of  the  incor- 
porators (1851)  and  first  chairman  of  the  executive 
committee  of  Elmira  College,  the  first  chartered 
woman's  college  in  America.  In  May,  1859,  he 
sailed  for  Japan  as  missionary  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  and  located  at  Kanagawa  till 
1863,  when  he  removed  to  Yokohama;  returned  to 
America  in  1867  and  for  two  years  preached  for  his 
old  church  at  Owasco  Outlet;  was  again  in  Japan 
1869-79.  Dr.  Brown  arrived  in  Japan  immediately 
after  the  opening  of  the  country;  during  the 
difficult  transition  period  which  followed  he  ld[>ored 
with  rare  judgment  and  unfailing  zeal  for  both 
natives  and  foreign  residents.  His  views  and  his 
methods  were  free  from  narrowness  and  he  con- 
sidered the  advancement  of  civilization  a  part  of 
the  work  of  the  Christian  missionary.  He  wrote 
many  articles  and  newspaper  letters  on  Chinese 
and  Japanese  subjects;  prepared  school  books 
for  his  pupils;  published  Colloquial  Japanese 
(Shanghai,  1863),  and  Prendergaat'e  Matiery  SyeUm 
Adapted  to  the  Study  of  Japanese  or  Englieh 
(Yokohama,  1878);  and  assisted  in  the  Japanese 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  completed  just 
before  his  death  and  published  the  same  year. 

Bibuoobapht:  W.  E.  Qriffis.  A  Maker  of  ihe  New  Orieni, 
8ami»a  R.  Brown,  New  York.  1902. 

BROWH,  WILLIAM  ADAMS:  Presbyterian;  b. 
in  New  York  City  Dec.  29,  1865.  He  was  educated 
at  Yale  University  (B.A.,  1886),  Union  Theological 
Seminary  (1890),  and  the  University  of  Berlin 
(1890-92).  He  was  successively  instructor  in 
church  history  (1892-93)  and  systematic  theology 
(1893-95)  in  Union  Theological  Seminary,  where 
he  was  provisional  professor  of  systematic  theology 
from  1895  to  1898,  and  has  been  Roosevelt  pro- 
fessor of  the  same  subject  since  1898.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and 
Exegesis,  and  has  written,  in  addition  to  contribu- 
tions to  Hastings's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Musical 


Instruments  and  their  Homes  (New  York,  1888); 
The  Essence  of  Christianity  (1892);  Chria  the  VUal- 
iting  Princijie  of  Christian  Theology  (1898);  and 
Christian  Theology  in  Outline  (1907). 

BROWN,  WILLIAM  MONTGOMERY:  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  bishop  of  Arkansas;  b.  near 
Orrville,  O.,  Nov.  6,  1855.  He  was  educated  at 
Seabury  Hall,  Faribault,  Bfinn.,  and  by  private 
tutors,  and  graduated  from  Bexley  Hall,  the  the- 
ological seminary  of  Kenyon  Ck>llege,  Gambier, 
O.,  1884.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1883,  and 
priest,  1884.  He  was  in  chaige  of  Grace  MiasioD, 
Gallon,  O.,  1883-01,  and  during  this  period  estab- 
lished seven  other  missions  in  adjacent  places.  In 
1891  he  was  chosen  general  missionary  and  arch- 
deacon of  the  diocese  of  Ohio,  and  in  this  capacity 
founded  many  new  parishes,  besides  building 
twenty-one  mission  chapels.  He  was  likewise 
secretary  of  the  Diocesan  Missionary  Committee 
and  of  the  Diocesan  Board  of  Trustees.  In  1898 
he  was  consecrated  bishop-coadjutor  of  Arkansas, 
and  on  the  death  of  Bishop  Henry  N.  Pierce  in 
1899,  became  bishop  of  the  diocese.  He  has  writ- 
ten The  Church  for  Americans  (New  York,  1896). 

BROWNE,    EDWARD    HAROLD:    Bishop    of 

Winchester;  b.  at  Aylesbury  (35  m.  n.w.  of  Lon- 
don), Buckinghamshire,  Mar.  6,  181 1 ;  d.  at  Shales, 
near  Bittcme  (2  m.  n.e.  of  Southampton),  Hamp- 
shire, Dec.  18,  1891.  He  studied  at  Emmanuel 
Ck>llege,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1832;  MA.,  1836; 
B.D.,  1855);  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  his  col- 
lege, 1837;  curate  of  Stroud,  Gloucestershire,  1840; 
perpetual  curate  of  St.  James's,  Exeter,  1841;  per- 
petual curate  of  St.  Sidwell's,  Exeter,  1842;  vice- 
principal  and  professor  of  Hebrew  in  St.  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  Wales,  1843;  vicar  of  Ken- 
wyn-cum-Kea,  Cornwall,  and  prebendary  of  Exe- 
ter, 1849;  vicar  of  Hcavitree  and  canon  of  Exeter. 
1857;  in  1854  he  was  appointed  Norrisian  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge;  in  1864  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Ely;  in  1873  translated  to 
Winchester;  resigned  1890.  He  took  a  de^ 
interest  in  the  "  Old  Catholic "  movement  and 
attended  the  congress  at  Ck>logne  in  1872;  was  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  company  of  revisers; 
was  prominent  on  the  conservative  side  in  the 
beginning  of  the  controversy  concerning  Bible 
criticism  and  issued  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Elo- 
histic  PsalmSf  in  Reply  to  Bishop  Colenso  (Loiulon, 
1863).  He  also  published:  The  Fulfilment  of  the 
Old  Testament  Prophecies  Relating  to  the  Messiah 
(1836);  An  Exposition  of  the  Thirty-nine  Artides 
(2  voU.,  1850-53;  new  ed.,  1886>--the  work  by 
which  he  is  best  known;  and  Position  and  Parties  of 
the  English  Church  (1875).  He  also  contributed 
to  Aids  to  Faith  and  wrote  the  introduction  to  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  commentary  on  (xenesiB  for 
the  "  Speaker's  Ck>mmentary." 

Bxbuoorapht:  G.  W.  Kitchin.  Edward  Harold  Browm. 
.  .  .  A  Memoir,  London,  1805;  DNB,  supplement  roL, 
i.  304. 

BROWNE,  GEORGE:  First  Protestant  arch- 
bishop of  Dublin;  d.  1556.  He  is  first  heard  of 
in  1534,  when,  as  provincial  of  the  order  of  Austin 
Friars,  he  was  employed  to  administer  the  oath  of 


279 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Brown 
Browne 


succession  to  the  friars  of  London  and  the  south  of 
En^and;  he  wajs  nominated  to  the  see  of  Dub- 
Ud,  vacant  by  the  murder  of  Archbishop  Alien, 
was  consecrated  the  same  year,  and  arrived  in 
Ireland  in  1536.  He  worked  diligently  to  intro- 
duce the  Reformation  in  Ireland  and  to  further 
the  cause  of  the  king;  he  was  deposed  under  Mary. 
His  opponents  have  described  him  as  avaricious, 
profligate,  and  unlearned. 

Bibuoobaprt:  A  sketch  and  useful  references  to  Bouroes 
am  in  DNB,  vii.  43-ft5. 

BROWHE,  GEORGE  FORREST:  Bishop  of 
Bristol;  b.  at  York  Dec.  4,  1833.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Catherine's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A., 
1856),  where  he  was  fellow  and  lecturer  in  1863- 
1865.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1859, 
and  after  being  chaplain  of  St.  Catherine's  College 
and  theologicid  tutor  at  Trinity  College,  Glenal- 
mond,  Scotland,  was  rector  of  Ashley,  Hants,  from 
1869  to  1875.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Coimcil 
of  the  Senate  of  Cambridge  University  in  1874- 
1878  and  again  in  1880-92,  and  was  Disney  professor 
of  archeology  in  the  same  university  from  1887  to 
1892.  He  was  treasurer  of  St.  Paul's  in  1891-99 
and  canon  in  1892-97,  and  in  1895  was  consecrated 
bishop  suffragan  of  Stepney,  being  translated  to 
the  see  of  Bristol  two  years  later.  He  was  also 
Bell  lecturer  in  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church  in 
1862  and  secretary  to  the  Cambridge  Local  Exam- 
inations seven  years  later,  and  is  president  of  the 
Alpine  Club.  He  has  written:  Ice  Caves  of  France 
and  SwiUerland  (London,  1865);  The  Venerable 
Bede  (1879);  University  Sermons;  The  Ilam 
Crosses  (1889);  Lessons  from  Early  English  Church 
History  (1893);  The  Church  at  Home  before  Augus- 
tine (1894);  Augustine  and  his  Companions  (1895); 
Off  the  Mill  (1895);  Conversion  of  the  Heptarchy 
(1896);  Theodore  and  WUfrUh  (1897);  History  of 
SL  Catherine's  College  (1902);  and  Life  and  Works 
of  St  Aldhelm  (1903). 

BROWNE,  JOHN:  English  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  North  Walsham  (15  m.  n.  of  Norwich),  Nor- 
folk, Feb.  6,  1823;  d.  at  Wrentham  (33  m.  n.e.  of 
Ipswich),  Suffolk,  Apr.  4,  1886.  He  studied  at 
Coward  College  and  University  College,  London 
1839-44  (B.A.,  London  University,  1843);  was 
minister  at  Lowestoft.  Suffolk,  1844;  at  Wrentham, 
1848  till  his  death.  His  chief  publication  was  the 
History  of  Congregationalism  and  Memorials  of  the 
Churches  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  (London,  1877), 
which  is  of  great  importance  for  the  beginnings  of 
English  Congregationalism. 

BROWNE,  PETER:  Protestant  Irish  bishop; 
b.  in  County  Dublin  soon  after  1660;  d.  Aug.  25, 
1735.  He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Cork  and  Ross  1710.  He 
opposed  the  custom  of  drinking  healths  in  a  series 
of  pamphlets  (1713  sqq.)  which  won  him  much 
notoriety,  but  has  more  enduring  fame  as  an  anti- 
deistical  writer;  in  reply  to  John  Toland  he 
published  A  Letter  in  Answer  to  a  Book  Entitled 
ChristianHy  not  Mysterious  (Dublin,  1697),  and  after- 
ward elaborated  his  argument  in  The  Procedure, 
Extentf  and  Limits  of  Human  Understanding  (Lon- 
don, 1728),  a  critique  of  Locke's  Essay;  in  Things 


Divine  and  Supernatural  Conceived  by  Analogy  with 
Things  Natural  and  Human  (1733)  he  asserts  that 
knowledge  of  God's  essence  and  attributes  can  be 
only  "  analogical  "  and  not  direct. 

BROWNE,  ROBERT:  Leader  of  the  English 
Separatists  (from  whom  they  received  their  popu- 
lar name  of  Brownists),  and  generally  considered 
the  founder  of  the  Congregationalists;  b.  at  Tole- 
thorp  (3  m.  n.  of  Stamford),  Rutlandshire,  about 
1550;  d  at  Northampton  after  Jime  2,  1631.  He 
was  of  good  family  and  had  influential  relatives 
on  both  his  father's  and  his  mother's  side,  including 
the  great  chancellor,  Lord  Burghley.  He  studied 
at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1572). 
It  is  said  that  in  1571  he  was  domestic  chaplain 
to  Thomas  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  that  the 
duke  took  his  part  in  some  obscure  trouble  with 
the  ecclesiastictd  authorities;  but  this  is  doubtful. 
He  taught  school  for  three  years  (seventeenth 
century  writers  say  in  or  near  London)  and  made 
"  enemies  "  by  freely  speaking  his  mind  concern- 
ing "  many  things  amiss,  and  the  cause  of  all  to  be 
the  woeful  and  lamentable  state  of  the  Church." 
In  1578  or  1579  he  returned  to  Cambridge.  At  this 
time  his  views  seem  to  have  ripened.  Holding  that 
the  true  Church  consisted  only  of  such  as  led  Chris- 
tian lives  and  did  not  properly  include  all  baptized 
persons,  he  declared  that  '^  the  kingdom  of  God  was 
not  to  be  begim  by  whole  parishes,  but  rather 
of  the  worthiest,  were  they  never  so  few."  He 
publicly  harangued  against  "  the  calling  and 
authorizing  of  preachers  by  bishops,"  preached 
constantly  to  Puritan  audiences  (acceptably,  it 
would  appear)  although  he  had  no  bishop's  license, 
and,  when  his  brother  obtained  a  license  for  him, 
disdfained  it.  Naturally  he  was  silenced,  and  ill- 
ness compelled  him  temporarily  to  comply  with 
the  bishop's  mandate. 

About  1580  Browne  went  to  Norwich,  attracted 
thither  by  a  friend,  Robert  (or  Richard)  Harrison 
(q.v.),  who  became  his  coworker.  Here  he  organ- 
ized his  first  church  and  soon  extended  the  field 
of  his  operations  as  far  as  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  The 
bishop  of  Norwich  complained  of  him  as  a  preacher 
of  "  corrupt  and  contentious  doctrine  "  and  likely  to 
mislead  "  the  vulgar  sort  of  people,"  but  Burghley 
protected  him.  Nevertheless  Norwich  was  made  so 
uncomfortable  for  the  little  band  that  about  Jan., 
1582,  most  of  them,  with  their  pastor,  emigrated 
to  Middelburg  in  Zealand.  Browne's  impulsive 
and  imperious  character,  as  well  as  the  principles 
of  the  congregation,  did  not  promote  unity.  After 
two  years  of  continual  discussion  and  division, 
with  four  or  five  families,  he  left  for  Scotland. 
They  arrived  in  Edinburgh  Jan.,  1584,  and  at  once 
commenced  the  propagation  of  their  peculiar  doc- 
trines. They  **  held  opinion  of  separation  from 
all  kirks  where  exoommimication  was  not  rigorously 
used  against  open  offenders  not  repenting;  they 
would  not  admit  witnesses  [sponsors]  in  baptism, 
and  simdry  other  opinions  they  had."  Within  a 
week  Browne  was  simunoned  befose  the  session 
of  the  kirk;  he  was  imprisoned,  but  only  for  a 
short  time;  and  soon,  unhindered,  if  not  covertly 
encouraged  by  the  secular  authorities,  he  traveled 


BrowiiA 
Bmoe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


280 


over  Scotland.  He  returned  to  England,  and,  pos- 
sibly, again  visited  Holland. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  Browne 
kept  on  as  zealously  and  offensively  as  ever  so  far 
as  his  strength — ^which  was  beginning  to  break 
owing  to  imprisonments  and  hardships — pex^ 
mitted,  continually  harassed  by  the  authorities  and 
favored  by  Burghley,  until  1586;  that  in  that  year 
the  bishop  of  Peterborough  excommunicated  him, 
and  this  so  wrought  upon  him  that  he  changed 
completely,  submitted  to  the  Church,  and  thence- 
forth lived  quietly,  and,  after  a  few  years,  in  the 
enjoyment  of  a  good  benefice.  Mr.  Burrage  trans- 
fers the  excommunication  to  a  later  period  and 
gives  the  date  of  Browne's  submission  Oct.  7,  1585. 
In  Nov.,  1586,  he  was  elected  master  of  St.  Olave's 
Grammar-school  in  Southwark,  binding  himself 
to  abstain  from  propagating  his  peculiar  doctrines 
and  to  live  as  a  member  of  the  Church.  His  con- 
troversial powers  were  now  employed  against  his 
former  associates,  Henry  Barrow  and  John  Green- 
wood. In  Sept.,  1591,  he  received  the  living  of 
Achurch-cum-Thorpe,  Northamptonshire;  he  was 
ordained  deacon  and  priest  on  Sept.  30,  and  he  re- 
mained at  Achurch  for  forty  uneventful  years. 
For  a  period  of  ten  years  (1616-26)  the  entries  in 
the  parish  register  are  not  in  his  handwriting.  Mr. 
Burrage  thinks  that  this  was  the  time  when  he  was 
under  sentence  of  excommunication  by  the  bishop 
of  Peterborough,  and  that  the  cause  was  a  mani- 
festation of  Separatist  tendencies  encouraged  by 
Browne  in  his  parish.  If  this  be  so  he  made  sub- 
mission a  second  time,  for  his  handwriting  reap- 
pears in  the  register.  His  last  entry  is  dated  June 
2,  1631,  and  in  Nov.,  1633,  a  new  rector  took  his 
place.  He  died  in  Northampton  jail,  conmiitted 
for  striking  a  constable  who  came  to  him  to  collect 
a  debt,  and  having  shown  something  of  his  early 
fervid  manner  when  brought  before  a  justice  in 
consequence. 

Browne's  biographers  have  been  much  puzzled 
to  explain  or  extenuate  his  extraordinary  conduct 
in  making  terms  with  the  Church.  It  has  been 
urged  that  he  was  broken  phjrsically  and  mentally 
in  1586;  but  he  can  not  have  been  forty  years  old 
at  that  time  and  he  lived  forty-five  years  aftex^ 
ward.  Dr.  Dexter's  suggestion  that  he  was  nat- 
urally of  unsoimd  mind  with  a  tendency  to  insanity 
which  at  times  became  acute  has  found  wide  ac- 
ceptance. It  would  explain  not  only  Browne's 
own  conduct  but  also  the  long  forbearance  and 
continued  kindness  which  he  enjoyed  from  Burgh- 
ley and  others.  Mr.  Burrage  thinks  that  "  at  last 
he  had  become  wearied  of  the  continual  criticism 
to  which  his  views  in  the  past  had  subjected  him, 
and  probably  had  honestly  come  to  feel  that  he 
might  be  of  really  more  service  to  the  world,  as  it 
was,  not  by  wearing  himself  out  by  combating  es- 
tablished ideas,  but  rather  by  accepting  what  the 
world  offered  him  and  by  using  the  advantage  he 
had  thus  gained  to  the  furtherance  of  his  higher 
ideals." 

The  starting-point  of  Browne's  views  and  system 
seems  to  have  been  his  conviction  that  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  true  Christians  required  their  separation 
from  others  who  were  Christians  in  name  only. 


It  was  futile  to  hope  that  such  separation  would 
be  brought  about  by  the  bishops  and  dergy  of 
the  Established  Church  or  by  the  civil  rulers.  Yet 
the  necessity  for  it  was  inmiediate.  Hence  the 
only  course  possible  was  for  the  faithful  to  secede 
and  organize  themselves.  A  voluntary  association 
or  covenant  of  true  believers  constituted  a  church, 
and  each  church  had  the  exclusive  right  of  dis- 
cipline and  the  choice  of  its  own  officers.  Two 
kmds  of  officers  are  designated  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment: apostles,  prophets,  evangelists  are  temporaiy 
and  belong  to  the  past;  the  abiding  officers  are 
the  pastor,  teacher,  elders,  deacons,  and  widows 
who  have  their  charge  in  one  church  only.  The 
presence  of  these  officers  does  not  release  any  mem- 
ber from  the  duty  of  watching  and  helping  the 
others,  and  a  similar  responsibility  exists  between 
churches.  The  civil  authorities  should  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  spiritual  matters,  and  it  is  not  their 
province  to  enforce  conformity  to  any  ecclesiastical 
system.  He  was  thus  the  first  Englishman  to 
express  the  Anabaptist  doctrine  of  complete  sep- 
aration of  Church  and  State.  See  Congregation- 
AIJSTB,I.,  1,§§  1-2. 

Browne  published  three  treatises  at  Middelbiss  (1582X 
entitled  respectively:  (1)  ii  Book  which  Shmoeth  tke  Life  and 
MannerB  of  All  True  ChriMtiafUt  and  how  unlike  0»ey  art 
unto  Turk*  and  PapittM  and  heathen  folk;  aleo  the  poinU 
and  parte  of  all  divinity  that  ie  of  the  revealed  will  and  ward 
of  God  are  declared  by  their  eeveral  definitione  and  divieionein 
order  (extracts  in  Walker,  pp.  18-27);  (2)  A  Treatiee  of 
Reformation  without  Tarrying  for  Any,  and  of  (he  widced- 
neee  of  thoee  preachere  which  will  not  reform  till  the  magi$' 
irate  command  or  compel  them  (reprinted.  Boston,  "  Old 
South  Leaflet,  no.  100  ";  with  biographical  introduction 
by  T.  G.  Oippen,  London,  1003);  (3)  A  Treatiee  upon 
the  2Sd  of  Matthew,  both  for  an  order  of  etudying  and  Aan- 
dling  the  Seripturee  and  aleo  for  avoiding  the  popieh  dieor- 
dere  and  ungodly  communion  of  all  falee  Chrietiane,  eepe- 
eially  of  wicked  pread^erB  and  hirdinge  (extracts  in  Burrage, 
pp.  21-25).  These  were  intended  primarily  to  further 
his  cause  in  England  and  were  spread  abroad  by  his  follow- 
ers; two  men  were  hanged  in  1683  for  disseminating 
them  (see  0>ppin,  John).  Several  other  publications  or 
manuscripts  of  Browne's  are  mentioned  (Mr.  Burrage, 
True  Story t  pp.  74-76,  enumerates  twenty-five)  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  known  to  be  preserved:  (4)  A  TVue  and  Short 
Declaration  both  of  ihe  Gathering  and  Joining  together  of 
Certain  Peraone,  and  aleo  of  the  lamentable  breach  and  diri- 
eion  which  fell  among  them  (16847;  reprinted  in  The  Congre- 
gationaliMtt  London,  1882),  the  story  of  Browne's  early  life: 
(6)  An  Anewer  to  Matter  Cartwright'B  Letter  for  joining  with 
the  Bngliah  Churehee  (London,  n.d.;  extracts  in  Burrage, 
pp.  31-36);  (6)  A  Reproof  of  Certain  Schiemaiieal  Pereona 
[Henry  Barrow  and  John  Greenwood]  and  their  dodbrine, 
touching  tite  hearing  and  preaching  of  the  word  of  God  (manu- 
script written  probably  in  1688,  discovered  by  Mr.  Burrage 
and  published  by  him.  Oxford,  1907);  (7)  A  letter  addressed 
"  My  good  Uncle,"  and  dated  "  the  last  of  December.  1588  " 
[Jan.  10,  1689],  discovered  and  published  with  introduc- 
tion by  Champlin  Burrage  under  the  title  A  Neva 
Yeara  Guift  (London,  1904).  The  letter  is  quoted  by 
Richard  Bancroft,  afterward  archbishop  of  (^terfouiy, 
in  a  sermon  at  Paul's  Ooss,  Feb.  9,  1688,  and  the  manu- 
script discovered  by  Mr.  Burrage  is  indorsed  in  what  is 
believed  to  be  Brancroft's  handwriting  **  Mr.  Browne's 
Answer  to  Mr.  Flower's  Letter."  One  sheet  (4  pages)  ie 
lacking,  but  the  part  preserved  contains  more  than  6,000 
words,  discusses  the  subject  of  church  government  at 
considerable  length,  and  is  particularly  interesting  for 
the  idea  which  it  gives  of  Browne's  views  concerning  the 
(%urch  of  England  at  the  time  of  writing;  (8)  A  letter 
to  Burghley,  Apr.  16.  1690,  printed  by  Strype  in  the  Lif* 
and  Aete  of  John  WhUgift,  appendix,  bk.  iii.,  no.  xlv.  (ap- 
pendix, pp.  133-134.  ed.  London,  1718). 
BiBUOGRAraT:  T.  Fuller,  Church  Hietary  of  Great  Britain, 

book  ix..  cent.  xvi..    sect,  vi.,  f  f  1-7.  64-60,  ed.  J.  S. 


281 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Browne 
Bmoe 


Brew«r.  6  vols.,  London,  1845;  C.  H.  Cooper,  AthencB 
CatUabriffienaea,  ii.  177-178.  London.  1868-61;  H.  M. 
Dexter.  CongngcUiontUiatn  of  the  Last  Tfu^e  Hundred 
Yeare,  New  York,  1880;  W.  Walker.  Creede  and  Plain 
forme  of  Congreoationaliem,  pp.  1-27,  ib.  1893;  idem.  Hia- 
tary  of  the  CongregoHonal  Churdiee  in  the  United  Statee, 
31-41.  ib.  1894;  DNB,  vii.  57-61;  C.  Burrage,  The  True 
Story  of  Robert  Browne  il560-160S\  Father  of  Congre- 
oatifonaliem,  Oxford,  1906. 

BROWNE,  SIR  THOMAS :  Author  of  the  Religio 
Medici;  b.  in  Cheapside,  London,  Oct.  19,  1605; 
d.  at  Norwich  Oct.  19,  1682.  He  attended  Win- 
chester College  and  Broadgate  Hall  (Pembroke 
College),  Oxford  (B.A.,  1626;  M.A.,  1629);  studied 
medicine  and  practised  in  Oxfordshire;  traveled 
in  Ireland,  France,  and  Italy,  continued  his  medical 
studies  at  Montpellier  and  Padua,  and  received 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  Leyden  about 
1633;  settled  at  Norwich  in  1637,  where  he  gained 
much  repute  as  a  physician  and  still  more  as  a  man 
of  universal  knowledge.  The  Religio  Medici  was 
probably  written  about  1635  and  not  intended  for 
publication;  two  unauthorized  editions  appeared 
in  1642,  which  led  to  an  edition  with  the  author's 
approval,  but  anonymous,  in  1643.  The  work  is 
peculiar  ifrom  its  blending  of  deep  religious  feeling 
and  skeptical  views.  ''  It  appears  to  have  been 
composed  as  a  tour  de  force  of  intellectual  agility, 
an  attempt  to  combine  daring  skepticism  with 
implicit  faith  in  revelation."  The  style  is  meta- 
phorical and  artificial,  with  many  Latinized  words, 
but  striking  and  impressive.  Browne  also  pub- 
lished: Pseudodoxia  Epidemicaj  or  Enquiries  into 
very  Many  Received  Tenets  and  commonly  Presumed 
Truihs,  which  Examined  prove  but  Vulgar  and  Com- 
mon Errors  (London,  1646);  Hydriotaphia  or  Urn- 
burial  and  The  Garden  of  Cyrus  (1658);  many  of  his 
manuscripts  were  published  posthumously.  The 
best  edition  of  his  complete  works  is  by  Simon 
Wilkin  (4  vols.,  London,  1835-36;  reprinted, 
abridged,  by  Bohn,  3  vols.,  1851-52).  The  Religio 
Medici,  with  A  Letter  to  a  Friend  upon  Occasion 
of  the  Death  of  his  Intimate  Friend  (first  published 
1690)  and  Christian  Morals  (1716),  and  the  Hydrio- 
taphia and  Garden  of  CyruSf  have  been  carefully 
edited  by  W.  A.  Greenhill  (London,  1881  and  1896); 
and  the  Religio  Medici  is  ed.  with  introduction  by 
C.  H.  Herford  (New  York,  1907). 

Biblioobapht:  A  rather  extended  sketch  of  Browne's  life 
and  writings  is  given  in  DNB,  vii.  64-72.  where  the  liter- 
ature and  list  of  works  is  given  at  some  length.  Consult 
also  £.  Gosee,  in  Bngliah  Men  of  Lettere,  London.  1905. 

BROWHISTS.    See  Browne,  Robert. 

BROWULEE,  WILLIAM  CRAIG:  American 
(Dutch)  Reformed  clergyman;  b.  at  Torfoot,  Lan- 
arkshire, Scotland,  1783;  d.  in  New  York  Feb. 
10,  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity; was  licensed  and  emigrated  to  America  in 
1808;  was  pastor  at  Mt.  Pleasant,  Washington 
County,  Penn.,  Philadelphia  (1813),  and  Basldng- 
ridge,  N.  J.  (1819);  professor  of  languages  in 
Rutgers  College  1825;  called  to  the  Collegiate  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  New  York,  1826;  made  pastor 
emeritus  after  a  paralytic  stroke  in  1843.  He  was 
a  strong  opponent  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Quakers. 
He  published  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Quakers 
(New  York,  1824);    The  Roman  Catholic  Contro- 


versy (Philadelphia,  1834);  Lights  and  Shadows  of 
Christian  Life  (New  York,  1837);  Popery  an 
Enemy  to  Civil  and  Religious  Liberty  (1836);  Ro- 
manism in  the  Light  of  Prophecy  and  History  (1857). 

Bibuogbapht:  A  Memorial  was  published  by  the  consis- 
tory of  his  Church  (New  York.  1860). 

BROWNSON,  ORESTES  AUGUSTUS:  Roman 
Catholic  convert;  b.  at  Stockbridge,  Vt.,  Sept.  16, 
1803;  d.  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  Apr.  17,  1876.  His 
religious  career  is  marked  by  its  many  changes. 
The  influences  of  his  boyhood  were  of  the  strictest 
New  England  orthodoxy;  at  nineteen  he.  joined  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Ballston,  N.  Y.;  in  1826 
he  was  ordained  (at  Jaffrey,  N.  H.)  a  Universalist 
minister;  after  two  or  three  years  he  left  the  Uni- 
versalists,  and,  influenced  by  Robert  Dale  Owen 
and  his  projects,  became  a  socialist,  entered  politics, 
and  helped  form  a  "  Workingmen's  Party "  in 
New  York.  He  soon  despaired  of  reform  by  means 
of  political  organization,  and  in  1831  again  began 
preaching  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  this  time  as  an  inde- 
pendent, attracted  by  the  writings  of  William 
EUery  Channing.  Later  he  had  Unitarian  parishes 
at  Walpole,  N.  H.,  and  Canton,  Mass.  In  1836  he 
organized  in  Boston  ''  The  Society  for  Christian 
Union  and  Progress  "  and  continued  its  minister 
till  1843,  when  he  gave  up  preaching.  In  Oct., 
1844,  he  was  received  into  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Boston,  and  did  not  again  change  his 
faith,  although  he  continued  independent  and  com- 
bative within  the  Church  and  received  a  recom- 
mendation from  Rome  to  be  more  guarded  in  his 
language.  He  wrote  with  great  zeal  and  no  small 
ability  in  advocacy  of  all  of  his  successive  be- 
liefs. He  started  The  Boston  Quarterly  Review  in 
1838  and  wrote  nearly  all  its  numbers  till  it  was 
merged  in  The  Democratic  Review  of  New  York 
in  1843;  from  1844  to  1864  and  agam  1873-75 
he  published  Brownson^s  Quarterly  Review^  at 
first  in  Boston,  later  in  New  York,  where  he  lived 
1855-75.  His  books  were:  New  Views  of  Chris- 
tianity, Society,  and  the  Church  (Boston,  1836); 
Charles  Elwood,  or  the  Infidel  Converted  (1840); 
Essays  and  Reviews  (New  York,  1852);  The 
Spirit  Rapper ;  an  Autobiography  (Boston,  1854); 
The  Convert,  or  Leaves  from  my  Experience  (New 
York,  1857);  The  American  Republic,  its  Consti- 
tution, Tendencies,  and  Destiny  (1865). 

Bzblioorapht:  His  son.  Henry  F.  Brownson,  has  pub- 
lished a  collected  edition  of  his  Worke,  20  vols..  Detroit, 
1882-«7.  and  his  Ufe,  3  vols.,  1898-1000. 

BRUCE,  ALEXAIVDER  BALMAIN:  Church  of 
Scotland;  b.  at  Aberargie  (a  hamlet  in  the  parish 
of  Abemethy,  7  m.  s.e.  of  Perth),  PerthiBhire, 
Jan.  30,  1831;  d.  at  Glasgow  Aug.  7,  1899.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
(1845-49)  and  the  Divinity  Hall  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,  which  he  entered  in  1849.  After  the 
completion  of  his  theological  studies,  he  was  an 
assistant  minister  at  Ancrum,  Roxburghshire, 
and  Lochwinnoch,  Renfrewshire,  until  1859,  when 
he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  Cardross, 
Dumbartonshire,  where  he  remained  nine  years. 
He  was  then  minister  of  the  East  Free  Church, 
Broughty  Ferry,  Forfarshire,  from  1868  to  1875, 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  professor  of 
apologetics  and  New  Testament  exegesis  in  the 
Free  Church  Hall,  Glasgow,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death.  In  theology  he  declared  him- 
self to  be  "  in  sympathy  with  modem  religious 
thought,  while  maintaining  solidarity  with  all 
that  is  best  in  the  theology  of  the  past;  in  favor  of 
freedom  in  critical  inquiries  on  the  basis  of  evan- 
gelic faith,  and  of  a  simplified  and  more  compre- 
hensive creed/'  The  boldness  of  his  views  brought 
him  to  the  notice  of  the  General  Assembly  of  his  de- 
nomination in  1890,  but  after  consideration  his  wri- 
tings were  pronounced  to  be,  on  the  whole,  in  accord 
with  orthodox  standards.  He  was  Cunningham 
Lecturer  in  1874,  Ely  Lecturer  in  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  New  York,  in  1886,  and  Gifford  Lec- 
turer in  Glasgow  University  in  1896-97,  and  after 
1894  collaborated  with  T.  K.  Cheyne  in  editing 
the  Thetdagical  TranskUion  Library.  In  addition 
to  minor  contributions,  he  wrote  The  Training  of 
the  Twdve  (Edinburgh,  1871);  The  HumiliaHon 
of  Chriei  (1876);  The  Chief  End  of  Revelation 
(London,  1881);  The  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ 
(1882);  The  GalUcean  Gospel  (Edinburgh,  1884); 
F.  C.  Baur  and  his  Theory  of  the  Origin  of  Chris- 
tianity and  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1885); 
The  Miraculous  Element  in  the  Gospels  (the  Ely 
lectures  for  1886;  1886);  The  Life  of  William 
Denny  (1888);  The  Kingdom  of  God,  or,  Christ's 
Teachings  according  to  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (Ekiin- 
burgh,  1889);  Apologetics  :  or,  The  Cause  of  Chris- 
tianity defensively  stated  (1892);  St.  PauTs  Con- 
ception of  Christianity  (1894);  With  Open  Face  : 
or,  Jesus  mirrored  in  McUthew,  Mark,  and  Luke 
(London,  1896);  The  Providential  Order  of  the 
World  (GifiFord  lectures  for  1897;  1897);  a  com- 
mentary on  the  sjrnoptic  Gospels  in  The  Expositor's 
Greek  Testament  (IS97);  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  : 
the  first  Apology  for  Christianity  (Edinburgh,  1899); 
and  The  Moral  Order  of  the  World  in  Ancient  and 
Modem  Thought  (Gifford  lectures  for  1898;  Lon- 
don, 1899). 

Bibuoobapht:  DNB,  rapplement  i.,  321-322. 

BRUCH,  broH,  JOHANN  FRIEDRICH:  German 
theologian;  b.  at  Pirmasens  (13  m.  e.8.e.  of  Zwei- 
brQcken),  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Dec.  13,  1792;  d.  at 
Strasburg  July  21,  1874.  He  was  educated  at  the 
gymnasium  of  ZweibrUcken  and  the  Protestant 
academy  of  Strasburg,  after  which  he  was  succes- 
sively tutor  at  Cologne  (1812),  vicar  at  Lohr  in 
German  Lotharingia,  and  private  tutor  in  Paris 
(1815).  In  Nov.,  1821,  he  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  Protestant  seminary  at  Strasburg,  and  a 
few  months  later  became  full  professor  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty.  His  position,  both  then  and  later, 
was  rationalistic.  EQs  conception  of  revelation, 
miracles,  Christ  and  his  works,  sin,  and  salvation, 
therefore,  frequently  diverged  widely  from  the 
teachings  of  the  Church  and  of*  tradition.  His 
lectures  were  at  first  restricted  to  Christian  ethics 
and  the  synoptic  Ciospels,  but  later  embraced  also 
systematic  theology  and  the  New  Testament,  in 
addition  to  practical  homiletics.  After  1831  he 
was  preacher  at  the  Nicholaikirche,  where  he  sought 
to   instruct   and    calm   the   religious   excitement 


caused  by  the  attacks  of  orthodox  Pietism  on  Ubeial 
theology,  aiming  to  further  a  faith  based  on  reasoD 
and  a  life  of  true  Christianity,  as  well  as  unity  aad 
peace  within  the  Church. 

Bruch's  influence  was  also  felt  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  religious  life  of  his  city,  and  in  the 
foundation  and  administration  of  religious  and 
ecclesiastical  projects.  The  first  infant  schools, 
the  evening  schools  for  poor  children,  Sunday 
lectures  for  workingmen,  the  society  for  the  im- 
provement of  young  criminals,  and  the  society 
for  the  evangelization  of  Protestants  scattered 
in  the  departments  of  the  East^were  among  those 
inspired  and  called  into  existence  by  him.  He 
was  also  the  president  of  the  Strasburg  Bible 
Society  and  until  his  death  conducted  the  pastoral 
conference  of  his  dty.  After  1828  he  likewise 
acted  as  the  director  of  the  Protestant  gymnasium. 
In  1849  he  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  district 
of  St.  Thomas,  in  1852  a  member  of  the  supreme 
consistory,  and  in  1866  of  the  directory.  Amid 
all  these  tasks  he  found  time  and  strength  to  treat 
the  most  obscure  problems  of  theology  and  phi- 
losophy, although  he  was  obliged,  for  lack  of 
sympathy,  to  abandon  his  plan  of  writing  in  French 
to  supply  the  deficiency  of  Protestant  theological 
literatui^  in  France.  The  Franco-Prussian  War 
brought  devastation  into  Church  and  school,  and 
Bruch  was  accordingly  appointed  rector  of  the  new 
university  and  placed  in  control  of  the  provisional 
direction  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  final  efforts 
of  his  life  being  devoted  to  a  reorganization  of  the 
theological  faculty  and  of  the  ecclesiastical  situa- 
tion, which  he  sought  to  protect  against  the  dom- 
ination of  the  system  prevailing  at  Berlin. 

Bruch  was  a  prolific  writer,  his  works,  in  ad- 
dition to  numerous  pamphlets  and  articles  in 
learned  periodicals,  being  as  follows:  Lehimck 
der  christlichen  SittenUhre  (2  vols.,  Strasburg, 
1829-32);  ChrisUiche  Vorirdge  (2  voU.,  183^-42); 
Studes  philosophiques  sur  le  christianisme  (Paris, 
1839);  Ideen  zur  Abfassung  einer  den  Bedurfnissen 
der  deutschr-protestantischen  Kirche  Frankreichs 
entsprechenden  Liturgie  (Strasburg,  1839);  Die 
Lehre  von  den  gdtUichen  Eigenschaften  (Hamburg, 
1842);  Zustdnde  der  protestaniischen  Kirche  Frank- 
reichs  (1843);  Betrachtungen  aber  Christenthum 
und  christlichen  Glauben  in  Briefen  (2  vols.,  Stras- 
burg, 1845-46);  Weisheitslehre  der  Htbrder,  ein 
Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Philosophie  (1851);  Das 
Gebet  des  Herm  (1853);  Ueber  das  Primip  der 
weUaberynndenden  Macht  des  Christenthums  (Gotha, 
1856);  Die  protestanttsche  Freiheit  (Strasbxirg, 
1857);  Die  Lehre  von  der  Prdexietenz  der  mensch- 
lichen  Seele  (1859);  and  Theorie  des  Bewusstseins 
(1864).  T.  Gerold. 

Bibuographt:  Bnioh's  life-story  is  told  in  Kindkrit-  und 
Jugenderinnerunffen  von  Dr.  Ft.  Bruch,  StrasburSt  1889. 
and  Johann  Friedrith  Bruch,  setns  Wirk^anUBeii  in  Sckuie 
und  Kirche,  1821-79,  1890,  both  sdited  from  his  renuuns 
by  his  son-in-law,  T.  Gerold. 

BRUECK,  brQk  (POITTANUS,  real  name  HEINSE, 
HENISCH,  HBINCZ),  GREGORIUS:  German  ju- 
rist; b.  at  Briick  (22  m.  n.  of  Wittenberg)  c.  14S4; 
d.  at  Jena  Feb.  15, 1557.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg 
and  Frankfort-on-the  Oder,  and  became  bo  famous 


283 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bmoe 
Bm^mftim 


as  the  secretary  and  representative  of  the  jtiriBt 
Hennig  Gode  that  princes  and  critics  sought  his 
advice.  Frederick  the  Wise  invited  him  to  his 
court,  and  after  the  death  of  the  electoral  councilor 
Degenhard  Pfeffinger  (1519),  BrQck  seems  to  have 
taken  his  place.  He  was  soon  interested  in  Luther, 
and  it  was  not  without  significance  that  he  accom- 
panied the  elector  to  Cologne  and  Worms.  Having 
returned  to  Wittenberg,  BrQck  received  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  law,  and  soon  afterward  was  appointed 
chancellor.  His  tact  and  ability  greatly  helped 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Evangelical  Church.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  Torgau-Magdeburg 
confederations;  he  advised  the  elector  at  the  diets 
held  at  Speyer  in  1526  and  1529,  and  it  was  due  to 
him,  next  to  Luther,  that  the  Pack-disturbances 
did  not  lead  to  a  general  war.  But  his  greatest 
services  were  rendered  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg 
in  1530.  He  not  only  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the 
composition  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  he 
took  part  in  the  preparation  of  its  details,  wrote 
the  introduction  to  it,  caused  it  to  be  read  in  public, 
and  gave  to  the  emperor  the  Latin  copy  in  the 
name  of  the  Evangelical  estates.  He  would  not 
be  intimidated,  but,  on  the  contrary,  encouraged 
the  timid,  and  acted  as  spokesman  in  all  public 
debates,  so  that  his  eloquence  and  ability  were 
even  recognized  by  his  opponents.  Cochlsus, 
well  aware  of  the  importance  of  BrQck,  vainly  tried 
to  induce  him  to  abandon  the  Lutherans  by  an 
"  Admonition  to  Peace  and  Unity."  BrQck's  reply 
is  unknown,  for  at  the  time  he  was  engaged 
in  writing  a  true  accoimt  of  events  at  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg,  1530,  which  was  first  printed  in 
FOrstemann's  Archiv  fur  die  Geschichie  der  kirch- 
lichen  Reformation  (Halle,  1831).  BrQck  at- 
tended all  diets  held  during  his  lifetime,  and  he 
also  strove  for  the  consolidation  of  the  Chiu'ch, 
finally  succeeding  in  1542  in  forming  a  permanent 
consistory.  For  a  time  he  resided  at  Wittenberg, 
but  after  the  disastrous  end  of  the  Schmalkald 
War,  which  he  had  consistently  opposed,  he  fol- 
lowed the  sons  of  the  Elector  to  Weimar,  remaining 
a  loyal  friend  of  the  imprisoned  Frederick.  Still 
later  BrQck  retired  to  Jena,  where  he  died. 

(T.  KOLDB.) 

Biblxoorapht:  CR,  xii.  351  oontaixiB  the  OraHo  de  Qngorio 
PorUano  (by  Melanehthon);  J.  A.  Wimmer,  VUa  Qregorii 
PofUani,  Alteabuis,  1730;  T.  Kolde,  in  ZHT,  1874.  pp. 
34iqq. 

BRUECKNBR,  brQk'ner,  BEHIIO  BRUNO: 
German  Protestant;  b.  at  Rosswein  (23  m.  w.  of 
Dresden)  May  9,  1824.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipsic,  and  after  serving  as  pastor  at 
Hobburg  from  1850  to  1853  was  appointed  associate 
professor  and  second  university  preacher  at  Leipsic. 
Two  years  later  he  was  made  full  professor,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  university 
preacher  and  director  of  the  seminary  for  practical 
theology.  He  became  canon  of  Meissen  and  con- 
sis  torial  councilor  in  1860,  and  nine  years  later 
went  to  Beriin  as  provost  of  St.  Nicholas  and  St. 
Mary,  honorary  professor,  university  preacher, 
and  member  of  the  high  consistory,  of  which  he 
became  clerical  vice-president  in  1877.    In  1872  he 


was  chosen  general  superintendent  of  Berlin,  and 
in  the  following  year  was  appointed  canon  of  Bran- 
denburg. He  became  high  consistorial  councilor 
in  1880,  a  member  of  the  Prussian  council  of  state 
in  1884,  and  president  of  the  united  synods  of  the 
district  of  Berlin  in  1889.  His  works  include 
Epistala  ad  Philippenaea  Pavlo  audori  vindicata 
contra  Baurium  (Leipsic,  1848);  Betrachtungen 
iiber  die  Agende  der  evangelischrlutherischen  Kirche 
in  Sachsen  (1865);  and  numerous  sermons,  both 
individual  and  collected,  many  of  which  ran  through 
several  editions.  He  also  edited  the  second  and 
third  editions  of  W.  M.  L.  De  Wette's  commentary 
on  the  Catholic  Epistles  (Leipsic,  1853-67)  and 
the  fifth  edition  of  his  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of 
John  (1863). 

BRIJEOGLERS.    See  Kohler,  Chbistian  and 

HiERONYMUB. 

BRUGMAlfN,  brQg^mOn,  JAN:  A  theologian 
and  reformer  of  the  Franciscan  order  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  Germany.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known, but  from  the  way  in  which  he  speaks  of 
his  age  in  1473,  the  year  of  his  death,  he  was  prob- 
ably bom  about  1400,  at  Kempen.  He  was  edu- 
cated and  admitted  to  the  clerical  state  in  a  monas- 
tery of  the  northwestern  Netherlands,  perhaps 
Groningen.  He  joined  the  Franciscans  at  Saint- 
Omer  in  Artois,  where  the  community  was  full  of 
the  spirit  of  St.  Bemardin  of  Sienna,  the  founder 
of  the  strict  or  Observant  Franciscans.  Here 
he  taught  theology,  until  in  1439  he  was  charged, 
at  the  request  of  the  town  council  of  Gouda,  with 
the  erection  of  an  Observantine  house  there,  and 
later  took  part  in  a  similar  work  at  Stuis,  Leyden, 
and  Alkmaar.  Learning  to  know  the  moral  and 
spiritual  condition  of  the  people  while  discharging 
these  missions,  he  set  hhnself  to  elevate  it  by 
popular  preaching,  at  the  same  time  effecting  a 
reform  in  the  convents  of  Gronigen,  Gorinchem, 
Haarlem,  Wamsveld,  and  Nymwegen  between 
1450  and  1455.  At  Amsterdam  he  foimded  a  house 
in  1462,  and  composed  a  bitter  factional  strife 
among  the  citizens.  He  brought  about  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Observantine  province  of  (])ologne,  of 
which  he  was  provincial  for  several  years.  Feeling 
his  end  approaching,  he  retired  to  Nymwegen, 
where  he  ched.  His  influence  went  far  beyond 
the  reform  of  the  Franciscan  houses;  he  ranks 
with  the  great  popular  preachers  of  the  Nether- 
lands at  that  time,  such  as  Groote  and  Florentius 
Radewyns,  with  whom  he  was  in  close  alliance. 
A  few  of  his  sermons  have  been  printed  (see  be- 
low). He  wrote  also  a  life  of  Christ,  which  in 
some  particulars  resembles  those  of  Bonaventura 
and  Ludolf  of  Saxony,  though  adhering  more 
closely  to  the  Gospel  narrative.  In  spite  of  its 
frequently  erroneous  exegesis  and  its  arbitrary 
mystical  interpretations,  it  is  so  full  of  simple  piety 
and  warm  devotion  that  it  awakens  respect.  He 
wrote  also,  in  three  different  versions,  the  life  of 
Lidwina  of  Schiedam,  a  mystical  ascetic  considered 
a  saint  in  the  Netherlands  (1350-1443);  it  has 
recently  been  discovered  that  he  was  a  vernacular 
spiritual  poet  of  no  slight  importance. 

L.  SCBULCB. 


Brolly 
Bruno 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


284 


Biblioobapht:  The  one  book  is  W.  Moll,  Joh,  Brugmann, 
•n  h€t  Oodmiierutio  Leven^  AmsterdAm.  1854.  One  of  his 
sermons  is  given  in  Moll's  biography,  but  other  sermons 
and  writings  of  his  appear  in  Handtlingen  .  .  .  AtaaUehap- 
jnj  der  Nederlandwche  Utterkunde,  The  Hague,  ISS7:  De 
Katholik,  xx.;  Archief  voor  NederlandscKe  KerkgeMchtedenU 
i.  (1886),  iv.  (1802-«3). 

BRULLY,  brQ"yi'  (BRUSLY),  PIERRE  {Petrus 
Brulius):  The  successor  of  Calvin  in  Strasburg;  b. 
at  Mersilhaut  (Mercy-le-Haut,  about  2  m.  s.e.  of 
Metz)  c.  1518;  burned  at  the  stake  at  Toumai  (14 
m.  e.  of  Lille),  Flanders,  Feb.  19, 1545.  Educated 
for  the  Church,  he  became  lector  in  the  Dominican 
convent  at  Mctz  and  was  expelled  in  1540  or  1541 
for  sympathizing  with  the  Reformation.  In  July, 
1541,  he  was  in  Strasburg  and  intimate  with  Calvin,  in 
whose  house  he  lived,  and  when  Calvin  was  recalled 
to  Geneva  (1541)  succeeded  him  in  the  pastorate. 
In  September,  1544,  he  undertook  a  missionary 
journey  to  Flanders  on  the  invitation  of  persons  in 
Toumai  who  wished  instruction  in  the  Reformed 
faith;  preached  there  and  in  neighboring  cities 
with  earnestness  and  success,  but  necessarily  in 
secret,  as  to  preach  Protestant  doctrine  was  for- 
bidden. He  was  arrested  at  Toumai  in  November, 
condemned,  and  executed,  notwithstanding  efforts 
made  to  save  him  from  Strasburg  and  by  the  Prot- 
estant princes  of  Germany. 

Biblioorapht:  C.  Paillard,  Le  Prockt  dW  Pierre  BruUy, 
Paris.  1878;  R.  Heuss,  Pierre  BruUy,  Strasburg.  1879. 


BRUNETIERE,  brii^ne-tyar',  MARIE  FERDI- 
NAND: French  Roman  Catholic  critic;  b.  at  Toulon 
(42  m.  e.s.e.  of  Marseilles)  July  19,  1849;  d.  in 
Paris  Dec.  9,  1906.  Educated  at  Marseilles  and 
at  the  Lyc^  Louis  le  Grand,  Paris,  he  became 
secretary  of  the  editorial  board  of  the  Reims  des 
deux  mondes  in  1875  and  editor  in  1893.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  French  language  and 
literature  at  the  ficole  Normale  Sup^rieure,  Paris, 
and  in  1893  became  a  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonnc. 
He  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  United 
States  in  1897.  In  1887  he  was  made  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1893  was  admitted  to 
the  French  Academy ,  while  in  1895  he  was  appointed 
a  commander  of  the  Order  of  Pius  IX.  His  theo- 
logical attitude  was  noteworthy  in  that,  like  Cop- 
p^,  Huysmans,  and  other  distinguished  literary 
men  of  France,  he  became  convinced  of  the  tmth 
of  the  teachings  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
abandoning  the  agnosticism  which  he  had  formerly 
professed.  His  writings,  which  mark  a  new  epoch 
in  French  criticism,  include  Etudes  critiques  sur 
rhistoire  de  la  lUt&ature  fran^-aise  (7  vols.,  Paris, 
1880-1903);  Histoire  et  liU^ature (3  vols.,  1884-^86); 
Questions  de  critique  (2  vols.,  1889-90);  Evolution 
des  genres  dans  V histoire  de  la  liU^ature  (IS90); 
Nouvelles  questions  de  critique  (1890);  Les  Epoques 
du  tfiMtre  franfais  1636-1860  (1892);  Essais  sur 
la  litt&ature  contemporaine  (2  vols.,  1892-95); 
U6voluJtion  de  la  po^sie  lyrique  en  France  au  dix- 
neuvikme  sikcle  (2  vols.,  1894);  Education  et  instruc- 
tion (1895);  La  Morality  de  la  doctrine  Evolutive 
(1896);  La  Renaissance  de  Vidialisme  (1896);  Le 
Roman  naturaliste  (1896);  Manuel  de  V histoire 
de  la  littlrature  fran^aise  (1897;  Eng.  transl.,  New 
York,  1898);  and  Discours  acad^miques  (1901);  Les 


motifs  d^espirer  (1902);  Cinq  lettres  sur  Ernest  Renan 
(1903);  Les  difficultdsde  croire  (1904);  and  Sur  la 
chemins  de  la  croyance  (1904). 

BRUNFELS,  OTTO:  German  humanist  and 
Reformer.  The  date  of  his  birth  can  not  be  deter- 
mined; d.  at  Bem  Nov.  23,  1534.  His  father  was 
an  artisan  at  Mainz.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  Carthusian  order,  but  the  spirit  of  the  age  soon 
drew  him  out  of  his  convent  into  the  polemics  of 
the  time.  At  first  he  was  a  follower  of  Hutten, 
for  whom  he  broke  a  lance  with  Erasmus,  and 
whose  library  he  used  in  compiling  a  small  collection 
of  the  writings  of  Hubs,  which  he  published  in  1.524, 
with  a  dedication  to  Luther.  He  served  the  Refor- 
mation as  a  preacher,  first  at  Steinheim,  and  th»i 
at  Ncuenburg  in  the  Breisgau.  When  the  attitude 
of  the  imperial  government  made  his  position  there 
insecure,  he  went  to  Strasburg,  where  he  supported 
himself  by  teaching,  wrote  against  tithes,  and 
studied  medicine.  He  was  a  friend  of  Luther 
and  also  of  Carlstadt,  but  was  still  more  strongly 
attracted  by  Zwingli,  whose  influence  procured 
him  a  medical  position  at  Bem.  His  importance 
lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  he  was  a  successful 
botanist,  and  a  pioneer  in  this  science  for  Germany, 
with  his  extensive  illustrated  Herbarium  (Strasburg, 
3  vols.,  1530-40,  translated  into  German,  2  parts, 
1532-37,  2d  ed.,  1546).  (W.  Vogt.) 

BRUNNER  (FONTANUS),  LEONHARD:  Ger- 
man Reforaier;  b.  probably  at  Esslingen  (7  m.  ejs.e. 
of  Stuttgart)  c.  1500;  d.  at  Landau  (18  m.  n.w.  of 
Carisruhe)  Dec.  20,  1558.  In  1527  he  was  called 
from  Strasburg,  where  he  was  a  deacon,  to 
Worms,  as  pastor  of  the  congregation.  By  his 
discretion  he  soon  restored  harmony  in  the  com- 
munity, which  had  been  endangered  for  a  time  by 
the  activities  of  the  Anabaptists  Denk,  Hetzer, 
and  Kantz.  In  1531  he  published  his  Ckrtstliche 
Betrachtung,  une  man  sich  bei  den  Kranken  und 
Sterbenden  halten  soil;  and  in  1543  he  prepared 
a  Catechismus  urui  Anweisung  zum  chrisdichtn 
Glavberiy  of  which  the  few  fragments  still  extant 
show  his  catechetical  ability.  In  the  doctrine  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  he  followed  the  Strasburg 
theologians.  Through  the  Interim  he  was  oblige<i 
in  1548  to  resign  his  office  at  Worms  and  fled  to 
Strasburg,  where  he  soon  became  assistant  pastor. 
With  the  other  Strasburg  ministers  he  adopted  the 
Lutheran  teaching,  and  remained  faithful  to  it  in 
Landau,  whither  he  was  called  in  1553  by  the 
Treaty  of  Passau.  Here  he  contributed  much 
toward  the  amelioration  of  the  moral  and  religious 
life  of  the  people.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  published  Concordantz  des  Neuen 
Testaments  (Strasburg,  1524)  and  Concordanti 
und  Zeiger  aUer  biblischen  Bucher  (1530). 

Julius  Net. 

Bibuooraphy:  A.  Weckerling,  L.  Brunner,  Worma,  1895: 
A.  Becker,  Beitr&oe  zur  OeachidUe  von  Wormt,  pp.  54 
sqq..  ib.  1880. 

BRUNO  OF  COLOGNE:  Archbishop  of  Cologne 
953-965;  b.  in  the  spring  of  925,  the  young- 
est son  of  Henry  I.,  the  Fowler;  d.  at  Reims 
Oct.  11,  965.  He  was  educated  from  his  fourth 
to  his  fourteenth  year  in  the  cathedral  school  of 


285 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bmlly 
Bnmo 


Utrecht.  Hi*  brother  Otto  I.  recalled  him  in  939 
to  the  court.  As  early  as  940  he  was  invested 
with  the  functions  of  chancellor,  and  ordained 
deacon  a  year  or  two  later.  In  951  he  was  made 
archicapellanua  and  thus  exercised  a  great  influ- 
ence on  the  administration  of  the  whole  kingdom. 
In  947  he  took  part  in  the  Synod  of  Verdun,  where 
German  ecclesiastics  settled  the  question  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Reims,  important  to  the  later 
history  of  France.  In  951  he  went  with  Otto  to 
Italy,  and  supported  his  brother  faithfully  in  the 
disturbances  of  the  next  year.  Otto  had  him 
chosen  archbishop  of  Cologne  ir  953,  and  added  to 
his  spiritual  sovereignty  the  government  of  Lor- 
raine. He  was  consecrated  Sept.  25.  Lorraine 
was  a  very  troublesome  possession;  it  was  not  until 
after  the  banishment  of  Coimt  Raginar  of  Hai- 
nault  in  958  that  he  succeeded  in  establishing  peace 
and  order  there.  The  relations  with  France  often 
ofiTered  difficult  problems,  too.  After  the  death  of 
King  Louis  d'Outremer  and  Duke  Hugh  the  Great, 
Bruno  was  made  a  sort  of  supreme  judicial  arbiter 
for  France  in  his  brother's  name.  Peace  was  his 
constant  aim,  together  with  the  assertion  of  Caro- 
lingian  sovereignty.  On  Otto's  second  absence  in 
Italy  (961),  the  administration  of  the  empire  was 
confided  to  Bruno  and  William  of  Mainz.  Bruno's 
importance  is  mainly  political,  as  a  representative 
of  the  close  alliance  of  the  episcopate  and  the  crown 
which  marked  Otto's  policy.  As  a  bishop,  how- 
ever, he  did  much  to  promote  a  real  and  living 
piety  and  to  encourage  education.      (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuooraphy:  The  VUa  BrunanU,  by  Ruotger,  ed.  O.  H. 
PertB,  is  in  MGH,  Script.,  iv.  252-275,  Hanover,  1841; 
and  another  VUa  by  an  unknown  author,  ib.,  pp.  275- 
279.  Consult:  Pieler,  Erzbiachof  Bruno  I.  von  Koln, 
Arnsbers,  1851;  E.  Meyer,  De  Brunone  I.  archiepiacopo 
ColonienMi,  Berlin,  1867;  C.  Martin,  BeUr&ge  xur  GeachiehU 
Bruno  I.  von  Koln,  Jena,  1878;  Hauck,  KD,  iii.  40  aqq. 

BRUNO,  (FILIPPO)  GIORDANO:  Italian  phi- 
losopher of  the  RenaiBsance;  b.  at  Nola  (14  m. 
e.n.e.  of  Naples),  Campania,  1548;  burned  at  the 
stake  at  Rome  Feb.  17,  1600.  He  joined  the 
Dominicans  at  Naples  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or 
fifteen,  but  study  and  reflection  and  particularly 
the  influence  of  the  works  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa 
and  Raymond  Liilly  made  him  doubtful  of  dogma 
and  restive  under  the  strict  rules  of  his  order. 
In  1576  he  fled  to  Rome  and  thenceforth  led  a 
wandering  life.  He  first  visited  various  cities  of 
North  Italy;  about  1580  he  reached  Geneva, 
stayed  there  two  years,  and  went  on  to  Paris 
through  Lyons  and  Toulouse;  at  Paris  he  gave 
lectures  on  philosophy;  from  1583  to  1585  he  was 
in  England,  where  he  had  the  friendship  of  such 
men  as  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  composed  his  most 
important  works;  between  1586  and  1588  he  was 
lecturing  at  Wittenberg;  he  visited  Prague,  Helm- 
st&dt,  Frankfort,  Zurich,  and  Padua,  and  reached 
Venice  early  in  1592.  Here  he  was  arrested  in 
May,  tried  before  the  Inquisition,  and  his  case 
adjourned  to  Rome,  Jan.,  1593.  On  Jan.  7,  1600, 
after  a  confinement  of  seven  years,  he  was  con- 
denmed  as  an  apostate  and  heretic  and  given  over 
to  the  civil  authorities  for  execution.  He  was 
the  first  philoBopher  to  espouse  the  Copemican 
hypothesis;    in    his    metaphysical    interpretation 


of  it  he  radically  opposed  the  philosophy  and 
science  of  his  time,  and  subverted  also  the  most 
cherished  teachings  of  the  Church.  His  fundamen- 
tal principle,  as  against  Aristotle,  was  the  abso- 
lute boundlessness  of  the  universe.  The  super- 
natural in  its  traditional  sense  was  thus  eliminated. 
No  heaven  existed  separate  from  the  universe. 
The  world — the  phenomenal  aspect  of  the  uni- 
verse— and  God  are  not  the  same,  but  God  is 
identified  with  the  universe;  or  God  may  be 
designated  as  matter  conceived  of  in  extended 
substance,  essentially  inmiaterial,  the  immanent 
cause  or  soul  of  the  world.  Later  philosophers, 
Descartes,  Spinoza,  Leibnitz,  Boehme,  and  Hegel 
owe  much  to  Bruno.  Just  three  hundred  years 
after  his  execution,  Feb.  17,  1900,  on  the  very  spot 
where  he  was  burned,  a  monument  was  dedicated 
to  his  memory. 

Bruno's  most  important  works  were  the  Spaccio 
deUa  bestia  trionfanU  (Paris,  1584);  Delia  causa^ 
principio  ed  uno,  and  Del  infinito  universo  e  mondi 
(Venice,  1584);  De  triplici  minimo  et  mensura,  and 
De  numade  numero  et  figura  (Frankfort,  1591). 
His  Italian  works  were  edited  by  Wagner  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1830)  and  by  Paul  de  Lagarde  (2  vols., 
Gdttingen,  1888);  his  Latin  works  by  Fiorentino 
(2  vols.,  Naples,  1879-91)  and  by  Tocco  (Florence, 
1889).  The  Delia  causa  has  been  translated  into 
German  by  Lasson  (3d  ed.,  Leipsic,  1902),  and 
a  German  translation  of  his  collected  philosoph- 
ical works  begun  by  L.  Kuhlenbeck  (Jena,  1904, 
vol.  v.,  1907),  who  has  also  edited  Lichtstrah' 
len  ati8  Oiordano  Bruno's  Werken  (Leipsic,  1891). 
There  is  an  English  translation  of  "  The  Ex- 
pulsion of  the  Triumphant  Beast"  by  W.  More- 
head  (London,  1713;  only  50  copies  printed  and 
now  extremely  rare),  and  of  the  "  Heroic  Enthu- 
siasts "  (Gli  eroici  furori,  Paris,  1558)  by  L.  Williams 
(London,  1887);  a  general  account  and  synopsis 
of  the  **  Infinite  Universe,"  written  by  Bruno  in 
his  dedication  of  the  work  to  Lord  Castelnau,  was 
translated  by  John  Toland  and  printed,  with  a 
Latin  essay  on  the  death  of  Bruno  (in  A  Collection 
of  Several  Pieces  of  Mr.  John  Toland,  vol.  i.,  Lon- 
don, 1726,  pp.  304-349). 

Bibuoorapht:  On  the  life  of  Bruno  a  noteworthy  produo- 
tion  is  J.  L.  Mclntjnne,  Oiordano  Bruno,  London,  1903. 
Phases  of  his  life  and  philosophy  are  presented  in  F.  J. 
Clemens,  Giordano  Bruno  und  Nicolaua  von  Ciua,  eine 
pkiloaoj^iachs  Abhandlung,  Bonn,  1847;  C.  J.  Q.  Bar- 
tholmess,  Jordano  Bruno,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1846-^7;  D. 
Berti,  Vita  di  Giordano  Bruno,  Milan,  1868;  Mrs.  Besant, 
Oiordano  Bruno,  London,  1877;  R.  Mariano,  Giordano 
Bruno,  la  vita  e  Vuomo,  Rome,  1881  (important);  M. 
Carriere,  Die  phUoBophiache  WeltanadMuung  der  Refor- 
mationKieit,  Leipsic,  1887  (the  work  of  a  specialist);  Miss 
I.  Frith,  Life  of  Giordano  Bruno,  London,  1887;  D.  Berti, 
Giordano  Bruno,  .  .  .  eua  vita  e  aua  dottrina,  Turin,  1880; 
R.  Landseck,  Bruno  der  M&rtyrer  der  neuen  WeUan- 
ediauung,  Leipsic,  1890;  J.Owen,  Giordano  Bruno,  in Skep- 
tica  of  the  Italian  Renaieaance,  London,  1893;  H.  Brunnhofer, 
Giordano  Bruno' a  Weltanachauuno  und  Verk&nffniaa,  Leip- 
sic, 1890;  G.  Louis,  Giordano  Bruno.  Seine  WeUan- 
achauung  und  Lehenaauffaaaung,  Berlin,  1900;  A.  Riehl, 
Giordano  Bruno,  Leipsic,  1900,  Ens.  transl.,  London, 
1905.  Consult  also  the  works  on  the  History  of  Philo»- 
ophy,  by  Ueberweg,  Ebrard,  etc. 

BRUlfO  (BONIFATIUS)  OF  QUERFURT:  Mis- 
sionary to  the  Slavs  and  Prussians,  among  whom 
he  suffered  martyrdom,  Feb.  14,  or  Mar.  16,  1009. 


Brano 
Bryant 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


286 


He  was  a  Saxon  nobleman,  educated  at  the  cathe- 
dral-school at  Magdeburg,  and  accompanied  his 
cousin,  the  Emperor  Otto  III.,  to  Rome  (996), 
where  he  took  holy  orders.  Pope  Sylvester  II. 
entrusted  to  him  a  missionary  expedition  to  the 
Slavs  in  the  east,  which  the  Polish  duke  Boleslav 
had  asked  for,  and  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
archbishop.  His  chief  task  was  to  be  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen  Prussians,  to  whom  Adalbert 
of  Prague  (q.v.)  had  fallen  victim  but  a  short  time 
before.  Being  detained  at  Magdeburg  by  wars 
between  Germans  and  Poles,  he  wrote  the  Vita 
8.  Alberti.  Peace  being  reestablished,  he  went 
to  Poland  and  was  gladly  received  by  Boleslav, 
but  being  unable  to  enter  into  Prussia,  he  con- 
verted the  Petchenegs  and  organized  their  church 
affairs.  Remaining  for  some  time  in  Poland,  he 
wrote  the  VUa  quinqiuR  fratrum  PdUmicBy  Christian 
martyrs  slain  in  1003  near  Meseritz,  and  when  at 
last  he  took  upon  him  the  task  he  was  entrusted 
with,  he  and  his  companions,  like  St.  Adalbert, 
lost  their  lives  by  the  swords  of  the  heathen  not 
far  from  Braunsberg.  Boleslav,  who  was  deeply 
afiSicted,  ordered  the  remains  of  the  martyrs  to  be 
gathered  and  brought  to  Poland,  where  they  were 
solenmly  buried  and  became  an  object  of  most 
devoted   reverence.  A.  Werner. 

Biblxoobapht:  The  souroes  for  a  life  are:  the  Chronicon 
of  Dietmar.  ed.  J.  M.  Lappenbexs.  Hanover,  1889;  Da- 
mian's  Viia  St,  RomtuMi,  ed.  O.  H.  Perti.  in  MQH, 
Script.,  iv.  860-864,  ib.  1841;  Chronicon  MagtMnuvenM, 
ed.,  Meibom,  in  Script,  rer.  Oerm.,pp.  209-378.  Consult: 
W.  Ton  Gieaebrecht,  OeadiidUe  der  deu/Ucken  Kaiaerteii, 
ii.  104.  102  iqq.,  BrunBwiok,  1876;  idem.  Erabiacfu^ 
Brun-BonifaUu%  in  Heue  pretusische  PtovinzialbHUtert  i. 
(1860);  Hauek,  KD,  vol.  iii.;  ADB,  in.  433. 

BRUNO,  SAINT:  Founder  of  the  Carthusian 
order.     See  Carthusians. 

BRUNO  OF  SEGNI:  Bishop  of  Segni  (28  m.  s.e. 
of  Rome);  b.  at  Solero  (6  m.  w.  of  Alessandria), 
Lombardy,  between  1045  and  1049;  d.  at  Segni 
July  18,  1123.  He  was  educated  in  a  monastery 
near  his  birthplace  and  at  Bologna,  became  a  canon 
at  Sienna,  and  came  to  Rome  in  1079.  Here  he 
came  in  contact  with  the  leaders  of  the  Church, 
and  must  have  soon  attracted  the  attention  of 
Gregory  VII.,  if  it  is  true  that  it  was  at  his  request 
that  he  disputed  with  Berengar  on  the  Eucharist. 
In  any  case  he  accomplished  his  task  so  well  that 
the  pope  made  him  bishop  of  Segni  in  the  Campagna 
the  same  year.  He  was  even  more  closely  connected 
with  Urban  II.,  whom  he  accompanied  to  France 
in  1095.  In  1099  he  entered  the  monastery  of 
Monte  Cassino,  out  without  resigning  his  see  or 
severing  his  relations  with  the  outside  worid.  He 
imdertook  an  important  mission  to  France  for 
Paschal  II.  in  1106,  and  remained  with  the  pope 
for  some  time  after  his  return,  finally  going  back 
to  his  cloister,  where  he  was  elected  abbot  in  1 107. 
Paschal  made  no  objection  to  this  pluralism  imtil 
in  the  conflicts  of  1111  Bruno  took  the  part  of  the 
antipope  Maginulf  (Sylvester  IV.),  and  was  forced 
to  resign  his  abbacy  and  return  to  Segni.  Lucius 
III.  canonized  him  in  1181.  His  works  (in  MPL, 
cbdv.,  clxv.)  are  principally  exegetical.  His  LibeU 
lu8  de  aymoniacis,  written  before  1109,  is  important 
for  its  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  simony,  and 


especially  for  its  attitude  on  the  sacraments  of  a 
simoniacal  priest.  Carl  Mirbt. 

Bxbuoorapht:  Souroea  for  a  life  are  the  Ckronioon  Com- 
nenae,  book  iv.,  chaps.  31-42,  ed.  W.  Wattenbach.  in  MGB, 
Script,  Yii.  776-7S3,  Hanover,  1846,  and  an  anonjrmons 
Vita  in  A3B,  18  July,  iv.  478-488.  The  fullest  and  best 
modem  treatment  is  by  B.  Gigalski,  Bruno,  Bioehof  voh 
Soffni,  .  .  .  §ein  Loben  und  seino  Sehriften,  MOnster. 
1898.  Consult  also  Hefele,  ConcUienoeodiiehie,  voL  t.; 
C.  Mirbt,  Die  Publixistik  im  Zeitalter  Oregora  VII.,  pp. 
384-386, 423-424, 522-^623.  Leipsic,  1804;  Meyer  V(mi  Kno- 
nau,  JtikHtHcher  dea  deutacKen  Reidta  unier  Heimiek  IV^ 
pp.  02  sqq.,  ib.  1904. 

BRUlfO  OF  TOUL.    See  Leo  DC.,  Pope. 

BRUlfO  OF  WURZBURG:  Bishop  of  Wure- 
burg  1034-45.  He  was  the  son  of  Duke  Conrad  I. 
of  Carinthia,  and  thus  a  nephew  of  Pope  Gregory  V. 
and  a  cousin  of  the  emperor  Conrad  II.  The 
latter  made  him  bishop  of  Warzburg  in  1034.  In 
the  spring  of  1045  he  accompanied  Henry  III.  to 
Hungary,  and  died  May  26  from  the  results  of 
injuries  received  in  the  fall  of  a  building  at  Persen* 
beug  in  what  is  now  Upper  Austria.  As  a  theo- 
logian he  is  remembered  for  his  commentary  on 
the  Psalms,  made  up  mainly  of  extracts  from  older 
authors,  especially  Cassiodorus,  but  including 
Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great,  the  pseudo-Bede, 
and  the  Bremarium  in  Psalmos  ascribed  to  Jerome. 
A  catechetical  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer 
and  the  Apostles'  and  Athanasian  Creeds  attributed 
to  him  is  probably  older.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bxblioobapht:  Bruno's  Commentary  is  in  MPL,  cxlii 
Consult:  J.  Baier,  Der  heilioe  Bruno  ,  .  .  aia  Katecket 
WOrsbuxs,  1803;  ADB,  iu.  436. 

BRUNSWICK:  A  North  German  duchy,  con- 
sisting of  three  larger  territories  and  six  smsJi 
exclaves,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Hanover,  on 
the  east  by  Saxony,  on  the  south  by  Hanover,  and 
on  the  west  by  Westphalia;  area,  1,424  square 
miles;  population  (1900),  464,333,  of  whom  432,- 
570  (93.1  %)  are  Lutherans;  4,406  (.9  %)  Reformed; 
24,175  (5.2%)  Roman  Catholics;  1,358  of  various 
sects;  and  1,824  (.39%)  Jews.  The  Lutheran 
Church  was  established  in  the  duchy  in  1568,  but 
received  its  first  official  organization  in  1657  and 
1709,  while  in  1755  and  1764  the  administration 
was  placed  imder  six  general  superintendencies, 
which  are  now  located  at  Wolfenbtlttel,  Brunswick, 
Helmst&dt,  Blankenburg,  Gandersheim,  and  Hol^ 
minden.  The  act  of  Oct.  12, 1832,  emphasised  the 
ecclesiastical  power  of  the  duke,  which  is  enforced 
with  the  cooperation  and  counsel  of  an  evangelical 
consistory  composed  of  both  der^  and  laity.  At 
the  same  time  the  appointment  of  church-directors 
for  the  administration  of  individual  churches  was 
considered,  but  these  ofiicials  were  not  actually 
created  until  Nov.  20,  1851.  Where  the  oongr&> 
gation  has  the  right  of  electing  its  pastors,  these 
"church-deputies,"  together  with  an  equal  num- 
ber of  representatives  elected  by  the  community, 
choose  the  ministers,  and  in  other  cases  extend 
the  invitation  to  the  candidates  proposed  by  the 
duke  or  by  patrons.  The  congregations,  however, 
have  the  right  to  reject  candidates  who  are  defi- 
cient either  in  morality  or  in  ability.  The  number 
of  deputies  has  increased  with  the  population  from 


287 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Bruno 
Bryant 


four  to  sixteen,  and  they  are  chosen  by  secret  ballot, 
serving  for  a  term  of  six  years. 

About  twenty  years  after  the  organization  of  the 
parishes,  a  general  synod  was  created  (May  31, 
1871),  consisting  of  twelve  clergymen  and  sixteen 
laymen  from  seven  electoral  districts,  in  addition 
to  two  clerical  and  two  lay  delegates  appointed 
by  the  duke.  This  synod,  which  holds  its  sessions 
in  public,  controls  all  modification,  interpretation, 
and  promulgation  of  laws  for  the  churches,  except 
in  matters  of  doctrine.  The  committee  of  the  synod 
is  composed  of  two  clerical  and  two  lay  members 
with  a  fifth  chosen  from  one  of  the  two  main 
bodies,  and  is  required  to  decide,  together  with 
the  consistory,  on  the  rejection  of  candidates  by 
individual  congregations,  and  to  discipline  pastors 
and  teachers  of  religion. 

Shortly  after  the  creation  of  this  synod,  inspec- 
toral synods  were  introduced  by  a  law  of  Jan.  6, 
1873,  which  enacted  that  each  parish  should  be 
inspected  every  two  years,  and  that  this  must  take 
place  annually  for  the  city  of  Brunswick  in  one  of 
the  local  churches.  A  lay  inspector  may  also  be 
appointed  by  the  duke  in  addition  to  the  regular 
synod.  These  regulations  control  twenty-eight 
superintendencies  with  230  parishes  and  428  build- 
ings for  religious  piuposes,  of  which  333  are 
churches.  A  seminary  for  preachers  is  conducted 
at  Wolfenbtlttel  by  the  consistory,  and  numerous 
institutions  and  associations  exist  in  the  duchy. 
Among  the  latter  special  mention  may  be  made  of 
a  missionary  society,  a  house  of  deaconesses,  the 
sisterhoods  at  Marienberg  near  Helmst&dt,  and, 
above  all,  of  the  **  Evangelical  Association  for  the 
Duchy  of  Brunswick,"  with  its  many  affiliated 
interests.  Few  sectaries  have  found  their  way 
into  Brunswick,  although  Baptists  and  Mennonites 
are  found  here  and  there,  the  latter  having  an 
establishment  for  missions  in  the  capital  itself. 

(WiLHELM  GOETZ.) 

BiBUOOEArHT:  J.  Beste,  OeachidUe  der  hmuntchweioiachen 
Landeskireke,  WolfenbQttel,  1889;  EtUwurf  einer  Ver- 
faa9uno9-Urkunde  fftr  die  ewinoeliaeh4uiherUche  Kirchs 
d€9  HenogtumB  BraunechweUf,  BninBwick,  1860;  J.  Bu- 
Benhacen,  BitiO€nhaoen»  Kirchenordnung  fUr  die  Stadt 
Brauneehvpeig,  16$8,  Leipdc,  1885;  F.  Koldewey,  Bei- 
tHkge  tur  Kirehen-  und  SchuloeechielUe  dee  .  ,  .  Braun- 
•ehw0ig,  WolfenbQttel,  1888;  BeUrUge  lur  Staii$Hk  dee 
Henogtume  Braunechtoeig,  Bninawick,  part  xx.,  1907. 

BRUSTON,  brQ"sten',  CHARLES  AUGUSTE: 
French  Reformed;  b.  at  Bordeaux  (90  m.  n.  of 
Marseilles)  Mar.  6,  1838.  He  was  educated  at  the 
lyceum  of  Grenoble  (bachelier  ds  lettres,  1854), 
the  seminary  at  Montauban  (bachelier  en  thdologie, 
1859),  and  the  universities  of  Geneva,  Halle,  Berlin, 
GOttingen,  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  then  succes- 
sively pastor  of  Reformed  churches  at  Ch&tillon- 
en-Diois  in  1861-62,  Die  in  1862-64,  Bordeaux  in 
1864-68,  and  Orleans  in  1868-74.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Protestant  faculty  of  theology  of  Montauban,  and 
since  1894  has  been  dean  of  the  same  faculty.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  synodical  committee  of  studies 
and  other  committees,  and  was  elected  a  corre- 
sponding associate  of  the  Soci^t^  des  Antiquaires 
de  France.  In  theology  he  is  progressive,  but  is 
opposed  to  arbitrary  speculations.    He  has  written: 


De  VatUhenticiU  des  Actes  des  Apotres  (Toulouse, 
1859);  Lea  PsaHmes  traduUs  de  VH^breu  (Paris, 
1868);  Du  Texte  primUif  des  PsaHmes  (1873); 
De  lapsu  hominis  (Orleans,  1873);  Histoire  critique 
de  la  lUUrature  prophHique  des  H^eux  (Paris, 
1881);  LesQtuUre  sources  des  loisderExode{18S3); 
^tvdes  sur  V Apocalypse  (1884);  Les  Deux  Jiho- 
vistes,  dudes  sur  les  sources  de  VhisUnre  saints 
(Montauban,  1885);  Les  Origines  de  V Apocalypse 
(Paris,  1888);  La  Vie  future  d^aprhs  Venseignement 
de  Jisus-Christ  (1890);  La  StUammite,  milodrame 
en  cinq  actes  (1891);  Les  Cinq  Documents  de  la 
lot  mosaique  (1892);  Le  ParallHe  entre  Adam  et 
Jisus-Ckrist,  Hude  exigitique  sur  Rom,  v.  lS-21 
(1894);  La  Vie  future  d'aprks  St.  Paul  (1895); 
Le  Dixihne  congrks  des  Orientalistes  et  VAncien 
Testament  (1895);  Etudes  sur  Daniel  et  V Apoca- 
lypse (1896);  Ija  Descents  de  Christ  aux  enfers 
d'apr^  les  Ap6tres  et  d'aprhs  V6glise  (1897);  Les 
Paroles  de  Jisus  dicouvertes  en  6gypte  (1898);  Les 
Predictions  de  Jisus  (1899);  Le  Cantique  de  Dibora 
(1901);  Etudes  phiniciennes  (2  vols.,  1903-06); 
U Inscription  de  SUoi  et  ceUe  d*Eshmoun-atar  (1904); 
Vraie  et  fausse  critique  biblique  (1905);  Frag- 
ments d*un  ancien  recueil  de  paroles  de  Jisus  (1905); 
and  UHistoire  sacerdotale  et  le  DeuUronome  primiHf 
(1906),  in  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to 
theological  periodicals  and  works  of  reference. 

BRUYS,  PIERRE  DE.    See  Peter  of  Brutb. 

BRYANT,  JACOB:  English  antiquarian;  b.  at 
Plymouth  1715;  d.  at  Gypenham,  in  Famham 
Royal  (4  m.  n.  of  Windsor),  Nov.  14,  1804.  He 
studied  at  King's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1740; 
M.A.,  1744),  and  became  fellow;  was  tutor  and 
in  1756  became  secretary  to  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  family 
during  his  life  and  had  free  access  to  their  famous 
library  at  Blenheim.  He  was  a  learned  man,  but 
his  fondness  for  paradox  and  other  eccentricities 
render  his  writings  of  slight  permanent  value. 
He  published  works  upon  a  variety  of  subjects, 
classical  literature  and  antiquities,  the  gipsy 
language,  the  Marlborough  collection  of  gems,  etc. 
Those  which  have  religious  interest  are  Observa- 
tions and  Enquiries  Relating  to  Various  Parts  of 
Ancient  History  (Cambridge,  1767),  in  which  he 
defends  the  reading  Euroclydon  in  Acts  xxvii.  14, 
and  maintains  that  Melita  was  not  Malta;  A  New 
System  or  an  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mythology  (3 
vols.,  London,  1774-76;  3d  edition  with  acooimt 
of  the  author,  6  vols.,  1807),  an  attempt  to  sub- 
stantiate the  Bible  by  a  study  of  the  traditional 
remains  of  all  nations;  Vindicice  Flaviance:  a 
Vindication  of  the  Testimony  of  Josephus  concerning 
Jesus  Christ  (1777);  A  Treatise  on  the  Authen- 
ticity of  the  Scriptures  (1791);  Observations  on  a 
Controverted  Passage  in  Justin  Martyr;  also  upon 
the  Worship  of  Angels  (1793);  Observations  upon 
the  Plagues  Inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  with  maps 
(1794);  The  Sentiments  of  PhUo  Judceus  concern- 
ing the  Logos  (1797);  Observations  upon  Some 
Passages  in  Scripture  (relating  to  Balaam,  Joshua, 
Samson,  and  Jonah,  1803). 

Biblioorapht:  Literary  Anecdotee  of  Ike  Eighteenth  Century 
(0  vols.,  London,  1812-16)  and  lUuetratione  of  the  lAUr- 


Bryoe 
Buohwald 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


288 


ary  History  of  (^  EighUerUh  Century  (8  vols.,  ib.  1817-58). 
both  by  John  Nichols,  contain  very  numerous  referenoea 
to  Bryant.     Consult  also  DNB,  vii.  156-167. 

BRYCE,  GEORGE:  American  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Mount  Pleasant,  Ont.,  Apr.  22,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Toronto  and  Knox 
College,  Toronto  (B.A.,  1871),  and  was  examiner 
in  natural  history  in  the  fonner  institution  in  1870- 
1872.  In  1871  he  was  chosen  by  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Canada  to 
organize  a  church  and  college  in  Winnipeg,  and 
accordingly  established  Manitoba  College  in  the 
same  year  and  Knox  Church,  Winnipeg,  in  1872. 
Five  years  later  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
Manitoba  University,  where  he  was  examiner  in 
science  and  chairman  of  the  faculty  of  science  until 
1904.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
to  his  present  position  of  professor  of  English 
literature  and  financial  agent  in  Manitoba  College. 
For  many  years  he  has  been  active  in  Presby- 
terian home  missions  in  Manitoba,  and  was  modera- 
tor of  the  general  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada  in  1902-03.  He  has  written: 
Manitoba;  Infancy y  Progress ,  and  Present  Condition 
(London,  1882);  Short  History  of  the  Canadian  Pea- 
pU  (1887);  TheApostleof  Red  River  (Toronto,  1898); 
Remarkable  History  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
(London,  1900);  and  Makers  of  Canada  (Toronto, 
1903). 

BRYENinOS,  brt-en"nl'es,  PHILOTHEOS,  fi'lo- 
thd'es:  Greek  metropolitan  of  Nicomedia;  b.  at 
Constantinople  March  26  (old  style),  1833.  He 
was  educated  at  the  "  Theological  School  in  Chalce 
of  the  great  Church  of  Christ"  (1856),  and  the 
universities  of  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and  Munich.  In 
1861  he  became  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history, 
exegesis,  and  other  studies  at  Chalce,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  master  and  director  in  1863, 
although  he  soon  resigned  the  latter  positions. 
In  1867  he  was  called  to  Constantinople  to  be  the 
head  of  the  "  Great  School  of  the  Nation  "  in  the 
Phanar,  or  Greek  quarter  of  Constantinople,  and 
remained  there  until  in  1875  he  was  «ent  by  the 
Most  Holy  Synod  of  metropolitans  and  patriarchs 
to  the  Old  Catholic  conference  at  Bonn,  where  he 
received  the  patriarchal  letter  annoimcing  his 
appointment  as  metropolitan  of  Serrae  in  Mace- 
donia. In  1877  he  was  transferred  to  the  metro- 
politan see  of  Nicomedia,  and  three  years  later 
went  to  Bucharest  as  commissioner  of  the  Eastern 
Orthodox  Patriarchal  and  other  independent 
churches,  to  decide  concerning  the  Greek  monas- 
teries which  had  been  plundered  in  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia.  In  1882,  at  the  instance  of  the  Holy 
Synod  of  Metropolitans  in  Constantinople,  and 
the  patriarch  Joachim  HI.,  he  wrote  a  reply  to  the 
encyclical  letter  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.  concerning 
the  Slavic  apostles  Cyrillus  and  Methodius,  which 
was  published  at  Constantinople  in  1882  with  the 
approbation  and  at  the  expense  of  the  Holy  Synod. 
His  fame  rests  upon  his  discovery  in  1873  in  the 
Jerusalem  Monastery  of  the  Most  Holy  Sepidcher 
in  the  Greek  quarter  of  Constantinople  of  a  manu- 
script containing  (1)  a  sjrnopsis  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  in  the  order  given  by  St.  CShrysos- 
tom;    (2)  The  Epistle  of  Barnabas;    (3)  The  First 


Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians; 
(4)  The  Second  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corin- 
thians;   (5)  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles; 

(6)  The  spurious  letter  of  Mary  of  Cassoboli;    and 

(7)  Twelve  pseudo-Ignatian  Epistles.  He  edited 
the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  with  prolegomena 
and  notes  at  Constantinople  in  1875,  and  published 
the  "  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  "  in  the 
same  city  in  1883.    See  Did  ache. 

Bzbuooeaprt:  P.  Sohaff,  Teaehino  of  the  Twelve  ApoeUa, 
pp.  8-9,  28&-296.  New  York.  1890. 

BUCERy  MARTIN.     See  Butzer. 

BUCHANAN,  CLAUDIUS:  A  pioneer  of  modem 
Anglican  missionary  work  in  India;  b.  at  Cambus- 
lang,  near  Glasgow,  Mar.  12,  1766;  d.  at  Brox- 
boume  (5  m.  s.e.  of  Hertford),  Hertfordshire,  Feb. 
9,  1815.  At  sixteen  he  went  to  the  University  of 
Glasgow,  intending  to  study  law,  but,  after  finishing 
his  course,  spent  three  years  in  a  careless  wander- 
ing life.  Smitten  by  repentance,  he  placed  hims^ 
under  the  care  of  John  Newton,  the  celebrated 
evangelical  preacher  in  London,  one  of  whose 
friends  enabled  him  to  spend  fom:  years  at  Cam- 
bridge. In  1796  he  went  to  Calcutta  as  a  chaplain 
in  the  East  India  Company's  service.  He  foimd 
the  conditions  there  very  unfavorable  for  eam&t 
work.  All  the  Company  was  willing  to  do  for 
sixty  millions  of  souls  was  to  place  a  chaplain  here 
and  there,  who  was  told  not  to  meddle  with  the 
native  population.  While  Buchanan  was  waiting 
for  a  chance  to  do  real  work,  he  learned  Hindustani 
and  Persian.  In  1800,  being  transferred  to  Cal- 
cutta itself,  he  found  a  like-minded  helper  in  Lord 
Momington  (later  Marquis  of  Wellesley),  the 
Governor-general,  who  founded  a  college  in  Cal- 
cutta for  the  teaching  of  the  Oriental  languages 
and  placed  Buchanan  in  charge  of  it.  It  was  closed, 
however,  three  years  later,  and  all  looked  as  dark 
as  ever.  But  after  a  while  a  new  institute  was 
founded,  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  Buchanan  took 
hope  once  more.  In  1805  he  published  his  Ex- 
pediency  of  an  Ecclesiastical  Establishment  for 
India,  in  which  he  developed  the  first  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  regular  dioceses  and  bishops. 
While  waiting  for  his  seed  to  bear  fruit,  he  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  into  Hindustani  and 
Persian,  and  founded  an  institute  for  such  work. 
In  1806  he  made  an  extended  journey  along  the 
Malabar  coast,  partly  for  his  health  and  partly 
in  the  missionary  interest,  publishing  hia  obser- 
vations in  Christian  Researches  in  Asia  (Cambridge, 
1811,  new  ed.,  London,  1840).  He  returned  to 
Calcutta  in  1807,  full  of  plans  for  which  the  time 
was  once  more  unfavorable.  Lord  Wellesley  had 
been  recalled,  and  his  successor,  Lord  Minto,  looked 
coldly  on  such  projects,  as  did  the  Company  in 
general.  To  push  his  views  in  England  was  the 
most  necessary  thing,  and  Buchanan  returned 
thither  in  1808  to  press  upon  the  ministry  the 
setting  up  of  a  theological  seminary  in  each  presi- 
dency, the  granting  of  licenses  to  missionaries, 
and  the  appointment  of  bishops.  Lord  Liverpool 
approved  this  plan,  but  the  House  of  Commons 
agreed  to  the  appointment  of  only  one  bishop. 
Middle  ton,  the  first  bishop  of  Calcutta,  was  con- 


289 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Bryce 

Buchwald 


secrated  in  1816,  and  when  his  successor  was 
provided  with  suffragans  for  Madras  and  Bombay, 
Buchanan's  plan  had  been  realized  in  its  essentials, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  see  it. 

Bibuoqbapht:  H.  Peanon,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Wri- 
tinoB  o/  .  .  .  Clavdiua  Budumatit  2  vols.,  London,  1810; 
R.  VormbAum,  H.  Mariyn,  D.  Brown  und  C.  Budtanan, 
Elberfeld,  1866;  DNB,  vii.  182-184. 

BUCHANAN,  GEORGE:  Scotch  scholar;  b.  in 
the  parish  of  Killeam  (44  m.  w.n.w.  of  Edinburgh), 
Stirlingshire,  early  in  Feb.,  1506;  d.  in  Edinburgh 
Sept.  28,  1582.  He  studied  in  Paris,  1520-22, 
at  St.  Andrews,  1525,  and  again  in  Paris,  where 
be  became  teacher  in  the  College  of  Ste.  Barbe, 
1528;  returned  to  Scotland  1535.  He  inclined 
toward  Protestant  views  and  wrote  two  satires  on 
the  monks,  the  Somnium  and  the  Franciscanus  et 
fratrea,  for  which  he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  country 
in  1539.  He  taught  at  Paris,  Bordeaux,  and  Goim- 
bra,  and  was  active  in  the  production  of  literary 
works;  to  this  period  belong  his  translations  into 
Latin  of  the  Medea  and  of  the  AlcesHa  and  his  Latin 
tragedies,  Jephihes  and  Baptistes  (translated  into 
English  verse  by  A.  Gibb,  Edinburgh,  1870;  and 
by  A.  Gordon  Mitchell,  Paisley,  1903-04);  he 
began  his  translation  of  the  Psalms  into  Latin 
(published  at  Paris,  1566)  while  confined  in  a 
monastery  by  the  Inquisition  at  Coimbra.  In 
1562  he  was  acting  as  tutor  to  Mary  Stuart  in 
Scotland;  he  now  openly  embraced  Protestantism 
and  became  influential  in  both  Church  and  State; 
was  an  ardent  supporter  of  Moray  (who  made  him 
principal  of  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrews,  in 
1566),  and  an  active  opponent  of  the  queen.  In 
1570  he  became  tutor  to  the  young  James  VI.  and 
keeper  of  the  privy  seal;  his  royal  pupil  he  under- 
took to  make  "  the  greatest  scholar  in  the  land." 
During  the  last  period  of  his  life  he  wrote  his  two 
greatest  works,  the  De  jure  regni  apud  Scotoa 
(Edinburgh,  1579;  Eng.  transl.,  1680),  a  defense 
of  limited  monarchy,  suppressed  by  act  of  parlisr 
ment  in  1584  and  again  in  1664  and  burned  at 
Oxford  in  1683;  and  the  Rerum  Scoticarum  hUtoria 
(1582;  19th  ed.,  1762;  Eng.  transl.,  1690).  His 
works  have  been  edited  by  Ruddiman  (2  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1715;  reprinted  by  Burman,  Leyden, 
1725). 

Biblioorapht:  The  Iieyden  ed.  of  the  Worke  contains  a 
full  bibliography.  The  Life,  by  David  Irving,  Edin- 
burgh, 1817,  is  an  excellent  literary  history  of  the  times. 
Consult  also:  P.  H.  Brown,  Oeorge  Buchanan,  Humaniet 
and  Reformer,  Edinburgh,  1890;  idem,  Oeorge  BiuJuinan 
and  hie  Timee,  ib.  1906;  D.  Macmillan,  Oeorge  Buchanan, 
a  Biographu,  London,  1906;  D.  A.  Millar,  Oeorge  Bu- 
duman,  a  Memorial,  ISOe-lOOe,  London.  1907;  DNB, 
vii.  186-193. 

BUCHAinXES:  The  followers  of  Elspat  (or 
Elspeth)  Simpson,  wife  of  Robert  Buchan,  a 
journeyman  potter  at  Greenock,  Scotland.  She 
was  bom  at  Fatmacken,  between  Banfif  and  Port- 
Boy,  1738;  was  brought  up  in  the  Scottish  Episco- 
pal Church;  while  a  servant  at  Greenock  she  mar- 
ried and  followed  her  husband  into  the  Burgher 
Succession  Church.  In  1781  she  separated  from 
him  and  removed  with  her  children  to  Glasgow. 
In  1783  she  joined  the  Dowhill  Relief  church  at 
Irvine,  whose  pastor  was  the  Rev.  Hugh  White. 
IL— 19 


She  had  abready  adopted  fantastic  views  as  to 
religion  and  claimed  to  be  a  teacher  sent  from 
heaven.  She  got  a  hearing,  her  chief  converts 
being  Mr.  White,  who  proclaimed  that,  she  was  the 
woman  spoken  of  in  Rev.  xii.  1  sqq.  and  that  he  was 
the  man-child  she  had  brought  forth.  The  Relief 
presbytery  deposed  Mr.  White  from  the  ministry, 
and  when  converts  to  Mrs.  Buchan's  pretensions 
began  to  gather,  the  parish  authorities  in  May, 
1784,  compelled  the  whole  band  to  leave.  They 
settled  on  a  farm  at  New  Cample,  near  Closebum, 
Dumfriesshire,  and  there  the  sect  grew  to  about 
fifty  members,  some  >  of  whom  were  superior  per- 
sons. Mrs.  Buchan  was  called  "  spiritual  mother  " 
by  her  followers,  and  professed  to  be  able  to  impart 
the  Holy  Spirit  by  breathing  on  the  candidate; 
also  to  be  a  prophetess,  and  as  such  foretold  that 
neither  she  nor  her  followers  would  ever  die  but 
would  meet  the  Lord  in  the  air  in  the  advent  which 
she  taught  was  at  hand,  basing  her  teaching  on 
I  Thess.  iv.  17.  The  usual  charge  of  sexual  im- 
morality was  brought  against  the  sect,  the  most 
distinguished  witness  being  the  poet  Robert  Bums, 
who  is  said  to  have  had  a  lady-love  in  the  sect 
(see  his  letter  to  John  Bumess,  dated  August,  1784). 
His  song  "  As  I  was  a  walking  "  was  set  to  an  air 
which  was  a  favorite  with  the  Buchanites.  In 
May,  1791,  Mrs.  Buchan  died.  This,  being  in 
direct  contradiction  to  her  teaching,  had  a  dis- 
astrous effect  on  her  sect  which  then  began  to 
disintegrate,  but  the  last  adherent  of  it  did  not 
pass  away  till  1848. 

Biblioorapht:  Jowph  Train,  The  BuehaniUa  from  Firet  to 
Last,  Edinburgh,  1846;  Eight  LeUere  between  the  People 
eaUed  Buchanxtee  and  a  Teacher  (J.  Purvee);  Three  of 
which  are  written  by  Mr.  White,  and  one  by  Mre.  Buchan, 
together  with  two  LeUere  from  Mre.  Buchan  and  one  from 
Mr.  White  to  a  Clergyman  in  England,  ib.  1786. 

BUCHEL,  ANNA  VON.    See  Ronbdorf  Sect. 

BUCHWALD,  bQH'vOld,  GE0R6  APOLLO :  Ger- 
man Protestant;  b.  at  Grossenhain  (19  m.  n.n.w. 
of  Dresden)  July  16,  1859.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leipsic  (Ph.D.,  1882),  and  was 
successively  a  teacher  in  the  real-school  of  Mitt- 
weida  (1882-83)  and  the  royal  gymnasium  of 
Zwickau  (1883-85),  after  which  he  was  diaconiu 
at  Zwickau  (1885-92)  and  Leipsic  (1892-96). 
Since  1896  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Michaeliskirche, 
Leipsic.  In  addition  to  numerous  minor  contri- 
butions to  theological  periodicals  and  to  collab- 
orating on  the  Weimar  and  Erlangen  editions  of 
the  works  of  Luther,  he  has  written  Luther  und 
die  Juden  (Leipsic,  1881);  Nachklang  der  Epiatolm 
obacurorum  virorum  (Dresden,  1882);  Logoebegrijf 
dee  Johannes  Scotua  Erigena  (Licipsic,  1884);  Lutheri 
ScholcB  in  librum  Judicum  (1884);  Ungedruckte 
Predigten  D.  Martin  Luihere  1530  auf  der  Coburg 
gehalten  (Zwickau,  1884);  Secha  Predigten  Johannea 
Bugenhagena  (Halle,  1885);  Andreaa  Poacha  hand- 
achriftliche  SamnUung  ungedruckter  Predigten  D. 
Martin  Luthera  aua  den  Jahren  1528-46  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1884-85);  AUerlei  aua  drei  Jakrhunderten 
(Zwickau,  1887);  Eine  adchaiache  Pilgerfakrt  nach 
Paldatina  vor  mer  hundert  Jahren  (Barmen,  1889); 
Elf  ungedruckte  Predigten  Luthera  gehaUen  in  der 
TnnitaHazeU,  1539  (Werdau,  1888);   Luihen  letzU 


Back 
Bnddeoa 


THE   NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


290 


Streitackrift  (Leipsic,  1803);  Zur  WiUenberger 
Stadl-und  Univernidisgeachichte  in  der  ReformaHonS' 
aeit  (1893);  Entstehung  der  KaUchismen  LtUhera 
und  die  Grundlage  des  grossen  Katechismua  (1894); 
WiUenberger  Ordinierten-Buch  (2  vols.,  1894);  Se- 
Uge  PUgerschAft  (1896;  extracts  from  the  writings 
of  Luther);  Philipp  Melanchihon  (1897);  Luthers 
grosser  Katechismua  (1897);  Paul  Eber  (1897); 
Geschichie  der  evangelischen  Gemeinde  zu  Kitzingen 
(1898);  LtUhers  deiUsche  Brief e  auagewQhU  und 
erldutert  (1899);  RefomuUionsgeschichU  der  Stadt 
Leipzig  (1900);  Konrad  Sturtzel  von  Buchheim 
(1900);  Die  eoangeliache  Kirche  im  Jahrhundert 
der  Reformation  (1900);  Dr.  Martin  Luther  (1901); 
So  spricht  Dr.  Martin  Luther  (Berlin,  1903;  selec- 
tions from  the  writings  of  Luther);  Deutechlands 
Kirchengeechichte  fur  das  evangelische  Haus  (Biele- 
feld, 1904);  Lutherlesebuch  (Hamburg,  1905); 
and  UngedruclUe  Predigten  aus  den  Jakren  1537- 
1540  (Leipsic,  1905). 

BUCK,  CHARLES:  English  Independent;  b. 
at  Hillsley  (15  m.  n.e.  of  Bristol),  Gloucestershire, 
1771;  d.  in  London  Aug.  11,  1815.  He  held  pas- 
torates at  Sheemess  and  London.  He  is  mentioned 
for  his  Theological  Dictionary ,  containing  definitions 
of  all  religious  terms;  a  comprehensive  view  of 
every  article  in  the  system  of  divinity;  an  impartial 
account  of  aU  the  principal  denominations  which 
have  subsisted  in  the  religious  world  from  the  birth 
of  Christ  to  the  present  day;  together  with  an  accurate 
statement  of  the  most  remarkable  transactions  and 
events  recorded  in  ecclesiastical  history  (2  vols., 
London,  1802;  many  subsequent  editions  and 
reprints).  He  also  published  Anecdotes^  Religious, 
Moral,  and  Entertaining  (1799),  which  proved  a 
highly  popular  work. 

Bibuookapht:  Buck's  Memoir*  and  RemairiM  were  edited 
by  J.  StyleB,  London.  1817. 

BUCEXABD,  AUGUSTUS  ROBERT:  Secretary 
of  the  Religious  Tract  Society;  b.  at  Newport 
(20  m.  n.w.  of  Bristol),  Monmouthshire,  Apr.  18, 
1867.  He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford  (B.A.,  1881),  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  of  the  Church  of  England  in  1881.  He 
was  curate  of  Spitalfields,  London,  in  1880-84.  In 
1887  he  became  editor  of  the  Record  and  has  since 
engaged  largely  in  journalistic  work.  He  has  also 
been  morning  preacher  in  the  Foundling  Hospital, 
London,  since  1890,  and  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Religious  Tract  Society  in  1902.  He  has 
written:  Strayed  East  (London,  1889);  The  Patience 
of  Two  (1894);  The  Heroic  in  Missions  (1894); 
John  Harden,  Missionary  Bishop  (1894);  Women 
in  the  Mission  Field  (1895);  The  Confessional  in 
the  English  Church  (1900);  and  The  Missionary 
Speaker's  Manual  (1901;  in  collaboration  with 
J.  D.  MuUins).  In  addition,  he  has  edited  many 
works  for  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  notably  its 
DevatUmal  Commentary. 

BUCBXEY,  JAMES  MONROE:  Methodist  Epis- 
eopalian;  b.  at  Rahway,  N.  J.,  Dec.  16,  1836.  He 
was  educated  at  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  but  did  not  graduate,  and  he  also  studied 
theology  at  Exeter,  N.  H.  He  held  various  pas- 
torates   in    New    Hampshire    (1859-63),    Central 


Church,  Detroit  (1863-66),  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (1866- 
1869, 1872-75,  and  1878-^),  and  Stamford,  Conxi. 
(1869-72  and  1875-78).  Since  1880  he  has  be«: 
editor  of  the  New  York  Christian  Advocate.  His 
general  theological  position  is  that  of  his  deooiB- 
ination,  although  he  reserves  all  rights  to  individucJ 
judgment  concerning  non-essentials.  He  has  writ- 
ten: Appeals  to  Men  of  Sense  and  Rejection  to  begin 
a  Christian  Life  (New  York,  1869);  Christian  ami 
the  Theatre  (1875);  Supposed  Miracles  (Boston. 
1875);  OaU  or  Wild  Oats  f  (New  York,  1885);  The 
Midnight  Sun,  the  Czar  and  the  Nihilist  (Bostofo, 
1887);  Faith  Healing,  Christian  Science,  and  Kin- 
dred Phenomena  (New  York,  1892);  Travel$  in 
Three  Continents  (1895);  History  of  Methodism  in 
the  United  States  (1897);  Extemponmeaus  Oratory 
for  Professional  and  Amateur  Speakers  (1899); 
and  The  Fundamentals  of  Religion  and  their  Con- 
trasts (1906). 

BUCKMINSTER,  JOSEPH  STEVEHS:  New  Eng- 
land clergyman;  b.  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  May  26, 
1784;  d.  in  Boston  June  9,  1812.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  1800;  studied  theology  while 
teacher  at  (Phillips)  Exeter  Academy  and  private 
tutor  at  Waltham;  was  called  to  the  Brattle  Street 
Church,  Boston,  1804;  appointed  lecturer  on 
Biblical  criticism  at  Harvard,  1811.  In  theology 
he  was  liberal,  a  forerunner  of  the  Unitarian  move- 
ment; he  belonged  to  the  "  Anthology  Club.'* 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Monthly  An- 
thology, and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  literary 
reputation  of  Boston.  He  superintended  the 
publication  of  the  American  edition  of  Griesbach*s 
Greek  Testament  (1808);  two  volumes  of  sermons, 
with  memoir  by  Rev.  S.  C.  Thacher,  were  published 
after  his  death  (Boston,  1814;  1829),  and  his  Worh 
appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1839. 

Bibuoorapht:  His  Memoir  (together  with  that  of  his 
father.  Rev.  Joseph  Buckminster  of  Portsmouth,  N.  H.: 
b.  1751;  d.  1812)  wm  published  by  his  sister.  Eiiss  B. 
Lee,  Boston.  1851. 

BUDDE,  bQd'de,  KARL  FERDINAlfB  REIN- 
HARD:  German  Protestant;  b.  at  Bensberg 
(9  m.  e.  of  Cologne)  Apr.  13,  1850.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  universities  of  Bonn,  Berlin,  and 
Utrecht  from  1868  to  1873,  although  his  studies 
were  interrupted  in  1870-71,  when  he  served  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  He  became  privat- 
docent  for  the  Old  Testament  at  Bonn  in  1873. 
and  was  also  teacher  at  the  Schulbnng'sche  hdhere 
Tdchterschule  in  1873--89  and  inspector  of  the 
theological  seminary  of  the  university  in  1878-85. 
In  1879  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of 
Old  Testament  theology  at  the  same  university, 
and  ten  years  later  was  called  to  Strasburg  in  a 
like  capacity,  being  promoted  to  a  full  professor- 
ship after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months.  Since  1900 
he  has  been  professor  of  Old  Testament  theology 
at  Marburg.  He  has  written:  Beitrdge  zur  Kritik 
des  Buches  Hiob  (Bonn,  1876);  Die  biblische  Urge- 
schichU  untersuchi  (Giessen,  1883);  Die  BOcher  iff 
Richter  und  Samuel,  ihr  Aufbau  und  ihre  QueUe^ 
(1890);  The  Books  of  Samuel,  Critical  Edition  oj 
the  Hebrew  Text  (in  the  Pofgfchrome  Bible,  Leipac, 
1894);  Das  Buck  Hiob  (in  the  Handcomment<ff 
sum  Alien  Testament,  Odttingen,  1896);   Das  Bvd 


201 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Buck 
Baddens 


tier    Richter   (in   the   Kurzer  Handcommerdar  zum 
AU^n    Testament,   P^reiburg,    1897);     Hohelied  urul 
IClagelieder  (in  the  same  series,  1898) ;   The  Religion 
of  Isrciel  to  the  Exile  (The  American  Lectures  on 
the    History  of  Religions  for  1898-99,  New  York. 
1899) ;    Die  sogenannten  Jahvelieder  und  die  Bedeut- 
ung    dee   Knechles   Jahvea   in   Jesaija   40-56,    ein 
M  inoritdtsvotum  (Giessen,   1900);    Der  Kanon  des 
A  Hen   Testaments  (1900);    Die  Bucher  Samuel  (m 
Kurzer     HandcammerUar    sum     Alien     Testament, 
Freibxirg,    1902);     Das    AUe    Testament   und   die 
Atisgrabungen  (Giessen,  1903);    Die  SchtUzung  des 
K&nxgtums  im  AUen  Testament  (Marburg,  1903); 
Was  soU  die  Gemeinde  aus  dem  Streit  um  Babel  und 
Bibel  lemenf    (Tttbingen,  1903);  and  Hebr&ische 
Litieraturgeschichte  (Leipsic,  1906).     He  also  trans- 
lated A.  Kuenen's  National  Religions  and  Universal 
Religions    (Hibbert    Lectures   for    1882^    London, 
1882)  under  the  title  Volksreligion  und  Weltreligion 
(Berlin,  1883),  and  a  number  of  the  same  scholar's 
monographs  as  Gesammelte  AhhaneUungen  tur  biblv- 
schen  Wissenschaft  (Freiburg,  1894).  He  has  likewise 
edited  the  eighth  and  ninth  editions  of  J.  Hollen- 
berg's  Hebraisches  SchuUmch  (Berlin,  1895,  1900) 
and  Eduard  Reuss*  Briefwechsel  mit  seinem  Schuler 
und  Freunde  Karl  Heinrich  Graf  (in  collaboration 
with  H.  J.  Holtzmann,  Giessen,  1904). 

BUDDENSIEG,  bad''den-stg',  OSKAR  GOTTLIEB 
RUDOLF:  German  Lutheran;  b.  at  Greussen 
(25  m.  n.w.  of  Weimar)  Sept.  5,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Berlin 
(1864-67;  Ph.D.,  Berlin,  1871),  and  studied  in  Lon- 
don in  1867-73.  Returning  to  his  native  country, 
he  was  a  teacher  successively  at  the  Andreanum  in 
Hildesheim  (1873-74)  and  at  the  Vitzthum  gym- 
nasium in  Dresden  (1874-87),  declining  a  call  to  a 
professorship  in  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1886. 
From  1887  to  1894  he  was  director  of  a  normal 
school  for  young  men  in  Dresden,  and  since  the 
latter  year  has  occupied  a  similar  position  in  a 
normal  school  for  young  women  in  the  same  city. 
In  1883  he  founded  the  Wyclif  Society  in  Lon- 
don. He  has  written:  Die  assyrischen  Ausgrabun- 
gen  und  das  AUe  Testament  (Heilbronn,  1880); 
Johann  Widifs  laieinische  Streitschriften  zum  ersten 
Male  aus  den  Handschriften  herausgegeben  (2  vols., 
Leipsic,  1883;  Eng.  ed.,  under  the  title  JoAn  Wic- 
lifs  Polemical  Works,  2  vols.,  London,  1884-85); 
Johann  Widif  und  seine  ZeU  (Halle,  1884);  John 
Widif,  Patriot  and  Reformer  (London,  1884);  and 
Johann  Widife  De  veritate  sacrce  scripturce  (3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1904;    Eng.  ed.,  3  vols.,  London,  1905-07). 

BX7DDEUS,  bQd''d^Os,  J0HA5NES  FRANCIS- 
CUS  (Johann  Franz  Budde):  German  theologian 
and  philosopher;  b.  at  Anclam  (47  m.  n.w.  of 
Stettin),  Pomerania,  where  his  father  was  pastor, 
June  25,  1667;  d.  at  Gotha  Nov.  19,  1729.  He 
early  received  a  thorough  education  in  classical 
and  Oriental  languages,  and  had  read  the  Bible 
through  in  the  original  before  he  went  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg  in  1685.  He  was  appointed 
adjunct  professor  of  philosophy  there  soon  after 
taking  his  master's  degree  in  1687,  and  in  1689 
exchanged  this  for  a  similar  position  at  Jena,  where 
he  also  paid  much  attention  to  the  study  of  history. 


In  1692  he  went  to  Coburg  as  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin,  and  the  next  year  to  the  new  University 
of  Halle  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy.  Here 
he  remained  until  1705,  when  he  went  to  Jena  as 
second  professor  of  theology.  His  lectures  em- 
braced all  branches  of  this  science,  and  frequently 
touched  on  philosophy,  history,  and  politics.  R^ 
spected  by  all  as  a  man  and  a  Christian,  he  remained 
at  Jena  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  several  times  acting 
as  rector  of  the  university  temporarily  and  being 
head  of  his  department  and  an  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cilor from  1715.  He  was  considered  the  most 
universally  accomplished  German  theologian  of 
his  time.  In  philosophy  he  professed  an  eclec- 
ticism which  rested  on  a  broad  historical  foundation; 
but  he  recognized  in  Descartes  the  originator  of  a 
new  period,  and  in  attacking  the  "  atheist "  Spi- 
noza followed  especially  the  upholders  of  the  law 
of  natiu^,  such  as  Hugo  Grotius,  Puffendorf,  and 
Thomasius.  His  theological  position  was  deter- 
mined by  the  tradition  of  Musseus  at  Jena,  partly 
through  his  close  relations  with  Baier;  but  on 
another  side  he  was  inclined  toward  Pietism. 
His  association  with  Spangenberg,  Spener,  and 
Zinzendorf  brought  him  under  suspicion  and  actually 
gave  rise  to  a  formal  investigation  of  his  doctrine. 
In  certain  ways,  too,  he  was  influenced  by  the 
federalist  theology,  but  without  allowing  it  to 
lead  him  beyond  the  bounds  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy. 
In  all  departments  he  showed  himself  a  man  of 
sound  learning  and  scholariy  instincts.  His  work 
was  epoch-making  in  church  history,  especially 
that  dealing  with  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
apostolic  age.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  life  of 
Buddeus  belongs  to  the  transition  period  which 
follows  that  of  simple  orthodoxy;  the  influence 
of  anew  age  and  new  leading  interests  appears 
in  him,  and  at  times  he  seems  to  be  conscious  of 
the  change.  Yet  in  his  Biblical  criticism  he  did  not 
get  so  far  as  to  make  the  slightest  concession; 
not  a  verse  of  a  canonical  book  can  be  touched 
without  injuring  the  perfection  of  the  whole.  As 
an  academic  teacher  he  attained  great  success,  and 
he  had  the  gift  of  a  striking  and  pregnant  style, 
especially  in  Latin.  His  works,  great  and  small, 
number  over  a  hundred.  Of  those  published  in 
the  Halle  period  may  be  mentioned  Elementa 
philoeophicB  pradicce  (1697)  and  Elementa  phv- 
losophicB  ededicce  (1703).  To  the  second  Jena 
period  belong  among  others  the  InstUutiones  theo- 
logicB  moralis  (1711;  German  transl.,  1719),  a  work 
strictly  in  accordance  with  his  philosophical  ethics; 
the  Historia  ecdesiastica  veteris  testamenti  (1715-18); 
Theses  theologicce  de  atheismo  d  superatitione  (1716), 
which,  directed  especially  against  Spinoza,  attracted 
much  attention;  InstUutiones  theologice  dogmoHcce 
(1723),  a  work  once  very  influential,  obviously 
founded  on  Baler's  Compendium;  Historische  und 
theologisehe  Einleitung  in  die  vomehmsten  Religions- 
streitigkeiten  (1724, 1728),  edited  by  Walch;  Isagoge 
histarico-theologica  ad  theologiam  universam  (1727), 
dealing  with  the  problems,  methods,  and  history  of 
theology  in  a  way  remarkable  for  that  time;  and 
Ecdesia  apostolica  (1729),  intended  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  the  New  Testament. 

(Johannes  Kunze.) 


Buddhla 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


Biblioobapht:  Buddeus  himself  issued  a  NoHUa  diueria- 
Hofwm  .  .  .  Mcriptorumque  a  J.  F.  Buddeo  .  .  .  edito- 
rum,  Jena,  1728  (a  list  of  his  writinss);  and  the  Ehrtn- 
OedOehtniu  de9  .  .  ,  J.  F.  BuddtuB,  ib.  1731,  also  con- 
tains a  catalogue  of  his  productions.  Consult:  W. 
Schrader,  Oeachiehte  der  Friedrithnmivermidt  su  HaUSf  i. 
60,  Berlin,  1804;  W.  Gass,  OstdiidUe  der  proteBtatUiadien 
DoomaHk,  iii.  80,  149  sqq.,  214  sqq.,  Berlin,  1862;  Q. 
Frank,  OMdUdUe  der  proteetanHedien  Theolooie,  ii.  148, 
214  sqq..  Leipsio,  1865;  C.  E.  Luthardt,  OetdiidUe  der 
ehriaaidten  Ethik,  U.  203  sqq..  ib.  1893. 

BUDDHISM. 

Life  of  Buddha  (|  1).  Buddhist  Monks  (|  6). 

Legendary  Additions  Development  after  Buddha's 

(I  2).  Death  (|  6). 

Buddha's  Teaching  (|  3).  Buddhist  Sects  (|  7). 

Nirvana  (|  4).  The  Dhyani  Buddhas  (|  8). 

Buddhism'  and  Christianity  (|  9). 

Buddhism  is  the  religion  established  in  India  by 
Buddha  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  and  having,  ao- 
oording  to  a  conservative  estimate,  upward  of 
100,000,000  adherents  at  the  present  time,  chiefly 
in  Ceylon,  Nepal,  Tibet,  Farther  India,  China,  and 
Japan.  While  frequently  regarded  as  a  new  relig- 
ion, it  is,  strictly  speaking,  only  a  reformation  of 
Brahmanism,  and  can  not  be  understood  without 
some  knowledge  of  the  conditions  preceding  it. 
The  religious  system  of  India  as  outlined  in  its 
oldest  religious  books,  the  Vedas,  had  reached  in 
the  Brahmanas  and  Sutras  a  degree  of  ritualism 
such  as,  perhaps,  never  existed  elsewhere  (see 
Brahmanibm).  This  formalism  produced  a  revolt, 
and  from  time  to  time  arose  various  teachers, 
philosophers,  and  reformers,  of  whom  the  most  in- 
fluential was  Siddhartha,  also  known  as  Sakya, 
Sakyamuni,  Gautama,  and,  most  frequently,  as 
Buddha. 

Buddha,  the  son  of  Suddhodana,  king  of  Kapi- 
lavastu,  a  city  in  the  district  of  Gorakhpur,  Oudh, 
was  bom  in  557  B.C.  in  the  grove  of  Lumbini,  two 
miles  from  the  capital.  He  was,  therefore,  like 
Mahavira,  the  founder  of  the  rival  system  of  Jainism 
(q.v.),  a  member  of  the  Kshatriya  or  warrior  caste. 
The  details  of  the  life  of  the  Buddha,  or  "The 
Enlightened  One,''  so  far  as  they  may  be  verified 
historically,  are  comparatively  few.  He  lost  his 
mother,  whom  the  later  texts  name  Maya,  at  a  very 
early  age,  and  he  married  while  still  young,  accord- 
ing to  Hindu  custom,  and  had  a  son  called  Rahula. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-nine  (528  B.C.),  he  renoimced 
his  succession  to  the  throne  and  became  a  hermit. 
Herein  there  is  nothing  extraordinary,  for  Brah- 
manism  divided  life  into  the  four  stages  of  student, 
householder,  hermit,  and  ascetic.  Two  of  these 
the  prince  had  already  performed;  two  more  yet 
remained  for  him,  and  he  went  forth 
X.  Life  of    to  win  knowledge  of  the  truth  by 

Bttddha.  penance  and  meditation.  From  the 
first  he  gained  nothing,  nor  could  his 
teachers  help  him,  while  his  five  companions  aban- 
doned him  as  unfitted  to  receive  a  knowledge  of 
the  truth.  In  his  wanderings  he  came  to  Uruvela, 
the  modem  Buddha  Gaya  in  Bengal.  There,  in 
521  B.C.,  after  seven  years  of  struggle,  he  received 
illumination  while  sitting  in  meditation  beneath 
the  sacred  bo-tree  {Ficus  religiosa  or  pipul-tree). 
Thus  the  Bodhisattva,  or  potential  Buddha,  be- 
came a  true  Buddha  or  Tathagata,  "  the  Perfected 
One."    He  now  entered  upon  the  fourth  and  the 


last  stage  of  life,  and  became  a  wandering  ascetic  and 
teacher.  His  earliest  followers  were  the  five  monb 
who  had  tumed  from  him  before,  and  as  other  con- 
verts were  made  they  were  sent  as  apostles  of  the 
doctrine.  Favor  was  his  in  high  places  also,  for 
Bimbisara,  king  of  Magadha,  became  an  adherent 
of  the  faith.  Over  all  ranks  and  classes  Buddk 
exercised  a  powerful  influence,  due,  it  is  very  pos- 
sible, rather  to  his  personal  charm  of  manner  thm 
to  any  essential  novelty  of  the  doctrine  which  he 
taught.  It  was  undoubtedly  in  great  part  the 
result  of  his  disregard  of  the  fundamental  Hindu 
principle  of  caste  that  he  won  for  hiniself  so  large 
a  following.  Peaceably  and  calmly  the  life  of 
Buddha  passed,  with  little  opposition,  save  from 
his  cousin  Devadatta,  who  attempted,  from  motives 
of  personal  ambition,  to  rouse  hostility  against 
his  kinsman.  At  the  age  of  eighty  the  Buddha 
felt  that  his  end  was  drawing  near,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  his  life  severe  illness  befell  him.  At  the 
village  of  Kusinara,  about  thirty  miles  west  of 
Katfainandu,  the  capital  of  Nepal,  the  mast^ 
passed  away  (477  B.C.). 

About  the  life  here  outlined  the  mythopeic  tend- 
encies of  the  Oriental  mind  wove  a  web  of  legend. 
In  course  of  time  Buddha  no  longer  stands  alone. 
He  is  the  successor  of  twenty-seven  Buddhas  and 
himself  received  recognition  from  twenty-four  of 
them,  passing  through  a  hundred  thousand  world 
cycles    and    ooimtless    reincarnations    before   be 
reached  the  perfection  which  was  requisite  for  his 
high  mission.    When  in  him  all  perfection  and  all 
knowledge  was  imited,  the  ^ods  besought  him  to 
be  bom  on  earth,  and  in  answer  to 
2.  Legend-  their  prayer  he  entered  the  womb  of 
ary         Maya  in  the  form  of  a  white  elephant. 
Additions.   whUe  thirty-two  signs  of  wonder  ap- 
peared and  the  ten  thousand  worlds 
trembled  at  the  coming  of  the  savior  of  the  world. 
At  the  end  of  ten  months,  the  Buddha  was  bom 
beneath  a  sal-tree  in  the  grove  of  Lumbini,  while 
gods  and  men  did  homage   unto   him.    On  the 
fifth  day   of    his   life   the    Brahman     Kondanna 
prophesied    to    Suddhodana    the    king   that  the 
child  was  destined  to  become  a  Buddha  when  be 
should  see  four  signs  of  evil  omen,  an  old  man,  a 
sick  man,  a  corpse,  and  a  monk.    By  every  means 
within  his  power  the  father  sought  to  keep  his 
son  from   seeing   these  sights,    surrounding  lum 
with  every  luxury,  and  marrying  him  in  his  six- 
teenth year  to  his  cousin  Yasodhara,  the  daughter 
of  Suprabuddha.    It  was  all  in  vain,  however,  for 
Siddhartha   beheld    the   four   signs,    realised  tbe 
misery  of  life,  and  abandoned  the  palace.    On  the 
expiration  of  his  seven  years  of  wandering,  he 
realized  that  he  was  at  last  to  gain  Buddhahood, 
and  amid  many  marvels  he  sat  down  beneath  the 
bo-tree   facing   the   East.    Fruitlessly   did  Mara, 
the  leader  of  the  host  of  evil,  endeavor  to  terrify 
the  Bodhisattva.    The  blandishments  of  his  daugh- 
ters, Desire,  Pining,  and  L\ist,  and  his  more  subtle 
temptation  that  the  Buddha  should  at  once  enter 
Nirvana  without  proclaiming  his  saving  knowl- 
edge   to    mankind,    failed    ignominiously.    From 
the  time  of  his  illumination  until  his  death  few 
myths  gather  about  the  Buddha,  but  when  he  wai 


S08 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


about  to  die  there  were  marvels,  and  the  course  of 
nature  waa  again  disturbed,  until  the  Tathagata 
passed  to  Nirvana. 

The  key-note  of  Buddhism  is  the  transitoriness 
and  vanity  of  life,  which  is  conditioned  by  karma, 
the  fruit  of  deeds  done  in  coimtless  previous  lives; 
nor  can  existence  be  ended  before  the  expiration  of 
many  reincarnations  devoted  to  works  of  holiness  and 
spent  in  unceasing  efforts  to  gain  Nirvana.  Three 
elements  common  to  all  post-Vedic 
3.  Buddha's  Hindu  thought  are  at  once  discernible 
Teaching,  in  this  teaching;  viz.,  transmigration, 
karma,  and  the  dissolution  of  individ- 
uality. In  its  shortest  form  Buddha's  teaching 
may  be  simunarized  as  follows:  Birth  is  sorrow, 
age  is  sorrow,  sickness  is  sorrow,  death  is  sorrow, 
clinging  to  earthly  things  is  sorrow.  Birth  and 
rebirth,  the  chain  of  reincarnation,  result  from 
the  thirst  for  life  together  with  passion  and  desire. 
The  only  escape  from  this  thirst  is  to  follow  the 
Eightfold  Path:  Right  belief,  right  resolve,  right 
word,  right  act,  right  life,  right  effort,  right  think- 
ing, right  meditation. 

The  goal  of  Buddhism  is  Nirvana.  A  definition 
of  this  term  is  almost  impossible  for  the  simple 
reason  that  Buddha  himself  gave  no  clear  idea, 
and  in  all  probability  possessed  none,  of  this  state. 
He  was  indeed  asked  by  more  than 
4*  Nirvana,  one  of  his  disciples  whether  Nirvana 
was  postmundane  or  postcelestial  ex- 
istence, or  whether  it  was  annihilation.  To  all 
these  questions,  however,  he  refused  an  answer, 
for  it  was  characteristic  of  his  teachings  that  they 
were  practically  confined  to  the  present  life,  and 
concerned  themselves  but  little  either  with  prob- 
lems of  merely  academic  philosophy  or  with  the 
unknowable.  Some  measure  of  light,  however, 
may  be  gained  from  the  orthodox  systems  of  Indian 
philosophy  which  are  based  upon  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  inspiration  of  the  Veda.  According  to 
all  of  these,  the  summum  bonum  is  release  from 
karma  and  reincarnation,  a  goal  which  is  to  be 
attained  by  knowledge,  and  which  consists  in 
absorption  into  or  reunion  with  the  Over-Soul. 
This  involves  the  annihilation  of  individuality,  and 
in  this  sense  Nirvana  is  nihilism,  so  that  with  the 
tacit  ignoring  of  any  real  conception  of  the  divine 
in  the  teachings  of  Buddha,  Nirvana  seems  to  imply 
the  annihilation  of  the  soul  rather  than  its  absorp- 
tion. It  is  noteworthy,  furthermore,  that  the  word 
Nirvana  etymologically  denotes  "  a  blowing  out," 
the  extinguishing  of  the  fires  of  hatred,  infatuation, 
and  all  passions.  Nirvana  seems  to  have  been 
twofold,  a  secondary  condition  which  may  be 
reached  by  the  righteous  in  this  life,  and  the  blessed 
state  of  freedom  from  rebirth. 

Surpassing  the  teachers  who  had  preceded  him, 
Buddha  denied  both  the  authority  of  the  Vedas, 
whose  recognition,  however  formal,  constitutes 
orthodoxy  in  India,  and  the  power  of  sacrifice, 
while  he  practically  ignored  the  existence  of  the 
divine.  He  rejected  the  entire  system  of  caste, 
thus  unconsciously  preparing  his  doctrines  to  be 
potentially  a  world-religion  instead  of  an  ethnic 
faith.  In  the  later  Buddhist  theology  an  elab- 
orate  cosmology   is    developed,    with    thirty-one 


worlds  inhabited  by  fourteen  classes  of  beings,  of 
which  the  three  highest  are  the  supreme  Buddhas, 
Pratyekabuddhas,  and  Arhats,  the  latter  being  those 
who  are  almost  ready  to  attain  Nirvana,  while  the 
Pratyekabuddha  has  attained  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  Nirvana  but  does  not  preach  it.  In  addition 
to  these  must  be  noted  the  Bodhisattva,  a  potential 
Buddha  who  will  attain  to  Buddhahood  in  due  time. 

Even  in  his  lifetime  Buddha  established  an 
order,  thus  forming  the  "triple  jewel,"  Buddha, 
Dhamma  (the  law),  and  Sangha  (the  congregation). 
In  this  order  were  gathered  the  followers  of  the 
teacher,  who  were  bound  by  the  ten  vows:  neither 
to  kill  nor  to  steal,  to  abstain  from  impurity,  false- 
hood, and  intoxicating  drinks,  not  to  eat  at  for- 
bidden times,  to  abstain  from  the  folly  of  dancing, 
singing,  music,  pnd  the  theater,  to  use 
5.  Buddhist  no  manner  of  adornment,  not  to  sleep 

Monks.  in  a  high  or  a  broad  bed,  and  to  receive 
neither  gold  nor  silver.  The  monks, 
who  were  boimd  to  celibacy  and  poverty,  and  were 
called,  in  old  Hindu  fashion,  bhikkiis,  or  beggars, 
might  be  received  as  novices  at  the  age  of  seven  or 
eight,  although  they  could  not  be  ordained  before 
their  twentieth  year.  Twice  a  month  the  monks 
of  each  monastery  assembled  for  the  confession  of 
sins,  and  annually  in  the  rainy  season  a  retreat  was 
held  both  for  rest  from  the  pilgrimages  of  the  pre- 
ceding year  and  to  gain  new  strength  for  the  coming 
season.  Even  in  the  lifetime  of  Buddha  women 
were  admitted  to  the  order  and  nunneries  were 
built  for  their  accommodation. 

The  history  of  Buddhism  is  a  curious  bit  of  irony; 
the  founder  who  had  ignored  the  existence  of  a  god 
himself  became  a  god.    In  Southern  India,  how- 
ever, the  religion  remained  relatively  pure,  although 
some  heretical  doctrines  crept  in  at  an  early  period 
and  a  number  of  councils  were  held  to  maintain 
the  faith  in  its  integrity.    The  first  of  these  took 
place   at   Rajagaha   in   the   year   of 
6.  Develop-  Buddha's  death,  the  second  at  Vaisali 
ment  after  about  a  century  later,  the  third,  a 
Buddha's    sectarian     meeting,     at     Pataliputra 

Death,  about  246  b.c,  and  the  fourth  at  Jal- 
andhara  under  the  Indo-Scythian  king 
Kanishka  in  78  a.d.  The  religion  gained  royal 
approval  at  an  early  date,  its  great  kin^y  adherent 
being  Asoka,  who  was  crowned  at  Pataliputra  in 
Madagha  about  259  b.c.  and  reigned  thirty-seven 
years.  Not  only  did  he  spread  the  faith  through- 
out his  dominions,  but  his  son  Mahendra  carried 
the  new  creed  to  Oeylon.  In  the  second  century 
B.C.  the  Indo-Scythian  kings  of  Cabul  and  Bactria 
established  Buddhism  in  their  lands,  whence  it 
was  promulgated  in  Northwestern  India.  Thus 
the  faith  spread  by  degrees  over  all  the  country 
north  of  the  Vindhyas,  existing  side  by  side  with 
Brahmanism  and  Jainism  in  harmony  and  peace. 
Its  downfall  in  the  land  of  its  birth  was  due  to  two 
causes,  the  conflict  of  the  sects  which  arose  within 
itself  and  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of  India, 
but  there  was  no  persecution  by  the  other  Hindu 
sects.  In  Ceylon,  on  the  other  hand.  Buddhism 
still  exists,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
island,  and  it  is  there  that  the  purest  Buddhism 
is  found. 


Buddiiisni 
BoeU 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


294 


It  was  but  natural  that  divergent  opinions  should 
arise  within  the  faith  itself.  These  remained  com- 
paratively unimportant,  however,  until  the  schism 
into  the  Mahayana  and  Hinayana,  or  the  ''  Great 
Vehicle  "  and  "  Little  Vehicle."  The  latter  still 
adhered  strictly  in  the  main  to  the  original  tenets 
of  Buddhism,  although  it  was  subdivided  into  the 
Vaibhashikas  and  the  Sautrantikas, 
7.  Buddhist  the  former  laying  special  stress  on  the 
Sects.  *'  Abhidhammapitaka  "  or  metaphys- 
ical section  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
religion,  and  the  latter  on  the  "  Suttapitaka  "  or 
discourses  of  the  Buddha.  The  Mahayanists,  on 
the  contrary,  who  form  by  far  the  larger  sect,  devo- 
ted themselves  to  all  manner  of  speculation,  being 
influenced  not  only  by  Hinduism  but  at  a  later 
period  by  Shamanism  (q.v.)  as  well.  The  Mahayana 
postulates  the  existence  of  a  thousand  Buddhas 
with  a  supreme  god,  the  Adibuddha,  and  prefers 
beneficent  activity  to  the  passivity  of  the  Buddha's 
own  doctrines,  although  both  the  principal  sub- 
divisions of  this  sect,  the  Yogacaras  and  the  Mad- 
hyamikaa,  are  strictly  idealistic,  and  in  so  far  are 
orthodox  Hindus. 

Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Tibet  about  the 
seventh  century  a.d.,  when  it  was  already  permeated 
by  Saivaite  and  Tantric  Hinduism  and  by  Maha- 
yanism,  while  imder  the  influence  of  Mongolian 
Shamanism  it  departed  still  more  from  its  original 
ideal.  Here  is  evolved  the  concept  of  the  Dhyani- 
Buddhas,  the  celestial  types  of  the 
8.  The      Buddhas  which  appear  on  earth  as 

Dhyani-     men  (Manushi-Buddhas).    These  Dha- 

Buddhas.  yani-Buddhas,  who  are  five  in  nmnber, 
watch  over  the  welfare  of  the  world 
between  the  incarnations  of  the  Manushi-Buddhas, 
although  they  themselves  never  become  incarnate. 
Three  of  them  correspond  to  the  three  Buddhas 
who  preceded  Gautama  in  the  present  age  of  the 
world;  one,  Amitabha,  to  the  historical  Buddha, 
whose  earthly  reincarnation  is  the  lesser  Lama 
of  Tibet;  and  the  fifth  is  the  Dhyani-Bodhisatva 
Padmapani  or  Avalokitesvara,  who  is  represented 
on  earth  by  the  Dalai-Lama  at  Lhassa,  and  is  the 
type  of  the  Bodhisatva  Maitreya,  the  future  earthly 
Buddha  and  the  savior  of  the  world.   See  Lamaism. 

Buddhism  waa  introduced  into  Cliina  in  its  Maha- 
yanistic  form  by  the  emperor  Mingti  in  61  a.d., 
and  despite  persecutions,  especially  under  the  Tang 
dynasty  (620-907),  it  has  survived  there  imtil  the 
present  day,  although  overlaid  with  superstition 
and  consisting  in  great  part  in  the  worship  of  pic- 
tures and  relics.  It  has  gained,  however,  only  a 
subordinate  place  in  China,  being  unable  to  com- 
pete either  with  the  popular  Taoism  or  the  cultured 
Confucianism,  despite  the  fact  that  the  three  relig- 
ions exist  peaceably  side  by  side.  From  China 
Buddhism  was  carried  to  Japan,  where  numerous 
sects  have  arisen,  although  the  results  have  been 
little  more  than  a  further  departure  from  the 
original  faith  (see  China,  I.,  3;  Japan,  I.,  II.,  2). 

Some  scholars  would  like  to  derive  the  gospel 
narrative  from  Buddhism,  but  it  is  a  significant 
fact  that  an  overwhelming  majority  of  Oriental 
scholars  have  decided  that  the  story  of  Buddha 
has   had   no   influence   on   the   canonical   life  of 


Christ.  They  reach  this  conclusion  by  a  com- 
parison of  elements  of  the  Buddha  legend  com- 
posed long  after  the  death  of  the  teacher  nitL 
the  Gospels.  The  Buddhist  parallels  are  drawn. 
moreover,  in  the  main,  from  the  texts  of  the 
Northern  school,  wliich  are  confessedly  late  an«i 
mythopeic  to  a  degree  which  almost  totally  ob- 
scures the   figure  of  the  historic   Buddha,  wJiilc 

some  of  the  so-called  cogent  Christ  urn 
9.  Bud-     parallels  are  based  upon  the  apocn- 
dhism   and  phal  Gospels.    (Considering  the  canon- 
Christianity,  ical  Gospels  on  the  one  hand  and  the 

texts  of  the  Southern  Buddhism  on 
the  other,  the  parallels  between  the  lives  of  Je«i> 
and  Buddha  seem  to  resolve  themselves  into  tho?<f 
which  are  natural  in  the  case  of  great  religious 
teachers.  Thus  of  five  parallels  mentioned  by 
Seydel,  the  ablest  advocate  of  the  theory  of  Bud- 
dhistic influence  on  Christianity,  the  three  most 
important  are  the  presentation  of  the  infant  Jesus 
in  the  temple  compared  with  that  of  the  infant 
Buddha;  the  fast  of  Jesus  and  that  of  Buddha; 
and  the  preexistence  of  Jesus  and  of  Buddha  in 
heaven.  Of  these  the  presentation  of  Buddha  is 
found  neither  in  the  writings  of  the  Southern  school 
nor  in  the  ancient  text  of  the  Northern,  while  at  the 
time  of  Jesus  it  was  usual  for  a  pious  mother  to 
attend  the  temple  for  the  redemption  of  the  first- 
bom  and  her  own  ritual  purification.  The  account 
of  the  fasting  and  temptation  is  not  entirely  har- 
monious in  both  accounts.  Buddha  first  over- 
comes Mara  and  then  fasts  forty-nine  days,  while 
Jesus  fasts  forty  days  and  is  then  tempted  by  the 
devil.  Not  only  is  the  account  of  the  Gospels  the 
more  accurate  psychologically,  but  it  may  be  paral- 
leled with  similar  events  in  the  lives  of  Moses  and 
Elijah,  while  the  story  of  the  temptation  is  found 
not  only  in  Buddhism  and  Christianity,  but  also 
in  Zoroastrianism.  The  third  parallel  of  the  pre- 
existence of  Jesus  and  Buddha  is  equally  discrepant. 
Jesus  existed  in  heaven  from  all  eternity  and  is 
unique  in  such  existence,  while  Buddha  merely 
shares  the  history  of  all  other  Buddhas  and  was 
reincarnated  on  earth  coimtless  times.  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spirit  of  the  two  religion5 
as  of  their  founders  is  entirely  divergent.  The 
tragedy  and  the  majesty  of  the  Christ  is  very  differ- 
ent from  the  peacefulness  and  the  sweetness  of 
Buddha.  Jesus  sought  to  save  the  world,  not 
himself.  Buddha  began  by  saving  himself  and  then 
taught  the  world.  The  aim  of  Jesus  is  faith  and 
individual  existence  in  heaven  in  the  presence  of 
God;  the  summum  banum  of  Buddha  is  knowledge 
and  the  annihilation  of  self  in  Nirvana.  In  the 
face  of  such  essential  divergencies,  the  paraUcL< 
alleged  to  exist  between  Buddha  and  Jesus  seem 
to  be  cases  of  accidental  coincidence,  and  it  is 
almost  certain  that,  despite  the  travel  between 
Palestine  and  India,  which  may  have  influenced 
to  some  degree  the  apocryphal  Gospels  on  the  one 
hand  and  late  Northern  Buddhism  on  the  other, 
Christianity  and  Buddhism  developed  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  independently.  For  esoteric  Bud- 
dhism (so  called),  see  Theosopht. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  literature  on  Buddhism  is  enonnoos. 
and  it  ia  possible  to  die  here  only  a  few  out  of  the  many 


296 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Baddhism 
BueU 


bookB  on  the  subieet,  while  referenoe  may  be  made  for 
more  complete  bibliographies  to  the  worke  of  Kern  and 
Aiken  mentioned  below. 

General  worka  and  Indian  Buddhism:  K.  Kfippen,  Die 
lUlioiofi  dea  Btuidha,  Berlin.  1857-69;  Barthtiemy  Saint- 
HUaiie.  L«  Bmiddha  et  m  ReUition,  Paris.  1860;  R.  Hardy. 
Manual  of  BuddhUm  in  ite  Modem  Development,  London, 
1860;  E.  Bumouf.  IntroducUon  d  Vhieioire  du  Boud- 
dhieme  Indien,  Paris.  1876;  H.  Oldenberg.  Buddha,  eein 
L^ien,  eeine  Lehre,  eeine  Oemeinde,  Berlin,  1807,  Eng. 
transl.  by  W.  Hoey,  London.  1882;  E.  Senart,  Eaeai  eur 
la  Uoende  du  Bouddha,  Paris.  1882;  M.  Williams.  Bud- 
dhiam  in  ita  Connection  with  Brahmaniem  and  Hinduiem 
and  iU  Contraet  with  Chriatianitu,  London.  1880;  T.  W. 
Rhys  Davids.  Buddhism,  ite  Hietory  and  Literature,  New 
York.  1806;  idem,  Buddhiem,  London.  1899;  H.  Kem. 
Geaehiedenia  van  hat  Buddhiame  in  Indie,  Haarlem.  1884; 
idem.  Manual  of  Indian  Buddhiam,  Strasburg,  1896;  £. 
Hardy,  Dar  Buddhiamua  nach  HUeren  Palir-Werken,  Mon- 
ster. 1890;  idem,  Buddha,  Leipsio,  1903;  R.  Copleston. 
Buddhiem,  Primitive  and  Preaent,  in  Magadha  and  Cey- 
lon, London,  189%  K.  Neumann.  Buddhiatiache  Antho- 
loffie,  Berlin.  1892;  idem.  Die  Reden  dee  Ootama  Buddhaa, 
Leipsic,  1897;  idem,  Theratfatha  und  Therigatha,  Berlin. 
1899;  H.  Warren,  Buddhiam  in  Trandation,  Cambridge. 
Mass..  1896;  J.  Dahlmann.  Buddha,  Beriin,  1898;  and  for 
special  topics  consult,  among  other  works:  S.  Hardy. 
Eaatem  Monaehiam,  London,  1860;  A.  Bastian,  Der  Bud- 
dhiamua in  aeiner  Payehologie,  Berlin.  1882;  idem,  Der 
Buddhiamua  ale  reliffiona-phHoaophiadiea  Syatem,  ib. 
1893;  J.  Dahlmann.  Nirvana,  ib.  1896;  W.  St.  C.  Tisdall, 
The  SoUa  Eightfold  Path,  London.  1903;  A.  Mensies,  The 
Religiona  of  India,  Brahmaniem  and  Buddhiam,  ib.  1904. 

Exceedingly  important  for  the  legendary  development 
of  Buddhism  is  the  Jataka:  or  Stariea  of  Ote  Buddha' a 
Former  Birihe,  Pali  text  edited  with  its  commentary  by 
V.  Fausb6U.  8  vols..  London,  1877-97;  translation  by 
various  hands  edited  by  E.  B.  Cowell,  vols,  i.-v.,  ib.  1895- 
1905.  Consult  also  Portfolio  of  Buddhiet  Art,  Hiatorieal 
and  Modem,  Chicago,  1906  (a  collection  of  31  plates). 

Extra-Indian  Buddhism:  H.  Alabaster,  The  Wheel  of 
the  Law,  London,  1871;  P.  Bigandet.  The  Life  or  Legend 
of  Oaudama,  the  Buddha  of  the  Burmeae,  ib.  1880;  E. 
Sohlagintweit,  Buddhiam  in  Tibet,  Leipsic,  1863;  W.  Rock- 
hill.  The  Life  of  the  Buddha,  London.  1884;  L.  A.  Wad- 
dell,  The  Buddhiam  of  Tibet  or  Lamaiam,  ib.  1895  (con- 
tains bibliography,  pp.  578-683);  A.  GrOnwedel,  Mytho- 
logie  dee  Buddhiamua  in  Tibet  und  der  Mongolei,  Leipsic. 
1900;  J.  Edkins.  Chineae  Buddhiam,  London.  1880;  S. 
Beal,  Buddhiam  in  China,  ib.  1884;  idem.  8i-yu-H,  Bud- 
dhiet Recarde  of  the  Weatem  World,  from  the  Chineae,  ib. 
1906;  B.  Nanjio.  Twelve  Japaneaa  Buddhiet  Seeta,  Tokyo. 
1887;  R.  Fujishima,  Le  Bouddhiame  Japonaia,  Paris, 
1887. 

Buddhinn  and  Christianity:  R.  Seydel,  Dae  Evange- 
lium  von  Jeaua  in  aeinen  VerhOUniaaen  au  Buddha-Sage 
und  Buddha-Lehre,  Leipsic,  1882;  idem.  Die  Buddha^Le- 
gendeunddaaLebenJeau,  ib.  ed.  1897;  Rhys  Davids,  Bud- 
dhism and  Chrietianity,  London,  1888;  R.  Falke.  Buddha, 
Mohammed  und  Chriatua,  Gotersloh,  1900;  C.  Aiken.  The 
Dhamma  of  Ootama  the  Buddha  and  the  Goapel  of  Jeaua 
the  Chriat,  Boston.  1900;  A.  Bertholet,  Buddhiamua  und 
Chriatentum,  Tflbingen,  1902. 

Referenoe  may  also  be  made  to  the  general  works  on 
comparative  religion  and  the  religions  of  India,  especially 
E.  Hopkins,  Religiona  of  India,  Boston.  1895,  pp.  298- 
347;  Chantepie  de  la  Saussaye,  Lehrbudi  der  R^igiona- 
gaatMehte,  3d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1905;  C.  von  Orelli.  AUge- 
meina  ReUgumageaehiehte,  pp.  448-493,  Bonn,  1899,  and 
the  bibliographies  there  given. 

BUDE,  bO'Md',  GUILLAnME :  French  humanist ; 
b.  at  Paria  1467;  d.  there  Aug.  23,  1540.  He 
studied  law  at  Orl^anB,  and,  after  leading  a  dissi- 
pated life  for  several  years,  began  to  apply  himself 
to  Greek,  philosophy,  theology,  and  science.  Well 
received  at  court,  he  was  repeatedly  entrusted  with 
diplomatic  missions  to  Rome.  On  Aug.  21,  1522, 
Francis  I.  appointed  him  librarian  of  the  royal 
library  at  Fontainebleau  and  royal  councilor,  and 
it  was  owing  to  Bud^'s  initiative  that  the  king 


enlarged  the  Royal  Library  of  Paris  and  also  the 
Royal  College,  which  afterward  became  the  College 
de  France.  Long  before  Luther,  Bud6  had  felt 
the  necessity  of  reforms  in  the  Church,  but,  like 
many  scholars  and  bishops  of  his  day,  he  feared 
a  rupture  with  Rome.  Among  his  numerous  works, 
special  mention  may  be  made  of  the  following: 
De  Aaae  et  partHrus  ejus  (Paris,  1514);  De  Studio 
bonarum  lilterarum  rede  et  commode  inetUuendo 
(1527);  Commentarii  lingtue  gr<ec<B  (1529);  De  tran- 
eitu  HeUenismi  ad  Christianismum  (1535);  Forenaia 
quibu8  vulgar ea  et  vere  latin  ob  jurUconsuUorum  lo- 
quendi  formulce  dantur  (1548);  and  Lexicon  graico- 
latinum  (Geneva,  1554  etc.)-    G.  Bonet-Maurt. 

Bibliography:  The  best  account  of  his  life  is  by  E.  de 
Bud^.  Vie  de  Ouillaume  Budi,  Paris.  1884.  Consult  also 
E.  and  £.  Haag,  La  France  proteatante,  ed.  H.  L.  Bordier, 
ib.  1877-86;  Rebitt^.  G.  Budi,  eaaai  hiatorigue,  Paris. 
1846;  A.  Moquet,  Lea  Seigneura  de  Marly,  Paris,  1882. 

BUDER,  bu'der,  PAUL  VON:  German  Protes- 
tant; b.  at  Leutkirch  (40  m.  s.  of  Ulm)  Feb.  15, 
1836.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Tubingen  (Ph.D.,  1858),  and,  after  being  lecturer 
at  the  theological  seminary  attached  to  that  institu- 
tion from  1861  to  1865,  was  successively  deacon 
and  inspector  of  schools  at  Backnang  from  1865 
to  1868  and  second  court-preacher,  as  well  as  assist- 
ant in  the  consistory  and  a  member  of  the  theo- 
logical examining  board,  in  Stuttgart  from  1868 
to  1872.  In  the  latter  year  he  waa  appointed 
associate  professor  of  dogmatics  and  New  Testa- 
ment exegesis  and  supervisor  of  the  theological 
seminary  of  the  University  of  Tubingen,  where  he 
has  been  full  professor  since  1877.  He  has  written 
Ueber  die  apologetiache  Aufgabe  der  Theologie  der 
Gegenwart  (Tubingen,  1876). 

BUECHNER,  bUH'ner,  GOTTFRIED,  get'fiid. 
German  Lutheran  theologian;  b.  at  RUdersdorf 
(the  district  of  Saxe-Altenburg)  1701;  d.  at  Quer- 
furt  (18  m.  w.  of  Merseburg)  1780.  He  studied 
at  Jena,  and  lectured  there  from  1725  until  he  was 
called  as  rector  to  Querfurt.  where  he  died.  He  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  Biblische  Real-  und 
Verbal-Hand-Concordanz  (Jena,  1740;  23d  ed., 
Berlin,  1899;  ed.  H.  L.  Heubner,  Philadelphia, 
1871).  A  list  of  BUchner's  other  theological  works 
is  given  in  Jdcher  and  Adelimgs  AUgemeines 
Gelehrten-Lexikon,  s.v. 

BUECHSEL,  bUH^sel,  KARL:  German  Lutheran 
theologian;  b.  at  SchOnfeld  (a  suburb  of  Prenzlau, 
71  m.  n.n.e.  of  Potsdam)  May  2.  1803;  d.  at  Berlin 
Aug.  14,  1889.  After  completing*  his  studies,  he 
became  minister  in  his  native  place,  superintendent 
at  BrOsson,  and  in  1846  pastor  of  St.  Matthew's 
at  Berlin.  In  1853  he  was  made  superintendent 
general^  but  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1884. 
He  belonged  to  the  most  prominent  and  influential 
preachers  of  the  German  capital,  and  was  the 
author  of  Erinnerungen  aus  dem  Leben  einea  Land- 
geisUichen  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1888-97),  which  went 
through  many  editions. 

BUELL,  MARCUS  DARIUS:  Methodist  Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Wayland,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1,  1851.  He 
was  educated  at  New  York  University  (B.A.,  1872) 
and  the  Boston  University  School  of  Theology 


Buff  Bibl< 
Bminuria 


Bible 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


296 


(1876).  He  entered  the  Methodist  ministiy  in 
1875,  and  held  suooeflsive  pastorates  at  Portchester, 
N.  Y.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1875-84.  In  the  latter  year  he  studied  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Cambridge,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg, 
and  returned  to  the  United  States  as  professor  of 
New  Testament  Greek  and  exegesis  in  Boston 
University,  a  position  which  he  still  holds.  He 
was  also  assistant  dean  in  1885-^9  and  dean  in 
1889-1904.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis  and  of  the  Harvard 
Biblical  Club,  and  has  written,  in  addition  to  a 
number  of  minor  contributions,  StudUa  in  the  Greek 
Text  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark  (Boston,  1890). 

BUO  BIBLE.    See  Biblx  Vebsionb,  B,  IV.,  }  9. 

BUOBUHAOEN,  bQ^'gen-hd^gen,  JOHAini:  A 
leader  of  the  Grerman  Reformation;  b.  at  Wollin 
(29  m.  n.  of  Stettin),  Pomerania,  June  24,  1485; 
d.  at  Wittenberg  Apr.  20,  1558.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Greifswald,  paying  special 
attention  to  the  Latin  classics.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  school  at  Trep- 
tow  on  the  Rega,  which  he  made  famous  far  and 
wide  by  the  thorough  Renaissance  devotion  to 
study  which  he  inculcated.  In  1509  he  was  or- 
dained priest,  though  without  any  special  theo- 
logical training  Humanism,  in  fact. 
Early  Life,  strongly  influenced  his  theology.  He 
turned  away  from  the  schoolmen  to 
seek  a  purer  doctrine  in  the  early  Fathers,  and 
by  Erasmus,  whom  he  considered  to  represent 
them,  was  brought  to  a  deep  study  of  the 
Bible.  In  1517  he  was  appointed  to  lecture  on 
the  Bible  and  the  Fathers  in  the  new  monastic 
school  of  Belbuck.  A  journey  throughout  Pome- 
rania in  search  of  documents  to  aid  in  Spalatin's 
historical  work  led  to  the  publication  of  its  results 
in  his  Pomerania  (1518),  in  which  he  foreshadows 
his  later  career  by  incidental  attacks  on  the  preach- 
ers of  indulgences;  and  a  sermon  delivered  before 
a  derical  assembly  in  1519  (or  1520)  is  even  more 
outspoken  in  its  reproof  of  abuses.  Not  long  after, 
Luther's  writinge  fell  into  his  hands.  He  was  at 
first  shocked  by  the  Captivitaa  Babylonica,  but 
further  reading  convinced  him  of  its  truth.  An 
earnest  correspondence  with  Luther  followed,  and 
in  1521  Bugenhagen  went  to  Wittenbei^,  sending 
back  to  Treptow  a  long  letter  in  which  he  declared 
his  adhesion  to  his  new  master's  doctrines. 

He  matriculated  at  the  university,  made  friends 
with  Melanchtl^on,  and  began  to  expound  the 
Psalms  to  an  increasing  audience.  The  swift 
development  of  practical  rdfonn  carried  him  with  it, 
and  he  married  m  1522,  in  spite  of  the  uncertainty 
of  his  future.  Luther  exerted  himself  to  find  a 
posit'on  for  him,  and,  a  vacancy  occurring  in  the 
principal  church  of  Wittenberg,  put  his  useful 
follower  in,  despite  the  protests  of  the 

At  Wit-     capitular  body  to  whom  the  right  of 

tenberg.  nomination  really  belonged  Here 
Bugenhagen  busied  himself  in  many 
practical  pastoral  works,  finding  time  for  literary 
activity  also;  he  helped  in  the  Low  German  edition 
of  Luther's  New  Testament  (1524),  and  in  the  same 
year  published  his  lectures  on  the  Psalms  and  Latin 


commentaries  on  several  other  books  of  Scriptore. 
These,  as  well  as  some  Gennan  treatises  on  practical 
piety,  made  his  name  known,  and  he  was  called  to 
St.  Nicholas's  church  at  Hamburg.  The  town 
council  objected,  and  the  proposal  fell  throu^ 
Bugenhagen  came,  ho¥^ver,  to  the  help  of  the 
evangelical  community  in  Hamburg  in  the  follov- 
ing  year  by  his  tractate  Von  dem  CkristenUnen  vni 
rt^Uen  guden  Werken  (published  1526;  High  Ger- 
man version  in  Vogt),  which  is  one  of  the  best  pop- 
ular presentations  of  the  Lutheran  teaching.  In 
1525  he  oflidated  at  Luther's  marriage,  and  wrote 
a  defense  of  the  married  clergy.  Besides  his  fidth- 
ful  pastoral  labors,  continued  even  throu^  the 
plague  of  1527,  he  took  part  in  the  general  moTe- 
ment  of  the  Reformation  by  a  letter  '^  to  the 
Christians  in  England"  (1525),  by  taking  a 
prominent  part  against  Zwin^  and  Butser  in  the 
eucharistic  controversy,  and  by  new  ezegetical 
works. 

Bugenhagen's  forte,  however,  was  organization, 
which  he  carried  forward  in  many  parts  of  North 
Germany,  in  both  ecclesiastical  and  educaticnud 
matters.  The  results  of  his  activity  were  seen, 
for  example,  in  the  new  church  constitutions  of 
Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Ltlbeck,  and  Pomerania. 
In  1535  he  came  back  to  spend  two  years  in 
his  duties  at  Wittenberg,  and  became  a  member 
of  the  theological  faculty.  He  was  called  away 
once  more  in  1537  to  superintend  the  cazrying 
out  of  the  reforming  movement  in  Denmark, 
which  had  been  begun   the    year   before,   when 

Christian  III.  had  broken  the  power 

His         of  the  bishops  and  confiscated  their 

Ability  as  property.    He   revised   the  proposed 

an  Organ-  constitution,   crowned   the   king  and 

izer.        queen  at  Copenhagen,  ordained  Be\^n 

evangelical  theologians  as  superin- 
tendents to  take  the  place  of  the  expelled  bishops, 
and  reorganized  the  university,  which  he  governed 
for  a  time  as  rector,  working  meanwhile  at  his  great 
commentary  on  the  Psalms,  not  completed  till  1544. 
Returning  home  in  the  spring  of  1539,  he  took  part 
in  the  thorough  revision  of  Luther's  Bible,  and  stood 
by  him  in  the  conflict  with  Agrioola  (see  Anti- 

NOMIANISM       AND       AmTINOMIAN      CoNTROVEBSIES, 

II.,  1,(3).  He  declined  a  call  to  the  bishopric  of 
Sleswick,  and  another  to  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen; but  he  visited  Holstein  in  1542,  at  the  king's 
invitation,  to  assist  in  the  adoption  and  adaptation 
of  the  Danish  church  constitution  for  the  duchies. 
No  sooner  had  he  returned  than  the  suooeas  of  the 
arms  of  the  Schmalkald  League  against  Heniy  of 
Brunswick  laid  a  new  task  upon  him,  together  with 
Corvinus  and  GOrlitz;  viz.,  that  of  organising  an 
Evangelical  Church  in  the  conquered  territory. 
The  constitution  for  Brunswick-WolfenbQttel  which 
appeared  in  the  autiunn  of  1543  is  mostly  his  work, 
and  that  adopted  for  Hildesheim  in  the  following 
year  is  practically  derived  from  it.  Yet  the  diffi- 
culties which  he  had  experienced  in  this  visita- 
tion were  sufficient,  it  would  seem,  to  make  him 
reluctant  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  duice 
of  Pomerania  to  take  the  place  of  the  deceased 
bishop  of  Kanunin;  and  when  the  duke  would 
have  no  conditional  acceptance,  he  declined  abso- 


297 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bulraria 


lutely,  though  professing  his  willingness  to  assist 
for  a  time  in  organization. 

Bugenhagen  remained,  accordingly,  at  Witten- 
berg, a  help  and  strength  to  Luther  in  his  last  years, 
and  preached  his  funeral  sermon  on  Feb.  22,  1546. 
In  the  troublous  times  that  followed,  he  adhered 
undauntedly  to  the  cause  of  the  Wittenberg  church, 
encouraged  the  citizens  during  the  siege,  and  went 
on  preaching  even  after  the  emperor  had  entered 
the  city  as  conqueror.  The  consideration  with 
which  he  was  treated  by  Charles  V.  and  the  new 
elector  Maurice,  and  his  desire  to 
Last  serve  the  university  and  to  remain 
Tears.  connected  with  it,  combined  to  recon- 
cile him  to  the  new  state  of  things 
more  readily  than  some  ardent  evangelicals  thought 
fitting.  There  was  much  critidsm  of  his  action 
from  his  own  side,  and  calunmy  even  went  so  far 
as  to  accuse  him  of  venality.  He  was  drawn  into 
the  policy  of  the  Interim  still  further,  as  conducted 
by  Maurice  of  Saxony  and  represented  theologically 
by  Melanchthon.  His  personal  share  in  the  nego- 
tiations was,  indeed,  a  slight  one;  he  was  in  the 
opposition  at  Alten-Zelle,  and  was  consequently 
not  Bunmioned  to  Jikterbogk.  But  the  concessions 
made  to  the  Roman  Catholic  ceremonial  found  a 
sympathizer  in  the  man  who  had  impressed  upon 
North  German  Lutheranism  a  conservative  approx- 
imation to  the  old  forms;  he  overlooked  the  fact 
that,  as  Hering  has  truly  said,  what  had  originally 
been  consideration  for  the  weak  brethren  might 
now  be  only  obsequious  deference  to  the  powerful. 
His  attitude  cost  him  the  confidence  of  the  deposed 
elector  and  of  Albert  of  Prussia,  and  not  a  few  of 
his  old  friends  turned  from  him.  As  an  attempt 
to  set  himself  right,  he  published  in  1550  his  com- 
mentary on  Jonah,  in  which  he  gave  vigorous 
expression  to  his  undiminished  protest  against 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  undertaking  to  derive 
its  doctrines  and  practises  from  the  Montanist 
heresy.  He  raised  his  voice  during  the  troubles 
of  1556  in  a  warning  to  all  pastors  to  prepare  for 
the  end  of  the  world  by  confession  of  sin  and  firm 
adherence  to  their  faith.  Decaying  bodily  strength 
forced  him  to  give  up  preaching  in  1557,  and  a  year 
later  he  went  to  his  long  rest,  being  buried  near  the 
altar  in  the  church  he  had  served  so  long.  He  left 
behind  him  many  a  trace  of  his  organizing  abilities 
throughout  northern  Germany,  especially  in  Lower 
Saxony,  of  his  wisdom  in  practical  matters,  his 
sensible  views  on  education,  and  his  liturgical 
institutions,  which  substantially  determined  the 
abiding  character  of  North  German  Lutheranism. 

(G.  Kawsrau.) 

BiBUOomAPBT:  Hie  Bryefwhtti,  ed.  0.  Vost*  appeared 
Stuticart,  1888.  The  best  treatment  is  to  be  found  in 
H.  Hering,  Doktor  PomeranuM,  J.  Bugenhaoen,  Halle, 
1888.  Special  treatiaee  are:  Q.  H.  Goetie.  De  J.  Bu- 
genhaoen  mtriHM  .  .  .  oratio,  Leipsio,  1704;  J.  D.  J&ncke, 
Leben»oe9ehichU  J.  Bugenkagent,  Rostock.  1757;  R.  F.  L. 
Encelken,  J.  Bugenhoifen,  ein  bioifraphucher  AuftaU  fUr 
die  evanodiacKe  KireKe,  Berlin,  1817;  J.  H.  Ziets.  J.  Bu- 
Oenhagen.  Ein  Hographitcher  Vernuh,  Leipsic,  1834;  M. 
Meurar,  /.  Bvgenhaotn'B  Ldten,  ib.  1862;  K.  A.  T.  Vogt, 
J.  Buoenhaom  Pomerantu,  Elberfeld,  1867.  Consult 
furtlier:  J.  KOstlin.  Martin  LuOur,  ed.  G.  Kawerau,  pas- 
sim, 2  vols.,  Berlin,  1903;  Schaff,  ChriaHan  Church,  vi. 
847,  467,  567,  621-622;  Moeller.  ChrxaHan  Church,  vol. 
jiL  pawrim;  KL,  ii  1453-68.    Bugenhacen's  Vermahnung 


an  die  Bohmen  was  published  in  ZeUgenUiMe  Traktate  aue 
der  Reformationazeitt  part  2,  ed.  C.  von  Kflgelgen,  Leipsic, 
1903. 

BUHL,  bed,  FRANTS  PEDER  WILLIAM  MEYER : 
Danish  Semitic  scholar;  b.  at  Copenhagen  Sept. 
6,  1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  (Ph.D.,  1878),  and  was  successively 
professor  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  at  Copenhagen 
(1882-90)  and  Leipsic  (1890-98).  In  1898  he 
was  recalled  to  the  University  of  Copenhagen  as 
professor  of  Semitic  languages,  a  position  which  he 
still  holds.  In  theology  he  is  dogmatically  con- 
servative, but  liberal  in  isagogics.  Since  1900  he 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences 
at  Copenhagen.  In  addition  to  numerous  briefer 
contributions,  he  has  written:  Jesaja  over  sat  og  for" 
tolket  (8  parts,  Copenhagen,  1889-94);  Geneaaret  Sd 
og  dena  OmgiveUer  (1889);  PaUstina  i  kortfaUet 
geografiak  og  topografiak  Frematilling  (1890);  Kanon 
und  Text  dea  Alien  Teatamenta  (Leipsic,  1891;  Eng. 
transl.  by  J.  Macpherson,  Edinburgh,  1892);  Det 
iaraelitiake  FoJka  Hiatorie  (Copenhagen,  1892); 
Geachichte  der  Edomiter  (Leipsic,  1893);  De  mea- 
atanake  Forjcettelaer  i  det  Gamle  Teatament  (1894); 
Til  Vejledning  i  de  gammelteatamentlige  Underad- 
gelaer  (1895);  Geographie  dea  aUen  PaUiatina  (Frei- 
burg, 1896);  Hebraiak  Syntax  (Copenhagen,  1897); 
Die  aocialen  VerhdUniaae  der  laraelUen  (Berlin,  1899); 
Paalmeme  overaatte  og  fortolkede  (12  parts,  Copen- 
hagen, 1898-1900);  and  MuhamTneda  Liv  (1903). 
He  has  also  collaborated  in  editing  the  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  editions  of  the  He- 
braiachea  und  aramdischea  Handw&rterbuch  aber  daa 
AUe  Teatament  of  Gesenius  (Leipsic,  1895-1905). 

BULGARI  (BOURGES):  Name  of  a  heretical 
sect.    See  New  Manichbans,  II. 

BULGARIA:  A  principality  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  Turkey  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ru- 
mania, on  the  east  by  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  south 
by  Turkey,  on  the  west  by  Servia.  It  was  created 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878  and  attained  its 
present  extent  in  1885  by  the  addition  of  Eastern 
Rumelia  (the  territory  south  of  the  Balkan  Moun- 
tains) after  a  revolt  of  the  Bulgars  there;  in  1908 
it  proclaimed  its  independence;  area,  38,080  square 
miles;  population  (1900),  3,744,283. 

In  race  and  religion  the  population  is  very  diverse. 

The  majority  are  the  Bulgars,  who  number  some 

2,880,000    and    belong  to  the  Oriental   Orthodox 

Church,    their    prince    Boris    having 

Bulgarian  adopted  Christianity  in  864,  two  cen- 

Church.  turies  after  they  had  entered  the 
region  south  of  the  Danube  (see  BrrL- 
OARiAifs,  Conversion  of  the).  Simeon,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Boris  as  prince  or  czar,  established  an 
autonomous  Church  for  his  extensive  domains, 
placing  at  its  head  a  bishop,  or  exarch,  who  had 
his  seat  at  Ochrida  on  the  frontier  of  Albania. 
This  diocese  lapsed  after  the  fall  of  the  Bulgarian 
state,  nor  was  it  revived  when  the  principality  was 
reorganized.  The  Slavic  bishoprics  were  grad- 
ually replaced  with  Greek,  and  the  Bulgarian 
Church  was  first  restored  in  1870-72,  when,  through 
the  Insistence  of  Russian  diplomats,  the  Sultan 
permitted  the  Bulgarian  Church  to  separate  from 


Bnlfrarla 
Bumnffer 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


the  patriarchate  and  to  appoint  an  exarch  in  Con- 
stantinople who  should  be  the  Slavic  head  of  all 
those  communities  which  might  wish  to  join  the 
new  ecclesiastical  body.  Although  condemned  by 
the  patriarch  in  1872  as  schismatic,  iarge  num- 
bers of  Slavs  in  the  Turkish  provinces  soon  de- 
clared themselves  Bulgarians. 

The  governing  body  of  this  Church  is  the  Holy 
Synod,  which  consists  of  four  bishops  chosen  for 
four  years  by  secret  ballot  of  all  the  bishops  and 
presided  over  by  the  exarch;  it  meets  annually  in 
May.  The  rights  and  external  organization  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church  are  recognized  throughout  the 
principality  by  the  constitution,  which  declares 
it  to  be  the  State  Church.  Other  religions  are 
tolerated,  however,  while  the  exarch  can  issue 
commands  to  his  bishops  only  after  reaching  an 
agreement  with  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
According  to  the  exarchial  statute  of 

Organiza-  1883,  the  laity  exercise  a  considerable 
tion.  influence  on  the  election  of  bishops, 
and,  with  the  Turkish  districts  of  the 
Bulgarian  Church,  even  on  the  choice  of  the  exarch. 
In  each  eparchy,  or  diocese,  three  clerical  and  three 
lay  members  form  a  committee  which  selects  two 
names  from  a  large  list  of  candidates,  sending  these 
names  to  the  Holy  Synod,  by  which  the  list  in  ques- 
tion is  drawn  up  and  constantly  renewed. 

In  the  principality  of  Bulgaria  there  are  eleven 
dioceses,  or  eparchies,  at  Varna,  Rustchuk  (Cherven 
and  Dorostol),  Timova,  Lovatz.  Vratsa,  and  Widin 
north  of  the  Balkans,  and  Sofia,  Philippopolis, 
Stara  Saghra,  and  Sliven  south  of  this  mountain 
range.  These  dioceses  receive  from  the  State  an 
annual  revenue  of  800,000  francs,  while  the  monas- 
teries supply  the  fimds  for  twenty-four  archiman- 
drites. One  of  the  richest  monasteries  is  that  of 
St.  John  in  the  Rilo  mountains,  and  other  important 
cloisters  are  those  of  St.  Nicholas  near  the  Shipka 
Pass  and  Tcherepis  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Isker 
gap.  The  majority  of  the  parish  clergy  lack  the 
requisite  education,  and  the  monks  are  very  inferior 
in  education  to  those  of  Servia.  The  parish  priests 
are  accordingly  reverenced  but  little  by  the  peasants 
and  citizens.  They  number  nearly  2,000,  and  there 
are  240  monks  in  seventy-eight  monasteries. 

Not  all  the  Slavs  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
exarch,  and  in  the  southeast  60,000  Greeks  have 
the  four  small  dioceses  of  Varna,  Mesembria,  So- 
zopolis,  and  Anchiolo,  as  well  as  the  metropolitanate 
of  Philippopolis.  Roman  Catholicism  has  but 
scant  representation  in  Bulgaria.  Nicopolis  is  the 
name  of  the  bishopric  for  Danubian  Bulgaria,  but 
in  reality  the  bishop  resides  at  Rustchuk.  In  the 
south  is  the  apostolic  vicariate  of 
Other       Sofia  and  Philippopolis,  in  charge  of 

Churches,  the  Capuchins  since  1841.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  Roman  Catholics  are 
Bulgars,  partly  descended  from  the  Paulicians, 
who  were  formerly  numerous  (see  Paulicians). 
The  minority  are  immigrants  from  AustrisrHungary 
and  other  Roman  Catholic  countries,  and  have 
churches  and  small  congregations  in  various  cities 
along  the  Danube,  as  well  as  in  Sofia,  Philippopolis, 
and  Biurgas.  The  Armenians  have  their  own  bishop 
in  Rustchuk.     Bulgarian  Protestants  are  mainly 


the  result  of  American  missionaiy  propaganda. 
[The  Methodists  entered  the  countiy  north  of  the 
Balkans  in  1857  and  the  field  was  organized  into 
a  missionary  conference  in  1892.  The  American 
Board  commenced  work  south  of  the  Balkans  at 
about  the  same  time  as  the  Methodists  and  main- 
tains schools  and  a  publishing  house  at  Samakov. 
The  educational  work  of  Robert  College  near  Con- 
stantinople has  done  much  for  the  Bulgarian's.] 
There  are  also  Protestant  communities  of  some 
500  Germans  in  Sofia  and  Rustchuk,  both  cities 
having  a  German  school. 

The  Jews  in  Bulgaria  are  for  the  most  part  descend- 
ants of  exiles  from  Spain  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Gipsies  number  about  50,000,  although  some 
of  them  declare  themselves  Orthodox. 
non-Chriz-  The  great  majority  of  the  Moham- 
tian        medans   are  Turks;   the  number  has 

Religions,  decreased  owing  to  extensive  emi- 
gration since  1878.  They  have  numer- 
ous schools,  including  a  theological  school  at 
Shumla. 

The  educational  system  of  Bulgaria  snows  a 
creditable  development,  thanks  to  compulsoiy 
schooling.  There  are  many  public  and  inter- 
mediate schools,  as  well  as  gymnasia  and  nor- 
mal schools.  The  State  provides  generously  for 
educational  purposes.  The  minor  religious  bodies 
have  numerous  schools,  and  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  cities  receive  instruction  from  teachers  pro- 
vided by  the  French  congregations. 

[The  religious  statistics  of  the  census  of  1900  are 
as  follows: 

Orthodox  Greeks,  3,019,296;  Mohammedans, 
643,300;  Jews,  33,663;  Roman  Catholics,  28,569; 
Armenian  Gregorians,  13,809;  Protestants,  4,524; 
Unknown,    1,122.]  Wilhelm  Goeiz. 

Bibliography:  C.  JireSek,  Ge^chichle  der  Buloaren,  Pngue, 
1876  (authoritative);  idem,  Dom  Fur^tentum  BtJ^ariem, 
Vienna,  1891 ;  J.  Samuelson,  Bulgaria.  Past  mnd  Prtmni, 
London,  1888  (best  general  account  in  Enalish);  L.  La- 
mouche,  La  Bulfforie  dans  U  pauf  et  dana  le  priaent,  Paris, 
1892;  A.  Strauss.  Die  Buioaren,  ethnoffraphiad^e  Studien. 
LeipMc,  1898;  Acta  Buloaria  eedenoMtiea,  lSSS-t799, 
colUgit  C.  Fennendsiu.  Asram,  1868;  A.  d'Avril,  La 
Bulgarie  diritiennet  Paris,  1898;  J.  8.  Dennis,  CetUenniel 
Survey  of  Foreign  Miuione,  New  York,  1002. 

BULGARIANS,  CONVERSIOH  OF  THE:  Ac- 
cording to  JireSek,  who  follows  Schafarik,  the  Bul- 
garians were  originally  related  to  the  Finns.  Joi^ 
danis  says  that  they  lived  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea  in  the  fifth  century,  clashing  frequently  with 
the  Ostrogoths  in  the  reign  of  Theodoric,  who, 
according  to  Ennodius,  checked  their  victorious 
advance  toward  the  west  in  487;  Cassiodonis 
mentions  another  victory  in  504.  But  their  attacks 
were  directed  also  against  the  Byzantine  Einpire. 
Under  Constantine  Pogonatus  a  Bulgarian  horde 
established  itself  in  679  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Balkans,  extending  their  conquests  gradually 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Save.  This  territory 
seems  to  have  been  inhabited  by  people  of  Slaric 
race,  who  first  gave  their  language  to  the  conquerors 
and  then  gradually  amalgamated  with  them.  The 
race  formed  by  this  fusion  was  so  strongly  pagan 
that  it  resisted  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
which  had  its  martyrs  in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth 


290 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


century.  A  change  set  in  under  Bogoris  (c.  852- 
888),  who  in  his  contests  with  both  Franks  and 
Greeks  held  out  hopes  of  a  conversion  as  an  induce- 
ment for  peace.  In  864  he  seems  to  have  entered 
the  Greek  Church,  and  received  in  return  a  consid- 
erable slice  of  territory.  In  Constantinople  his 
conversion  was  considered  genuine,  and  Photius 
took  pains  to  instruct  him  at  some  length  in  the 
duties  of  a  Christian  prince.  The  Bulgarians  were 
apparently  less  delighted,  and  rose  in  armed  revolt. 
The  wily  barbarian,  however,  had  one  eye  on  the 
West,  and  at  the  same  time  sent  an  embassy  to 
Pope  Nicholas  I.,  with  a  number  of  questions  on 
which  he  sought  enlightenment  from  Rome.  Nicho- 
las immediately  sent  two  bishops  to  take  possession 
of  the  Bulgarian  territory  for  the  Church,  and 
answered  the  questions  of  Bogoris  with  much  more 
painstaking  seriousness  than  they  deserved.  An- 
other embassy  went  to  Louis  the  German  to  ask 
that  Christian  missionaries  might  be  sent.  In  867 
Louis  conmiissioned  Bishop  Ermanrich  of  Passau 
and  a  numerous  retinue  of  priests  to  set  out  for  the 
Danube.  Charlemagne  followed  by  raising  a  large 
sum  to  provide  books  and  church  utensils  for  the 
Bulgarians.  But  all  this  interest  was  thrown  away. 
When  Ermanrich  reached  Bulgaria,  he  found  the 
field  already  occupied  by  priests  from  Rome,  and 
returned  to  Germany.  The  communion  with 
Rome  lasted  but  a  few  years  longer.  Bogoris 
requested  the  appointment  of  Formosus  of  Porto 
(one  of  the  two  original  Roman  missionaries)  as 
archbishop,  and  proposed  another  candidate  when 
Nicholas  declined;  when  this  second  nomination 
was  rejected  by  Adrian  II.  he  lost  patience  and 
turned  to  Constantinople.  His  envoys  took  part 
there  in  the  final  session  of  the  Eighth  Ecumenical 
Council  (870),  and  after  its  close,  in  spite  of  the 
protests  of  the  Roman  legates,  declared  that  Bul- 
garia belonged  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  Roman  clergy  were  obliged  to  leave 
and  the  patriarch  Ignatius  organized  the  church 
by  the  consecration  of  a  metropolitan  and  several 
bishops.  Adrian  II.  protested  (871),  but  in  vain, 
and  the  efforts  of  John  VIII.  to  reopen  the  ques- 
tion were  equally  fruitless;  Bulgaria  remained,  as, 
indeed,  its  geographical  situation  demanded,  a 
part  of  the  Greek  Church.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapbt:  C.  JireSek,  Oetchu^ife  der  Bulgaren,  Prague, 
1876;  idem.  Dom  Furaientum  Bulaarien,  ib.  1891;  La 
BulaarU  chriUenne.  6tude  hiBtarUpte,  Paris,  1861;  Li- 
Oendf  rtliifieutM  bulifttres,  traduiiea  par  Lydia  Schiach- 
manoff,  ib.  1896. 

BULGARIS,  bul-ga'ris,  EUGENIOS,  6"a-g6'm-6s: 
Russian  prelate;  b.  in  the  island  of  Corfu  Aug.  10, 
1716;  d.  at  St.  Petersburg  June  10,  1806.  He  was 
educated  at  Padua,  and  taught  in  various  schools 
and  at  the  academy  of  Athos  from  1755  to  1759. 
His  orthodoxy  being  impugned,  he  went  to  the 
West,  and  was  recommended  by  Frederick  the 
Great  to  Catharine  II.  of  Russia,  who  appointed 
him  bishop  of  Slovensk  and  Kherson.  In  1801 
he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Alexander  Nevsky. 
Bulgaris  was  a  veiy  gifted  and  learned  man,  and 
contributed  toward  making  Western  culture  acces- 
sible to  his  people.  Together  with  Korals,  he  may 
be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modem  cultiu^  in 


Greece.  He  was  an  eclectic  in  philosophy,  and 
was  familiar  with  all  branches  of  theology.  Among 
his  numerous  works  (in  Greek),  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  "  Orthodox  Confession " 
(Amsterdam,  1767),  written  against  the  Jesuit 
Leclerc,  but  also  opposing  the  Protestants;  and 
his  "  Address  on  Tolerance  "  (1768),  denying  the 
State  the  right  of  intolerance  toward  adherents 
of  other  creeds  than  that  of  the  national  church. 
His  principal  work  was  the  "  Dogmatic  Theology  " 
(ed.  Lontopulos,  Venice,  1872),  the  first  real  Greek 
treatise  on  dogmatics  since  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
is  divided  into  four  parts,  treating  of  God,  the 
Trinity,  anthropology,  and  Christology.  Among 
his  historical  writings  the  most  important  was  the 
"  First  Century  from  the  Incarnation  of  Christ 
the  Saviour  "  (Leipsic,  1805),  while  to  the  depart- 
ment of  practical  theology  belongs  the  **  Pious 
Talk  "  (2  vols.,  1801),  a  moralistic  exposition  of 
the  Pentateuch.  He  also  translated  several  wri- 
tings of  Augustine,  and  such  works  as  the  De  pro- 
cessione  Spiritus sancti  of  Zoemikau  (St.  Petersburg, 
1797).  He  likewise  edited  the  works  of  Joseph 
Bryennius,  and  assisted  in  the  editing  of  the  works 
of  Theodoret  (Halle,  1768).  Philipp  Meybr. 
Biblioorapbt:  P.  Strahl,  Daa  gelehrte  RvMland,  Leipsic, 
1828  (from  Russian  sources);  A.  P.  Vretos,  Biographie 
de  Vareheviqus  E.  Bulgari,  Athens.  1860;  A.  D.  Kyriakos. 
Oeackiehte  der  orierUaluehen  Kirchen,  Leipsic,  1002. 

BULL,  GEORGE:  Bishop  of  St.  David's;  b.  at 
Wells,  Somersetshire,  Mar.  25,  1634;  d.  at  Brecon, 
Wales,  Feb.  17,  1710.  He  studied  at  Oxford  but 
did  not  take  a  degree;  became  minister  of  St. 
George's,  near  Bristol,  1655;  rector  of  Suddington 
St.  Mary's,  near  Cirencester,  1658,  to  which  was 
joined  the  vicarage  of  the  adjoining  parish  of  St. 
Peter's  1662;  rector  of  Avening,  Gloucester,  1685. 
From  1678  to  1686  he  was  a  prebendary  of  Glouces- 
ter; from  1686  to  1705  archdeacon  of  Llandafif.  He 
became  bishop  of  St.  David's,  Wales,  in  1705.  His 
fame  rests  upon  his  Defenaio  fidei  Niccena,  pub- 
lished originally  in  Latin  in  1685  and  received  with 
marked  approval  by  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic (e.g.,  Bossuet  and  Jurieu)  scholars  everywhere; 
it  is  still  a  classic.  In  English  translation,  it  appears 
in  the  Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology,  together 
with  his  Harmonia  Apostolica  (4  vols.,  Oxford, 
1851-53). 
Bibliography:  His  complete  works  appeared  in  7  vols., 

1827,  with  the  life  by  Robert  Nelson   (originaUy  1713. 

separately  1840).     The  DNB,  vii.  236-238.  gives  a  very 

satisfactory  account  of  his  life. 

BULL,  PAPAL.    See  Briefs,  Bulus,  and  Bul- 

LARIA. 

BULLINGER,  bul'lin-ger,  HEimaCH. 
Conversion  to  Protestantism    Eucharistic  Teachings  (|  6). 

( §  1 ).  The  Helvetic  and  Zurich  Con- 

Friendship  with  Zwingli  (|  2).        fessions   and   the   Consen- 
The     Successor    of    Zwingli        sus  Tigurinus  (f  7). 

(§3).  His  Part  in  the  Second  Hel- 

Political  Activity  (|  4).  vetic  Confession  (|  8). 

Pastoral  and  Educational  Ac-    Views,  on    the    Relation    of 

tivity  (I  6).  Church  and  State  (|  9). 

The  Works  of  Bullinger  (|  10). 

Heinrich  Bullinger  was  a  Swiss  Reformer;  b.  at 
Bremgarten  (HJ  m.  e.s.e.  of  Aargau)  July  18, 1504; 
d.  at  Zurich  Sept.  17,  1575.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
priest,  who  looked  after  his  bringing  up.  After  receiv- 


Bulllzi««r 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


800 


ing  his  elementary  education  in  the  schools  of  his  na^ 
tive  town,  he  was  sent  to  Emmerich  on  the  Lower 
Rhine  to  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  and 
in  1519  he  went  to  Cologne.  There,  in  the  seat  of 
opposition  to  the  Reformation,  Bullinger  gradually 
became  a  convert  to  the  new  doctrines.  When  he 
began  the  study  of  theology,  his  text-books  were 
the  Sententia  of  Peter  Lombard  and  the  Decretum 
of  Gratian,  but  noting  that  these  were  based  on 
the  Church  Fathers,  he  resolved  to  study  the  lat- 
ter more  closely,  thus  learning  from  Chrysostom, 
Ambrose,  Origen,  and  Augustine  how  widely  the 
scholastics  had  diverged  in  their  treatment  of 
Christian  truths.  At  the  same  time  he  came  into 
possession  of  some  pamphlets  of  Luther  which 
convinced    him  that  the  Wittenberg 

I.  Conver-  Reformer  marked  an  advance  over  the 
sion  to      scholastics.    Since,  however,  Luther, 

Protestant-  like  the  Church  Fathers,  appealed 
Ism.  to  the  Scriptures,  Bullinger  obtained 
a  New  Testament,  which  nourished 
his  opposition  to  Roman  doctrine.  He  was  also 
strongly  influenced  by  Melanchthon's  Loci  com- 
munes, and  by  1522,  despite  a  bitter  inward  struggle, 
he  had  broken  definitely  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Being  thus  debarred  from  an  ecclesias- 
tical career,  he  resolved  to  become  a  teacher,  and 
after  nine  months  he  secured  a  position  in  the  Cis- 
tercian monastery  at  Kappel,  where  he  remained 
from  Jan.,  1523,  to  Pentecost,  1529.  Not  only 
did  he  introduce  his  pupils  to  the  classics,  but  he 
also  interpreted  a  portion  of  the  Bible  to  them 
daily,  in  addition  to  lecturing  on  other  theological 
subjects  in  the  presence  of  the  abbot,  the  monks, 
and  many  of  the  residents  of  the  city.  Through 
his  preaching  of  a  reformation  of  doctrine  and  life 
the  movement  was  completed  in  1525-26,  although 
Bullinger's  life  was  imperiled  by  the  hostility  of 
the  adherents  of  the  ancient  faith.  In  the  early 
part  of  1527  the  monastery  was  transferred  to  the 
authorities  of  Zurich  and  the  monastery  church 
became  the  parish  church  of  the  conununity,  with 
Bullinger  as  the  preacher.  In  dose  harmony  with 
ZwingU,  whom  he  had  known  since  the  end  of  1523, 
and  in  consultation  with  Leo  Jud,  he  began  the 
active  preparation  of  a  large  number  of  tracts 
designed  to  work  for  the  Reformation 

a.  Friend-  in  central   Switzerland.    After  being 

■hip  with  invited  by  Zwingli  in  Jan.,  1525,  to 
ZwinglL  attend  a  conference  with  the  Ana^ 
baptists,  he  combated  them,  and  in 
1528  he  accompanied  Zwingli  to  the  Disputation  of 
Bern,  where  the  leading  Reformers  of  Switzerland 
and  South  Germany  became  acquainted  with  each 
other. 

In  June,  1529,  Bullinger  succeeded  his  father  as 
pastor  of  Bremgarten,  but  his  position  was  a  peril- 
ous one,  and  the  Reformed  strongholds  were  forti- 
fied in  expectation  of  the  war  between  the  Con- 
federates, which  threatened  to  break  out  in  1529. 
Despite  the  so-called  ''  land-peace  "  and  the  ser- 
mons delivered  by  Bullinger  at  the  diets  held  at 
Bremgarten  in  the  sununer  of  1531,  in  which  he 
urged  upon  his  hearers  the  horrors  of  civil  war  and 
sought  to  reconcile  the  adherents  of  both  creeds 
by  the  weapons  of  the  spirit  and  the  word  of  God 


without  the  effusion  of  blood,  the  Refonnation 
had  long  been  political  rather  than  religious,  and 
on  Oct.  11,  1531,  the  battle  of  Kappel  was  fought, 
in  which  the  leaders  of  the  Zurich  Reformation  feU. 
The  progress  of  the  entire  movement  was  checked, 
and  at  Bremgarten  at  heavy  cost  a  peace  was  made 
from  which  the  clergy  were  excepted.  In  the  night 
of  Nov.  20  Bullinger  fled  to  Zurich.  The  difficult 
task  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  Reformed  Church 
and  the  maintenance  of  Zwingli's  life-work  now 
devolved  upon  him,  and  on  Dec.  9,  1531,  he  was 
chosen  pastor  of  the  Gxx>samanster  to 

3.  The  Sue-  succeed  the  great  Swiss  Reformer.  At 
ceisor  of  the  same  time,  however,  a  controversy 
ZwinglL     arose  between  the  adherents  of  the 

ancient  conditions,  who  advocated 
peace  at  any  price,  and  the  evangelical  party, 
resulting  in  a  decision  to  prohibit  the  clergy  from 
touching  on  political  questions  in  their  sermons. 
After  consultation  with  his  colleagues,  BuUinger 
declared  himself  ready  to  promote  peace,  but 
declined  to  refrain  from  political  problems  which 
were  connected  with  religion.  The  liberty  which 
he  demanded  was  granted  him  after  long  delibera- 
tion, and  the  clergy  accordingly  placed  themselves 
in  opposition  to  the  reactionaries.  The  sermons 
of  Bullinger  and  Jud,  however,  resulted  in  their 
being  dted  before  the  council.  They  were  honor- 
ably discharged,  but  were  requested  in  future  to 
lay  their  political  complaints  before  the  coimcil 
on  the  chance  that  they  might  be  settled  without 
the  necessity  of  publicity.  Through  this  recog- 
nition of  the  spheres  of  Church  and  State  as  dis- 
tinct but  not  opposed,  Bullinger  sustained  a  more 
healthy  relation  to  the  political  body  than  Zwingli, 
and  he  also  avoided  the  stru^les  made  by  Calvin 
to  make  the  State  subservient  to  the  Church.     A 

still  more  difficult  task  was  the  stem- 

4.  Political  ming  of  the  Catholic  reaction,  and 
Activity,    it  was  chiefly  due  to  him  that  the 

disaster  of  Kappel  had  no  worse 
results.  The  evangelical  communities,  however, 
suffered  severely,  and  turned  to  Zurich  for  help, 
and  the  coimcil,  in  their  eagerness  to  refute  the 
charge  of  Roman  tendencies,  unwisely  inserted 
in  their  manifesto  words  which  the  Catholics 
claimed  were  an  insult  to  the  mass.  In  the  con- 
troversy which  ensued,  Zurich  was  cited  before 
the  council  of  the  Confederation,  whereupon  Bul- 
linger, while  blaming  the  city  for  its  folly,  ad- 
vised the  mutual  surrender  of  the  old  letters  of 
confederation,  the  peaceable  division  of  the  com- 
mon territories,  and  the  formation  of  a  new  union 
with  such  bodies  as  held  to  the  word  of  God. 
Although  it  proved  possible  to  preserve  peace  with- 
out this  dissolution  of  the  Confederation,  the  result 
was  a  partial  humiliation  of  Zurich. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  his  pastoral  activity  Bul- 
linger was  an  indefatigable  preacher,  delivering 
between  six  and  eight  sermons  each  week,  nor  was 
it  imtil  1542  that  his  labors  were  lessened  to  two 
addresses,  on  Sunday  and  Friday.  Like  Zwingli, 
he  was  accustomed  to  interpret  entire  books  of 
the  Bible  in  order,  and  his  sermons  were  esteemed 
far  and  wide,  especially  in  England.  He  was  also 
active  in  education,  and  brought  the  schools  of 


301 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bullinffer 


Zurich  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  propo- 
sing an  admirable  scheme,  which  comprised  both 
teachers  and  pupils  and  prescribed  their  duties. 
He  likewise  promoted  theological  training  by  the 
establishment  of  scholarships  and  secured  the 
canons'  fimd  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools, 
in  addition  to  preparing  regulations  for  preachers 
and  synods.  The  first  of  these,  drawn  up  by  him 
and  Leo  Jud,  remained  unchanged  for  almost 
three  centuries.    The  synod  met  twice 

5.  Pastoral  annually,  and  had  as  representatives 
and  Educa-  of  the  State  a  non-officiating  burgo- 

tional  master  and  eight  members  of  the 
Activity,  great  council.  The  chief  duty  of  the 
synod  was  a  complete  report  of  the 
activity,  qualifications,  and  conduct  of  each  and 
every  pastor.  Bullinger  was  highly  esteemed  as 
a  pastor,  especially  in  time  of  pestilence,  while  his 
Qtio  pacto  cum  cegrotarUibua  et  morientibus  agendum 
sit  parceneais  (1540)  is  a  work  of  imusual  excellence. 
A  generous  jfriend  and  patron  of  fugitives  from 
Germany,  Locarno,  and  Ekigland,  he  also  wrote  an 
enormous  mass  of  letters,  niunbering  among  his 
correspondents  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Heniy  II.  and 
Francis  II.  of  France,  Henry  VIII.  and  Edward  VI. 
of  England,  Elizabeth,  Christian  of  Denmark, 
Philip  of  Hesse,  and  the  palsgrave  Frederick  III. 

Bullinger  took  part  in  the  controversy  over  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  the  chief  representative  of  Ger- 
man-Swiss doctrine.  After  the  death  of  Zwingli 
both  the  Romanists,  headed  by  Johann  Faber,  and 
Luther  assailed  the  doctrines  of  his  followers,  only 
to  be  answered  by  Bullinger  in  his  Auf  Johannsen 
urieniachen  Bischofa  Trostbuchlein  trdsUiche  Ver- 
nntwortung  (Zurich,  1532)  and  in  the  introduction 
to  Leo  Jud's  translation  of  the  treatise  De  corpore 
€t  sanguine  Domini  of  Ratramnus,  a  monk  of 
Corvey.  Even  in  these  earlier  works  he  emphasized 
the  objective  side  of  the  sacrament,  the  work  of 
Christ  in  the  faithful,  whereas  Zwingli 

6.  Eucha-    had    taught    rather    the    subjective 
ristic        aspect  as  a  memorial.    The  contro- 

TeachingB.  versy  involved  the  Protestant  party 
in  Germany,  and  in  the  ensuing  efforts 
for  reconciliation  Butzer  and  Bullinger  were  active 
figures,  the  latter  preparing  a  confession  for  the 
former,  showing  how  far  a  imion  with  Luther  was 
possible.  This  confession  was  sent  in  Nov.,  1534, 
to  the  remaining  Swiss  cities  and  was  gladly  ac- 
cepted by  the  majority,  Bern  alone  refusing  to 
subscribe  to  it  until  after  the  Conference  of  Brugg 
in  Apr.,  1535.  This  was,  however,  little  more  than 
an  agreement  of  the  clergy,  and  the  desirability 
of  an  understanding  with  Luther,  as  well  as  the 
expectation  of  a  general  coimdl,  rendered  it  advi- 
sable for  the  Swiss  Chiurch  to  make  an  official  formu- 
lation of  its  creed.  The  result  was  the  First  Helvetic 
Confession  (see  Helvetic  CoNFESsioNa),  framed  at 
Basel  in  1536,  Bullinger  being  one  of  its  authors. 
Meanwhile  Butzer  had  framed  the  Wittenberg  CJon- 
cord  (q.v.),  which  was  accepted  by  the  cities  of  Upper 
Germany,  but  was  opposed  by  Bullinger  in  Zurich 
and  rejected  by  Bern.  The  Swiss  responded  with 
an  elucidation  of  the  Helvetic  Confession  prepared 
by  Bullinger  and  addressed  directly  to  Luther 
^  (Nov.,    1536),  seeldng  the  middle  way  between 


transubstantiation    and    the    concept   of   a  mere 
memorial  meal.    The  reply  was  conciliatory,  but 
the  peace  was  soon  broken  by  Luther,  who  bitterly 
attacked  the  Zwinglian  doctrines  of  the   Lord's 
Supper  in  1544.    Bullinger  replied  in  the  Zurich 
Confession  of  1545,  and,  though  no  understanding 
was  reached  between  the  Swiss  and  the  Lutheran 
churches,  the  French  and  German  sections  of  the 
Swiss  Church  were  drawn  together  all 
7*  The  Hel-  the  closer,  a  matter  which  was  the 
vetic   and  more  momentous  since  the  Reformed 
Zurich      had  foimd  a  second  center  in  Geneva, 
Confessions  thus  giving  rise  to  the  danger  of  a 
and  the     schism  like  that  headed  by  Luther 
Consensus  and  Melanchthon  in  Germany.    The 
Tigurinus.  peril  was  averted,  however,  by  the 
Consensus  Tigurinus,  which  was  qui- 
etly prepared  by  Bullinger  and  Calvin  in  1549  and 
which  was  in  complete  harmony  with  the  previous 
views  of  Bullinger  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  while  it 
emphasized  the  divine  work  of  grace,  though  it 
restricted  it  to  the  elect.    In  his  later  years  he  was 
involved  in  a  controversy  with  Brenz,  who  defended 
the  doctrine  of  the  ubiquity  of  the  sacraments 
but    reached  no  definite  conclusion.    The  views 
concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  doctrine  of  predestination.    While 
still  in  Kappel,  Bullinger  had  maintained  that  free 
will   was   incompatible    with   the    foreknowledge 
of  God,  but  later  he  was  gradually  led  to  accept 
the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  his  views 
finding  their  ultimate  expression  in  the  famous 
Second  Helvetic  Confession,   which  he  prepared 
in  consultation  with  his  friend  Peter  Martyr  to 
serve  as  a  posthumous  testimony  of  his  own  belief 
and  that  of  his  church.    It  was  published,  how- 
ever, in  1566,  when  Frederic  III.,  who  was  accused 
of  Calvinism,  wished  to  defend  himself  before  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg.    At  his  request  Bullinger  sent 
him  the  confession,  which  he  printed 

8.  His  Part  and  which  was  accepted  not  only  by  all 
in  the  Swiss  chiurches  with  the  exception 
Second     of  Basel,  but  also  by  the  Reformed 

Helvetic     in   France,    Scotland,    and   Hungary 
Confession,  and  highly  praised  in  (jermany,  Eng- 
land, and  Holland.    It  was,  strictly 
speaking,  the  bond  uniting  the  scattered  members 
of  the  Evangelical-Reformed  churches. 

In  the  controversies  concerning  the  relation  of 
Church  and  State,  Bullinger  regarded  the  two  as 
united,  Christian  citizens  forming  both  Church  and 
State,  and  temporal  officials  being  likewise  the  serv- 
ants of  Gkxi.  The  chief  duty  of  the  Church  was 
the  imrestricted  preaching  of  the  word,  and  the 
power  of  admonishing  the  authorities,  when  neces- 
sary, of  their  obligations.  Neither  Church  nor 
State,   however,   should   interfere   in 

9.  Views  on  each  other's  affairs.    External  admin- 
the  Rela-  istration  of  the  property  of  the  Church, 

tion  of      on  the  other  hand,  was  to  be  left  to 

Church     the  State,  which  was  also  to  execute 

and  State,  ecclesiastical  pimishments.    With  this 

was    closely   connected    his    attitude 

toward  heretics.    While  in  his  earlier  career  he 

had  expressed  the  utmost  tolerance,  he  later  reached 

the  conclusion  that  preaching  and  writing  against 


BulUnirer 
Buntinff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


302 


nercsy  must  be  supplemented  by  state  punish- 
ment. Roused  by  Anabaptism,  he  urged  in  1535 
that  no  heretics  should  be  admitted  to  the  city 
and  that;  if  all  efforts  at  conversion  proved  fruitless, 
they  should  be  punished  by  the  secidar  arm,  though 
with  due  consideration  of  the  circumstances  of 
each  individual  case.  This  position  did  not  ex- 
clude capital  punishment,  and  while  Bullinger 
did  not  avail  himself  of  it  in  the  case  of  the  Ana- 
baptists, it  is  easy  to  see  how  he  could  ooimsel  the 
execution  of  Servetus  and  the  exile  of  Ochino. 

The  years  1564-65  were  marked  with  sorrow  for 
Bullinger,  who  lost  many  of  his  relatives  and 
closest  friends  by  death,  and  was  himself  so  seri- 
ously ill  with  the  plague  that  his  life  wbb  despaired 
of.  Even  after  his  apparent  recovery  his  health  was 
shattered,  and  his  sufferings  from  calculi  increased 
imtil  he  was  repeatedly  near  death.  His  last 
sermon  was  delivered  on  Whitsuntide,  1575,  and 
four  months  later  he  died. 

Bullinger's  works  are  extraordinarily  niunerous 
but  have  never  been  published  in  collected  form 
and  some  are  extant  only  in  manuscript.  The 
catalogue  of  the  municipal  library  of  Zurich  lists 
about  100  separate  works,  and  thia  number  is 
raised  to  150  by  J.  J.  Scheuchzer.  Especially 
noteworthy  are  his  Latin  expositions  of  all  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament  with  the  exception  of  the 
Apocalypse,  which  were  prepared  up  to  1548, 
when  their  place  was  taken  by  collections  of  ser- 
mons, the  majority  also  in  Latin,  comprising  100 
on  the  Apocalypse,  sixty-six  on  Daniel,  170  on 
Jeremiah,  and  190  on  Isaiah.  His  sermons  on  the 
decalogue,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the  sacraments, 
etc.,  were  highly  esteemed  and  published  under 
the  title,  Sermonum  decades  quinque 
10.  The     (Zurich,  1557;  translated  into  Dutch 

Works  of    and  French;  Eng.  transl.,  The  Decades, 

Bullinger.  London,  1 577,  ed.  for  the  Parker  So- 
ciety by  T.  Harding,  Cambridge,  184^ 
1851 ).  Among  his  theological  works  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  his  De  pravidentia  (Zurich,  1553); 
De  ffratia  Dei  justificarUe,  and  De  scriptura  sancta 
auctoritaie  et  certitxidine  deque  episcaporum  institu- 
Hone  et  functione  (1538,  Eng.  transl.,  Woorthynesse, 
authoriiiey  and  sufficiencie  of  the  holy  Scripture,  Lon- 
don, 1579).  He  was  likewise  the  author  of  a  drama 
on  Lucretia  and  Brutus  and  of  a  hymn  beginning: 
"  O  holy  (jrod,  have  mercy  nowi "  Bullinger  also 
wrote  a  chronicle  and  description  of  Kappel,  and 
later  prepared  a  similar  work  entitled  Antiquitates 
aliquot  ecdesicB  TigurincB,  which  is  preserved  in 
manuscript  in  the  municipal  library.  An  important 
source  for  the  history  of  the  Anabaptists  is  found 
in  his  Der  Wiedertaufem  Ursprung,  Furgang,  Sekten 
(Zurich,  1560),  but  his  chief  historical  work  was  his 
detailed  chronicle  of  the  Swiss,  the  most  valuable 
part  being  the  history  of  the  Reformation  up  to 
1532  (ed.  J.  J.  Hottinger  and  H.  H.  V5geli,  6  vols., 
Frauenfeld,  1838-tO).  (Emil  Eoli.) 

Bibuographt:  Sources:  Bullinger'g  autobiography  was 
printed  in  MiaetUanea  Tiowrini,  iii.  1-171,  Zurich,  1722; 
valuable  also  is  his  ReformtUiimMgeachiehte,  3  vols.,  Frau- 
enfeld, 1838-40.  Other  early  sources  are:  J.  W.  Stucki, 
Oratio  funebria,  Zurich,  1575;  J.  Simmler,  De  ortu,  vita, 
€t  obitu  Heinrici  BuUin{/eri,  ib.  1575;  Arehiv  fUr  die 
§diiweigeriech€  ReformationaoeschuJite,   vol.   i.,   Solothum, 


1868.  For  his  life  consult:  J.  F.  Frans,  Merkwitdige  Zugt 
au$  dem  Leben  dee  ...  H.  BulUfHfer,  Bern.  1828;  S. 
Hess,  Lebeneoeediichte  BuUingere,  2  vols.,  Zurich.  182^ 
1829;  G.  Friedl&nder,  BeitrOife  mw  ReformaHan^feeekidUt, 
Sammlung  unifedruckter  Briefe  dee  BuUinoer,  Beriin,  1837; 
C.  Pestaloszi.  Heinrich  BuUinoer,  Elberfeld,  1858;  R. 
Christoffel,  H.  BuUinger  und  eeine  GaiUn,  Zurich,  1875; 
G.  R.  Zimmermann,  Die  Zureher  KircKe  und  lArr  Abt 
lutes,  ib.  1877;  SchafT.  CKrietian  Churtk,  vii.  206-214, 
614,  618;  Moeller,  Chrietian  Church,  vol.  iii.  ] 


BUNBURY,  THOMAS:  Protestant  bishop  of 
Limerick;  b.  at  Shandnim,  County  Cork,  in  the 
year  1832.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin  (B.A.,  1852),  and  was  ordered  deacon 
1854,  and  priest  in  the  following  year.  He  wis 
curate  of  Clonfert,  County  Galway  (1855-58),  and 
of  Mallow,  County  Cork  (1858-63),  rector  of 
Croom,  County  Limerick  (1863-72),  rector  of  St, 
Mary's,  Limerick,  as  well  as  dean  of  Limerick 
(1872-99).  From  1895  to  1899  he  was  also  chap- 
lain to  the  bishop  of  Limerick,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  himself  consecrated  to  that  see. 

BUND,  EVANGELISCHER  ("Evangelical  Un- 
ion'*): An  alliance  of  Gennan  Protestants  for 
maintaining  Protestant  interests  in  Germany. 
The  occasion  of  the  formation  was  the  modern 
aggressions  of  the  papacy  (leading  to  the  Kultur- 
kampf)  and  the  arrogance  of  Ultramontanism,  the 
dream  of  which  is  to  reestablish  Catholicism  in 
Germany.  Its  foimder  was  Prof.  W.  Beyschlag 
of  Halle  who,  finding  others  interested  in  the 
scheme,  called  a  preliminary  meeting  at  Erfurt, 
October  5,  1886,  which  was  attended  by  seventy 
men  representing  different  types  of  Protestant 
theology.  After  a  thorough  discussion,  an  organ- 
ization was  effected  imder  the  presidency  of  Count 
von  Wintzingerode-Bodenstein.  The  confessional 
basis  of  the  alliance  is:  "  Belief  in  Jesus  Christ, 
the  only  begotten  Son  of  God,  as  the  only  mediator 
of  salvation,  and  adherence  to  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation."  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  18S7 
a  circular  containing  243  names  was  sent  out,  and 
when  the  alliance  held  its  first  annual  meeting  in 
Frankfort,  August  15^17,  1887,  10,000  members 
were  reported.  The  ecclesiastical  authorities,  who 
were  at  first  indifferent,  soon  perceived  the  great 
importance  of  the  Btmd  and  expressed  their  ap- 
proval of  the  puiposes  of  the  idlianoe,  which  in 
various  ways  has  developed  a  great  activity  in 
opposition  to  the  Roman  propaganda.  In  public 
lectures  the  burning  religious  questions  of  the  day 
are  treated  with  the  intention  of  sharpening  and 
strengthening  the  Protestant  consciousness.  As 
the  Btmd  has  its  own  publication  house  at  Leipsic, 
it  publishes  not  only  a  monthly  in  behalf  of  Protes- 
tant interests,  but  also  pamphlets  intended  to  ex- 
pose and  to  refute  the  claims  of  Ultramontanism 
and  to  repel  attacks,  especially  directed  against 
the  memory  and  work  of  Luther  and  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  The  Btmd  has  also  the  practical  end 
of  affording  material  help  to  weak  institutions  in 
the  "  Diaspora."  The  effect  of  the  Bund  is  felt 
by  the  Ultramontanes,  and  their  attacks  upon  it 
only  show  its  necessity.  (W.  BEYBCHLAof.) 

Biblioorapht:  G.  Wameck,  Der  evainfeliaehe  Bund  ufd 
eeine  Oegner,  Leipeic,  1880;  H.  Meyer-Hermutnii.  Der 
Kampf  dee  evangeliedten  Bundee  gegen  Rom  und  mix 
Wirkeamkeit  in  der  evanifeii»€hen  Kircke,  Barmen,  1S90; 


303 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bullix^er 
BnntinflT 


Nippold,  Zide  und  Vorgeadiichte  dea  evangeliachen  Bundes, 
1890;  L.  Witte,  Der  evartoeliache  Bund,  «rtn  guteM  Recht 
ufid  tin  gethanea  Werk,  Barmen,  1896;  Blankmeister.  Dob 
Reidi  mttta  uim  dodi  bieiAen,  Leipnic,  1896;  also  the  pam- 
I>hlet8  published  by  the  Bund. 

BUNGEWER,  bQn"je-nd'  (LAURENT  LOUIS), 
FELIX:  Swiss  Protestant;  b.  at  Marseilles  Sept. 
14,  1814;  d.  in  Geneva  June  14,  1874,  He  was 
graduated  B.L.  at  Marseilles,  1832,  B.S.  at  Geneva, 
1834,  studied  theology  at  Geneva  and  was  grad- 
uated at  Strasburg,  1838;  ordained  in  Geneva, 
1839,  and  lived  there  as  teacher,  writer,  and  occa- 
sional preacher.  His  books  and  articles  were  very 
numerous  and  exerted  a  wide  influence,  especially 
those  of  a  controversial  character  against  the  Church 
of  Rome.  From  1849  till  his  death  he  was  one 
of  the  editors  of  £trenne8  reliffieuses,  an  annual 
chronicle  of  religious  events,  particularly  those 
connected  with  Geneva.  His  more  noteworthy 
books  were:  Un  sermon  sous  Louis  XIV  (Paris, 
1843;  Eng.  transl.,  The  Preacher  and  the  King, 
or  Bourdaloue  in  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV,  London 
and  Boston,  1853);  Histoire  du  concile  de  Trente  (2 
vols.,  1847;  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1852;  by  J.  Mc- 
Clintock,  New  York,  1855);  Trois  sermons  sous  Louis 
XV  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1849;  Eng.  transl..  The  Priest 
and  the  Huguenots,  or  Persecution  in  the  Age  of  Louis 
XV,  2  vols,,  London,  1853);  Voltaire  et  son  temps 
(2vols.,1850;  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1854);  Julien 
oulafin  d*un  sikcle  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1854;  Eng.  transl., 
London,  1854);  Chnst  et  lesUde  (Paris,  1856);  Rome 
et  la  Bible  (1858);  Calvin,  sa  vie,  son  cnivre  et  ses 
Merits  (1862;  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1863);  Trois 
jours  de  la  vie  d*unp^e,  written  Biter  the  death  of  his 
two  years  old  daughter  (Paris,  1863;  Eng.  transl., 
Edinburgh,  1864,  New  York,  1867);  Lincoln,  sa  vie, 
son  cntvre  et  sa  mort  (Lausanne,  1865);  Saint  Paul, 
sa  vie,  ses  ceuvres  et  ses  &pUres  (Paris,  1867;  Eng. 
transl,,  London,  1870);  Pape  et  concile  au  xix. 
sihcle  (Paris,  1870;  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1870). 
A  volume  of  '*  Sermons "  was  published  after  his 
death  (1875). 
Bibuographt:  Jean  Gaberel,  in  6brenne  reliffieuae  for  1875; 

Henri  Gambier,  Fflix  Bungener,  Geneva,  1891. 

BimSEN,  bun'zen,  CHRISTIAN  KARL  JOSIAS: 
Baron;  German  scholar  and  diplomat;  b.  at  Kor- 
bach  (28  m.  s.w.  of  Cassel)  Aug.  25,  1791;  d.  at 
Bonn  Nov.  28,  1860.  He  studied  theology  and 
philology  in  Marburg  and  Gftttingen  (1808-13). 
Resigning  his  hopes  of  joumejring  to  India,  Bunsen 
followed  his  friend  Brandis  to  Rome  in  1816, 
first  as  secretary  to  the  Russian  embassy,  over 
which  Niebuhr  presided.  Two  years  later  he 
succeeded  Brandis  in  the  diplomatic  service,  and 
represented  Prussia  at  Rome  (where  he  became  a 
close  friend  of  Tholuck  and  Rot  he)  from  1823  to 
1839,  In  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  as  minister 
to  Bern,  and  in  1841  to  London  as  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary and  envoy  extraordinary  of  his  Majesty 
Frederick  William  IV.  at  the  Court  of  St.  James. 
In  1854  he  returned  to  Germany  and  was  ennobled 
by  the  king  of  Prussia.  In  the  same  year  he 
retired  to  Heidelberg,  devoting  himself  to  literary 
pursuits.  Shortly  before  his  death  he  moved  to 
Bonn,  where  he  continued  his  studies  imtil  the  last. 
Bunsen's  influence  and  position  enabled  him  to 
assist    not    only    scholars    like    Birch,    Cureton, 


Max  MtiUer,  Richard  Lepsius,  and  Hoffmann,  but 
also  to  found  institutions,  like  the  German  hos- 
pitals in  Rome  and  London,  and  the  archeological 
institute  at  Rome.  He  helped  to  establish  the 
Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  at  Jerusalem  (see  Jerusa- 
lem, Anglican-German  Bishopric  in)  as  a  basis 
of  a  larger  imion  between  the  German  evangelical 
and  the  Anglican  churches.  A  complete  Ust  of 
his  writings  would  include  contributions  to  Roman 
and  Egyptian  Antiquities,  as  well  as  to  politics, 
liturgy,  and  hjrmnology.  His  chief  works  of  theo- 
logical interest  are  as  follows:  Ignatius  von  Anti- 
ochien  utuI  seine  Zeit  (Hamburg,  1847);  Hippolytus 
and  his  Age  (4  vols.,  London,  1851),  which,  together 
with  his  Analecta  Ante-Niccena  and  Outlines  of 
the  Philosophy  of  Universal  History  as  Applied  to 
Language  and  Religion,  form  his  great  work  Chris- 
tianity and  Mankind  (7  vols.,  1854),  for  which  many 
scholars  wrote  contributions.  Soon  after  his  return 
to  Germany  he  published  Die  Zeichen  der  Zeit 
(2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1855;  Eng.  transl..  Signs  of  the 
Times,  London,  1856),  in  which  he  assailed  the 
anarchy  existing  in  political,  reUgious,  and  intellec- 
tual life,  advocating  toleration  and  liberty  of  con- 
science, and  op]>osing  the  sophistical  and  fanatical 
doctrines  of  Stahl  and  Ketteler.  Another  work 
which  involved  Bunsen  in  controversy  was  his 
Gott  in  der  Geschichte,  oder  der  FortschriU  des  Glaur- 
bens  an  eine  sittliche  WeUordnung  (3  vols.,  1857-58; 
Eng.  transl.,  God  in  History,  3  vols.,  London, 
1868-70),  but  his  most  important  book  was  his 
VoUstandiges  Bibelwerk  fUr  die  Gemeinde  (9  vols,, 
1858-70).  Bunsen  lived  to  see  the  publication  of 
vols,  i.,  ii.,  and  v.;  after  his  death  Adolf  Kamp- 
hausen,  continued  the  work  with  the  help  of 
Johannes  Bleek,  H.  Holtzmaim,  and  others;  the 
work  gave  a  marked  impetus  to  the  revision  of 
Luther's  Bible  version,  and  was  diligently  consulted 
by  the  German  revisers.  A.  Kamphausen. 

Bibliography:  The  chief  work  on  Bunsen's  life  is  by  hia 
widow,  Memoir  of  Baron  C.  C.  J.  Bunaen,  2  vols..  Lon- 
don, 1868-60,  tranfllated  and  enlarged  by  Nippold.  3 
vols.,  Leipsic,  1868-71.  Ck>nsult  also  A.  J.  C.  Hare,  Life 
and  LeUera  of  BaroneM  Bunaen,  London,  1878,  Germ, 
transl.  by  F.  A.  Perthes.  Gotha,  1885.  Both  works  have 
had  a  lai^e  circulation  on  both  aides  of  the  Atlantic. 

BUNTING,  JABEZ:  The  "second  founder  of 
Methodism ";  b.  at  Manchester  May  13,  1779; 
d.  in  London  June  16,  1858.  He  received  a  good 
school  education  in  Manchester,  and  began  to 
preach  at  the  age  of  nineteen;  was  stationed  first 
in  Manchester,  then  at  Macclesfield  (1801),  London 
(1803),  Manchester  (1805),  Sheffield  (1807),  Liver- 
pool (1809),  Halifax  (1811),  Leeds  (1813),  London 
(1815),  Manchester  (1824),  Liverpool  (1830);  from 
1833  he  lived  in  London  and  filled  the  most  im- 
portant positions  at  the  denominational  head- 
quarters. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  and  its  secretary 
for  eighteen  years;  was  first  president  of  the  Wes- 
leyan Missionary  Institute  in  London,  from  1835 
till  his  death;  was  president  of  the  conference  in 
1820,  1828,  1836,  and  1844.  He  perfected  the 
Methodist  organization,  and  it  was  his  influence 
which  gave  steadily  increasing  powers  to  laymen. 
He  edited  the  seventh  edition  of  Cruden*s  Concord- 
ance (Liverpool,  1815)  and  Memoirs  of  the  Early 


Biinyan 
Burgas 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


304 


Life  of  William  Cawper  (1816).  Two  volumes  of 
BermoDB,  edited  by  his  eldest  son,  W.  M.  Bunting, 
appeared  posthumously  (1861-^2). 

Biblxoorapht:  His  Life  was  written  by  T.  P.  Bunting 
(brother  of  W.  M.  Bunting,  above),  vol.  i.,  London,  1850, 
▼ol.  ii.,  completed  by  O.  8.  Rowe,  1887.  Consult  alM> 
DNBt  viL  273-275,  where  other  literature  is  given. 

BUIVYAN,  JOHN:  "The  immortal  dreamer  of 
Bedford  jail;"  b.  at  Harrowden  (1  m.  s.e.  of  Bedford), 
in  the  parish  of  Elstow,  christened  Nov.  30,  1628; 
d.  in  London  Aug.  31,  1688.  He  had  very  little 
schooling,  followed  his  father  in  the  tinker's  trade, 
was  in  the  parliamentary  army,  1644r47;  married 
in  1649;  lived  in  Elstow  till  1655,  when  his  wife 
died  and  he  moved  to  Bedford.  He  married  again 
1659.  He  was  received  into  the  Baptist  church 
in  Bedford  by  immersion  in  the  Ouse,  1653.  In 
1655  he  became  a  deacon  and  began  preaching 
with  marked  success  from  the  start.  In  1658  he 
was  indicted  for  preaching  without  a  license;  kept 
on,  however,  and  did  not  suffer  imprisonment  till 
Nov.,  1660,  when  he  was  taken  to  the  coimty  jail 
in  Silver  Street,  Bedford,  and  there  confined,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  weeks  in  1666,  till  Jan.,  1672. 
In  that  month  he  became  pastor  of  the  Bedford 
church.  In  March,  1675  (the  original  warrant,  dis- 
covered in  1887,  is  published  in  facsimile  by  Rush 
and  Warwick,  London),  he  was  again  imprisoned 
for  preaching  and  this  time  in  the  Bedford  town 
jail  on  the  stone  bridge  over  the  Ouse.  In  six 
months  he  was  free  and  was  not  again  molested 
In  Aug.,  1688,  on  his  way  to  London  he  caught  a 
severe  cold  from  being  wet,  and  died  at  the  house 
of  a  friend  on  Snow  Hill. 

All  the  world  knows  that  Bunyan  wrote  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  in  two  parts,  of  which  the  first 
appeared  at  London  in  1678,  and  was,  at  all  events, 
begun  during  his  imprisonment  in  1676;  the  second 
in  1684.  The  earliest  edition  in  which  the  two 
parts  were  combined  in  one  volume  was  in  1728. 
A  third  part  falsely  attributed  to  Bunyan  appeared 
in  1693,  and  was  reprinted  as  late  as  1852.  The 
Pilgrim's  Progress  is  the  most  successful  allegoiy 
ever  written,  and  like  the  Bible  is  adapted  to  man 
in  every  clime.  It  is  indeed  commonly  translated 
by  Protestant  missionaries  after  the  Bible.  It  is 
thus  read  in  all  literary  languages  and  is  a  world- 
classic.  Two  other  works  of  Bimyan's  would  have 
given  him  fame,  but  not  as  wide  as  that  he  now 
enjoys;  viz..  The  Life  and  Death  of  Mr,  Badman 
(1680),  an  imaginary  biography,  and  the  allegory 
The  Holy  War  (1682).  The  book  which  lays  bare 
Bunyan's  iimer  life  and  reveals  his  preparation 
for  his  appointed  work  is  Grace  Abounding  to  the 
chief  of  sinners  (1666).  It  is  very  prolix,  and  being 
all  about  himself,  in  a  man  less  holy  would  be  in- 
tolerably egotistic,  but  his  motive  in  writing  being 
plainly  to  exalt  the  grace  of  God  and  to  comfort  those 
passing  through  experiences  somewhat  like  his  own, 
his  egotism  makes  no  disagreeable  impression. 

The  works  just  named  have  appeared  in  ntmier- 
ous  editions,  and  are  accessible  to  all.  There  are 
several  noteworthy  collections  of  editions  of  the 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  e.g.,  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  in  the  New  York  Public  Library,  collected  by 
the  late  James  Lenox. 


Bunyan  was  a  popular  preacher  as  well  as  a  \TTr 
voluminous  author,  though  most  of  his  works 
consist  of  expanded  sermons.  In  theology  he  was 
a  Puritan,  but  not  a  partisan;  nor  was  there 
anything  gloomy  about  him.  The  portrait  which 
his  friend  Robert  White  drew,  which  has  been 
often  reproduced,  is  a  most  attractive  one  and  this 
was  his  true  character.  He  was  tall,  had  reddish 
hair,  prominent  nose,  a  rather  large  mouth,  and 
sparkling  eyes.  He  was  no  scholar,  except  of  the 
English  Bible,  but  that  he  knew  thorou^y. 
Another  book  which  greatly  influenced  him  was 
Martin  Luther's  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
GalaHans,  in  the  translation  of  1575. 

[Some  time  before  his  final  release  from  prison 
Bunyan  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with 
Kilfin,  D' An  vers,  Deune,  Paul,  and  others.  In 
1673  he  published  his  i)t)7erence«  in  Judgement  ahout 
Water-Baptism  no  Bar  to  Communion,  in  which  he 
took  the  ground  that  "the  Church  of  Christ  hath 
not  warrant  to  keep  out  of  the  conmaunion  the 
Christian  that  is  discovered  to  be  a  visible  saint  of 
the  word,  the  Christian  that  walketh  according  to 
his  own  light  with  God."  While  he  owned  **  water- 
baptism  to  be  God's  ordinance,"  he  refused  to 
make  "  an  idol  of  it,"  as  he  thought  those  did  who 
made  the  lack  of  it  a  ground  for  disfellowahiping 
those  recognized  as  genuine  Christians.  Kiffin  and 
Paul  published  a  rejoinder  in  Serious  Reflections 
(London,  1673),  in  which  they  ably  set  forth  the 
argument  in  favor  of  the  restriction  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  to  baptized  believers,  and  received  the  ap- 
proval of  Henry  D'Anvers  in  his  Treatise  of  Bap- 
tism (London,  1674).  The  result  of  the  contro- 
versy was  to  leave  the  question  of  communion  with 
the  unbaptized  an  open  one  so  far  as  the  Partic- 
ular (Calvinistic)  Baptists  were  concerned.  Bun- 
yan's  church  admitted  pedobaptists  to  fellowship 
and  finally  became  pedobaptist  (Congregational- 
ist).  A.  H.  N.] 

BiBLioaRAPRT:  The  best  edition  of  Bunyan's  Complele 
Work9  is  by  G.  Offor  and  R.  Philip.  3  vols..  London.  1853. 
new  ed.,  1862.  The  best  bioKn4>hy  is  by  John  Brown. 
London,  1885,  new  ed.,  1902,  the  author  of  which  was 
for  many  years  the  minister  of  the  Bimyan  chapel  at  Bed- 
ford. Other  good  biographies  are:  J.  A.  Froude.  in  Efii^itk 
Men  of  Letter;  1887;  E.  Venables,  in  Great  WriUre  Seriee, 
1888;  and  W.  H.  White,  in  Literary  Livee  Series,  1004. 

BURCHARD  OF  WORMS:  Bishop  of  Wonns; 
d.  Aug.  20,  1025.  He  was  a  Hessian  by  birth,  and 
was  educated  at  Coblenz  and  under  the  famous 
Olbert  in  the  Flemish  monastery  of  Laubach. 
Willigis  of  Mains  ordained  him,  and  employed  him 
in  a  number  of  important  afifairs.  Otto  III.  gave 
him  the  bishopric  of  Worms  (1000),  which  had  fallen 
into  a  bad  condition.  He  improved  the  city  in 
many  ways;  established  the  episcopal  power  more 
firmly  and  even  increased  it;  demolished  the  fort- 
ress of  Duke  Otto  and  built  a  monafitery  with  the 
stones  from  it,  placing  over  the  door  the  inscription 
06  libertatem  civitatis.  In  1014  Henry  II.  gave 
him  secular  jurisdiction  over  the  inhabitants,  which 
he  used  to  promote  uniformity  and  security  of 
law.  He  rebuilt  the  cathedrsd,  consecrating  it 
in  1016;  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  collection 
of  canon  law,  which  had  a  very  wide  circulation 
not  only  in  Germany  but  in  Italy.     (A.  Hauck.) 


805 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnnyan 
Burffes 


Bibuoorapht:  The  Deerttofrum  libri  viginH  are  in  MPL, 
cxl.  Msteriab  for  a  life  are  in  Lex  familia  WomuUiennM 
ecdcBia,  MOH,  Legum,  lection  iy..  ConaUtutionM  et  ada^ 
ed.  L.  Weiland«  i.  (1893)  039,  no.  438;  and  the  anony- 
mous Fita,  ed.  G.  H.  Perti  in  MGH,  Script,  iv.  (1841) 
82Q-«46,  and  MPL,  cxl.  607-636.  Consult:  Hauok. 
KD,  iu.  436;  H.  O.  Gentler.  Daa  Hofrtcht  de*  Bwrckard 
von  Womu,  Erlangen,  1869;  A.  M.  Kfinicer,  Burchard  /. 
von  Worms,  Munich,  1903. 

BURCHARD  OF  WURZBURG:  Bishop  of  Wflrz- 
burg  741-754.  He  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  who  left 
England  after  the  death  of  his  kinsfolk  and  joined 
Boniface  in  his  missionary  labors,  some  time  after 
732.  When  Boniface  organized  bishoprics  in 
Middle  Germany,  he  placed  Burchard  over  that  of 
WQrzburg;  his  consecration  can  not  have  occurred 
later  than  the  summer  of  741,  since  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year  we  find  him  officiating  as  a  bishop  at 
the  consecration  of  Willibald  of  Eichst&dt.  Pope 
Zacharias  confirmed  the  new  bishopric  in  743. 
Burchard  appears  again  as  a  member  of  the  first 
German  council  in  742,  and  as  an  envoy  to  Rome 
from  Boniface  in  748.  With  Fulrad  of  Saint-Denis, 
he  brought  to  Zacharias  the  famous  question  of 
Pepin,  whose  answer  was  supposed  to  justify  the 
assumption  of  regal  power  by  the  Merovingians. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Two  anonsrmous  lives,  one  of  the  ninth  or 
tenth,  the  other  of  the  twelfth  century,  ed.  Holder-Egger, 
are  in  MOH,  Script.,  xv.  (1887)  47-62.  Consult:  A. 
NOmberger,  Aus  der  liUerariachen  Hinterlanenschajt  de» 
.  .  .  Burehardua,  Neisse.  1888;  Rettberg.  KD,  ii.  313; 
Hauck,  KD,  i.  487  and  passim;  Neander,  Chrittian 
Church,  iy.  203. 

BURDBR,  GEORGE:  English  Congregational- 
ist;  b.  in  London  Jime  5,  1752;  d.  there  May  29, 
1832.  He  was  trained  for  an  artist,  but  began 
preaching  under  the  influence  of  White  field  and 
his  associates;  became  minister  at  Lancaster,  1778; 
Coventry,  1783;  Fetter  Lane,  London,  1803.  He 
was  one  of  the  foimders  of  the  London  Missionary 
Society  (1795),  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society 
(1799),  and  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
(1804),  and  from  1803  to  1827  served  gratuitously 
as  secretary  of  the  first-named,  besides  editing 
The  Evangelical  Magazine  for  many  years.  The 
most  successful  of  his  many  publications  were 
Village  Sermone  (7  vols.,  London,  1798-1816),  and 
A  Collection  of  Hymne,  Intended  as  a  Supplement 
to  Watte  (1784),  which  went  through  some  fifty 
editions  and  contained  three  or  four  hymns  of  his 
own. 

Bibuoorafht:  There  are  Memoira  by  his  son,  H.  F.  Burder, 
London,  1833.  and  by  I.  (bobbin,  1856.  Consult  alao 
DNB^  vii.  2M-2Q6.  and  for  his  hjrmns,  8.  W.  Duffield, 
Enoliah  Hymna,  pp.  121,  608,  New  York,  1886;  JulUn. 
Hvnnolon,  p.  194. 

BURDmUS,  MAURITIUS.  See  Gregory  VIII., 
Antipope. 

BUROER,  KARL  HEUnaCH  AUGUST  VON: 
German  theologian;  b.  at  Baireuth  (126  m.  n.  of 
Munich)  May  1,  1805;  d.  at  SchOnau  (a  village 
near  Berchtesgaden,  12  m.  s.  of  Salzburg)  July  14, 
1885.  He  studied  theology  and  philology  at  the 
University  of  Erlangen  (1823-27),  and  in  1827 
was  appointed  teacher  at  the  gymnasium  there. 
Eleven  years  later  be  became  curate  at  FUrth 
near  Nuremberg,  and  in  1846  he  was  transferred 
n.— 20 


in  the  same  capacity  to  Munich,  where  he  was 
appointed  dean  in  1849  and  councilor  of  the  high 
consistory  in  1855,  holding  this  office  until  bds 
resignation  in  1883.  Under  the  guidance  of  his 
father-in-law,  Johann  Christian  Krafft,  of  Erlangen, 
he  gained  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Bible  which 
was  evinced  by  his  Die  Brief e  Pauli  an  die  Korinther 
(2  vols.,  Erlangen,  1859-60);  Die  Evangelien  nach 
Matihdite,  Marcus  und  Lucas  (NOrdlingen,  1865); 
Das  Evangelium  nach  Johannes  (1868);  and  Die 
Offenharung  St.  Johannis  (Munich,  1877).  Inter- 
preting the  Bible  by  the  Bible,  he  sought  to  render 
his  work  available  for  the  educated  laity,  while 
clergymen  also  find  it  valuable  in  the  preparation 
of  sermons.  His  interpretation  of  Revelation  has 
met  with  special  favor  in  WUrttemberg.  While 
his  sermons  were  not  couched  in  popular  style, 
and  while  they  demanded  close  attention  on  ac- 
count of  their  logic  and  depth,  they  appealed 
effectually  to  serious  auditors,  and  two  collections 
of  them  were  published,  Predigten  in  der  protestan- 
tischen  Stadtpfarrkirche  zu  Munchen  gehalten  (Er- 
langen, 1857)  and  Predigten  fUr  alle  Sonn-  und 
FesUage  des  Kirchenjahres  (2  vols.,  N6rdlingen, 
1864).  As  a  member  of  the  high  consistory,  Burger 
aided  the  Bavarian  Church  to  surmount  rationalism 
and  to  become  a  true  evangelical  Lutheran  body, 
and  his  task  was  facilitated  by  his  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  philosophy,  history,  and  theology,  as  well 
as  by  his  tact  and  discretion.  Despite  his  reserved 
and  quiet  nature,  which  shunned  all  publicity,  he 
enjoyed  the  deep  esteem  and  gratitude  of  the  dergy 
and  their  congregations,  as  well  as  the  confidence 
of  the  three  kings  of  Bavaria  imder  whom  he  served, 
Louis  I.,  Maximilian  II.,  and  Louis  II. 

Karl  BrrROERf. 

BUR6ES,  btJr'jes,  CORNELIUS:  Presbyterian;  b. 
in  Somersetshire  (date  undetermined,  probably  1589); 
d.  at  Watford  (7  m.  s.w.  of  St.  Albans),  buried  there 
June  9,  1665.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  in 
Wadham  and  other  colleges;  was  vicar  of  Watford 
(1613-15),  also  (1626-41)  lector  of  St.  Magnus 
Church  in  London,  holding  the  two  charges  at  the 
same  time.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  (1625), 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordinary. 
He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  in  1643.  July  8  he  was  chosen  by  them 
assessor  with  Dr.  White,  and  generally  occupied 
the  chair  on  account  of  the  illness  of  Dr.  Twisse. 
He  was  chairman  of  the  first  of  the  three  grand 
committees  of  the  Assembly,  and  one  of  the  most 
energetic  members  of  the  body,  being  active  espe- 
cially in  the  discussion  of  Church  Government  and 
the  Directory  for  Worship.  He  was  energetic  in 
political  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs.  On  the 
Restoration  his  handsome  property  was  confiscated, 
and  he  died  in  want.  His  chief  works  are :  A  Chain  of 
Graces  Drawn  out  at  Length  for  Reformation  of  Man- 
ners (London,  1622) ;  The  Fire  of  the  Sanctuary  newly 
Discovered  or  a  Compleat  Tract  of  Zeal  (1625) ;  and 
Baptismal  Regeneration  of  Elect  Infants  (Oxford, 
1629).  Inthelatter  he  maintains:  "It  is  most  agree- 
able to  the  Institution  of  Christ  that  all  elect  infants 
that  are  baptized  (unless  in  some  extraordinary  cases 
doe,  ordinarily,  receive,  from  Christ,  the  Spirit  in 


Bnrffeoa 
Buxlkl 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF.HERZ0G 


306 


Baptism,  for  their  first  solemn  initiation  into 
Christ,  and  for  their  future  actual  renovation,  in 
God  s  good  time,  if  they  live  to  yeares  of  discretion, 
and  enjoy  the  ordinary  means  of  grace  appointed 
of  God  to  this  end."  He  delivered  a  large  num- 
ber of  sermons  before  Parliament  and  other  civil 
bodies,  which  were  published  from  time  to  time. 
He  is  credited  also  with  the  paper  subscribed  by 
the  London  ministers,  entitled  A  VindicaHon  of 
the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  in  and  about  London 
from  the  unjust  Aspersions  cast  upon  their  former 
Actings  for  the  Parliamentf  as  if  they  had  promoted 
the  Bringing  of  the  King  to  Capital  Punishmenty 
London,  1648.  C.  A.  Brigos. 

Bibuoobaprt:  A.  k  Wood,  Athena  Oxonienaet,  ed.  P. 
Blias.  iii.  681;  D.  Neal.  Hiatory  of  the  Piuritana,  ii.  365. 
868.  iv.  332.  Dublin,  1759;  DNB,  vii.  301-304  (quite 
detailed). 

BURGESS,  AHTHORY:  Non-conformist  clergy- 
man. He  entered  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1623  and  became  fellow  of  Emmanuel;  was  vicar 
of  Sutton  Coldfield,  Warwickshire,  in  1635;  mem- 
ber of  the  Westminster  Assembly;  ejected  by  the 
Uniformity  Act  of  1662  after  the  Restoration,  and 
lived  afterward  in  retirement  at  Tamworth  (14 
m.  n.w.  of  Birmingham).  He  wrote:  VindicieB 
Legis  (London,  1646);  The  True  Doctrine  of  Justi- 
fication Asserted  (1648);  Spiritual  Refining,  120 
sermons  (1652;  2d  ed.,  161  sermons,  1658);  Ex- 
pository Sermons  (145)  on  John  xvii.  (1656);  The 
Scripture  Directory  (a  commentary  on  I  Corinthians 
iii.),  to  which  is  Annexed  the  Godly  and  Natural 
Man's  Choice,  upon  Psahn  iv.  6-^  (1659);  The 
Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  Asserted  (1659). 

BURGESS,  DANIEL:  English  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Staines  (15  m.  w.8.w.  of  London),  Middlesex, 
1645;  d.  in  London  Jan.  26,  1713.  He  studied  at 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  but  would  not  conform  and 
so  did  not  graduate;  went  to  Ireland  in  1667  with 
Roger  Boyle,  earl  of  Orrery,  and  became  master 
of  a  school  founded  by  his  patron  at  Charleville, 
Coimty  Cork;  was  ordained  by  the  Dublin  pres- 
bytery; in  1685  he  settled  in  London,  where  he 
gained  influential  friends  and  preached  to  a  large 
congregation  attracted  by  his  lively  and  witty  style. 
Besides  preaching  he  took  pupils  and  was  tutor  to 
Heniy  St.  John  (Lord  Bolingbroke).  His  publi- 
cations were  numerous,  mostly  sermons;  they  in- 
clude: Directions  for  Daily  Holy  Living  (London, 
1690);  The  Golden  Snuffers  ;  or  Christian  Reprovers 
and  Reformers  Characterized,  Cautioned,  and  En- 
couraged (1697);  Proof  of  God's  Being  and  of  the 
Scriptures*  Divine  Original,  with  Twenty  Directions 
for  Reading  them  (1697). 

BURGESS,  FREDERICK:  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Long  Island;  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I., 
Oct.  6,  1853.  He  was  educated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity (B.A.,  1873),  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
(1874-75),  and  Oxford  University  (1876),  and  was 
successively  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Amherst, 
Mass.  (1878-83),  Christ  Church,  Pomfret,  Conn. 
(1883-89),  Grace  Church,  Bala,  Pa.  (1889-96), 
Christ  Church,  Detroit  (1896-98),  and  Grace  Church, 
Brooklyn  (1898-1902).  In  1902  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Long  Island. 


BURGESS,  GEORGE:  First  Protestant  Epbtr^ 
pal  bishop  of  Maine;  b.  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Ort 
31,  1809;  d.  at  sea  while  returning  from  the  Woi 
Indies  Apr.  23, 1866.  He  was  graduated  at  Brovn 
1826;  tutor  there  1829-31;  studied  at  Bonn,  Got- 
tingen,  and  Berlin  1831-34;  was  rector  of  Chik 
Church,  Hartford,  1834—17;  consecrated  bsb^ 
Oct.  31,  1847.  He  published  a  translation  of  the 
Psalms  into  English  verse  (New  York,  1M>  \ 
Pages  from  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Xnt  £n^ 
land  between  17^0  and  I84O  (Boston,  1847),  anJ 
other  works. 

Biblioorapht:  Memoir  of  Life  of  Rev.  Geo.  Burgeae,  by  bb 
brother.  A.  BurgeaB,  Philadelphia,  ISO). 

BURGESS,  HEIIRT :  Church  of  En^and  clergy- 
man and  scholar;  b.  in  Newington,  London.  Jan. 
29,  1808;  d.  Feb.  10,  1886.  He  studied  at  the 
Dissenting  College,  Stepney;  after  graduation  (l83>Ji 
was  for  a  time  a  Baptist  minister,  but  dee- 
ded to  join  the  Church  of  Elngland  in  1849,  was 
ordained  deacon  1850,  and  priest  1851;  became 
curate  at  Blackburn  1851;  perpetual  curate  of 
Clifton  Reynes,  Buckinghamshire,  1854;  vicar  of 
St.  Andrew,  Whittlesea,  Cambridgeshire,  1S61. 
His  principal  Works  were  translations  from  the 
Syriac  of  the  Festal  Letters  of  St.  Athanasius  (Lon- 
don, 1852)  and  of  Select  Metrical  Hymns  and 
Homilies  of  Ephraem  Syrus,  with  an  introduction 
and  historical  and  philological  notes  (1853):  The 
Reformed  Church  of  England  in  its  Principles  and 
their  Legitimate  Development  (1869);  Essays,  Bib- 
lical and  Ecclesiastical,  relating  chiefly  to  the  author- 
ity and  interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (1873 1; 
The  Art  of  Preaching  and  *the  Composition  of 
Sermons  (1881).  He  edited  The  Clerical  Journal 
1854-68.  The  Journal  of  Sacred  LUerature  1854^-62. 
and  the  second  edition  of  Kitto's  Cydopcedia  of 
Biblical  Literature  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1856). 

BURGHERS  AUD  AirnBURGHERS.  SeePass- 
BTTERIAN8. 

BURGON,  JOHN  WILLIAM :  Church  of  En^and 
scholar;  b.  at  Smyrna  (the  son  of  a  Turkey  mer- 
chant) Aug.  21,  1813;  d.  at  Chichester  Aug.  4. 
1888.  He  studied  at  Ix>ndon  University  (Univer- 
sity College)  1829-30  and  then  entered  his  fathers 
counting-house;  matriculated  at  Worcester  CoUege, 
Oxford,  1841,  and  was  graduated  BA.,  18io; 
elected  fellow  of  Oriel  1846,  graduated  H.A..  1848, 
B.D.,  1871;  ordained  deacon  1848  and  held  cura- 
cies in  Berkshire  and  Oxfordshire;  became  vicar 
of  St.  Mary's  Oxford,  1863;  Gresham  professor 
of  divinity  1867;  was  installed  dean  of  Chichester 
1876.  He  has  been  described  as  "  a  High-church- 
man of  the  old  school,"  and  he  won  distinction  at 
Oxford  as  a  vehement  "  champion  of  lost  causes 
and  impossible  beliefs."  He  was  the  ablest  and 
most  learned  as  well  as  the  bitterest  adverse  critic 
of  the  Revised  New  Testament  and  of  the  rexised 
Greek  text.  His  publications,  including  sermons, 
articles  in  the  periodicals,  and  controversial  tracts 
were  very  numerous;  among  the  most  noteworthy 
of  his  books  were :  The  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham  (2  vols.,  London,  1839);  A  Plain  Com- 
mentary on  the  Four  Holy  Gospels  (8  vc^..  1855); 
Ninety  Short  Sermons  for  Family  Reading  (2  series, 


307 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


BtumsB 
Bunal 


each  2  vols.,  1855,  1867);  Historical  Notices  of  the 
Colleges  of  Oxford  (1857);  Portrait  of  a  Christian 
Gentleman,  a  Memoir  of  P.  F.  Tytler  (1859);  In- 
spiration and  Interpretation,  seven  sermons  in 
answer  to  Essays  and  Reviews  (Oxford,  1861); 
The  Last  Twelve  Verses  of  the  Gospel  according  to 
St,  Mark  Vindicated  and  Established  (1871);  The 
Reinsion  Revised,  articles  reprinted  from  The 
Quarterly  Review  against  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  New  Testament  (London,  1883);  The  Lives  of 
Twelve  Good  Men  (2  vols.,  1888).  The  TradUional 
Text  of  the  Holy  Gospels  Vindicated  and  Established 
and  Cattses  of  the  Corruption  of  the  Traditional 
Text,  edited  by  Edward  Miller,  appeared  in  1896. 
BiBLiooRAPHT!  E.  M.  Goulbum,  John  W.  Burgoti:    a  Bi- 

offraphy,  vfith  Letter*  and  JourruUa,  2  voIb.,  London,  1891; 

DNB,  supplement  vol.  i.  335-338. 

BURGUNDIANS:  A  Germanic  race,  akin  to  the 
Goths  and  Vandals,  whose  earUest  known  home 
was  on  the  Baltic  between  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula. 
In  the  middle  of  the  second  century  they  had  begun 
to  move  southward;  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
they  were  driven  further  to  the  southwest,  and 
occupied  what  is  now  Franconia,  north  and  east  of 
Lyons.  With  their  neighbors  on  the  southwest, 
the  Alemanni,  they  had  many  conflicts,  and  siun- 
moned  the  aid  of  the  Romans;  they  are  found  co- 
operating on  the  Rhine  with  Valentinian  I.  against 
them  in  370.  Next  they  occupied  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  and  the  Vandal  invasion  of  Gaul  in 
the  fifth  century  carried  them  across  with  it,  to 
receive  an  allotment  of  land  in  Germania  prima, 
a  province  of  Gaul,  in  413,  and  become  subject  to 
the  empire.  By  this  time  they  had  adopted  the 
religion  of  their  Roman  neighbors,  probably  almost 
in  a  body.  Peaceful  relations  with  the  Romans 
did  not  last  long,  however.  In  435  King  Gundicar 
attacked  the  first  Belgian  province,  but  was  driven 
back  by  A§tius.  A  year  later  they  were  again 
defeated  by  the  Huns,  acting  with  the  Romans, 
and  lost  their  king  and  much  of  their  power.  But 
they  must  have  recovered  before  many  years,  for 
in  457,  with  the  consent  of  the  West-Goths,  they 
occupied  the  province  Lugdunensis  prima;  in  the 
following  decade  they  extended  their  rule  over  the 
Provincia  Viennensis;  and  about  472  they  added 
the  greater  part  of  the  Maxima  Sequanorum.  After 
Gimdicar's  death,  his  sons  Gimduic  and  Chilperic  I. 
shared  the  kingship,  and  the  latter  reigned  alone 
after  his  brother's  death.  Gunduic's  son,  Gundo- 
bad,  succeeded  Chilperic;  he  had  three  brothers, 
Godegisel,  Chilperic  II.,  and  Godomar.  Godegisel 
appears  as  a  partaker  of  his  sovereignty;  Chilperic 
was  said  to  have  been  put  to  death  by  his  order, 


but  this  Lb  not  certain,  as  Avitus  speaks  of  Chil- 
peric's  death  and  Godomar's  (which  happened 
early  in  his  reign)  as  a  great  blow  to  him.  Gun- 
dobad  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sigismund,  who 
was  captured  by  the  Prankish  kings  in  523  and 
put  to  death  in  the  next  year.  His  brother  Godo- 
mar II.  maintained  himself  against  the  Franks 
for  ten  years;  but  he  also  succumbed,  and  in  534 
the  Burgundian  territory  became  part  of  the  Frank- 
ish  kingdom. 

The  religious  development  of  the  Burgundians 
during  the  progress  of  these  events  is  peculiar. 
They  had  come  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Rhone  as 
Catholic  Christians;  but  most  of  them  joined  the 
Arians  in  their  new  home.  The  royal  house  seems 
to  have  been  slow  to  change;  Gunduic  and  Chil- 
peric II.  were  Catholics;  but  Gregory  of  Tours 
mentions  Gundobad,  with  his  brother  Godegisel, 
as  Arians.  The  change  to  Arianism  seems  to  have 
followed  from  the  feudal  relations  of  the  Burgun- 
dians to  their  more  powerful  West-Gothic  neighbors. 
Gundobad  was  not  a  persecutor,  though  some 
churches  were  taken  from  the  Catholics;  Avitus 
of  Vienne  seems  even  to  have  had  hopes  of  his 
conversion.  But,  though  the  bishop  failed  with 
the  father,  he  succeeded  with  the  son;  Sigismund 
returned  to  the  Church  in  his  father's  lifetime, 
followed  by  many  of  the  people.  But  not  until 
Gundobad's  death  did  the  decisive  movement  away 
from  Arianism  occur.  Sigismund's  son  Sigeric 
followed  his  father's  example,  and  Godomar  had 
become  a  Catholic  even  earlier.  In  517  a  s3mod 
was  held  at  Epao,  the  present  Albo,  south  of  Vienne 
(see  Epao,  Synod  of),  the  decrees  of  which  plainly 
show  that  Arianism  was  no  longer  dangerous,  and 
that  the  time  for  its  total  suppression  was  believed 
to  have  come.  Certainly  it  d[isappeared  from  that 
time,  though  no  exact  date  can  be  assigned.  By 
the  union  with  the  Frankish  kingdom,  the  Burgun- 
dian Church  lost  its  independence  and  became 
merely  a  part  of  the  Frankish  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization. (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibliogbapht:  Sources  are  to  be  found  in  MOH,  Leoum, 
section  iii..  Concilia,  vol.  i..  ed.  F.  Maassen,  1893;  MGH, 
Leges,  ed.  O.  H.  Perts.  vol.  iii.,  1863;  Chronica  Minora 
BCBC.  iv-vii,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in  MOH,  A%iet.  ant.,  vols.  ix. 
(1892).  xiii.,  part  i.  (1894);  G.  8.  A.  Sidonius.  Epi$tokarum 
libri,  Carmina,  ed.  C.  Ltlttjohann,  in  MOH,  Auct.  ant., 
viii.  (1887)  1-264;  A.  £.  Aviti,  Opera,  ed.  U.  Pieper.  in 
MOH,  Auct.  ant.,  vii.,  part  2  (1883).  (Consult:  H.  De- 
riohsweiler,  Geachickte  der  Burgunden,  Milnster,  1863;  A. 
Jahn,  Die  Oeachichte  der  Bvrgundionen,  2  vols.,  Halle, 
1874;  P.  Biilaand,  Bibliographie  hourguignonne,  2  vols., 
Dijon.  1885-88;  L.  M.  J.  Chaumont.  Hietoire  de  Bour- 
gogne,  Lyons,  1887;  Rettins.  KD,  vol.  i.;  HaucV.  KD, 
vol.  i.;  Neander,  Chriatian  Church,  vols,  iii.,  iv.,  Dasaim. 


I.   Hebrew. 

Preparation  for  Burial  (I  1). 

Place  (»  2). 

Varieties  of  Graves  (|  3). 


BURIAL. 

II.  Christian. 

Early    Practise    and    Ceremonies 

(SI). 
The  Greek  Church  (S  2). 


The  Medieval  Church  (|  3). 

The    Reformation    Burial   Serviee 

(S4). 
Modem  Developments  (|  6). 


I.  Hebrew:  In  all  periods  interment  was  the  cus- 
tomary Hebrew  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead. 
I  Sam.  xxxi.  12  and  Amos  vi.  10,  in  spite  of  the 
corrupt  condition  of  the  text,  show  that  burning 
was  exceptional;  indeed,  incineration  implied  some- 
thing discreditable  to  the  dead  and  in  ancient 
custom  and  the  priest-code  was  an  intensification 


of  the  death-penalty  (Josh.  vii.  25;  Lev.  xx.  14). 
Aversion  to  incineration  accompanied  ancient 
belief  in  the  existence  of  a  bond  between  soul  and 
body  even  after  death.  The  spirits  of  the  unburied 
dead  wandered  restless  on  the  earth,  and  in  Sheol 
their  lot  was  pitiable,  driven  as  they  were  into  nooks 
and   comers    (Ezek.   xxii.   23).    The  grave   con- 


Burial 
BnxldaB 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HER20G 


808 


fined  the  soul  to  the  body  so  as  to  give  it  repose 
and  save  it  from  injuiy.  Consequently  it  was  not 
merely  an  awful  disgrace  but  a  terrible  misfortime 
not  to  be  buried  (I  Kings  xiv.  11;  II  Kings  ix. 
10;  Isa.  zxxiii.  12).  Hence  it  was  a  sacred  duty 
to  inter  a  body  found  imburied.  In  the  case  of 
criminals  stoned  to  death  a  heap  of  stones  over 
the  body  served  as  a  grave  (Josh.  vii.  26). 

The  climate  of  Palestine  necessitated  the  quickest 
possible  disposition  of  the  corpse;  interment,  there- 
fore, took  place  on  the  day  of  death  (Deut.  xxi.  23). 
In  the  time  of  Christ  the  body  was  washed,  anointed 
with  fragrant  spices,  and  more  or  less  completely 
wrapped  in  linen  (Acts.  ix.  37;  Mark  xvi.  1;  John 
xi.  44).  The  Old  Testament  makes 
z.  Prepara-  no    allusion    to    this    custom.    The 

tionfor     belief  that  the  dead  in  Sheol  might 

BuriaL  be  recognised  by  the  habit  implies 
that  in  early  times  the  corpse  was 
buried  in  the  apparel  of  daily  life.  Later,  royalty 
and  officials  were  buried  with  costly  spices,  orna- 
ments, gold,  and  silver  (Josephus,  iin/.,  XIII.  viii. 
4;  XV.  iii.  4).  And  if  the  account  by  Josephus 
of  the  plundering  of  David's  tomb  by  Hyrcanus 
and  Herod  may  be  trusted,  this  custom  reached 
back  into  antiquity.  Embalming  was  a  custom 
foreign  to  the  Hebrews;  cases  of  it  are  Jacob  and 
Joseph  (Gen.  I.  2,  26)  and  Aristobulus  (Josephus, 
Ant,,  XIV.  vii.  4).  The  use  of  coffins  was  post- 
exilic. 

The  place  of  bimal  was  determined  by  the  belief 
that  the  ties  of  kinship  lasted  beyond  death.  The 
value  of  a  family  burying-place  was  in  part  due 
to  the  fact  that  burial  therein  involved  union  with 
Idn  in  Sheol  (Gen.  xxv.  8,  17;  II  Sam.  xxi.  14). 
Therefore,  family  tombs  were  in  the  earliest  ages 
on  the  estate  and  near  the  house  (I  Sam.  xxv.  1). 
Therein  might  be  laid  only  members  of  the  family. 
A  public  cemetery  was  provided  for  the  veiy  poor, 
for  foreigners,  and  for  criminals  (Jer.  xxvi.  23; 
Isa.    liii.    9;     Matt,    xxvii.  7).    The 

2,  Place,  kings  of  Judah  had  tombs  in  Jerusalem, 
and  Ezekiel  charges  them  with  the 
serious  offense  of  lajring  their  dead  next  to  the 
precincts  of  the  sanctuary.  To  miss  burial  with 
one's  kin  was  dire  misfortune  or  divine  punish- 
ment. For  practical  reasons  people  began  quite 
early  to  locate  tombs  outside  the  cities,  and  graves 
came  to  be  regarded  as  ceremonially  impure.  In 
the  time  of  Christ  tombs  were  whitewashed  in  order 
that  their  character  might  be  known  at  a  distance 
and  defilement  avoided  (Matt,  xxiii.  27;  Luke  xi. 
44). 

The  grave  was  simple  in  its  appointments. 
Wherever  in  Jewish  tombs  rich  ornamentation  is 
found,  foreign  influence  (generally  Greek)  is  recog- 
nized. Apart  from  the  general  lack  of  artistic 
sense  displayed  by  the  Hebrews,  a  religious  oon- 
nderation  comes  in  to  explain  this:  the  stem 
opposition  of  the  Yahweh-cult  to  ancestor-worship 
discouraged  adornment  of  burial-places,  which 
thus  differed  widely  from  Egyptian  and  Phenician 
tombs.  This  and  the  lack  of  inscriptions  make  it 
difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  Jewish  graves. 
For  situation,  rocky  chambeiB,  natural  or  artificial, 
were  preferred. 


Four  kinds  of  graves  are  known:  (1)  reoeas- 
graves,  oblong,  rock-hewn,  about  six  feet  long  by 
one  and  a  half  square,  hewn  lengthwise  into  the 
wall  of  the  chamber,  into  which  the  body  was 
placed  from  the  end;  (2)  simken-graves,  like  those 
used  in  the  Occident,  but  covered  with  stone; 
(3)  bench-graves,  set  bench-like  in  the 
3.  Varieties  wails  of  the  chamber,  twenty-two 
of  Graves,  inches  high,  often  arch-roofed  and 
hewn  sidewise  into  the  chamber-wall; 
(4)  trough-graves,  a  combination  of  (2)  and  (3) 
above.  Of  the  chambers  there  are  three  varieties: 
(1)  single  chambers  with  a  single  sunken  grave 
in  the  floor;  (2)  single  chambers  with  several 
graves  of  one  or  more  of  the  above-mentioned 
kinds;  (3)  larger  burial-places  with  more  than  one 
chamber.  All  of  the  third  variety  so  far  found 
belong  to  a  late  date,  as  is  proved  by  the  architec- 
ture. The  oldest  and  commonest  are  of  the  second 
type,  single  chambers  with  recess-graves,  which 
are  so  typical  that  they  may  be  named  specifically 
Hebrew.  Such  allow  the  largest  number  of  inter- 
ments in  a  given  chamber.  Shaft-tombs  of  the 
Egyptian  pattern  have  so  far  not  been  discovered 
in  Palestine. 

The  Phenician  custom  of  marking  an  excavated 
grave  by  a  grave-stone  other  than  the  stone-heap 
piled  on  it  was  not  adopted  by  the  Hebrews.  The 
tombs  built  above  ground  date  from  the  Greek 
period,  or  later,  and  are  of  foreign  origin. 

(I.  Benzinqer.) 

Biblxoorapht:  F.  I.  Gnindt,  Dig  TrauergebrSuehB  der 
HArditr,  Leipflic  1868;  W.  M.  Thomson,  TU  Land  and  thfB 
Book,  New  York.  1886;  F.  Sehwally,  Dau  Uben  natk  dem 
Tode  naeh  den  VarsldLunoen  deM  alien  lerael  und  dee  Jvden- 
iume,  QieBsen,  1892;  Benzinger,  ArehOoiooiB,  pp.  136-137; 
NowMk.  ArdkAologie,  i.  187;  H.  B.  Tristnun.  Eaetem  Cue- 
tome  in  Bible  Land;  London,  1894;  A.  P.  Bender,  Beliefe, 
Ritee  and  Cuetome  of  tke  Jewe  connected  trtih  Daotfc,  Btaial 
and  Mourning,  in  JQR,  1894-95;  O.  M.  Maokie,  BibU 
Mannera  and  Ctutome,  London,  1896;  KL,  n.  182-189; 
DB,  i.  331-333. 

n.  Christian:  From  the  beginning  the  Chria- 
tians  regarded  the  final  disposal  of  the  dead  as  a 
congregational  matter,  and,  when  possible,  they 
had  burial-places,  in  which  only  those  who  were 
their  members  might  be  buried  and  which  were 
called  ccBmeteria  ("  resting-places  ")»  in  allusion  to 
the  resurrection  (see  Cemeteries).  In  deference 
to  the  body  as  the  organ  of  the  spirit  and  in  the 
expectation  of  the  resurrection,  they  ¥^re  careful 
that  the  funeral  should  take  place  in  a  proper 
manner.  The  corpse  was  carried  to  the  grave  by 
bearers  whom  the  Christian  congregation  had 
appointed,    and    the    fact   that    the 

X.  Eariy     funeral    took   place,    if   possible,   in 

PractiBe  day-time,  was  designed  to  express 
and  Cere-  joy  and  hope  that  the  departed  had 

monies,  been  set  free  and  had  entered  into  eter- 
nal life.  The  pagan  lamentation  for  the 
dead,  as  well  as  the  crowning  of  the  corpse,  was 
not  Approved,  but  torches  were  carried  in  front,  as 
befitting  the  victorious  combatant,  and  h3rmns 
and  psalms  were  sung,  in  praise  of  God.  A  me- 
morial address  was  doubtless  made  on  special 
occasions,  but  a  funeral  sermon  in  the  modem  sense 
seems    to    have    been    unknown.    Prayers    were 


309 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Burial 
Borldan 


offered  at  the  grave,  and  the  survivois  gave  food 
and  money  to  the  poor.  Prayeis  were  made  for 
the  deceased,  not  only  in  private,  but  also  in  public. 
The  third,  seventh  (or  ninth),  thirtieth  (or  fortieth) 
day  were  memorial  days,  on  which  the  church 
ceremony  for  the  dead  took  place,  as  well  as  on 
the  anniversary  of  death  (see  Cemeteries,  II.,  6). 
These  prayers  and  offerings  were  believed  to  have 
a  beneficial  effect  for  the  dead,  provided  he  be- 
longed to  the  saved. 

The  Greek  Church  preserves  a  remnant  of  the 

idea  that  the  death  of  a  Christian  invites  to  praise, 

and  on  this  account  uses  the  Halle- 

2m  The       lujah  in  the  celebration  at  the  church 

Greek      The  requiem-mass    is   unknown,  but 

Church,    additional  prayers  are  offered  for  the 

dead.    The  ceremony  at  the  grave  is 

very  brief,  the  priest   throwing  earth  upon   the 

corpse  with  the  spade  and  sprinkling  it  with  oil 

from  the  holy  lamp  or  ashes  from  the  censer. 

The  Western  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  also 
knew  only  of  burial  as  a  means  of  disposal  of  the 
dead.  Charlemagne  forbade  the  conquered  Saxons 
to  cremate  corpses  on  pain  of  death.  The  place 
in  which  a  Christian  was  buried  was  considered 
holy  ground,  but  patrons  or  spiritual 
3*  The  dignitaries  were  entombed  in  churches 
Medieval  in  token  of  distinction.  Every  Chris- 
Church,  tian  was  to  be  buried  in  consecrated 
ground,  but  if  special  emergencies, 
like  war  or  shipwreck,  necessitated  a  burial  in 
unoonsecrated  ground,  the  grave  had  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  cross.  The  dead  was  washed,  dressed 
in  linen  or  penitential  robes,  or,  in  case  of  one 
in  holy  orders,  in  official  dress.  On  the  day  of  the 
funeral  he  was  carried  by  his  peers,  the  layman  by 
la3rmen,  and  the  clergy  by  clergy,  first  to  the  church, 
where  mass  was  celebrated,  and  afterward  to  the 
grave,  in  which  he  was  laid,  with  his  face  turned 
towaid  the  East.  Various  ceremonies  had  their 
meaning;  the  holy  water  sprinkled  on  the  body 
protected  it  from  demons;  charcoal  indicated  that 
there  was  a  grave  there  and  thus  kept  it  from  prof- 
anation; incense  kept  away  the  odor  of  decay, 
and  was  a  symbol  of  prayer  for  the  dead,  as  imply- 
ing that  he  was  a  sacrifice  well  pleasing  to  God; 
ivy  and  laurel  symbolized  the  imperishable  life 
of  those  who  die  in  Christ.  The  custom  of  throwing 
three  shovelfuls  of  earth  upon  the  body  was  known 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  although  the  present  Roman 
ritual  does  not  mention  it.  The  modem  Roman 
Cathdic  Church  has  retained  the  old  Christian 
view  that  the  death  of  little  children  who  have 
been  baptized  is  a  joyful  event  and  that  their  burial 
should  have  the  character  of  joy. 

The  Reformation  made  a  dean  sweep  of  the 
existing  burial  rites,  in  so  far  as  they  presupposed 
the  doctrines  of  piurgatory,  mass,  and  the  mediation 
of  the  Church,  but  it  adhered  to  the 
4.  The  Ref-  view  that   the  dead   body  is  i^t   a 
ormation    worthless  thing  but  is  to  rise  again, 
Burial      no  matter  how  it  has  decayed.    On 
Service,     this  account  it  should  have  a  Chris- 
tian burial,  and  the  burial-places  must 
have  a  fitting  appearance.    The  burial  was  a  mat- 
ter of  the  churdi,  and  the  congregation  should  take 


part  in  it,  if  possible,  and  should  also  attend  the 
fimerals  of  the  poor.  Accordingly,  the  bells  called 
the  congregation  together.  The  church  was  repre- 
sented by  the  minister  and  the  school-children,  or 
at  least  by  the  sexton  and  grave-digger.  As  the 
procession  was  passing  to  the  cemetery,  the  children 
or  the  mourners  sang  Christian  funeral  hymns, 
and  at  the  grave  such  Biblical  passages  as  I  Thess. 
iv.  13-18  or  John  xi.  were  read  and  prayer  was 
offered,  while  basins  were  also  placed  to  receive 
alms  for  the  poor.  The  burial  service  of  the  Re- 
formed was  similar.  In  some  countries  the  con- 
gregation recited  the  creed  after  the  closing  prayer. 

The  desire  to  instruct  the  congregation  on  every 
occasion  was  expressed  in  the  burial  service  by 
the  reading  of  Scripture  and  the  singing  of  hymns. 
A  short  discourse  on  death  and  the  resurrection 
was  read  in  the  home,  in  the  church,  or  at  the  grave, 
although  a  special  sermon  might  be  requested  of 
the  minister  if  he  was  specially  paid  for  it,  and  in 
such  cases  he  referred  particularly  to  the  life  and 
death  of  the  subject  of  his  address.  Thus  arose 
the  funeral  sermon,  which  was  originally  designed 
to  instruct  the  congregation  in  eschatology,  and 
to  honor  the  memory  of  the  departed. 

In  modem  times  the  burial  rites  were  extended 
by  carrying  the  cross  before  the  procession,  by 
casting  earth  upon  the  body  thrice,  and  by  pro- 
nouncing the  benediction.  The  first  two  cere- 
monies were  known  even  among  the  Protestants 
in  former  centuries  and  were  occasion- 
5.  Modem  ally  used,  although  they  were  generally 

Develop-  regarded  with  distrust,  and  were  even 
ments.  diiectly  prohibited.  The  blessing  is 
connected  with  the  prayer  for  the 
dead.  The  Reformed  rejected  prayers  for  the  dead 
unconditionally,  while  Luther  and  the  Augsburg 
Confession  permitted  it,  and  Johann  Gerhard 
endeavored  to  prove  its  validity  by  dogmatics. 
From  this  developed  the  blessing  of  the  dead, 
which,  despite  vehement  opposition  since  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  has  spread  more 
and  more.  That  the  dead  is  addressed  by  ''  thou," 
may  perhaps  be  explained  on  the  ground  that, 
according  to  the  ancient  Christian  view,  the  con- 
gregation regards  the  departed  as  still  belonging 
to  it.  The  meaning  of  the  solemn  declaration: 
"  I  bless  thee,"  however,  is  very  uncertain,  and 
the  blessing  should  take  the  form  of  a  wish. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
prohibits  cremation,  whereas  the  Protestant 
Churches  have  not  yet  reached  a  uniform  conclusion. 

W.  Caspari. 

Bibuoorapht:  On  the  general  qiiestion  consult  C.  Mar- 
t^ne,  De  antique  ecdencB  rUibut,  Antwerp,  1736-37;  F. 
X.  Kraufl.  ReaJtencyklopdidie  der  dtrUtlichen  AUerfhUmmr, 
articles  Tod,  TotenbuUUhing,  Freibuzis.  1880-96;  T. 
Kliefoth,  LiturgiB€h€  Abhandlunoen,  vol.  i.,  part  2.  Vom 
BegrObntM,  Halle,  1860;  Bingham,  Orioinea,  book  xidii. 
On  the  antiquarian  and  legal  sides  of  English  custom  con- 
sult: J.  Stutt,  A  CompUat  View  of  the  Mannera,  Cuatonu 
.  .  .  of  Ae  InhabitarUa  of  England,  3  vols.,  London,  1776- 
1776;  C.  A,  Cripps.  Law  of  Churdt  and  Clergy,  ib.  1886; 
T.  Baker,  Law  of  Buriale,  6th  ed.,  by  E.  L.  Thomas,  ib. 
1898;  Encydopaadia  Britannica,  xxvi.  466-468. 

BURIDAlf,  bur'i-dan  or  French  bQ"rt"daA', 
JEAN  (Johannea  Buridanw):  Medieval  French 
philosopher;  b.  at  B^thune  (25  m.  n.w.  of    Douai), 


BurlM 

Burma 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


810 


in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  after 
1358.  He  was  educated  at  Paris,  and  was  made 
rector  in  1327.  The  story  of  his  expulsion  from 
the  city,  like  his  love  affair  with  a  queen  of  France, 
seems  to  be  a  myth,  for  it  is  clear  that  he  occupied 
a  prominent  position  at  Paris  between  1348  and 
1358.  He  was  the  author  of  the  Summula  de 
diaUctica,  or  Compendium  logicce  (Paris,  1487), 
and  also  wrote  on  the  "  Politios/'  "  Ethics,"  and 
other  Aristotelian  writings,  but  he  paid  4io  attention 
to  theology.  As  an  admirer  and  follower  of  Occam, 
he  was  a  consistent  nominalist,  and  hence  felt  a 
special  interest  in  ethical  and  psychological  ques- 
tions, in  which  he  showed  the  characteristic  imion 
of  skepticism  and  dogmatism.  He  became  famous 
by  his  thorough  research  into  the  problem  of  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  but  his  works  contain  ingenious 
investigations  rather  than  dear  decisions,  so  that 
it  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  determinist  or  an 
indeterminist.  His  psychology  allowed  no  de- 
cision of  the  will  without  a  motivating  judgment 
of  the  understanding.  The  famous  aphorism  of 
the  ass  standing  between  two  hay-stacks,  and 
obliged  either  to  starve  or  to  decide  determinis- 
tically  for  one  or  the  other,  is  not  found  in  his  wri- 
tings, and  it  is  uncertain  whether  either  he  or  his 
opponents  used  it,  or  whether  later  legend  ascribed 
to  him  the  example  already  found  in  Aristotle. 
His  collected  works  were  firat  edited  at  Paris  by 
J.  Dullardus  in  1500,  and  were  frequently  reprinted. 

R.  SCHMID. 

Bibuoobafht:  Sketches  of  hia  life  and  philosophy  will  be 
found  in  the  worka  on  the  history  of  philosophy  by  Ueber- 
weg,  Ritter,  and  Erdmann.  Consult  also  A.  Stdckl, 
GetdiidUs  der  PhUowophie  ds§  MittekUter»,  ii.  1023-28. 
3  vols..  Mains.  1864-66. 

BURKE,  THOMAS  MARTIN  ALOYSIUS:  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop  of  Albany,  N.  Y.;  b.  in 
County  Mayo,  Ireland,  Jan.  10,  1840.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  childhood,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Michaers  College,  Toronto,  St.  Charles' 
College,  Md.  (B.A.,  1861),  and  St.  Mary's  Semi- 
nary, Baltimore  (B.T.,  1864).  He  was  ordained  to 
the  priesthood  in  1864,  and  was  successively  as- 
sistant and  rector  at  St.  John's  Church,  Albany, 
N.  Y.  (1864-74),  and  rector  of  St.  Joseph's  Church 
in  the  same  city  (1874-94).  He  was  appointed 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Albany  in  1887  and 
consecrated  bishop  in  1894.  He  was  created  a 
Knight  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  in  1890,  and  a 
Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross  in  1894. 

BURKITTy  FRANCIS  CRAWFORD:  Church  of 
England  theologian  and  Syriac  scholar;  b.  at 
London  Sept.  3,  1864.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1886),  where  he  was 
appointed  University  lecturer  in  paleography  in 
1904-05.  Since  1905  he  has  been  Norrisian  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  same  university.  He  was 
elected  fellow  of  the  British  Academy  in  1905, 
and  was  also  president  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
logical Society  in  1904-05  and  Jowett  lecturer  in 
1906.  In  addition  to  numerous  contributions  to 
theological  periodicals  and  encyclopedias,  he  has 
written:  The  Rules  of  Tyconius  (Cambridge,  1894); 
The  Old  Latin  and  the  Itala  (1896);  Fragments  of 
AquUa  (1897);  Hymn  of  Bardaisan  (London,  1899); 


Early  Christianity  outside  the  Roman  Empire  (Cam- 
bridge, 1899);  Tvx)  Lectures  on  the  Gospels  (London, 
1900);  Oospel  Quotations  of  St.  Ephraim  (Cam- 
bridge, 1901);  Evangelion  da-Mepharreshe  (2  vols., 
1904);  and  Early  Eastern  Christianity  (London, 
1905).  He  also  made  an  English  translation  of 
the  Lekrbueh  der  dgypto-arabischen  Umgangssprache 
of  K.  Vollers  (Cairo,  1890)  at  Cambridge  in  1895, 
and  collaborated  with  R.  L.  Bensly  and  J.  R.  Harris 
in  editing  The  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac  transcribed 
from  the  Sinaitic  Manuscript  (Cambridge,  1894). 
and  with  G.  H.  Gwilliam  and  J.  F.  Stcnning  in  the 
Biblical  and  Patristic  Relics  of  the  Palestinian 
Syriac  Literature  from  Manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  (Oxford,  1896). 

BURKITT,  WILLIAM:  Church  of  England;  b. 
at  Hitcham  (12  m.  n.w.  of  Ipswich),  Suffolk,  July 
25,  1650;  d.  at  Dedham  (10  m.  s.w.  of  Ipswich), 
Essex,  Oct.  24,  1703.  He  studied  at  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1668;  M.A.,  1672);  became 
curate  at  Milden,  Suffolk,  about  1672,  and  vicar  of 
Dedham,  1692.  He  is  remembered  for  his  Ex- 
pository Notes  with  Practical  Observations  on  the 
New  Testament  (the  Gospels,  London,  1700;  Acts- 
Revelation,  1703;  many  subsequent  editions). 
It  is  a  compilation  and  bears  some  resemblance  to 
the  commentaries  of  Matthew  Henry. 

BURMA:  [At  present  the  largest  and  eastern- 
most province  of  British  India,  having  been  grad- 
ually annexed  after  three  wars  in  1826,  1852,  and 
1885.  It  extends  southward  from  Tibet  into  the 
Malay  peninsula  a  distance  of  1,250  miles,  with  a 
breadth  from  east  to  west  varying  from  30  or  40 
to  550  miles.  According  to  the  census  of  1901  the 
area  is  236,738  square  miles,  the  population  10,- 
490,624  persons,  classed  by  religions  as  follows: 
Hindus  457,391;  Sikhs  3,147;  Buddhists  8,951,- 
649  (85.3  per  cent.);  Mohanrniedans  533,973; 
Christians  248,628;  Animists  294,787;  other  r^ 
ligions  1,049.  The  native  peoples  are  of  Malay- 
Chinese  stock,  belonging  to  many  tribes.  The 
capital  is  Rangim.  Buddhism  appears  at  its  best 
in  Burma;  the  prevailing  form  is  of  the  southern 
type,  most  closely  approximating  the  teachings  of 
Gautama,  and  it  has  done  much  to  uplift  the  peo- 
ple, who  are  better  educated  (by  the  Buddhist 
monks)  than  the  people  of  India.  Temples  and 
shrines  are  numerous  and  have  been  built  at  much 
expense.     The  monasteries  are  well  organized.] 

Baptist  Missions:  The  earliest  attempt  at 
Protestant  missionary  work  in  Burma  was  at  Ran- 
gun,  where  Messrs.  Chater  and  Mardon,  of  the 
Baptist  Missionary  Society  of  England,  opened  a 
mission  in  1807.  During  a  service  of  four  years 
Chater  translated  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  into 
Burmese.  Felix  Carey,  son  of  WilUam  Carey 
(q.v.),  came  soon  after  Chater  and  Mardon,  re- 
maining until  1814,  when  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Burman  Govenmient  and  removed  to  Ava. 
The  London  Missionary  Society  sent  two  mission- 
aries to  Rangun  in  1808,  but  within  a  year  one 
died  and  the  other  left. 

The  first  permanent  Protestant  mission  in  Burma 
was  that  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union, 
which  began  work  at   Rangun  in  1813.    The  first 


811 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Borke 

Bnrma 


missionaiy  was  Adoniram  Judson  (q.v.)i  who 
translated  the  Bible  into  Burmese.  Six  years  after 
he  landed  in  Rangun  the  first  convert  was  bap- 
tized, and  then  the  work  among  the  Burmans  pro- 
gressed, although  slowly. 

The  Karens,  a  hill  tribe,  early  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  missionaries.  They  had  strange 
traditions  that  they  once  had  known  of  the  true 
God,  and  that  foreigners  would  restore  to  them 
the  lost  knowledge  and  the  book  containing  it.  In 
1828  the  first  Karen  convert,  a  slave  redeemed  by 
Dr.  Judson,  was  baptized  by  Rev.  George  Dana 
Boardman  (q.v.).  The  Karens  have  been  more 
receptive  of  the  Gospel  than  any  other  race  in 
Burma.  They  are  divided  into  many  tribes;  the 
chief  dialects  are  the  Sgaw  and  the  Pwo,  into 
which  the  Bible  has  been  translated.  Self-support 
has  been  a  marked  feature  of  the  Karen  churches. 
They  are  distinctly  missionary  in  spirit,  represent- 
atives having  gone  from  them  to  many  other  races. 
A  remarkable  development  in  the  Karen  mission 
is  an  independent  evangelistic  movement  inaugu- 
rated and  directed  by  a  native  leader,  Ko  San  Ye. 
Large  buildings  have  been  erected  and  an  institu- 
tional work  b  carried  on.  In  one  year  over  2,500 
converts  were  baptized  in  two  stations  alone  as  a 
result  of  this  movement. 

Work  is  conducted  also  among  the  Shans,  the 
Chins,  the  Kachins,  the  Talains,  the  immigrants 
from  peninsular  India  (mostly  Telugus  and  Tamils), 
the  Chinese,  and  the  Eurasians  and  other  English- 
R]>eaking  peoples.  A  movement  of  large  propoiv 
tions  is  taking  place  among  the  Lahu  and  other 
hill  tribes  about  Kengtung,  in  eastern  Burma, 
where  over  2,000  were  baptized  in  1905.  They 
have  peculiar  traditions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Karens. 

Educational  work  has  been  emphasized,  vil- 
lage day-schools,  station  boarding-schools,  and  the 
Rangun  Baptist  College  being  conducted  in  co- 
operation with  the  government.  The  college  has 
over  1,000  students  in  all  departments.  There  are 
two  theological  seminaries  at  Insein,  for  Karens 
and  Burmans  respectively.  The  American  Bap- 
tist Mission  Press,  at  Rangun,  has  a  fine  equip- 
ment, and  prints  literature  in  most  of  the  languages 
and  dialects  of  the  province. 

StatistioB  (1906):  Stations,  29;  churches,  843;  members, 
58.642;  baptisms.  7,069;  missionaries,  192,  including  13 
physicians:  native  workers,  1,909;  schools,  696,  pupils, 
24.807:  Sunday-schools,  618.  pupils,  19.730;  college,  1; 
theological  seminaries,  2;  high  schools,  3;  boarding-schools, 
31;  hospitals,  3|  in-patients,  77,  out-patients,  28.093;  dis- 
pensaries, 7;  receipts  in  medical  fees,  $1,165;  total  contri- 
butions. $91,101  (benevolence,  $19,666). 

American  Methodist  Episcopal  Missions:  Amer- 
ican Methodists  entered  Burma  in  1879,  when  a 
church  was  organized  by  Bishop  Thobum.  The 
mission  has  now  grown  to  nine  stations,  where  work 
is  conducted  for  English-speaking  peoples,  Bur- 
mese, Tamils,  Telugus,  and  Chinese.  Emphasis  is 
placed  upon  schools,  colportage,  and  street  pleach- 
ing. The  European  high  school  in  Rangun,  for 
boys  and  girls,  is  the  only  one  for  non-conformists 
in  the  city  and  has  a  well-earned  reputation  for 
thoroughness  and  moral  training.  Anglo-vernacu- 
lar schools  are  conducted  in  several  stations.    A 


number  of  strong  schools  are  now  being  equipped 
with  new  and  larger  buildings.  A  training  institute 
IB  held  during  the  summer  months.  At  Thandaung 
a  successful  orphanage  is  conducted.  A  monthly 
paper  for  Telugus  is  published. 

Statistics  (1905):  llissionaries,  17;  native  helpers,  44; 
members,  561;  probationers.  370;  baptised  adults,  46, 
children,  28;  high  schools.  4;  dajr-schools,  10;  pupils,  943; 
Sunday-schools,  26;  Sunday-school  pupils,  986;  churches 
and  chapels,  3;  contributions  on  field,  44,319  rupees 
[=  $21,494]. 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel:  This 
society  conducts  work  among  English-speaking 
peoples,  Burmese,  Karens,  Ta^mils,  Telugus,  and 
Chins.  Educational  work  is  vigorously  pushed, 
the  leading  institution  being  St.  John's  College,  at 
Rangun,  whose  graduates  take  high  rank.  A 
printing-press  at  Toungoo  provides  Bibles,  prayer- 
books,  and  other  literature.  There  are  35  mis- 
sionaries, 13  being  European. 

Statistics  (1905):  Outstations,  196;  churches,  16;  board- 
ing-schools, 75;  teachers,  125  (14  non-Christian);  boarders, 
549;  pupils  in  all  schools,  3,366;  cateohists,  139;  readers, 
4;  baptisms,  adxilt  722,  children  753;  baptised  persons, 
10.403;  communicants,  4.047;  catechumens,  3,531;  con- 
firmed during  year,  273;  native  contributions,  11,759 
rui>ee8,  12  annas  [=  $5,703]. 

Wesleyan  Methodist  Missions:  English  Wes- 
ley ans  began  work  in  1889  and  have  now  four  sta- 
tions, with  seven  missionaries.  Special  features 
are  the  work  among  soldiers,  evangelistic-educa- 
tional work,  and  a  lepers'  home,  at  Mandalay, 
which  has  140  in  its  wards. 

Statistics  (1903):  (Chapels  and  other  preaching  places, 
26;  catechists,  5;  local  preachers,  19;  teachers  (day-school), 
62;  members.  270;  on  trial,  61;  Sunday-schools,  19;  pupils 
in  Sunday-schools,  1,065;  day-schools,  25;  pupils  in  day- 
schools,  1,181;  raised  locally.  £3.450  17s.  3d.  The  average 
attendance  at  public  worship  is  1,550. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions:  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  have  been  on  the  ground  for  several 
centuries,  and  are  about  equally  divided  between 
French  and  Italian.  Their  work  is  in  various  parts 
of  Burma.  The  statistics  for  the  French  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  including  those  for  Laos,  are 
as  follows  (1906):  Missionaries,  70;  native  workers, 
3;  charities,  65;  total  Roman  Catholic  population, 
66,600. 

Miscellaneous:  Besides  the  organizations  men- 
tioned, the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and 
the  Young  Women's  Christian  Association  have 
work  at  Rangun.  The  Mission  to  Lepers,  the 
Missionary  Pence  Association,  and  the  Leipsic  Mis- 
sionary Society  also  have  work  in  Burma.  The 
China  Inland  Mission  has  one  missionary  in  Bhamo. 
Stacy  Reuben  Warburton. 

Biblioorapht:  The  lAfe  of  Adoniram  Judton,  by  F.  Way- 
land,  Boston,  1853,  and  by  E.  Judson,  Philadelphia,  1808; 
Mrs.  M.  Wylie,  Story  of  the  Ooapel  in  Burmah,  New  York, 
1860;  Mrs.  Mason,  CivUiHna  Mountain  Men,  .  .  .  Mia- 
9ion  Work  among  Vu  Karen*,  ib.  1862;  C.  J.  S.  F.  F. 
Forbes,  BriiiMh  Burmah  and  iit  People,  .  .  .  Mannera, 
Cuatoma  and  Reliaunh  London,  1878;  J.  H.  Titoomb, 
BHHah  Burmah  and  ita  Miaaion  Work,  ib.  1880;  Mrs.  I. 
B.  Bishop,  Golden  Cheraoneae,  ib.  1883;  C.  H.  Carpenter, 
Self  Support  in  Baaaein,  Boston,  1884;  A.  R.  Colquhoun, 
Amonoat  the  Shana,  London,  1885;  L.  P.  Brockett,  Story 
of  the  Karen  Miaaion  in  Baaaein,  Philadelphia,  1891; 
W.  N.  Wythe,  Miaaioruxry  Memoriala,  Ann  H.  Judaon, 
Sara  B.  Judaon,  Emily  C.  Judaon,  3  vols.,  New  York, 
1802;  E.  D.  Cuming,  With  the  JunoU  Folk,  London,  1897; 


Bnm«e 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


812 


A.  Bunker,  800  Thah,  .  .  .  Making  of  ih€  Karm  Nation, 
New  York,  1902;  Julius  Smith,  Ten  Year*  in  Bwmah, 
Ondmutti,  1902;  W.  C.  Origgs,  Odd*  and  Bnd§  from 
Pagoda  Land,  Philadelphia.  1906. 

BURMANN,  FRAHS:  Dutch  theologian;  b.  at 
Leyden  1628;  d.  at  Utrecht  Nov.  12,  1679.  At 
twenty-three  he  took  the  pastoral  charge  of  a  new 
Dutch  chureh  at  Hanau;  in  1661  he  became  vice- 
rector  of  the  college  at  Leyden,  and  the  next  year 
professor  of  dogmatic  theology  at  Utrecht,  combi- 
ning this  position  with  a  pastoral  charge  there,  and 
teaching  church  history  also  from  1671.  His 
principal  work.  Synapsis  iheolofficB  (2  vols.,  Utrecht, 
1671-72),  shows  him  to  have  been  the  clearest 
systematic  thinker  of  the  school  of  Ck>cceiuB  (q.v.). 
He  also  wrote  Dutch  conmientaries  on  all  the  his- 
torical books  of  the  Old  Testament  (collected 
edition  Amsterdam,  1740),  and  several  minor  works. 
(E.  F.  Karl  MOller.) 

BURN,  RICHARD:  Legal  writer;  b.  at  Winton 
(37  m.  s.e.  of  Carlisle),  Westmoreland,  1709;  d.  at 
Orton,  Westmoreland  (10  m.  w.  of  Winton),  Nov. 
12,  1785.  He  studied  at  Queen's  Ck>llege,  Oxford 
(BA.,  1734);  became  vicar  of  Orton  1736,  and 
was  justice  of  the  peace  for  Westmoreland  and 
Cumberiand;  chancellor  of  Carlisle  1765.  His 
works  include  two  standard  treatises.  The  Justice 
of  ihe  Peace  and  Parish  Officer,  comprehending  all 
the  law  to  the  present  time  (2  vols.,  London,  1755; 
29th  edition,  enlarged,  edited  by  Chitty  and  Bere, 
6  vols.,  1845;  30th  ed.,  1869);  and  Ecclesiastical 
Law  (2  vols.,  1763;  9th  edition,  with  additions, 
by  Phillimore,  4  vols.,  1842). 

BURHET,  GH^BERT:  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  b. 
in  Edinburgh  Sept.  18,  1643;  d.  at  Salisbury  Mar. 
17,  1715.  He  was  educated  at  Aberdeen;  became 
a  probationer  1661;  studied  and  traveled  in  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  France  till  1664;  became  minis- 
ter at  Saltoun  1665;  professor  of  divinity  at  Glas- 
gow 1669;  removed  to  London  1674  and  was  made 
chaplain  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  lecturer  at  St. 
Clement's,  1675.  The  popularity  he  enjoyed  in 
Scotland  did  not  forsake  him  in  London,  but  his 
intimacy  with  Lord  William  Russell,  whom  he 
attended  on  the  scaffold  (July  21,  1683),  cost  him 
the  court  favor  and  he  was  dismissed  from  both 
these  positions.  On  the  accession  of  James  II. 
he  left  England  and,  after  visiting  France  and  Italy, 
settled  at  The  Hague  and  was  active  in  promoting 
the  accession  of  William  and  Mary.  He  returned 
to  En^and  with  William  in  1688  and  by  him  was 
made  in  1689  bishop  of  Salisbury,  in  which  office 
he  was  a  model.  His  family  connections,  wealth, 
and  ambition,  his  scholarship,  friendships,  and 
positions,  his  employment  in  diplomacy  and  honor- 
able politics,  all  qualified  him  to  write  his  admirable 
History  of  his  own  Time  (i.,  London,  1723;  ii.,  1734; 
best  ed.  by  M.  J.  Routh,  6  vols.,  Oxford,  1833;  Part 
I.  The  Reign  of  Charles  the  Second,  edited  by  Os- 
mund Airy,  2  vols.,  1897-1900;  a  Supplement  to  the 
History  was  edited  by  Miss  H.  C.  Foxcroft,  1902), 
a  work  of  great  accuracy  and  fairness.  Other 
works  worthy  of  mention  are:  History  of  the  Re  for- 
motion  of  the  Church  of  England  (i.,  1679;  ii.,  1681; 
iii.,  1714;  ed.  N.  Pooock,  7  vols.,  1865);  his  works 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  The  mystery 


of  iniquity  unveiled  (1673);  Rome's  glory,  or  a  col- 
lection of  divers  miracles  wrought  by  popish  saimts, 
(1673);  Infallibility  of  the  Roman  Chureh  confuted 
(1680);  also  his  life  of  WiUiam  Beddl  (1685; 
Exposition  of  the  XXXIX.  Artides  (1699),  which 
was  censured  by  the  Lower  House  of  Convocation. 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Life,  by  hie  eon,  Thomas  B.  Burnet,  is 
prefixed  to  the  Oxford  edition  of  his  works,  in  6  tcIa^ 
1833,  which  contains  also  a  list  of  the  Inshop's  wntinc?. 
A  detailed  account  is  given  in  DNB,  Tii.  394-405l  Con- 
sult also  8.  A.  Allibone,  CriHcal  DicUonanf  of  Engiiik 
Liieratun,  i.  296-288.  Philadelphia,  1891.  Fuxtbff 
sources  are  the  Hielary,  and  the  LeUen  to  Herbert  in  the 
Egerton  MSB.  in  the  British  Museum. 

BURRKT,  THOMAS:  Church  of  En^and;  b. 
at  Croft  (40  m.  n.  of  York),  Yorkshire,  about  1635; 
d.  in  London  Sept.  27,  1715.  He  studied  at  CUre 
Hall  and  Christ's  College,  CJambridge  (fellow  of 
Christ's,  1657;  MA.,  1658;  LL.D.,  1685?);  became 
master  of  the  Charterhouse  1685,  and  in  16S6 
incited  the  first  stand  made  by  any  sodety  in 
England  against  the  royal  dispensing  power  in 
the  reign  of  James  II.,  and  thereby  prevented  the 
illegal  admission  of  a  pensioner  at  the  Idng's  demand. 
He  wrote  fine  English  and  excellent  Latin,  and  was 
the  author  of  several  books  which  created  much 
commotion.  The  TeUuris  theoria  sacra  (part  i., 
London,  1681;  Eng.  version,  revised.  The  Sacred 
Theory  of  the  Earth,  1684;  part  ii.  and  Elng.  voskm 
of  the  entire  work,  1689;  7th  ed.,  with  life  bj 
Ralph  Heathoote,  1759)  was  a  fanciful  att^npt 
to  explain  the  structure  of  the  earth,  and  of  no 
scientific  value.  In  the  ArcheologuB  pkUoaophica 
sive  doctrina  antiqua  de  rerum  origintbus  (1692; 
Eng.  transl.,  1692)  he  interpreted  the  account  of  the 
Fall  as  an  allegory,  and  the  work  cost  him  his 
position  as  clerk  of  the  closet  to  William  III.  and 
marred  his  hope  of  advancement.  In  later  life  he 
wrote  De  fide  et  officiis  Christianarum,  in  which 
"  he  regards  the  historical  religions  as  based  upcm 
the  religion  of  nature  and  rejects  original  sin  and 
the  '  magical '  theory  of  the  sacraments ";  and 
De  statu  mortuorum  et  resurgentium,  in  which  he 
defended  the  doctrine  of  the  middle  state,  the 
millennium,  and  the  limited  duration  of  future 
punishment;  these  works  were  first  authoritatively 
printed  in  1727  (Eng.  translations,  1727-28). 

Bibuoorapht:  R.  Heathoote,  Life  of  7*homaa  Btojigl,  pie- 
fixed  to  the  7th  ed.  of  Ths  Sacred  Theory,  1759;  DA'B, 
vii.  408-ilO. 

BURITETT  PRIZES  AND  LECTURES:  A  foun- 
dation by  John  Burnett,  a  merchant  of  Aberdeen, 
Scotland  (b.  1729;  d.  1784),  who  bequeathed  his 
entire  estate  for  charitable  and  philanthropic 
purposes.  One  of  the  provisions  of  his  will  vested 
a  portion  of  his  property  in  trustees  to  provide 
prizes  for  the  best  and  the  next  best  essay  intended 
to  prove  "  that  there  is  a  Being,  all-powerful,  wise, 
and  good,  by  whom  everything  exists;  and  par- 
ticularly to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the  wisdom 
and  goodness  of  the  Deity;  and  this,  in  the  first 
place,  from  considerations  independent  of  written 
revelation,  and,  in  the  second  place,  from  the  reve- 
lation of  the  Lord  Jesus;  and,  from  the  whole,  to 
point  out  the  inferences  most  necessary  for,  and 
useful  to  mankind."  It  was  provided  that  the 
competition  should  be  open  to  the  whole  world; 


318 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnnnaiin 
Barrage 


that  the  prizes  should  be  of  not  less  than  £1,200 
and  £400  respectively,  and  should  be  offered  at 
intervals  of  forty  years;  and  that  three  appointees 
of  the  trustees  of  the  testator's  estate,  the  minis- 
ters of  the  Established  Church  of  Aberdeen,  and  the 
principals  and  professors  of  King's  and  Marischal 
Colleges  should  act  as  judges.  The  first  compe- 
tition was  in  1815,  when  fifty  essays  were  submitted 
and  the  first  prize  was  given  to  William  Laurence 
Brown  (b.  1755;  professor  at  Utrecht,  1788-95; 
at  Marischal  College,  1795,  principal  from  1796; 
d.  1830)  for  a  treatise  On  the  Existence  of  a  Supreme 
Creator  (2  vols.,  Aberdeen,  1816),  and  the  second 
to  John  Bird  Sumner  (q.v.),  afterward  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  for  an  essay  entitled  Records  of 
Creation- {2  vols.,  London,  1818).  In  the  second 
competition,  1855,  out  of  208  essays  the  judges 
selected  Christian  Theism  (2  vols.,  London,  1855) 
by  Robert  Anchor  Thompson  (b.  1821;  curate  of 
Binbrook,  Lincolnshire,  1854-58;  from  1858  master 
of  the  Hospital  of  St.  Mary  the  Virgin,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne;  d.  1894)  for  the  first  prize,  and  Theism 
(Edinburgh,  1855)  by  John  Tulloch  (q.v.)  for  the 
second  prize.  In  1881  the  use  of  the  fund  was 
changed  by  being  applied  to  the  support  of  a  lec- 
tureship at  Aberdeen,  the  lecturer  to  be  appointed 
at  intervals  of  five  years  and  hold  office  for  three 
years,  and  the  subject  to  be  either  that  prescribed 
by  Mr.  Burnett  or  some  topic  of  history,  archeology, 
or  physical  or  natural  science,  so  treated  as  to 
illustrate  the  theme  originally  suggested.  Lec- 
turers and  subjects  have  been  as  follows: 

1883-^6.  George  Gabriel  Stokes,  professor  of  mathemat- 
108  at  Cambridge,  On  Light  (London,  1887). 

1888-^1.  W.  Robertson  Smith,  professor  of  Arabic  at 
Cambridge,  On  the  Relioion  of  the  Semitee  (Ist  series  only 
published.  Fundamental  InetituHone,  London,  1880;  3d  ed., 
1907). 

1891-M.  William  L.  Davidson,  minister  of  Bourtie,  Aber- 
deenshire, Theism  ae  Grounded  in  Human  Nature  hietor- 
ieally  and  eritieaUy  Handled  (London,  1893). 

The  funds  are  now  devoted  toward  the  endow- 
ment of' a  chair  of  history  and  archeology  in  the 
university. 

BURNS,  WILLIAM  CHALMERS:  Missionary; 
b.  at  Dun  (6  m.  w.  of  Montrose),  Forfarshire, 
Scotland,  Apr.  1,  1815;  d.  at  Niu-chwang,  China, 
Apr.  4,  1868.  He  studied  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen;  began  the  study  of  law,  but  decided 
to  become  a  minister  and  reentered  the  university 
in  1832;  studied  theology  at  Glasgow  and  was 
licensed  in  1839;  preached  first  in  Dundee,  and 
then  traveled  through  the  British  Islands  and 
visited  Canada  (1844-46)  as  an  evangelist,  meeting 
with  much  success.  On  June  9,  1847,  he  sailed 
as  first  missionary  to  China  of  the  English  Presby- 
terian Missionary  Society;  he  adopted  the  Chinese 
dress  and  life  and  lived  in  Hongkong,  Canton, 
Amoy,  Shanghai,  Peking,  and  Niu-chwang,  choos- 
ing not  to  stay  long  in  one  place.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  devoted  missionaries  of  modem  times 
and  won  the  respect  of  both  the  natives  of  China 
and  the  foreign  residents.  He  translated  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's  Progress  into  Chinese. 

Biblioomaprt:  I.  Burns,  Memoir  of  W.  C.  Bume,  London, 
1870  (by  his  brother);  W.  Q.  Blaikie,  in  Leadere  in  Mod- 
em Philanthropy,  New  York,  1884. 


BURNT  OFFERING.    See  Sacrifice. 

BURR,  ENOCH  FITCH:  Congregationalist;  b. 
at  Westport,  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1818;  d.  at  Hamburg, 
Conn.,  May  8,  1907.  He  was  educated  at  Yale 
College  (B.A.,  1839),  and  devoted  several  years  of 
study  in  New  Haven  to  science  and  theology.  He 
then  traveled  extensively,  and  after  his  return  to 
the  United  States  was  called  in  1850  to  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Congregational  church  at  Lyme, 
Conn.,  which  he  held  till  his  death.  He  lectured 
on  the  scientific  evidences  of  religion  at  Amherst 
College,  Williams  College,  the  Sheffield  Scientific 
School,  and  other  institutions,  and  wrote:  The 
Mathematical  Theory  of  Neptune  (New  Haven, 
1848);  Spiritualism  (New  York,  1859);  Ecce 
Ccdum  (Boston,  1867);  PaUr  Mundi  (1869);  Ad 
Fidem  (1871);  Evolution  (1873);  Sunday  After- 
noons for  Little  People  (New  York,  1874);  Touxird 
the  Strait  Gate  (Boston,  1876);  Work  in  the  Vine- 
yard (1876);  Dio  the  Athenian  (New  York,  1880); 
Tempted  to  Unbelief  (1882);  Ecce  Terra  (Philsr 
delphia,  1884);  Celestial  Empires  (New  York,  1885); 
Theism  as  a  Canon  of  Science  (London,  1886); 
Universal  Beliefs  (New  York,  1887);  Long  Ago, 
as  Interpreted  by  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1888); 
Supreme  Things  (1889);  Aleph  the  Chaldean  (1891); 
Fabius  the  Roman  (1897);  and  Autumn  Leaves 
from  the  Mansewood  (Andover,  Mass.,  1905). 

BURRAGE,  HENRY  SWEETSER:  Baptist; 
b.  at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1837.  He  was 
educated  at  Brown  University  (B.A.,  1861),  and 
entered  Newton  Theological  Institution,  but  left  it 
in  1862  and  served  in  the  36th  Massachusetts 
Volunteers  throughout  the  Civil  War,  rising  from 
private  to  brevet  major  and  acting  assistant  adju- 
tant-general, first  brigade,  second  division,  ninth 
army  corps.  He  was  wounded  at  Cold  Spring 
Harbor,  June  3,  1864,  and  was  a  prisoner  of  war 
from  Nov.  1,  1864,  to  Feb.  22,  1865.  On  the  con- 
clusion of  the  war,  he  resumed  his  studies  at  Newton 
Theological  Institution  (1867)  and  the  University 
of  Halle  (1868-69),  and  was  successively  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  church  at  Waterville,  Me.  (1870-74), 
and  editor  of  Zion*s  Advocate,  Portland,  Me.  (1874- 
1905).  Since  1905  he  has  been  chaplain  of  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  National  Home  for  Disabled 
Volunteer  Soldiers,  Togus,  Me.  From  1875  to 
1905  he  was  recording  secretary  of  the  Maine 
Baptist  Missionary  Convention,  and  since  1876 
has  held  a  similar  office  in  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union.  Since  1889  he  has  been  recorder 
of  the  Maine  Commandery  of  the  Military  Order 
of  the  Loyal  Legion  of  the  United  States,  and 
chaplain-in-chief  of  the  entire  organization  since 
1899,  while  he  was  secretary  of  the  Maine  Society 
of  the  Sons  of  the  American  Revolution  from  1891 
to  1905.  when  he  was  elected  its  president  for  1906- 
1907.  He  was  secretary  of  the  Maine  Society  of 
Colonial  Wars  in  1899-1905,  and  is  the  president 
of  the  Maine  Baptist  Historical  Society.  He  is  a 
trustee  of  Colby  College  and  Newton  Theological 
Institution,  and  was  also  a  trustee  of  Brown  Uni- 
versity from  1889  to  1903,  when  he  was  chosen  one 
of  the  board  of  fellows.  In  addition  to  numerous 
articles  in  magazines  and  reviews,  he  has  written: 


Btirr«U 
Btirton 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


814 


Brown  University  in  the  CivU  War  (Providence,  R.  I., 
1868);  The  Act  of  Baptism  in  the  History  of  the 
Christian  Church  (Philadelphia,  1879);  History  of 
the  Anabaptists  in  Switzerland  (1882);  Hosier's 
Relation  of  WaymoutKs  Voyage  to  the  Coast  of 
Maine,  1606  (Portland,  Me.,  1887);  Baptist  Hymn 
Writers  and  their  Hymns  (Boston,  1888);  History 
of  the  Baptists  in  New  England  (1894);  Hilary 
of  the  Baptists  in  Maine  (Philadelphia,  1904);  and 
Gettysburg  and  Lincoln  (New  York,  1906).  He 
has  also  edited  Early  English  and  French  Voyages 
(N.  Y.,  1907)  and  a  number  of  works  relating 
chiefly  to  the  history  of  Maine. 

BURRELL,  DAVID  JAMES :  Reformed  (Dutch) ; 
b.  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Pa.,  Aug.  1,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  University  (B.A.,  1867)  and 
Union  Theological  Seminary  (1870),  and  after 
serving  as  a  missionary  in  Chicago  for  four  years, 
held  successive  pastorates  at  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church,  Dubuque,  la.  (1876-87),  West- 
minster Presbyterian  Church,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
(1887-91),  and  the  Marble  Collegiate  Church, 
Manhattan,  New  York  City  (since  1891).  Since 
1903  he  has  also  been  acting  professor  of  homi- 
letics  in  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  has 
been  on  the  board  of  regents  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Northwest,  Bennett  Female  Semi- 
nary, Elmira  Female  College,  and  McCormick  Theo- 
logical Seminary;  and  is  at  present  a  member  of 
the  board  of  managers  of  the  American  Tract 
Society,  the  Pan-Presbyterian  Coimcil,  and  the 
American  Sabbath  Union;  president  of  the  New 
York  State  Sabbath  Association,  a  vice-president 
of  the  National  Temperance  Society,  and  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance;  and  a  trustee  of  the 
United  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  and  the 
Board  of  Domestic  Missions  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  is  also  a  member  ot  the  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  Historical  Societies.  In 
theology  he  is  a  conservative.  He  has  written: 
The  Religions  of  the  World  (Philadelphia, 
1888);  Hints  and  Helps  (3  vols..  New  York, 
1891-93);  Gospel  of  Gladness  (1892);  Morning 
Cometh  (1893);  Religion  of  the  Future  (1894);  Spirit 
of  the  Age  (1895);  For  Christ's  Crown  and  Covenant 
(1896);  The  Golden  Passional  (1897);  The  Early 
Church  (1897);  The  Wondrous  Cross  (1898);  God 
and  the  People  (1899);  The  Gospel  of  Certainty 
(London,  1899);  The  Unaccountable  Man  (Chicago, 
1900);  The  Church  in  the  Fort  (1901);  The  Wonder- 
ful Teacher  (1902);  The  Verities  of  Jesus  (New  York, 
1903);  Christ  and  Progress  (1903);  Teachings  of 
Jesus  Concerning  the  Scriptures  (1904);  Christ  and 
Men  (1906);  The  Wayfarers  of  the  Bible  (1906); 
and  The  Evolution  of  a  Christian  (1906). 

BURRITT,  ELIHU:  American  Congregational 
layman,  scholar,  and  philanthropist;  b.  at  New 
Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8,  1810;  d.  there  Mar.  6,  1879. 
While  earning  his  living  by  his  trade  of  blacksmith, 
he  acquired  before  the  age  of  thirty  some  acquaint- 
ance with  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe,  and 
also  with  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  and  Ethiopic.  So  al- 
though modest  and  deprecating  notoriety,  he  be- 
came known  as  "the learned  blacksmith."  In  1841 
he  was  invited  to  lecture,  and  prepared  an  address 


on  "  Application  and  Genius,"  in  which  he  aigoec 
that  all  attainments  are  the  result  of  persisteat 
will  and  application  alone.  His  lecturing  was  tix- 
,cessful,  and  thenceforth  he  was  prominent  befofe 
the  public  as  orator,  editor,  and  philanthropist.  In 
1846  he  went  to  England.  For  the  next  twenty-fire 
years  he  spent  most  of  his  time  abroad.  He  or- 
ganized "  The  League  of  Uuivcnod  Brotherhood  " 
to  work  for  the  abolition  of  war  and  to  promote 
friendly  feelings  between  different  peoples,  and  wa< 
active  in  connection  with  the  first  Peace  Congress 
at  Brussels  in  1848  and  similar  gatherings  after- 
ward. He  developed  the  idea  of  an  "  ocean  penny 
postage,''  i.e.,  the  reduction  of  the  hi^  rates  then 
charged  on  international  letters  to  a  sum  not  more 
than  double  the  domestic  rate.  After  the  out- 
break of  the  Crimean  War  he  returned  to  Amehca 
and  advocated  the  emancipation  of  the  negro 
slaves,  with  compensation  to  the  owners.  From 
1865  to  1869  he  was  consular  agent  of  the  United 
States  at  Birmingham.  After  1870  he  hxed  in  re- 
tirement at  New  Britain,  but  was  busy  with  his  pen. 
He  was  always  active  in  church  work  and  strove 
to  promote  Christian  fellowship  between  different 
creeds  and  confessions.  He  published  many  worLs 
including:  Sparks  from  the  Anvil  (London^  1^7); 
Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad  (Boston, 
1854);  Walk  from  London  to  John  (TGroafs  House 
(London,  1864);  Walk  from  London  to  Land's  End 
and  Back  (1865);  Walks  in  the  Black  Country  and 
its  Green  Border  Lands  (1866);  Lectures  and 
Speeches  (1866);  The  Mission  of  Great  Suffering 
(1867);  Prayers  and  Meditatums  from  the  Psalms 
(New  York,  1869);  Sanskrit  Handbook  (London, 
1874).  He  founded  and  edited  a  number  of  peri- 
odicals for  the  promotion  of  his  plans,  of  which  the 
most  important  were  The  Christian  Citizen^  de- 
voted to  "  peace,  freedom,  temperance,  and  every 
good  cause "  (Worcester,  Mass.,  1844-51),  and 
Bonds  of  Brotherhood  (London,  1846-68). 
Biblioorapht:  C.  NortheDd.  Elxku  BurriU;  Sketch  of  kit 
Life  and  Labor;  New  York.  1882. 

BURROUGHES    (BURROUGHS),    JEREMIAH: 

English  Congregationalist;  b.  about  1600;  d.  in 
London  Nov.  13,  1646.  He  studied  at  Emmanud 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  graduated  MA.  in 
1624,  but  left  the  university  because  of  non-con- 
formity; was  assistant  to  Edmund  Calamy  (q.v.) 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds;  in  1631  became  rector  of 
Tivetshall,  Norfolk;  suspended  for  non-confonn- 
ity  in  1636  and  soon  afterward  deprived,  he  went 
to  Rotterdam  (1637)  and  became  "  teacher "  of 
the  English  church  there;  returned  to  England  in 
1641  and  served  as  preacher  at  Stepney  and  Crip- 
plegate,  London.  He  was  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  and  one  of  the  few  who  opposed 
the  Presbyterian  majority.  While  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  EInglish  Independents,  he  was 
one  of  the  most  moderate,  acting  consistently  in 
accordance  with  the  motto  on  his  study  door: 
Opinionum  varietas  et  opinantium  unitas  rum  sunt 
aavorara  ("  Difference  of  belief  and  unity  of  be- 
lievers are  not  inconsistent "),  His  publications 
were  many,  the  most  important  being  An  Erpod- 
tion  with  Practical  Observations  on  the  Prophecy  of 
Hosea  (4  vols.,  London,  1643-57). 


816 


RELIGIOUS    ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnrrall 
Burton 


BURROUGHS  (BURROUGH),  GEORGE:  The 
most  prominent  victim  of  the  Salem  witchcraft  de- 
lusion; b.  about  1650;  executed  on  Gallows  Hill, 
Salem,  fiiass.,  Aug.  19,  1692.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvaird,  1670;  preached  at  Casoo  (Portland),  Me.; 
at  Salem  Village  (Danvers),  Mass.,  1680-^,  where 
he  sufifered  because  of  a  church  quarrel  antedating 
his  pastorate;  was  in  Casco  again  in  1685,  and  when 
the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  French  and  Indians 
in  May,  1690.  In  1692,  while  acting  as  preacher 
at  Wells,  Me.,  he  was  accused  of  witchcraft  by 
certain  of  his  old  parishioners  at  Salem  and  ar- 
rested; was  brought  to  trial  at  Salem  Aug.  5  and 
convicted  on  all  indictments  against  him;  before 
his  execution  he  made  an  address  which  moved  the 
hearers  to  tears  and  led  Cotton  Mather  to  remind 
the  crowd  that  the  devil  often  appeared  as  an 
angel  of  light. 
Bxbuoorapht:  J.   L.   Sibley,   Harvard  CfraduatM,   vol.  ii., 

Cambridge.   1881;  C.  W.  Upham.  Sahm  Witchcraft,  ib. 

1867. 

BURROWS,  WdFRID  OLDFIELD:  Church  of 
England;  b.  at  London  Nov.  9,  1858.  He  was 
educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford  (BA., 
1881)  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (M.A.,  1885),  and 
was  ordered  deacon  in  1886  and  priested  two  years 
later.  He  was  a  tutor  of  Christ  Church  from  1884 
to  1891,  after  which  he  was  principal  of  Leeds 
Clergy  School  until  1900.  He  was  then  vicar  of 
Holy  Trinity,  Leeds,  for  three  years  (1900-03), 
and  since  1903  has  been  vicar  of  St.  Augustine's, 
Edgbaston,  Birmingham.  He  was  commissioner 
for  North  China  in  1894  and  for  Natal  in  1901,  as 
well  as  surrogate  for  the  diocese  of  Ripon  in  1900- 
1903  and  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Wake- 
field in  1888-1905.  Since  1904  he  has  been  arch- 
deacon of  Birmingham,  and  since  1905  has  also 
been  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Bir- 
mingham. In  addition  to  briefer  contributions,  he 
has  written  The  MyBiery  of  the  Cross  (London, 
1896). 


BX7RSFELDE,  CONGREGATION  OF:    An 

ciation  of  reformed  Benedictine  monks,  taking  its 
name  from  the  abbey  of  Bursfelde  on  the  Weser, 
about  10  m.  west  of  G6ttingen,  founded  by  Count 
Henry  of  Nordheim  and  his  wife  Gertrude  in  1093. 
It  had  been  richly  endowed,  but  by  the  beginning 
of  the  fifteenth  century  was  so  far  fallen  into  decay 
that  only  a  single  monk  lived  there,  and  he  in  great 
poverty,  while  the  church  was  used  by  traveling 
merchants  as  a  stable.  Johann  of  Minden,  abbot 
of  Rheinhausen,  with  Rembert  ter  List,  prior  of 
the  Windesheim  monastery  of  Wittenberg,  was 
charged  with  reforming  monastic  life  in  Saxony 
and  Bnmswick  after  the  Council  of  Basel;  and  the 
case  of  Bursfelde  was  specially  commended  to  him 
by  Duke  Otto  of  Brunswick.  He  took  up  the  task 
in  1433,  and  obtained  the  monks  he  needed  from 
the  abbey  of  St.  Matthias  at  Treves.  Dying  in 
1439,  he  left  an  equally  energetic  successor  in 
Joh^um  Hagen,  who  thoroughly  completed  the 
task  in  the  thirty  years  of  his  rule,  and  foimded 
the  Congregation,  including  four  other  monas- 
teries, with  a  view  to  the  strict  observance  of  the 
monastic  rule,  after  the  model  of  the  Windesheim 
Congregation  (q.v.).    The  spirit  grew  until  Hagen 


could  number  thirty-six  monasteries,  besides  some 
nunneries,  under  his  leadership.  The  movement 
spread  into  the  Netherlands  also,  imder  the  influ- 
ence of  Jan  Busch  and  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  A  yeariy 
chapter  of  the  whole  congregation  was  held,  always 
under  the  presidency  of  the  abbot  of  Bursfdde.  It 
received  numerous  privileges  from  the  provincial 
council  held  by  Nicholas  of  CHisa  in  1451,  and  was 
confirmed  by  Pius  II.  in  1458  and  1461.  It  grew 
after  Hagen's  death  until  it  numbered  142  monas- 
teries; but  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  began  to  de- 
cline, though  there  was  a  brief  revival  about  1629 
and  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Many  of  the 
monasteries  came  into  the  possession  of  Protestant 
princes,  including  Bursfelde  itself,  whose  Catholic 
abbot  was  replaced  in  1579  by  a  Lutheran.  Since 
the  foundation  of  the  University  of  Gdttingen, 
the  senior  professor  of  the  theological  faculty  has 
borne  the  title  of  abbot  of  Bursfelde,  with  an  in- 
come derived  from  the  revenues  of  the  foundation. 
The  last  head  of  the  Congregation  was  Bemhard 
Bierbaum,  abbot  of  Werden;  who  was  elected  in 
1780  at  a  chapter  held  in  Hildesheim  and  died 
in   1798.  L.  Schulze. 

Bibuoorapht:  Souroes  are:  The  Chronicon  Winiukmnenm 
by  J.  Busch,  ed.  with  introduction  by  K.  Gnibe,  Halle, 
1886;  J.  G.  Leuckfeld.  AnUquitateM  Burgfeldenaes,  Leip- 
sic,  1713;  Ewelt.  Die  Anfdnge  der  BurgfOder  Benedik- 
tintr-Kongregation,  in  Zeitachrift  /Qr  vaierlAndiache  Oe- 
achichte,  3d  aeries,  yoI.  v.,  MQnater,  1865.  Consult  Heim- 
bucher,  Orden  und  KongrtoaHonen,  L  141-144,  169,  196. 

BURT,  WILLIAM:  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop; 
b.  at  Padstow  (38  m.  n.w.  of  Fl3rmouth),  Cornwall, 
England,  Oct.  23,  1852.  He  was  educated  at 
Wesleyan  University,  Middletown,  Conn.  (B.A., 
1879),  and  Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Madison, 
N.  J.  (1881).  He  entered  the  New  York  East 
Conference  in  1881,  and  after  being  successively 
pastor  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Brooklyn  (1881^83), 
and  the  De  Kalb  Avenue  Church  in  the  same  city 
(1883-86),  he  was  transferred  to  the  Italy  Con- 
ference and  made  presiding  elder  of  the  Milan 
district.  He  then  resided  in  Florence  from  1888 
to  1890,  when  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  re- 
mained fourteen  years,  having  charge  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  churches  and  schools  of  Italy  and 
establishing  several  churches  and  schools,  as  well 
as  a  publishing  house  and  two  colleges.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Ecumenical  Methodist  Conference 
at  London  in  1901,  and  to  the  General  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1892,  1896, 
1900,  and  1904.  He  was  also  a  fraternal  delegate 
to  the  Irish  Conference  at  Belfast  in  1906  and  to 
the  British  Conference  at  Nottingham  in  the  same 
year.  In  theology  he  is  an  orthodox,  though 
liberal,  member  of  his  denomination.  In  1904  he 
was  elected  bishop  by  the  General  Conference  at 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.  Since  that  time  he  has  resided 
in  Europe,  with  special  jurisdiction  over  the  Meth- 
odists of  the  Continent.  He  was  created  a  cavalier 
of  the  Order  of  Mauritius  and  Lazarus  in  1903, 
and  is  the  author  of  several  works  in  Italian,  and 
in  1889  founded  the  Italian  weekly  U  Evangelista. 

BURTON,  ASA:  Congregational  minister;  b. 
at  Stonington,  Conn..  Aug.  25,  1752;  d.  at  Thet- 
ford,   Vt.,  May   1,   1836.    He  was  graduated  at 


Barton 
Buaoh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


816 


Dartmouth,  1777;  ordained  zninister  at  Thetford, 
1779,  and  spent  his  life  there,  laboring  for  the 
spiritual,  social,  and  material  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity in  the  way  of  the  old-fashioned  New  Eng- 
land clergyman.  It  is  said  that  he  trained  sixty 
young  men  for  the  ministry.  He  published  Essays 
on  Some  of  the  First  PrincipUs  of  Metaphysics, 
Ethics,  and  Theology  (Portland,  Me.,  1824). 

Bibuographt:  A  Memoir  by  Thonuw  Adams  was  printed 
in  Th0  American  Qtuuierly  Regi$Ur,  x.  321-341.  Boston, 
1838. 

BURTON,  EDWARD:  Church  of  England  pa- 
tristic scholar  and  church  historian;  b.  at  Shrews- 
bury Feb.  13,  1794;  d.  at  Ewelme  (10  m.  s.e.  of 
Oxford)  Jan.  19,  1836.  He  studied  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1816;  M.A.,  1818;  D.D., 
1829);  became  curate  of  Pettenhall,  Staffordshire, 
1815;  went  to  the  Continent  in  1818  and  worked 
in  the  libraries  of  France  and  Italy;  took  up  his 
residence  at  Oxford  1824,  and  in  1829  became 
regius  professor  of  divinity.  Among  the  more 
important  of  his  works  are:  TesHmonies  of  the  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers  to  the  Divinity  of  Christ  (Oxford, 
1826);  Inquiry  into  the  Heresies  of  the  Apostolic 
Age  (Bampton  lectures,  1829);  The  Greek  Testa- 
ment with  English  Notes  (2  vols.,  1831);  Testi- 
monies of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  to  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Holy  Ohost 
(1831);  Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
the  First  Three  Centuries  (2  vols.,  1831-33).  His 
edition  of  the  Historia  ecdeaiastica  of  Eusebius 
appeared  after  his  death  (text,  1838;  again  1856 
and  1872;  notes  by  Heinichen,  Leipsic,  1840). 
Bibuographt:  His   collected   works,   with   memoir,  were 

published  at  Oxford  in  5  vols..  1846. 

BURTON,  ERNEST  DE  WITT:  Baptist;  b.  at 
Granville,  O.,  Feb.  4,  lS5p,  He  was  educated  at 
Denison  University,  Granville,  O.  (B.A.,  1876), 
and  Rochester  Theological  Seminary  (1882),  and 
also  studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  (1887) 
and  Berlin  (1894).  He  was  an  instructor  in  Kala- 
mazoo College,  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  in  1876-77, 
and  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  Xenia  and 
Norwood,  O.,  in  1877-79.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
instructor  in  New  Testament  Greek  in  Rochester 
Theological  Seminary,  but  in  the  following  year 
was  called  to  Newton  Theological  Institution  as 
associate  professor  of  New  Testament  interpre- 
tation, and  was  full  professor  there  from  1886  to 
1892.  In  the  latter  year  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Chicago  as  professor  of  New  Testament  litera- 
ture and  interpretation,  and  head  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Biblical  and  patristic  Greek,  a  position 
which  he  still  holds.  He  has  been  a  member  of 
the  Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis 
since  1883  and  of  the  Chicago  Society  of  Biblical 
Research  since  1892.  In  theology  and  Biblical 
criticism  his  attitude  is  that  of  a  conservative 
progressive.  He  has  been  associate  editor  of  the 
Biblical  World  since  1892  and  of  the  American 
Journal  of  Theology  since  1897.  He  has  also  written : 
Syntax  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  in  New  Testament 
Greek  (Chicago,  1893);  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 
for  Historical  Study  (New  York,  1894;  in  collabo- 
ration with  W.  A.  Stevens);  Handbook  of  the  Life 
of  Christ  (1894;  in  collaboration  with  W.  A.  Ste- 


vens) ;  Records  and  Letters  of  the  Apostolic  Age  ( 1895) ; 
Handbook  of  the  Life  of  Paul  (Chicago,  1899);  Con- 
structive Studies  in  the  Life  of  Christ  (1901;  in 
collaboration  with  S.  Mathews);  Principlee  and 
Ideals  of  the  Sunday  School  (1903;  in  collaboration 
with  S.  Mathews);  Short  Introduction  to  the  Gospels 
(1904);  Studies  in  the  Gospel  of  Mark  (1904);  and 
Some  Principles  of  Literary  Criticism  and  their 
Application  to  the  Synoptic  Problem  (1904). 

BURTON, LEWIS  WILLIAM:  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop  of  Lexington,  Ky.;  b.  at  Cleveland, 
O.,  Nov.  9,  1852.  He  was  educated  at  Kcj^- 
yon  College,  Gambier,  O.  (B.A.,  1873),  and  at  the 
Divinity  School  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
Philadelphia,  from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1877. 
He  was  ordered  deacon  in  1877  and  was  priested 
in  1878.  He  was  successively  curate  and  rector 
of  AU  Saints',  Cleveland,  1877-80,  of  St.  Mark's, 
aeveland,  1881-84,  rector  of  St.  John's,  Richmond, 
Va.,  1884-93,  and  rector  of  St.  Andrew's,  Louis- 
ville, Ky.,  1893-96.  In  1896  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Lexington.  While  in  Virginia,  he  was 
an  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  that  dio- 
cese. He  is  now  a  trustee  of  Kenyon  College  and 
of  the  University  of  the  South,  as  well  as  a  member 
of  the  Joint  Commission  of  the  General  Convention 
on  Christian  Education.  In  theology  he  beloxigs 
to  the  conservative  school.  His  publications  in- 
clude sermons,  charges,  contributions  to  period- 
icals, and  the  section  on  the  annals  of  Henrico  Par- 
ish, Va.,  in  J.  S.  Moore's  Virginiana  (Richmond, 
1904). 

BURTON,  ROBERT:  Author  of  the  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy;  b.  at  Lindley  (20  m.  eji.e.  of 
Birmingham),  Leicestershire,  Feb.  8,  1577;  d.  at 
Oxford  Jan.  25,  1640.  He  studied  at  Brasenose 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.D.,  1614);  became 
vicar  of  St.  Thomas,  in  the  west  suburbs  of  Oxford, 
1616,  and  in  addition,  about  1630,  rector  of  Se- 
grave,  Leicestershire.  His  life  was  spent  among 
his  books  at  Oxford;  Anthony  Wood,  a  generation 
after  his  death,  describes  him  as  a  good  mathema- 
tician, a  philologist,  and  astrologer,  a  hard  student 
and  well-read  scholar,  considered  by  some  melan- 
choly and  morose,  but  by  those  who  knew  him 
better  esteemed  for  honesty  and  charity,  and  as  a 
merry  and  genial  companion.  His  famous  work 
(Oxford,  1621),  which  is  a  vast  collection  of  quo- 
tations and  allusions,  abundantly  proves  his  learn- 
ing. Five  editions  appeared  during  Biuiion's  life, 
each  with  many  alterations  and  additions  and 
a  sixth  was  printed  from  his  annotated  manuscript 
(1651-52).  The  edition  of  1800  contains  an  ac- 
coimt  of  the  author.  There  is  a  modem  edition 
by  A.  R.  Shilleto,  with  introduction  by  A.  H.  Bullen 
(London,  1893).  The  Philosophaster  is  a  Latin 
comedy  written  in  1606  and  acted  at  Christ  Church 
on  Shrove  Monday  (Feb.  16),  1618;  with  certain 
Latin  poemata  it  was  printed  for  the  Roxburghe 
Club  (London,  1862). 

Biblioorapht:  Besides  the  Memoir  in  the  ed.  of  1800,  ecm- 
suit:  A.  k  Wood,  Athena  Oxonieneea,  ed.  P.  Bliss,  IL  652- 
653.  4  vols.,  London.  1813-20;  J.  Nichols.  Hietory  and 
Antiquitiea  of  the  County  of  Leiceeter,  vol.  iii.,  part  i.,  pp. 
415-410.  4  Yols.,  London,  1705-1811.  The  aeoonnt  in 
DNB,  viii.  12-14  describes  rather  the  book  than  the  i 


317 


REUGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


orton 


BURWASH,   NATHAITIEL:    Methodist   Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Argenteuil,  Quebec,  July  25,  1839. 
Se  was  educated  at  Victoria  College,  Cobourg,  Ont. 
CB.A.,  1859),  Yale  CoUege,  and  Garrett  BibUcal 
Institute,  Evanston,  III.  (B.D.,  1871).    He  entered 
^he  Methodist  Episcopal  ministry  in  1860,  and  after 
acting  as  classical  tutor  in  Victoria  College  in  1860- 
1861,  held  pastorates  until  1866,  when  he  was  re- 
csalled  to  Victoria  College  as  professor  of  natural 
sdenoe.    He  was  made  dean  of  the  theological 
faculty  in  the  same  institution  in  1873,  and  since 
1887  has  been  its  president  and  chancellor.    He 
is  also  a  member  of  the  senate  and  council  of  the 
University  of  Toronto  and  of  the  council  of  edu- 
cation for  the  province  of  Ontario.    He  has  been 
a  member  of  successive  general  conferences  of  his 
denomination  since  1874,  and  was  president  of  the 
one  held  in  1889-90,  in  addition  to  being  secretary 
of  education  for  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  Canada  from  1874  to  1886.    He  has  written: 
Memoriala  of  Edward  and  Lydia  Jackson  (Toronto, 
1876);  Genesis,  Nature,  and  Results  of  Sin  (1878); 
Wesley's  Doctrinal  Standards   (1881);  Relation  of 
Children  to  the  FaU,  the  Atonement,  and  the  Church 
{ISS2);  Handbook  ontheEpistleto  the  Romans  (IS87); 
Inductive  Studies  in  Theology  (1896);  Manual  of 
Christian  Theology  (1900);  Life  and  Times  of  Eger- 
ton  Ryerson   (1902);  and  The  Development  of  the 
University  of  Toronto  as  a  Provincial  Institution 
(1905). 

BURT,  RICHARD  DE:  Bishop  of  Durham;  b. 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  (61  m.  n.e.  of  London)  1281, 
the  son  of  Sir  Richard  Aungerville;  d.  at  Auckland 
(11  m.  s.w.  of  Durham)  Apr.  14,  1345.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  then  entered  the  Benedictine  order  at 
Durham,  became  tutor  to  the  future  Edward  III., 
who  on  his  accession  (1327)  entrusted  various 
offices  o  him,  and  sent  him  twice  to  Pope  John 
XXII.  as  embassador,  and  later  in  the  same,  ca- 
pacity to  Paris,  Hainault,  and  Germany,  and  as 
conunissioner  for  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  He  was 
made  dean  of  Wells,  and  the  same  year  (1333) 
bishop  of  Durham.  Useful  as  he  was  to  the  king 
and  his  ooimtry  as  a  diplomat,  and  able  as  he  was 
as  an  ecclesiastic,  he  is  remembered  solely  as  a 
bibliophile,  perhaps  the  earliest  in  England  worthy 
of  the  name.  He  has  no  claim  to  be  considered 
a  scholar,  but  he  loved  books  and  used  all  his  per- 
sonal and  official  influence  in  their  accumulation. 
Wherever  he  was,  he  was  on  the  lookout  for  MSS., 
and  he  also  had  agents  on  the  Continent  in  the 
search  for  them.  So  he  had  more  books  than  all 
the  other  En^ish  bbhops  put  together.  Some  of 
these  MSS.  he  stored  in  his  palace,  others  he  is  said 
to  have  deposited  in  the  library  he  founded  in 
Oxford  in  connection  with  Dwham  College  (on 
the  site  of  the  present  Trinity  College).  His  love 
of  books  comes  out  in  that  bibliophile's  delight, 
the  Philabiblon  (first  published  at  Cologne,  1473, 
next  at  ^)eyer,  1483,  and  in  Paris,  1500).  It  has 
been  often  republished,  the  best  edition,  having  both 
the  Latin  text  and  an  English  translation,  being 
by  Ernest  C.  Thomas  (London,  1888),  and  Mr. 
Thomas's  translation  was  reprinted  1902. 
Dibuoorapht:  Sources  for  a  biocrsphy  are:  H.  Wharton, 

Anglia  Sacra,  i.  705  eqq.,  London,  1691;  Hutorim  Dunet- 


men»ea,  edited  for  the  Surteee  Society  by  J.  Raine,  Dui^ 
ham,  1839;  T.  Rymer,  Fcddera,  vol.  ii.,  best  ed.,  London, 
1816.     Consult  also  DNB,  yiii.  26-27. 

BUSCH,  JAN:  Dutch  monastic  reformer;  b. 
at  Zwolle  (52  m.  e.n.e.  of  Amsterdam)  Aug.  9, 
1399;  d.  at  SUlte,  near  Hildesheim,  c.  1480.  Edu- 
cated first  in  the  school  of  Zwolle,  which  then, 
under  its  famous  rector  Cele,  numbered  about  a 
thousand  students,  he  went  to  Erfurt  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  to  study  law;  but  his  inclination  was 
for  the  monastic  life,  and  in  1419  he  entered  the 
Windesheim  house,  of  which  Vos  was  then  prior. 
He  labored  diligently  to  overcome  theoretical 
doubts  by  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  spiritual 
writers,  and  to  form  himself  practically  in  the  devout 
life.  Vos,  on  his  death-bed,  exhorted  him  to  con- 
stancy in  reforming  zeal,  and  he  was  soon  sent  to 
B6dingen  near  Cologne,  where  he  was  ordained 
priest.  He  remained  four  years  at  BOdingen,  and 
then,  after  a  short  stay  in  the  mother  house, 
received  a  more  difficult  commission,  being  sent 
to  Ludinkerken  in  East  Friesland,  where  conditions 
of  shocking  laxity  prevailed,  but  the  great  papal 
schism,  a  contested  episcopal  election,  and  his  own 
weak  health  prevented  him  from  accomplishing 
much  there.  After  some  years  of  comparative 
rest,  he  began  his  more  important  work  in  1437 
as  subprior  of  the  reformed  monastery  of  Witten- 
berg near  Hildesheim,  which  was  to  extend  over 
a  large  part  of  Germany  and  to  embrace  especially, 
in  the  spirit  of  the  Coimcil  of  Basel,  the  reform 
of  the  Augustinian  convents  of  both  sexes,  par- 
ticulariy  in  Saxony.  Working  in  harmony  with 
the  Bursfelde  Congregation  (q.v.),  he  began  with 
the  neighboring  monastery  of  Suite,  of  which  he  took 
charge  himself,  with  the  title  of  provost,  commonly 
used  in  Saxony  instead  of  prior.  His  success  in 
restoring  discipline  there  induced  the  archbishop 
of  Magdeburg  in  1446  to  place  in  his  hands  the  Pre- 
monstratensian  house  of  Our  Lady  in  the  same  city. 
In  the  following  year  he  became  provost  of  the 
rich  NeuxDerkstift  at  Halle,  combining  with  it  the 
office  of  archdeacon,  which  gave  him  authority 
over  700  secular  priests.  After  the  plague  of  1450, 
he  went  on  to  Glauchau,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
powerful  support  of  his  friend  Nicholas  of  Cusa, 
who  had  been  sent  to  Germany  as  cardinal-legate 
with  special  reference  to  monastic  reform.  After 
a  provincial  synod  at  Bergen,  the  legate  entrusted 
Busch  with  the  oversight  of  this  work  in  the  entire 
province,  giving  him  full  power  to  inspect  all  monas- 
teries and  reform  whatever  disorders  he  found, 
taking  the  Windesheim  statutes  as  a  standard. 
He  went  vigorously  to  work  in  Halle,  Leipsic,  and 
Halberstadt,  but  in  1452  the  opposition  aroused 
by  his  zeal  led  to  demands  for  his  removal  being 
laid  before  the  pope  and  the  archbishop.  At  first 
they  were  fruitless,  but  when  Busch  found  the 
archbishop  cooling  toward  him,  he  resigned  his 
office  of  provost,  still  retaining  his  powers  as  visi- 
tor. In  1456  he  went  to  attend  a  general  chapter 
at  Windesheim,  and  remained  there  several  years, 
living  as  a  simple  brother  and  employing  the  time 
in  literary  work.  He  wrote  the  lives  of  the  first 
twenty-four  brothers  and  of  his  teacher  Cele  (Liber 
de  viris  iilustribus  de  Windeshem),  as  well  as  a  chron- 


Busembaum 
Butler 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


318 


icle  of  the  house  and  congregation.  He  took  up 
active  work  again  as  provost  of  Sttlte,  and  exer- 
cised his  visitatorial  powers  over  a  still  wider  field, 
at  the  same  time  writing  an  account  of  his  work 
which  is  of  some  value.  He  resigned  his  office  as 
provost  in  1479,  and  probably  died  in  the  following 
year.  His  Chronicon  Windeshemense  was  first 
printed  by  Heribert  Rosweyde  at  Antwerp  in  1621, 
and  an  incomplete  edition  of  his  four  books  De  re- 
formatiane  monaatenorum  was  prepared  by  G.  W. 
von  Leibnitz,  in  Scriptnres  rerum  Brunsvicenaium 
(3  vols.,  Hanover,  1707-11);  an  excellent  modem 
edition,  with  introduction  and  notes,  is  that  of  K. 
Grube  (Halle,  1886).  A  few  smaller  works,  let- 
ters, and  sermons,  have  recently  been  discovered 
and  published  by  J.  M.  WOstenhoff  (Ghent,  1890). 

L.  SCHULZE. 

Bxblioobapht:  The  Bouroes  for  a  life  are  best  diBoovered 
in  hifl  own  writings:  Chronicon  WindMhemenM,  ed.  K. 
Grube,  Halle,  1886;  Liber  de  reformatione  monaateriorum, 
ed.  Grube,  with  the  Chronicon^  ut  sup.  (contains  a  brief 
life  by  the  editor).  Consult  also:  K.  Grube,  Johannea 
BuscA,  Augtutinerpropat  xu  Hildeaheifn^  Freiburg,  1881; 
Kerkgeaehiedenia  van  Nederlande  voor  de  Hervorming,  vol. 
ii.,  part  2,  pp.  115.  221  sqq.,  349.  Utrecht,  1871;  J.  G.  R. 
Acquoy,  Het  Klooater  te  Windeaheim  en  aijn  invloed,  3 
vols.,  ib.  1875;  L.  Schulse,  Dea  Johannea  Buach  biaher 
unbekannte  Schriften,  in  ZKG,  xi.  (1890)  586-596. 

BnSEMBAnM(BnS£NBAnM), HERMANN:  Ger- 
man Jesuit,  casuist;  b.  at  Nottelen  (a  village  of 
Westphalia)  1600;  d.  at  MUnster  Jan.  31,  1668. 
He  was  a  teacher  at  Cologne,  and  afterward 
rector  at  Hildesheim  and  MQnster.  His  text-book 
of  casuistry,  entitled  Medulla  thedogice  moralis 
(Manster,  1645),  in  seven  books,  ran  through  200 
editions  before  1776,  although  it  caused  offense 
when  it  was  published  with  a  commentary  in  1710. 
The  book  contained  the  Jesuitic  teachings  on 
regicide,  and  in  France,  when  an  attempt  wajs  made 
to  assassinate  Louis  XIV.,  the  matter  was  brought 
before  the  courts.  The  Paris  parliament  was 
satisfied  with  simply  condemning  the  book,  while 
that  of  Toulouse  had  it  publicly  burned  and  held 
the  principals  of  institutions  who  used  it  respon- 
sible. Meanwhile  the  moral  theology  of  the  Me- 
dulla was  incorporated  in  the  classical  text-book 
of  the  order  of  Redemptorists,  edited  by  Liguori. 
Busembaum's  lAlium  inter  spinas  (Cologne,  1660) 
is  ascetic  in  character.  K.  Benrath. 

Biblioobapht:  J.  J.  I.  Ddllinger  and  F..  H.  Reuach,  Ge- 

achiehia    der  MoralatreitigkeHen,  vol.  i.,   Stuttgart,  1890; 

F.  H.  ReuBch,  Index  der  verbotenen  BUcher,  ii.  826,  896, 

898,  920. 

BUSH,  GEORGE:  American  Swedenborgian; 
b.  at  Norwich,  Vt.,  June  12,  1796;  d.  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  19,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth, 1818;  studied  at  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary,  1820-22;  was  tutor  in  Princeton  College, 
1822-23;  went  to  Indiana  for  the  Home  Missionary 
Society  in  1824  and  was  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  at  Indianapolis  1825-28;  professor  of  He- 
brew and  Oriental  literature  in  the  University  of 
the  aty  of  New  York  1831-47;  instructor  of  sacred 
literature  in  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  the 
same  city  1836-37.  In  1845  he  connected  himself 
with  the  Swedenborgians  and  was  preacher  of  the 
New  Church  Society  in  New  York  1848-52,  in 
Brooklyn   1854-59.     He  was  an  active  defender 


of  the  tenets  of  his  faith  with  both  pen  s:yi 
voice,  and  edited  the  New  Church  Repository  cm 
Monthly  Review  1848-55.  His  writings  on  otbcr 
subjects  include:  Life  of  Mohammed  (New  Yock. 
1832);  A  Treatise  on  the  Millennium  (1832);  A 
Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  (1835);  Sc4n 
Critical  and  Practical  on  the  Old  Testament  (Gei>- 
esis-Judges,  8  vols.,  1840  sqq.);  Anastasis  (1845; 
against  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
He  was  justly  esteemed  as  a  Hebrew  scholar. 

Biblxooraprt:  Memoira  and  Reminiaeenaea  of  Geicrge  BuJl 
a  collection  of  contributions  from  friends,  edited  by  Wood- 
bury M.  Femald,  Boston,  1860. 

BUSHNELL,   HORACE:    Ck>ngregationalist>;    b. 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  Apr.  14,  1802;  d.  in  Hartfoni 
Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876.     He  was  graduated  at  Ysk 
College,  1827;  after  an  interval  spent  in  teaching 
and  journalism,  he  returned  (1829)  to  study  law  in 
the  Yale  Law  School,  but  after  two  years,  during 
which  he  was  a  tutor  in  the  college,  was  converted 
and  studied  for  the  ministry  in  the  Yale  Divinity 
School  and  graduated  in  the  class  of   1833.    He 
was  pastor  of  the  North  Church,  Hartford,  Conn., 
from  May  22,  1833,  till  Nov.  22, 1859,  when  he  re- 
signed on  accoimt  of  his  health,  though  he  con- 
tinued his  ministrations  with  undiminished  power. 
His  distinction  rests  upon  several   great   works: 
(1)  His  Christian  Nurture  (Hartford,  1846)— a  con- 
tribution of  the  first  rank  to  religious  thought — in 
which  he  drew  attention  away  from  revivals  to  the 
training  of  children  in  Christian  households  as  the 
law  of  growth  in  the  Church.     (2)  His  doctrine  of 
the  "  Instrumental  Trinity  "  (Ood  in  Christ,  New 
York,  1849),  showing  affinities  with  Sabellianism, 
but  lifting  the  idea  of  the  Trinity  out  of  the  region 
of  speculation  and  making  it  available  for  actual 
life  (see  Christology,  IX.,  3,  §  4).     (3)  His  su- 
preme emphasis  on  ethical  and  religious  values  and 
his  refusal  of  metaphysics;  here  he  anticipates  the 
Ritschlian  attitude,  the  ground  of  which  for  him 
lay  not  in  philosophy,  but  in  a  theory  of  language 
{"  Dissertation  on  Language,"  in  God  in  Christ ; 
"  Our  Gospel  a  Gift  to  the  Imagination,"  in  Budd- 
ing Eras,  New  York,   1881)    and  in  a  profound 
Christian  experience.     (4)  His  moral  view  of  the 
Atonement  (q.v.),  "  grounded  in  principles  of  uni- 
versal   obligation "    and    universal    vicariousness, 
later  modified  by  the  idea  of  God  as  propitiating 
himself  in  the  forgiveness  of  the  sinner  {The  Vi- 
carious Sacrifice^  New  York,  1865;  Forgiveness  and 
Law,  ib.  1874 — ^the  two  volumes  published  under 
the  title   The  Vicarious  Sacrifice,   1877).     (5)  In 
apologetics  Bushnell  related  "  Miracles  "  to  "  Law," 
and  drew  his  matchless  picture  of  "  The  Character 
of  Jesus  Forbidding  his  Possible  Classification  with 
Men  "  {Nature  and  the  Supernatural,  New  York, 
1858).     (6)  Many  of  his  sermons  are  unsurpassed 
for  insight,  feeling,  imagination,  noble  thought,  and 
splendor  of  diction.     Yet  by  his  own  generation  he 
was  generally  called  a  heretic;  and  for  his  con- 
denmation  there   was  a  demand   throughout  the 
American  orthodox  churches!     In  1849  and  1851 
he  was  actually  accused  of  heresy  in  formal  fashion, 
and  still  more  savagely  attacked  after  1866,  but 
his  congregation  stood  by  him  and  he  was  not 
tried.    The  present   generation   in   America  ven- 


310 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Basembaiun 
Butler 


erates  him  as  one  of  the  molders  of  religious  opin- 
ion, and  has  been  influenced  by  him  more  perhaps 
thaji  it  knows.  A  centenary  edition  of  his  works 
appieared  in  twelve  volumes  (New  York,  1903). 

BniL.ioGRAPBT:  H.  C.  Trumbull,  in  My  Fotw  Religioua  Teach- 
erm,  Philadelphia.  1003;  M.  B.  Cheney.  lAfe  and  Lettera  of 
Home*  Buahnell,  New  York,  1880  (by  his  daughter); 
T.  T.  Hunger,  Horace  Buahnell,  Preacher  and  Theologian, 
Boston,  1899.  Hia  Spirit  in  Man,  Sermons  and  Selec- 
Hona  was  published  in  a  centenary  ed.,  with  classified 
and  annotated  literature,  by  H.  B.  Learned,  New  York, 
1Q03. 

BUTLER,   ALB  AN:    English    Roman   Catholic; 
b.  at  Appletree  (70  m.  n.w.  of  London),  Northamp- 
tonshire, Oct.  24,  1710;  d.  at  St.  Omer  (22  m.  s.e. 
of  Calais),  France,  May  15,  1773.     He  was  edu- 
cated at  Douai  and  became  professor  there  of  phi- 
losophy and  divinity;  was  ordained  priest,  1735; 
traveled  through  France  and  Italy,  1745-46,  and 
then  was  sent  for  a  short  time  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic mission  in  Staffordshire.    Later  he  was  tutor 
to  Edward  Howard,  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  Paris;  about  1766  he  became  presi- 
dent  of   the   English   college   at   St.   Omer.    He 
labored  for  thirty  years  on  his  chief  work.   The 
Lives  of  the  FatherSf  Martifraj  and  Other  Principal 
SairUSf  which  was  published  anonymously  in  four 
volumes   (vol.  iii.,  2  parts)  at  London,  1756-59. 
The  second  edition,  with  notes  and  other  matter 
omitted  in  the  first  edition,  edited  by  Dr.  Carpen- 
ter, archbishop  of  Dublin,  appeared  at   Dublin  in 
twelve  volumes  in  1779-80.    It  has  appeared  in 
several  later  editions  and  abridgments  (as  by  F. 
C.  Husenbeth,  with  omission  of  the  notes  and  most 
of  the  shorter  lives,  2  vols.,  London,  1857-60),  and 
was    translated    into    French    and    Italian.     His 
nephew,  Charles  Butler  (q.v.),  prepared  a  continua- 
tion (London,  1823).    A  complete  general  index  was 
published  in  1886. 

Biblioorapht:  Charles  Butler,  An  Account  of  the  Life  and 
WriHnae  of  Alban  Butler,  Edinburgh,  1800,  contained  also 
in  vol.  iii.  of  the  works  of  Chailes  Butler,  London,  1817, 
and  in  many  editions  of  the  Livea;  DNB,  viii.  33-34. 

BUTLER,  ALFORD  AUGUSTUS:  Protestant 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Sept.  23,  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Griswold  College,  Davenport, 
la.,  where  he  completed  his  theological  education 
in  1873.  He  was  ordered  deacon  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  1874.  He  was  suc- 
cessively assistant  in  Grace  Cathedral,  Davenport, 
la.  (1873),  and  rector  of  Grace  Church,  Cedar 
Rapids,  la.  (1873-77),  Trinity  Church,  Bay  City, 
Mich.  (1877-84),  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  New 
York  City  (1884-91),  and  Christ  Church,  Red  Wing, 
Minn.  (1891-94).  Since  1894  he  has  been  warden 
and  professor  of  homiletics,  liturgies,  and  religious 
pedagogy  in  Seabury  Divinity  School,  Faribault, 
Minn.  He  was  active  in  organizing  the  Parochial 
Mission  Society  of  the  United  States,  and  was 
chosen  secretary  of  its  executive  conmiittee,  and 
also  took  a  prominent  part  in  establishing  the  first 
deaconess  school  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  He  is  likewise  a  member  of  the  Joint 
(Commission  on  Sunday  Schools  and  of  the  General 
Convention  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
He  has  written:  Hoxd  to  Study  the  Life  of  Christ 
(New  York,   1902);  How  shall  we  warship  God  f 


(1904);  and  The  Churchman* s  Manual  of  Sunday 
School  Methods  (Milwaukee,  1906). 

BUTLER,  ALFRED  JOSHUA:  Church  of  Eng- 
land layman;  b.  at  Loughborough  (10  m.  n.n.w.  of 
Leicester),  Leicestershire,  Sept.  21,  1850.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1874), 
and  after  being  assistant  master  at  Winchester 
from  1874  to  1879,  was  tutor  to  the  Khedive  of 
Egypt  in  1879-81.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  Brase- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  in  1877,  and  was  appointed 
bursar  four  years  later,  both  of  which  positions 
he  still  holds.  He  has  written:  Amaranth  and  As- 
phodel, Verses  from  the  Greek  Anthology  (London, 
1880);  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Egypt  (2  vols., 
Oxford,  1884);  Court  Life  in  Egypt  (London,  1887); 
The  Churches  and  Monasteries  of  Egypt  and  some 
neighboring  Countries  attributed  to  Abu  Salih,  the 
Armenian  (1895,  in  collaboration  with  B.  T.  A. 
Evetts);  and  The  Arab  Conquest  of  Egypt  (London, 
1902). 

BUTLER,  CHARLES:  English  Roman  Catholic 
layman;  nephew  of  Alban  Butler  (q.v.);  b.  in 
London  Aug.  14,  1750;  d.  there  June  2,  1832.  He 
studied  at  Douai,  and  for  many  years  was  a  leading 
lawyer  of  London.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
movement  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the  laws  against 
Roman  Catholics;  in  regard  to  the  hierarchy  and 
the  relations  of  English  Catholics  to  the  pope  he 
was  an  extreme  Gallican,  and  found  bitter  opponents 
in  the  vicars-ai)ostolic  in  England.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer;  among  the  more  important 
of  his  works  are  Hora  hiblicce  (2  pts.,  London,  1797- 
1802);  Historical  Memoirs  respecting  the  English, 
Irish,  and  Scottish  Catholics  from  the  Reformation 
(4  vols.,  1819-21);  Reminiscences  (1822);  The  Book 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1825);  biographies 
of  Alban  Bulter  (1800),  F^nelon  (1811),  Erasmus 
(1825),  Grotius  (1826),  and  others.  He  continued 
his  uncle's  Lives  of  the  Saints. 

BUTLER,  CLEMENT  MOORE:  American  Epis- 
copalian; b.  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  16,  1810;  d.  in 
Philadelphia  Mar.  5,  1890.  He  was  graduated  at 
Washington  (Trinity)  College  1833,  and  at  the 
General  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  1836; 
was  rector  of  various  churches  in  New  York,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Massachusetts,  and  Ohio 
1837-61,  and  from  1849  to  1853  chaplain  of  the 
United  States  Senate;  chaplain  of  the  United 
States  embassy  at  Rome  1861-64;  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity 
School,  Philadelphia,  1864-84.  Besides  occasional 
sermons,  he  published:  The  Year  of  the  Church, 
hymns  and  devotional  verse  for  the  Sundays  and 
Holy  Days  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  for  young  persona 
(Utica,  N.  Y.,  1839);  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
Interpreted  by  its  History  (Boston,  1845;  2d  ed., 
enlarged,  Washington,  1849);  Addresses  and  Lec- 
tures on  Public  Men  and  Public  Affairs  delivered 
in  Washington  City  (Cincinnati,  1856);  The  Flock 
Fed,  catechetical  instruction  preparatory  to  con- 
firmation (New  York,  1862);  Inner  Rome,  political, 
religious,  and  social  (Philadelphia,  1866);  The  Rit- 
ualism of  Law  (1867);  A  Manual  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  (from  the  first  to  the  nineteenth  century; 
2  vols.,  1868-72);  History  of  the  Book  of  Common 


Butlar 
Battlar 


THE  NEW  aCHAFF-HERZOG 


820 


Prayer  (1880);  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Svoe- 
den  (New  York,  1883). 

BUTLER,  HENRY  MONTAGXTE:  Bfaster  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge;  b.  at  Gayton  (4  m. 
n.  of  Towcester),  Northampton,  July  2,  1833.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College  (B.A.;  1855), 
and  wajB  ordained  priest  in  1859.  He  was  fellow 
of  his  college  in  1855-60,  and  was  head  master  of 
Harrow  School  from  1859  to  1885.  He  was  honor- 
ary chaplain  to  the  queen  in  1875-77  and  chaplain 
in  ordisuBuy  in  1877-85,  as  well  as  examining  chap- 
lain to  ardibishops  Tait  and  Benson  of  Canterbury 
from  1879  to  1887.  He  was  also  prebendary  of 
Holbom  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1882-85,  dean 
of  Gloucester  in  1885-86,  and  vice-chancellor  of 
Cambridge  in  1889-91.  Since  1886  he  has  been 
master  of  Trinity  College,  and  honorary  canon  of 
Ely  since  189S.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford 
in  1877-78,  1878-80,  1882,  and  1899,  and  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1879, 1885, 1893, 1896-98, 1901,  and  1903, 
while  in  1871  he  was  created  a  commander  of  the 
Order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy.  He  is  also  a  governor 
of  Haileybury  College,  Harrow  School,  Cheltenham 
College,  Wellington  College,  and  Westminster 
School,  and  has  written:  Sermons  preached  in  the 
Chapel  of  Harrow  School  (2  vols.,  London,  1861-69); 
Belief  in  Christ  and  other  Sermons  preached  in 
Trinity  College  (1898);  "Lift  up  your  Hearts'*  : 
Words  of  Oood  Cheer  for  the  Holy  Communion  (1898); 
University  and  other  Sermons  (1899);  and  Public 
School  Sermons  (1899). 

BUTLER,  JAMES  GLENTWORTH:  Presby- 
terian; b.  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1821.  He 
was  educated  at  New  York  University  (did  not 
graduate),  Union  Theological  Seminary  (1846-47), 
and  Yale  Divinity  School,  being  graduated  from 
the  latter  in  1849.  After  being  a  resident  licentiate 
at  the  same  institution  in  1849-50,  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  late  in  1852  and  was 
pastor  of  the  Walnut  Street  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  imtil  1868.  He  was  then  elected 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  American  and  For- 
eign Christian  Union,  a  position  which  he  retained 
three  years,  after  which  he  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  Brooklyn,  for  two  years 
(1871-73).  In  1874  he  jetired  from  the  active 
ministry,  and  has  since  lived  the  life  of  a  private 
scholar.  In  addition  to  a  nimiber  of  briefer  con- 
tributions, he  prepared  The  Bible  Reader's  Com" 
mentary,  New  Testament  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1879), 
which  was  afterward  enlarged  under  the  title 
Bible  Work  (11  vols.,  1892)  and  made  to  include 
the  Old  Testament;  and  Vital  Truths  respecting 
Ood  and  Man  (Philadelphia,  1904). 

BUTLER,  JOHN  GEORGE:  Lutheran;  b.  at 
Cumberland,  Md.,  Jan.  28,  1826.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Pennsylvania  College  (1846)  and  Gettys- 
biu-g  Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Pa  (1847- 
1849),  and  was  pastor  of  St.  Paul's  English  Lutheran 
Church,  Washington,  D.  C,  from  1849  to  1873.  Since 
the  latter  year  he  has  been  pastor  of  the  Luther 
Place  Memorial  Church  in  the  same  city.  He  also 
served  throughout  the  Civil  War  as  a  chaplain  in 
and  near  Washington,  was  chaplain  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  from  1869  to  1875,  and  of  the 


Senate  from  1866  to  1893.  He  was  likewise  pro- 
fessor of  homiletics  and  church  history  in  Howard 
University,  Washington,  from  1871  to  1891,  and 
for  many  years  was  Washington  correspondent  of 
the  Lutheran's  Observer  and  the  Lutheran  Evangel- 
istf  and  has  also  been  the  editor  of  the  latter  paper 
since  1893. 

BUTLER,  JOSEPH:  Bishop  of  Durham;  b.  at 
Wantage  (14  m.  s.w.  of  Oxford)  May  18,  1692;  d. 
at  Bath  June  16,  1752.  He  was  the  youngest  of 
the  eight  children  of  Thomas  Butler,  a  retired 
linen-draper  and  stanch  Presbyterian,  but  was 
allowed  to  enter  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1718 
the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  Eng^d.  From 
1719  to  1726  he  was  preacher  at  the  Rolls  Chapel, 
London,  where  most  of  the  congregation  were 
lawyers  and  the  pay  small;  from  1721  to  1738  he 
was  prebendary  of  Salisbury;  from  1721  to  1725, 
rector  of  Haughton-le-Skeme  (2  m.  n.e.  of  Dar- 
lington); and  from  1725  to  1740  of  Stanhope  (26  m. 
p.  of  Darlington).  From  1733  to  1740  he  was  a  preb- 
endary of  Rochester;  from  1733  to  1736  chaplain 
to  the  lord  chancellor;  from  1736  to  her  death  in 
1737  clerk  of  the  closet  to  Caroline,  queen  consort 
of  George  II.;  from  1738  to  1750  bishop  of  Bristol, 
the  poorest  see  in  England;  from  1740  to  1750 
dean  of  St.  Paul's  with  a  prebend  and  residentiary 
canony;  from  1746  to  1750  clerk  of  the  closet  to 
the  King  (George  II.);  from  1750  till  his  death, 
bishop  of  Durham,  the  richest  see  in  England.  As 
appears  from  the  above,  he  was  a  pluralist.  He 
was  not,  however,  avaricious,  but  generous  to  a 
fault.  He  was  shy,  reticent,  sensitive,  more  of  a 
thinker  than  a  reader,  and  he  never  married.  His 
one  great  aim  was  to  combat  the  current  Deiam 
and  contempt  for  religion.  This  he  did  with  un- 
rivaled  force.  He  had  the  very  expensive  taste 
of  building  and  spent  much  money  in  reconstruct- 
ing his  episcopal  residences. 

His  reputation  rests  upon  his  writings,  all  pub- 
lished by  himself  or  in  his  lifetime,  as  his  literary 
remains  were  destroyed  at  his  death,  according  to 
his  direction.  These  writings  are  few  in  number 
but  weighty  in  matter.  ThiB  is  the  full  list:  Fif- 
teen Sermons  Preached  at  the  Rolls  Chapel  (1726); 
The  Analogy  of  Religion  Natural  and  Revealed  to 
the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature  (1736);  six 
occasional  sermons  of  various  dates;  a  part  of  his 
episcopal  charge  at  Bristol  in  1749,  and  his  episco- 
pal charge  at  Durham  in  1751;  and  the  corre- 
spondence, down  to  1714,  between  himself  and 
Samuel  Clarke,  which  the  latter  published  in  the 
fourth  edition  (1716)  of  his  Boyle  lectures  on  the 
Being  and  Attributes  of  God,  and  separately  the 
same  year,  but  which  has  received  additions. 

To  understand  and  appreciate  these  writings  of 
Butler  one  must  bear  in  mind  two  facts:  Butler 
lived  in  the  "  golden  age  of  En^h  Deism,"  when 
Christianity,  as  he  himself  says,  was  "  not  so  much 
as  a  subject  of  inquiry;  but  that  it  is,  now  at 
length,  discovered  to  be  fictitious  ";  and  secondly 
that  he  was  intensely  practical.  He  wrote  his 
famous  Fifteen  Sermons,  as  J.  H.  Bernard  says, 
"  not  to  propound  a  new  basis  for  speculative 
ethics,  but  to  justify  to  practical  men  the  practice 


sax 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Butler 
Bnttlar 


of  the  oommon  virtues,  benevolence,  compassion, 
and   the  like.    He  desires  to  take  human  nature 
as    an  existing  fact,  and  to  analyze  its  constitu- 
ents just  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  bring  to  light  the 
obligations  to  right  living/'    His  Six  Sermons  are 
likewise  practical:   The  first  is  a  defense  of  foreign 
missions;  the  second  is  an  appeal  for  the  London 
hospitals;  the  third  is  on  the  true  way  to  safeguard 
liberty;  the  fourth  is  a  plea  for  charity  schools; 
the  fifth  is  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  union  of 
Church  and  State  should  be  put,  and  the  sixth 
upon  the  proper  management  of  infirmaries.    Of 
like  practicality  is  his  more  famous  Analogy.    He 
took  the  Deists  on  their  own  ground  and  strove  to 
cut  the  ground  from  imder  their  feet  in  order  that 
he  might  bring  them  to  the  Christian  foimdation. 
To   quote  Bernard  again:  ''  We  find  in  Butler's 
worl^    no    attempt    to    construct   a  philosophy 
of   religion   nor  ...  an  analysis  of  the  religious 
consciousness.  .  .  .  Religion  is  treated  altogether 
from  the  historical  point  of  view.    Its  main  doc- 
trines are  facts  and  are  susceptible  of  proof,  just 
like  any  other  facts.  ...  It  is  an  argumentum  ad 
hominem  all  through,  and  is  not  intended  to  pre- 
sent an  absolute  and  consecutive  statement  of  the 
grounds  of  faith.  .  .  .  His  point  was,  not  that  the 
difficulties  of  revelation  repeat  the   difficulties  of 
nature,  but  rather  the  difficulties    of  revelation, 
admitted  to  be  embarrassing  in  themselves,  cannot 
be  ooimted  destructive  of  religious  belief,  inasmuch 
as  difficulties  of  a  similar  nature  beset  the  recog- 
nition of  nature  as  a  coherent  and  systematic 
whole." 

The  first  part  of  the  Analogy,  consisting  of  seven 
chapters,  is  the  Analogy  of  Natiiral  Religion  to  the 
constitution  and  course  of  Nature;  and  b  gener- 
ally considered  more  successful  than  the  second 
part,  in  eight  chapters,  on  the  Analogy  of  Revealed 
Religion  to  the  constitution  and  course  of  Nature 
(or  a  kind  of  evidences  of  Christianity).  But  both 
parts  are  very  hard  reading,  because,  though  per- 
fectly clear,  the  argument  is  very  profound.  It  has 
been  a  college  and  university  text-book  for  nigh 
175  years  and  the  quarry  of  innumerable  works. 

There  are  many  editions  of  Butler.  Two  of  re- 
markable excellence  are  that  by  the  late  W.  E. 
Gladstone  (two  vols.,  Oxford,  1896,  with  a  volume 
of  Gladstone's  Studies  subsidiary  to  Butler's  works) 
and  that  by  J.  H.  Bernard  (2  vols.,  London,  1900). 

Dibliooraprt:  The  earliest  Life  appeared  in  the  Biofpra^ 
jthia  Britanniea,  in  the  Supplement,  London,  1753,  and 
the  Life  by  Kippis,  which  appeared  in  hia  ed.  of  the  Bi- 
ograpKia,  London,  1778-03,  ib  often  prefixed  to  the  Worke 
or  to  the  Analogy.  Consult  further:  T.  Bartlett,  Memoire 
of  Joeeph  BuUer,  London,  1839;  John  Hunt,  Rdiffioue 
Thoughi  in  England,  vols,  ii.,  iii..  ib.  1871-73;  C.  J.  Abbey 
and  J.  H.  Overton,  Englieh  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury, 2  vols.,  ib.  1878;  T.  R.  Pynohon.  Biehop  Butler,  a 
Sketdi  ef  his  Life  wiJIh  an  Examination  of  the  Analogy, 
New  Yofk,  1889;  Biahop  BulUr,  An  AppreciaUon,  wiOi 
(ke  bMf  pMsofiM  of  his  WriAnoe,  London,  1903;  DNB, 
viii.  07-72: 

BUTLER,  WILLIAM:  Methodist;  b.  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  Jan.  31,  1818;  d.  at  Newton  Centre,  Mass. 
Aug.  18,  1899.  He  was  graduated  at  Didsbury 
0)llege,  near  Manchester,  Eng.,  1844,  and  the  same 
year  became  a  member  of  the  Irish  Wesleyan  Con- 
ference. In  1850  he  came  to  America  and  joined 
U.— 21 


the  New  England  Conference.  In  1856  he  was 
sent  to  India  to  be  superintendent  of  a  mission  to 
be  foimded  in  that  country.  He  located  it  in 
Oudh,  Northwest  India,  but  had  scarcely  begun 
work  before  the  Sepoy  rebellion  broke  out  and  he 
was  for  a  time  in  extreme  peril.  Quiet  being  re- 
stored, he  conducted  the  mission  very  successfully, 
making  his  headquarters  at  Bareilly.  In  1865  he  re- 
turned to  America  because,  the  mission  being  organ- 
ized into  a  conference,  no  superintendent  was  needed. 
He  resumed  his  pastoral  labors  till  in  1869  he  became 
secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign  Christian 
Union,  in  New  York.  In  1873  he  was  for  the  sec- 
ond time  selected  by  his  Church  to  found  a  mission, 
this  time  in  Mexico,  and  was  its  superintendent  till 
1879.  He  revisited  India  in  1883  and  1884,  and 
saw  the  great  success  which  had  attended  the  mis- 
sion he  had  founded.  His  last  days  were  passed  at 
Newton  Centre,  Mass.  He  wrote:  Comperuiium  of 
Missions  (Boston,  1852);  The  Land  of  the  Veda 
(New  York,  1872);  From  Boston  to  BareiUy  and 
Back  (1885);  Mexico  in  Transition  (1892). 

Bibliookapht:  Clementina  Butler.  WUliam  BuOer,  th* 
Founder  of  Two  Mieeione  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  New  York, 
1902. 

BUTLER,  WILLIAM  ARCHER:  Chureh  of 
Ireland;  b.  at  Annerville  (2  m.  e.  of  Clonmel), 
Coimty  Tipperary,  1814;  d.  at  Raymoghy  (5  m.  n. 
of  Raphoe),  County  Donegal,  Jidy  5,  1848.  He 
studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  moral  philosophy  there  from  1837  to  his 
death.  From  1837  to  1842  he  was  minister  at 
Clondehorka,  diocese  of  Raphoe,  County  Donegal, 
and  then  rector  of  Raymoghy  in  the  same  diocese. 
He  was  a  brilliant  and  profoimd  thinker,  but  his 
works  are  all  posthumous  and  prepared  for  the 
press  by  others.  They  are  Letters  on  the  Develop- 
ment of  Christian  Doctrine  in  Reply  to  Mr.  New- 
man's Essay  (ed.  Thomas  Woodward,  Dublin, 
1850);  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Ancient  Philos- 
ophy (ed.  William  Hepworth  Thompson,  2  vols., 
Cambridge,  1856,  5th  ed.,  1  vol.,  London,  1874); 
Sermons  Doctrinal  and  Practical  (1st  series,  ed.  with 
memoir  by  Thomas  Woodward,  Dublin,  1849,  3d 
ed.,  Cambridge,  1855;  2d  series,  ed.  James  Ami- 
raux  Jeremie,  Cambridge,  1856),  each  series  having 
twenty-six  sermons;  the  two  series  with  his  lec- 
tures were  reprinted  in  New  York,  1879. 

BUTTERBRIEFE,  BUTTERWOCHE.    See  Lao- 

TICINIA.. 

BUTTLARy  EVA  VON :  The  leader  in  a  disgrace- 
ful aberration  externally  connected  with  Pietism, 
which  is  in  no  way  responsible  for  it;  b.  at  Esch- 
wege  (26  m.  e.s.e.  of  Cassel),  Hesse,  1670;  d.  at 
Altona  after  1717.  Eklucated  without  religious  in- 
struction, she  married  at  seventeen  a  French  dan- 
cing-master in  Eisenach,  named  De  Vdsias.  After 
ten  years  of  a  gay  court  life,  she  was  touched 
by  the  Pietistic  movement,  left  her  husband, 
stopped  going  to  church,  and  in  1702,  with  a  group 
of  friends,  founded  at  Allendorf  in  Hesse  a  new 
Christian-Philadelphio  society,  like  several  others 
which  had  sprung  up  in  the  Netherlands  and  west- 
em  Germany.  The  esoteric  doctrine  of  these  so- 
cieties included  the  expectation  of  an  approach- 


Bai 


lutts 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


322 


ing  milleimiuin,  the  rejection  of  marriage  as 
degrading,  and  the  extinction  of  carnal  desires  by 
unrestrained  indulgence.  Eva  and  her  friends  are 
said  to  have  practised  the  most  lawless  excesses,  as 
sanctioned  by  their  beliefs.  Driven  from  Allen- 
dorf,  they  sought  refuge  in  Wittgenstein,  the  com- 
mon asylum  of  the  persecuted;  but  even  there  the 
tribunals  were  obliged  to  interfere.  Eva  and  her 
special  intimates,  the  theologian  Winter  and  the 
physician  Appenfeller,  embraced  Catholicism  at 
Cologne  pro  forma  as  a  means  of  protection,  and 
then  settled  at  LQde  near  Pyrmont,  where  their 
blasphemous  insanity  reached  its  height  in  1706. 
They  were  all  again  arrested,  but  escaped.  Ap- 
penfeller, who  had  been  legally  married  to  Eva, 
settled  with  her  in  Altona  as  a  practising  physician; 
and  she  is  said  finally  to  have  lived  a  decent,  regu- 
lar life  with  him  there  as  a  member  of  the  Evangel- 
ical Lutheran  Church. 

(F.  W.  DiBBLIUS.) 

Bibuoorarkt:  Thomaaiua,  Otdanken  HUr  aUm'hand  (f- 
mUehU  ^UoBophiaehM  und  jwiatUche  HOndel,  iii.  206-624, 
Halle,  1726:  KeUer.  D%»  Buttlaruehe  Ratte,  in  ZHT, 
1840,  part  4;  M.  Goebel,  OMchichU  d€M  chriaaitken  Isbmu 
in  dtr  rhtiniaek  w§9iphiUueken  Kirehe,  Oobtens,  1852. 

BUrrZ,  HENRY  AITSON:  American  Methodist 
Episcopalian;  b.  at  Middle  Smithfield,  Pa.,  Apr. 
18,  1835.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  College 
(BA.,  1858),  and  held  pastorates  at  Millstone, 
N.  J.  (1858-59),  Irvington,  N.  J.  (1859-60),  Wood- 
bridge,  N.J.  (1860-61),  Mariner's  Harbor,  Staten 
Island  (1862-63),  Prospect  Street  Church,  Pater- 
son,  N.  J.  (1864-66),  and  Morristown,  N.  J.  (1867- 
1869).  He  was  also  instructor  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Madison,  N.  J.,  in  1867,  becoming  ad- 
jimct  professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  in  1868,  and 
professor  of  New  Testament  Greek  and  exegesis 
two  years  later.  Since  1880  he  has  been  president 
of  the  seminary.  He  has  edited,  in  addition  to  a 
number  of  briefer  studies:  The  New  Life  Dawning 
by  B.  H.  Nadal  (New  York,  1873)  and  The  EpUOe 
to  the  Bomam  in  Qrtek  (1876). 

BUTZERy  MARim. 

Bwly  AetMty  in  the  Prote»-  The     Wittenberg     Conoord 

tant  Gaun  (|  1).  (}  4). 

The    Reformation  in   Strae-  Critique  of  Butier'e  Attitude 

burg  (f  2).  in  the  Oontroversy  (|  6). 

Endeavors  to  Seeondle  Lu-  Butser  in  England  (|  6). 

ther  and  Zwingli  (|  8).  Death  of  Butaer  (|  7). 

Martin  Butoer  (Buoer)  was  bom  at  Schlettstadt  (26 

m.  s.w.  of  Strasburg)  Nov.  1 1 ,  1491 ;  d.  at  Cambridge, 

Eng.,  Feb.  28, 1551.  He  received  his  first  education  at 

the  excellent  Latin  school  of  his  native  town,  and 

In  1606  joined  the  order  of  the    Dominicans.    In 

1517  he  was  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  studied  the 

writings  of  the  humanists,  the  Bible,  and  also  the 

writing?  of  Luther,  whose  personal  acquaintance 

he  made  in  1518  and  with  whom  he 

X.  Early     began  to  correspond  in  1520.    Being 

Activity     suspected  by  his  order  and  accused  at 

in  the      Rome,  Butser,  who  favored  the  evan- 

Protestant  gelical   cause,  left   the   monastery  in 

Cause.      1520  to  avoid  further  difficulties,  and 

became  an  associate  of  Hutten  and 

Sickingen.    The  latter  called  him  in  1522  to  the 

pastorate  of  Landstuhl,  and  in  the  same  year  he 


married,  being  one  of  the  first  priests  to  break  his 
vow  of  celibacy.  When  Sickingen  was  defeated 
by  the  elector  of  Treves,  however,  Butzer  had 
to  leave  the  city,  and  for  a  year  he  acted  as 
evangelical  preacher  at  Wissenburg  in  Alsace, 
supported  by  the  council  and  citizens,  but  attacked 
by  the  Franciscan  monks.  In  1523  he  went  to 
Strasbuig,  where  the  Reformation,  prepared  in  dif- 
ferent ways,  was  already  in  progress.  Together 
with  Zell,  Cf^ito,  and  Hedio,  Butzer  became  the 
soul  of  the  Strasbuig  Reformation,  and  by  preach- 
ing and  writing,  by  letters  and  joumeya,  and  by 
personal  relations  with  ecclesiastics  and  statesmen, 
he  exerted  a  reformatory  and  organizing  activity, 
not  only  in  Alsace  but  also  in  different  countries. 
He  was  pastor  of  St.  Aurelia  1524-31,  and  pastor 
of  St.  Thomas  1531-40,  having  already  become  in 
1530  president  of  the  newly  foimded  church  coun- 
cil which  was  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority 
in  Strasburg.  As  spiritual  spokesman  of  the 
Strasburg  citizens,  who  were  eager  for  the  Refor- 
mation, and  as  leader  of  the  evangelical  ministers, 
he  appeared  before  the  council,  which  proceeded 
cautiously  and  advisedly.  He  accomplished  the 
abolition  of  the  mass  on  Feb.  20, 
a.  The       1529,  by  a  decree  of  the  lay  asseasors. 

Reforma-     and  thus  the  introduction  of  the  Ref- 
tion  in      ormation  into  the  free  imperial  city 

Strasbuig.  Strasburg  was  made  a  matter  of  his- 
tory. But  long  before  this  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  divine  service  and  of  ecclesiastical 
life  began.  Butzer's  Ordnung  und  InhaU  deutacher 
Mesae  (1524)  was  typical  of  the  Reformed  order  of 
worship.  He  devoted  special  attention  to  cate- 
chetics  and  published  three  catechisms  between 
1524  and  1544,  while  by  the  church  ordinance  of 
1534  he  introduced  the  lay  presbytery  into  Stras- 
burg, and  in  1539  he  inaugiu*ated  confirmation  in 
the  same  city.  Together  with  his  friend  Johannes 
Sturm,  he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Protestant 
educational  system  in  Strasburg,  founding  the 
gymnasium  in  1538,  and  the  seminary  in  1544.  In 
the  interest  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  he  energet- 
ically opposed  the  Anabaptists  and  such  radicals  as 
Carlstadt,  Hetzer,  Denk,  Sebastian  Frank,  Schwenck- 
feld,  Melchior  Hof mann,  and  Clemens  Ziegler. 

Outside  of  Strasburg  Butzer  brought  about  the 
introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  Hanau-Lich- 
tenberg  (1544),  while  WOrttemberg,  Baden,  and 
especially  Hesse  owed  him  much.  For  the  elector 
of  Cologne,  Archbishop  Hermann  of  Wied,  Butzer, 
together  with  Melanchthon,  composed  an  order  of 
reformation  (1543).  His  influence  even  reached 
as  far  as  Belgium,  Italy,  and  France. 

Butzer's  activity  in  ecclesiastical  organization 
is  treated  too  Ughtly  in  most  works  on  church  his- 
tory, which  lay  their  main  stress  on  his  efforts 
toward  a  union  of  the  two  main  streams  of  the 
Reformation,  and  especially  on  his  endeavors  to 
reconcile  Luther  and  Zwingli  in  the  eucharistic 
controversy,  which  significantly  interrupted  the 
course  of  the  main  events  in  the  period  of  the  Refor- 
mation. When  Carlstadt  had  to  leave  Strasburg 
in  1524,  Butzer  addressed  a  writing  to  Luther  in 
the  name  of  the  Strasburg  ministers,  in  which  he 
and  they  expressed  their  position  in  regard  to 


sas 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


iitts 
ataer 


Carlstadt.    Concerning  the  sacrament  of  the  altar, 
they  taught  that  the  bread  is  the  body  of  Christ 
axid  the  wine  his  blood,  but  that  greater  impor- 
tance should  be  attached  to  vhe  commemoration  of 
the  death  of  Jesus  than  to  the  question  what  one 
eats  and  drinks.     At  first  Luther  answered  reas- 
suringly, but  in  his  work  Wider  die 
3.  Endeav-  himmlischen  Propheien  (1525)   he  at- 
on  to  Rec-  tacked    the    Strasburg     theologians, 
oncile      The  latter  sent  an  envoy  to  appease 
Luther  and  Luther,  but  he  emphasized  the  bodily 
ZwinglL     presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per more  than  ever,    and  gave  the 
Strasburgers  to  imderstand  that  they  should  not 
be  deceived    by  the  light  of  reason.    The  Stras- 
burgers now  saw  themselves  driven  more  and  more 
to  the  side  of  the  Swiss,  so  far  as  the  doctrine  of  the 
sacrament  was  concerned.  At  the  Disputation  of 
Bern  (q.v.)  in  1528  Butzer  made  the  personal  ac- 
quaintance of  Zwingli,  with  whom  he  had  been  cor- 
responding since  1523.    Luther  again  attacked  his 
opponents  in  his  Grasses  Bekenntnis  vam  Abend- 
mahl  (1528),  but  Butzer  did  not  lose  hope  of  com- 
ing to  an  imderstanding  by  a  personal  interview. 
Together  with  the  landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  who 
was  animated  by  the  same  interest  in  the  union 
and  agreement  of  the  Protestants,  he  brought  about 
the  religious  conference  of  Marburg  (q.v.)  in  1529. 
Concerning  the  question  whether  the  true  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  actually  present  in  the 
bread  and  wine,  no  agreement  ooidd  be  reached; 
nevertheless,  each  party  was  to  show  Christian  love 
toward  the  other,  so  far  as  the  conscience  of  each 
allowed.    Butzer  visited  Luther  at  Coburg  in  Sept., 
1530,   and   received   the   promise   to   examine  a 
new  confession  which  Butzer  intended  to  prepare. 
Butzer   now    endeavored    to  induce  the   Protes- 
tants, at  least  in  southern  Germany,  to  prepare 
a  dedaration  which  should  approximately  satisfy 
Luther,    since    the   Swiss  opposed  every  further 
advance,  an  additional  incentive  being  the  threat- 
ening attitude  of   the  emperor  toward  the  Prot- 
estants   at  this    time.     The   outcome    of    these 
endeavors  wa  the  Wittenberg  Concord  (q  .v.) ,  which 
was  agreed  upon  with  Luther  in  1536 
4.  The     by   a  delegation    of   Upper  German 
Wittenberg  theologians    under  the    direction   of 
Concord.    Butzer.     In   this  Concrd  the  con- 
cession was  made  to  Luiher  that  the 
body  and  the  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  and  essen- 
tially present  with  the  bread  and  with  the  wine  and 
are  so  given  and  received,  the  only  modification  be- 
ing that  the  unworthy,  but  not  the  unholy,  actually 
receive  the  body  of  the  Lord.    By  this  agreement 
a  certain  sort  of  theological  understanduig  was 
reached  between  Luther  and  the  South  Germans, 
but  the  rupture  between  Butzer  and  the  Swiss  was 
accomplished. 

Whatever  views  be  held  of  Butzer's  e^iorts  for 
union,  especially  in  the  eucharistic  controversy, 
his  honest  intention  and  his  unselfish  zeal  to  serve 
the  Church  are  beyond  all  question.  His  diplo- 
matic tactics  were  not  always  such  as  to  inspire  con- 
fidence, and  they  gave  offense  to  other  parties  be- 
sides Luther.  Butzer  himself  felt  it  afterward  and 
honestly  acknowledged  that  he  had  not  always 


interfered  in  a  discreet  manner.    The  whole  sub- 
ject of  controversy  was   of   less  interest  for  But- 
zer than  for  Luther,  hence    Butzer's 

5.  Critique  readiness   to   make    concessions   and 
of  Butzer's  ever  new  formularizations.    The  real 

Attitude  success  of  his  endeavors  was  that  the 
in  the  Con-  South  Germans  were  not  only  induced 
troversy.  to  make  oonunon  political  cause  with 
the  North  Germans,  but  were  also 
drawn  into  the  conununion  of  Lutheranism,  in  spite 
of  their  peculiar  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  fact  that  Melanchthon,  influenced  partly  by 
Butzer,  took  an  intermediate  position,  and  was 
thus  drawn  nearer  to  Calvin,  was  also  far-reaching 
in  its  importance  for  the  future  formation  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  in  Germany.  The  outcome  of 
the  Schmalkald  War  and  the  defeat  of  the  Protes- 
tants (1547)  gave  the  emperor  power  to  settle 
the  religious  troubles  by  the  Augsburg  Interim 
(see  Interim)  in  1548,  which  was  accepted  by  the 
majority  of  the  intimidated  diet  and  was  to  be 
forced  upon  the  city  of  Strasburg.  This  was  most 
energetically  opposed  by  Butzer  and  his  younger  col- 
league, Paul  Fagius,  on  the  groimd  of  the  Bomani- 
zing  character  of  the  document.  But  when  the  coun- 
cil, yielding  to  the  force  of  circumstances,  accepted 
the  Interim,  Butzer  perceived  that  he  could  remain 
in  Strasburg  no  longer,  and  he  accepted  a  call  to 
En^and,  whither  he  had  been  invited,  together 
with  Fagius,  by  Thomas  Cranmer,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  the  soul  of  the  Reformar 

6.  Butzer    tion  in  England.    In  Apr.,  1549,  both 

in  arrived  at  London,  and  were  met  by 
England.    Cranmer  and  King  Ekiward  VI.    The 

king  wished  them  to  translate  the 
Bible  from  the  original  into  Latin,  this  version  be- 
ing intended  to  serve  aa  the  basis  of  an  English 
version  for  the  people.  The  work  was  commenced 
at  once.  At  the  end  of  the  simuner  of  1549  But- 
zer and  Fagius  were  to  go  to  Cambridge  as  teachers 
and  assist  in  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry.  Fagius  arrived  first,  but  died  of  a  slow 
fever  (Nov.,  1549).  In  Jan.,  1550,  Butzer  com- 
menced his  lectures  at  Cambridge,  which  were  at- 
tended by  large  crowds  of  students,  some  of  whom 
afterward  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  Butzer  was  directed  to  exam- 
ine the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  was  thus  led 
into  a  public  disputation  held  on  Aug.  6,  1550,  to 
expose  the  opposition  of  the  Eln^h  bishops  (who 
still  leaned  toward  Rome)  to  evangelical  principles 
and  innovations.  At  the  request  of  the  young 
king,  Butzer  wrote  his  De  regno  Christie  which  he 
prepared  in  less  than  three  months.  This  work 
was  intended  to  teach  the  true  nature  of  God's  king- 
dom and  the  means  by  which  it  might  be  realized 
In  earthly  form  in  a  country  like  l^giand.    This 

work    was    Butzer's    last.     Scarcely 

7.  Death    had  the  king  expressed  his  warm  ap- 

of  proval  and  the  university  conferred 
Butzer.  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  un- 
conditionally, a  thing  which  never 
happened  before,  when  Butzer  died  after  a  short 
illness.  He  was  buried  with  great  honor  in  the 
principal  church  at  Cambridge;  but  in  1556  his 
body  was  exhumed  and  publicly  burnt.  Four  yean 


Buztorf 
Bynun 


THE   NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


824 


afterward,  however,  Queen  Elizabeth  again  honored 
hifl  memory.  Paul  Gruenbero. 

Bibuoorapht:  A  complete  collection  of  Sutler's  works  has 
never  been  made,  that  begun  by  hia  associate  K.  Hubert 
never  getting  beyond  the  first  volume,  Basel,  1577  (known 
as  Tomua  Anolicanua  because  it  contained  mostly  wri- 
tings published  in  England).  A  bibliography  of  But- 
ser's  published  works  and  literature  about  him  was  issued 
by  F.  Ments  and  A.  Erichson  in  Vierkundertmhrige  0»- 
bMrUfeier  M.  BuUer'a,  Strasburg,  1891.  Consult:  J.  W. 
Baum,  Capita  und  Butter,  StroBtburgM  Reformaioren^  El- 
berfeld,  1860  (from  the  sources);  I.  B.  Rady,  Dm  Refor- 
maioren  in  ikrer  Beziehung  miw  DoppeUhe  dea  Landgrafen 
Philipp,  Frankfort.  1890;  C.  Conrad.  Martin  Butter, 
Strasburg.  1891;  A.  Erichson,  Die  ealviniatieehe  und  die 
AUatraeetnwger  Gotteedienatordnung,  ib.  1894;  H.  von 
Schubert,  in  Beitr&ge  twr  Reformationageachichte,  pp. 
192-228,  Ck>tha,  1896;  A.  Ernst  and  J.  Adam,  Kateche- 
OacKe  Oeaehichte  dea  Elaaaaea  bia  avr  Reformation,  pp.  42- 
72,  Strasburg,  1897;  F.  Hubert,  Straaahurger  Katechia- 
men  aua  den  Tagen  der  Reformation,  in  ZKO,  xx.  (1899) 
895-413;  A.  Lang,  Der  EvangeUenkommentar  Butzera  und 
die  Orundznge  aeiner  Theologie,  in  Studien  tur  Oeaehichte 
der  Theologie  und  Kirehe,  vol.  ii.,  Leipsic,  1900;  S.  M. 
Jackson,  Huldreich  Zwingli^  pasoim.  New  York,  1903; 
J.  KOstlin,  Martin  Luthm^  flJL  G.  Kawerau,  passim,  2 
vols.,  Berlin.  1903;  J.  M  BM(  Quellen  eur  Oeaehichte  dea 
kirehliehen  C/nterrieAte,  GQf Mlloh,  1904;  J.Ficker.  Theaaun 
rua  Baumianua,  Strasburg,  1905:  Moeller.  Chriatian  Church, 
vol.  iii.,  passim;  Schaff,  Chriatian  Church,  vol.  vi.,  passim. 

BUXTORF:  A  family  of  scholars  at  Basel, 
noteworthy  for  their  services  in  the  study  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  Hebrew  language  and  litera- 
ture. 

1.  Johann  Buxtorf  the  Elder:  Orientalist;  b.  at 
Camen  (8  m.  s.w.  of  Hamm),  Westphalia,  Dec.  25, 
1564;  d.  at  Basel  Sept.  13,  1629.  He  received  his 
earliest  education  in  the  schools  of  Hamm  and  Dort- 
mund, and  then  went  to  Marburg  and  Herbom, 
where  he  began  his  Hebrew  studies  under  Piscator. 
Leaving  Herbom,  he  studied  successively  at  Hei- 
delberg, Basel,  Zurich,  and  Geneva,  returning  to 
Basel  and  taking  his  degree  in  1590.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  after  much  hesitation,  he  accepted 
the  chair  of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of  Basel, 
and  later  added  other  duties  to  this  position,  in- 
cluding the  direction  of  the  gymnasium.  In  1610, 
however,  he  declined  an  appointment  to  a  profes- 
sorship of  theology,  as  well  as  calls  to  Leyden  and 
Saumur.  Buxtorf  was  the  greatest  rabbinical 
student  among  the  Protestants,  availing  himself 
not  only  of  the  Hebrew  commentaries  on  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  writings  of  learned 
Jews,  but  also  carrying  on  an  active  correspond- 
ence with  Jewish  scholars  in  Germany,  Poland,  and 
Italy.  His  dose  relations  with  Jews,  however, 
frequently  exposed  him  to  suspicion,  and  on  one 
occasion  he  was  fined  100  florins  for  attending  the 
circumcision  of  a  son  of  a  Jew  who  resided  in  his 
house  as  his  assistant  in  the  printing  of  his  Hebrew 
Bible.  He  devoted  his  Hebrew  knowledge  to  the 
defense  of  the  original  text  of  the  Old  Testament 
against  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  regarded  the 
Vulgate  and  the  Septuagint  as  the  more  reliable 
authorities,  and  also  against  the  doubts  cast  upon 
it  by  such  Reformers  as  Luther,  Zwingli,  and  Cal- 
vin, his  services  being  the  more  important  in  view 
of  the  necessity  of  appeal  to  the  purity  of  the  He- 
brew text  in  Protestant  polemics  against  Cathol- 
icism. His  chief  works  are  as  follows:  Mamude 
Hebraicum   et   Chaldaicum    (Basel,    1602);  Juden- 


Sckul  (1603;  Latin  transl.,  Synagoga  Judaica,  by 
H.  Germberg,  Hanau,  1604);  Lexicon  Hebraicum 
et  Chaldaicum  (1607);  De  abbreviaittris  HebraicU 
(1613);  Btblia  Hebraica  cum  paraphrasi  Chaldaica 
et  commerUariis  rabbinorum  (4  vols.,  1618-19);  and 
Tiberias,  aive  cammerUariua  masorethicus  (1620); 
but  he  did  not  live  to  complete  his  Concordttntice 
Btbliarum  Hebraicce  or  his  Lexicon  Chaldaicum, 
Talmudicum  et  Rabbinicum,  both  of  which  were 
edited  by  his  son  (Basel,  1632,  1639). 

2.  Johann  Buxtorf  the  Younger:  Orientalist;  son 
of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Basel  Aug.  13,  1599;  d.  there 
Aug.  17,  1664.  After  receiving  his  first  educa^ 
tion  from  his  father,  he  attended  the  high  school 
of  his  native  city,  and  in  1617  went  to  Heidelberg, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  then  going  to  Dort, 
where  he  attended  the  synod.  After  its  conclu- 
sion he  made  a  tour  of  Holland,  England,  and 
France,  in  company  with  the  delegates  of  the  city, 
and  then  returned  to  Basel.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  he  published  his  Lexicon  Chaldaicum  et  Stfria- 
cum  (Basel,  1622),  and  in  the  following  year  studied 
at  Geneva,  but  declined  a  call  to  the  professorship 
of  logic  at  Lausanne,  preferring  to  remain  in  his 
native  city,  where  he  served  as  a  deacon  from  1624 
to  1630.  Delicate  health,  however,  obliged  him 
to  resign  all  hopes  of  becoming  a  preacher,  and  in 
1630  he  succeeded  his  father  as  professor  of  Hebrew. 
He  declined  calls  to  Groningen  and  Leyden,  and 
in  1654  accepted  the  chair  of  Old  Testament  exe- 
gesis, as  being  closely  associated  with  the  one 
which  he  already  held.  It  was  his  task  to  defend 
the  views  of  his  father  on  the  purity  of  the  trans- 
mitted Masoretic  text  of  the  Old  Testament  against 
many  attacks,  particularly  by  Cappel  (q.v.),  who 
assailed  the  credibility  of  rabbinical  tradition  and 
regarded  the  Hebrew  text  as  inferior  in  places  to 
the  ancient  versions.  In  this  and  kindred  con- 
troversies Buxtorf  wrote  De  punctorum,  vocalium 
aique  accentuum  in  libris  Veteris  Testamenti  He- 
braicis  origine,  antiquitate  et  auctoritate  (Basel, 
1648),  and  Anticritica,  seu  vindicice  veritatis  Hdtraicce 
adveraue  Ludovici  CappeUi  criticam  quam  aacram  vo- 
cal (1653),  but  though  the  logical  victory  rested 
with  Cappel,  who  could  appeal  both  to  the  judg- 
ment of  Elias  Levita  (q.v.),  who  exercised  a  power- 
ful influence  oa  the  development  of  Old  Testament 
studies  amoii^  the  Protestants,  and  could  also 
claim  the  support  of  many  of  the  Reformers,  he 
was  regarded  1  as  a  dangerous  man,  who  sought  to 
deny  the  di  rinity  of  the  Scriptures,  while  his  op- 
ponent was  looked  upon  as  a  defender  of  ortho- 
doxy, and  won  the  formal  verdict.  In  a  minor 
controversy  with  Cappel  on  the  Eucharist  he 
wrote  his  VindicioB  exercitaiionie  Sanctcs  Comce  con- 
tra CappeUum  (Basel,  1646)  and  his  Anticritica 
contra  CappeUum  ( 1653 ) .  He  likewise  made  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Moreh  N^nikim  of  Maimonides 
(Basel,  1629)  and  edited,  with  notes  and  a  trans- 
lation, the  Liber  Coari,  sive  colloquium  de  reHgione 
of  Judah  ha-Levi  (1660). 

3.  Johannes  Jakob  Buxtorf:  Orientalist;  son  of 
the  preceding;  b.  at  Basel  Sept.  4,  1645;  d.  there 
Apr.  1,  1704.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of 
his  native  city,  and  succeeded  his  father  as  professor 
of  Hebrew  in  Nov.,  1664.    In  the  following  year 


825 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Bnztorf 
Byrum 


he  received  leave  of  absence  and  visited  Geneva, 
France,  Holland  (wintering  at  Leyden),  and  Lon- 
don. The  general  suspicion  of  foreigners  in  Lon- 
don just  after  the  great  fire,  however,  caused  Bux- 
torf  to  take  refuge  in  a  neighboring  village,  whence 
he  later  went  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In  1669 
he  returned  to  Basel  and  resumed  his  duties  at  the 
university,  in  addition  to  acting  as  librarian  Al- 
though regarded  as  an  excellent  scholar  and  a  dili- 
gent student,  he  wrote  Uttle  with  the  exception  of 
a  preface  to  his  edition  of  his  grandfather's  Tibe- 
rias (Basel,  1665),  and  his  emendations  to  the 
Synagoga  Judaica  (1680). 

4.  Johann  Buztorf:  Nephew  of  the  preceding; 
b.  at  Basel  Jan.  8,  1663;  d.  there  June  19, 
1732.  After  completing  his  education  at  Basel, 
he  went  to  Holland  to  continue  his  Oriental  studies. 
In  1694  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  Aristdorf,  a 
village  near  Basel,  and  in  1704  he  succeeded  his 
uncle  as  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  University, 
holding  this  position  until  his  death.  His  most 
noteworthy  book  was  his  Catalecta  philologico-theo- 
logica  cum  mantissa  epistolarum  vvrorum  darorum 
ad  Johannem  Buxtorfjium  patrem  et  fUium  acrip- 
tarum  (Basel,  1707).  (Carl  Bebtheau.) 

Bibuoorapht:  Athena  Rattriea,  BsmI,  1778  (oontainB 
biographies  and  catalogues  of  their  publications);  K.  R. 
Hagenbaoh,  Die  theoloffUche  Schule  Btuds,  pp.  27  sqq.. 
ib.  1860;  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  IrUroduetion  to  the  O.  T., 
London,  1891;  C.  D.  Ginsburg,  Introduction  to  the  Maeao- 
retieo^eriHeal  BdOum  of  the  Hehr.  Bible,  ib.  1S97;  C.  A. 
Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  passim.  New  York,  1899; 
Buztorf-Falkeisen.  Johannee  Buxiorf  Voter,  Basel,  1860; 
E.  KautiBch,  J.  Buxtorf  der  Oltere,  ib.  1879.  On  the 
younger  Johannes,  L.  Diestel,  Getehichte  dee  aUen  Te$ta^ 
mente  in  der  durietlichen  Kirche.  pp.  336  sqq..  Jena.  1868. 
On  Johannes  Jakob,  8.  Werenfels,  Vita  ...J.J.  Buxior- 
fii,  Basel,  1705. 

BTFIELD,  ADONIRAM:  Puritan  and  Presby- 
terian; b.  probably  at  Chester,  before  1615,  the  son 
of  Nicholas  Byfield  (q.v.);  d.  in  London  1660.  He 
was  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
and  chosen  chaplain  to  a  regiment  of  Parlia- 
ment's army  in  1642.  In  1643  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  two  scribes  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  but  was  not  a  member  of  that  body. 
The  manuscript  minutes  (edited  by  Mitchel  and 
Struthers,  1874),  now  in  the  Williams  Library, 
University  Hall,  Gordon  Square,  London,  are  in 
his  handwriting.  He  also  edited,  by  authority  of 
Parhament,  the  various  papers  in  the  controversy 
between  the  Westminster  Assembly  and  the  Dis- 
senting Brethren,  published  London,  1648,  inclu- 
ding Reasons  Presented  by  the  Dissenting  Brethren 
against  Certain  Propositions  concerning  Presby- 
terian Government,  The  Answer  of  Asaemby  of  Di- 
vines, Papers  for  Accumulation,  and  The  Papers  and 
Answers  of  the  Dissenting  Brethren  and  the  Commit- 
tee of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  He  was  rector  of 
Fulham  in  Middlesex  (16447)  and  vicar  of  Fulham 
(16457-1667),  subsequently  rector  of  CoUingboum- 
Ducis  in  Wiltshire.  C.  A.  Brioos. 

BTFIELD,  NICHOLAS:  Puritan  and  Presby- 
terian, b.  in  Warwickshire  in  1579;  d.  at  Isleworth 
(2  m.  8.  of  Brentford),  Middlesex,  Sept.  8, 1622.    He 


was  educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford;  was  for 
seven  years  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Chester, 
when  (1615)  he  became  vicar  of  Isleworth  in  Mid- 
dlesex, where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Will- 
iam Gouge  describes  him  as  "  a  man  of  a  profound 
judgment,  strong  memory,  sharp  wit,  quick  in- 
vention, and  unwearied  industry."  His  works 
were  nimierous,  and  greatly  esteemed.  His  Mar- 
row of  the  Oracles  of  God  (London,  1620),  contain- 
ing six  treatises  previously  published  apart,  reached 
an  eleventh  edition  in  1640.  The  Principles,  or, 
the  Pattern  of  Wholesome  Words,  dedicated  in  1618, 
reached  a  seventh  edition  in  1665,  and  is  a  valuable 
compend  of  divinity.  His  expository  sermons  on 
the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  were  published  1615, 
and  several  series  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  at 
various  times,  finally  collected  and  enlarged  in  a 
Commentary  upon  the  Whole  First  Epistle  of  St, 
Peter  (1637).  The  Rule  of  Faith,  or  an  Exposition 
of  the  Apostles*  Creed  was  issued  by  his  son  Adoni- 
ram,  after  his  death  (1626),  and  is  an  able  and  in- 
structive work.  He  must  be  numbered  among  the 
Presbyterian  fathers  in  England. 

C.  A.  Brioos. 

BTROM,  JOHN:  Author  of  "Christians  awake, 
salute  the  happy  mom,"  a  Christmas  hymn  in  al- 
most universal  use  in  England;  b.  at  Kersall  Cell, 
Broughton,  near  Manchester,  Feb.  29,  1692;  d. 
there  Sept.  26,  1763.  He  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  1708  (B.A.,  1712;  MA.,  1715),  and 
became  fellow,  1714;  contributed  to  the  Spectator; 
invented  a  system  of  shorthand  and  taught 
it  with  success;  became  F.R.S.,  1724;  succeeded 
to  the  family  estate  at  Kersall,  1740,  and  spent  his 
later  years  there.  He  was  a  mystic  and  a  Jacobite; 
took  deep  interest  in  religious  speculations,  and 
knew  most  of  the  celebrities  of  his  time;  he  wrote 
some  of  the  best  epigrams  in  the  language.  His 
Poems,  written  in  easy,  colloquial  style  for  his  own 
and  his  friends'  amusement,  were  printed  posthu- 
mously (2  vols..  Manchester,  1773;  again,  with  life 
and  notes,  London,  1814);  the  Chetham  Society  of 
Manchester  has  published  his  Private  Journal  and 
Literary  Remains,  ed.  R.  Parkinson  (2  vols.,  1854- 
1857),  and  the  Poems,  ed.  A.  W.  Ward  (2  vols.,  1894- 
1895). 

BTRUM,  ENOCH  EDWIN:  American  clergy- 
man and  editor  of  The  Church  of  God;  b.  near 
Union  City,  Ind.,  Oct.  13,  1861.  He  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools,  and  also  studied  elocution 
and  oratory  in  the  Northern  Indiana  Normal 
School  (1886)  and  Simday-school  work  in  Otterbein 
University  (1887).  He  was  ordained  a  minister 
of  "  The  Church  of  God  "  in  1892,  and  in  addition 
to  editing  The  Gospel  Trumpet  and  The  Shining 
Light  since  1890,  has  written:  The  Boy's  Com- 
panion (Moundsville,  W.  Va.,  1890);  Divine  Heal- 
ing of  Soul  and  Body  (1892);  The  Secret  of  Salva- 
tion (1896);  The  Prayer  of  Faith  (1899);  The  Great 
Physician  (1900);  Behind  the  Prison  Bars  (1901); 
What  shall  I  do  to  be  Saved?  (1903);  Ordinances  of 
the  Bible  (1904);  and  Travels  and  Experiences  in 
other  Lands  (1905). 


Oabal* 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


826 


Origin  and  Spnad  of  the  GabaU  (i  W 
Doctrine  of  God  (I  2). 
Creation  and  the  Sefiroth  (I  3). 
Names  of  the  Sefiroth  (i  4). 
Triads  of  Sefiroth  (f  6). 
The  Four  Worlds  (I  6). 
Oricin  of  Evil  (I  7). 
Doctrine  of  the  Meesiah  (I  8). 

The  term  Cabala  designates  the  eaoteric  doctrines 
of  Judaism.  Although  it  claims  to  be  a  product 
of  the  tannaitic  period  and  to  be  the  work  of  such 
sages  as  Ishmael  ben  Elisha,  Simeon  ben  Yoll^ai,  and 
Net^unya  ben  ha-^anah,  modem  investigation  has 
proved  that  it  is  purely  a  product  o'  the  Middle  Ages. 
Nor  does  the  name  kabbalah  (from  ktbbd,  ''to  re- 
ceive ")  occur  with  this  special  connotation  before  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  term  Icabhalah  denoting  in 
the  Talmud  the  Hagiographa  and  the  Prophets  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Torah,  or  Pentateuch. 

The  Cabala  originated  at  a  period  when  a  crassly 
anthropomorphic  concept  of  God  prevailed  in 
Judaism.  In  Maimonides  rationalism  had  reached 
its  climax,  the  literal  meaning  alone  being  accepted, 
while  all  allegorical  interpretation  was  rejected. 
The  study  of  the  Talmud  had  become  purely  legal- 
istic, and  worship  had  degenerated  into  formalism. 
Against  this  stereotyped  faith  bom  of  Aristote- 
liaiiism  arose  a  reaction,  the  Cabala.  This  sought 
to  give  the  soul  the  nourishment  it  craved  by 
an  esoteric  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  vivid 
presentation,  and  dramatic  narrative,  even  though, 
in  its  speculative  fervor,  it  became 

I.  Origin  involved  only  too  often  in  hopeless 

and  Spread  base,  and  evoked  a  dark  superstition 

of  the      through  its  juggling  with  the  names 

Cabala,  of  God.  Arising  in  Provence,  the 
reaction  against  rationalism  pajssed 
to  Spain,  the  real  home  of  the  Cabala.  Thence, 
with  the  expulsion  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  it  was 
carried  to  Palestine,  whence  it  spread  throughout 
Europe.  The  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Cabala 
are  derived  from  the  Hellenistic  Judaism,  Neo- 
platonism,  and  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  with  occa- 
sional traces  of  Gnosticism.  These  elements  are 
so  interwoven,  however,  with  the  Bible  and  with 
a  midrashic  method  of  presentation,  that  the  whole 
has  been  stamped  with  the  seal  of  Judaism. 

According  to  the  Cabala,  God  is  the  eternal  and 
boundless  principle  of  all,  and  is  therefore  called 
En  Sof  ("The  Infinite").  The  attributes  given 
him  are  general,  rather  than  specific.  He  is  abso- 
lutely perfect,  and  is  free  from  all  blemish;  he  is 
imity  and  immutability;  he  is  boundless 
a.  Doctrine  and  naught  exists  beside  him;  and  since 

of  God.  he  may  be  known  neither  by  wisdom  nor 
by  understanding,  no  de&iition  can  be 
given  of  him,  no  concept  be  formed  regarding  him, 
and  no  question  asked  concerning  him.  To  all 
beings  he  is  the  concealed  of  all  concealed,  the 
hidden  of  all  hidden,  the  ancient  of  the  ancient;  the 
first  of  all  first,  and  the  primal  principle. 

The  cardinal  cosmogonic  doctrine  of  the  Cabala 
is  creation  e  nihilo.    The  reconciliation  of  the  im- 


CABALA,  cab'a-la. 

Doctrines  of  the  Soul  (i  9). 

Metempsychosis  (f  10). 

Mystic  Biblical  Exegesis  of  the  Cabala 

(§  11). 
Biblical    Interpretation    by    Genia|ria 

(I  12). 
Macic  Powers  of  the  Tetracrammaton 

(I  13). 


The  Early  Period  of  the  Gabala  (i  M). 
The  Befer  Yefirah  (f  15). 
Crystallisation  of  the  Cabala  (I  16). 
The  Zohar  (i  17). 

Closing  Period  of  the  Ckbala  (|  18). 
Influence  of  the  Cabala  on  Judaism  (S 19). 
Relation  of  the  Cabala  to  Christianity 
(§20). 


perfect  and  transitory  phenomenal  world  with  the 
perfection  and  immutability  of  God,  and  the  mu- 
tual relation  of  the  two  formed  never-ending  prob- 
lems for  the  cabalists.  To  explain  the  riddle 
they  assumed  the  existence  of  a  series  of  independent 
and  spiritual  primeval  potentialities,  which  were 
intelligible  substances  or  demiui^ges  emanating 
from  the  deity.  These  demiurges  {sefirath)  are 
mentioned  as  eariy  as  the  Sefer  Ye^irah,  where 
their  number  is  given  as  ten.  According  to  this 
work,  the  first  emanation  was  the  spirit  of  the  living 
God,  from  which  proceeded  the  entire  phenomenal 
world.  This  same  spirit,  futhermore,  caused 
ether,  water,  and  fire  to  emanate  from  each  other. 
From  ether  arises  the  intellectual  worid,  from  water 
the  material  (the  tohu  worboku  of  Gen.  i.  2),  and 
from  fire  the  spiritual  (the  angels  and  the  throne  of 
God).  These  four  sefiroth  are  followed  by  the  six 
bounds  of  space,  height,  depth,  east, 
3.  Creation  west,  north,  and  south.  There  is, 
and  the  however,  no  consistent  view  ooncem- 
Seflroth.  ing  the  nature  of  the  sefiroth,  which 
are  sometimes  regarded  as  inter- 
mediaries between  God  and  the  visible  world, 
and  at  other  times  as  the  manifestations  of  the 
powers  and  properties  of  God;  and  there  is  an 
equal  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  whether  they  are 
actual  creations  which  form,  in  a  sense,  the  basis 
of  later  creations,  or  emanations  whereby  God 
emerges  from  his  concealment  and  assumes  form. 
All  attempts  to  reconcile  these  conflicting  views 
by  postulating  the  existence  of  God  both  in  and 
above  phenomena  proved  unsuccessful.  The  issu- 
ance of  the  sefiroth  from  God  was  regarded  by  the 
cabalists  as  imperiling  the  doctrine  of  his  immu- 
tability and  infinity.  The  first  difficulty  was 
obviated  by  the  hypothesis  that  God's  dedgn  to 
manifest  himself  had  existed  from  all  eternity. 
Since,  however,  God  in  his  infinity  filled  the  entire 
universe,  no  room  was  left  for  the  sefiroth^  until 
Moses  ben  Jacob  Gordo vero  (1522-70)  and  Isaac 
Luria  (1533-72)  postulated  two  concentrations, 
one  a  contraction  and  the  other  a  retraction.  Many 
cabalists,  however,  felt  themselves  unable  to  accept 
this  theory  of  concentration,  which  was  closely  con- 
nected, moreover,  with  the  Gnosticism  of  Valentin- 
ian  and  Basilides,  and  preferred  to  assume  that  the 
emergence  of  God  from  his  retirement  was  to  be  un- 
derstood in  terms  of  concept  rather  than  of  space, 
and  some  regarded  the  entire  process  as  metaphorical. 
The  first  sefirah  was  Kether  ("Crown"),  the 
primal  source  of  all  existence.  The  second  was 
Jlokmah  ("  Wisdom  "),  which,  though  enveloped 
in  God,  generated  the  ideas.  The  third  was  Binah 
("  Intelligence  "),  which  carries  out  the   ideas  of 


327 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oabala 


eternal  WUdom.     The  fifth  was  ^esedh  ("  Love  "; 
Boxnetimes   called   Gedhulah,    "  Magnitude  '*),    the 
fifth  IHn  ("  Law  ";  also  called  Oebhurah,  "  Might," 
or  PaJiadk,  "  Fear  ")i  the  sixth  Tifereth  ("  Beauty"; 
also  called  Rahamim,  '*  Mercy  "),  the  seventh  Ne^ah 
("Firmness"),     the     eighth     Hodh 
4*  names    ("Splendor"),  and  the  ninth  Yesodh 
of  the       ("Foundation").     The  tenth   aefirah 
Sefiroth.     was    MalkhtUh    ("Kingdom";    also 
called    Shekhinah,    "Royalty"),  and 
was  united  in  marriage  with  the  God  who  rules  the 
world.     The  number  of  the  8efiroih  was  doubtless 
influenced  by  the  fact  that  astronomy  then  pos- 
tulated the  existence  of  ten  spheres,  and  also  by 
the  sanctity  ascribed  to  the  number  ten. 

As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  Hai  Gaon  (998- 
1038)  classified  the  ten  primal  potentialities  into 
two  groups,  the  first  including  three  which  pro- 
duced  the  spiritual  world,  and  the  second  com- 
prising two  triads  which  were  united  by  a  seventh, 
and  these  formed  the  source  of  the  material  world. 
The  main  outlines  of  this  classification  were  retained 
by  later  cabalists.  Azriel  (1160-1238)  distinguished 
three    groups — intellectual,   spiritual,   and     mate- 
rial, a  classification  evidently  due  to  Neoplatonic 
influence.     Each   group    forms   a   triad,    and   its 
members  stand  in  the  mutual  relation  of  thesis, 
antithesis,  and  synthesis.    The  first  two  members, 
moreover,  sustain  a  polar  relation  to  each  other, 
and  are  united  by  the  third.    Thus,  in  the  first 
triad,   which   consists   of   "  Crown,"    "  Wisdom," 
and    "  Intelligence,"    "  Intelligence "    forms    the 
coimecting  link,     hi  the  second  triad,  which  con- 
sists of  "  Love,"   "  Law,"  and  "  Beauty,"  "  Beau- 
ty "  (or  "  Mercy  ")  forms  the  bond  of  imion,  while 
in  the  third  triad  of  "Firmness,"   "Splendor," 
and   "  Foundation,"   the  last  recon- 
5.  Triads    ciles  the  first  two.    All  three  triads 
of  are    subject    to    the    tenth    aefirah, 

Sefiroth.  "  Kingdom,"  which  binds  them  into 
a  harmonious  whole.  The  first  triad, 
moreover,  contained  the  "  authors  of  the  plan  of 
the  world,"  the  second  the  "  arrangers,"  and  the 
third  the  "  creators."  Although  the  sefiroth  are 
by  no  means  comparable  with  God  and  do  not 
condition  his  independence,  they  partake  of  his 
infinity  and  transmit  his  streams  of  blessings  to 
the  various  worlds.  For  this  purpose,  on  which 
their  existence  and  activity  depend,  they  are 
united  with  God  by  invisible  canals  (ifinnoroth) 
which  proceed  from  the  throne  of  the  divine  majesty. 
In  so  far  as  the  sefiroth  are  the  earliest  manifes- 
tations of  God,  they  form  an  ideal  world  which 
bears  no  relation  to  the  material  world,  and  in  this 
aspect  they  are  termed  either  "  primeval  man " 
{adham  kadhmon)  or  "  superman  "  (adham  'ilai), 
who  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  the  sefiroth 
collectively,  and  sometimes  regarded  as  the  first 
manifestation  whereby  God  revealed  himself  as 
the  creator  and  ruler  of  the  world.  In  this  aspect 
he  seems  to  be  a  revelation  interposed  between 
God  and  the  universe,  and  thus  a  second  god,  as 
it  were,  or  the  Logos. 

Aooording  to  a  later  view,  various  grades  of 
emanation  produced  four  worlds,  in  each  of  which 
the  ten  sefiroth  were  repeated.    The  first  of  these 


was  the  'Olarn  ha-Afilah  ("  Worid  of  Radiation  "), 
which  contains  the  powers  of  the  divine  plan  of  the 
worlds.  These  powers  have  the  same  nature  as 
the  worid  of  the  sefiroth  or  the  Adham  kadhmon, 
while,  according  to  the  Zohar,  it  also  contains  the 
throne  of  the  Shekinah  and  God's  mantle  of  light. 
From  the  'Olam  ha-Aplah  emanated  the  *Olam 
ha-Beriah  ("World  of  Creation"),  the  home  of 
the  organizing  powers  and  potencies.    There  were 

the    treasuries   of   blessing   and    life, 

6.  The      and  there  was  the  throne  of  the  glory  of 

Four       God,  as  well  as  the  halls  of  all  spiritual 

Worlds,     and  moral  perfection,  where  the  souls 

of  the  righteous  dwelt.  In  its  turn, 
the  *Olam  ha-Beriah  produced  the  *Olam  ha-Yezirah 
("  World  of  Creation  ")  with  the  angels  and  Me^a- 
tron  as  their  chief.  To  him  are  subject  the  evil 
spirits  (kelifoth,  "  husks  "),  who  dwell  in  the  planets 
and  other  heavenly  bodies,  or  in  the  ether.  The 
fourth  world  is  the  present  material  and  phenomenal 
'Olam  ha-Assiyah  ("  World  of  Action  "),  which  is 
subject  to  constant  change  and  delusion.  Like 
the  sefiroth,  the  four  worlds  are  closely  connected 
with  God  as  the  primal  principle,  and  receive  con- 
tinual streams  of  divine  blessing.  This  cosmology 
of  four  worlds  is  based  on  the  theophany  of  Ezek. 
i.  and  seems  to  be  first  mentioned  in  the  Massek- 
heth  AfUtUh,  a  small  treatise  of  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  anthropomorphic  tend- 
encies of  the  cabalists  led  them  to  make  distinc- 
tions of  sex  among  the  sefiroth.  The  mascuhne 
principle,  which  is  white  in  color,  appears  chiefly 
in  "  Ix>ve,"  although  it  underlies  both  the  other  two 
sefiroth  of  the  right  side  ("  Wisdom  "  and  "  Firm- 
ness ");  while  the  passive  red  female  principle,  which 
owes  its  existence  to  the  male,  dwells  chiefly  in 
"  Law,"  yet  also  forms  the  basis  of  the  other  sefiroth 
of  the  left  side  ("  Intelligence  "  and  "  Splendor  "). 

Side  by  side  with  the  heavenly  sefiroth  exist  the 
sefiroth  of  evil,  and  Adham  kadhmon,  in  h'ke  manner, 
has  his  counterpart  in  Adham  Beliyya*al.  The 
realms  are  related  to  each  other  as  the  right  and 
the  left  wing.  In  the  kingdom  of  evil,  as  in  the 
realm  of  good,  there  are  ten  grades.  Under  the 
leadership  of  Samael  and  his  queen,  the  great 
adulteress,  the  dark  sefiroth  toil  unceasingly  for 
the  destruction  of  the  world.  Since,  however,  the 
sefiroth  of  darkness,  like  the  sefiroth  of  light,  were 
regarded  as  emanations,  there  was  danger  that  the 
Infinite  might  be  considered  the  author  of  evil. 
To  obviate  this,  the  older  cabalists  advanced  the 
hypothesis  that  the  origin  of  evil  was  to  be  sought  in 

the  distances  of  the  emanations  from 

7*  Origin    their  divine  author,  since  the  further 

of  EviL     they  went  from  God  into  the  material 

world,  the  more  degenerate  they  be- 
came. The  younger  cabalists  like  Luria,  on  the 
other  hand,  held  that  the  vessels  of  the  sefiroth 
were  unable  to  contain  and  conduct  the  fulness  of 
the  divine  blessing  and  burst,  thus  giving  rise  to 
evil.  Penance,  self -mortification,  prayer,  and 
rigid  observance  of  the  prescribed  ceremonies, 
however,  would  gradually  reconcile  the  upper  and 
lower  realms  and  restore  the  original  harmony  of 
the  imiverse.  It  is  noteworthy  that  this  doctrine 
of  the  opposition  of    the  two  kingdoms  is  a  late 


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THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


828 


development  of  the  CSabala,  and  that  it  was  not 
fully  developed  until  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  Messianic  teachings  of  the  Cabala  are  closely 
connected  with  the  doctrine  of  the  realm  of  the  evil 
aefiroth.    When  through  their  piety  and  virtue  man- 
kind shall  steadily  have  diminished  the  kingdom  of 
the  JftHifofh,  the  Messiah  will  appear 

8.  Doctrine  and  restore  all  things  to  their  original 
of  the      condition.  Under  his  rule  all  will  turn  to 

Messiah,  the  divine  light,  and  idolatry  will  cease. 
In  its  account  of  the  luiture  and  task 
of  the  Messiah  the  Cabala  diverges  a  little  from  the 
views  advanced  by  the  Talmud  and  the  Midrash. 

In  its  anthropology  the  Cabala  generally  adopts 
the  tenets  of  Talmudic  and  Gaonic  mysticism,  so 
that  its  new  developments  may  be  summarized 
briefly.  Earthly  man  is  a  type  of  the  prototype 
Adham  Jjpadhmon,  and  thus  comprises  within  him- 
self all  that  the  ideal  creation  contains.  He  is, 
therefore,  a  microcosm.  The  Cabala  also  teaches 
the  dual  nature  of  man,  who  consists  of  body  and 
soul.  Every  member  has  its  symbolic  meaning, 
while  the  body,  as  the  garment  of  the  soul,  typifies 
the  merkabah  (the  heavenly  Throne-Chariot  of 
Ezek.  i.,  X.).  The  soul,  however,  is  far  superior 
to  the  body,  since  it  is  derived  from  the  divine 
all-soul,  and  through  the  **  canals "  {linnoroth) 
can  influence  the  intellectual  world  and  draw  down 
its  blessings  to  the  lower  world.  It  appears  imder 
the  three  designations  of  nefeah,  rua^y  and  neshamah. 
The  first  is  blind  impulse,  the  second  is  the  seat 
both  of  good  and  evil  impulses,  and  the  third  is 
able  to  unite  with  God  and  the  kingdom  of  light. 
The    Cabala    also    teaches    the    pre- 

9.  Doctrines  existence  of  the  soul.  All  souls  des- 
ofthe  tined  to  enter  human  bodies  have 
SouL       existed  from  all  eternity  in  a  fixed 

niunber,  nourished  by  the  sight  of  the 
divine  radiance  of  the  Shekinah.  The  entrance 
of  the  soul  into  a  body  is  a  misfortune,  and  it  im- 
plores God  to  spare  it  such  imprisoimient.  Before 
their  entrance  into  human  bodies  souls  are  an- 
drogynous, while  marriage  unites  the  severed 
halves  to  a  sin^e  whole.  This  doctrine,  like  the 
preceding,  is  reminiscent  of  Plato  and  Philo,  as 
is  the  cabalistic  doctrine  that  all  earthly  learning 
is  but  a  reminiscence  of  what  the  soul  had  known 
before  it  came  to  earth.  Of  special  interest  is  the 
cabalistic  doctrine  of  reincarnation.  Each  soul 
which  is  united  with  a  body  is  to  undergo  a  period 
of  trial  in  this  world,  and  if  it  is  found  able  to  pre- 
serve its  original  purity  it  retmns  immediately  at 
death  to  its  place  of  heavenly  origin.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  falls  into  sin,  it  is  subjected  to  a  piui- 
fication,  and  is  obliged  to  remain  in  lower  forms  of 
existence,  such  as  animals,  trees,  stones,  and  rivers, 
until  it  has  fully  atoned  for  its  evil  and  has  regained 
the  purity  requisite  for  its  return  to  its  celestial 
home.    Occasionally,  however,  the  sin-laden  soul 

wanders  in  the  world  with  its  fellows, 

10.  Metemp-  naked    and  ashamed,  until  it  finally 
sychosis.    receives  its  purification  in  hell.    New 

souls  are  seldom  bom,  the  greater 
number  being  reincarnations.  This  is  a  proof  of 
the  corruption  of  the  human  race,  and  though 
exalted  spirits  sometimes  descend  to  earth  for  the 


welfare  of  man  and  assume  human  form,  all  the 
souls  created  from  the  begiiming  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  be  bom  on  account  of  the  number  of  ron- 
camations  necessitated  by  human  wickedness,  and 
the  Messiah  consequently  has  not  come.  During 
sleep  the  souls  of  the  righteous  frequently  leave  their 
bodies,  ascend  to  the  celestial  regions,  hold  convene 
with  the  spirits  there,  and  receive  revelations  of 
future  mysteries.  Evil  souls,  on  the  other  hand, 
descend  to  the  realms  of  darkness  and  impurity  and 
converse  with  demons,  who  give  them  false  and  lying 
words.  To  enable  mankind  to  hold  communication 
with  the  worid  of  light  during  terrestrial  existence, 
the  cabalists  exacted  a  scrupulous  observance  of  the 
ceremonial  law  and,  above  all,  prayer,  to  which  was 
ascribed  an  in  fluence  over  God  himself.  Among  other 
agencies  stress  was  laid  on  asceticism,  flagellation, 
retirement  from  the  worid,  the  practise  of  all  good 
works,  the  wearing  of  white  garments,  and  the  use 
of  the  phylacteries  and  the  prayer-mantle. 

Aristotelian  scholasticism  gave  rise  in  Judaism 
to  a  system  of  exegesis  which  resulted  in  a  view  of 
religion  as  a  matter  of  the  head,  rather  than  the 
heart.  Yet  at  this  very  time  the  increasing  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  evoked  a  need  for  spiritual 
strength  and  revivification,  and  these  require- 
ments were  met  by  the  cabalistic  opposition  to  the 
purely  intellectual  interpretation  of  the  Bible  and 
by  the  substitution  of  a  new  method  of  hermeneu- 
tics,  which  sounded  the  depths  of  the  Scriptures 
and  thus  strengthened  the  sinews  of  religion.  As 
eariy  as  the  Talmudic  and  Mishnaic  period  the 
feeling  had  prevailed  in  certain  quarters  that  in 
addition  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  Bible  (peshat) 
there  was  an  allegorical  meaning  (dentsh).  The 
cabalists    went    still    further,    and    regarded    the 

letters,  words,  and  names  of  the  Bible 

II.  Mystic  as  possessed  of  deeply  hidden  divine 

Biblical     mysteries,    while    such    accoimts    as 

Exegesis  of  those    of    Hagar,    Esau,    and    Balak 

the  Cahala.  contained  far  more  than  mere  history. 

They  therefore  laid  little  stress  on  the 
literal  sense  of  the  Bible,  though  not  a  letter  might 
be  added  to  it  or  taken  from  it.  In  their  endeavor 
to  unlock  the  divine  mysteries  they  employed 
various  systems  of  exegesis.  Of  these  the  chief 
was  the  gemapia,  or  study  of  letters.  As  eariy  as 
the  Sefer  Yefirah  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  were  divided  according  to  sound, 
form,  and  numerical  value.  To  the  first  dass 
belonged  the  three  "mothers,"  aleph,  mem,  and 
8hin,  which  represented  the  three  primal  elements, 
aleph  standing  for  air  (awwer),  mem  for  water 
(mayim),  and  akin  for  fire  {esk).  The  seven 
"  double  "  letters  which  formed  the  second  division 
(bethf  gimelj  daleth,  kaph,  pe,  resh,  and  iaw)  were 
symbolic  of  the  seven  planets,  the  seven  days  of 

the  week,  the  seven  gates  of  the  soul, 

12.  Biblical  the  seven  seas,  and  the  like;  while  in 

Interpre-    virtue  of  their  twofold  pronunciation, 

tation  by    either  aspirated  or  unaspirated,  they 

Gematria.   typified  the  seven  antitheses  of  man: 

life  and  death,  wisdom  and  folly, 
riches  and  poverty,  peace  and  war,  beauty  and 
hideousness,  fertility  and  desolation,  power  and 
slavery.     The   twelve    "simple"    letters,    which 


399 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oabal* 


oonstituted  the  remainder  of  the  alphabet,  symbol- 
ized the  twelve  activities  of  man:  sight,  hearing, 
smell,  speech,  eating,  cohabitation,  toil,  walking, 
wrath,  laughter,  reflection,  and  sleep.  The  nu- 
merical value  of  the  letters,  moreover,  rendered 
numbers  sacred,  so  that  twelve,  for  example, 
typified  the  twelve  tribes,  the  twelve  months,  and 
the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  Subsequently 
gematria  was  divided  into  arithmetical  and  fig- 
urative, the  first  considering  the  letters  according 
to  their  ntunerical  value  and  the  latter  devoted  to 
the  mode  of  writing  the  letters. 

A  second  exegetical  system  was  the  nofarikon, 
the  acrostic  use  of  the  letters  in  such  a  way  that 
each  letter  of  a  word  formed  the  initial  letter  of 
a  new  word.  The  third  method  was  ftru/,  the 
combination  of  letters,  and  the  fourth  was  temurah, 
the  creation  of  new  words  by  the  permutation  and 
interchange  of  letters.  The  names  of  God  were 
special  subjects  of  cabalistic  jugglery,  since  they 
were  no  longer  the  means  whereby  God  had  emerged 
from  his  concealment  and  become  manifest  to  the 
understanding,  but  were  now  agencies  to  work 
upon  the  intelligible  powers  and  to  perform  miracles 
of  all  kinds.  The  most  marvelous  powers  were 
ascribed  to  the  divine  tetragrammaton  YHWH. 
Whosoever  possessed  the  true  pronunciation  of 
this  name  might  come  into  relation  with  the  upper 
world  and  receive  revelations  from  the  All-Soul. 
Each  letter  of  the  name  was  portentous.    The  yodh 

represented    the    Father    as    creator, 

13.  Magic    and  the  double  he  the  upper  and  lower 

Powers  of  Mother,  while  the  v>aw  typified  the 

the  Tetra-  creation.    Through    permutation    of 

grammaton.  the  letters  of  the  tetragrammaton  was 

obtained  a  wealth  of  divine  names, 
to  which,  in  like  manner,  were  ajscribed  miraculous 
powers.  In  the  "  practical "  Cabala  these  new 
names  played  an  important  part,  being  used  in 
formulas,  amulets,  and  conjurations,  their  correct 
enunciation  and  the  gestures  with  which  they  were 
spoken  being  leading  factors  in  all  these  operations. 
In  like  manner,  the  twelve-lettered,  twenty-two- 
lettered,  twenty-four-lettered,  and  seventy-two- 
lettered  name  contained  great  mysteries,  influenced 
the  Supreme  Being  and  averted  threatening  doom, 
while  the  names  of  the  angels  were  subjected  to 
similar  manipulation.  The  net  result  was  the 
total  loss  of  any  comprehension  of  the  actual  mean- 
ing of  the  text  of  the  Bible. 

The  histoiy  of  the  Cabala  comprises  a  period  of 
a  thousand  years,  since  its  beginnings  may  be 
traced  to  the  seventh  century,  while  its  last  adher- 
ents belonged  to  the  eighteenth.  This  lapse  of 
time  may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  the  first 
from  the  seventh  to  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
the  second  from  the  fourteenth  to  the  eighteenth. 

From  the  seventh  to  the  ninth  cen- 

14.  The     tury  flourished  the  mjrsticism  of  the 

Early       Merkabah,  devoted  to  descriptions  of 

Period  of    "  the  great  and  small  halls,"  and  de- 

tha  Cahala.  scribing  the  throne  of  God  and  his 

court  of  angels  according  to  Byzantine 
models.  God  the  Infinite,  the  sefiroth,  and  transmi- 
gration are  still  unknown,  and  the  authority  cited  on 
all  occasions  is  the  Tanna  Ishmael  ben  Elisha«  who 


floiuished  in  the  first  and  second  centuries  a.d. 
The  jugging  with  the  alphabet  is  represented  by 
the  "  Alphabet  of  Rabbi  Akiba,"  which  treats  of 
the  letters  according  to  name  aAd  form,  and  con- 
nects them  with  all  manner  of  moral  and  religious 
teachings.  With  the  appearance  of  the  Sefer 
Ye^irah  ("  Book  of  Creation  ")  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, the  mystery  of  the  Throne-Chariot  gave  place 
to  the  mystery  of  the  creation,  and  a  cosmogonic 
element  was  introduced  which  increased  steadily 
in  importance  in  the  subsequent  period.  Here  the 
doctrine  of  emanation  appears  in  the  form  in  which 
it  had  originated  in  Alexandria.  The  twenty-two 
letters  are  connected,  moreover,  with  the  ten  divine 
emanations,  and  thus  form  the  thirty-two  paths 
of  esoteric  wisdom  and  constitute  the  basis  of  all 
things.  God  is  not  only  the  creator,  but  also  the 
sustainer  and  ruler  of  the  world. 
15.  The  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  "  real 
Sefer  powers "  which  underlie  all  phe- 
Yezirah.  nomena,  while  their  permutation  and 
their  evaluation,  like  their  connotation, 
are  of  importance.  The  Sejer  Yefirah  is  the  earliest 
work  which  unites  cabalistic  speculation  in  a 
systematic  whole.  According  to  it  there  are  four 
basal  principles,  emanating  in  order  from  each  other 
— spirit,  spirits,  primeval  water,  and  primeval  fire, 
all  united  by  the  three  dimensions  and  their  an- 
titheses into  a  decade.  All  things  are  in  continual 
flux,  dissolving  old  combinations  and  forming  new 
ones,  while  throughout  phenomena  rules  the  law 
of  antitheses,  which  are  united  by  the  mean  between 
them.  A  remarkable  work  of  the  same  period 
is  the  Sefer  Bazielf  which  teaches  the  influence  of 
the  planets  and  the  figures  of  the  zodiac  on  the 
earth.  The  angel  Raziel  here  takes  the  place  of 
Me^atron,  the  angel  of  the  presence,  as  he  who 
possesses  and  communicates  astrological  and 
astronomical  mysteries. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  crystallization  of 
the  Cabala  began  and  the  doctrine  of  the  sefiroth 
was  fully  developed.  To  the  same  period  probably 
belongs  the  composition  of  the  **  Luminous  Book," 
also  called  the  *^  Midrash  of  Nefeiunya  ben  ha* 
^anah,"  which  teaches  the  main  outlines  of  metemp* 
sychosis,  while  the  ten  divine  emanations,  which 
are  not  yet  called  aefirothj  but  ma'amarim  ("  com- 
mands "),  appear  as  categories  pos^ 
z6.  Crystal-  sessed  of  creative  force  and  connected 
lization  of  with  the  attributes  of  God.  A  tend- 
the  Cabala,  ency  toward  visionary  prophecy 
was  impressed  upon  the  Cabala  by 
Abraham  ben  Samuel  Abulafia  (d.  about  1304), 
who  laid  special  stress  on  a  knowledge  of  the  divine 
name  as  determined  by  the  exegetical  methods  of 
gematria,  notaril^ont  firuf,  and  temurah,  while  his 
pupil  Joseph  ben  Abraham  Gikatilla  devoted  him- 
self to  the  mysteries  of  the  alphabet,  which  he 
brought  into  close  association  with  the  doctrine 
of  the  aefiroth.  The  cabab'stic  speculation  begun 
by  Isaac  the  Blind  reached  its  climax  in  the  Zohar, 
apparently  written  by  Moses  ben  Shem-Job  of 
Leon  (d.  1305).  If  the  Sefer  Ye^irah  be  called  the 
Mishnah  of  the  Cabala,  the  Zohar  is  its  Talmud. 
Ostensibly  it  is  a  midrashic  commentary  on  the 
pericopes  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  practically  it  id 


Oasdmon 


THE  NEW  9CHAFF.HERZCX3 


830 


filled  with  a  mass  of  cabalistic  and  other  mystical 
speculations,  and  with  allegorism  run  mad,  espe- 
cially oonoeming  the  names  of  God,  the  accents, 
and  the  vowel-points.  In  like  manner,  the  kingdom 
of  evil,  with  its  demons  and  evil  spirits  which  con- 
tinually oppose  the  realm  of  righteousness,  is 
described  in  terms  of  wildest  fantasy.  Its  state- 
ments are  placed  in  the  mouth  of  Simeon  ben 
Yohai,  a  Tanna  of  the  second  century  a.d.,  who, 
according  to  the  Talmud,  lived  in  association  with 
the  angel  Metafron,  who  communicated  to  him 
the  divine  mysteries.  Yet  it  is  by  no  means  a 
uniform  work,  among  its  older  components  being 
the  "  Book  of  Mystery,"  which  is  devoted  to  the 

creation  and  the  events  which  pre- 
17.  The  ceded  it;  the  ''  Great  Holy  Assem- 
Zohar.      bly,"    which    forms    a    compend    of 

cabalistic  speculation  and  finds  the 
type  of  all  sefiroth  in  man,  through  whose  mental 
processes  the  upper  world  of  light  is  united  with 
the  lower  world  of  sense,  while  the  anthropo- 
morphisms of  the  Old  Testament  are  declared  to  be 
mere  metaphors;  and  the  "  True  Shepherd,"  which 
explains  the  nature  of  the  primal  emanations. 
The  later  elements  of  the  Zohar  are  as  follows: 
the  "  Small  Holy  Assembly,"  which  gives  a  clearer 
exposition  of  t^  subjects  treated  in  the  "  Great 
Holy  Assembly";  the  "Book  of  the  Mystery  of 
Mysteries,"  devoted  to  physiognomy  and  cheiro- 
mancy; the  "  Book  of  the  Halls,"  which  describes 
the  abodes  of  the  souls  in  the  Garden  of  Eden  and 
in  hell;  the  "Hidden  Midmsh,"  which  recounts 
the  return  of  the  souls  to  their  new  and  perfect 
human  fonns  after  the  resurrection,  and  portrays 
the  meal  prepared  for  the  righteous;  the  "  Ajicient," 
which  describes  the  transmigration  of  souls  and 
the  punishments  of  hell;  the  "  Young,"  an  expo- 
sition of  various  cabalistic  teachings;  and  "  Mish- 
nas  and  Tosefta,"  which  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
mystical  meanings  of  the  divine  names.  Despite 
the  opposition  of  Tahnudists  and  philosophers  the 
Zohar  gained  an  enormous  following  and  was 
regarded  as  a  revelation  from  heaven.  Through 
it  Spain  became  the  real  home  of  the  Cabala,  and 
even  to  the  present  day  it  is  considered  author- 
itative in  some  Judaistic  quarters. 

With  the  exile  of  the  Jews  from  Spain  the  Cabala 
was  carried  into  all  lands,  and  Safed  in  Palestine 
became  its  new  center.  There,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  Moses  ben  Jacob  Cordovero  and  Isaac 
Luria  systematized  the  Cabala  and  filled  many  a 
gap  wb^<sh  had  existed  in  the  Zohar,  the  former 
emphasizing    the   metaphysical    and    speculative, 

and  the  latter  the  ascetic  and  ethical 

18.  Closiiig  side.    Through  them  the   Zohar  was 

Period  of  well-nigh  deified,  and  in  a  like  spirit 

the  Cabala,  many    cabalists   of    the   seventeenth 

century,  such  as  Shabbathai  ^ebi 
and  Jacob  Frank,  proclaimed  themselves  prophets 
or  asserted  that  the  Shekinah  or  the  soul  of  the 
Messiah  had  become  incarnate  in  them.  From 
this  time  on,  however,  the  Cabala  has  steadily 
declined,  and  the  names  of  its  representatives  are 
too  unimportant  to  require  mention  here. 

Though  the  Cabala  was  devoted  to  a  spiritual- 
ization  of  religion,  the  pagan  dements  which  it 


adopted  brought  to  Judaism  a  view  of  the  urn- 
verse  which  was  entirely  foreign  to  it,  and  worked 
it  grave  injury.  The  Biblical  concept  of  a  mono- 
theistic God  was  superseded  by  a  vague  Gentile 
theoiy  of  emanation  with  a  pantheistic  tendency, 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God  was  thrust 
into  the  background  by  the  ten  sefiroih,  who  were 
regarded  as  divine  in  essence.  Since  prayer  was 
no  longer  addressed  inunediately  to  God  but  to 
the  sefiroth,  a  genuine  aefirothrcvlt  was  evolved. 
The  Talmud  and  philosophy  were  disdained  by 
the  cabalists,  and  even  the  study  of  the  Bible  was 
ne^ected,  since  it  was  no  longer  read  for  its  own 
sake,  but  solely  with  the  aid  of  cabalistic  methods 
of  hermeneutics.  Nor  did  the  ritual  escape  chac^ 
and  mutilation,  and  the  phylacteries 
19.  Influ-  and  the  prayer-mantles  were  now  put 
ence  of  the  on  to  the  accompaniment  of  various 
Cabala  on  cabalistic  formulas,  especially  prom- 
Judaism,  inent  being  the  prayers  to  the  seftnih. 
Worst  ol  all  was  the  growth  of  super- 
stition. That  the  soul  might  attain  to  the  rc»lm 
of  light  after  death,  the  severest  mortification  of  the 
flesh  was  practised,  while  the  mysterious  names  of 
God  were  believed  to  heal  the  sick  and  quench  the 
flames,  and  God  altered  his  divine  will  at  the 
prayer  of  the  cabalist.  The  very  kingdom  of 
darkness  was  subject  to  the  proper  formulas  of 
prayer,  and  the  damned  were  freed  from  their 
torments  by  use  of  the  magic  names  of  God. 

During  the  period  of  the  Reformation  the  Cabala 
attracted  wide  attention  because  of  the  alleged 
kinship  and  agreement  of  its  doctrines  with  the 
dogmas  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  opinion 
accordingly  prevailed  that  it  formed  the  means  by 
which  Judaism  and  Christianity  might  easily  be 
united,  especially  as  it  was  believed  to  contain  the 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the  Messiah  as  the  Son 
of  God,  and  his  work  of  atonement.  In  his  mis- 
sionary seal  for  the  Saracens  in  the 
30.  Rela-  thirteenth  centiiry  Raymond  Lully 
tion  of  the  (q.v.)  considered  the  Cabala  a  divine 
Cabala  to  revelation,  and  after  the  converted  Jew 
Christianity.  Paulus  de  Heredia  (about  1480)  had 
shown  in  his  "  Letter  of  Secrets " 
that  all  the  chief  truths  of  Christianity  were  con- 
tained in  the  Cabala,  Christian  scholars  became 
rivals  in  their  eagerness  to  study  esoteric  Judaism. 
In  1486  Pico  de  Mirandola  published  at  Rome  hb 
SeptuagintOnduoB  condnsianes  eabbaUisticcB,  and  invi- 
ted all  scholars  to  Rome  to  attend  a  disputation 
to  convince  themselves  of  the  kinship  between  the 
Cabala  and  Christianity.  The  first  German  to 
investigate  this  subject  was  Reuchlin,  who  devoted 
to  it  his  Z>e  verbo  mirifico  (Basel,  1494)  and  his 
De  arte  cabbalisHca  (Hagenau,  1517).  Latin  trans- 
lations of  various  portions  of  cabalistic  works  were 
made  by  Baruch  of  Benevento  at  the  request  of 
Cardinal  ^gidius  of  Viterbo  and  by  the  convert 
Paul  Ricdo,  physician  in  ordinaxy  to  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I.,  but  the  most  important  work  which 
sought  the  truths  of  CThristianity  in  the  Cabala 
and  gave  translations  from  it  was  the  Kabbaia 
denudata  of  Christian  Knorr  von  Rosenroth  (4 
vols.,  Sulzbach  and  Frankfort,  1677-^),  the  source 
for  all  subsequent  scholars. 


331 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CaTmlA 
CaBdmon 


Tt  is  now  recognized  that  the  concepts  of  God 
a. lid  the  creation  are  entirely  divergent  in  the 
Cabala  and  Christianity;  the  first  triad  of  the 
scfiroih  does  not  actually  correspond  to  the  Trinity, 
nor  does  the  Christian  doctrine  of  Christ  as  the  Son 
of  God  find  an  analogue  in  the  Adham  Jjpadhmon  of 
the  Cabala.  According  to  Christianity,  redemp- 
tion is  possible  only  through  Christ,  while  the  Cabala 
postulates  that  man  can  save  himself  by  his  mystic 
influence  on  God  and  the  world  of  light  through 
ri^d  observance  of  the  law,  asceticism,  and  similar 
agencies.  (August  WCnsche.) 

Bibliograpbt:  The  literature  up  to  about  1800  is  arraoced 
in  J.  Fartt,  Biblioiheca  judaiea,  iii.  320-335,  Leipeio.  1863. 
The  best  book  in  Eng.  is  C.  D.  Ginsburs.  The  Kabbalah, 
ito  Doetrinea^  Devdopmeni,  and  LitenUwre^  London,  1866. 
A  most  valuable  work  is  A.  Franck.  L>a  KabbaU^  ou  la 
jfhiloeophie  reliffietae  de»  Uibreux,  3d  ed.,  Paris,  1802 
CGerm.  transl.,  Leipsic,  1844).  Of  older  literature  the 
following  may  be  mentioned:  J.  F.  Buddeus,  Intro- 
dtictio  ad  hi^oriam  phUotophia  UebrcBorumt  Halle,  1721; 
J.  Basnage,  Ui»toire  d»  la  rtHgion  det  JuifM,  vol.  iii.,  Rot- 
terdam. 1707-11;  J.  F.  Kleuker.  Uwber  die  Natur  und 
den  Ureprung  der  EmanaHonBlehre  bei  den  Kabbalietent 
Riga,  1786;  F.  A.  Tholuck,  De  orlu  Cabbala,  vol.  i., 
Hamburg,  1837.  Of  later  literature  the  following  are 
suggested  as  worthy  of  study:  A.  Jellinek,  BeibrHoe  stir 
Geachichte  der  Kabbala,  2  vob.,  Leipsio,  1852  (of  great 
value)  idem,  AuewaJU  kabbaUeHedier  AfyttiJ;,  ib.  1853; 
J.  W.  Etheridge,  Jentealem  and  Tiberiae,  Sara  and  Cor- 
dova, London,  1856;  8.  Hunk,  Miiangee  de  philoeophie 
juive  et  arabe,  pp.  461-511,  Paris,  1857;  Q.  dee  Mous- 
•eauz.  U  JuiU  pp.  500  sqq..  ib.  1860;  C.  Siegfried.  Philo 
.  ,  .  ale  AueUger  dee  AUen  TeetamenU,  Jena,  1872;  F. 
Ueberweg,  Hietorw  of  Philoeophy,  i.  417,  New  York,  1876; 
F.  Weber,  Syetem  der  aUeynaoooalen  paiAeHniedten  The- 
ologie,  Leipsio,  1880;  L.  Wogue,  Uietoire  de  Vixtgeee  bib- 
lique,  Paris,  1881;  Die  Kabbala.  ihre  HaupUehre,  Inns- 
bruck, 1885;  Simeon  ben  Yochai,  Kabbala  denudata. 
Kabbalah  Unveiled,  London,  1887;  I.  Meyer.  Qabbalah; 
Philoeophieal  Writinge  of  Solomon  .  .  .  Gdnrol  or  Aviee- 
bron  and  their  Connedion  with  the  Hebrew  Qabbalah, 
Philadelphia,  1888;  P.  Bloch,  GeediichU  der  Bntwideduno 
der  Kabbala,  Trier,  1804;  J.  Hamburger,  Real^Encyklo- 
pAdie  far  Bibd  und  Talmud,  Leipsic,  1806-1001;  Th$ 
Canon;  an  Ezpoeition  of  the  Pagan  Myetery  Perpetuated 
in  ihe  Cabala,  London,  1807;  M.  Mielsiner,  Introduction 
to  the  Talmud,  Cincinnati,  1807;  J.  H.  Weldon,  The  Cab- 
bala of  the  BibU,  1807-1000;  C.  A.  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy 
Scripture,  chap,  xviii..  New  York,  1800;  W.  Begley,  Btblia 
eabalittiea,  London,  1003;  E.  Bischoff.  De  Kabbala  Inleiding 
tot  de  ioodeche  myeliek,  Amsterdam,  1006;  8.  A.  Binion, 
The  Kabbalah,  in  World't  Beet  Literature,  ed.  C.  D.  War^ 
ner,  pp.  8425-42;  JE,  iii.  45^-470.  where  other  litera- 
ture is  mentioned.  At  the  head  of  the  article  in  Hauok- 
Ilersog.  R^  is  a  very  full  list  of  works,  including  period- 
ical literature. 

CADALUS:  Antipope.  See  HoNORnTS  II.,  anti- 
pope. 

CADMAlf,  SAMUEL  PARKES:  Congregation- 
alist;  b.  at  Wellington  (30  m.  n.w.  of  Birmingham), 
Shropshire,  En^and,  Dec.  18,  1864.  He  was 
educated  at  Richmond  College,  London,  graduating 
in  theology  and  classics  in  1889,  and  held  successive 
Congregational  pastorates  at  Millbrook,  N.  Y. 
(1890-93),  Yonkera,  N.  Y.  (1893-95).  the  Metro- 
politan Temple,  New  York  City  (1895-1900),  and 
the  Central  Congregational  Church,  Brooklyn 
(1900  to  the  present  time).  His  theological  posi- 
tion is  that  of  a  liberal-conservative. 

CADOC  {Cadocus,  Docus):  A  Welsh  saint,  called 
"the  Wise,"  son  of  a  chieftain  of  South  Wales 
and  cousin  of  St.  David  of  Menevia;  d.,  according 


to  one  accoimt,  at  his  monasteiy  of  Llancarven 
(near  Cowbridge,  10  m.  w.s.w.  of  Llandafif.  Glamor- 
ganshire), according  to  others,  as  a  martyr  at  Bene- 
ventum,  570  (7).  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the 
religious  b'fe,  refused  to  succeed  his  father  in  his 
principality,  studied  under  Irish  scholars  at  home, 
and  visited  Ireland,  Scotland,  Rome,  and  Jerusalem 
in  quest  of  instruction.  He  foimded  the  monas- 
tery at  Llancarven  and  made  it  a  famous  center  of 
learning.  Tradition  associates  him  with  David 
and  Gildas  (who  was  one  of  the  teachers  at  Llan- 
carven) as  training  the  "second  order  of  Irish 
saints''  (see  Celtic  Church  in  Brffain  and 
Ireland,  II.,  2,  §  1)  and  thus  influencing  the  church 
life  of  Ireland.  One  of  the  earliest  moniunents  of 
the  Welsh  language  is  The  Wisdom  of  Cadoc  the 
TFtse,  a  collection  of  proverbs,  maxims,  and  the  like 
(in  The  Myvyrian  Archaiology  of  WdUs^  ed.  O. 
Jones,  E.  Williams,  and  W.  O.  Pugh,  iii.,  London, 
1807;  newed.,  Denbigh,  1870,  754  sqq.).  The  Fables 
of  Cadoc  the  Wise  maybe  foimd  in/o2o  Manuscripts, 
ed.  £.  Williams  (London,  1848). 

Bxblxographt:  Lanigan,  Bed.  HieL,  i.  489-492;  W.  J.  Rees, 
Uvee  of  the  Cambro-Britieh  SainU,  22-96,  309-395,  468, 
587,  Llandovery.  1853;  A.  P.  Forbes,  Kalendare  of  Scot- 
tieh  Sainte,  pp.  292-293,  Edinbuish,  1872. 

CJECILIAirnS.    See  Donatibm. 

C^DMON:  The  first  Christian  poet  of  England 
and,  with  the  exception  of  Cynewulf  (q.v.),  the 
only  An^o-Saxon  versifier  whose  name  is  known; 
d.  about  680.  All  information  concerning  him 
comes  from  Bede,  who  states  (Hist,  ecd.f  iv.  24) 
that  he  was  a  brother  in  Hilda's  monastery  at 
Streaiueshalch  (see  Hilda,  Saint)  and  learned  the 
art  of  song,  not  from  men,  but  from  God.  Till  well 
advanced  in  years  he  lived  a  secular  life,  and  he 
often  left  a  merry  company  where  all  were  called 
on  to  sing  in  turn,  feeling  his  inability  to  comply. 
On  one  such  occasion  he  went  from  the  hall  to  the 
stable,  it  being  his  duty  that  night  to  watch  the 
animals,  and  in  his  sleep  he  saw  some  one  standing 
before  him  and  commanding  him  to  sing  of  the 
Creation — ^which  he  thereupon  was  enabled  to  do, 
reciting  an  original  poem,  which  Bede  gives  in 
Latin  translation.'  On  awaking  ClSsedmon  re- 
membered the  poetry  of  his  dream,  and  proceeded 
to  add  more  of  the  same  purport.  Being  brought 
before  the  abbess  Hilda,  he  related  his  vision,  and, 
at  the  request  of  the  learned  men  there  present, 
put  passages  of  Scripture  which  they  repeated  to 
him  into  excellent  verse.  Thereupon  he  was 
received  into  the  monastery  and  instructed  in  the 
Biblical  stories,  large  portions  of  which  he  subse- 
quently versified.  Among  these  were  the  creation 
of  the  world,  the  origin  of  man,  and  the  whole 
history  of  Genesis;  the  departure  of  the  children 

1 "  Now  onght  we  to  praiae  the  founder  of  the  heavenly 
Idncdom,  the  power  of  the  Creator,  and  his  wisdom,  the 
deeds  of  the  father  of  Glory;  how  he,  ainoe  he  ia  Ood  eter- 
nal, to  the  author  of  all  thinga  wonderful,  and  the  one  who 
first  created  the  heaven  as  a  roof  for  the  sons  of  men,  then 
the  earth — ^the  almighty  guardian  of  the  human  raoe." 
Bede  explains  that  he  gives  the  sense,  not  the  order  of  words, 
and  wisely  remarks  that  no  verses  can  be  transferred  verba- 
tim from  one  language  to  another,  no  matter  how  well  it 
may  be  done,  without  losing  much  of  their  beauty  and 
power. 


OsBdmon 
CsBsarlua  of  Arlea 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZOG 


332 


of  Israel  from  Egypt  and  their  entrance  into  the 
land  of  promise;  the  incarnation,  passion,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  of  Christ;  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  the  preaching  of  the  apostles; 
the  terror  of  future  judgment,  the  horror  of  hell, 
and  the  blessedness  of  heaven;  and  many  other 
things  by  which  he  sought  to  lead  men  from  the 
love  of  the  world  and  to  the  choice  of  a  good  life. 
Ho  was  a  very  religious  man  and  the  manner  of  his 
death  was  in  complete  accord  with  his  devout  and 
tranquil  life.  Bede  wbjb  bom  before  Csedmon's 
death  and  lived  not  far  from  his  monastery;  hence 
his  account  is  worthy  of  belief.  The  attempt  of 
Sir  Francis  Palgrave  to  show  that  the  story  is  a 
mere  monk's  tale  is  to  be  rejected.  No  doubt  a 
monk  named  Caedmon  lived  at  Streanseshalch 
and  wrote  poetry  there,  and  evidently  he  was  of 
low  origin  and  imleamed.  Several  poems  from 
a  manuscript  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library — a 
paraphrase  of  Genesis  of  more  than  2,900  lines; 
Exodus,  about  600  lines;  Daniel,  about  800  lines; 
and  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  including 
the  lament  of  the  fallen  angels,  Christ's  visit  to 
hell,  and  the  temptation  of  Christ,  formerly  known 
as  the  Christ  and  Satan — ^were  published  by  Fran- 
dscus  Junius  (Fran9ois  du  Jon)  at  Amsterdam 
in  1655  and  attributed  to  Csedmon.  At  present 
it  is  conceded  that  only  the  first  of  these  poems 
has  any  claim  to  be  considered  the  production  of 
Csedmon,  and  that  even  this  has  been  transmitted 
in  an  interpolated  and  much  modified  form  (see 
Heliand,  the,  and  the  Old-Saxon  Genesis)  ;  many 
think  that  it  contains  no  work  of  Csedmon's  at  all. 
The  hymn  mentioned  by  Bede,  however,  is  pre- 
served in  the  Northumbrian  dialect  (Csedmon's 
own)  by  a  Cambridge  manuscript  of  the  Historia 
ecclesiastica  and  is  the  oldest  extant  Christian  poem 
in  a  Germanic  tongue.  (R.  WOlker.) 

Bxblxographt:  Beeides  the  edition  of  Junius,  the  poema  of 
the  Bodleian  manuscript  have  been  published  by  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London — Ccedmon't  Metrical 
Paraphra$e  of  Porta  of  the  Holy  Scripture  in  Anglo-Saxon, 
with  an  Engliah  Tranelation,  Notee,  and  a  verbal  Index  by 
B.  Thorpe,  London,  1832.  The  same  society  also  pub- 
lished in  their  Archceologia,  zxiv.  (1832),  fifty-two  plates 
illustrative  of  the  manuscript,  including  the  illumina- 
tions, reissued  separately  London,  1833.  Later  editions 
are  by  K.  W.  Bouterwek,  2  vols..  GQtersloh.  1849-54. 
and  C.  W.  M.  Grein,  in  his  Bibliothek  der  anf/eUHcheiachen 
Poeaie,  ii.  316-562,  new  ed.  by  R.  WQlker,  Lcipsic,  1894. 
Grein  has  also  furnished  a  German  translation  in  allitera- 
tive verse  in  Dichtungen  der  Angeleachaen  etabreimend 
mberaetzt,  Gdttingen.  1863.  Consult  further:  Sir  Francis 
Palgrave.  in  ilrcA(0o2o^,  xxiv.  (1832)  341-343,  reprinted 
by  Cook.  pp.  12-13  (see  below);  W.  H.  F.  Bosanquet, 
The  Fall  of  Man  or  Paradise  Loet  of  Cadmon  Translated 
in  Verse,  London.  1860;  E.  Bievers.  Der  Heliand  und  die 
angelsHchsische  Genesis,  Halle.  1875;  R.  8.  Watson,  Cced- 
tnon,  the  First  English  Poet,  London,  1875;  B.  ten 
Brink.  Oeschichte  der  englisehen  Litteratur,  i.,  2d  ed.. 
Strasburg,  1899.  Eng.  transl..  London.  1883;  J.  Earie, 
Anglo-Saxon  Literature,  London,  1884;  R.  Walker, 
Orundrisa  mr  Oeschichte  der  angdsdchsischen  Litteratur, 
Leipsic,  1885;  idem.  Oeschichte  der  englisehen  Litteratur, 
Leipsic,  1896;  A.  Ebert,  AUgemeine  OeschichU  der  Lii- 
teratur  des  Mittelalters,  vol.  iii..  Leipsic,  1887;  A.  S.  Ox>k, 
in  the  PiMiaUions  of  the  Modem  Language  Association 
of  America,  vol.  vi..  part  1.  pp.  9-28,  Baltimore.  1891; 
Plummer's  Bede,  ii.  248-258,  Oxford,  1896;  W.  Bright, 
Early  English  Church  History,  pp.  311-316,  Oxfoid,  1897; 
R.  T.  Gaskin,  Cadtnon,  the  First  English  Poet,  London, 
1902.  For  the  striking  resemblance  between  parts  of  the 
Genesis  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  consult  I.  Disraeli, 


Amenities  of  Literature,  pp.  37-50,  ed.  B.  Disraeli  Lon- 
don. 1875;  S.  H.  Gurteen.  The  Epic  of  tKe  Fall  of  Afen,  a 
Comparative  Study  of  Caadmon,  Dante,  and  Milton,  l^cwidon, 
1896  (gives  reduced  facsimiles  of  the  iUuminatioiis  of  tiis 
Bodleian  manuscript). 

CJELESnUS.    See  Pelagius,  PsLAGiANiBii. 

CJERULARIUS,  MICHAEL:  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople 1043-58.  The  exact  date  and  pboe 
both  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  and  few 
details  of  his  life  are  certain.  During  the  reign 
of  Michael  the  Paphlagonian  (1034-41)  he  was 
banished  for  conspiracy,  but  he  was  raised  to  the 
patriarchate  by  Constantino  Monomachus,  who 
hoped  to  find  in  him  a  firm  ally.  Caendariwi. 
however,  strenuously  defended  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  and  his  chief  importance  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  his  course  resulted  in  the  complete  deavage 
between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  At 
the  very  time  when  the  Norman  War  gave  the 
Byzantine  court  and  the  pope  an  opportunity  to 
draw  more  closely  together,  the  patriarch  violently 
suppressed  the  Latin  ritual  observed  in  many 
cloisters  and  churches,  and  renewed  the  ancient 
charges  of  Photius  (q.v.)  in  a  letter  to  the  bishop 
of  Trani  in  Apulia,  reserving  his  special  attack  for 
the  Roman  use  of  imleavened  bread  in  the  Sacra- 
ment, wliich  he  condemned  as  Jewish.  Leo  IX. 
replied  with  a  haughty  defense  of  the  primacy  of 
Rome,  and  at  Constantine's  request  an  embassy 
was  sent  to  Constantinople,  headed  by  the  Cardinnl 
Bishop  Humbert.  Their  letters  were  intended  to 
win  over  the  emperor  and  humble  the  patriarch, 
and  the  feeble  Constantine,  overawed  by  Hum- 
bert's attacks  on  the  Greek  Church,  had  neither 
the  courage  to  protect  Cserularius  nor  to  oppose 
him  openly.  The  patriarch,  however,  refused  to 
3rield,  and  on  July  16,  1054,  the  embassy  exoom- 
mimicated  him  and  all  his  adherents.  After  the 
departure  of  the  envoys,  Cserularius  regained  his 
prestige  with  Constantine,  and  maintained  it  during 
the  reign  of  Theodora.  Isaac  Conmenus,  on  the 
other  hand,  banished  him  on  account  of  his  arro- 
gance in  1058,  and  he  seems  to  have  died  shortly 
afterward.  In  addition  to  the  letters  already 
mentioned,  Cserularius  was  the  author  of  some 
decretals  (De  epiacoporum  judiciis,  De  nupHis  in 
Beptimo  gradu  rum  contrahendis,  De  sacerdotia  uzore 
adulterio  poUuta;  edited  by  Rhalles  and  Potlis, 
"  Collection  of  Canons,"  v.  40-47)  and  a  few  writings 
still  preserved  in  manuscript  (De  miasa,  Opus  contra 
Latinos;  listed  by  Fabricius,  BibliothMa  Orcecajed. 
Harles, ».  195-197).  (Philipp  Meter.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  C.  Will.  Acta  et  scripta  .  ,  .  de  eontroperaia 
ecdesicB  .  .  .,  Marbuis.  1861;  J.  Heisenrftther,  Photius, 
vol.  iii.,  Regensbiu^,  1809  (rich  in  orisixial  matter);  A. 
Pichler,  Oesdiiehte  der  kirchlichen  TrennuTig  swiadien  dem 
Orient  und  Occident,  2  vob.,  Munich.  1864-^;  R.  Baz- 
mann.  Die  Politik  der  PApate,  vol.  ii..  Elberfeld.  1868-66: 
W.  Fischer,  Studien  tur  byaanHniadten  Oeachiehte  des  elf- 
ten  Jahrhunderta,  Plauen.  1883;  K.  Knimbacher.  Oe- 
achiehte der  byaantiniaehen  LiUaratur,  paaaim,  Munidu 
1897. 

C^SARIUS  OF  ARLES:  Bishop'bf  ^les;  b.  at 
Ch&lon-Bur-Sa6ne  (33  ra.  n.  of  Miioon)  469  or  470; 
d.  at  Aries  (44  m.  n.w.  of  Marseilles)  Aug.  27,  542. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  before  his  eighteenth  year, 
but  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  went  to  the  famous 
cloister  on  the  island  of  L^rins,  although  it  was  now 


333 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


C»dxnoxi 
CsBsarlus  of  Arlea 


declining  under  the  weak  abbot  Porciirius.  There 
Ceesarius  became  acquainted  with  the  writings  of 
Faustus,  who  had  been  abbot  of  L^rins  for  some 
thirty  years,  and  these  works  exercised  an  influ- 
ence on  him  throughout  his  life.  Porcarius  ap- 
pointed him  master  of  the  refectory, 
Early  Life,  but  the  discontent  of  the  monks 
caused  his  removal,  and  he  thereupon 
devoted  himself  so  rigidly  to  fasting  that  it  became 
necessary  to  send  him  to  Aries  in  search  of  health. 
He  there  became  acquainted  with  Firminus,  and 
at  his  request  began  the  study  of  rhetoric  with 
Pomerius  of  Africa,  who  is  now  generally  regarded 
as  identical  with  the  author  of  the  De  vita  contem- 
plativa.  Pomerius  was,  moreover,  a  follower  of 
Augustine,  and  seems  to  have  won  his  pupil  over 
to  this  teacher.  Recognizing  in  Csesarius  a  fellow 
countrsrman  and  kinsman,  .^k>ntius,  bishop  of 
Aries,  not  only  ordained  him  and  placed  him  in 
charge  of  a  monastery,  but  also  induced  the  clergy, 
citizens,  and  king  to  appoint  him  his  successor. 
In  502,  therefore,  CsBsarius  became  bishop  of  Aries, 
though  sorely  against  his  will. 

His  first  measure  was  to  make  daily  attendance 
at  church  agreeable  to  the  laity,  largely  by  singing, 
and  he  also  required  them  to  learn  passages  from 
the  Bible,  in  addition  to  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer.     The  administration  of  funds  was  entrusted 
to  laymen  and  deacons,  and  he  strove  to  main- 
tain firm  discipline,  being  apparently 
Bishop,     the    author    of    the    first  Occidental 
502.        manual    of    ecclesiastical    law,    the 
StahUa     ecdesicB     antiqua.      In    505 
Cffisarius  was  charged  with  high  treason  by  his 
secretary  Licinianus,  and  was  banished  to  Bordeaux 
by   Alaric   II.,   although   he   quickly  proved   his 
innocence  and  was  permitted  to  return.     On  Sept. 
11,  506,  he  restuned  the  long  interrupted  series  of 
Gallic  synods  with  the  Synod  of  Agde  (q.v.),  and 
the   canons,   evidently  written   by  Csesarius,   are 
important    documents    for    ecclesiastical    history. 
Particularly    noteworthy    among    them    are    the 
resolutions  on  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,   slavery, 
celibacy,  and  church-property  which  was  to  be 
regarded  as  set  aside  for  the  poor.    The  death  of 
Alaric  shortly  after  the  close  of  the  synod  ended 
the  kingdom  of  Toulouse,  and  in  508  the  Franks 
and   Burgundians   began   the   siege  of  Aries.     A 
relative  of  the  bishop  deserted  to  the  enemy,  and 
Csesarius  himself  was  charged  with  treason  and 
imprisoned,  escaping  only  when  the  treason  of  the 
Jews  who  had  accused  him  became  known.     In 
510  the  city  was  relieved,  and  Csesarius  cared  for 
the  captives  without  regard  to  creed,  in  addition 
to  ransoming  many  with  the  money  and  ornaments 
of  the  churches.    Three  years  later,  however,  he 
was  cited  to  appear  before  Theodoric  at  Ravenna, 
probably  because  of  his  expenditures  of  church 
funds  for  the  foundation  of  a  nunnery  at  Aries 
and  similar  purposes,  but  he  won  the  king  com- 
pletely to  his  side,  and  received  such  rich  gifts  from 
all  quarters  for  the  ransom  of  Burgundian  captives 
that  he  was  able  to  bring  to  Aries  8,000  solidi 
(about  $56,000).     From  Ravenna  he  went  to  Rome, 
and  in  October  gave  the  pope  a  petition,  in  which 
>  h-y  requested  permission  to  employ  church  funds 


for  cloisters;  to  abrogate,  in  view  of  the  lack  of 
clergy  in  Gaul,  the  hieratic  cursua  honorum,  on 
which  strict  stress  was  laid  at  Rome;  and  also 
asked  information  regarding  the  marriage  of  widows 
and  nuns,  bribery  in  the  election  of  bishops,  and 
the  prohibition  against  naming  a  bishop  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  metropolitan.  On  Nov.  6, 
513,  the  petition  was  granted  with  a  few  reservar 
tions,  Symmsu^hus  allowing  only  the  usufruct  to 
be  devoted  to  cloisters  and  the  like. 

Little  is  known  of  the  life  of  Csesarius  between 
514  and  523,  although  the  canons  of  the  Coimcil  of 
Gerunda  in  516-517  show  that  his  influence  was 
traceable  in  Spain.  In  523,  however,  it  became 
possible  for  him  to  exerdse  his  metropolitan  func- 
tions, since  the  peaceable  intervention  of  Theodoric 
in  the  Franko-Burgundian  War  brought  ten  cities 
of  Burgundy  under  the  sway  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
Csesarius  now  held  five  synods:  Aries,  524;  Car- 
pentras,  527;  Orange  and  Vaison,  529;  and  Mar- 
seilles, 533.  The  disciplinary  and  legislative 
su;tivity  of  Csesarius  CM^oordin^y  lies  in  the  StahUa 
ecdesia  antiqua  and  in  the  canons  of  the  six  synods, 
to  which  should  probably  be  added 
Synods  the  decrees  of  what  is  oonmionly  con- 
after  523.  sidered  the  second  synod  of  Aries. 
Stress  should  also  be  isdd  on  his  care 
for  the  rural  oonunimities  and  for  the  erection  of 
schools  for  the  education  of  the  clergy.  As  early 
as  the  Statvia,  moreover,  Csesarius  had  taken  for 
granted  the  right  and  duty  of  presu^hing,  and  he 
insisted  on  it  again  in  the  AdmonitiOf  which  seems 
to  have  appeared  at  the  synod  of  Vsdson.  The 
Council  of  Orange  (Jime  3,  529)  was  the  only  one 
devoted  to  a  dogmatic  question,  and  also  the  only 
one  which  received  papal  sanction  as  an  ecumenical 
council.  This  was  apparently  the  conference  of 
bishops  of  Vienne  (mentioned  in  the  Vita),  who, 
as  Semi-Pelagians,  attacked  the  doctrine  of  grace 
taught  at  Aries,  while  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Toulon, 
represented  Csesarius,  who  was  prevented  by  illness 
from  attending,  tmd  defended  the  dogma  of  pre- 
venient  grace.  The  epilogue  of  its  resolutions, 
apparently  written  by  Csesarius  himself,  ascribes 
free  will  to  all  the  baptized,  and  rejects  predes- 
tination to  damnation.  His  own  position  toward 
this  problem  first  became  clear  in  1896,  when  Morin 
edited  the  treatise  Quid  domintu  Casaariua  senaerit 
contra  eos  qui  dicunt  quare  aliis  det  Deus  gratiam, 
cUiis  nan  det,  in  whidi  he  maintains  that  divine 
grace  works  without  regard  to  the  merits  of  man, 
while  God  acts  according  to  his  will  and  pleasure. 
The  dose  of  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth  century 
saw  the  climax  of  the  activity  of  Csesarius,  and  his 
relations  with  Rome  changed  for  the  worse.  Pope 
Agapetus  charged  him  with  cruelty  and  injustice 
in  Us  proceedings  against  Conttuneliosus,  bishop 
of  Riez,  although  he  had  acted  simply  in  accord 
with  Gallicsui  usage  and  had  defended  the  disci- 
pline of  the  Church.  Under  Pope  Vigilius  he  was 
obliged,  as  vicar  of  the  Roman  See,  to  render  a 
decision  in  a  question  of  marriage,  which  was  dis- 
regarded. Old  and  sickly,  he  took  no  personal 
part  in  the  French  synods,  although  the  ecclesias- 
tical influence  of  his  pupils  remained  important. 
He  lived,  however,  to  see  the  cloister  which  he  had 


CSBMUIUS  of  ArlM 

OaiUln 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


334 


founded  on  Aug.  26,  512  or  513,  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  and  to  complete  a  bishopric  of  forty 
years. 

No  collected  edition  of  the  works  of  Gesarius 
exists  as  yet,  although  the  Benedictine  Germaine 
Morin  has  long  been  preparing  one,  but  the  places 
in  which  his  scattered  writings  may  be  found 
are  given  by  Arnold,  435-450  (cf.  491-496),  Mal- 
nory,  v.-xviii.,  and  Fessler-Jungmann,  438,  452. 
In  addition  to  the  works  already  mentioned,  his 
most  important  writings  are  his  sermons.  His 
chief  sources,  often  noted  in  his  manuscript,  were 
Augustine,  Rufirius,  Faustus,  Salvianus,  and 
Eucherius,  and  his  generosity  in  giving  of  his 
treasures  to  others  has  resulted  in  the  ascription 
of  many  of  his  sermons  to  Augustine,  Faustus,  and 
similar  authors.  On  the  other  hand,  he  prepared 
homiliaries,  represented  by  Cod.  Loon.  Itl  (ninth 
century)  and  Parisin.  10605  fol,  71  (thirteenth 
century).  A  similar  collection  contains  forty-two 
admonitions,  and  a  third  is  devoted  to  sermons 
for  the  cloister.    A  special  category 

Works,  is  formed  by  the  homilies  for  the  Old 
Testament  lessons  for  each  fast,  and 
these  are  supplemented  by  interpretations  of  texts 
of  the  New  Testament.  Another  group  of  sermons 
is  eechatological  and  a  third  is  important  for  the 
history  of  penance.  His  monastery  rules  are 
extremely  valuable  for  the  history  of  asceticism, 
and  his  regulations  for  nuns,  based  on  Augustine's 
letter  Ad  aancHmonialeB,  the  so-called  rules  of 
Macarius,  and  his  own  monastic  rules,  received  their 
final  form  in  534  and  deariy  show  the  various 
strata  of  their  development.  Of  the  other  writings 
of  Cffisarius,  only  the  letters  need  be  considered, 
for  the  Teatamentum  beati  Coesarii  {MPL,  Ixvii. 
1139-42)  is  now  recognized  as  spurious. 

(F.  Arnold.) 

Bibuoorapbt:  Sources  for  a  life  are:  fpwf.  Ardaienma, 
in  MOH,  EpUL,  iii.  1-83.  ed.  W.  Qundlaoh«  Hanover, 
1801;  Concilia  cevi  Merovingici,  in  MGH,  Leg.t  Bectio 
iii.,  part  1,  pp.  37-61.  ed.  Maassen.  ib.  1803.  The  early 
lives  are  in  MOH,  Script,  rer.  Merovinifiearum,  iii.  467- 
501.  ed.  B.  Krusch.  ib.  1806.  and  in  ASB,  27  Aug..  vi.  64- 
83,  with  comment  by  Stilting,  pp.  50-64.  Consult:  A. 
Malnory,  8.  Ciaairt  ivique  d'Arlet,  Paris,  1804;  C.  F. 
Arnold,  Cdsoritis  von  Ardate  und  dts  ffaUi$ch€  Kirche 
•einer  Zeil,  Leipdc.  1804;  Hi$toire  liUiraire  de  la  France, 
iii.  100,  iv.  1.  X.,  p.  xv..  xii.,  p.  viL;  J.  M.  Trichaud.  His- 
foirs  d€  S.  CUaire,  Svique  d'Arlet,  Aries,  1858;  U.  Ville- 
vieille,  Uiatoire  d»  S.  Cifaire,  Aix-en-Provsnoe,  1884; 
P.  Lejay,  Lea  Sermona  de  Cfaaira  d* Arise,  in  Revue  bi- 
blique,  iv.  (1805)  503-610;  J.  Fessler.  InatiiuHonea  palro- 
logia,  ed.  B.  Jungmann.  ii.  438-452,  Innsbruck.  1806; 
Q.  Pfeilschifter.  Der  Oatgofhen  Kdnig  Theoderieh  der  Groaae 
und  die  kaiholiaehe  Kirche,  pp.  123-136,  MOnster,  1806; 
Hefele,  ConciliengeaehicfUe,  iL  68-77,  Eng.  transl.,  iv.  131, 
143 -qq. 

CSSARIUS  OF  HEISTERBACH,  hois'ter-bOH: 
Monk;  b.  probably  at  Ck>logne  c.  1180;  d.  at 
Heisterbach  (20  m.  s.  of  Cologne)  c.  1240.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  at  Cologne  and 
gained  a  good  knowledge  of  the  Church  Fathers 
and  classical  writers.  In  1198  or  1109  he  entered 
the  monastery  of  the  Cistercians  at  Heisterbach 
and  spent  his  life  there  in  quiet  seclusion.  He 
became  master  of  the  novices,  and  also  prior 
according  to  Henriquez  (Monologium  Ciaterciensef 
ad  diem  25  Sept.).    His  literary  activity  is  closely 


connected  with  his  monastic  duties.     Only  six- 
teen of  his  many  writings  are  extant  and  most  of 
these  are  still  in  manuscript.     One  of  the  be<t 
known  is  the  Dtalogus  miractilarum  or  De  miromii^ 
et  vmantbiia  sui  temporis  (ed.  J.  Strange,  2  vok. 
Cologne,  1851;  index,  Coblenz,  1857;  see  bibliography 
below  for  title  of  G^man  select  transl.).   As  m^ter 
of  the  novices  Cssarius  had  to  acquaint  the  future 
monks  with  the  regulations,  opinions,  and  dedsoos 
of  the  order,  and  he  believed  the  best  way  to  ac- 
complish this  was  by  means  of  examples.    At  the 
request  of  his  abbot  he  committed  his  instructioDs 
to  writing  and  the  copiousness  and  variety  <^  his 
material,  drawn  from  the  recent  past  as  well  && 
more  remote  antiquity,  is  surprising.     His  written 
sources  belong  mostly  to  the  Cistercian  order,  bu: 
he  also  drew  from  oral  communicatioDs.     Each 
narrative  is  intended  to  have  a  religious  or  moral 
practical  application,  but  Csesarius  knew  how  to 
include  everything  imder  these  heads,  and  thus  i: 
happens    that  his  stories  contain  many  points  of 
interest  for  contemporaneous  history  and  the  hi^ 
•  tory  of  civilisation.     In  a  series  of  pictures  he 
brings  before  us  the  life  on  the  Lower  Rhine,  espe- 
cially at  Cologne,  and  we  often  meet  with  popul^ 
beliefs  and  superstitions  in  which  survivals  of  old 
Germanic    mythology    may    still    be    discovered. 
The  Dialogu8  is  especially  important  for  informa- 
tion  concerning  ecclesiastical   customs   and   ooih 
ditions,    especially    in    the    monastic    life.    The 
regulations  of  the  monasteries,  especially  amoD^^ 
the  Cistercians,  the  chorus-singing  and  work,  the 
eating  and  sleeping,  the  fasting  and  bloodletting 
of    the  monks — ^all  comes  before  us  in  living  ex- 
amples.    Csesarius  is  much  in  earnest  about  the 
evils  of  confession;  he  suppresses  the  worst,  but 
what  he  tells  is  bad  enough  and  his  judgment  upon 
it  is  severe  (cf.  iii.  41  and  45).    For  the  rest  tbt> 
dialogue  from  beginning  to  end  is  a  witness  to  the 
mania  for  miracles  and  the  belief  of  the  time  in  the 
marvelous.     One  finds  everywhere  an  interferenci' 
of    partly  divine,  partly  demonic    powers  with 
earthly  happenings,  and  when  it  takes  place  the 
most  incredible  becomes   credible.     Here  is  the 
weak  point  of  the  book  which  must  not  be  over- 
looked, despite  the  poetic  charm  of  manynarrati>'^ 
and  the  morally  pure  personality  of  Cssarius.    He 
contributed  his  share  to  cause  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft and  sorcery,  in  incubi  and  succubi,  and  all 
sorts  of  devilish  intervention,  to  be  regarded  as  a 
oonstituentpart  of  Christian  belief.     The  praise  be- 
stowed on  the  Dialogua  induced  Csesarius  to  pre- 
pare a  second  work  of  the  kind,  not  however  in  the 
form  of  dialogue,  the  L4bri  VIII  miraculorum,  of 
which  only  three  books  are  preserved  (ed.  Mop 
Meister,  Rome,  1901,  supplementary  vol.  to  the  R'h 
fni8che  QuartaUchrift).    Cssarius's  historical  works 
include  a  Catalogtis  episeoporum  CoUmiengium  (in  J.  F. 
Bdhmer,  FonJbea  rtrum  Gemuinicarum,  ii.,  Stuttgart. 
1845. 272-282,  and,  ed.  H.Cardauns,  in  MGH,  Scnji.. 
xxiv.,  1879,  345-347;    Germ,  transl.  by  M.  Beth- 
any, Elberfeld,  1898)  and  a  Vita  9ancti  EngdberH,  an 
archbishop  of  Cologne  who  was  murdered  by  a  rela- 
tive inl225  (in  B6hmer,  ut  sup. ,  294-329).  This  work 
insures  to  Cssarius  a  place  among  the  most  prom- 
inent biographers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  first  book     i 


886 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OsBMbrlfUi  of  Aries 
Oaillin 


describes  the  personality  of  Engelbert;  the  second 
describes  in  dramatic  manner  the  dangers  with 
which  the  arrogance  of  insubordinate  vassals 
threatened  the  archbishop,  and  ends  with  a  thrilling 
account  of  the  final  catastrophe.  The  third  book 
treats  of  the  miracles  of  Engelbert,  who  was  revered 
as  martyr.  Lastly,  Cssarius  deserves  no  minor 
place  among  the  preachers  of  his  time.  His  homi- 
lies (edited  by  the  Dominican  J.  A.  Koppenstein, 
4  parts,  Cologne,  1615-28)  are  indeed  monastic, 
not  popular,  sermons,  like  those  of  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux.  But  both  have  in  common  the  rich 
application  of  Holy  Writ,  the  connection  of  moral 
and  allegorical  exposition,  and  the  endeavor  to 
edify  their  hearers.  In  spite  of  their  simplicity 
they  reveal  an  indeed  unsought  for,  but  not  im- 
conscious  art  in  their  plan.  Peculiar  to  Caesarius 
and  corresponding  to  his  method,  already  noted, 
is  the  very  copious  intertwining  of  historical  ex- 
amples from  modem  times.  He  was  a  true  child 
of  his  time,  and  belongs  to  its  best.  In  him  still 
lives  the  spirit  of  the  old  Cistercians,  as  Bernard 
impressed  it  on  the  order.  He  unites  an  earnest 
orthodoxy  with  fervent  piety  and  a  highly  moral 
sentiment.  Though  implicitly  devoted  to  the 
Church,  nevertheless  he  has  a  keen  eye  for  its 
obvious  defects,  and  his  judgment  was  incorrupt- 
ible. Though  a  zealous  monk,  he  did  not  lose  all 
interest  in  the  events  of  the  world,  and  the  political 
disorders  of  the  time,  with  all  the  misery  which 
they  brought,  concern  him.  S.  M.  Deutbch. 

Bxblzoorapht:  A.  Kaufmann,  C&Mriut  von  UeiUerbaeht 
Cologne,  1850,  2ded..  1862;  W.  Cave.  Scriptonan  eccUnattv- 
eorum  hUtoria  literaria,  year  1225, 2  vob.,  London,  1688-08; 
J.  Hartsheim,  BiUiotheca  CoUmientia,  pp.  42-45,  Cologne, 
1747;  HiBtoire  litUrain  de  la  France,  xviii.  104-201. 
Paria,  1835;  Braun.  in  ZeUtchrift  fUr  PhUoaophis  und 
kathoUachs  TheoiogU,  pp.  1-27.  Bonn,  1845  (oontaina  a 
list  of  Mb  writings  prepared  by  hixnaelf);  A.  W.  Wy- 
branda,  De  DuiioouM  miraculorum  van  Cauariua  van  Heit- 
ierbaeh,  in  Studitn  en  Bijdraoen,  ii.  1-116,  Amsterdam. 
1871;  K.  Unkel,  Die  HomUien  dee  C&aariue  von  Heieter- 
badi  und  ihre  Bedeuiung  fUr  die  KuUur  und  Sittenoe' 
»d^idUe  dee  nvdlften  und  dreizehnten  Jahrhunderte,  in  An- 
nalen  dee  hietarMien  Vereine  fUr  den  Niederrhein,  xxxiv. 
(1870)  1-67;  A.  Kaufmann,  Wunderbare  und  denlnoUrdige 
Oeeehichten  aue  den  Werken  dee  Cdeariue  von  HeieteHnMch, 
in  Annalen  dee  hietoriechen  Vereine  fOr  den  Niederrhein, 
Cologne.  2part«.  1884-01;  Wattenbach.  DQQ,  ii.  412,  485. 

CJESARIUS  OF  SPETER.    See  Francib,  Saint, 

OF   ASSISI,   AND   THE    FRANCISCAN   OrDER,    I.,    §  4; 

II.,  §  1. 

C£SAROPAPISM:  A  name  applied  to  the  con- 
ception of  the  relations  between  Church  and  State 
which  contemplates  the  secular  ruler's  exercising 
spiritual  power  also.  It  is  thus  the  converse  of  the 
theocratic  system  which  the  popes  have  attempted 
to  carry  into  effect  (i.e.,  in  regard  to  the  world 
at  large,  not  to  their  limited  states),  which  also 
underlies  Calvin's  teaching  as  to  the  relations  of 
Church  and  State.  Its  principles  are  met  with  as 
early  as  355,  when  Constantine  addressed  the 
Synod  at  Milan  in  the  words:  "  Whatever  /  will, 
let  that  be  acknowledged  as  a  '  canon ' "  (Atha- 
nasius,  Hist.  Arian.,  xxxiii.;  NPNF,  2d  ser.,  iv. 
281).  It  developed  more  rapidly  in  the  Eastern 
Church  because  of  the  absence  of  the  coimterpoise 
which  the  papacy  formed  in  the  West.    Justinian 


may  be  regarded  as  a  typical  representative  of  it; 
but  the  Church  managed  during  the  iconoclastic 
controversy  to  free  itself  in  a  large  measure  from 
imperial  dictation.  Since  that  time  the  term  has 
not  borne  any  strict  application,  though  it  is  some- 
times applied  in  a  modified  sense  to  the  position 
of  the  Czars  since  Peter  the  Great  in  the  Russian 
Church,  and  has  sometimes,  though  with  still  less 
justice,  been  used  of  the  German  evangelical 
princes  who  have  exercised  authority  in  spiritual 
things,  though  even  the  territorial  system  recog- 
nizes a  sphere  for  religion  independent  of  the  State/ 
See  Erastus,  Thomas.  (E.  Friedberg.) 

CAIAPHASy  coi'a-fos  (more  exactly  Joseph,  who 
also  was  called  Caiaphas;  cf.  Josephus,  An^,  XVIII. 
ii.  2):  The  Jewish  high  priest  who  held  office 
during  the  ministry  and  death  of  Jesus.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  four  high  priests  whom  the  Roman 
procurator  Valerius  Gratus  appointed  successively 
to  this  dignity.  As  Valerius  was  procurator  from 
15  to  26  A.D.,  his  appointment  of  Caiaphas  must 
have  occurred  at  the  latest  in  26  a.d.;  most  likely 
it  happened  c.  18  a.d.,  as  Valerius  Gratus  probably 
appointed  Ishmael,  the  first  of  the  four  high  priests, 
immediately  after  his  own  inauguration,  and  as  the 
next  two  remained  in  office  only  about  one  year, 
Caiaphas  held  his  office  imtil  c.  36  a.d.,  when  he 
was  removed  by  Vitellius,  the  legate  of  Syria. 
His  administration,  therefore,  lasted  about  eighteen 
years — a  long  term  when  compared  with  that  of 
most  other  high  priests  of  the  Roman  period. 
For  this  he  was  probably  indebted  less  to  his  ability 
than  to  his  submissiveness  to  the  anti-Jewish 
policy  of  the  Roman  government.  Probably  he 
belonged  to  the  party  of  the  Sadduoees  and  shared 
their  fondness  for  foreign  ideas,  as  did  his  father-in- 
law  Annas  (Acts  iv.  1,  6;  v.  17)  and  the  latter's 
son  Annas  the  Younger  (Josephus,  An/.,  XX.  ix.  1). 
See   Annas.  F.  Sisffert. 

Biblioobaphy:  A.  Ederaheim.  Life  and  Timee  of  Jeeue  (he 
Meeeiah,  ii.  547.  London.  1885;  D.  F.  Strauss,  Leben 
Jeeu,  iv.  30  sqq.,  Bonn.  1805;  SchOrar.  OeechidUe,  ii. 
204.  218.  Eng.  transl..  II.  i.  182.  100;  DB,  i.  338;  SB,  i. 
171-172;  JE,  ii.  403;  and,  in  general,  commentaries  on 
the  Qospeb. 

CAILLm,  SAINT,  OF  FENA6H:  Irish  saint  of 
the  "  second  order "  who  flourished  about  560. 
His  alleged  histoiy  is  a  typical  one  among  the 
stories  of  the  Irish  **  saints,"  and  is  also  note- 
worthy for  the  light  it  throws  on  the  conditions 
of  the  time  and  the  progress  of  Christianity 
in  pagan  Ireland.  Caillin's  kinsmen  of  Dunmore 
(County  Galway)  had  determined  to  slay  a  part 
of  their  number,  the  land  having  become  over- 
populated;  but,  on  the  advice  of  the  saint,  who 
had  received  Christian  education  in  Rome,  they 

>  The  term  Cnsaropapism  is  somewhat  opprobrious  in  its 
implications;  but  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  use  at  all  it  is  appli- 
cable to  all  monarchical  governments  in  which  union  of 
Church  and  State,  with  civil  control,  prevails.  In  a  limited 
monarchy  Uke  Great  Britain  it  is  not  as  much  the  king  as 
the  cabinet,  representing  a  majority  of  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  that  exercises  authority  in  religious  matters. 
Where  imperial  authority  is  less  limited,  as  in  Germany,  ec- 
clesiastical control  by  the  sovereign  or  his  representative  is 
more  complete.  Where  imperial  authority  is  absolute,  as  in 
Russia  until  recently,  the  term  Caearopapism  is  applicable 
without  qualification.  A.  H.  N. 


Cain 
Oftius 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


336 


desiBted,  and  Caillin  undertook  to  find  more  land. 
In  the  ooune  of  the  search  be  came  to  Fenagh 
(Ck>unty  Lei  trim,  3  m.  s.w.  of  Ballinamore),  where 
he  converted  the  king's  son,  Hugh,  and  a  band  of 
warriors  sent  to  drive  him  away.  The  prince  then 
gave  the  saint  his  fortress  and  the  latter  built  a 
church  there.  When  the  druids  came,  at  the  king's 
behest,  to  expel  Caillin,  he  restrained  his  Christian 
followers  from  attacking  them,  and  turned  them 
into  stones.  Hugh  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  his 
father's  death;  he  was  known  as  "  the  Dark " 
from  his  personal  appearance,  but  Caillin  made  him 
of  fair  complexion.  Notwithstanding  his  love  of 
peace,  Caillin  is  said  to  have  given  the  tribe  a 
cathach  or  standard,  a  mighty  talisman  in  battle. 

Biblioorapht:  The  Book  of  Fenagh,  ed.  D.  H.  Kelly  and 
W.  M.  Hennessy.  Dublin.  1875;  T.  Olden,  The  Church 
of  Ireland,  pp.  65-67,  London,  1892. 

CAIlfy  KENITES:  The  Hebrew  word  Kai^n 
occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  name  of  a  stock 
of  nomads,  associated  with  Midian,  Amalek,  and 
Israel,  mentioned  in  Judges  iv.  11  and  Num.  xxiv. 
22,  probably  also  to  be  read  in  I  Sam.  xv.  6b.  More 
often  the  form  Kent,  "  Kenite,"  is  met  (Gen.  xv. 
19;  Num.  xxiv.  21;  Judges  iv.  11,  17,  etc.).  In 
the  time  of  Moses  this  stock  seems  to  have  been 
dependent  on  the  Mldianites,  since  Hobab,  Moses's 
father-in-law,  appears  (Judges  i.  16)  as  the  head 
of  a  Kenite  family,  and  in  Num.  x.  29  is  designated 

as  a  Midianite,  as  is  Jethro  in  Ex. 

The        iii.  1  and  Reuel  in  Ex.  ii.  16.     Mid- 

Kenites.     ianites  is  most  likely  the  larger  term 

and  includes  the  Kenites  as  one  of  the 
branches.  The  Kenites  attached  themselves  to 
the  Israelites  during  the  wandering;  at  the  time 
of  Barak  and  Deborah  the  Kenite  Heber  was  near 
the  plain  of  Jezreel,  detached  from  the  rest  of  his 
tribe  (Judges  iv.  11).  In  Saul's  time  the  Kenites 
were  associated  with  the  Amalekites.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  in  I  Chron.  ii.  55  the  Kenites  are 
brought  into  connection  with  the  Rechabites,  who 
retained  primitive  customs,  suggesting  their  ad- 
herence to  a  nomadic  form  of  life  and  to  the  primi- 
tive Yahweh-religion  of  the  desert  (Jer.  xxxv.). 

This  stock  of  Cain  was  apparently  intended  to  be 
brought  into  connection  with  the  patriarchs  of  the 
race  (Gen.  iv.  1-16);  the  conclusion  of  Wellhausen, 
Budde,  and  Stade,  however,  is  that  originally  the 
story  of  Cain  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  Kenites 
for  the  following  reasons:  Gen.  iv.  7  sqq.  deals 
with  the  world  at  large  (verses  17,  20-22);  Gen.  iv. 
1-16  with  the  land  of  Israel  and  neighboring  deserts. 
The  Adhamahy  "ground,"  of  Gen.  iv.  14  can  be 
only  the  land  inhabited  by  Israel  from  which  Cain 

was    banished.     Gen.    iv.    20    makes 

Their       Jabal  the  ancestor  of  nomads,  while 

Relation    Cain's    nomadic    condition    resulted 

to  Cain,     from  his  sin  (iv.   14-16).    Abel,  too, 

was  a  shepherd  of  small  cattle  who 
dwelt  in  Yahweh's  land.  The  story  of  Cain  in  this 
passage  can  not  be  understood  to  deal  with  the 
earliest  ages  of  mankind  because  of  the  advanced 
civilization  it  implies.  Its  region  is  the  southern 
part  of  Palestine;  it  explained  the  separation  of  a 
people  whose  God  was  the  same  as  Israel's  by  the 
commission  of  murder  which  is  named  fratricide 


because  of  the  dose  connection  of  Kenites  and 
Hebrews.  The  mark  for  Cain,  worn  on  the  fore- 
head, must  have  denoted  adherence  to  the  wor- 
ship of  Yahweh  (cf.  EIx.  xiii.  9,  16;  Isa.  xliv.  6; 
I'KingB  XX.  38,  41),  and  implied  the  same  limits  in 
exacting  blood-revenge  as  were  obligatory  on  the 
Israelites. 

The  word  Kayin  also  occurs  as  the  name  of  an 
ancestor  of  a  part  of  mankind.  The  name  stands 
in  J  at  the  head  of  the  so-eaUed  Cainite  table,  Gen. 
iv.  17.  In  its  present  form  this  indudes  seven 
generations,  and  in  the  seventh  four  branches  ap- 
pear— Jabal  and  Jubal,  sons  of  Lamech  by  Adah, 
and  Tubal-cain  and  Naamah,  son  and  daughter  of 
Lamech  by  Zillah.  Cain  built  the  first  dty  and 
named  it  after  his  son  E^och;  Jabal  was  the  ances- 
tor of  nomads,  Jubal  of  musicians,  and  Tubal-cain 
of  artisans.  The  table  evidently  is 
Cain  in  an  account  of  supposed  origins  ol 
Gen.  iy.  dvilization,  so  is  to  be  related  to  Gen. 
ix.  20-27.  Then  Noah's  earlier  con- 
nection with  the  Cainite  table  through  Lamech 
is  probable,  though  in  Gen.  v.  28  (P)  he  is  a  Sethite. 
That  the  narratives  are  doublets  appears  on  com- 
parison (cf.  Cain  and  Kenan,  Methusael  and  Methu- 
selah, Ired  and  Jared,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  Adam 
and  Enos  both  mean  "  man  ").  The  Sethite  and 
the  Cainite  tables  are  both  traced  to  a  single  original, 
and  the  Cainite  line  of  J  is  believed  to  have  been 
originally  a  Sethite  line,  while  (xen.  iv.  25-26 
originally  preceded  iv.  17. 

The  present  form  of  the  text  is  probably  attrib- 
utable to  the  editor  of  the  work  of  J  who  inserted 
the  flood  stoiy.  He  borrowed  the  material  from 
an  old  Sethite  table,  and  setting  Cain  at  the  head 
formed  a  Cainite  table  and  inserted  the  Cain-story 
(Gen.  iv.  1-16)  and  the  sword-song  of  Lamech. 
He  thus  brought  into  juxtaposition  the  killing  by 
Lamech  and  that  by  Cain,  completed  the  identi- 
fication of  Cain  [father  of  the  Kenites  and  Cain 
brother  of  Abel]  through  Cain,  founder  of  the  dty. 
Thus  he  secured  a  contrast  between  the  godless 
Cainites  and  the  pious  Sethites  on  which  was 
founded  the  ecdesiastical  tradition  that  alienation 
from  God  was  in  the  Cainite  blood,  while  in  the 
Sethite  piety  was  instinctive. 

Of  the  other  names  in  the  table  little  need  be 
said.  In  II  Sam.  xxi.  16  Kayin  means  "  a  spear," 
in  Arabic  and  Syriac  "  a  smith,"  and  possibly 
(Gen.  iv.  1)  is  to  be  connected  with  the  word  to 
"  make."  Enoch  {Hanokh)  is  the  name  of  a 
Reubenite  (Gen.  xlvi.  9)  and  a  Midianite  (Gen.  xxv. 
4)  stock  (cf .  the  Annakus  who  was  king  of  Phiygia, 
mentioned  by  Stephen  of  Byzantium).  With 
Jubal  should  be  connected  the  Hebrew  for  "  ram's 
horn  "  (Joshua  vi.  5).  Tubal  is  the  Tibareni  of 
Asia  Minor  (Gen.  x.  2),  while  the  addition  of  Cain, 
"  smith,"  goes  well  with  their  reputation  for  metal-* 
work.  A  goddess  Adah  was  worshiped  by  Baby- 
lonians, and  one  named  Naamah  by  the  Phenidans. 

(H.  GUTHB.) 

Bxbuographt:  The  oubieot  is  treated  more  or  less  ade- 
quately in  the  oommentariee  on  Genesie.  best  in  A.  Dill- 
mann's,  Edinburgh,  1807,  and  in  H.  Gunkel's,  Gdttin- 
gen,  1902.  Consult  further:  I.  Goldiiher,  Der  Mi^hot 
bei  den  H^(Um,  Leipsio,  1876,  Eng.  transl.,  London, 
1877;  K.  Budde,  BibUedt*  UrgeeehiehU,  pp.  117  aqq..  Gie«> 


S37 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Gain 
Oaius 


sen.  1883;  F.  Lenormant.  Lea  Originea  de  I'hiatoire  d'aprea 
la  BibU,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  1880,  Eng.  transl.,  Beoinninga  of 
Hiaiory,  London,  1883;  J.  WellhauBen,  Die  Kompoaitian 
dea  HexaUucha,  pp.  10  aqq.,  306.  BerUn.  1880;  H.  E.  Ryle, 
Early  Narrativea  of  Geneaia,  pp.  78-83,  London.  1802;  B. 
QUdb,  in  ZATW,  xiv.  (1804)250  aqq.;  EB,  i.  622-628. 
iv.  4411-17;  DB,  i.  338-330.  On  the  later  Jewish  mytb- 
ology,  J.  A.  Eisenmenger,  EfUdecklea  Judenthum,  i.  462, 
471,  832.  836.  Frankfort.  1700. 

CAINirES:  According  to  Iremeus  {Hear,,  i.  31), 
a  sect  of  the  Ophites  (q.v.)  who  worshiped  Cain  as 
an  instrument  of  the  Gnostic  Sophia,  treated  with 
hostility  by  the  demiurge.  They  saw  in  Judas  the 
one  who  best  of  all  knew  the  truth,  celebrated  his 
treason  as  a  mystery,  and  had  a  "  Gospel  of  Judas." 
The  notices  of  Pseudo-Tertullian  {Har.,  vii.), 
Philastrius  (Hear.,  ii.),  and  Epiphanius  {Har., 
mxviii.)  accord  with  these  statements.  Cain  was 
C;enerated  of  higher  power  than  Abel,  and  Judas  was 
the  benefactor  of  the  human  race,  either  because 
by  his  treason  he  frustrated  Christ's  intention  to 
destroy  truth  (Philastrius),  or  because  he  compelled 
the  archons  to  kill  Christ,  and  so  assisted  in  obtain- 
ing the  salvation  of  the  cross  (Epiphanius).  When 
Tertullian  (PrcucripHo  hcereticafnim,  xxxiii.;  cf.  De 
hapti«mo,\.)  mentions  '' Gaiana  heresis"  he  prob- 
ably refers  to  the  Cainites.  Cf.  also  Clement, 
Strom.,  \\.  108;  Theodoret,  Hopt.,  i.  15;  Hippolytus, 
PhU.j  viii.  20.  For  Cainites,  descendants  of  Cain, 
see  Cain,  Kenites.  G.  KBt^oER. 

BiBUOGRArar:  Neander,  Chriatian  Church,  i.  448.  476.  646; 
HainAck.  lAUeratur,  II.  i.  638  aqq.;  see  literature  under 
Gnobtxcibm;  Opmria. 

CAIRD,  JOHN:  Church  of  Scotland:  b.  at  Green- 
ock (23  m.  w.n.w.  of  Glasgow),  Renfrewshire, 
Dec.  15,  1820;  d.  there  July  30,  1808.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow  (1837- 
1838,  1840-45;  M.A.,  1845),  interrupting  his  studies 
in  1838-^0  while  engaged  in  his  father's  engineering 
works.  After  the  completion  of  his  education  he 
was  minister  successively  at  Newton-on-A3rr  (1845- 
1847),  Lady  Tester's,  Edinburgh  (1847-49),  Errol, 
Perthshire  (1849-57),  and  the  Park  Church,  Glas- 
gow (1857-62).  In  1862  he  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  theology  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where 
he  became  principal  and  vice-chancellor  in  1873, 
retaining  both  positions  until  his  death,  although  he 
annoim^  his  intention  of  resigning  early  in  1898. 
He  was  Croall  Lecturer  at  Edinburgh  in  1878-79 
and  Gifford  Lecturer  at  Glasgow  in  1890-91  and 
1896,  though  a  stroke  of  paralysis  forced  him  to 
discontinue  this  second  course.  He  wrote:  Ser- 
mons (Edinburgh,  1858);  Introdudum  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion  (Croall  lectures  for  1878-79; 
Glasgow,  1880);  Spinoza  (Edinburgh,  1886);  and 
the  posthumous  University  Addresses  (Glasgow, 
1898);  University  Sermons  (1898);  and  The  Fun- 
damenUd  Ideas  of  Christianity  (Gifford  lectures;  2 
vols.,  1899;  ed.,  with  a  memoir  of  the  author,  by 
E.  Caird). 
Bibuoobapht:  E.  Caird,  memoir  prefixed  to  his  edition 

of  The  Pundamenlal  Idatu  of  ChriatianitUt  2  Yob.,  Qlae- 

Cow.  1809;  DNB,  supplement,  i.  368-360. 

CAIRHS,  JOHN:  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
Scotland;  b.  at  Ayton  Hill  (7  m.  n.w.  of  Berwick- 
on-Tweed)  Aug.  23,  1818;  d.  in  Edinburgh  Mar. 
12, 1892.  After  being  the  wonder  of  his  first  school, 
he  became  the  wonder  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
n.— 22 


burgh,  where  he  studied  arts  (1834-40),  and  of 
Secession  Hall,  where  he  studied  theology  (1840-43). 
In  1843-44  he  studied  and  traveled  on  the  Continent 
and  received  impressions  and  made  acquaintances, 
especially  in  Germany,  which  affected  his  life. 
From  1^5  till  1876  he  was  minister  of  the  Golden 
Square  United  Presbyterian  Church,  Bcrwick-on- 
Tweed.  In  frame  he  was  massive,  and  he  had  appar- 
ently great  powers  of  endurance,  but  he  toiled  too 
much,  responded  to  too  many  calls  in  every  direction, 
and  on  all  sorts  of  errands,  and  so  in  1855  broke 
down  and  after  that  was  frequently  laid  aside. 
He  early  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  his  denom- 
ination, and  developed  into  one  of  the  foremost 
Scotchmen.  He  was  from  1867  to  1876  professor 
of  apologetics  in  the  theological  hall  of  his  denomi- 
nation in  Edinburgh;  in  1872  moderator  of  its  gen- 
eral assembly.  In  1876  he  gave  up  his  pastoral 
charge,  and  moving  to  Edinburgh  received  the  joint 
professorship  (with  the  principal)  of  systematic 
theology  and  apologetics — the  terms  of  which  had 
been  lengthened  from  seven  weeks  to  five  months. 
In  1879  he  succeeded  to  the  prindpalship.  In  1880 
he  visited  America  and  was  a  prominent  character 
in  the  second  council  of  the  Alliance  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  held  in  Philadelphia.  He  died  of  heart 
disease  after  a  brief  illness.    He  never  married. 

His  best  work  was  done  upon  the  platform  and 
in  the  pulpit.  The  great  respect  felt  for  him  there 
and  as  a  man  of  affairs  and  coimsel  withheld  criti- 
cism of  him  as  an  educator,  for  as  such  he  was 
less  successful.  He  had  considerable  learning  and 
remarkable  gifts,  especially  in  the  way  of  language, 
and  he  acquired  foreign  languages  readily,  even 
such  tongues  as  Assyrian  and  Arabic  when  in 
middle  life.  He  was  sprung  from  the  common 
people,  undersood  how  to  address  them,  and  was 
reverenced  by  them.  His  nature  was  genial,  free 
from  affectation  and  hauteur,  and  he  was  untiring 
in  the  service  of  others.  He  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  his  own  generation  by  his  broad-mindedness, 
moral  courage,  and  fervent  eloquence. 

The  topics  upon  which  he  spoke  with  convincing 
power,  springing  from  deep  conviction,  were  the 
freedom  of  the  Church  from  the  State;  home  and 
foreign  missions;  temperance,  and  (after  1874)  in 
advocacy  of  total  abstinence;  modification  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  by  a  declaratory  statement 
(adopted  1879);  union  of  the  United  Presbyterian, 
the  Free  Church,  and  the  Church  of  Scotland  (real- 
ized as  far  as  the  first  two  are  concerned  in  1900); 
and  the  disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

His  literary  work  was  small  in  amount.  He 
published  aside  from  pamphlets  a  memoir  of  Rev. 
John  Brown,  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church, 
father  of  the  author  of  Rob  and  his  Friends  (Edin- 
burgh, 1860);  Unbelief  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
Cimningham  lectures  for  1881;  and  after  his  death 
came  a  volume  of  his  sermons,  Christ  the  Morning 
Star,  and  Other  Sermons  (London,  1892). 

Bibliooraprt:  A.  R.  Maoewen,  Life  and  LetUra  of  John 
Caima,  London,  1808:  Principal  Caimat  in  the  Famoua 
Seota  Seriea,  EdinburKh.  1003. 

CAIUS,  k6'ns:  The  name  of  several  characters 
in  Roman  history,  of  whom  only  two  need  be  in- 
cluded here. 


Oalamy 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


838 


1.  Roman  author  early  in  the  third  centiiry, 
mentioned  by  Hippolytus,  Dionysius  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  Euaebiius.  What  Theodoret  and  Je- 
rome tell  of  him  rests  on  Eusebius;  Photius's 
account  is  worthless,  as  the  tradition  from  which 
he  derived  it  confused  Hippolytus  and  Caius. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  he  was  a  Roman  presbyter, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  title  of  "  bishop  of  the  na- 
tions "  given  him  by  Photius  from  tradition.  In 
the  library  at  Jerusalem  Eusebius  found  a  work 
of  his,  the  "  Dialogue  with  Proclus  "  (the  head  of 
the  Roman  Montanists);  but  this  is  the  only  one 
known.  From  the  quotations  of  Eusebius  it  ap- 
pears that  Caius  rebuked  the  audacity  of  the  Mon- 
tanists in  manufacturing  new  Scriptures,  that  he 
rejected  millenarianism  and  with  it  the  Apocalypse, 
and  that  he  recognized  only  thirteen  epistles  of 
Paul.  Ebed  Jesu  (in  Assemani,  BUd.  Orient. ,  III. 
i.,  p.  15)  says  that  Hippolytus  wrote  some  Capita 
adversua  Caium ;  and  this  statement  is  now  con- 
firmed by  the  discovery  of  John  Gwynn,  who  found 
in  the  British  Musetun  and  published  five  frag- 
ments of  these  very  Capita  (Hermathena,  vi.,  Dublin, 
1888).  From  the  statements  of  Caius  here  attacked 
it  is  clear  that  he  spoke  strongly  against  the 
contents  of  the  Apocalypse  (presimiably  in  the 
"  Dialogue  ")?  ^^^  considered  it  as  unworthy  of 
credence  and  conflicting  with  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Thus  from  one  of  Eusebius's  references  (Hist,  ecd., 
III.  xxvili.  1-2)  the  conclusion  is  almost  certainly 
justified  that  Caius  held  the  Apocalypse  to  be 
the  work  of  Cerinthus.  Since  this  view  is  also  that 
of  the  Alogians  of  Asia  Minor,  and  since  the  method 
of  his  polemic  against  the  book  strikingly  suggests 
theirs,  a  connection  between  them  is  a  plausible 
hypothesis.  (A.  Harnack.) 

Bibuoqbapht:  A.    HArnaok,    Die   Girynn'acften  Ca/iM  und 

UippolytuBfraomenU,  in  TU,  Ti.  3  (1801).  121-128;  idem. 

IMteratwr,  i.  601-603;  KrOser,  Hittory,  pp.  320-321  (gives 

further  literature);  DCB,  i.  384-386;  NPNF,  i.  120.  160, 

163.268. 

9.  Pope  283-296.  These  dates,  Dec.  17  for  his 
election  and  Apr.  22  for  his  death,  are  given  in  the 
Catalogua  L4berianu8 ;  Eusebius  (Hist,  ecd.,  VII. 
xxxii.  1)  ascribes  to  him  a  pontificate  of  about 
fifteen  years.  In  any  case,  his  nile  falls  in  the 
peaceful  period  before  the  outbreak  of  the  perse- 
cution of  Diocletian,  and  for  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  the  tradition  that  he  died  a  mart3rr  is  in- 
credible. \ccording  to  the  Depositio  episcopomm 
he  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Calixtus. 

(A.  Haucjk.) 

CAJETANyCa'jMOn or caj'e-tan. THOMAS:  Italian 
cardinal;  b.  at  Gaeta  Feb.  20,  1460;  d.  at  Rome 
Aug.  9,  1534.  His  real  name  was  Jacopo  Vio,  he 
took  the  monastic  name  Thomas,  and  his  surname 
is  from  his  birthplace.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  en- 
tered the  Dominican  order,  and,  devoting  himself 
to  studies  in  the  Thomist  philosophy,  became, 
before  he  was  thirty,  one  of  its  noted  teachers; 
he  was  made  general  procurator  in  1507  and  general 
a  year  later.  Faitfaiul  to  the  traditions  of  the 
Dominicans,  he  appears  in  1511  as  a  supporter  of 
the  pope  against  the  claims  of  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
composing  in  defense  of  his  position  the  Tractatua 
de  Comparatione  aucloritatis  Papeat  et  canciliorum 


ad  invicem.  At  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (1512-17) 
which  Julius  II.  set  up  in  opposition  to  that  of 
Pisa,  Cajetan  played  the  leading  r61e;  and  it  was  he 
who  during  the  second  session  of  the  council  brou^t 
about  the  decree  recognizing  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope  and  the  superiority  of  his  authority  to  that 
of  the  council.  For  his  services  Leo  X.  made  him 
in  1517  cardinal  presbyter  of  Saint  Sisto,  Rome,  and 
bestowed  on  him  in  the  following  year  the  bishopric 
of  Palermo.  This  he  resigned  in  1519  to  take  the 
bishopric  of  Gaeta  granted  him  by  the  ^np^or 
Charles  V.,  for  whose  election  Cajetan  had  labored 
zealously.  In  1518  he  was  sent  as  legate  to  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  and  to  him,  at  the  wish  of  the 
Saxon  elector,  was  entrusted  the  task  of  examining 
and  testing  the  teachings  of  Luther.  Treatises 
of  his  own,  written,  without  knowledge  of  Luther's 
theses,  in  1517  show  that  Luther  was  justified  in 
his  assertion  that  on  the  doctrine  of  dispensation 
the  Church  had  as  yet  arrived  at  no  firmly  estab- 
lished position;  the  doctrine  of  confession  Cajetan 
seemed  also  to  regard  as  a  subject  open  to  contro- 
versy. Yet  more  than  investigator  and  thinker 
he  was  politician  and  prelate,  and  his  appearance 
at  Augsburg  in  all  the  splendor  of  ecclesiastical 
pomp  only  served  to  reveal  him  to  Luther  as  the 
type  of  Roman  curialist,  hateful  to  Germans  and 
German  Christianity.  Cajetan  was  active  in  fur- 
thering the  election  of  Adrian  VI.,  retained  influ- 
ence under  Clement  VII.,  suffered  a  short  term 
of  imprisonment  after  the  storming  of  Rome  by 
the  Constable  of  Bourbon  and  by  Frundsbetg 
(1527),  retired  to  his  bishopric  for  a  few  years,  and, 
returning  to  Rome  in  1530,  assumed  his  old  posi- 
tion of  influence  about  the  person  of  Clement,  in 
whose  behalf  he  wrote  the  decision  rejecting  the 
appeal  for  divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon  made 
by  Henry  VIII.  of  England  (March  23. 1534;  printed 
in  Records  of  the  Reformation,  ed.  N.  Power,  Ox- 
ford, 2  vols,,  1870,  ii.  632-533).  Of  the  Refoi^ 
mation  he  remained  a  steadfast  opponent,  com- 
posing several  works  directed  against  Luther, 
and  taking  an  important  share  in  shaping  the 
policy  of  the  papal  delegates  in  Germany.' 
Learned  though  he  was  in  the  scholastics,  he  recog- 
nized that  to  fight  the  Refoimers  with  some  diance 
of  success  a  deeper  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
than  he  possessed  was  necessary.  To  this  study 
he  devoted  himself  with  characteristic  zeal,  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament,  and,  in  the  exposition  of  his 
text,  which  he  treated  critically,  allowed  himself 
considerable  latitude  in  departing  from  the  literal 
and  traditional  interpretation.  In  the  very  field 
of  Thomist  philosophy  he  showed  striking  inde- 
pendence of  judgment,  expressing  liberal  views 
on  marriage  and  divorce,  denying  the  existence  of 
a  material  hell  and  advocating  the  celebration  of 
public  prayers  in  the  vernacular.  The  Sorbonne 
found  some  of  these  views  heterodox,  and  in  the 


[^  Cajetan  bore  witness  to  Luther's  ability  when  he  ex- 
claimed, "  Ego  nolo  amplios  cum  hac  bestia  ooUoqui:  habet 
enim  profundos  oculoe  et  miiabiles  speculationes  in  capito 
suo."  (I  do  not  want  to  have  any  further  parley  with  that 
beast;  for  he  has  sharp  eyes  and  wonderful  q»eeiiiatians  in 
his  head.)l 


339 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oftiua 
Oalamy 


1570  edition  of  his  celebrated  commentary  on  the 
Summa  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (counted  among  the 
best;  new  ed.,  Lierre,  1892  sqq.)  the  objectionable 
passages  were  expunged.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  with  life  appeared  in  five  volumes  at 
Lyons,  1639.  (T.  Koldb.) 

Bibliography:  Besides  the  Life  prefixed  to  his  works,  con- 
sult: R.  Simon,  Hittoire  eriUqfue  du  Vieux  Te9tammU,  p. 
319,  Rotterdam,  1678;  idem,  Higtoiredn  principaux  cotn- 
mentat€ur§du  N.  T.,  p.  637.  1639;  C.  F.  JAger,  in  ZHT, 
1858,  p.  431. 

CAJETAHS.    See  Theatinbs. 
CALAH.    See  Assyria,  IV.,  §  3. 

CALAMY:  The  name  of  an  English  family 
which  produced  several  distinguished  clergymen  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

1.  Edmund  Calamy  the  Elder:  Presbyterian; 
b.  in  London  Feb.,  1600;  d.  there  Oct.  29,  1666. 
He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge; 
became  (1626)  vicar  of  St.  Maxy's  in  Swaffham 
Prior,  Cambridgeshire;  thence  in  the  same  year 
removed  to  St.  Edmund's  Bury  in  Sufifolk  as  lec- 
turer, where  he  remained  ten  years,  until  compelled 
to  retire  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the  Book 
of  SportSf  thereby  identifying  himself  with  the 
Puritan  party.  He  accepted  from  the  Eari  of 
Warwick  the  rectory  of  Rochford  in  Essex,  where 
he  remained  until  in  1639  he  was  chosen  pastor  of 
St.  Mary  Aldermanbury  Church  in  London,  where 
he  labored  until  1662.  He  composed  in  1641  with 
others  '*  An  Anstper  to  a  Book  erUiiled,  An  Humble 
Remonstrance  in  which  the  original  of  Liturgy  and 
Episcopacy  i»  discussed :  and  Queries  proposed 
concerning  both.  The  Parity  of  Bishops  A  Pres- 
byters in  Scripture  demonstrated.  The  occasion  of 
their  Imparity  in  Antiquity  discovered.  The  Dis- 
parity of  the  Ancient  &  our  modem  Bishops  mani^ 
fested.  The  Antiquity  of  Ruling  Elders  in  the  Church 
vindicated.  The  Prelatical  church  bounded.  Writ- 
ten by  Smectymnuus  [i.e.,  S(tephen)  M(arshall), 
E(dmund)  C(alamy),T(homa8)  Y(oung),  M(atthew) 
N(ewoommen),  and  W(illiam)  SCpurstow)].  This 
reply  to  Joseph  Hall's  Humble  Remonstrance  became 
the  platform  of  the  Presbyterians,  as  that  became 
the  platform  of  the  Episcopal  party,  each  side 
claiming  jure  divino.  Several  other  tracts  were 
issued  in  the  controversy  pro  and  con.  Calamy 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assem- 
bly of  Divines  (1643),  and  took  an  active  part  in  its 
proceedings,  being  moderate  in  doctrinal  position, 
and  inclined  to  a  union  with  both  Independents 
and  Episcopalians  in  some  comprehensive  polity. 
He  also  became  one  of  the  most  energetic  mem- 
bers of  the  Provincial  Assembly  of  London;  took 
part  in  the  composition  of  the  Vindication  of  the 
Presbyterian  Government  and  Ministry ,  1649;  was 
the  author  of  the  Jus  Divinum  Ministerii  Evan- 
gelid,  1654,  both  adopted  by  that  body.  He  had 
opposed  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  and  was  active 
in  restoring  Charles  II.  to  the  kingdom  in  1659; 
was  one  of  the  divines  sent  to  Holland  to  treat 
with  him.  At  the  Restoration  in  1660  he  was 
made  one  of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  offered  tne 
bishopric  of  Coventry  and  Lichfield,  which,  how- 
ever, he  declined.  With  Baxter,  Reynolds,  and 
others,  he  gave  his  energies  for  a  comprehension 


of  Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians  through  a 
revision  of  the  Liturgy,  and  a  reduction  of  Episco- 
pacy on  Archbishop  Ussher's  model.  He  took 
part  in  drawing  up  the  Exceptions  against  the  Lit- 
urgy, and  reply  to  the  Reasons  of  the  Episcopal 
clergy.  He  was  a  great  preacher,  frequently  de- 
livering sermons  before  Parliament  and  the  lord 
mayors  on  public  occasions;  and  his  lectures  were 
frequented  by  the  best  people  of  London.  A 
number  of  these  have  been  published.  His  most 
popular  work  is  The  Godly  Man's  Ark  (London, 
1657;  18th  ed.,  1709;  reprinted,  1865).  He  was 
the  compiler  of  Tfie  Souldier's  Pocket  Bible,  issued 
for  the  use  of  the  Commonwealth  army  in  1643; 
reprinted  in  facsimile  1895.  He  was  a  practical 
man  of  affairs,  rather  than  a  scholar  and  writer. 
He  was  ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662,  and 
imprisoned  in  Newgate  for  a  short  time  for  having 
preached  after  his  ejection.  But  the  king  inter- 
posed, on  account  of  great  public  indignation,  and 
he  was  released.  C.  A.  Briogs. 

Bibliography:  The  DNB,  riii.  227-230,  oontainfl  an  ex- 
cellent Account  of  his  life,  and  adds  details  of  references 
to  literature. 

2.  Edmund  Calamy  the  Younger:  Non-con- 
forming minister,  eldest  son  of  Edmund  Calamy 
the  elder;  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  about  1635; 
d.  at  Totteridge,  near  Bamet,  May,  1685.  He 
studied  at  Sidney  Sussex  College  and  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1654;  M.A.,  1658);  was 
made  rector  of  Moreton,  Essex,  1658;  ejected  on 
the  passage  of  the  Uniformity  Act  (1662),  and 
thencetorth  lived  a  retired  life  in  London,  preach- 
ing occasionally  in  private  or  to  friends. 

Biblioorapht:  Biographui  BrUanniea,  ed.  A.  Eippis,  iii. 

136,  London,  1784;  DNB,  viU.  230-231. 

8.  Benjamin  Calamy:  Church  of  England,  sec- 
ond son  of  Edmund  Calamy  the  elder;  b.  in  London 
on  or  before  June  8,  1642;  d.  there  Jan.,  1686 
(buried  Jan.  7).  He  studied  at  Catherine  Hall, 
Cambridge  (B.A.,  1664;  M.A.,  1668;  D.D.,  1680); 
became  curate  of  St.  Mary  Aldermanbury,  London, 
1677,  from  which  his  father  was  ejected  fifteen  years 
earlier;  king's  chaplain  1680;  vicar  of  St.  Law- 
rence Jewry,  with  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Milk  Street, 
annexed,  1683;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  1685. 
Unlike  his  father  and  ekler  brother,  he  was  a  High- 
churchman;  he  lived  on  very  friendly  terms, 
however,  with  his  non-conformist  brotner  and 
befriended  the  tatter's  son.  He  published  many 
sermons  which  are  commended  for  beauty  of  lan- 
guage and  excellent  sentiments.  His  Discourse 
about  a  Doubting  (in  the  second  edition.  Scrupulous) 
Conscience  (1683)  made  a  great  sensation,  it  was 
directed  against  dissenters  and  called  forth  a  reply 
from  Thomas  de  Laune,  a  Baptist  schoolmaster 
(A  Plea  for  the  Non-Conformists,  1684).  His 
brother  James  Calamy  edited  a  volume  of  his 
sermons,  containing  iJso  his  funeral  sennon  by 
Dean  Sherlock  (London,  1690;  several  subsequent 
editions). 
Bibuograpbt:    Bioorapkia  BrUanniea,  ed.  A  Eippis,  iii. 

137.  London.  1784;  DNB,  viii.  22(V-227. 

4.  Edmund  Calamy:  The  historian  of  non-con« 
formity,  son  of  Edmund  Calamy  the  younger; 


THE   NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


340 


b.  in  London  Apr.  5,  1671;  d.  there  June  3,  1732. 
He  studied  at  several  schools  kept  by  ejected 
ministers  in  England,  and  at  the  University 
of  Utrecht,  1688-^;  then  spent  nine  months  at 
Oxford;  became  assistant  to  Matthew  Sylvester 
at  Blackfriars,  London,  1602;  was  ordained  1694; 
in  1703  settled  as  pastor  of  a  church  in  Westminster, 
London.  He  was  a  man  of  winning  manners  and 
much  tact,  and  succeeded  in  accomplishing  his 
purposes  without  making  enemies.  His  publica- 
tions were  numerous,  for  the  most  part  sermons; 
those  which  have  permanent  value  are  his  histor- 
ical works  on  En^ish  non-conformity.  He  edited 
Baxter's  Narrative  {ReliquicB  BajUeriance)  and 
supplied  an  index  and  table  of  contents  (1696); 
six  years  later  he  published  an  abridgment  of  the 
same  work,  adding  a  histoiy  of  ministers  ejected 
for  non-conformity  down  to  the  close  of  Baxter's 
life  in  1691.  The  publication  provoked  much 
criticism,  to  which  Calamy  replied  in  a  second 
edition  (2  vols.,  1713)  bringing  the  history  down 
to  1711;  and  in  1727  he  published  a  continuation 
of  the  work  in  two  volumes.  Calamy's  four  vol- 
umes were  condensed  into  two  by  Samuel  Palmer, 
with  the  title  The  Non-Conformist* 8  Memorial 
(1775),  and  a  three-volume  edition  was  issued  in 
1803.  He  left  an  autobiography.  An  Historical 
Account  of  my  Own  Life,  with  some  reflections  on 
the  times  I  have  lived  in,  edited  by  John  Towill  Rutt 
(2  vols.,  London,  1829).  Calamy  was  well  quali- 
fied by  his  moderation  and  catholicity  to  be  the 
fair-minded  historian  of  non-conformity. 
Bduoorapht:  Beaidea     the     autobiosraphy     mentioned 

aboye,  consult:  Biographia  Britanniea,  ed.  A.  Kippis,  iii. 

140,  London,  1784;  DNB,  viii.  231-236  (quite  in  detail). 

GALAS,  cd'W,  JEAN.    See  Rabaut,  Paul. 

CALASANZE,  JOSE.    See  PLkBiSTS. 

CALATRAVA,  ORDER  OF:  A  knightly  order, 
founded  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century, 
to  defend  the  frontiers  of  Christian  Spain  against 
the  Moors.  The  fortress  of  Calatrava  (on  the 
Guadiana,  65  m.  s.e.  of  Toledo),  oa  the  borders  of 
Andalusia,  commanded  the  passes  into  Castile 
and  was  hotly  contested.  After  being  bravely 
held  for  several  years  by  a  company  of  monks  and 
kinghts  under  the  lead  of  a  Cistercian  monk  and 
fonner  soldier,  Velasquez,  and  the  abbot  Raymond 
of  Fitero,  it  was  presented  to  the  band  by  Sancho 
III.,  king  of  Castile,  in  1158.  The  general  chapter 
of  the  Cistercians  gave  the  order  a  rule  imder  the 
oversight  of  the  monastery  of  Morimund,  and 
prescribed  as  dress  a  white  scapulaiy  (or  white 
cloak)  with  a  garland  of  red  lilies.  The  rule  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in  1164.  The 
knights  of  the  order  captured  Cordova  in  1177  and 
performed  other  noteworthy  deeds  of  arms.  After 
1195  a  long  period  of  decline  began.  Calatrava 
was  lost  and  the  seat  of  the  order  was  transferred 
to  Salvatierra  {Mons  Salutis)  in  the  Sierra  Morena. 
In  1212  Calatrava  was  again  occupied,  but  was 
abandoned  for  New  Calatrava,  eight  miles  farther 
south,  in  1218,  the  Order  of  Alcantara  (q.v.)  under- 
taking the  defense  of  Calatrava.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  grand  master  possessed 
such  wealth  and  power  that  he  became  an  object 


of  suspicion  to  the  crown.  At  the  instigation  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  in 
1486  deprived  the  order  of  the  ri^t  of  choosing 
its  master,  and  after  1523  the  office  was  united 
with  the  crown.  Since  1808  the  order  has  been 
merely  one  of  merit.  Nuns  of  Calatrava  were 
instituted  by  the  grand  master  Gronzales  Yanes 
in  1219  at  the  time  of  the  removal  to  New  Cala- 
trava. They  had  their  convent  at  Barrios  near 
Amaya,  later  at  Burgos,  but  never  attained  to 
importance.  (O.  ZdCKLEaf.) 

BiBLioaRAPHT:  Helyot,  Ordrea  mtmiutiquea,  vi.  34-^  66 
aqq.;  W.  H.  Presoott,  HiMtary  of  tht  Reion  cf  Ferdinamd 
and  laabeUa,  i.  308-309.  Philadelphia.  1873;  P.  B.  Gams. 
KirehenoeachicKU  Spanietu,  iii.  64,  Regeiubuis.  1879; 
Heimbuober,  Orden  und  KongngtUionen,  i.  226-227; 
Currier.  RelioiouB  OrderM,  p.  216. 

CALDECOTT,  ALFRED:  Church  of  En^bnd; 
b.  at  Chester  Nov.  9,  1850.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  London  (B.A.,  1873)  and  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1879),  and  was 
ordered  deacon  in  1880,  and  ordained  priest  two 
years  later.  He  was  curate  of  Christ  Church, 
Stafford,  in  1880,  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1880-86,  and  fellow  and  dean  of  the  same 
college  in  1889-95,  in  addition  to  being  curate  of 
St.  Paul's,  Cambridge,  in  1881-82,  vicar  of  Honi- 
ingsey,  Cambridgeshire,  in  1882-84,  and  principal 
of  Codrington  College,  Barbados,  and  examining 
chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Barbados  in  1884-86. 
He  was  organizing  secretary  of  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel  at  Cambridge  in  1889- 
1905,  and  was  rector  of  North  cum  South  Lophan, 
Norfolk,  in  1895-98.  Since  the  latter  year  he  has 
been  rector  of  Frating  cum  Thorington,  Essex,  and 
has  also  been  examining  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of 
St.  Albans  since  1903.  He  was  examiner  in  Moral 
Science  Tripos  in  Cambridge  in  1884,  1888-89,  and 
1893-94,  and  was  select  preacher  in  the  same  uni- 
versity m  1884,  1890-91,  and  1894,  while  in  1891- 
1892  he  was  junior  proctor.  In  addition  to  his  duties 
as  rector,  he  has  b^n  professor  of  moral  and  mental 
philosophy  in  King's  College,  London,  since  1891, 
and  examiner  in  theology  in  the  University  of 
London  since  1902,  as  well  as  Cambridge  Extension 
Lecturer  in  1880-82  and  1886-87.  He  has  like- 
wise been  senior  secretary  of  St.  John's  Cambridge 
Mission  in  South  London  in  1883-86  and  1889-95, 
vice-president  of  the  Cambridge  Ethical  Society 
in  1890-1905,  governor  of  Colchester  Grammar 
School  in  1900-05,  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
the  Christian  Evidence  Society  since  1903,  and  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  the  University  of  London 
since  1904.  In  1906  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
King's  College,  London.  He  has  written:  English 
Colonisation  and  Empire  (London,  1891);  The 
Church  in  the  West  Indies  (1898);  and  The  Phi- 
losophy of  Religion  in  England  and  America  (1901). 

CALDERWOOD,  DAVID:  The  historian  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  probably  at  Dalkeith  (7  m. 
B.e.  of  Edinburgh)  1575;  d.  at  Jedburgh  (40  m. 
s.e  of  Edinburgh)  Oct.  29,  1650.  He  studied  at 
Edinburgh,  and  in  1604  was  ordained  minister  of 
Crailing,  near  Jedburgh.  He  was  a  determined 
opponent  of  the  scheme  of  King  James  to  introduce 
prelacy  into  the  Church  of  Scotland;  in  1617  he 


341 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Galas 
Oaleb 


presented  a  remonstrance  to  the  king,  and  argued 
so  boldly  and  successfully  in  support  of  his  position 
that  he  was  imprisoned  and  ultimately  ordered 
to  leave  the  country.  He  went  to  Holland  (1619), 
where  he  lived  in  quiet  and  obscurity;  at  one  time 
it  was  rumored  that  he  was  dead  and  a  false  Recan- 
tation Directed  to  Such  in  Scotland  as  Refuse  Con- 
formity  to  the  Ordinances  of  the  Church  was  pub- 
lished and  ascribed  to  him  (London,  1622).  After 
the  death  of  James  (1625)  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
but  did  not  obtain  a  charge  until  1640,  when  he  was 
appointed  minister  at  Pencaitland,  East  Lothian. 
Gradually  he  came  again  into  prominence  and,  with 
David  Dickson  and  Alexander  Henderson,  was 
emplojred  in  drawing  up  the  "  Directory  for  Public 
Worship."  In  1648  the  General  Assembly  voted 
him  an  annual  pension  of  £800  Scots  (£66  13s.  4d. 
sterling)  to  enable  him  to  complete  his  great  work, 
the  history  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland.  He  died, 
however,  leaving  it  still  in  manuscript,  and  in 
three  forms;  the  first  and  longest  is  now  partially 
preserved  in  the  British  Museimi;  the  second, 
"  a  digest  of  the  first,"  was  published  with  a  lAfe 
by  Thomas  Thomson  by  the  Wodrow  Society  in 
eight  volimies,  Edinburgh,  1842-49;  the  third, 
another  abridgment,  was  published  in  1678  with 
the  title  The  True  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
from  the  Beginning  of  the  Reformation  unto  the  End 
of  the  Reign  of  King  James  VI.  These  histories 
have  slight  literary  merit,  but  are  invaluable  as 
sources,  their  material  having  been  collected  with 
diligence  and  fidelity.  The  most  notable  of  Cal- 
derwood's  other  publications  was  his  Altar  of 
DamascuSf  or  the  pattern  of  the  English  hierarchy 
and  church  obtruded  upon  the  Church  of  Scotland 
(Leyden,  1621;  Lat.  transl.,  Altare  Damascenum^ 
with  considerable  additions,  1623;  2d  ed.,  1708), 
which  became  later  the  great  storehouse  of  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  Presbyterianism. 

Bibuogbapht:  Besides  the  IAIb^  by  T.  Thomson,  prefixed 
to  the  Wodrow  ed.  of  the  Hittory^  and  the  Preface  to  vol. 
Tiii.  of  the  same,  by  D.  Laing,  consult:  G.  Grub,  J?cc{esi- 
omUooI  History  of  SeoUand,  vols,  ii.,  iii.,  Edinburgh,  1861; 
J.  Walker.  Theotogy  and  TheoUfgians  of  Scotland,  ib.  1872; 
DNB,  viii.  244-246. 

CALDERWOOD,  HEIIRT:  United  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Peebles  (21  m.  s.  of  Edin- 
burgh) May  10, 1830;  d.  at  Edinburgh  Nov.  19, 1897. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  the 
theological  hall  there  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church;  was  ordained  minister  of  Gre3rfriar8  Church, 
Glasgow,  1856;  was  appointed  professor  of  moral 
philosophy,  Edinburgh,  1868.  As  a  philosopher 
"  he  tried  to  discover  and  explain  the  bearings  of 
physiological  science  on  man's  mental  and  moral 
nature.  ...  He  believed  it  to  be  demonstrated 
by  physiology  that  the  direct  dependence  of  mind 
on  brain  was  confined  to  the  sensory-motor  func- 
tions, the  dependence  of  the  higher  forms  of  mental 
activity  being,  on  the  other  hand,  only  indirect. 
He  endeavored  to  establish  the  thesis  that  man's 
intellectual  and  spiritual  life,  as  we  know  it,  is  not 
the  product  of  natural  evolution,  but  necessitates 
the  assumption  of  a  new  creative  cause."  His 
interests  were  not  confined  to  his  professional  work; 
he  was  chairman  of  the  Edinburgh  school  board, 


chairman  of  the  North  and  East  of  Scotland  Liberal 
Unionist  Association,  was  a  member  of  the  mission 
board  of  his  Church,  and  advocated  temperance 
reform,  Presbyterian  union,  and  other  philanthropic 
and  religious  movements.  He  edited  The  United 
Presbyterian  Magazine,  and  published  The  Phi- 
losophy  of  the  Infinite  (London,  1854),  a  criticism 
of  Sir  William  Hamilton  prepared  during  his  stu- 
dent days;  Handbook  of  Moral  Philosophy  (1872); 
On  Teaching,  its  Means  and  Ends  (1874);  The 
Relations  of  Mind  and  Brain  (1879);  The  Parables 
of  our  Lord  (1880);  The  Relations  of  Science  and  Re- 
ligion, Morse  lectures  before  Union  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York,  1880  (1881);  Evolution  arid  Man's 
Place  in  Nature  (1893;  enlarged  ed.,  1896);  several 
of  these  works  have  appeared  in  many  editions. 

Biblioorapht:  His  Lifo  was  written  by  his  son,  W.  L. 
Calderwood,  with  David  Woodside,  with  diapter  on  his 
philosophical  works  by  A.  S.  Pxingle-Pattison,  London, 
1900. 

CALEB,  CALEBITES:  One  of  twelve  scouts 
whom  Moses  sent  from  the  Wilderness  of  Sin  to 
spy  out  the  promised  land  (Num.  xii.  16-xiii.  17a, 
21,  25),  and  his  descendants.  According  to  Nimi. 
xiii.  6  he  represented  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Joshua 
xiv.  6,  14  designates  him  as  "  the  Kenizzite,"  with 
which  Joshua  xv.  17  agrees  in  making  Othniel,  the 
brother  of  Caleb,  the  "  son  of  Kenaz."  The  Ken- 
izzites  were  a  branch  of  the  Edomitic  stock,  Kenaz 
being  a  grandson  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  11,  15). 
Then  Caleb,  and  Othniel  were  originally  not  Israel- 
ites, but  had  left  their  people  and  united  with  the 
Hebrews,  and  this  agrees  with  the  location  of  their 
settlements  in  Hebron  and  Debir  (Josh.  xiv.  6-15, 
XV.  13-19;  Judges  i.  12-15,  20).  I  Chron.  ii.  42-49 
puts  into  the  possession  of  Caleb  Maresha,  Hebron, 
Tappuah,  Maon,  Jokdeam,  and  Beth-zur  (Mad- 
mannah,  verse  49,  is  a  city  of  the  Negeb,  Josh.  xv. 
31).  The  Calebites  occupied  the  same  region  in 
the  time  of  Saul  and  David,  and  to  them  belonged 
a  part  of  the  Negeb  (I  Sam.  xxx.  14).  There  David 
lived  long  as  a  freebooter,  his  first  wife  was  of 
Calebite  stock,  and  Abigail  was  from  Maon-Carmel. 
After  Saul's  death  David  occupied  Hebron  and  its 
Calebite  neighborhood  and  was  there  made  king. 
His  realm  induded  the  territory  of  Caleb  and 
Judah,  though  the  latter  gave  the  name  to  his 
kingdom.  In  spite  of  the  formal  union  of  the  two 
peoples,  the  Calebites  maintained  a  practical  inde- 
pendence with  a  residence  in  Judi^tic  territory. 
This  explains  Absalom's  resort  to  Hebron  in  his 
insurrection  against  David. 

The  name  Caleb  was  then  originally  that  of  a 
stock,  and,  personified,  became  that  of  the  epon- 
ymous ancestor  (see  Epontm).  With  this  the  story 
of  Achsah  (Judges  i.  12-15,  Josh.  xv.  15-19)  is 
seen  to  agree  when  it  is  remembered  that  tribally 
''  daughter"  means  a  weaker  stock  which  has  lost 
its  independence  to  a  stronger. 

The  (3alebites  remained  in  the  district  mentioned 
till  exilic  times,  when  the  Edomites  drove  them, 
weakened  by  Nebuchadrezzar's  measures,  north- 
ward to  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem — a  change 
explained  in  customary  genealogical  phrasing  (I 
Clm>n.  ii.  18-19),  and  the  Calebites  were  reckoned 
to  Judah  (I  Chron.  ii.  5,  9,  18,  50-55). 


Oalendar  Brethren 
Calendar,  r~ 


,  The  Ohrletlan 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


342 


An  early  age  can  not  be  aacribed  to  the  narrative 
which  gives  the  story  of  the  spies,  since  Caleb  is 
there  reckoned  as  a  Judahite  without  any  dis- 
crimination of  stocks  such  as  other  passages  cited 
above  make  necessary.  The  assimiption  in  the 
representation  of  P  in  Num.  xiii.-xiv.,  and  of  the 
Chronicler,  of  the  assimilation  by  the  Hebrews  of 
the  Calebites  is  good  for  postexdlic  times.     (See 

JUDEA.)  (H.  GUTHE.) 

While  advanced  scholarship  generally  takes  the 
position  indicated  in  the  text  (so,  for  example,  J. 
A.  Selbie  in  DB,  i.  340),  conservative  criticism  in- 
sists that  Caleb  was  originally  a  personal  name  and 
declines  altogether  the  idea  of  eponymity;  cf.  J.  D. 
Davis,  Dictionary  of  the  BiUe,  Philadelphia,  1898, 
pp.  103-104 

Bibuoorafht:  J.  WeUhauoen,  De  geniUma  el  famUi%»,  I 
Chron.  it.  4,  QOttiiigen,  1870;  idem,  Dis  Kompotition  de§ 
Hexateudu,  pp.  336-338,  Berlin,  1889;  H.  Gr&ts,  Die 
Kdubaiien  oder  KalebUen,  in  ManaieBchrift  fUr  Oeeehidae 
und  Wieeenaehaft  dee  Jttdentume,  xxv.  (1876)  461  eqq.; 
W.  R.  Smith,  Kinekip  and  Marriage,  pp.  200.  219.  Lon- 
don, 1886;  idem,  in  Journal  of  PhiMoov,  ix.  (1876)  89; 
E.  Meyer.  Die  Entet^ung  dee  Jydeniume,  pp.  114  sqq., 
147-148,  Halle,  1896. 

CALEIVDAR  BRETHREK  (Fratres  Calendarii): 
A  fraternity  which  arose  in  the  second  half  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  especially  in  lower  Saxony,  but  also 
in  other  portions  of  Germany  and  occ4isionally  in 
the  neighboring  countries.    It  might  be  termed  a 


clerical  gild,  for  though  men  who  were  not  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy  were  admitted,  they  were  re- 
stricted to  a  minor  position,  and  the  statutes  of 
many  communities  termed  only  the  dergy  "  fuU 
brothers."  The  first  fraternity  of  Calendar  Breth- 
ren which  is  definitely  known  to  have  existed  was 
that  of  Laer  in  Westphalia  in  1279,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  fourteenth  century  that  they  became 
numerous.  They  seem  to  have  originated  in  the 
official  conferences  held  by  the  clergy  of  each 
archdiaoonate  on  the  first  day  of  the  month  (Latin. 
KaUndcB).  They  centered  about  religious  worship, 
the  members  being  required  to  say  mass  for  the 
repose  of  each  other's  souls  or  have  it  said,  and  to 
pray  for  one  another.  They  were  likewise  bound, 
as  in  the  gilds,  to  mutual  support  and  social  d&- 
vation.  With  the  accession  of  wealthy  laymen, 
the  fraternities  gained  in  importance  and  wealth, 
and  became  famous  for  their  banquets.  They 
made  a  firm  resistance  to  the  Reformation,  since 
they  refused  to  allow  their  wealth  to  be  diverted 
to  other  purposes.  Some  maintained  themsdves 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in  Evangelical 
districts,  but  they  were  finally  suppressed  even  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  (G.  UHLHoairt.) 

Biblioorapht:  L.  von  Ledebur,  Die  KalandeverbrQdermn^ 
gen  in  den  Landen  dee  eAthaiecken  Vcikeatammee,  in  Jf  Ar- 
kieche  Foreehungen,  iv.  7  sqq..  Berlin,  1860:  Bierhng.  Die 
Kalandebrudereehaften,  in  Zeiiecknft  fUr  AUertmmtekmmde 
und  Oeechichle  in  Weetphalen^  series  10,  iii.  178  sqq. 


CALEITDAR,  THE  CHRISTIAN. 


The  Origin  of  the  Christian  Calendar 

(ID. 
The  Calendar  in  the  Early  Church  (f  2). 
Complications  in  Dating  (f  3). 


Early  Medieval  Calendars  (f  4). 
Greek  and  Slavic  Calendars  (f  6). 
Later  Medieval  Calendars  (f  6). 
Errors  in  Calculating  Easter  (|  7). 


The  Gregorian  Reform  (|  8). 
Opposition  to  the  Gregorian  Oalwwiiir 

(§9). 
Attempts  to  Reform  the  Calendar  (|  10). 


The  Christian  calendar  is  an  index  of  the  year 
arranged  according  to  months  and  weeks,  and 
giving  a  list  of  feasts,  fasts,  and  saints'  days,  to 
which  data  of  a  more  miscellaneous  character  may 
be  added.  The  dependence  of  the  feasts  on  chro- 
nology renders  it  necessary  to  consider  the  systems 
of  reckoning  time,  especially  as  both  the  chrono- 
logical and  liturgical  portions  of  the  calendar  were 
established  by  the  Church,  and  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  clergy  throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  its  most  general  aspect  of  an  annual  list  of  days 
and  feasts,  the  Christian  calendar  dates  from  the 
primitive  Clhiurch,  which  found  its  model  in  classical 
antiquity,  particularly  among  the  Romans.  Nu- 
merous Roman  calendars  of  the  imperial  period 
have  been  preserved  either  in  whole  or  in  part, 
designed  for  public  use  within  areas  ranging  from 
a  town  to  an  entire  country.  These  calendars  con- 
tain astronomical  information  as  well 
X.  The  On-  as  lists  of  religious  feasts  and  civic 
gin  of  the  celebrations,  some  of  which  were  con- 
Christian  nected  with  the  cult,  such  as  many 
Calendar,  of  the  public  games,  while  others 
commemorated  historic  events.  The 
transition  from  pagan  to  Christian  usage  may  be 
seen  in  two  calendars  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  (ed.  T.  Mommsen,  CIL,  i.  332 
sqq.).  One  of  these  was  drawn  up  at  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Constantine  II.  and  is  evidently  a 
revision  of  a  pagan  calendar,  omitting  all  feasts  of 
a  distinctively  religious  character,  both  heathen 


and  Christian,  but  retaining  the  purely  civic  feasts. 
Christian  influence  is  visible,  however,  in  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Christian  weeks  beside  the  Rc»nan 
system,  since  the  year,  which  here  begins  wiUi 
Jan.  1,  falls  in  two  regular  divisions,  one  of  ei^t 
da3^  each  (the  nundince)  represented  by  the  letters 
A-H,  and  the  other  of  seven  days,  indicated  by 
A-G.  The  second  calendar  was  prepared  in  448, 
during  the  reign  of  Valentinian  III.,  and,  though 
pagan  in  basis,  contains  for  the  first  time  a  small 
number  of  Christian  feasts,  having  five  festivals  of 
Christ  and  six  saints'  days.  The  oldest  exclusively 
Christian  calendar  is  a  (jSothic  fragment,  apparently 
prepared  in  Thrace  in  the  fourth  century,  contain- 
ing the  last  eight  days  of  October  and  the  entire 
month  of  November.  Seven  days  have  the  names 
of  saints  attached  to  them,  two  from  the  New  Testa- 
ment, three  from  the  general  Church,  and  two 
from  the  (]k)ths. 

Even  before  the  inclusion  of  Christian  feasts  in 

the  Roman  calendar,  however,  the  Church  had 

lists  of  saints'  days  arranged  according  to  the  date 

of  their  celebration,  although  not  yet 

2.  The     incorporated    in    a    formal   calendar. 

Calendar  Allusions  to  such  lists  of  memorial 
in  the  days  are  found  in  Tertullian  and  Cyp- 
Early       rian,  but  the  earliest  one  extant  was 

Churdi.     prepared  at  Rome  in  the  middle  of 

the  fourth  century.     It  consists  of  an 

enumeration  of  twelve  Roman  bishops  and  a  list  of 

martyrs  for  twenty-four  days,  including  feasts  in 


843 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Calendar  Brethren 
Oalendar,  The  Christian 


commemoration  of  the  birth  of  Christ  and  of  St. 
Peter  (Feb.  22),  all  the  remainder  being  festivals  of 
martyrs,  generally  of  local  origin.  The  next  oldest 
calendar  is  a  list  of  the  festivals  of  the  Church  of 
Carthage,  which  apparently  dates  from  the  end  of 
the  fifth  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  centuiy,  and 
contains  the  names  of  bishops  and  martyrs,  the 
most  of  whom  were  natives  of  Carthage.  From 
Buch  beginnings  a  wealth  of  calendars  soon  devel- 
oped throughout  the  Latin  world,  and  the  lists 
of  the  days  of  the  month  received  an  inci  easing 
proportion  of  martyrological,  hagiological,  and 
heortological  material.  The  active  intercourse 
of  the  churches,  especially  of  Rome  with  Africa, 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  England,  resulted  in  the  addition 
of  such  mmibers  of  foreign  saints  that  those  who 
received  honor  throughout  the  Church  exceeded  the 
saints  of  local  fame,  and  finally  there  was  no  day 
of  the  year  which  did  not  have  one  or  more  saints. 
Since  martyrs  were  commemorated  in  the  early 
Church  especially  in  the  place  where  they  had 
sufiPered,  each  community  originally  had  its  own 
list  of  feasts  and  its  own  calendar.  This  usage 
was  of  long  duration,  despite  the  frequent  inter- 
change of  names  and  despite  the  increasing  pres- 
tige of  the  Roman  calendar  and  list  of  feasts. 
The  diversity  of  calendars  was  augmented,  more- 
over, by  the  reverence  paid  to  the  local  saints  of 
individual  coimtries  and  dioceses,  while  a  still 
more  important  factor  was  the  discrepancy  in  the 
dating  of  the  beginning  of  the  year.  The  first  of 
the  year  was  reckoned  from  no  less  than  six  days: 

(1)  the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision  (Jan.  1;  used  in 
conformity  to  the  Julian  calendar);  (2)  Mar.  1 
(Merovingian  France,  the  Lombards,  Venice,  and, 
for  a  time,  Russia);  (3)  the  Feast  of  the  Annun- 
ciation (Mar.  25;  first  in  Florence  and  Pisa,  whence 
it  extended  to  France,  Germany,  England,  and 
Ireland,  being  retained  in  the  latter  two  countries 

until    the    eighteenth    century);  (4) 
3.  Compli-  Easter  (especiallyinFrance);  (5)  Sept.  1 
cations  in  (Byzantine   Empire,  and,  until  mod- 
Dating,     em    times,     Russia);  (6)     Christmas 
(Carolingian  France,  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
Scandinavia,   Prussia,  Hungary,   and  portions  of 
Holland,    Switzerland,    etc.).     The    problem   was 
further  complicated  by  the  various  methods  of 
indicating  the  day  of  the  month,  of  which  at  least 
five  systems  were  used  contemporaneously:  (1)  the 
ancient  Roman  method  of  calends,  ides,  and  nones; 

(2)  the  Greco-Christian  consecutive  numbering  of 
the  days  of  the  month,  now  generally  used;  (3)  the 
consiietudo  BononiensiSf  which  divided  the  month 
into  two  halves,  in  one  of  which  (mensis  intrana) 
the  days  were  niunbered  forward  from  1,  while  in 
the  other  (mensis  exiena)  they  were  reckoned  back- 
ward from  30  or  31 ;  (4)  the  method  of  Cisiojanus 
or  Cisianus,  which  designated  the  days  of  the  month 
by  the  syllables  of  arbitrary  mnemonic  verses 
(long  popular  in  Poland  and  North  Germany); 
(5)  the  designation  of  the  day  by  the  feast  cele- 
brated on  it.  This  confusion  was  worse  confounded 
oy  the  various  reckonings  of  Easter,  while  the 
movable  feasts  based  upon  it  and  running  side  by 
side  with  the  fixed  festivals,  or  even  crossing  them, 
added  their  quota  of  perplexity. 


In  the  Middle  Ages  calendars  were  multiplied, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  chronological  intrica- 
cies already  noted  and  partly  because  of  the  uni- 
versal need  for  ecclesiastical  data  of  this  character. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  few  calendars  still  extant 
which  were  prepared  previous  to  the  eighth  centuiy, 
but  this  deficiency  is  made  good  in  various  ways, 
especially  by  the  sacramentaries  which  give  the 
list  of  feasts,  while  liturgical  books,  particularly 
manuscripts  of  the  Psalter,  frequently  have  a 
calendar  prefixed  to  them.  Such  calendars  are 
usually  perpetual,  that  is,  available  for  any  year, 
but  are  usually  provided  with  methods  for  the 
determination  of  the  movable  feasts  of  any  par- 
ticular year.     Not  only  are  the  letters 

4.  Early     A-G  repeated  in  them  from  Jan.  1  to 
Medieval    designate  the  days  of  the  week,  but 

Calendars,  they  also  contain  the  numbers  I.-XIX. 
to  denote  all  new  moons  which  fall, 
in  the  course  of  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  on  the 
day  of  the  month  designated  by  one  of  theoe  mmi- 
bers. By  means  of  such  a  calendar,  when  the 
Dominical  Letter  and  the  Golden  Number  (qq.v.) 
of  the  cycle  are  known,  may  be  obtained  the  day 
of  the  week  of  any  date  and  all  new  moons  through- 
out the  year.  From  the  latter  is  derived  the  date 
of  the  spring  new  moon,  which  gives,  when  the  day 
of  the  week  on  which  it  falls  is  determined  by  the 
Dominical  Letter,  the  date  of  Easter.  An  Easter 
table  for  a  series  of  years  is  also  frequently  added 
to  the  calendars. 

All  calendars  of  the  Greek  and  Slavic  churches 
begin  their  ecclesiastical  year,  as  already  noted, 
with  Sept.  1.  The  great  majority  of  their  im- 
movable feasts  are  consecrated  to  the  saints  and 
the  Virgin,  while  a  number  of  the  movable  feasts 
are  consecrated  to  Christ.  The  latter,  like  the 
Sundays  of  the  year,  are  divided  into  three  periods: 
Trioidion  (beginning  with  the  tenth  Sunday  before 
Easter),  PenUkostarion  (from  Easter  to  the  close  of 
the  second  week  after  Whitsuntide),  and  Oktoichos 
(extending  from  the  second  Sunday  after  Whit- 
suntide into  the  Western  Epiphany). 

5.  Greek  The  calendar  of  the  Greek  Church  is 
and  Slavic  characterized  by  numerous  fasts, 
Calendars,  partly  of  single  days  and  partly  of 

several  weeks.  To  the  latter  belong 
the  four  "  great  fasts."  Two  of  these  are  movable, 
the  Easter  fast  of  seven  weeks,  and  the  Fast  of  the 
Apostles,  the  latter  lasting  from  the  Feast  of  All 
Martyrs  on  the  Sunday  after  Whitsuntide  to  the 
day  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  (June  29).  The  other 
two,  the  Fast  of  the  Virgin  (August  1-15)  and  the 
Fast  of  Advent  (Nov.  24-Dec.  24),  are  immovable. 
In  a  number  of  the  more  important  feasts  the  Greek 
calendar  harmonizes  with  the  Western,  but  it 
deviates  in  numerous  instances  from  the  latter  in 
its  dating  of  the  feasts  of  saints  and  martyrs. 

In  the  Western  Church  the  majority  of  calendars 
were  written  in  Latin  until  the  end  of  the  Ousades. 
Among  them  special  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
ancient  list  of  feasts  prepared  at  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  Gregory  II.  or  Gregory  III.,  and  noteworthy 
as  giving  the  Roman  stations  in  which  the  feasts 
were  celebrated  and  the  lessons  from  the  Gospela 
Other  noteworthy  calendars  include  one  prepared 


Oaleadar 
Oalf 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


344 


in  781  by  Godeescalo  at  the  command  of  Charle- 

magnOy  a  calendar  from  Luxeuil  of  the  latter  part 

of    the    seventh    century,   a   marble 

6.  Later     calendar    drawn    up    at    Naples    by 

Medieval  Bishop  John  IV.  between  840  and  850, 
Calendars,  and  a  calendar  of  Bishop  Gundekar 
II.  of  Eichstfttt  (1057-79).  Among 
other  German  calendars  mention  may  be  made  of 
one  from  Freising  of  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth 
centuiy,  from  Salzburg  in  the  eleventh  century, 
from  Regensburg  in  the  twelfth,  and  from  Passau 
and  Augsburg  in  the  thirteenth.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages  the  Latin  calendars  began  to  be 
translated  into  the  vernacular,  although  a  metrical 
calendar  had  been  written  in  Anglo-Saxon  before 
the  dose  of  the  tenth  century.  A^French  calendar 
of  the  thirteenth  centuiy  is  still  extant  in  manu- 
script, but  German  calendars,  which  are  tolerably 
numerous,  are  not  found  until  a  hundred  years 
later.  The  invention  of  printing  in  the  fifteenth 
century  wrought  important  changes  in  the  calendar, 
although  the  first  printed  specimens  resemble  those 
in  manuscript  and,  like  them,  are  perpetual.  The 
first  calendar  for  a  definite  year  was  printed  at 
Nuremberg  in  1475  in  German  and  Latin.  It  was 
designed  for  the  years  1475,  1494,  and  1513  as  the 
first  of  a  triple  cycle  of  nineteen  years  each,  and 
was  so  constructed  that  the  dates  for  other  years 
might  be  derived  from  these  three,  so  that  it  really 
extended  from  1475  to  1531.  The  ecclesiastical 
portions,  however,  were  in  perpetual  form,  since 
the  calendar  contained,  in  addition  to  the  letters 
A-G  for  the  days  of  the  week,  only  the  names  of 
the  saints  for  a  limited  number  of  days  without  a 
division  into  weeks  and  without  the  movable  feasts. 
It  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy 
that  calendars  arranged  according  to  the  weeks  and 
feasts  of  a  definite  year  came  into  general  use. 

The  reckoning  of  Easter  hitherto  employed  had 
long  been  recognised  as  inadequate,  and  the  elim- 
ination of  the  errors  which  this  system  had  caused 
was  one  of  the  most  urgent  tasks  which  awaited 
solution  after  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Since 
the  second  half  of  the  third  century  the  rule  had 
been  adopted  by  the  Alexandrian  Church,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  that  Easter  should 
fall  on  the  Sunday  after  the  spring  full  moon,  that 
is,  on  the  first  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  on  or 
next  after  the  vernal  equinox.  The  date  of  this 
equinox  was  to  be  Mar.  21,  while  the 
7.  ErrorB  in  full  moon  was  to  be  reckoned  accord- 
Calculating  ing  to  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years.    This 

Easter,  system  of  reckoning  was  introduced 
into  the  Roman  Church  in  525  by 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  and  spread  thence  throughout 
Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  and  was  given  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  churches  by  Bede  in  729.  This  method, 
however,  was  vitiated  by  two  faults  which  could 
not  fail  to  become  evident  in  the  course  of  time. 
In  the  first  place,  by  its  assumption  that  the  vernal 
equinox  falls  on  Mar.  21  it  adopted  the  entire  Julian 
system  which  makes  the  vear  365i  days  in  length 
and  intercalates  a  day  every  four  years.  In  reality 
this  year  is  eleven  minutes  too  long,  so  that  an 
extra  day  is  intercalated  every  128  years.  In  the 
second  place,  by  its  reckoning  of  the  spring  full 


moon  according  to  a  nineteen-year  cycle  of  235 
months  or  6,939}  days,  it  made  the  cyde  an  hoar 
too  long,  thus  making  a  discrepancy  of  the  day 
between  the  real  and  the  theoretical  new  nxxKi 
every  210  years.  It  was  not  imtil  the  thirteenth 
century  that  this  error  attracted  attenti<Hi,  the 
first  works  to  note  it  being  the  Computus  of  Master 
Conrad  in  1200  (extant  only  in  a  revision  of  1396 
in  a  Vienna  manuscript)  and  the  similar  work  of 
an  anonymous  author  of  1223  (preserved  in  great 
part  by  Vincent  of  Beauvais).  The  problem  was 
likewise  taken  up  by  Johannes  de  Sacro-Busto 
about  1250  in  his  i>e  anni  raiione  and  by  Roger 
Bacon  in  a  treatise  addreased  to  Clement  IV.,  Dt 
reformatione  calendarii,  while  among  the  Gredcs 
the  monk  Isaac  Argyros  wrote  on  the  proUem  in 
1272.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  iWoimation 
of  the  calendar  was  discussed  in  the  great  councils 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  especially  by  Pieire 
d'Ailly  at  Kostnits  in  1414  and  by  Nicholas  of  Cuss 
at  Basel  in  1436,  the  latter  proposing  to  begin  the 
correction  of  the  calendar  in  1439. 

The  actual  reform  of  the  calendar  was  first  car- 
ried out  by  Gregory  XIII.  (1572-85)  in  conform- 
ity with  a  resolution  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In 
1577  the  pope  appointed  a  committee  which  held 
its  sessions  at  Rome  to  carry  out  the  plan  proposed 
by  the  Calabrian  astronomer  Aloigi  Li^,  and  con- 
firmed this  reformed  calendar,  which  was  called 
the  Gregorian  in  his  honor,  by  a  bull  of  Feb.  24, 
1582.  The  reform  was  designed,  on 
8.  The      the  one  hand,  to  regulate  Easter  with 

Gregorian    reference  to  the  solar  and  lunar  revo- 

Reform.  lutions,  thus  restoring  the  year  of  the 
lunar  cycle  according  to  the  date  and 
intention  of  the  Nioene  Council,  and,  on  the  other,  to 
avoid  any  future  shifting  of  the  vernal  equinox  and 
the  spring  full  moon.  To  restore  the  vernal  equinox 
to  Mar.  21,  the  ten  days  between  Oct.  4  and  15 
were  dropped,  while  for  the  correction  of  the  spring 
full  moon  the  new  moons  were  set  back  three  days 
from  Jan.  3  to  Dec.  31.  These  corrections  were 
assured  by  retaining  the  Julian  system  of  intercala- 
tion and  the  nineteen-year  lunar  cyde  for  a  century. 
The  intercalary  day  was  to  be  omitted  thrice  in 
four  centuries,  and  the  new  moon  was  to  be  retarded 
one  day  eight  times  in  twenty-five  centuries  (seven 
times  after  each  three  hundred  years  and  the  eighth 
time  after  four  hundred).  For  the  correction  of  the 
lunar  cyde  the  reckoning  of  epacts,  or  the  age  of 
the  moon  on  Jan.  1,  was  introduced  according  to  the 
cycle  proposed  by  Li^. 

The  Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in  Roman 

Catholic  countries  either  immediately  or  in  the 

course  of  a  few  years.    The  Protestant  districts, 

on  the  other  hand,  opposed  it,  partly  on  account 

of  their  hostility  to  Rome  and  partly  on  acooimt  of 

its   chronological   discrepandes.    Its   inaccurades 

were    recognised    by    the   landgrave 

9.  Opposi-  William  IV.  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  the 

tion  to  the  Calvinistic  Joseph  Justus  Scaliger  is- 

Gregorian  sued    repeated    warnings    against  it. 

Calendar.  After  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy 
the  Julian  calendar  existed  in  (jermany 
side  by  side  with  the  Gregorian,  the  two  bemg  des- 
ignated as  old  and  new  style,  respectively.     The 


845 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oalandar 
Oalf 


movable  feasts  of  the  two  faiths  acoordingiy  dif- 
fered, and  the  advocates  of  the  new  style  dated  the 
days  of  the  month  ten  days  in  advance  of  the  old  un- 
til the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centuiy.  In  view  of 
the  discrepancies  between  the  two  systems  the  Ger- 
man Protestants  devised  a  third  calendar,  which  was 
to  agree  neither  with  the  Gregorian  nor  the  Julian 
and  was  to  take  effect  in  1700.  In  its  reckoning 
of  time  it  agreed  with  the  Gregorian,  but  its  feasts 
were  calculated  astronomically  according  to  the 
meridian  of  Uraniborg  and  the  Rudolphinian  Tables 
of  Kepler.  The  result  was  increased  confusion 
and  embitterment  between  Roman  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  particularly  in  1724,  1744,  and  1788, 
when  there  was  a  divergency  of  a  week  between  the 
Gregorian  and  the  astronomical  Easter.  This 
Protestant  calendar  was  finally  suppressed  by 
Frederick  the  Great  in  1775,  and  the  Gregorian 
calendar  became  supreme  throughout  Germany. 
German  Protestants  have  sought  in  recent  years 
to  transform  Easter  into  an  immovable  feast,  but 
the  plan  as  yet  remains  inchoate. 

The  evangelical  reforms  of  the  calendar  thus  far 
considered  were  concerned  only  with  chronology, 
without  regard  to  the  traditional  Christian  lists 
of  saints  and  martyrs.  There  is,  however,  a  tend- 
ency among  the  Lutherans  to  revise  the  hagiology 
of  the  Church,  in  view  of  the  Protestant  skepticism 
regarding  the  existence  of  many  of  the  saints  of 
tradition  and  the  Christianity  ascribed  to  others. 
They  are  offended,  furthermore,  by  the  names  of 
such    heroes    of    the    Coimterreformation  as    St. 

Ignatius  Loyola  and  other  opponents 

ID.  Attempts  of  their  sect,  while  prominent  Protes- 

to  Reform  tants,  it  is  felt,  should  be  recognized 

the         in  an  ecclesiastical  calendar  designed 

Calendar,    for  Lutheran  use.    Such  an  attempt 

was  made  by  Ferdinand  Piper  in  his 
Evangeliacher  Kalender  (published  from  1850  to 
1870),  in  which  he  sought  to  transform  the  hagi- 
ology of  the  Western  Church  according  to  evan- 
gelical ideas.  To  increase  the  interest  of  the  laity 
in  this  new  list  of  names,  brief  biographies  were 
added,  and  these,  399  in  number,  were  later  pub- 
lished separately  imder  the  title  Zeugen  der  Wahr- 
heit  (4  vols.,  Leipsic,  1874;  Eng.  transl.,  by  H. 
M.  MacCracken,  3  vols.,  Boston,  1879).  Piper's 
calendar,  however,  failed  to  secure  official  recogni- 
tion in  any  German  church,  although  in  various  re- 
visions it  has  been  included  in  a  number  of  popular 
calendars  in  Germany.  It  is  self-evident  that  only 
partial  success  can  be  attained  by  any  Protestant 
hagiological  calendar  in  view  of  the  diversity  of 
Protestant  conditions  and  requirements.  Appar- 
ently, the  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  add  new 
dates  and  names,  whether  these  be  supplementary 
or  corrective,  to  the  traditional  hagiology  of  the 
Church,  so  that,  according  to  the  requirements  of 
time  or  place,  a  choice  may  be  made  from  the 
names  aaaociated  with  any  particular  day. 

(O.  Z6CKLBRt.) 

Biblioobapht:  On  the  general  subject  consult:  L.  Ideler, 
Handhueh  der  .  .  ,  Chronoloine,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1826-26; 
A.  J.  Weidenbflkch,  Cdtendarium  hiMtorico-chriatianum 
medii  et  novi  aevi,  Regensburg,  1855;  W.  8.  B.  Woolhouae. 
Analvna  of  Oie  Chriatian,  Hebrmo  and  Mahometan  CaUn- 
dare,  London.  1881;  Ledouble,  La  Connaieeanee  dee  an- 


nSee  et  dee  iotae.  TraUi  .  .  .  du  calendrier,  Bousons. 
1887;  E.  Mahler,  Forieeteung  der  Wuatenfeld'Bchen  Ver- 
gUuhunge-Tobellen  der  muhammedaniechen  und  cftrut- 
lichen  Zeitrechnung,  Leipsic,  1887;  J.  C.  Maodonald, 
Chronolooiee  and  Caiendara,  London,  1897;  F.  ROhl, 
Chronologie  dee  MittdaUere  und  der  NeuaeU,  Berlin,  1897; 
B.  M.  Lersch,  EinleUung  in  die  Ckronotogie,  2  vols.,  Frei- 
burg, 1899  (vol.  ii.  on  Christian  Calendar);  Encvdopa- 
dia  Britannica,  iv.  604-682  (gives  comparative  Ubles); 
DC  A,  i.  256-258. 

On  the  origin  of  the  Christian  calendar  consult:  T. 
Mommsen,  Der  Chronograph  vom  Jakre  S64,  in  Abhand- 
lungen  der  eOcheiechen  Oeeellechaft  der  Wieeenechaften,  ii. 
(1850)  547  sqq.;  A.  J.  Binterim,  DenkwOrdigkeiten,  i.  20 
sqq.,  7  vols..  Mains,  1837-41;  L.  Ck>leman.  Andenl 
Chrietianity,  chap,  xxvi.,  |  5.  Philadelphia,  1852;  F. 
Piper,  Der  Ureprung  der  ehriaUichen  Kalendarien,  in 
Kdniglicher  pretiaeiacher  Siaatakalender,  1855,  pp.  &-25; 
A.  Lechner,  MittelaUerliehe  Kalendarien  in  Bayem,  Frei- 
burg. 1891;  E.  Berfried,  Die  AuageetaUung  der  ehrieUiehen 
Oaterbereehnung,  Mittelwalde.  1893. 

On  calendars  of  the  Middle  Ages  useful  works  are: 
N.  Nilles,  Kcdendarium  manuale  utritiaque  eedeeia,  4  vols., 
Innsbruck.  1879-85.  vols.  i..  ii..  2d  ed..  1897  (a  most  val- 
uable collection  for  the  Eastern  Churches);  A.  (}ave, 
Scriptorutn  ecdeeiaaticorum  hiatoria  Uteraria,  Appendix, 
part  ii.,  London,  1698  (describes  Eastern  calendars); 
F.  Piper.  Kirchenreehnung,  pp.  vi.  sqq..  Berlin,  1841; 
idem,  Karla  dee  Groaaen  Kaleifidarium,  ib.  1858;  W.  I*. 
KrafiFt.  Kirehengeechichte  der  germaniachen  VdUcert  I.  i. 
371.  385-387,  ib.  1854;  F.  Kaltenbrunner.  Die  Verge- 
ediichte  der  gregorianiachen  Kalenderreform^  Vienna,  1876; 
O.  E.  Hartmann.  Der  r&miache  Kalender,  Leipsic,  1882; 
J.  Weale.  Analecta  lUurgica,  2  vols.,  London,  1889;  H. 
Qrotefend,  Taachenbuch  der  Zeitrechnung  dee  deuJtaeKem 
MiUdaUera  und  der  Neueeit,  Hanover.  1898;  A.  von  Malt- 
lew,  Menciogien  der  orthodox-katholiachen  Kirche  dee  Mor- 
genlandee,  part  i.,  Berlin.  1900  (Sept.-Feb..  German  and 
Slavic  and  reference  to  original  Gk.  text). 

For  the  history  of  the  Gregorian  reform  consult:  F. 
Kaltenbrunner,  Die  Polemik  Hber  die  gregorianieche  Kalen- 
derreform,  Vienna,  1877;  J.  B.  J.  Delambre,  Hiatoire  de 
Vaetronomia  modeme,  i.  1-84.  Paris.  1821;  G.  8.  Ferrari, 
/{ calendario  Oregoriano,  Rome,  1882;  the  literature  under 
Grboort  XIII. 

For  modem  Protestant  calendars  the  following  may 
be  consulted:  F.  Piper.  Die  Verheaaerung  dee  Kalendere, 
in  Evangeliacher  Kalender,  1850.  pp.  1-11;  idem.  Die 
Verheaaerung  dee  evangeliadien  Kalendera,  Berlin.  1850; 
W.  L5hes.  Martyrclogium.  Zur  ErJUdrung  der  herk&mm^ 
lichen  KaUndemamen,  pp.  1-12,  Nuremberg,  1868;  E. 
Scharfe.  Die  chriaUiche  Zeitrechnung  und  der  deuteeh- 
evangeliache  Kalender,  pp.  18-28.  Stuttgart,  1893. 

CALEIVDAR,  HEBREW  AM)  JEWISH.  See 
Day,  the  Hebriiw;  Moon,  Semitic  Conceitionb 
of;  Year,  the  Hebrew;  Synaqooue. 

CALF,  THE  GOLDEN,  AM)  CALF-WORSHH*. 

Origin  of  Calf-worship  among  the  Hebrews  (|  1). 
Bull-worship  among  Other  Semites  (|  2). 
Bull-worship  in  Israel  (ft  3). 
Bull-worship  in  Judah  (ft  4). 

The  story  of  the  worship  of  the  golden  calf  dur- 
ing the  desert  journey  is  given  Ex.  xxxii.  and 
Deut.  ix.  7-21;  of.  Neh.  ix.  18;  Ps.  evi.  1^20; 
Acts  vii.  39-40.  The  authorized  calf-worship  of 
Northern  Israel  is  mentioned  I  Kings  xii.  2^-33; 
II  Kings  X.  29,  xvii.  16;  Hos.  viii.  5-6,  x.  6-6, 
xiii.  2;  II  Chron.  xi.  15,  xiii.  8.  The  Hebrew  term 
generally  applied  to  the  calf  is  'egel ;  'eglah  in  Hos. 
X.  5  is  probably  a  mistake  for  *egel. 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  Israel- 
ites borrowed  calf-worship  from  the  Egyptians,  a 
supposition  thought  to  be  supported  by  the  fact 
that  Jeroboam  had  been  recalled  from  Egypt. 
But  the  Egyptian  animal-worship  was  essentially 
different  from  the  Semitic  type,  since  the  Egyptian 


Oalf 
Oalixtua 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


346 


worship  was  paid  to  living  animals.  The  bulls  or 
calves  of  Jeroboam — ^the  classical  example  in 
Israel — were,  on  the  other  hand,  intended  to  be 
symbols  of    Yahweh.      In   any   case   Jeroboam 

would  not  have  introduced  a  foreign 

I.  Origin  of  cult  to  strengthen  his  new  and  pre- 

Calf-wor-   carious    government.      The    Hebrew 

ship        calf-worship   did   not   reproduce   the 

among  the  cult  of  Apis  and  BInevis,  which  were 

Hebrews,    living  animals,  one  black,  the  other 

white,  dedicated  to  Osiris,  and  he  was 
believed  to  be  incarnated  in  them  (J.  G.  Wilkin- 
son, Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians, 
iii.,  London,  1878,  86-95,  305-307).  Suggestions  of 
bull-worship  among  the  Hebrews  are  found  in  the 
horns  of  the  altar,  in  the  oxen  imder  the  lavers 
(I  Kings  vii.  25),  and  possibly  in  the  cherubim. 
While  examples  of  Hebrew  bull-worship  are  rare, 
the  proof  of  its  existence  among  neigUx)ring  na- 
tions is  abundant.  In  the  Babylonio-Assjrrian 
and  Syro-Phenician  religions,  the  bull  represented 
the  masculine  type  of  divinity,  as  was  natural  to 
a  pastoral  people.  The  primitive  Aryans  also  ex- 
plained the  heavenly  phenomena  by  comparisons 
drawn  from  the  life  of  their  herds.  The  Zenda- 
vesta  makes  mention  of  "  the  first  bull."  The 
bull  represented  power  and  strength,  and  at  the 

same  time  the  destructive  and  the  re- 
2.  Bull-  productive  omnipotence  of  the  deity. 
worship  The  sun-god  is  hardly  to  be  recog- 
among  nized  in  the  bull,  as  has  been  supposed. 
Other  The  gold  of  the  Hebrew  bull  idols  does 
Semites,    not  necessarily  point  to  the  splendor 

of  the  sun,  for  the  images  of  other  gods 
were  also  of  gold  or  gilded.  Still  less  credible  is 
the  assertion  that  the  strength  of  the  bull  repre- 
sented the  scorching  blaze  of  the  sun.  Among  the 
Babylonians  the  biidl  was  sacred  to  the  thunder- 
god  Ramman  (Syrian  Rimmon),  Assjrrian  Adad 
(Syrian  Hadad),  who  is  represented  in  Layard's 
MonumentSf  plate  65,  as  having  four  horns  and 
holding  the  lightnings  in  one  hand  and  a  battle-ax 
in  the  other.  The  bull  is  also  the  emblem  of  Ram- 
man-Adad  on  the  stele  of  Esarhaddon  found  at 
Zingirli  in  Northern  Syria,  as  well  as  in  the  pro- 
cession of  the  gods  depicted  on  the  rock  at  Maltai 
(cf.  G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Vari  dans 
VantiquUi,  ii.,  Paris,  1881  sqq.,  642-643).  An 
image  of  the  Syrian  Jupiter  of  DoUche,  which  was 
carried  from  Syria  to  Rome,  represents  him  stand- 
ing upon  a  buU  (cf.  F.  Hettner,  De  Jove  Dolicheno 
dissertatio  philologica,  Bonn,  1877;  A.  H.  Kan,  De 
Jovis  Dclickeni  CvUu  dissertatio ,  Groningen,  1901). 
The  Jupiter  of  Hierapolis  in  Syria  was  pictured 
sitting  upon  bulls  (Lucian,  De  dea  Syria,  xxxi.). 
The  classical  tale  of  the  seduction  of  Europa  is  a 
form  of  the  Baal  myth,  in  which  the  god,  in  the 
shape  of  a  buU,  journeys  with  Astarte  (q.v.)  to 
Crete  (for  the  identity  of  Astarte  with  Europa,  cf. 
De  dea  Syria,  Iv.).  The  sacredness  of  cattle  among 
the  Philistines  also  is  demonstrated  by  the  story  of 
the  return  of  the  ark  on  a  new  cart  drawn  by  two 
milch  kine,  on  which  there  had  come  no  yoke 
(I  Sam.  vi.  7  sqq.). 

That  bull-worship  among  the  Hebrews  was  an- 
cient the  foregoing  makes  quite  possible.     It  was, 


however,  hardly  practised  before  the  final  settle- 
ment in  Canaan,  since  it  was  always  characteristic 
of  peoples  who  had  either  reached  or  passed  the 
agricultural  stage.  The  prohibition  of  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant  (Ex.  xx.  23,  cf.  xxxiv.  17)  is,  therefore, 
the  first  warning  against  this  type  of  worship^  Ex. 
xxxii.  assumes,  however,  that  it  was  practised  dur- 
ing the  journey  in  the  wilderness.  The  leading  fea- 
tures of  the  narrative  are  as  follows:  The  pe<^le 
had  become  impatient  under  the  continueid  ab- 
sence of  their  leader,  and  Aaron  made  for  them  an 
image  of  the  god  who  had  led  them  out  of  Egypt. 
With  the  material  furnished  by  the  golden  ear- 
rings of  the  women  and  children,  "  a  molten  calf  " 
was  fashioned,  before  which  an  altar  was  built,  and 
to  it  divine  honors  were  paid.  The  rest  of  the 
chapter  teUs  of  Yahweh's  anger,  of  Moses's  ener- 
getic intervention,  of  Aaron's  apology,  and  finally 
of  the  destruction  of  the  calf  and  of  3,000  of  its 
worshipers.  The  narrative — ^a  composite  of  J  and 
E — has  been,  however,  considered  by  many  modem 
critics  as  unhistorical  and  really  a  polemic  against 
Jeroboam's  newly  instituted  worship.  The  cardinal 
passage  on  calf-worship  is  I  Kings  xii.  28-29  (cf. 
II  Chron.  xi.  15),  where  the  story  is  told  of  the 
bulls  set  up  by  Jeroboam  I.,  who  ordained  a  non- 
levitical  priesthood,  and  did  not  pre> 

3.  Bull-  tend  to  do  more  than  return  to  the 
worship  Yahweh-worship  of  the  past.  That 
in  IsraeL    he  did  thus  return  is  proved  by  hi< 

success.  When  Jehu  destroyed  the 
Baal-worship,  he  did  not  touch  the  bulls,  a  clear 
proof  that  he  acknowledged  the  bull-worship  as 
Yahweh-worship  (II  Kings  x.  29).  Yet  the  spir- 
itual prophets  opposed  the  bull-worship  from  the 
beginning.  Indirect  testimony  to  this  may  be 
seen  in  Amos  (v.  5).  Direct  testimony  is  first 
found  in  Hosea.  This  younger  contemporary  of 
Amos  is  the  only  one  of  the  prophets  who  alludes 
to  buU- worship;  and  to  him  the  worship  of  an 
image  is  the  worship  of  an  idol  (viii.  5-6,  xiii.  2, 
cf.  X.  5-6).  With  regard  to  the  precise  form  and 
structure  of  Jeroboam's  bulls  there  is  no  direct  in- 
formation. Gold  being  scarce  and  precious,  it  is 
probable  that  the  images  were  small — ^an  assump- 
tion supported  by  the  fact  that  they  are  called 
calves.  Naturally  these  royal  statues  would  be  of 
pure  gold  and  not  merely  gilded. 

In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  bull-worship  does  not 
seem  to  have  flourished,  for  nowhere  is  found  a 

reference  to  Judaic  worship  of  this 

4.  Bull-  kind,  and  the  polemics  of  Hosea  ex- 
worship     dusively  against  the  calf  of  Samaria 

in  Judah.  at  Bethel  would  be  unintelligible,  had 
he  been  aware  of  the  same  cult  in 
Judah.  The  Deuteronomic  redactor  of  the  book  of 
Kings  saw  in  the  bull-worship  the  special  sin  of 
Jeroboam,  wherewith  he  caused  Israel  to  sin  (I 
Kings  xiv.  16,  xv.  26). 

Biblioorapht:  W.  Baudiaain,  Studien,  ro\.  i.,  Leipsie,  1878: 
J.  Selden,  De  dia  Syru,  pp.  45-64.  London,  1617;  C.  T. 
Beke.  The  Idol  of  Honb  .  .  .  Ab  Odden  /moot  ...  a 
Cone  .  .  .  not  a  Calf,  ib.  1871;  A.  Kuenen,  ReKgion  of 
Itrael,  i.  73-76.  236-236.  260-262.  346-347.  ib.  1874; 
E.  KOnig,  Hauptprobleme  dor  oUiaraeliUetAen  AeftffioA*- 
oeaehichte,  pp.  63-02.  Leipsio.  1884;  idem,  BiidUtiokeHl 
Je9  UgiUmen  Jahweheultua,  ib.  1886;    F.   Baethcen,  Bei- 


347 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oalf 
Galiztua 


trdge  nor  MmtliacAen  Rdioionagetchichlet  PP.  108  aqq.,  Ber- 
lin. 1889:  J.  Robertson,  Early  Relioion  of  lanul,  chap, 
ix..  Edinburgh,  1802;  F.  W.  Farrar.  Wm  then  a  Golden 
Calf  at  Dant  in  ExpoeUor,  viii.  (1883)  254-265;  8.  OettU. 
Der  KuUua  bei  Amoe  und  Hoaea,  in  Oreifewalder  Shtdien, 
1885.  pp.  1-34:  DB,  i.  340-343:  EB,  i.  631-632.  Con- 
sult also  the  works  on  O.  T.  Theology,  especially  that  by 
H.  Schulti.  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh.  1882,  and  the  works 
mentioned  under  Idolatry;  Images  and  iMAOE-woBsinp. 

CALIXTINES.    See  Hubs,  John,  Hussites. 

CALIXTUS,  ca-lix'tUB:  The  name  of  three  popes 
and  one  antipope. 

Caliztus  (Callistus)  L:  Pope  217-222.  Through 
the  discovery  of  the  work  of  Hippolytus  (q.v.) 
on  heresies,  a  new  aspect,  differing  in  many  par- 
ticulars from  the  traditional  one,  has  been  assimied 
by  the  story  of  this  early  bishop.  The  old  account 
ascribed  to  him  the  building  of  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Trastevere.  The  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decre- 
tals (q.v.)  contain  two  in  which,  among  other 
things,  regulations  are  laid  down  for  the  ember  fasts. 
He  was  (»lled  a  martyr,  but  the  acts  of  his  martyr- 
dom are  purely  legendary,  probably  composed  in 
the  seventh  century.  The  picture  given  by  Hip- 
polytus, though  bitterly  hostile,  is  at  least  dear 
and  shmp  in  its  outlines.  According  to  it,  Callistus 
was  the  slave  of  a  Christian  ofRcial  named  Car- 
pophorus,  who  entrusted  him  with  considerable 
sums  of  money,  which  ho  lost.  Taking  flight  to 
avoid  a  reckoning,  he  was  pursued  by  Ms  master, 
and  jumped  into  the  sea  to  escape  him,  but  was 
pulled  out  and  condenmed  to  the  treadmill.  Then 
he  got  into  a  quarrel  with  the  Jews  in  Rome,  and 
was  beaten  and  sent  to  the  mines  of  Sardinia,  from 
which  he  was  released  by  the  influence  of  Marcia, 
the  mistress  of  Commodus.  It  is  impossible  to 
determine  how  far  Callistus  was  morally  blame- 
worthy in  this  chequered  career — ^probably  not 
as  much  as  Hippolytus  says.  The  events  recited 
are  said  to  have  happened  in  the  pontificate  of 
Victor.  The  next  bishop,  Zephyrinus,  brought 
Callistus  back  to  Rome,  probably  already  in  orders, 
and  gave  him  charge  of  the  large  cemetery  which 
later  bore  his  name.  Under  Zephyrinus  he  came 
into  conflict  with  Hippolytus  on  the  dogma  of 
the  Incarnation  (see  Monarchianism);  and  at  the 
next  vacancy  a  schism  occurred,  each  party  electing 
its  own  leader  as  bishop  (see  Hippolttus).  Cal- 
listus seems  to  have  been,  like  Zephyrinus,  a 
Modalist;  it  was  he  who  exoonmiunicated  Sabellius. 
The  question  of  discipline  also  brought  him  into 
conflict  with  Hippolytus,  according  to  whom  he 
laid  down  the  principle,  unacceptable  to  the  rigor- 
ists  of  the  time,  that  all  sins  might  be  forgiven,  and 
denied  the  necessity  of  deposing  a  bishop  who 
should  be  guilty  of  deadly  sin.  Hippolytus  accuses 
him  of  taking  this  position  so  as  to  increase  the 
numbers  of  his  own  church;  but  it  is  imdeniable 
that  a  dear-sighted  man  could  hardly  fail  to  see 
the  defects  and  inconsistendes  of  the  then  existing 
church  discipline,  and  Callistus  was  probably 
seeking  to  establish  a  more  logical  system.  The 
Catalogus  Liberianua  is  authority  for  placing  his 
death  in  222.  [The  largest  of  the  Roman  cata- 
combs is  the  Cemetery  of  St.  Callistus;  and  De 
Rossi  says  it  was  the  first  common  cemetery,  given 
to  the  pope  by  some  noble  family  for  the  use  of  the 


whole  Christian  community.  Thirteen  out  of  the 
next  eighteen  popes  after  Zephyrinus  are  said  to 
have  been  buried  there.]  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bzblxoobapht:  The  EpietoliB  are  in  MPO,  vol.  z.  An 
anonymous  TranelaHon,  ed.  Holder-Egger,  is  in  MOHt 
Script,  rv.  (1887)  418-422.  Consult:  C.  K.  J.  Bunsen, 
HiVpolyUu  and  hie  Age,  2  vols..  London,  1852-56;  J.  J.  I. 
yon  Ddllinger.  Hippolvtus  und  Callietue,  Regensburg,  1853; 
K.  J.  Neumann,  Der  r&mieche  Stoat  und  die  aUgemeine 
Kirehe,  i.  312-313,  Leipsic.  1880;  T.  E.  RolfTs,  Dae  Indul^ 
Omw-Edikt  dee  .  .  KaUiet,  in  TU,  xi.  (1884)  3;  H.  Acbe- 
lis.  Hippclytatudien,  LeijMie,  1887;  Harnack,  LiUeratur,  i. 
603-605;  JafiFtf,  Regeeta,  i.  12-13.  ii.  731;  Milman.  LaHn 
Chrietianiiy,  i.  75-78;  Bower,  Popee,  i.  20-21. 

Calixtos  n.  (Gui,  or  Wido,  son  of  Count  William 
of  Burgundy):  Pope  1119-24.  He  was  made 
archbishop  of  Vienne  in  1088,  and  imder  Paschal 
II.  was  legate  in  England,  with  little  success.  In 
the  investiture  controversy  he  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  French  opposition  to  the  compromise  of  1111 
with  Henry  V.  A  synod  called  by  him  at  Vienne 
in  that  year  condenmed  lay  investiture  without 
reserve  and  excommunicated  Henry,  threatening 
the  pope  with  renunciation  of  allegiance  if  he  did 
not  confirm  its  decrees.  When  he  was  elected 
pope  by  the  cardinals  assembled  at  Cluny  (Feb.  2, 
1119),  Henry  had  reason  to  fear  the  accession  of  a 
second  Hildebrand.  He  made  conciliatory  over- 
tures to  the  new  pontiff,  offering  to  submit  the 
controversy  to  a  coundl  called  by  Caiixtus,  and 
approved  an  agreement  with  the  papal  represent- 
atives by  which,  in  return  for  the  revocation  of  his 
excommunication,  he  surrendered  his  daims  to 
the  right  of  investiture.  But  the  agreement  proved 
impossible  of  execution,  and  soon,  in  a  great  coimdl 
held  at  Reims  (Oct.  29  and  30,  1119),  CaUxtus 
renewed  his  denial  of  the  right  and  his  excom- 
munication of  Henry  and  of  Antipope  Gregory 
VIII.  Though  the  sentence  remained  ineffective 
in  Germany,  Caiixtus  strengthened  his  authority 
in  France  during  his  stay  there,  finding  a  firm  ally 
in  Louis  the  Fat.  He  went  to  Italy  in  the  spring  of 
1120,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph,  Gregory  VIII. 
fleeing  to  Sutri.  whose  citizens  delivered  him  up  to 
his  victorious  rival  in  the  following  April.  This 
strengthened  Calixtus's  position  still  more  against 
the  emperor;  but  the  final  decision  of  the  contest 
was  brought  about  by  the  intervention  of  the 
German  princes,  assembled  at  WQrzburg  in  the 
autunm  of  1121.  They  ooimseled  Henry  to  ac- 
knowledge Caiixtus  and  the  canonically  elected 
bishops,  undertaking  in  return  to  arrange  a  peace 
with  the  Church,  and  proposing  the  convocation 
of  a  general  council,  in  which  they  promised  to 
defend  the  honor  of  the  Empire.  Caiixtus  ap- 
pointed Lambert  of  Ostia  and  two  other  cardinals 
to  conduct  the  negotiations,  which  began  at  Worms 
in  Sept.,  1122.  Arehbishop  Adalbert  of  Mainz 
continued  to  urge  the  strict  Hildebrandine  position, 
and  it  was  due  to  Lambert's  work  alone  that  the 
discussion,  instead  of  being  fruitless,  led  to  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms  (see  Concordats  and  Deumitinq 
BulLb,  I.,  S  1).  This  was  solemnly  confirmed  by 
Caiixtus  in  the  First  Lateran  Coundl, opened  on  Mar. 
18,  1123,  which  also  renewed  the  canons  against 
simony  and  clerical  marriage,  and  proclaimed  a 
**  truce  of  God  "  and  a  new  crusade.    While  the 


Oaliactafl 
Oallenberff 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


348 


plans  for  this  undertaking  were  being  made,  Calix- 
tus  died,  Dec.  13  or  14,  1124.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bzbuoobapht:  The  EpiuUjlm  el  PriviUgia  are  in  MPL, 
clxiii.;  An  Epiatola  Bpuria^  ed.  W.  Grundlach,  is  in  MOH, 
Epiai.,  iu.  (1891)  108-109.  The  Vita  by  Caxdinal  Tan- 
dulfuB  Aletrinus,  a  contemporary,  ifl  in  ASB,  May,  ▼. 
14-16,  and  in  MPL,  clxiii.  Consult:  lAber  pontificalia, 
ed.  Duchesne,  ii.  322.  376.  Paris.  1892;  H.  Witte.  For- 
§chunoM  zwr  Otachichte  det  Womuer  ConeordaU.  Gdttin- 
Sen,  1877;  M.  Maurer.  Papal  Calixl  II.,  Munich.  1889; 
F.  Gragorovius.  OeachiehU  der  Stadl  Rom,  iv.  869  sqq.. 
Stuttgart,  1890.  Eng.  transl..  iv.  390-402,  London,  1896; 
U.  Robert,  Hiatoirt  du  papa  Calixte  II.,  Paris.  1891;  idem, 
BuUaira  du  papa  Calixte  II.,  ib.  1891;  Jaffd.  Regaata,  i. 
270;  Milman,  Latin  ChriaOanitVt  iv-  130-149;  Bower. 
Popaa,  u.  456-460. 

C^llztus  nL  (Johannes  de  Struma):  Antipope 
1168-73,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  III.  (q.v.). 
After  the  peace  of  Venice,  he  maintained  himself 
for  a  while  at  Albano,  but  on  Aug.  29,  1178,  he 
made  his  submission  to  Alexander  and  was  restored 
to  the  communion  of  the  church,  being  entrusted 
with  the  government  of  Benevento.    (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblioorapht:  Jafftf.  Regeata,  ii.  429,  430;  Milman,  Latin 
Chriatianity,  iv.  431-437;  Bower,  Popea,  ii.  514-516. 

Callxtisa  nL  (Alonso  de  Borja  or  Borgia) :  Pope 
1465-68.  Bom  at  Xativa  in  Valencia  [Dec.  31, 
1378].  After  a  legal  education  he  became  bishop  of 
Valencia  in  1429  and  cardinal  in  1444.  On  Apr.  8, 
1466,  being  then  seventy-seven  years  old,  he  was 
elected  pope.  He  was  a  man  of  simple  and  blameless 
life,  but  too  weak  to  cope  with  the  disorders  of  the 
time,  some  of  which  arose  directly  from  his  own  par- 
tiality for  his  relatives.  Immediately  after  his  acces- 
sion, he  took  a  vow  to  carry  forward  a  war  against 
the  Turks  and  atone  for  the  manner  in  which  Europe 
had  looked  on  supinely  at  the  fall  of  Constantinople. 
Legates  were  sent  throughout  the  Continent  to 
preach  a  crusade  and  collect  troops  and  money. 
Money,  indeed,  came  in,  especially  through  the  help 
of  the  mendicant  orders,  in  large  sums;  but  the  old 
crusading  zeal  had  died  down  too  far  to  be  rekin- 
dled. The  tithes  which  were  required,  on  behalf 
of  the  undertaking,  from  the  clergy  of  France  and 
Germany  aroused  universal  discontent.  The  doc- 
tors of  the  University  of  Paris  and  the  clergy  of 
Bouen  appealed  in  1466  to  a  general  council  against 
the  tax,  and  a  similar  appeal  was  made  in  Germany, 
not  only  on  this  ground  but  on  that  of  the  failure 
to  observe  the  Vienna  Concordat  of  1448  in  regard 
to  the  system  of  clerical  benefices.  While  en- 
deavoring to  put  down  this  rebellious  spirit,  Calixtus 
succeeded  in  assembling  a  small  fleet  which  sailed 
(May  31,  1466)  to  help  the  Knights  of  St.  John  in 
their  dangerous  position  at  Rhodes.  The  fleet, 
under  the  command  of  the  cardinal  legate  Scarampo, 
occupied  some  small  islands  of  the  Grecian  archi- 
pelago, without  venturing  on  a  decisive  engagement. 
The  Greeks  had  not  the  courage  to  rise  in  force, 
and  the  Christian  princes  and  Italian  cities  took 
but  a  languid  interest  in  the  crusade.  It  was  a 
piece  of  luck  that  the  victory  of  the  heroic  Hunyadi 
at  Belgrade  (July  14  and  21,  1466)  averted  the 
most  pressing  peril.  The  pope  was  hindered  by 
the  consequences  of  his  hostility  to  Alfonso 
of  Naples,  after  whose  death  (June  27,  1468)  he 
refused  to  acknowledge  the  claim  of  Alfonso's 
natural  son  Fernando,  asserting  that  the  kingdom 


reverted  as  a  fief  of  the  papacy  to  himself.     This 
attitude  was  the  outcome  of  his  desire  to  advance 
his  own  nephews,   one   of   whom,   Rodrigo    (the 
future  Alexander  VI.),  he  had  made  cardinal  and 
vice-chancellor  of  the  Roman  Church  in  spite  of 
his  being  below  the  canonical  age;  another,  Pedro, 
he  had  made  duke  of  Spoleto,  destining  the  Nea- 
politan crown  for  him.      Calixtus  died,   however 
(Aug.   6,  1468),   before   his  unscrupulous   designs 
could  break  the  peace  of  Italy.     His  nephews  and 
their  Spanish  followers  left  Rome,  where,  in  alliance 
with  the  Colonna  family,  they  had  been  guilty 
of  incessant  crimes  and  violence.        (A.  Hauck.) 
Bibliography:     B.    Platina,    The   Uvea  of  the  Popea,  il 
260-257,  London,  n.d.     Consult:  A.  von  Reumont,  Gc- 
aehiehte  der  Stadt  Rom,  iii.  126  aqq.,  Berlin,  1868:   F.  Gre- 
goroviufl,  Oeachichte  der  Stadt  Rom,  vii.  146  aqq..  Stutt- 
gart. 1870.  Eng.  tranal.,  London,  1000;  Pastor,  fapea,  ii. 
317-479:  Oreighton,  Papacy,  iii.  178-201;  Milman,  Latin 
Chriatianity,  viii.  120  eqq.;  Bower.  Popea,  iii.  238-240. 

CALIXTUS,  GEORG:    The  most  influential  con- 
tinuator  of  Melanchthon's    theology  in  the    seven- 
teenth century,  spokesman  of  the  so-called   "  syn- 
cretism "  in  Germany  at  that  time;  b.  at  Medelhye 
(in  the  district  of  Tondem,  115  m.  n.n.w.  of   Ham- 
burg), Schleswig,  Dec.  14,  1586;  d.  at  Helmst&dt, 
Brunswick,   March  19,  1656.     His   father,    pastor 
at  Medelbye,  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon,  wished  to 
have  his  son  educated  in  the  same  way,  and  after 
due  preparation   sent   him  to   the  imiversity  at 
Helnist&dt,  where  like-minded  friends  of  Melanch- 
thon,  e.g.,   the  humanist  Caselius,  were   still  in 
office.     From  1603  to  1607  he  studied  philology 
and  philosophy,  then    theology,  paying    e8p>ecial 
attention  to  the  study  of  early  patristics.     From 
1609    to     1613    he    traveled    in    Germany,    Bel- 
gimn,  England,  and  France,  enlarging  his  ideas, 
and  becoming  acquainted  with  the  conditions  of 
the    Reformed    and    Roman    Catholic    churches, 
comparing  them  with  those  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
to  which   he  belonged.    Thus   he  developed   an 
irenic  tendency  which  he  retained  all  his  life.  He  was 
appcHnted  in  1614  professor  of  theology  at  Helm- 
stadt,   and   remained   there   until   his   death.     A 
memorial  tablet  on  his  house  in  the  little  city  in 
the  duchy  of  Brunswick  commemorates  the  activity 
of  this  enUghtened  mind.     His  Ufe  fell  in  the  age 
of  the  Counterreformation  and  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  when  the  hatred  of  the  confessions  toward  each 
other  had  reached  its  height.     The  main  effort  of 
this  irenic  theologian  was  inspired  by  the  idea  that 
theology  must  have  for  its  prime  object  not  bo 
much  pure  doctrine  as  Christian  life.    Thus  he 
became  the  creator  of  theological  ethics  as  a  special 
theological    discipline,    and    therein    undoubtedly 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  theology;  most 
moral  philosophers  still  follow  him  in  this  formal 
principle.    But  the  danger  was  thereby  incurred 
of  detaching  ethics  from  dogmatics  and  building 
the  former  without  the  necessary  religious  founda- 
tion.    In  the  second  place  he  endeavored  to  bring 
about  a  union  of  all  Christian  churches,  taking  the 
Apostles'  Creed  and  the  consensus  of  the  first  five 
centuries   as   a  dogmatically  and  ecclesiastically 
sufficient   norm.     He  aspired    to   a  union  of  all 
Christian    confessions.    For  this  reason   he  took 
part  in  the  Conference  of  Thorn  (see  Thobn,  Con- 


S40 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Calixtua 
OallMiberv 


F*E3UEMCE  of)  in  1645,  where,  however,  he   found 
that  the  Lutherans  would  not  work  with  him,  since 
they  felt  justifiably  that  from  his  point  of  view 
the    Reformation    lost   its   essential    importance: 
a   religious  indifferentism  would  be  the  obvious 
Bequenoe,  and  it  is  certainly  no  accident  that  during 
the  seventeenth  century  many  princes  and  prin- 
cesses left  the  Lutheran  Church  and  joined  the 
fioman    Catholic    (John    Frederick    of    Hanover, 
Christine  of  Sweden,  the  daughter  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  and  some  others).    On  the  other  hand 
the  orthodox,  not  altogether  from  combativeness, 
endeavored  to  maintain  the  religious  content  of  the 
Reformation;  this  is  their  merit  against  all  Byn- 
cretism.     Finally  Calixtus  made  himself  a  name 
in  scientific  dogmatics  by  introducing  the  analytical 
method.     After  his  death  the  syncretistic  contro- 
versies continued  till  they  lost  their  interest  through 
the  Pietistic   movement.     Among    his    numerous 
writings  those  of  most  interest  are  his  academical 
orations  OraHones  seUdce  (Helmstftdt,   1660);  his 
influential    exegetical  writings,   ExposUwnes    and 
LticubraHones  on  New  and  Old  Testament  books; 
and,  of  his  irenic  writings,  the  Judicium  de  con- 
troversiia  theolofficia  qua  inter  Lutheranos  et  Re- 
farmaios  offUantur,  et  de  mutua  partium  fratemiUUe 
atque  toterantia  propter  consensum  in  fundamentia 
(1650).    His  son  and  successor,  Friedrich  Ulrich 
Calixtus  (b.  1622;  d.   1701),  tried  to  continue  the 
work  of  hiis  father,  but  met  with  no  approval  among 
the    Lutherans.    They   rather   tried   to   supplant 
syncretism  in  the  Lutheran  Church  by  a  new  ortho- 
dox   confession,    Consensus    repetUus    fidei    vere 
Lutheranos,    But    this    confession,    which    would 
have  turned  the  Church  into  an  orthodox  school, 
was  nowhere  officially  accepted.    The  syncretistic 
controversy  remained  for  a  long  time  of  such  im- 
portance that  no  interest  was  felt  in  the  Pietistic 
principles  which  soon  sprang  up.    This  can  be  un- 
derstood only  from  the  course  of  the  syncretistic 
oontroveisies.    See  Stncrstism. 

Paul  Tschackebt. 

Bxblioorapht:  Aooount  ghould  be  taken  of  CalixtuB's 
BrieftoechBd,  ed.  E.  L.  T.  Henke,  Halle,  1883.  cf.  is- 
sues of  Jena,  1833,  Marburg,  1840.  Consult:  W.  Gass, 
G.  Calixt  und  der  Synkr^tUmiu,  Breslau,  1846;  E.  L.  T. 
Henke.  O.  Calixtua  und  •erne  Zeii,  2  vols.,  Halle,  1853- 
1856;  W.  C.  Dowding,  Oerman  Theology  during  the  Thirty 
YeoTB*  War;  Life  and  Correepondenee  of  Q.  Calixtua, 
London,  1863;  H.  Friedrich,  Oeorg  Calixtxu,  der  Unione- 
mann  det  17.  JahrhunderU,  Anklam,  1891;  ADB,  iii.  696 

■qq. 

CALLAWAY,  HEIIRT:  Church  of  England, 
missionary  bishop  of  St.  John's,  Kaffraria;  b.  at 
Lymington,  Somerset,  Jan.  17,  1817;  d.  at  Ottery 
Saint  Mary  (12  m.  e.n.e.  of  Exeter)  Mar.  26,  1890. 
In  early  life  he  was  a  Quaker,  and  after  teaching 
from  1835  to  1839,  was  successively  a  chemist's 
assistant  and  a  surgeon's  assistant.  He  then 
studied  surgery  and  was  licensed  by  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  in  1842  and  by  the  Apothe- 
caries' Society  two  years  later.  In  1852,  however, 
failing  health  obliged  him  to  sell  his  lucrative  prac- 
tise and  to  spend  a  year  in  France.  In  the  following 
3rearhe  graduated  M.D.  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  determined  to  be  a  physician,  but  his  interest 
in  m^M'ft™'  becoming  active,  he  was  ordered  deacon 


in  1854,  having  left  the  Society  of  Friends  for  the 
Church  of  England  two  years  previously,  and  went 
as  missionary  to  Africa.  He  was  first  stationed  at 
Ekukanyeni  near  Pietermaritzburg,  but  on  being 
priested  in  1855  was  made  rector  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Pietermaritzburg.  Three  years  later  he  obtained 
a  grant  of  land  beyond  the  Umkomanzi  River  and 
settled  at  Insimguze,  which  he  renamed  Spring 
Vale.  There  he  began  his  studies  of  Zulu  relig- 
ion and  customs,  but  was  recalled  to  England  in 
1873  to  be  consecrated  first  missionary  bishop  of 
St.  John's,  Kaffraria.  In  the  following  year  he 
left  England,  and  in  1876  removed  the  seat  of  the 
diocese  to  Umtata,  where  he  founded  St.  John's 
Theological  College  in  1879.  His  fragile  health, 
however,  had  already  necessitated  the  consecration 
of  Bransby  Key  as  bishop-coadjutor  in  1873,  and 
in  1886  Callaway  resigned  his  see  and  returned  to 
England  in  the  following  year,  settling  at  Ottery 
Saint  Mary,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life.  He  wrote:  Immediate  Revelation  (London, 
1841);  Memoir  of  James  Pamell  (1846);  Nursery 
TaleSf  Traditions  f  and  Histories  of  the  Zulus  (Spring 
Vale,  1868);  The  Religious  System  of  the  Amazulu 
(Natal,  1868-70);  and  Missionary  Sermons  (Lon- 
don, 1875).  He  likewise  translated  the  book  of 
Psalms  (Natal,  1871)  and  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  (1882)  into  Zulu. 

Biblxoorapht:  M.  S.  Benham,  Henry  Cattatpay,  M.D.^ 
D.D.,  -firei  Biehop  of  Kaffraria;  hie  Life-Hiatary  and 
Work,  London,  1896. 

CALLEGARI,  cfSl'l^'gd'A,  GIUSEPPE:  Cardinal 
priest;  b.  at  Venice  Nov.  4, 1841.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  1864,  and,  after  being  succes- 
sively a  teacher  and  a  parish  priest,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Treviso  in  1880,  and  two  years  later  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Padua.  He  was  created 
cardinal  priest  of  Santa  Maria  in  CJosmedin  in  1903, 
and  still  retains  his  bishopric.  He  is  likewise  a 
member  of  the  Congregations  of  Bishops  and  Reg- 
ulars, the  (Douncil,  Rites,  and  Studies. 

CALLENBERG,  cOllen-berH,  JOHANN  HEIN- 
RICH:  German  theologian;  b.  at  Molschleben 
(a  village  of  Gotha)  Jan.  12,  1694;  d.  at  Halle 
July  16,  1760.  He  was  educated  at  Halle,  where 
in  1727  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of 
philology,  becoming  full  professor  in  1735  and  being 
transferred  to  the  faculty  of  theo'ogy  four  years 
later.  His  deep  interest  in  Protestant  missions 
among  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans  of  the  East 
led  him,  in  1728,  to  found  the  Institutum  Judaicum 
for  the  education  of  missionaries.  To  this  insti- 
tution, which  lasted  imtil  1791  and  was  instrumen- 
tal in  the  conversion  of  a  large  number  of  Jews,  he 
later  attached,  at  his  own  expense,  a  press  for  the 
promotion  of  the  cause.  Europe,  as  well  as  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  was  traversed  by  his  pupils, 
for  whom  he  printed  Arabic  translations  of  por- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament,  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament,  '*  The  Imitation  of  Christ,"  and  other 
works.  His  propaganda  among  the  Mohammedans, 
however,  met  with  little  success.  His  independent 
works,  which  are  of  minor  importance,  include: 
Kurze  Anleitung  zur  jiidisch4eutschen  Sprache  (Halle, 
1733);  Berichte  von  einem  Versuch  das  judische  Volk 


CalUikir 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


S5Q 


tuT  Erkenntnisa  de$  CknsUichen  aruntleiten  (3  vols., 
172S-36);  and  De  canveraione  Muhammedanorum 
ad  Christum  expetita  ientaque  (1733). 

Bibuoorapht:  J.  M.  H.  Doering.  Dis  oOOuien  ThMloffen 
DeuUehlaruU,  i,  221  aqq.,  Neiutadt,  1831;  J.  C.  F.  Hoefer, 
NouvdU  BiograpkU  gSntroU,  vii  202.  46  yoU..  Paria, 
1851-«e. 

CALLINO  (vocation;  Lat.  voecHio,  Gk.  JU2m): 
In  dogmatic  language  as  well  as  in  the  practical 
usage  of  the  Church  that  act  of  divine  grace  {gratia 
applicatrix)  with  which  the  ardo  aalutis  (see  Obdbb 
OF  Salvation)  begins. 

The  Greek  terms  kalein,  kUtos,  kliaia  are  often 
used  both  in  the  Septuagint  and  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  sense  of  calling  (e.g.,  Matt.  ix.  13;  Acts 
iv.  18),  then  of  summoning  to  court, 

Biblical  of  inviting  to  dinner,  etc.  (e.g.,  Ill 
Usage.  Macc.v.  14;  Matt.  xxii.  4,  8;  Rev.  xix. 
9).  But  even  in  the  Old  Testament 
usage  the  Hebrew  ^xtra*  or  the  Greek  kalein  has  the 
meaning  of  calling  some  one  efifectually  for  some 
purpose  (cf.  Isa.  xlii.  6,  xlviii.  12,  xlix.  1,  li.  2), 
which  may  signify  "  to  call  into  existence  "  (Wisd. 
of  Sol.  xi.  25;  Baruch  iii.  33,  34;  cf.  Ps.  xxxiii.  9). 
From  this  point  the  solemn  usage  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment takes  its  departure.  The  call  proceeds  from 
God;  it  comes  to  man  through  the  word  of  preach- 
ing, which  is  not  the  word  of  man  but  of  God  (I  Cor. 
i.  9;  II  Pet.  i.  3;  I  Thess.  ii.  13;  II  Thess.  ii.  14). 
Inasmuch  as  the  call  comes  from  God,  it  is  a  ''holy 
calling"  (II  Tim.  i.  9),  a  "heavenly  calling" 
(Heb.  iii.  1),  a  "  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus  " 
(Phil.  iii.  14).  The  call  is  a  free  act  of  the  grace  of 
God  (Rom.  ix.  11),  in  which  the  divine  election 
and  predestination  realize  themselves  (II  Thess. 
ii.  13, 14;  II  Tim.  i.  9-10;  Rom.  viii.  30).  From  this 
it  is  clear  that  it  is  always  the  effectual  calling  that 
is  thought  of;  indeed  it  is  precisely  the  divine 
election  of  grace  which  is  made  manifest  in  the 
call.  Hence  those  who  became  Christians  were 
"  called  to  be  saints  "  (Rom.  i.  7;  I  Cor.  i.  2,  cf. 
Jude  1:  "  called  and  kept ").  That  to  which  the 
Christians  are  called,  or  that  which  constitutes  the 
content  of  the  call  is  the  blessing  of  the  New  Testar 
ment  salvation,  and  this  is  expressed  in  the  most 
diverse  terms:  to  communion  with  Christ  (I  Cor. 
i.  9);  to  salvation  (II  Thess.  ii.  14);  to  the  peace 
of  Christ  (Col.  iii.  15);  to  the  kingdom  and  glory 
of  God  (I  Thess.  ii.  12);  out  of  the  darkness  into 
a  wonderful  light  (I  Pet.  ii.  9);  to  eternal  life,  to 
his  glory  and  his  inheritance  (I  Tim.  vi.  12;  I  Pet. 
V.  10;  Heb.  ix.  15);  to  the  hope  of  his  calling  (Eph. 
i.  18,  iv.  4). 

Inasmuch  as  the  call  indicates  the  New  Testa- 
ment salvation,  it  also  procures  the  moral  change 
comprehended  in  that  blessing.  As  on  the  himian 
side  obedience  corresponds  to  the  call  (Heb.  xi.  6), 
so  we  are  called  "  not  for  uncleanness,  but  in  sanc- 
tification "  (I  Thess.  iv.  7);  the  Christian's  life 
is  to  be  holy  "  as  he  who  called  you  is  holy  "  (I  Pet. 
i.  15).  If,  therefore,  the  call  is  the  efifectual  invi- 
tation of  God  to  man,  conveyed  through  the  Word, 
for  the  kingdom  and  its  blessings,  so  that  every  one 
possessing  these  came  by  them  through  the  call, 
the  call,  on  the  other  hand,  points  beyond  itself 
to  the  realization  through  God  or  through  man:  | 


"  Faithful  is  he  that  calleth  you  who  also  will  do 
it '  (I  Thess.  v.  24)  and  "  give  the  more  diligcocr 
to  make- your  calling  and  election  sure  "  (II  Pet. 
i.  10). 

Luther's  use  of  the  expression  in  the  expoeitioQ 
of  the  third  article  of  his  Shorter  Catedusm  is 
important  for  the  history  of  the  conception.  But 
the  term  did  not  immediately  receive  on  that 
account  an  independent  place  in  dogmatics.  la 
the  older  Protestant  literature  it  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  election  and  the  Church. 
By  the  Re-  It   seems   to   have   received   a   fiim 

formerB.  place  in  dogmatics  for  the  first  time 
in  Hutter  (Compendium,  XIIL  v.  S). 
According  to  Calovius  it  opens  the  ardo  sahi£u, 
and  he  defines  it  (Systema,  x.  1)  as  an  '^  effectual 
bringing  in  to  the  Church  "  (ad  ecdesiam  efficax 
adductio),  whereas  Hollas  (Examen  iheologicum, 
III.  i.  4,  qunstio  1)  makes  it  an  offer  of  benefits 
by  Christ.  Moreover,  a  distinction  is  made  between 
the  vocaHo  generalia,  which  through  nature,  etc. 
comes  to  all  men,  and  the  vocatio  apecialis,  which 
comes  through  the  Gospel.  The  latter  may  be 
ordinaria,  i.e.,  through  the  Word,  or  extraordinaria, 
and  that  immediata  or  mediata.  The  call  is  serin 
and  efficax  (in  opposition  to  the  view  of  the  Re- 
formed), inasmuch  as  the  Spirit  regulariy  becomes 
effectual  in  the  Word.  It  is,  moreover,  universalis. 
That  many  peoples  do  without  it  is  their  own 
fault.  Then  comes  the  doubtful  contention  that 
since  Adam  all  peoples  in  one  way  or  another  have 
been  given  the  opportunity  of  hearing  the  Gospel 
(the  above  is  from  Hollas;  for  a  full  discussion  cf. 
H.  Schmid,  Die  Dogmatik  der  etMmgelisehrlutheair 
achen  Kirche,  GOtersloh,  1893,  320  sqq.). 

Dogmatically  considered,  the  doctrine  of  vocation 

is  only  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Word 

of  God  to  conversion.    Therefore,  this  conception 

will  disclose  no  new  dogmatic  knowl- 

In  Dog-     edge,  but  will  only  offer  a  confirms- 

matica.  tion  of  such  things  as  have  been 
acquired  elsewhere.  But  because  the 
Scriptures  often  apply  the  term  and  because  it  has 
through  the  catechism  gone  over  into  the  popular 
religious  consciousness,  its  right  to  a  special  treats 
ment  in  dogmatics  is  not  to  be  denied.  The  call 
takes  place  the  very  moment  a  person — be  he  a 
non-Christian  or  be  he  externally  connected  with 
Christianity — becomes  aware  that  the  heard  (or 
read)  Word  as  the  Word  of  God  efficaciously  works 
in  him  the  divine  will  unto  salvation,  and  as  there 
is  no  conceivable  moment  in  the  Christian  life 
in  which  that  revelation  of  salvation  in  the  Word 
becomes  superfluous,  the  vocation  will  be  a  con- 
tinual one  and  the  Christian  will  always  remain  a 
vocatus.  We  may,  therefore,  confine  the  conception 
to  the  opening  of  the  new  life;  but,  starting  from 
the  thought  of  the  Word  of  dod,  we  must  define 
the  call  as  that  influence  of  God  upon  man,  throu^ 
the  medimn  of  the  Word,  which  makes  the  beginning 
of  the  new  life  and  conditions  its  continuation  and 
its  completion.  The  call  brings  us  the  whole 
salvation,  as  the  passages  of  Scripture  above  dted 
show.  If  dogmaticians  as  a  rule,  in  speaking  of 
vocation,  think  only  of  the  first  influence  of  God. 
this  must  be  supplemented  by  the  fact  that  this 


361 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OalUnfl: 
Galxnet 


tenn  comprehends  within  itself  the  further  divine 
activities.  If  now  the  call  embraces  the  whole  of 
salvation  in  its  relation  to  us,  it  is  plain  that  its 
content  is  the  Gospel;  as  the  old  writers  rightly 
perceived.  But  since  "  law  "  and  Gospel  stand  in 
close  connection,  the  law  also  must  be  indirectly 
included  in  the  call.  R.  Sesberg. 

CALLING,  EARTHLY:  The  position  in  life 
occupied  by  each  individual,  and  the  duties  to- 
ward society  which  appertain  to  such  a  position. 
These  duties  are  primarily  social  rather  than  ethical, 
and  may  be  hedonistic  in  motive,  as  when  they  are 
performed  for  the  sake  of  livelihood.  The  calling 
may  be  ethicized,  however,  if  the  ends  of  the  social 
organism  be  served  expressly  for  the  glory  of  God, 
thus  transforming  the  calling  into  divine  worship. 
Since  the  calling  conditions  the  class  of  services 
rendered  to  society,  it  must  form  the  basis  of  an 
ethical  activity.  Each  function  resulting  from 
the  divinely  created  nature  of  man  may  develop 
into  a  calling,  although  the  variety  in  callings  does 
not  necessarily  imply  a  distinction  in  the  value  of 
personalities.  Nor  is  it  imethical  to  have  no  calling, 
but  only  to  desire  to  have  none,  since  those  who 
are  so  conditioned  that,  through  no  volition  of  their 
own,  they  are  without  a  calling  do  not  become  im- 
ethical for  that  reason. 

In  the  rich  development  of  Christian  ethics  in 
the  New  Testament  the  earthly  calling  is  com- 
paratively neglected,  yet,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
love  toward  one's  neighbor,  he  who  disregards 
his  duties  to  his  family,  and  toward  society  and 
the  Church,  must  be  considered  unethical.  The 
earthly  calling  is,  accordingly,  individualistic  rather 
than  universal  in  its  obligations  to  society,  and 
represents  one  of  the  forms  of  Christian  ethics. 
Wilful  neglect  of  the  calling  is  inunoral,  since  it  is 
the  only  means  of  intercommunication  in  society, 
which  would  otherwise  be  incoherent  and  dis- 
organised.  The  bodily  and  mental  gifts  of  man 
are  fruitless  unless  they  are  devoted  to  the  welfare 
of  society  through  a  definite  calling,  and  their 
neglect  is  not  only  contrary  to  nature  but  also  to 
the  will  of  God. 

The  ethical  signification  of  the  earthly  calling 
forms  an  important  chapter  of  philosophical  ethics. 
Through  itn  recognition  of  the  dignity  of  labor  and 
the  worth  of  the  individual,  Christianity  revo- 
lutionized the  ethics  of  the  pagan  world,  although 
the  full  ethical  evaluation  of  the  calling  began  only 
at  the  Reformation.  Since  God  is  served  less  by 
self-chomn  cults  than  by  the  ethical  obedience 
which  he  himself  has  commanded  (Isa.  i.  11-17; 
Hos.  vi.  6;  Matt.  ix.  13,  xii.  7),  the  believing  Chris- 
tian performs  a  true  worship  corresponding  to  his 
estate  as  a  child  of  God  in  his  faithful  performance 
of  hi*  calling.  In  a  certain  sense  the  principles  of 
the  ethical  value  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  calling 
are  merely  a  renewal  of  the  New  Testament  doctrine 
thp4  the  Christian  confirmation  of  faith  through 
love  bears  a  distinct  and  active  relation  to  society 
(I  Cor.  vii.  20-24;  Eph.  vi.  6  sqq.;  I  Pet.  ii.  12 
M|q.),  even  though  nowhere  in  the  New  Testament 
^  earthly  calling  specifically  mentioned.  The 
tistinction  of  callings  begins  in  the  family,  whence 


it  develops  successively  into  the  acquisition  and 
control  of  temporal  benefits  and  into  the  charge 
over  intellectual  and  spiritual  blessings  in  religion, 
science,  and  art,  the  culmination  being  the  con- 
stitution of  society  as  a  whole.  Yet  the  individual 
can  not  make  free  choice  of  his  own  calling,  but  is 
restricted  by  certain  social  limitations;  still,  other 
things  being  equal,  that  calling  should  be  chosen 
which  is  most  in  harmony  both  with  talents  and 
inclination.  External  conditions,  however,  fre- 
quently render  impossible  the  development  of  the 
most  gifted  talent,  yet  in  such  cases  there  is  no 
reason  for  the  formation  of  a  religious  and  moral 
personality  to  suffer  injury,  since  such  adverse 
circumstances  demand  full  and  complete  fidelity 
to  the  calling,  and  thus  strengthen  true  Christian 
piety,  instead  of  impairing  it.        (L.  Lkmme.) 

CALMET,  AUGUSTIN:  French  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  and  author;  b.  at  Mesnil-larHorgne 
(a  village  near  Commercy,  25  m.  e.  of  Bar-le-Duc) 
Feb.  26,  1672;  d.  at  Senones  (7  m.  n.e.  of  St.  Di6) 
Oct.  25,  1757.  He  was  a  Benedictine  monk  of  the 
congregation  of  St.  Vannes,  and  studied  at  the 
priory  of  Breuil,  while  he  learned  Hebrew  from 
the  Protestant  clergyman  Favre.  After  1698  he 
instructed  the  pupils  of  the  order  in  theology  and 
philosophy  at  the  abbey  of  Moyen-MouUer  in  the 
Vosges,  and  in  1704  was  appointed  subprior  at 
MUnster.  Fourteen  years  later  the  general  chapter 
of  his  order  made  him  abbot  of  St.  Leopold  at 
Nancy,  whence  he  was  transferred  in  1728  to 
Senones,  and  there  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life.  His  numerous  works  give  evidence  of 
extraordinary  reading  and  erudition,  but  lack 
critical  ability  and  insight.  His  best  writings  are 
devoted  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  accord- 
ing to  the  principles  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  To 
this  category  belongs  his  La  Sainte  Bible  en  latin 
et  en  frangais  avec  un  cammentaire  litUral  et  critique 
(23  vols.,  Paris,  1707-16),  the  French  translation 
being  that  of  Sacy  and  the  commentary  giving 
simply  a  grammatical  exegesis.  The  excursuses 
on  each  book,  dealing  with  chronology,  history, 
antiquities,  and  similar  topics,  were  the  most 
valuable  portion  of  the  work,  and  were  published 
separately  under  the  title  DiaseriaHone  qui  peuveni 
aervir  de  proUgomhiee  d  VScriture  Sainte  (3  vols., 
1720),  and  the  Tr^or  d'anttquiUe  sacriee  et  pro- 
fanes dee  commentairee  du  P.  Calmet  (13  vols., 
Amsterdam,  1722)  is  the  same  work  with  a  different 
arrangement.  The  notes  scattered  in  the  com- 
mentaries are  collected  in  alphabetical  order  in  the 
Dictionnaire  hiatoriqtie  et  critique,  chronologique, 
giographique  et  litUral  de  la  Bible  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1722,  supplement,  1728;  Eng.  transl.,  3  vols., 
London,  1732),  which  long  remained  the  quarry  for 
similar  works.  Less  important  are  the  Histoire 
sainte  de  I'Ancien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament  et  des 
Juifs  (2  vols.,  1718)  and  the  Histoire  universeUe 
sacrie  et  profane  (17  vols.,  Strasburg,  Senones,  and 
Nancy,  1735-71).  Calmet 's  works  are  now  little 
read,  with  the  exception  of  the  Histoire  eccUsias- 
tique  et  civile  de  la  Lorraine  (4  vols.,  Nancy,  1728), 
which  is  based  on  archives  and  accompanied  with 
valuable  documents.  (C.  Pfendsb.) 


OalOTina 
OalTin 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


868 


BtBUOOBAPHT:  The  autobiocraphy  ifl  oontained  in  his  Hi*- 
toin  de  Lorraine,  vol.  iv..  ut  sup.  Consult:  A.  Fang^,  Vie 
de  Calmel,  SenooM,  1762  (by  his  nephew;  contains  a 
complete  list  of  Calmet's  works);  A.  Dicot,  NoUee  frto> 
graj^iqu*  el  litUraire  eur  A.  Calm^  Nancy.  1861;  KL,  ii. 
1717-21.  New  material  is  presented  in  DocuirMnit 
inidita  eur  lee  eorreeportdaneee  de  Dam  Calmei,  ed.  P.  B. 
Guillaume.  ib.  1876. 

CALOVIUS,  cd-iyvi-vs  (KALAU),  ABRAHAM: 
Lutheran  dogmatic  theologiaa;  b.  at  Mohningen 
(62  m.  B.S.W.  of  Kdnigsberg),  Prussia,  Apr.  16, 1612; 
d.  at  Wittenberg  Feb.  25,  1686.  He  was  driven 
away  by  the  plague  from  the  first  two  schools  he 
attended,  at  Thorn  and  at  KOnigsberg,  but  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  at  home  to  such  good  purpose 
that  when  barely  fourteen  he  was  able  to  enter  the 
University  of  Kdnigsberg.  Here  he  took  his  mas- 
ter's degree  six  years  later,  and  was  at  once  taken 
into  the  philosophical  faculty.  He  lectured  on 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  while  eagerly  con- 
tinuing the  study  of  theology.  His  polemical 
activity  began  with  a  tractate  against  the  Reformed 
court  preacher  Berg  (1635).  In  1634  he  migrated 
to  the  University  of  Rostock,  of  which  he  became 
a  doctor  in  1637.  Then  he  returned  to  Kdnigsberg, 
was  made  assessor  to  the  theological 
Education  faculty,  and  resumed  his  lectures, 
and  Early  Two  years  later  he  became  adjunct 
Professorial  professor,  and  visitor  of  the  Sainland 
Activity,  district;  in  1643  he  went  to  Danzig 
as  rector  of  the  gymnasium  there 
and  pastor  of  Trinity  Church.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Thorn  Conference  of  1645,  where  he  came 
in  contact  with  Calixtus.  From  this  time  on  a 
great  part  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  polemical 
activity,  especially  against  Syncretism  (q.v.)  and 
Calvinism.  In  1650,  at  the  invitation  of  the  elector 
John  George  I.,  he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  to  be  spent.  He  began  there  as 
third  professor  and  preacher  at  the  parish  church, 
of  which  he  became  pastor  in  1652  and  general 
superintendent  of  the  district,  and  by  1660  he 
was  head  professor  and  dean  of  the  faculty.  The 
imiversity  increased  considerably  in  niunbers 
through  the  attraction  of  his  teaching,  though 
the  increase  fell  ofif  when  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg forbade  his  subjects  (1662)  to 
Calovius  go  there  for  theology  or  philosophy, 
at  Witten-  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the 
berg.  principia  Calovtana  to  the  Reformed 
teaching.  An  iron  constitution  en- 
abled him  to  work  incessantly  at  his  books  and 
lectures,  as  well  as  to  support  the  loss  of  five  wives 
and  thirteen  children  and  to  marry  again  at  the 
age  of  seventy-two.  A  complete  record  of  his 
activity  is  left  in  his  books,  since  he  nearly  always 
expanded  his  lectures  into  that  form.  His  po- 
lemical activity  was  directed  chiefly  against  the 
Syncretistic  school  of  Helmst&dt  and  its  Kdnigsberg 
aUies  Behm,  Dreier,  and  Latermann,  as  well  as 
later  against  the  Hessian  friends  of  Calixtus.  He 
had  paid  his  compliments  to  the  latter's  teaching 
even  in  his  Danzig  days,  and  in  his  Insiiiutumum 
theohgicarum  prolegomena  (2  parts,  1649-50). 
More  important  onslaughts  on  this  school  were 
Synopsie  coniroversiarum  potiarum  (1652),  with  an 
introduction   specially   directed    against   Calixtus; 


Syncretiemua  Calixtinua  (1653);  and  Harmonia 
CaHrHna-hcgretica  (1655),  in  which  he  accuses  the 
"  innovators  "  not  merely  of  tolerating  false  doe- 
trine  but  of  teaching  it  themselves,  and  proves  his 
point  by  attempting  to  show  their  "  harmony " 
with  Calvinists  and  Papists,  Anninians  and  Sodn- 
ians.  By  the  date  of  this  publication  Calo^-ius 
thought  the  time  was  ripe  for  a  step  which  he  had 
been  urging  for  four  years.  The  Consenstts  repe- 
titue  fidei  vera  LutherancB  is  imdoubtedly  in  its 
essence  the  work  of  Calovius,  in  its  first  as  well  as 
in  its  final  form.  The  purpose  of  this  new  dog- 
matic standard,  the  exclusion  of  the 
His  Contra-  Syncretists  from  the  Church  and  so 
veisial  from  the  protection  of  the  religious 
Writings,  truce,  was  not  attained;  in  fact,  after 
1655,  and  still  more  after  1669,  when 
definite  instructions  were  conveyed  to  the  Witten- 
berg theologians  to  restrain  their  polemical  ardor, 
there  is  a  noticeable  slackening  of  anti-Syncretist 
activity;  and  Calovius  turned  his  attention  rather 
to  the  Jena  school,  and  especially  to  Musseus.  In 
1682,  finally,  he  published  a  complete  account  of 
the  whole  controversy  in  his  Historia  ^yneretisHca. 
Owing  to  the  prohibition  of  polemical  publications, 
it  appeared  without  any  author's  name  or  place  of 
printing,  described  merely  as  the  work  of  *'  D.  A.  C. 
[Dr.  Abraham  Calovius],  a  distinguished  theologian." 
The  elector  John  George  III.,  who  objected  on 
political  grounds  to  such  literature,  had  all  the 
copies  bought  up,  so  that  this  edition  is  very  rare. 
A  second  edition  appeared  in  1685,  with  Calovius's 
approval  and  with  his  name  on  the  title-page.  He 
attacked  the  Roman  Catholics  in  his  Mataologia 
papistica  (1647),  and  the  Socinians  in  several  small 
works,  which  when  collected  (1684)  filled  two  folio 
volumes.  As  if  the  conflict  within  his  own  Church 
did  not  give  him  enough  to  do,  he  interposed  in 
the  controversies  of  the  Calvinists  with  his  C<m- 
HderaHo  Arminianiemi  (1655)  and  his  Theses  iheo- 
logiccB  de  Labbadismo  (1681).  His  last  work,  the 
AnH-Bahmitia  (1684),  directed  against  Jakob 
B6hme,  shows  a  failure  in  power. 

In  the  way  of  constructive  theology,  his  Sysiema 
locorum  theologicorum  (12  vols.,  1655-77)  is,  with 
the    possible   exception   of   Gerhard's,    the   most 
important  dogmatic  production  of  the  century — 
the  true  exemplar  of  what  has  been  called  Lutheran 
scholasticism.     It    takes   the   Lutheran   doctrine, 
as  it  had  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  Formula 
Concordia  and  the  Scriptural  principles,   pushed 
to  their  extreme  since  the  Regensburg  conference 
of  1601,  and  defends  it  with  unyielding  logic  and 
fimmess  against  the  intellectual  forces  of  a  new 
age.    Even    his    principal    exegetical    work,    the 
Biblia   illustrata   (4   vols.,    1672-76), 
His  Con-    has  a  polemical  bearing,  being  intended 
Btructive    to    correct    the    Annotata    of    Hugo 
Theology.   Grotius,  which  is  incorporated   in  it. 
He  accomplishes  his  task  with  great 
acuteness,  wonderful  learning,  and  more  feeling 
for  the  sense  of  Scripture  than  his  opponoit,  whose 
preference  was  for  secular  authors,  but  with  hi^ 
inevitable     dogmatic    limitations.    The     circum- 
stances of  his  life  render  it  difficult  to  pronounce 
a  summary  judgment  on  the  man  and  his  career. 


858 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oaloylu* 
Oalvin 


The  party  of  CaHxtus  naturally  hated  and  despised 
him;  but  the  fact  that  they  found  it  necessary 
to  spread  absurd  fictions  about  his  horrible  end 
shows  clearly  enough  that  nothing  could  justly 
be  said  against  his  personal  character.  In  his  own 
day  he  compelled  the  respect  and  admiration  of  a 
great  variety  of  men,  and  his  talents  have  been  fully 
recognized  by  some  who  were  far  from  agreeing 
with  him,  lUce  Buddeus,  Walch,  and  St&udlin. 
His  incessant  controversial  activity  has  left  a  mis- 
leading impression  of  him;  he  hixnself  says  of  this 
branch  of  his  work,  "  I  come  to  this  kind  of  writing 
unwilhngly   and    by    force;  my    dis- 

Estunate    position  inclines  me  rather  to  stick 
of  to   positive   doctrinal   work."     As   a 

Calovius.  theologian  he  was  a  faithful  member 
of  the  Wittenberg  school.  No  one 
has  insisted  more  on  the  necessity  of  a  Scriptural 
basis  for  all  teaching.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that 
the  defects  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy — ^its  hardness 
and  its  extremes — are  to  be  found  in  him.  Faith 
is  essentially  the  acceptance  of  the  orthodox  system; 
not  only  the  essentials  (and  they  covered  a  great 
deal  of  groimd  in  those  days),  but  every  derived 
article  must  be  accepted,  for  the  faith  is  one.  The 
standard  books  of  doctrine  are  theoretically  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Scriptures;  but  the  student  is 
required  to  accept  them  not  hypothetically  but 
categorically — ^not  in  so  far  as,  but  because,  they 
agree  with  the  Bible.  His  firm  conviction  of  the 
truth  of  his  system  gives,  however,  a  certain  dignity 
to  his  polemics;  but  his  untiring  activity  never 
reached  its  aim — he  did  not  succeed  in  raising  the 
Conaensua  repetitua  to  the  dignity  of  a  creed,  and 
a  new  era  had  dawned  before  he  went  to  his  rest. 

(Johannes  Kunze.) 

Bibuoorapht:  The  Bouroes  for  a  life  of  Calovius  are:  hiB 
own  HUtoria  •yncreft«(ica,  1682;  a  funeral  disooune  by 
his  colleague  J.  F.  Mayer,  1686;  and  C.  8.  Schurifleisoh, 
Oraiione9  paneoyriea,  pp.  71  aqq.,  Wittenberg,  1697. 
Conaiilt:  H.  Pipping,  Memoria  theologorunif  pp.  108-136, 
Leiprio,  1705;  J.  C.  Erdmann,  JjebenabMchreiimngen  .  .  . 
von  den  wUtenbergiad^en  TKeologen,  pp.  88-01,  Witten- 
berg, 1804;  A.  Tholuck,  Der  OeUt  der  luUuriachen  Theo- 
logen  WUUnbero»t  pp.  185-211,  Gotha,  1852;  E.  L.  T. 
Henke,  Oearg  Calixtut  und  aeine  Zeit,  2  vols.,  Halle,  1853- 
1856. 

CALVARY.    See  Holt  Sepulcher. 

CALVARY,  MOUNT,  ORDERS  OF:  Three  relig- 
ious orders  taking  their  name  from  the  Mount  of 
Crucifixion. 

1 .  The  CalTarists  or  Priests  of  Mt  Calvary :  An  as- 
sociation of  secular  priests  founded  by  Hubert  Char- 
pentier  at  Mt.  B^thiutun,  diocese  of  Lescar  (4  m.  n.w. 
by  w.  of  Pau),  France,  in  1633  ''in  commemoration 


of  the  sufTerings  of  Christ  and  for  the  spread  of  the 
Catholic  faith/'  five  years  later  united  with  a 
similar  association  formed  in  Paris  by  a  Capuchin 
named  Hyadnthe,  primarily  to  convert  Protestants. 
The  chief  seat  of  the  united  orders  was  Mont  Var 
l^rien,  Paris  (hence  popularly  called  CoUine  du  Cal* 
vaire).    They  perished  in  the  French  Revolution. 

2.  The  Huns  of  Mt  Calvary  (BirUdicHnes  de 
Notre-Dame  du  Calvaire) :  Founded  by  Antoinette 
d'Orl^ans  (d.  1618)  and  the  Capuchin  Joseph  de 
Clerc  de  Tremblay  in  1617  at  Poitiers,  properly 
a  branch  of  the  Order  of  Font^vraud  (q.v.).  In 
the  seventeenth  centuiy  they  had  about  twenty 
houses  which  were  destroyed  in  the  French  Revo- 
lution. Since  then  the  order  has  been  revived  and 
has  a  number  of  convents  mostly  in  western 
France. 

8.  The  Daughters  of  Mt  Calvary  {Figlie  dd 
Calvario):  Founded  at  Genoa  in  1619  by  \^rginia 
Centurione  (d.  1651),  daughter  of  the  doge  of  Genoa 
and  wife  of  Grimaldi  Bracelli,  who  undertook  the 
care  of  abandoned  children  in  a  time  of  great  dis- 
tress from  famine.  She  received  help  from  the 
Marchese  Emanuele  Brignole,  from  whom  the 
members  of  the  order  were  called  Le  atun-e  BrignoU 
in  Genoa.  They  spread  in  North  Italy,  were  given 
a  house  in  Rome  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1833,  and 
later  established  orphan  asylums  at  Rieti  and 
Viterbo.  (O.  ZOcKLBRf.) 

Bzblioobapht:  Helyot,    Ordrea  monaaUquMt   vi.  355-370; 

Heimbuoher,  Orden  und   KonffreoaHonen,  i.  107,  ii.  362, 

427.  Consult  also  A.  M.  Centurione.  Vita  di  Virginia  Cen- 

tuirione-BraeeUi,  Genoa,  1873. 

CALVERT,  JAMES:  Wesleyan  foreign  mission- 
ary; b.  at  Pickering,  25  m.  n.  by  e.  of  York,  Eng- 
land, Jan.  3,  1813;  d.  at  Torquay,  England,  Mar. 
8,  1892.  When  appointed  by  the  Wesleyan  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1838  to  go  to  Fiji  he  was  master 
of  the  printing  and  bookbinding  trades  and  had 
been  in  1837  a  student  in  the  Hoxton  Academy. 
His  industrial  training  stood  him  in  good  stead 
for  he  was  able  to  do  his  own  printing  in  Fiji  and 
issue  many  books,  among  them  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  into  the  vernacular.  He  lived 
to  see  the  complete  abandonment  of  heathenism 
by  the  Fijians,  a  result  to  which  his  heroic  labors 
contributed  largely.  From  1865  to  1872  he  waa 
supemimierary  minister  at  Bromley,  Kent,  England, 
thence  he  went  as  missionary  to  the  South  African 
diamond  fields.  He  returned  in  1881  and  settled 
at  Torquay.  In  1885  he  paid  a  visit  to  Fiji  and 
rejoiced  in  the  marvelous  change. 

B1BU00KA.PBY:  Q.  8.  Bowe,  JamtM  Calvert  cf  Fiii,  Londoa, 
1893. 


CALVIN,  JOHN. 


Childhood  (|  1). 
Student  of  Thedlosy  (f  2). 
Student  of  Law  and  the  Clamios  (I  3). 
His  Finit  Publiofttion.  Conversion  (S  4). 
Cop's  Inaugural  Address  (S  5). 
"Years  of  Wandering."     Second  Pub- 
lication (I  6). 

John  Calvin  the  Refonner,  b.  at  Noyon  (60  m. 

n.e.    of    Paris),  Picardy,   July    10,    1509;    d.   in 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  May  27,  1564,  was  the  son 

of  G^raid  Cauvin,  or  Caulvin,  of  which  Calvin  is 

II.— 23 


Publication  of  his  '*  Institutes  "  (I  7). 
First  Residence  in  Qeneva  and  in  Stras- 

burg  (ft  8). 
Rising      Fame.      Recall     to     Geneva 

(ft  9). 
Second  Residence  in  Geneva  (ft  10). 
Calvin's  Fundamental  Ideas  (ft  11). 


His  Reforms  (ft  12). 

His  Opponents  (ft  13). 

His  Ecclesiastical  Influence  (|  14). 

His  Character  (ft  16). 

His  Personal  Appearance  (ft  10). 

His  Literary  Labors  (ft  17). 


the  Latinized  form,  a  registrar  of  the  government 
of  Noyon,  solicitor  in  the  ecclesiastical  court,  fiscal 
agent  of  the  county,  secretary  of  the  bishopric,  and 
attorney  of  the  cathedral  chapter.    Calvin's  mother 


OalTin 


THE  NEW  8CUAFP-HERZOG 


3M 


was  Jeanne  Le  Franc  of  Cambrai,  noted  for  personal 

beauty  and  great  religious  fervor  and  strictness. 

Of  the  five  sons  of  his  parents  he  was  the  second, 

and  but  one  of  his  younger  brothers 

X.  ChUd-  survived  childhood.  His  mother  died 
hood.  while  he  was  still  young  and  his  father 
married  a  widow,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, who  bore  him  two  daughters.  His  father's 
position  and  ambition  for  his  sons  was  such  that 
be  secured  for  them  the  best  educational  advan- 
tages at  home,  association  with  the  children  of 
prominent  families,  and  ecclesiaatical  patronage; 
so  that  Calvin  on  May  19,  1521,  when  only  twelve 
years  of  age,  received  the  chaplaincy  attached  to 
the  altar  of  La  G^sine  in  the  cathedral  of  Noyon, 
which  gave  him  a  regular  income.  It  was  expected 
that  he  would  become  a  priest  and  so  he  was  given 
the  tonsure. 

In  1523  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  prepare  for  the 
priesthood.  He  attended  for  a  few  months  the  Col- 
lie de  la  Marche,  wherein  Mathurin  Cordier 
grounded  him  in  Latin;  next  the  College  de  Mon- 
taigu,  where  he  remained  till  the  opening  of  1528. 
The  high  grade  of  his  childish  friendships  and  of  those 
of  maturer  years  reveals  his  own  char- 
3.  Student  acter,  and  refutes  the  insinuations  his 
of         detractors    have    dared    to    whisper. 

Theology.  That  he  stood  well  with  the  eccle- 
siastics in  his  native  city  is  shown  by 
their  giving  him  on  Sept.  27, 1527,  in  addition  to 
the  chaplaincy  mentioned,  the  (nominal)  curacy 
of  Saint  Martin  de  Martheville,  eight  leagues  from 
Noyon,  which  he  exchanged  on  June  5,  1529,  for 
the  curacy  of  Pont  I'fivfique,  a  village  1  m.  w.  of  s. 
of  Noyon,  associated  with  his  ancestors,  who  were 
boatmen  on  the  Oise  (not  to  be  confoimded  with 
Pont  I'fivAque,  25  m.  e.n.e.  of  C5aen).  On  Apr.  30, 
1529,  he  resigned  his  chaplaincy  in  favor  of  his 
younger  brother,  but  resiuned  it  on  Feb.  26,  1531, 
and  held  it  till  May  4, 1534. 

As  a  student  Calvin  showed  rare  ability  and  was 
raptidly  acquiring  the  priestly  training  when  in 
1528  his  father,  who  had  fallen  out  with  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  in  Noyon,  ordered  him  to 
change  his  studies  to  law.  He  meekly  obeyed  and 
left  Paris  for  Orleans,  whose  university  was  then 
a  famous  law  center,  as  there  Pierre  Taisan  de 
I'Estoile  lectured,  and  the  next  year  went  to 
Bourges,  where  Andrea  Alciati,  a 
3.  Student  rival  of  equal  eminence,  and  more  to 
of  Law  and  Calvin's  taste,  was  the  great  attrac- 
the         tion.     In  both  universities  he  came 

Classics,  under  the  influence  of  Melchior  Wol- 
mar,  a  humanist  of  the  front  rank  and 
favorable  to  the  Reformation.  On  May  26,  1531, 
his  father  died,  and  Calvin  left  Bourges  and  returned 
to  Paris,  to  classical  study  and  the  study  of  Hebrew, 
except  that  from  the  summer  of  1532  to  that  of 
1533  he  was  again  a  student  of  law  at  Orleans  and 
there  ''  annual  representative  "  of  the  dean  of  the 
Picard  students,  another  indication  of  his  moral 
standing  and  popularity  with  the  students,  for 
students  do  not  honor  of  their  own  accord  dubious 
or  disagreeable  characters. 

In  Apr.,  1532,  he  published  in  Paris  at  his  own 
expense,  and  at  a  pecuniary  loss,  the  text  of  Seneca's 


De  CUmttUia,  with  a  commentary,  which  showed 
that  he  was  still  a  humanist  within  the  Bonum 
Church.  But  the  Reformation  was  making  head- 
way in  France  among  the  humanistic  class  to  which 
he  belonged,  and  so  must  have  often  been  a  topic 
of  his  conversation.  Step  by  step  he  24>proacfaed 
the  position  of  the  Reformers,  but  slowly,  for.  as 
he  says  himself,  in  the  partly  autobiographic  pref- 
ace to  his  commentary  on  the  P»lms 
4.  His  First  (and  it  is  about  all  that  is  known  on 
Publication,  the  subject),  he  "  was  too  obsti- 
Conversion,  nately  devoted  to  the  superstitions 
of  popery  to  be  easily  extricated  from 
so  profound  an  abyss  of  mire."  But,  some  time 
in  1533,  "God  by  a  sudden  conversion  subdued 
and  brought  [his]  mind  to  a  teachable  frame.  Hav- 
ing thus  received  some  taste  and  knowledge  of  true 
godliness,  [he]  was  immediately  inflamed  with  so 
intense  a  desire  to  make  progress  therein,  that 
although  [he]  did  not  altogether  leave  off  other 
studies,  [he]  yet  pursued  them  with  less  ardor. 
[He]  was  quite  surprised  to  find  that  before  a  year 
had  elapsed,  all  who  had  any  desire  after  purer 
doctrine  were  continually  coming  to  [him]  to  leant 
although  [he  himself]  was  as  yet  but  a  mere  novice 
and  typo." 

Among  those  with  whom  he  discussed  Reformed 
doctrine  was  his  bosom  friend  Nicolas  C6p,  and 
when  Cop  was  elected  rector  of  the  univerraty  of 
Paris  it  seemed  to  them  a  splendid  opportimity 
to  commend  the  Reformation  to  the  cultured  and 
brilUant  audience  which  would  be  gathered  in  the 
Chiurch  of  the  Mathurins  to  hear  the  inaugural  ad- 
dress. Accordingly  they  planned  it  together  and 
on  Nov.  1 , 1 533,  (k)p  ddivered  it.  He  announced  his 
theme  as  "Christian  Philosophy,"  and  proceeded 
to  speak  in  a  manner  which  greatly 
5.  Cop's  In-  amazed  his  audience.  By  "  Chris- 
augural  tian  Philosophy"  he  meant  the  Go^>d. 
Address.  The  phrase  and  the  treatment  in  the 
opening  part  of  the  address  were  derived 
from  Erasmus.  The  burden  of  it  was  on  the  rela- 
tion of  Law  and  Gospel,  and  here  Luther's  influence 
appears.  The  concluding  part  was  more  independ- 
ent, and  in  it  was  struck  that  note  of  certainty  as 
to  salvation,  which  was  to  be  a  feature  of  Calvin- 
ism. 

Perhaps  all  would  have  gone  well,  for  there  must 
have  been  many  secret  sympathizers  with  their 
views  in  the  audience,  had  Cop  not  criticized  the 
theologians  of  the  Sorbonne  as  "  sophists."    This 
infuriated  them,  and  they  stirred  up  the  govern- 
ment against  the  audacious  speaker,  and  Cop  had  to 
fly.   Calvin  also  fled,  because  his  intimacy  with  Cop 
was  known,  although  it  is  not  certain  whether  it 
was  even  suspected  that  he  had  any  share  in  the 
composition  of  the  address  as  it  is  now  certain  that 
he  had.     Being  assured  that  his  fear^ 
6.  Tears  of  of  personal  injury  were  groundless,  he 
Wandering,  ventiu^  to  return  shortly  afterward. 
Second      But  his  sympathy  with  the  Reforma- 
Publication,  tion  could  not  be  hidden,  and  so  !k 
did  not  feel  safe  in  the  city  where  sc 
many    already    had    been    imprisoned    for   theii 
faith's   sake,  and  in  Jan.,  1534,  he  went  forth  a 
wanderer,  usually  living  under  an  assumed  name. 


355 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oalvin 


These  wanderings  lasted  for  two  years  and  a  half. 
As  well  as  they  can  be  made  out  their  course  was 
this:  he  went  first  to  Angoul^me,  where  he  studied 
in  the  excellent  library  of  his  friend  Louis  du  Tillet 
and  began  his  **  Institutes  ";  next  to  N^rac  in  Apr., 
1534,  where  Marguerite  d'Angoul^me,  duchess  of 
lierry  and  sister  of  King  Francis  I.  of  France,  held 
her  court;  in  May  he  was  at  Noyon,  where  he  re- 
signed his  benefices,  and  where  he  was  for  some 
reason  imprisoned;  in  the  closing  part  of  the  year  he 
was  at  Paris  again,  and  then  it  was  he  mot  Servetus 
for  the  first  time.  Next  he  appeared  at  Orleans, 
whence  he  issued  his  second  publication,  his  Paycho- 
pannychia,  a  refutation  of  the  theory  that  the  soul 
sleeps  between  death  and  the  Last  Judgment.  In 
Dec,  1534,  he  was  at  Angoul^me,  and  thence  with 
l)u  Tillet  he  removed  to  Strasburg  to  escape  threat- 
ened persecution. 

In  Jan.,  1535,  he  was  at  Strasburg,  and  the  same 
month  at  Basel.  There  he  put  the  finishing  touches 
on  Ids  ''  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and 
issued  it  Mar.,  1536.  The  persecution  of  the  Re- 
formed in  France  was  its  immediate  occasion, 
lie  thus  speaks  of  this  famous  book  in  the  preface 
to  his  commentary  on  the  Psalms:  "  My  objects 
were,  first,  to  vindicate  my  brethren  whose  death 
was  precious  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord;  and  next 
that,  as  the  same  cruelties  might  very  soon  after 
be  exercised  against  many  unhappy  individuals, 
foreign  nations  might  be  touched  with  at  least 
some  compassion  toward  them  and 

7.  Publica-  solicitude  about  them.     When  it  was 

tion  of  his  then  published  it  was  not  the  copious 
V  Institutes."  and  labored  work  which  it  is  now, 
but  only  a  small  treatise,  containing 
a  summary  of  the  principal  truths  of  the  Christian 
religion;  and  it  was  published  with  no  other  design 
than  that  men  might  know  what  was  the  faith 
held  by  those  whom  I  saw  basely  and  wickedly 
defamed  by  those  flagitious  and  perfidious  flat- 
terers. That  my  object  was  not  to  acquire  fame 
appeared  from  this,  that  immediately  after  I  left 
Basel,  and  particularly  from  the  fact  that  nobody 
there  knew  that  I  was  the  author."  It  was  pref- 
aced by  a  letter  to  King  Francis  I.  of  France,  who 
was  an  archpersecutor  of  Protestants  in  his  king- 
dom while  cultivating  friendly  relations  with  them 
outside,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  masterpieces 
in  apologetic  literature. 

After  publishing  it  he  went  to  Ferrara  to  stay 

a  while  in  the  court  of  the  Duchess  Ren^,  wife  of 

Ercole  II.     In  May  1536  he  was  in  Aosta  and  a 

little  later  in  Paris  once  more.    There  he  met  his 

younger  brother  Antoine  and  his  half-sister  Marie, 

and  with  them  left  for  Strasburg.    The  war  then 

going  on  compelled  him  to  make  a  detour  and  so 

he  arrived  in  Geneva  in  the  latter  part  of  July, 

1536,   intending  only   to   spend   the 

8.  First     night  there.     But  Farel  (see  Farel, 

Residence  Guillaumb),   who   was   trying   with 

in  Geneva  zeal  not  always  directed  by  discretion 
and  in      to  keep  the  Genevans  whom  he  won 

Strasburg.  for  the  Reformation  at  peace  among 

themselves,   learned   of   his  presence 

and  seeing  in  the  young  scholar,  who  wanted  nothing 

so  much  as  to  be  allowed  to  pursue  his  studies  in 


quiet,  a  valuable  ally,  besought  him  to  stay  with 
him,  and  then,  as  Calvin  himsdf  says  in  the  preface 
mentioned  above,  "  finding  that  he  gained  nothing 
by  entreaties  proceeded  to  utter  an  imprecation 
that  God  would  curse  [his]  retirement  and  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  studies  which  [he]  sought  if  [he] 
should  withdraw  and  refuse  to  give  assistance 
when  the  necessity  was  so  urgent."  Calvin  felt 
as  if  "  God  had  from  heaven  laid  his  mighty  hand 
upon  [him]  to  arrest  [him]."  Unable  to  resist, 
he  laid  aside  all  his  plans  and  stepped  to  Farel's 
side.  But  the  city  could  not  brook  the  drastic 
reforms  which  the  Reformers  would  institute,  and 
so  on  Easter  Monday  (Apr.  23),  1538,  less  than 
two  years  from  his  arrival,  he  and  Farel  were 
ordered  by  th^  General  Assembly  to  leave  the  city 
within  three  days.  Calvin  went  to  Basel,  and  then 
to  Strasburg  where  on  Sept.  8,  1538,  he  became 
minister  to  the  French  refugees,  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Nicolas  aux  Gudes.  He  married  early 
in  Aug.,  1540,  Idelette  de  Bure,  widow  of  Jean 
Stordeur  of  Li^ge,  an  Anabaptist  whom  Calvin 
had  converted  to  the  pedobaptist  position.  She 
had  had  a  son  and  daughter  by  her  first  husband, 
but  they  had  died  in  infancy.  To  Calvin  she  bore 
a  son  on  July  28, 1542,  but  he  lived  only  a  few  days. 
She  herself  passed  away  on  Mar.  29,  1549,  and 
Calvin  did  not  marry  again. 

When  Calvin  went  to  Strasburg  he  thought  he 
had  done  with  Geneva.  He  was  very  poor,  and 
his  position  was  comparatively  obscure,  but  his 
abilities  soon  brought  him  into  prominence  and 
appeals  for  advice  from  friends  in  Geneva  kept 
him  in  touch  with  that  city.  He  utilised  his 
position  to  study  and  also  to  put  into  practise 
certain  reforms  he  could  not  carry  out  in  Geneva. 
And  his  fame  rapidly  spread.  He  was  asked  to 
share  in  the  cathedral  lecture  course,  next  he  was 

sent  as  delegate  of  the  city  to  the 

9.  Rising   Colloquies  of  Worms  and  Regeiisburg. 

Fame.      When    on    Mar.    18,    1539,  Cardinal 

Recall  to   Jacopo  Sadoleto  wrote  a  letter  to  the 

Geneva,     city  of  Geneva  which  was  a  plea  for 

it  to  return  to  the  Roman  obedience 
and  it  was  sent  to  Bern,  it  was  Calvin  who  was 
requested  by  the  Bern  government  to  answer, 
and  he  did  in  his  masterly  fashion.  A  change  took 
place  in  the  government  in  Geneva  and  the  friends 
of  Calvin  got  the  upper  hand.  Then  his  virtues 
and  extraordinary  powers  were  remembered,  and 
on  Sept.  21,  1540,  the  Little  Coimcil  voted  to  try 
to  induce  him  to  return.  More  and  more  the 
impression  spread  that  he  was  the  man  to  rule 
the  city.  There  was  no  intention  of  going  back 
to  Rome,  but  the  city  was  torn  by  faction  and 
contained  many  unruly  elements  which  needed  an 
inm  hand  to  hold  in  check.  On  Oct.  19  and  20 
the  Two  Hundred  and  the  General  Assembly 
formally  invited  him  to  return,  but  the  invitation 
was  unwelcome  and  he  would  give  no  decided  an- 
swer. But  when  in  Feb.,  1541,  the  impetuous 
Farel  urged  him  to  go,  he  foimd  him  as  irresistible 
as  before,  and  so  on  Sept.  13, 1541,  he  entered  again 
the  city  of  Geneva  and  took  up  the  heavy  task  of 
ordering  her  affairs  according  to  his  high  standards. 
He  came  without  illusions,  knowing  that  he  was 


OalTin 


THE   NEW   SCIIAKF-HERZOG 


356 


not  even  the  choice  of  a  majority,  that  he  had 
many  personal  enemies,  and  would  encounter  many 
difficulties;  but  he  believed  that  God  had  called 
him  and  would  sustain  him. 

He  received  an  honorable  reception  from  the 
government,  and  was  given  a  house  to  live  in,  and, 
for  salary,  five  hundred  florins,  twelve  measures 
of  wheat,  and  two  tubs  of  wine.  From  that  time 
on,  Geneva  was  his  home  and  his  parish,  his  center 
of  activity,  but  by  no  means  his  dr- 

10.  Second  cumfeience  of  influence.  Under  his  firm 
Residence  rule  the  city  assumed  a  new  aspect, 
in  Geneva.  Immorality  of  every  sort  was  sternly 

suppressed.  It  was  well  for  the  suc- 
cess of  this  system  that  Geneva  was  a  refuge  for 
the  persecuted  in  every  land.  Hollanders,  En^^h, 
Italians,  Spaniards,  and  more  particularly  French- 
men, settled  in  the  town,  and  readily  lent  their 
aid  in  maintaining  Calvin's  peculiar  methods. 
But  not  refugees  alone  came:  his  lectures  and  those 
of  Beza  attracted  many  thousands  of  students, 
and  thus  spread  their  fame  far  and  wide.  But 
incessant  study,  a  vast  correspondence,  "  the 
care  of  all  the  churches,"  his  sedentary  life — 
these  conspired  to  make  him  the  victim  of  disease, 
and  at  fifty-five  years  of  age  he  breathed  his  last. 
He  had  spent  little  on  himself,  but  given  generously 
both  in  money  and  service,  so  he  left  behind  him  only 
a  himdred  and  seventy  dollars,  but  an  incal- 
culable fortune  in  fame  and  consecrated  influence; 
and  from  him  Geneva  inherited  faith,  education, 
government,  brave  citizens,  and  pride  in  an  honored 
name. 

Calvin  based  his  system  upon  the  Apostles*  Creed, 
and  followed  its  lines.  Ethics  and  theology  were 
handled  in  the  closest  connection.  His  reforma- 
tion in  theology  was  preeminently  a  practical 
affair.  Even  the  doctrine  of  predestination  was 
developed,  not  as  a  speculation,  but  as  a  matter 
of  practical  concern.  By  the  extraordinary  em- 
phasis put  upon  it,  the  Genevans  were  taught  to 
consider  it  almost  the  comer-stone  of  the  Christian 
faith.  In  opposition  to  the  lax  views  of  sin  and 
grace  which  the  Roman  Church  inculcated,  he 
revived  the  Augustinian  doctrine  in  order  by  it  to 
conquer  Rome.  In  so  doing  he  was  one  with 
Zwingli,  CEcolampadius,  Luther,  and  Melanchthon. 
But  in  his    supralapsarian  views  he  stood  alone 

among  the  Reformers.     His  views  of 

11.  Calvin's  ecclesiastical  authority  and  discipline 
Fundamen-  are  also  important.     He  allowed  to 

tal  Ideas,  the  Church  a  greater  authority  than 
any  other  Reformer.  Here,  again, 
the  influence  of  Augustine  is  seen.  He  says, 
"  The  Church  is  our  mother  "  ("  Institutes,"  IV. 
i.  1).  Outside  of  the  Church  there  is  no  salvation. 
Her  ministry  is  divinely  constituted,  and  to  it 
believers  are  bound  to  pay  deference.  Her  au- 
thority is  absolute  in  matters  of  doctrine;  but, 
when  civil  cases  arise,  she  hands  the  offenders  over 
to  the  State  for  pimishment.  State  and  Church 
have,  therefore,  separate  and  exclusive  jurisdiction; 
yet  they  exist  side  by  side,  and  cooperate.  They 
mutually  support  each  other.  The  ideal  govern- 
ment embraced  a  democracy,  an  aristocracy,  and 
a  king  or  autocrat.    Calvin  taught  obedience  to  the 


powers  that  be.  In  this  scheme  he  had  in  mind 
the  Israelites.  He  aimed  at  a  theocracy.  He 
bowed  before  the  majesty  of  the  righteous  Judg^. 
His  fear  of  God  led  him  to  unquestioning  sub- 
mission. In  a  sense  it  was  his  very  breath;  ani 
so  in  his  system  justice  is  more  prominent  th^ 
love.  God  as  the  ruler,  rather  than  as  the  lover 
of  all  in  Christ,  was  the  object  of  his  reverence. 

In  accordance  with  his  principles  was  his  work. 
During  his  first  residence  in  Geneva  he  showed  his 
determination  to  separate  Church  and  State;  and 
therefore  he  and  his  fellow  preachers  protested 
against  the  interference  of  the  State  in  the  matter 
of  the  use  of  fonts,  of  unleavened  bread  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  in  the  celebration  of  the  chureh- 
festivals,  aa  these  were  properiy  within  the  eccle- 
siastical province.  When,  also,  he  refused  the 
Eucharist  unto  the  city,  because  of  its  immorality, 
he  asserted  for  the  Church  freedom  from  the  civil 
authority.  This  determined  stand  cost  him  tem- 
porarily his  position;  but,  when  he  resumed  his 
work  in  Creneva,  he  and  the  citizens  knew  tlut 
he  aimed  to  rule  absolutely.  The  reforms  be 
instituted  are  famous,  and  often  condemned  as 
infamous.  They  are,  however,  not  only  defensible, 
but  commendable,  if  judged  by  the  standard  of 
that  age.  We  can  not  withhold  our  admiration 
of  the  moral  courage,  the  self-forgetfulncss.  the 
stem  morality,  and  the  uncompromising  zeal  with 
which  Calvin  addressed  himself  unto  the  apparently 
hopeless  task  of  curbing  the  passions  of  the  loos^^ 

populace,  and  gaining  the  cordial  co- 

12.  His     operation  of  the  upper  classes.     Hl 

Reforms,    succeeded.     Geneva  came  to    be    rc^ 

garded  as  a  normal  school  of  religioii< 
life.  Religion  was  the  life  of  the  greater  part  o: 
the  inhabitants.  With  a  correct  insight  into  the 
necessities  of  the  case,  Calvin  declared  imme- 
diately after  his  victorious  reentry  that  he  couli 
not  take  up  work  without  a  reorganization  of  the 
Church;  viz.,  by  the  formation  of  a  church-court, 
which  should  have  full  authority  to  maintain  dis- 
cipline. On  Nov.  20,  1541,  at  a  popular  meeting, 
the  scheme  he  drew  up  was  ratified.  This  pro- 
vided for  a  consistory,  composed  of  the  pastors  of 
the  city  churches,  who  were  five  in  number,  and 
three  assistants,  and  twelve  elders — one  of  the 
latter  to  be  a  syndic  and  their  president — which 
met  every  Thursday,  and  put  imder  church-dis- 
cipline, without  respect  of  persons,  every  species 
of  evil-doers.  The  rigor  and  vigor  of  this  admin- 
istration quickly  awakened  natural  indignation, 
in  part  even  among  those  who  on  the  whole  f avoreU 
Calvin.  His  life  was  at  times  in  danger.  Some 
showed  their  terrified  contempt  for  him  by  naming 
their  dogs  after  him.  In  a  city  like  Geneva,  full  of 
refugees  of  every  description,  there  were  manr 
who  looked  upon  all  restraint  as  oppression;  others 
who  objected  to  Calvin's  measures  as  going  too 
far,  or  criticized  his  methods.  In  order  still  fur- 
ther to  increase  the  authority  of  the  church-court. 
Calvin  secured  (1555)  an  important  modificatioa 
of  the  city  government,  whereby  the  ConseH  GerUrd 
(the  '*  General  Council "),  the  highest  law-making 
body,  was  only  called  twice  a  year — ^in  Februan' 
to  elect  syndics,  and  in  November  to  fill  smoe 


857 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OalTln 


minor  offices,  and  fix  the  price  of  wine.  But 
nothing  might  be  discussed  in  this  meeting  which 
had  not  been  previously  determined  upon  in  the 
Council  of  Two  Hundred;  nor  in  the  latter  which 
the  Council  of  Sixty  did  not  approve  of;  nor  could 
this  council  take  up  anything  not  previously 
agreed  to  in  the  highest  council,  which  thus  prac- 
tically governed  the  State.  The  General  Council 
became  in  this  way  a  superfluity,  without  the  power 
of  initiative.  It  had,  however,  accomplished  its 
mission — accepted  the  Reformation. 

Most  prominent  among  the  means  Calvin  used 
to  reform  the  city  was  preaching.  Every  other 
week  he  preached  every  day  in  plain,  direct,  con- 
vincing fashion,  without  eloquence,  but  still  irre- 
sistibly; and  the  life  that  the  preacher  led  con- 
stituted his  strongest  claim  to  attention.  The 
reports  of  his  sermons  are  probably  from  notes 
made  by  his  hearers;  which  was  the  easier  done, 
because,  being  asthmatic,  he  spoke  very  slowly. 
Every  Friday  the  so-called  "  Congregation  "  was 
held,  in  which  questions  were  answered,  and  de- 
bates even  carried  on.  filinors  were  carefully  in- 
structed in  a  catechism  originally  prepared  by  Cal- 
vin in  French  and  Latin,  1545.  In  1537  he  had  issued 
a  French,  and  in  1538  a  Latin  catechism,  which 
was  a  mere  abridgment  or  syllabus  of  his  ''  Insti- 
tutes," and  was  not  in  the  form  of  question  and 
answer;  but  the  catechism  of  1545  was  in  the  usual 
form. 

Calvin  has  the  credit  of  first  introducing  con- 
gregational singing  into  the  worship  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  Geneva.  The  first  songs  were 
some  of  his  own  metrical  renderings  of  the  Psalms. 

Like  Zwin^  and  Luther,  Calvin  had  his  diffi- 
culties with  the  Anabaptists.  He  met  them  in 
public  debate  Mar.  16-17,  1537,  and  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Council  of  Two  Hundred  efifectually  dis- 
posed of  their  arguments.  So  on  Mar.  10  it 
passed  a  sentence  of  perpetual  banishment  against 
them. 

But  he  had  personal  controversies,  the  chief  of 
which  were — (1)  first  with  Pierre  Caroli,  a  French 
refugee  and  pastor  in  Lausanne,  a  religious  chame- 
leon, whose  latest  hue  was  that  of  a  stickler  for 
orthodoxy.     Calvin    was    very  indif- 

13.  His  ferent  to  the  terminology  of  theology. 
Opponents,  so  long  as  the  truth  was  expressed. 
In  discussing  the  nature  of  the  God- 
head during  his  first  residence  in  Geneva,  he  avoided 
using  the  words  *'  Trinity  "  and  "  Person,"  although 
he  had  no  particular  objection  to  them;  and  so 
they  did  not  occur  in  the  Confession  of  Faith  which 
he  drew  up,  and  to  which  the  citizens  of  Geneva 
were  compelled  to  assent;  nor  did  the  Geneva 
Church  subscribe  formally  to  the  Athanasian 
Creed.  Caroli  accused  Calvin  and  his  fellow 
divines  of  Arianism  and  Sabellianism;  and  so 
plausible  was  the  charge,  that  Calvin  was  greatly 
troubled.  However,  in  the  synod  of  1537,  held 
in  Bern,  the  Genevan  divines  fully  cleared  them- 
selves, and  Caroli  was  deposed  and  banished. 
(2)  Philibert  Berthelier,  the  son  of  a  martyr  for 
freedom,  was  forbidden  the  oonmiunion  (1553) 
by  the  consistory.  The  council  absolved  the 
ban.     Calvin  from  the  pulpit,  two  days  before  the 


September  Commimion  (one  of  the  four  yearly 
occasions),  declared  that  he  would  die  sooner  than 
give  the  Lord's  holy  things  to  one  imder  condem- 
nation for  despising  God.  Perrin,  who  was  then 
syndic  for  the  second  time,  ordered  Berthelier  to 
stay  away  from  communion,  and  so  ended  a  dis- 
pute from  which  the  enemies  of  Calvin  had  hoped 
a  great  deal.  (3)  J^r6me  Herm^  Bolsec  (q.v.), 
whose  presumption  in  denying  predestination,  and 
abusing  the  ministers  at  a  ''Congregation,"  drew 
upon  him,  not  only  Calvin's  indignant  reply  at  the 
time,  but  also  imprisonment  and  banishment  (1551). 
(4)  Sebastian  Castellio  (q.v.),  a  learned  but  arro- 
gant man,  won  Calvin's  opposition  because  of  his 
denial  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Canticles  and  of  the 
descent  of  Christ  into  hell.  (5)  But  by  far  the  most 
famous  of  all  Calvin's  opponents  was  Michael  ber- 
vetus  (q.v.),  who  seems  to  have  been  a  rather  ffip- 
pant  person.  It  is  said  he  desired  Calvin's  banish- 
ment in  order  that  he  might  be  installed  in  his 
place.  To  this  end  he  accused  Calvin  of  perfid- 
ious, tyrannical,  and  unchristian  conduct.  It  is 
no  wonder,  therefore,  that  Calvin  treated  him 
harshly.  It  is  idle  to  shield  Calvin  from  the 
charge  of  bringing  about  Servetus's  death,  although 
it  is  true  that  the  mode  adopted  (burning)  did  not 
meet  with  his  approval — he  wished  to  have  him 
beheaded;  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  easy  to  excuse 
him  on  the  ground  of  the  persecuting  spirit  of  his 
age.  The  Protestants  who  had  felt  the  persecution 
of  Rome  were  ready  to  persecute  all  who  did  not 
follow  them.  The  burning  of  Servetus  (Oct.  27, 
1553)  for  the  crime  of  heresy,  specifically  anti-* 
trinitarianism,  was  approved  by  the  Helvetic 
Chiu-ch,  and,  what  is  more  remarkable,  by  the  mild 
Melanchthon;  but  it  failed  even  then  to  win  uni- 
versal approval,  and  now  it  is  usually  considered  a 
sad,  ineffaceable  blot  upon  Calvin's  character. 
Many  who  know  nothing  else  of  either  Calvin  or 
Servetus  are  very  indignant  over  the  tragedy,  and 
apparently  reject  Calvinism  because  of  it.  We 
ought  rather  to  mourn  than  to  censure.  Servetus 
knew  the  danger  he  braved  in  coming  to  Geneva. 
He  had  as  early  as  1534  been  in  debate  with  Calvin, 
although  they  did  not  meet  personally.  On  his 
intimating  an  intention  to  visit  Geneva,  Calvin 
gave  him  fair  warning,  that,  if  he  came,  he  would 
prosecute  him  to  the  death.'  While,  therefore, 
Calvin  may  be  held  responsible  for  Servetus's  death, 
he  must  be  cleared  of  the  charges  of  having  allured 
Servetus  to  Geneva,  and  of  rejoicing  in  bJs  death 
on  personal  grounds. 

No  good  came  of  the  execution,  only  evil — 
ridicule  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  ad- 
verse criticism  from  many  friends.  It  likewise 
failed  to  check  the  antitrinitarian  heresy.  Calvin 
defended  himself,  and  Beza  aided  him;  but  no 
defense  could  excuse  the  facts.  In  1903  a  peniten- 
tial monument  was  erected  on  the  place  of  his 
burning. 

By  his  lectures  Calvin  attracted  students  from 
every  quarter.     He  often  had  as  many  as  a  thou- 

*  "Nam  si  modo  valeat  mea  auctoritas  vivum  exire  nun- 
quam  patiar  (I  shall  never  permit  him  to  depart  alive  if  my 
authority  ia  great  enough)."  Calvin  to  Farel,  Fab.  13, 1646 
(cf.  Calvin's  Letters,  Eng.  transl.,  ii.  33). 


OalTin 
Oalvinism 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


358 


sand:  therefore  his  influence  waa  constantly  spread- 
ing.   As  was  natiiral,  it  was  most  formative  in 
France,  whence  most  of  his  pupils  came,  and  to 
whose  Protestants  Calvin  was  leader 
Z4«  His  Ec-  and  spiritual   father.    But  in   other 
clesisstical  lands  he  exerted  his  power.    In  Italy- 
Influence,   he  came  to  the  aid  of  the  troubled 
duchess    of    Ferrara.     To    England 
he  sent  his  commentary  on  Isaiah,  with  a  dedication 
to  the  youthful  king,  Edward  VI.     To  Cranmer 
he  wrote  letters;  and  through  Knox  he  molded 
Scotland.     He  coimseled  the  Moravian  Brethren. 
He  helped  the  Poles  in  the  Trinitarian  controversy, 
and  likewise  the  Reformed  cause  in  Hungary.     He 
also  prepared,  in  his  way,  the  present  interest  in 
foreign   missions   by   his  unfortunate  mission   to 
Brazil  in  1555  (see  Villeoagnon,  Nicolas  Duranb 
de). 

Calvin's  relations  with  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many were  unpleasant.  He  strove  most  earnestly 
to  unite  the  different  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church.  But  unhappily  he  was  suspected  by 
many  Swiss  of  Lutheran  views  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per— ^for  this  was  the  controverted  point — and  by 
many  Germans  of  too  much  Zwinglianism;  so 
that  he  made  but  an  indifferent  mediator.  He 
had  high  hopes  of  the  Consensus  of  Ziirich  (1549), 
which  harmonized  the  Swiss  churches;  but  the 
controversy  with  the  Lutherans  was  violently 
renewed  byHesshus. 

The  common  conception  of  Calvin  is  erroneous. 
He  was  not  the  stony-hearted  tyrant,  the  relent- 
less persecutor,  the  gloomy  theologian,  the  popular 
picture  represents  him  to  have  been.  Men,  by 
a  blessed  inconsistency,  are  often  kinder  than  their 
creeds.  So,  at  all  events,  was  Calvin.  To  the 
superficial  observer  he  is  not  attractive;  but  it  is 
the  opinion  of  every  one  who  has  studied  him  that 
he  improves  upon  acquaintance.  Granted  that 
he  was  constitutionally  intolerant;  that  he  did 
draft  and  sternly  carry  out  regulations 
Z5.  Big  which  were  vexatious  and  needlessly 
Character,  severe;  that  he  knew  no  other  stand- 
point in  government,  morals,  or  the- 
ology than  his  own — he  had  qualities  which  en- 
title him  to  respect  and  admiration.  He  was 
refined,  conscientious,  pure,  faithful,  honest, 
humble,  pious.  He  attracted  men  by  the  strength 
of  his  character,  the  loftiness  of  his  aims,  and  the 
directness  of  his  efforts.  He  had  the  common 
human  affections.  He  loved  his  wife,  and  mourned 
her  death.  He  grieved  over  his  childlessness. 
He  took  delight  in  his  friends;  and  they  were 
the  noblest  in  the  Protestant  Church.  Somewhat 
of  the  forbidding  aspect  of  his  life  may  perhaps 
be  accounted  for  by  the  imnatural  life  he  was 
forced  to  lead.  He  desired  to  spend  his  days  in 
study;  whereas  he  was  forced  to  incessant,  mul- 
tifarious, and  most  prominent  labor.  Experience 
shows  there  is  no  harder  master  than  a  timid  man 
compelled  to  lead.  Again,  his  ill-health  must  be 
taken  into  account.  He  was  a  chronic  invalid. 
Such  men  are  not  apt  to  be  gentle.  The  wonder 
rather  is  that  he  showed  so  patient  a  spirit.  The 
popular  verdict  has  been  given  against  him;  but 
vox  populi  is  not  always  vox  dei.    What  Beza,  his 


biographer,  wrote  is  nearer  truth:  "Having  bem 
an  observer  of  Calvin's  life  for  sixteen  jreare.  I 
may  with  perfect  right  testify  that  we  haw  m 
this  man  a  most  beautiful  example  of  a  trulj 
Christian  life  and  death,  which  it  is  easy  to  ca- 
lumniate, but  difficult  to  imitate."  Em^  Renas 
finds  the  key  to  his  influence  in  the  fact  that  Lt 
was  '*  the  most  Christian  man  of  his  generatioo  *" 
(Studies  of  Religimu  History  and  Criticism^  New 
York,  1864  pp.  286  sqq.). 

Calvin  was  of  middle  stature,  and,  through  feeble 

health,  of  meager  and  emaciated  frame.     He  had  a 

thin,  pale,  finely  chiseled  face,  a  -^€1' 

x6.  His     formed  mouth,  a  long,  pointed  beari 

Personal    black  hair,  a  prominent  nose,  a  lofty 

Appearance,  forehead,  and  flaming  eyes.     He  wss 

modest,  plain,  and  scrupulously  nssJi 

in  dress,  orderiy  and  methodical  in  all  his  habiu. 

temperate,  and  even  abstemious,  allowing  himself 

scarcely  food  and  sleep  enough  for  vigorous  work. 

(The  famous  portrait  by  Ary  Scheffer  is  too  much 

idealized.) 

Leaving  out  of  view  his  correspondence,  the 
writings  of  Calvin  divide  themselves  into  the  theo- 
logical and  the  exegetical.  In  regard  to  the  latter 
it  suffices  now  to  say  that  they  have  never  been 
excelled,  if,  on  the  whole,  they  have  been  equaled. 
He  possessed  all  the  requisite  qualifications  for  an 
exegete — ^knowledge  of  the  original  tongues,  good 
common  sense,  and  abundant  piety.  His  expo- 
sitions are  brief,  pithy,  and  dear. 
17.  His  His  theological  writings  are  remaii- 
Literaxy  able  for  their  early  maturity  and  their 
Labors,  imvaiying  consistency.  Besides  his 
minor  writings,  we  possess  that  ma^er- 
piece  of  Protestantism,  the  "  Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion."  He  produced  at  twenty-six 
a  book  in  which  he  had  nothing  essential  to  change 
at  fifty-five.  The  repeated  enlargements  were  mere 
developments  of  its  germinal  ideas.  The  first 
edition  (Basel,  1536)  contained  519  pages,  measuring 
6i  by  4  inches,  was  divided  into  six  chapters, 
and  was  intended  merely  as  a  brief  apology  of 
the  Reformed  doctrine:  (1)  Of  law,  with  an  expo- 
sition of  the  decalogue;  (2)  Of  faith,  with  an 
exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed;  (3)  Of  prayer, 
with  an  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer;  (4)  Of 
the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per; (5)  Of  the  other  so-called  sacraments;  (6)  Of 
Christian  liberty,  church  government  and  disci- 
pline. The  French  translation  made  by  Calvin 
himself  appeared  in  Basel,  1541.  The  final  fonn 
was  given  to  the  "  Institutes  "  in  the  Latin  edition 
of  Geneva,  1559,  when  it  was  made  into  a  treatise 
of  four  books,  divided  into  a  hundred  and  four 
chapters. 

Biblioorapht:  For  a  oomprehenave  bibliography.  giriiifC 
full  details  as  to  the  sucoesaive  publications  of  Okhia. 
their  later  editions,  also  of  books  written  on  Calvin'?  IJlr 
and  theology,  consult  A.  Erichson,  BiJUiograTpkia  €»■ 
viniana,  Berlin,  1900. 

The  complete  edition  of  Calvin's  Works,  supersediax 
previous  editions,  is  Joannia  Calvini  Opera  qua  npr- 
aurU  omnia,  vol.  i.-lix.,  ed.  J.  W.  Bauxn.  £.  Cuniti,  E- 
Henss,  P.  Lobstein,  and  A.  Erichson.  The  last  w 
assisted  by  W.  Baldensperger  and  L.  Horst.  The  editKs 
was  begun  by  the  three  firsl^named,  Berlin,  186a  as' 
finished  by   Erichson  in   1900.    There  is   an  exceii^s^ 


359 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OalTiniam 


translation  of  the  oommentaries,  hit  InttikUes,  and  hia 
Tracta  rtlaHng  to  the  Reformation,  hy  H.  Beveridge,  pub- 
lished by  the  Calvin  Translation  Society,  52  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1844-nS5.  The  fullest  collection  of  Calvin's  letters 
iif  in  the  Berlin  edition.  In  1854  in  Paris  Jules  Bonnet 
published  a  collection,  and  this  has  been  translated, 
volumes  1.,  ii.,  by  D.  Constable,  Edinburgh,  1855-57; 
volumes  iu..  iv..  by  M.  R.  Gilchrist,  Philadelphia,  1858. 
The  four  volumes  are  now  published  by  the  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Publication,  Philadelphia.  The  letters  to  cor- 
respondents living  in  French-speaking  lands  are  given  in 
their  original  Latin  or  French  with  careful  and  scholarly 
annotations  by  A.  L.  Henninjard  (d.  1000)  in  the  nine 
volumes  of  his  CorreBpondance  dea  rifomuUeurt  dana  lea 
paya  de  lan^tie  frartQaiae,  1612-44*  Geneva,  1866-Q7.  The 
first  letter  of  Calvin's  is  no.  310  in  vol.  ii..  2d  ed..  1878. 

For  the  life  of  Calvin  the  original  source  is  the  sketch 
by  his  friend  and  coadjutor  Theodore  Beta,  Geneva, 
1564,  2d  ed.,  Lausanne,  1575;  edited  by  Neander,  Berlin, 
1841,  Eng.  transl.,  by  H.  Beveridge,  in  Traeta  rdtUing  to 
the  Reformation,  in  the  Calvin  Society  translation,  vol.  i., 
Edinburgh,  1844.  Much  information  comes  out  inci- 
dentally in  his  correspondence. 

Modem  lives  of  Calvin,  derived  from  independent  study 
of  the  works  and  other  sources,  which  can  be  com- 
mended are  those  by  T.  H.  Dyer.  London,  1850;  F.  Bun- 
gener,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1862-63.  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh, 
1863;  £.  St&helin,  2  vols.,  Elberfeld,  1863;  F.  W.  Kamp- 
schulte,  ed.  W.  Goets,  2  vols..  Leipeic.  1800;  P.  Schaff,  Ckria- 
Han  Church,  vii.  257-844;  E.  Doumergue,  Lausanne,  1800 
aqq.  (to  be  in  five  volumes,  of  which  the  second  appeared 
in  1002  and  the  third  in  1005,  a  life-work,  aims  at  being 
exhaustive,  is  illustrated  by  numerous  reproductions  of 
old  drawings,  plans,  pictures,  etc.,  and  hundreds  of  spe- 
cial sketches  by  H.  Armand-Delil^);  A.  M.  Fairbaim.  in 
The  Combridga  Modem  Hiatory,  vol.  ii.,  The  Reformation, 
chap,  xi.,  pp.  342-376,  New  York,  1004;  by  W.  Walker, 
in  the  Heroea  of  the  Reformation  Seriea,  New  York,  1006; 
and  by  A.  Boesert,  Paris,  1006.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  material  on  Calvin  and  French  church  his- 
tory generally  constantly  appearing  in  Paris  in  the  Bul- 
letin de  la  aoeiiU  de  Vhiatoira  du  proteatantiame  frangaia, 
under  the  editorship  of  the  learned  Nathanael  Weiss,  sec- 
retary of  the  Society. 


CALvnnsiL 


Meaning    and    Uses    of    the 

Term  (§  1). 
Fundamental  Principle  (§  2). 
Relauon  to    Other  Systems 

(§3). 
Calvinism  and   Lutheranism 

(§4). 
Soteriology  of  Calvinism  (§  5). 


of 


Consistent    Development 
Calvinism  (§  6). 

Varieties  of  Calvinism  (§7). 

Supralapsarianism  and  Infra- 
Upsarianism  (|  8). 

Postredemptionism  (|  0). 

Present  Fortunes  of  Calvin- 
ism (§  10). 


Calvinism  is   an  ambiguous  term  in  bo  far  as 
it  is  currently  employed  in  two  or  three  senses, 
closely  related  indeed,  and  passing  insensibly  into 
one  another,  but  of  varying  latitudes  of  connotation. 
Sometimes   it    designates    merely    the    individual 
teachmg    of    John   Calvin.    Sometimes  it   desig- 
nates, more  broadly,  the  doctrinal  system  confessed 
by  that  body  of  Protestant  Churches  known  his- 
torically, m  distinction  from  the  Lutheran  Churches, 
as  "  the  Reformed  Churches  "  (see  Protestantism); 
but  also  quite  commonly  called  "  the  Calvinistic 
Churches"  because  the  greatest  scien- 
z.  Meaning  tihc  exposition  of  their  faith  in  the 
and  Uses  of  Reformation    age,    and    perhaps    the 
the  Term,   most  influential  of  any  age,  was  given 
by  John  Calvm.    Sometimes  it  desig- 
nates, more  broadly  still,  the  entire  body  of  con- 
ceptions, theological,  ethical,  philosophical,  social, 
political,  which,  under  the  influence  of  the  master 
mind  of  John  Calvin,  raised  itself  to  dominance  in 
the  Protestant  lands  of  the  post^Reformation  age, 
and  has  left  a  permanent  mark  not  only  upon  the 


thought  of  mankind,  but  upon  the  life-history  of 
men,  the  social  order  of  civiUzed  peoples,  and  even 
the  political  organization  of  States.  In  the  present 
article,  the  term  will  be  taken,  for  obvious  reasons, 
in  the  second  of  these  senses.  Fortunately  this 
is  also  its  central  sense;  and  there  is  little  danger 
that  its  other  connotations  w  1  fall  out  of  mind 
while  attention  is  concentrated  upon  this. 

On  the  one  hand,  John  Calvin,  though  always 
looked  upon  by  the  Reformed  Churches  as  an 
exponent  rather  than  as  the  creator  of  their 
doctrinal  system,  has  nevertheless  been  both  rev- 
erenced as  one  of  their  founders,  and  deferred 
to  as  that  particular  one  of  their  founders  to 
whose  formative  hand  and  systematizing  talent 
their  doctrinal  system  has  perhaps  owed  most. 
In  any  exposition  of  the  Reformed  theology,  there- 
fore, the  teaching  of  John  Calvin  must  always  take 
a  high,  and,  indeed,  determinative  place.  On 
the  other  hand,  although  Calvinism  has  dug  a  chan- 
nel through  which  not  merely  flows  a  stream  of 
theological  thought,  but  also  surges  a  great  wave 
of  human  life — filling  the  h  rt  with  fresh  ideals 
and  conceptions  which  have  revolutionized  the 
conditions  of  existence — ^yet  its  fountain-head  lies 
in  its  theological  system;  or  rather,  to  be  perfectly 
exact,  one  step  behind  even  that,  in  its  religious 
consciousness.  For  the  roots  of  Calvinism  are 
planted  in  a  specific  religious  attitude,  out  of  which 
is  unfolded  first  a  particular  theology,  from  which 
springs  on  the  one  hand  a  special  church  organi- 
zation, and  on  the  other  a  social  order,  involving 
a  given  political  arrangement.  The  whole  out- 
working of  Calvinism  in  life  is  thus  but  the  efflo- 
rescence of  its  fundamental  religious  consciousness, 
which  finds  its  scientific  statement  in  its  theo- 
logical system. 

The  exact  formulation  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Calvinism  has  indeed  taxed  the  acumen 
of  a  long  series  of  thinkers  for  the  last  hundred 
years  (e.g.,  Ullmann,  Semisch,  Hagenbach,  Ebrard, 
Herzog,  Schweizer,  Baur,  Schneckenburger,  Guder, 
Schenkel,  SchOberlein,  Stahl,  Hundeshagen;  for 
a  discussion  of  the  several  views  cf.  H.  Voigt, 
FundamerUaldogmatik,  Gotha,  1874,  pp.  397-180; 
W.  Hastie,  The  Theology  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  its  Fundamentcd  Principles^  Edinburgh,  1904, 
pp.  129-177).  Perhaps  the  simplest  statement  of 
it  is  the  best:  that  it  lies  in  a  profound  apprehen- 
sion of  God  in  his  majesty,  with  the  inevitably 
accompanying  poignant  realization  of  the  exact 
nature  of  the  relation  sustained  to  him  by  the 
creature  as  such,  and  particularly  by  the  sinful 
creature.  He  who  believes  in  God  without  reserve, 
and  is  determined  that  God  shall  be 

a.  Funda-  God  to  him  in  all  his  thinking,  feeling, 
mental     willing — ^in  the  entire  compass  of  his 

Principle,  life-activities,  intellectual,  moral,  spir- 
itual, throughout  all  his  individual, 
social,  religious  relations — is,  by  the  for'^  of  that 
strictest  of  all  logic  which  presides  over  the  out- 
working of  principles  into  thought  and  life,  by  the 
very  necessity  of  the  case,  a  Calvinist.  In  Cal- 
vinism, then,  objectively  speaking,  theism  comes 
to  its  rights;  subjectively  speaking,  the  religious 
relation  attains  its  purity;  soteriologically  speak- 


OalTinism 


THE  NEW  SCHAi'F-HERZOG 


860 


ing,  evangelical  religion  finds  at  length  its  full 
expression  and  its  secure  stability.  Theism  comes 
to  its  rights  only  in  a  teleological  conception  of  the 
universe,  which  perceives  in  the  entire  oounie  of 
events  the  orderly  outworking  of  the  plan  of  God, 
who  is  the  author,  preserver,  and  governor  of  all 
thing?,  whose  will  is  consequently  the  ultimate 
cause  of  all.  The  reUgious  relation  attains  its 
purity  only  when  an  attitude  of  absolute  depend- 
ence on  God  is  not  merely  temporarily  assumed 
in  the  act,  say,  of  prayer,  but  is  sustained  through 
all  the  activities  of  life,  intellectual,  emotional, 
executive.  And  evangelical  religion  reaches  sta^ 
bility  only  when  the  sinful  soul  rests  in  humble, 
self-emptying  trust  purely  on  the  God  of  grace  as 
the  immediate  and  sole  source  of  all  the  efficiency, 
which  enters  into  its  salvation.  And  these  thing? 
are  the  formative  principles  of  Calvinism. 

The  difference  between  Calvinism  and  other 
forms  of  theistic  thought,  religious  experience, 
evangelical  theology  is  a  difference  not  of  kind 
but  of  degree.  Calvinism  is  not  a  specific  variety 
of  theism,  religion,  evangelicalism,  set  over  against 
other  specific  varieties,  which  along  with  it  con- 
stitute these  several  genera,  and  which  possess 
equal  rights  of  existence  with  it  and  make  similar 
claims  to  perfection,  each  after  its  own  kind.  It 
differs  from  them  not  as  one  species 
3.  Relation  differs  from  other  species;  but  as  a 
to  Other  perfectly  developed  representative  dif- 
Syitems.  fers  from  an  imperfectly  developed 
representative  of  the  same  species. 
There  are  not  many  kinds  of  theism,  religion, 
evangelicalism,  among  which  men  are  at  liberty  to 
choose  to  suit  at  will  their  individual  taste  or 
meet  their  special  need,  all  of  which  may  be  pre- 
siuned  to  serve  each  its  own  specific  uses  eqiially 
worthily.  There  is  but  one  kind  of  theism,  relig- 
ion, evangelicalism;  and  the  several  constructions 
laying  claim  to  these  names  differ  from  each  other 
not  as  correlative  species  of  a  broader  class,  but  as 
more  or  less  perfect,  or  more  or  less  defective,  ex- 
emplifications of  a  single  species.  Calvinism  con- 
ceives of  itself  as  simply  the  more  pure  theism, 
religion,  evangelicalism,  superseding  as  such  the 
less  pure.  It  has  no  difficulty,  therefore,  in  recog- 
nizing the  theistic  character  of  all  truly  theistic 
thought,  the  religious  note  in  all  actual  religious 
activity,  the  evangelical  quality  of  all  really  evan- 
gelical faith.  It  refuses  to  be  set  antagonistically 
over  against  any  of  these  things,  wherever  or  in 
whatever  degree  of  imperfection  they  may  be 
manifested;  it  claims  them  in  every  instance  of 
their  emergence  as  its  own,  and  essajrs  only  to 
point  out  the  way  in  which  they  may  be  given 
their  just  place  in  thought  and  life.  Whoever 
believes  in  God;  whoever  recognizes  in  the  recesses 
of  his  soul  his  utter  dependence  on  God;  whoever 
in  all  his  thought  of  salvation  hears  in  his  heart  of 
hearts  the  echo  of  the  9oli  Deo  gloria  of  the  evan- 
gelical profession — ^by  whatever  name  he  may 
call  himiself,  or  by  whatever  intellectual  puzzles 
his  logical  understanding  may  be  confused — Cal- 
vinism recognizes  as  implicitly  a  Calvinist,  and 
as  only  requiring  to  permit  these  fundamental 
principles — ^which  underlie  and  give  its  body  to 


all  true  religion — ^to  work  themselves  freely  and 
fully  out  in  thought  and  feeling  and  action,  to 
become  explicitly  a  Calvinist. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  a  great  body  of  the  scien- 
tific discussion  which,  since  Max  GObel  (Die  religiose 
EigerUhUmlichkeit  der  lutherischen  und  reformirtcn 
Kirchen,  Bonn,  1837)  first  clearly  posited  the 
problem,  has  been  carried  on  somewhat  vigorously 
with  a  view  to  determining  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  Calvinism,  has  sought  particularly  to  bring 
out  its  contrast  with  some  other  theological  tend- 
ency, commonly  with  the  sister  Protestant 
tendency  of  Lutheranism.  Undoubtedly  some- 
what different  spirits  inform  Calvim'sm  and  Lu- 
theranism. And  undoubtedly  the  distinguishing 
spirit  of  Calvinism  is  rooted  not  in  some  extraneous 
circumstance  of  its  antecedents  or  origin — ^as,  for 
example,  Zwingli's  tendency  to  intelloctualism, 
or  the  superior  humanistic  culture  and  predilec- 
tions of  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  or  the  democratic 

instincts  of  the  Swiss,  or  the  radical 
4«  Calvinism  rationalism  of  the  Reformed  leaders 
and        as    distinguished    from    the    merely 
Lutheran-  modified  traditionalism  of  the  Luther- 
ism,        ans — but  in  its  formative  principle. 

But  it  is  misleading  to  find  the  for- 
mative principle  of  either  type  of  Protestantism 
in  its  difference  from  the  other:  they  have  infi- 
nitely more  in  common  than  in  distinction.  And 
certainly  nothing  could  be  more  misleading  than 
to  represent  them  (as  is  often  done)  as  owing  their 
differences  to  their  more  pure  embodiment  respect- 
ively of  the  principle  of  predestination  and  that 
of  justification  by  faith.  The  doctrine  of  predes- 
tination is  not  the  formative  principle  of  Calvin- 
ism, the  root  from  which  it  springs.  It  is  one  of 
its  logical  consequences,  one  of  the  branches  which 
it  has  inevitably  thrown  out.  It  has  been  firmly 
embraced  and  consistently  proclaimed  by  Cal- 
vinists  because  it  is  an  implicate  of  theism,  is 
directly  given  in  the  religious  consciousness,  and  is 
an  absolutely  essential  element  in  evangelical 
religion,  without  which  its  central  truth  of  com- 
plete dependence  upon  the  free  mercy  of  a  saving 
God  can  not  be  maintained.  And  so  little  is  it  a 
peculiarity  of  the  Reformed  theology,  that  it  under- 
lay and  gave  its  form  and  power  to  the  whole 
Reformation  movement;  which  was,  as  from  the 
spiritual  point  of  view,  a  great  revival  of  religion, 
so,  from  the  doctrinal  point  of  view,  a  great  revival 
of  Augustinianism.  There  was  accordingly  no 
difference  among  the  Reformers  on  this  point: 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  and  the  compromising 
Butzer  were  no  less  jealous  for  absolute  predes- 
tination than  Zwingli  and  Calvin.  Even  Zwingli 
could  not  surpass  Luther  in  sharp  and  unqualified 
assertion  of  it:  and  it  was  not  Calvin  but  Melanch- 
thon who  gave  it  a  formal  place  in  his  primary 
scientific  statement  of  the  elements  of  the  Protes- 
tant faith  (cf.  Schaff,  Creeds,  i.  451;  E.  F.  Kari 
Mailer,  Symbolik,  Leipsic,  1896,  p.  75;  C.  J.  Nie- 
mijer,  De  Strijd  over  de  Leer  der  Predestinatie  in 
de  IX.  Eeuw,  Groningen,  1889,  p.  21;  H.  Voigt, 
FundarnenUMogmaliky  Gotha,  1874,  pp.  469-470). 
Just  as  little  can  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  be  represented  as  specifically  Lutheran.     Not 


861 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OalTlninxL 


merely  has  it  from  the  beguming  been  a  substantial 
element  in  the  Reformed  faith,  but  it  is  only  among 
the  Reformed  that  it  has  retained  or  can  retain 
its  purity,  free  from  the  tendency  to  become  a 
doctrine  of  justification  on  account  of  faith  (cf. 
E.  BOhl,  Von  der  Rechtfertigung  durch  den  Glaubenf 
Amsterdam,  1800).  Here,  too,  the  difference 
between  the  two  t3rpe8  of  Protestantism  is  one  of 
degree,  not  of  kind  (cf.  C.  P.  Krauth,  The  Con- 
servative Reformation,  Philadelphia,  1872).  Lu- 
theranism,  the  product  of  a  poignant  sense  of  sin, 
bom  from  the  throes  of  a  guilt-burdened  soul  which 
can  not  be  stilled  until  it  finds  peace  in  God's 
decree  of  justification,  is  apt  to  rest  in  this  peace;, 
while  Calvinism,  the  product  of  an  overwhelming 
vision  of  God, -bom  from  the  reflection  in  the  heart 
of  man  of  >the  majesty  of  a  God  who  will  not  give- 
his  glofy  to  another;  can  not  pause  until  it  places 
the  scheme  of  salvation  itself  in  relation  to  a  com- 
plete world-view,  in  which  it  becomes  subsidiary 
to  the  glory  of  the  Lord  God  Almighty;  Calvinism 
asks  with  Lutheranism,  indeed,  that  most  poignant 
of  all  questions,  What  shall  I  do  to  be  saved?  and 
answers  it  as  >  Lutheranism  answers  it.  But  the 
great  question  which  presses  upqn  it  is,  How  shall 
God  be  glorified?  It  is  the  contemplation  of  God- 
and  zeal  for  his  honor  which  in  it  draws  out  the 
emotions  and  absorbs  endeavor;  and  the  end  of 
human  as  of  all  other  existence,  of  salvation  as  of 
all  other  attainment,  is  to  it  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
of  all.  Full  justice  is  done  in  it  to  the  scheme  of 
redemption  and  the  experience  of  salvation,  be- 
cause full  justice  is  done  in  it  to  religion  itself  which 
underlies  these  elements  of  it.  It  begins,  it  centers, 
it  ends  with  the  vision  of  God  in  his  glory:  and 
it  sets  itself  before  all  things  to  render  to  God  his 
rights  in  every  sphere  of  life-activity. 

One  of  the  consequences  flowing  from  this  fun- 
damental attitude  of  Calvinistic  feeling  and  thought 
is  the  high  supematuralism  which  informs  alike 
its  religious  consciousness  and  its  doctrinal  con- 
struction. Calvinism  would  not  be  badly  defined, 
indeed,  as  the  tendency  which  is  determined  to  do 
justice  to  the  immediately  supernatural,  as  in  the 
first,  so  also  in  the  second  creation.  The  strength 
and  purity  of  its  belief  in  the  supernatural  Fact 
(which  is  God)  saves  it  from  all  embarrassment 
in  the  face  of  the  supernatural  act  (which  is  miracle). 
In  everything  which  enters  into  the  process  of 
redemption  it  is  impelled  by  the  force  of  its  first 
principle  to  place  the  initiative  in  God.  A  super- 
natural revelation,  in  which  God  makes  known  to 
man  his  will  and  his  purposes  of  grace;  a  super- 
natural record  of  this  revelation  in  a  supematui^ly 
given  book,  in  which  God  gives  his  revelation  per- 
manency and  extension — such    things  are  to  the 

Calvinist   almost   matters   of   course. 

5.  Soteri-  And,  above  all,  he  can  but  insist  with 

ology  of     the    utmost    strenuousness    on    the 

Calvinism,  immediate    supematuralness    of    the 

actual  work  of  redemption  itself, 
and  that  no  less  in  its  application  than  in  its  im- 
petration.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  doctrine 
of  monergistic  regeneration^-or  as  it  was  phrased 
by  the  older  theologians,  of  "  irresistible  grace  " 
or  ''effectual  calling" — is  the  hinge  of  the  Cal- 


vinistic soteriology,  and  lies  much  more  deeply 
embedded  in  the  S3r8tem  than  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination itself  which  is  popularly  looked  upon 
as  its  hall-mark.  Indeed,  the  soteriological  sig- 
nificance of  predestination  to  the  Calvinist  con- 
sists in  the  safeguard  it  affords  to  monergistic 
regeneration — to  purely  supernatural  salvation. 
What  lies  at  the  heart  of  his  soteriology  is  the- 
absolute  exclusion  of  the  creaturely  element  in 
the  initiation  of  the  saving  process,  that  so  the 
pure  grace  of  God  may  be  magnified.  Only  so 
could  he  express  his  sense  of  men's  complete  de- 
pendence as  sinners  on  the  free  mercy  of  a  saving 
God;  or  extrude  the  evil  leaven  of  Synergism  (q.v.) 
by  which,  as  he  clearly  sees,  God  is  robbed  of  his 
glory  and  man  is  encouraged  to  think  that  he  owes 
to  some  power,  some  act  of  choice,  some  initiative 
of  his  own,  his  participation  in  that  salvation  which 
is  in  reality  all  of  grace.  There  is  acoordin^y 
nothing  against  which  Calvinism  sets  its  face  with 
more  firmness  than  every  form  and  degree  of 
autosoterism.  Above  everything  else,  it  is  deter- 
mined that  God,  in  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  acting 
through  the  Holy  Spirit  whom  he  has  sent,  shall 
be  recognized  as  our  veritable  Savior.  To  it  sinful 
man  stands  in  need  not  of  inducements  or  assist- 
ance to  save  himself,  but  of  actual  saving;  and 
Jesus  Christ  has  come  not  to  advise,  or  urge,  or 
induce,  or  aid  him  to  save  himself,  but  to  save  him. 
This  is  the  root  of  Calvinistic  soteriology;  and  it  is 
because  this  deep  sense  of  himian  helplessness 
and  this  profoimd  consciousness  of  indebtedness 
for  all  that  enters  into  salvation  to  the  free  grace 
of  God  is  the  root  of  its  soteriology  that  to  it  the 
doctrine  of  election  becomes  the  cor  cordis  of  the 
Gospel.  He  who  knows  that  it  is  God  who  has 
chosen  him  and  not  he  who  has  chosen  God,  and 
that  he  owes  his  entire  salvation  in  all  its  processes 
and  in  every  one  of  its  stages  to  this  choice  of  God, 
would  be  an  ingrate  indeed  if  he  gave  not  the  glory 
of  his  salvation  solely  to  the  inexplicable  elective 
love  of  God. 

Historically   the   Reformed   theology    finds   its 
origin  in  the  reforming  movement  begun  in  Switzer- 
land under  the  leadership  of  Zwin^  (1516).     Its 
fundamental    principles    are    already    present    in 
Zwingli's  teacMng,  though  it  was  not  until  Calvin's 
profound   and  penetrating  genius  was   called   to 
their  exposition  that  they  took  their  ultimate  form 
or  received  systematic  development.     From  Swit- 
zerland Calvinism  spread  outward  to  France,  and 
along  the  Rhine  through  Germany  to  Holland, 
eastward  to  Bohemia  and  Himgary,  and  westward, 
across    the  Channel,    to   Great   Britain.     In   this 
broad  expansion  through  so  many  lands  its  voice 
was  raised  in  a  multitude  of  confessions;  and  in 
the  course  of  the  four  hundred  years  which  have 
elapsed  since   its   first   formulation,  it  has  been 
expoimded  in  a  vast  body  of  dogmatic 
6.  Consist-  treatises.     Its  development  has  nat- 
ent  Devel-  urally  been  much  richer  and  far  more 
opment  of  many-sided   than  that  of  the  sister 
Calvinism,  system  of   Lutheranism    in  its  more 
confined   and   homogeneous   environ- 
ment; and  yet  it  has  retained  its  distinctive  char- 
acter  and  preserved  its  fundamental  features  with 


OalTliilsm 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


362 


marvelous  oonsistencj  throughout  its  entire  his- 
tory. It  may  be  possible  to  distinguish  among 
the  Reformed  confessions,  between  those  which 
bear  more  and  those  which  bear  less  strongly  the 
stamp  of  Calvin's  personal  influence;  and  they  part 
into  two  broad  classes,  according  as  they  were 
composed  before  or  after  the  Arminian  defection 
(c.  1618)  demanded  sharper  definitions  on  the 
points  of  controversy  raised  by  that  movement 
(see  Arminius,  Jacobus,  and  Arminianibm;  Re- 
monbtrantb).  a  few  of  them  written  on  Ger- 
man soil  also  bear  traces  of  the  influence  of 
Lutheran  conceptions.  And,  of  coursCi  no  more 
among  the  Reformed  than  elsewhere  have  all  the 
professed  expounders  of  the  system  of  doctrine 
been  true  to  the  faith  they  professed  to  expound. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  precisely  the  same  system 
of  truth  which  is  embodied  in  all  the  great 
historic  Reformed  confessions;  it  matters  not 
whether  the  document  emanates  from  Zurich  or 
Bern  or  Basel  or  Geneva,  whether  it  sums  up  the 
Swiss  development  as  in  the  Second  Helvetic  Con- 
fession, or  publishes  the  faith  of  the  National 
Reformed  Churches  of  France,  or  Scotland,  or 
Holland,  or  the  Palatinate,  or  Hungary,  Poland, 
Bohemia,  or  England;  or  republishes  the  estab- 
lished Reformed  doctrine  in  opposition  to  new 
contradictions,  as  in  the  Canons  of  Dort  (in  which 
the  entire  Reformed  world  concurred),  or  the 
Westminster  Confession  (to  which  the  whole  of 
Puritan  Britain  gave  its  assent),  or  the  Swiss  Form 
of  Consent  (which  represents  the  mature  judgment 
of  Switzerland  upon  the  recently  proposed  novel- 
ties of  doctrine).  And  despite  the  inevitable  variety 
of  individual  points  of  view,  as  well  as  the  unavoid- 
able differences  in  ability,  learning,  grasp,  in  the 
multitude  of  writers  who  have  sought  to  expound 
the  Reformed  faith  through  these  four  centuries — 
and  the  grave  departures  from  that  faith  made 
here  and  there  among  them — the  great  stream  of 
Reformed  dogmatics  has  flowed  essentially  un- 
sullied, straight  from  its  origin  in  Zwingli  and  Calvin 
to  its  debouchure,  say,  in  Chalmers  and  Cunningham 
and  Crawford,  in  Hodge  and  Thomwell  and  Shedd. 
It  is  true  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  distin- 
guish two  types  of  Reformed  teaching  from  the 
beginning;  a  more  radical  type  developed  under 
the  influence  of  the  peculiar  teachings  of  Calvin, 
and  a  (so-called)  more  moderate  type,  chiefly 
propagating  itself  in  Germany,  which  exhibits 
rather  the  influence,  as  was  at  first  said  (Hofstede 
de  Groot,  Ebrard,  Heppe),  of  Melanchthon,  or,  in 
its  more  recent  statement  (Crooszen),  of  Bullinger. 
In  all  that  concerns  the  essence  of  Calvinism,  how- 
ever, there  was  no  difference  between  Bullinger 
and  Calvin,  German  and  Swiss:  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  is  no  doubt  a  catechism  and  not  a  con- 
fession, but  in  its  presuppositions  and  inculcations 
it  is  as  purely  Calvinistic  as  the  Genevan  Catechism 

or  the  catechisms  of  the  Westminster 

7.  Varieties  Assembly.     Nor  was  the  substance  of 

of  Gal-      doctrine  touched  by  the  peculiarities 

vinism.     of  method  which  marked  such  schools 

as  the  so-called  Scholastics  (showing 
themselves  already  in  Zanchius,  d.  1590,  and  cul- 
minating in  theologians  like  Alsted,  d.  1638,  and 


Voetius,  d.  1676);  or  by  the  special  modes  of 
statement  which  were  developed  by  such  schools 
as  the  so-called  Federalists  (e.g.,  Cocceius,  d.  1669, 
Burman,  d.  1679,  Wittsius,  d.  1708;  cf.  Diestel, 
Studien  zur  FederaUheologie,  in  Jakrbueher  fur 
deuUchs  Theologie,  1862,  ii.;  G.  Vos,  De  Verbands- 
leer  in  de  Gereformeerde  Theclogie,  Grand  Rapids, 
1891;  W.  Hastie,  The  Theology  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  Edinburgh,  1904,  pp.  18^210).  The 
first  serious  defection  from  the  fundamental  con- 
ceptions of  the  Reformed  system  came  with  the 
rise  of  Arminianism  in  the  early  years  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  (Arminius,  Uytenbogaert,  Episoo- 
pius,  Limborch,  Curcellieus);  and  the  Arminian 
party  was  quickly  sloughed  off  under  the  condem- 
nation of  the  whole  Reformed  worid.  The  five 
points  of  its  "  Remonstrance "  against  the  Cal- 
vinistic system  (see  Remonstrants)  were  met  by 
the  reassertion  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
absolute  predestination,  particular  redemption, 
total  depravity,  irresistible  grace,  and  the  perse- 
verance of  the  saints  (Canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort). 
The  first  important  modification  of  the  Calvinis- 
tic system  which  has  retained  a  position  within  its 
limits  was  made  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  by  the  professors  of  the  French  school  at 
Saimiur,  and  is  hence  called  Salmurianism;  other- 
wise Amyraldism,  or  hypothetical  universalism 
(Cameron,  d.  1625,  Amyraut,  d.  1664,  Placieus, 
d.  1655,  Testardus,  d.  c.  1650;  see  Amtraut,  MoIbe). 
This  modification  also  received  the  condemnation 
of  the  contemporary  Reformed  world,  which  reas- 
serted with  emphasis  the  importance  of  the  doc- 
trine that  Christ  actually  saves  by  his  spirit  all  for 
whom  he  offers  the  sacrifice  of  his  blood  (e.g., 
Westminster  Ck>nfession,  Swiss  Form  of  Consent). 
If  "  varieties  of  Calvinism  "  are  to  be  spoken  of 
with  reference  to  anything  more  than  details,  of 
importance  in  themselves  no  doubt,  but  of  little 
significance  for  the  systematic  development  of 
the  type  of  doctrine,  there  seem  not  more  than  three 
which  require  mention:  supralapsarianism,  infra- 
lapsariam'sm,  and  what  may  perhaps  be  called  in 
this  reference,  Postredemptionism;  all  of  which 
(as  indeed  their  very  names  import)  take  their 
start  from  a  fundamental  agreement  in  the  prin- 
ciples which  govern  the  system.  The  difference 
between  these  various  tendencies  of  thought  within 
the  limits  of  the  system  turns  on  the  place  given  by 
each  to  the  decree  of  election,  in  the  logical  order- 
ing of  the  "decrees  of  God."  The 
8.  Supra-  Supralapsarians  suppose  that  election 
lapsarian-  underlies  the  decree  of  the  fall  itself; 
ism  and  and  conceive  the  decree  of  the  fall  as 
Infralap-  a  means  for  carrying  out  the  decree 
sarianiftm.  of  election.  The  Infralapsarians,  on 
the  other  hand,  consider  that  election 
presupposes  the  decree  of  the  fall,  and  hold,  there- 
fore, that  in  electing  some  to  life  God  has  mankind 
as  a  masea  perdiHonis  in  mind.  The  extent  of  the 
difference  between  these  parties  is  often,  indeed 
usually,  grossly  exaggerated:  and  even  historians 
of  repute  are  found  representing  infralapsarianism 
as  involving,  or  at  least  permitting,  denial  that  the 
fall  has  a  place  in  the  decree  of  God  at  all:  as  if 
election  could  be  postposited  in  the  ordo  decreio- 


363 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPKDIA 


Calvinism 


rum  to  the  decree  of  the  fall,  while  it  waa  doubted 
whether  there  were  any  decree  of  the  fall;  or  as  if 
indeed  God  could  be  held  to  conceive  men,  in  his 
electing  decree,  as  fallen,  without  by  that  very  act 
fixing  the  presupposed  fall  in  his  eternal  decree. 
In  point  of  fact  there  is  and  can  be  no  difference 
among  Calvinists  as  to  the  inclusion  of  the  fall  in 
the  decree  of  God:  to  doubt  this  inclusion  is  to 
place  oneself  at  once  at  variance  with  the  fundamen- 
tal Calvinistic  principle  which  conceives  all  that 
comes  to  pass  teleologically  and  ascribes  everything 
that  actually  occurs  ultimately  to  the  will  of  God. 
Accordingly  even  the  Postredemptionists  (that 
is  to  say  the  Salmurians  or  Amyraldians)   find 

no    difficulty    at    this    point.    Their 

9.  Postre-  peculiarity  consists  in  insisting  that 

demption-  election    succeeds,    in    the    order    of 

ism.        thought,  not  merely  the  decree  of  the 

fall  but  that  of  redemption  as  well, 
taking  the  term  redemption  here  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  impetration  of  redemption  by  Christ. 
They  thus  suppose  that  in  his  electing  decree  God 
conceived  man  not  merely  as  fallen  but  as  already 
redeemed.  This  involves  a  modified  doctrine  of 
the  atonement  from  which  the  party  has  received 
the  name  of  Hypothetical  Universalism,  holding 
as  it  does  that  Christ  died  to  make  satisfaction  for 
the  sins  of  all  men  without  exception  if — if,  that 
is,  they  believe:  but  that,  foreseeing  that  none  would 
believe,  God  elected  some  to  be  granted  faith 
through  the  effectual  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
The  indifferent  standing  of  the  Postredemption- 
ists in  historical  Calvinism  is  indicated  by  the  treat- 
ment accorded  it  in  the  historical  confessions.  It 
alone  of  the  "  varieties  of  Calvinism  "  here  men- 
tioned has  been  made  the  object  of  formal  con- 
fessional condemnation;  and  it  received  condem- 
nation in  every  important  Reformed  confession 
written  after  its  development.  There  are,  it  is 
true,  no  supralapsarian  confessions:  many,  how- 
ever, leave  the  questions  which  divide  supralap- 
sarian and  infralapsarian  wholly  to  one  side  and 
thus  avoid  pronouncing  for  either;  and  none  is 
polemically  directed  against  supralapsarianism. 
On  the  other  hand,  not  only  does  no  confession 
close  the  door  to  infralapsarianism,  but  a  consid- 
erable number  explicitly  teach  infralapsarianism 
which  thus  emerges  as  the  t3rpical  form  of  Calvinism. 
That,  despite  its  confessional  condemnation,  Post- 
redemptionism  has  remained  a  recognized  form 
of  Calvinism  and  has  worked  out  a  history  for  itself 
in  the  Calvinistic  Churches  (especially  in  America) 
may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  its  advocates,  while 
departing,  in  some  important  particulars,  from 
t3rpical  Calvinism,  have  nevertheless  remained,  in 
the  main,  true  to  the  fundamental  postulates  of 
the  system.  There  is  another  variety  of  Post- 
redemptionism,  however,  of  which  this  can  scarcely 
be  said.  This  variety,  which  became  dominant 
among  the  New  England  Congregationalist  Churches 
about  the  second  third  of  the  nineteenth  oentuiy 
(e.g.,  N.  W.  Taylor,  d.  1858;  C.  G.  Finney,  d.  1875; 
E.  A.  Park,  d.  1900;  see  New  England  Theoloot), 
attempted,  much  after  the  manner  of  the  *^  Con- 
gruists  "  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  to  unite  a  Pelagian 
doctrine  of  the  will  with  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 


of  absolute  predestination.  The  result  was,  of 
course,  to  destroy  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of 
"  irresistible  grace,"  and  as  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
of  the  ''  satisfaction  of  Christ "  was  also  set  aside 
in  favor  of  the  Grotian  or  governmental  theory  of 
atonement,  little  was  left  of  Calvinism  except  the 
bare  doctrine  of  predestination.  Perhaps  it  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  this  ''improved  Calvin- 
ism "  has  crumbled  away  and  given  place  to  newer 
and  explicitly  anti-Calvinistic  constructions  of 
doctrine  (cf.  Williston  Walker,  in  AJT,  Apr.,  1906, 
pp.  204sqq.). 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  fortunes  of  Cal- 
vinism in  general  are  not  at  present  at  their  flood. 
In  America,  to  be  sure,  the  controversies  of  the 
earlier  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  compacted 
a  body  of  Calvinistic  thought  which  gives  way  but 
slowly:  and  the  influence  of  the  great  theologians 
who  adorned  the  churches  during  that  period  is 
still  felt  (especially  Charies  Hodge,  1797-1878, 
Robert  J.  Breckmridge,  1800-71,  James  H.Thom- 
weU,  1812-62,  Henry  B.  Smith,  1815-77,  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd,  1820-94,  Robert  L.  Dabney,  1820-98, 
Archibald  Alexander  Hodge,  1823-86).  And  in 
Holland  recent  years  have  seen  a  notable  revival 
of  the  Reformed  consciousness,  es- 
10.  Present  pecially  among  the  adherents  of  the 
Fortunes  Free  Churches,  which  has  been  felt  as 
of  Gal-  widely  as  Dutch  influence  extends, 
vinism.  and  which  is  at  present  represented 
in  Abraham  Kuyper  and  Herman  Ba- 
vinck,  by  a  theologian  of  genius  and  a  theologian 
of  erudition  worthy  of  the  best  Reformed  tra- 
ditions. But  it  is  probable  that  few  ''  Calvinists 
without  reserve  "  exist  at  the  moment  in  French- 
speaking  lands:  and  those  who  exist  in  lands  of 
German  speech  and  Eastern  Europe  appear  to 
owe  their  inspiration  directly  to  the  teaching  of 
KohlbrOgge.  Even  in  Scotland  there  has  been 
a  remarkable  decline  in  strictness  of  construction 
ever  since  the  days  of  William  Cunningham  and 
Thomas  J.  Crawford  (cf.  W.  Hastie,  The  Theology 
of  the  Reformed  Church,  Edinburgh,  1904,  p.  228). 
Nevertheless,  it  may  be  contended  that  the  future, 
as  the  past,  of  Christianity  itself  is  bound  up  with 
the  fortunes  of  Calvinism.  The  system  of  doctrine 
founded  on  the  idea  of  God  which  has  been  expli- 
cated by  Calvinism,  strikingly  remarks  W.  Hastie 
(Theology  as  a  Science,  Glasgow,  1899,  pp.  97-98), 
"  is  the  only  system  in  which  the  whole  onler  of  the 
world  is  brought  into  a  rational  unity  with  the 
doctrine  of  grace.  ...  It  is  only  with  such  a 
imiversal  conception  of  God,  established  in  a 
living  way,  that  we  can  face,  with  hope  of  com- 
plete conquest,  all  the  spiritual  dangers  and  terrors 
of  our  time.  .  .  .  But  it  is  deep  enough  and  large 
enough  and  divine  enough,  rightly  understood,  to 
confront  them  and  do  battle  with  them  all  in  vin- 
dication of  the  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Governor 
of  the  world,  and  of  the  Justice,  and  Love  of  the 
Divine  Personality."  See  Five  Points  op  Cal- 
vinism. Benjamin  B.  Warfikld. 
BiBUOoaAPHT:  The  Reformed  ConfeBsions  have  often  been 
ooUected;  the  fullest  collection  is  E.  F.  K.  Mailer.  Die 
Bekenntniaadiriften  der  rgformierUn  Kireht,  Leipsie,  1003. 
For  Eng.  readen  the  most  oonvenient  ia  Schaff,  CreetU, 
vol.  iii.  (vol.  i.  contains  a  history  of  oraeds).     An  older 


Oalvinisxn 
Gambridflre  Platonists 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


864 


ooUeotion  is  H.  A.  Niemeyer,  CoUecHo  ConfMtionum  in 
eccUHiB  rtformoHt  pubUcatarum,  Leipsio,  1840.  Con- 
sult also:  M.  Sohneokenburger,  Vergleiehende  DartteUung 
dea  luiheriadien  und  reformierten  Lehrbegrifft,  Stuttgart, 
1855;  G.  B.  Winer,  Comparative  DarvUUung  det  Lehrbe- 
griffB  der  verachiedenen  ehriatlicKen  Kirchenparteien^  Ber- 
lin, 1866.  Eng.  transl.,  Edinburgh,  1873;  and  the  various 
works  on  Symbolics,  especially  E.  F.  K.  Mailer,  Sym- 
Mik,  Erlangen,  1896.  Attempts  more  or  less  successful 
have  been  made  to  present  the  Reformed  system  from 
the  writings  of  its  representative  theologians.  For  e;c- 
amples  of  these  consult:  A.  Schweiser,  Die  GlaubenMlehre 
der  evanoeliech^eformierien  Kirche,  2  vols.,  Zurich.  1844- 
1847;  J.  H.  Scholten,  De  Leer  der  Ilervormde  Kerk  in  hare 
Grondbegineelen,  Leyden,  1848.  2d  ed..  1870;  H.  Heppe, 
Dm  Dogmatik  der  evanoelieeK^efarmierten  KircKe,  Elber- 
feld,  1861;  cf.  B.  de  Moor.  Commerdariue  perpeiuua  in 
Johannie  Marckii  compendium  theoUxfia  ehrieUana,  7 
vols..  Leyden,  1761. 

For  the  *'  principle  "  of  Calvinism  consult:  H.  Voigt, 
Fundomenialdoomatik,  pp.  397-480,  Gotha,  1874;  W. 
Hastie,  The  Theoloov  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  ite  Fun^ 
damental  Principlee,  Edinburgh,  1904;  cf.  Scholten  and 
Schneckenburger,  ut  sup.,  where  lists  of  the  literature  are 
given.  A  good  history  of  the  Reformed  theology  is  still 
a  desideratum.  Sketches  have  been  given  in:  W.  Gasn, 
Geachichte  der  proteetantiedien  Dogmatik^  Berlin,  1854-67; 
G.  Frank,  GeeehiehU  der  proteatanHechen  Theologie,  3  vols., 
Leipsic,  1862-75;  I.  A.  Domer,  GeechicMe  der  protea- 
tantiachen  Theoiogie,  Munich.  1867,  Eng.  transl.,  2  vols., 
Edinburgh,  1871.  Contributions  have  been  made  by: 
C.  M.  Pfaff,  Introductio  in  hiatoriam  theologiaB  literariam, 
pp.  258  sqq.,  Tftbingen,  1724;  B.  Pictet,  Theologia  chria- 
tiana,  part  iii.,  Leyden,  1733-34;  J.  Q.  Walch.  Biblio- 
theca  theologica  aelecta,  i.  211  sqq.,  Jena,  1757-68;  A.  M. 
Toplady,  Hiatoric  Proof  of  Ihe  Dodrinal  Calviniam  of  the 
Churdi  of  England,  London,  1774;  A.  Ypey  (Ijpeij), 
Beknopte  UtUrkundige  geachiedenia  der  ayatem,  godge- 
leerd  (Utrecht?),  1793-98;  A.  Schweiaer.  Die  proteatan- 
tiachen  Centraldogmen  in  ihrer  Entwicklung  innerhalb  der 
reformierten  Kirche,  Zurich,  1854;  J.  H.  Scholten.  ut  sup., 
i.  67  sqq.;  H.  Heppe,  Die  confeaaioneUe  Entwicklung  der 
altproteatantiaehen  Kirche  Deutachlanda,  Marburg,  1854; 
idem,  Dogmatik  dea  deulachen  Froteatantiamua  im  aecK' 
aehnien  Jahrhundert,  Gotha,  1857;  W.  Cunningham.  The 
Reformera  and  the  Theology  of  the  Reformation,  Edinburgh, 
1862;  idem,  Hiatorieal  Theology,  2  vols.,  ib.  1864;  J.  H. 
A.  Ebrard,  Chriatliche  Dogmatik,  i.  44,  K6nigsberg,  1863; 
J.  Walker.  The  Theology  and  Theologiana  of  Scotland,  Edin- 
burgh, 1872;  C.  Sepp,  Met  Godgeleerd  ondenoiia  in  Neder- 
land  .  .  .  /5«en/7tfeeutr,  Leyden,  1873-74;  A.Milroy,  7A« 
Church  of  Scotland,  Paat  andFreaent,  ed.  R.  H.  Story,  Lon- 
don, n.d.;  idem,  ScoUiah  Theologiana  and  Freachera,  1010- 
1638,  Edinburgh.  1891.  Consult  also  on  the  general  subject: 
A.  Kuyper,  Calviniam,  New  York,  1890  (an  admirable 
statement,  summing  up  a  series  of  brochures  in  Dutch); 
J.  A.  Froude.  Calviniam,  London,  1871,  and  in  Short 
Studiea  on  Great  Subjecta,  second  series,  ib.  1871;  J.  L. 
Girardeau.  Calviniam  and  Evangelical  Arminianiam,  CJo- 
lumbia,  1893;  B.  B.  War  field.  The  Significance  of  the 
Weatminater  Standarda  aa  a  Creed,  New  York,  1898;  E. 
W.  Smith,  The  Creed  of  Freabyteriana,  ib.  1901.  Some 
of  the  chief  Calvinistic  dogmatists  find  mention  in  the 
text;  a  list  of  the  more  important  is  given  in  Heppe  and 
Schweiser,  ut  sup.,  at  the  beginning.  The  series  may  be 
fairly  represented  by  the  following  names:  Calvin,  Ursi- 
nus,  Zanchius.  Polanus.  Alsted,  Voetius.  Burman,  Turretin, 
Heidegger,  Van  Mastircht.  The  brief  compends  of  Bu- 
canus  {Inatiiutionea  theologica,  Geneva,  1609),  WoUebius 
{Compendium  theologia,  Cambridge,  1648).  Ames  (Medulla 
theologica,  Amsterdam,  1656,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1642), 
and  Marok  {Compendium  theologia,  Amsterdam,  1706) 
present  the  system  in  briefest  form.  The  more  recent 
theologians  are  indicated  in  the  text. 

CAHALDOLITES  (called  also  Camaldolensians, 
Camaldolese,  Camaldules,  Camaldulians,  from  the 
monastery  at  Camaldoli  near  Arezzo):  A  religions 
order  springing  from  the  movement  for  monastic 
reform  which  also  gave  rise  to  the  congregations 
of  Clmiy  and  Lorraine,  with  which  it  is  aSied  in 


some  respects,  though  it  differs  from  tbem  in  others. 
The  Italian  movement  is  wholly  independent  of 
the  French,  and  began  later — ^not  before  the  close 
of  the  tenth  century,  after  the  Cluniac  monks  had 
already  reformed  numerous  monasteries  in  upper 
and  central  Jtaly.  It  was  more  enthusiastic  than 
the  French,  and  had  for  its  object  not  so  much  the 
strict  enforcement  of  the  Benedictine  rule  as  the 
commendation,  in  opposition  to  the  moral  corrup- 
tion which  was  even  deeper  in  the  south  than  in  the 
north,  of  the  severest  form  of  the  ascetic  life, 
that  of  hermits.  This  recalls  the  Greek  monastic 
originators;  and  the  fact  is  easily  explicable  bj 
the  strong  influence  ot  Greek  traditions  in  Italy, 
especially  in  the  south. 

St.  Romuald  is  the  most  prominent,  but  by  no 
means  the  only,  representative  of  this  idea.     Before 
or  with  him  were  working  for  the  same  end  the 
Armenian  hermit  Simeon,  St.  Dominic  of  Foligno, 
the  founder  of  Fonte  Avellana,   and   the   Greek 
Nilos  of  Rossano.     Romuald  was  bom  at  Ravenna, 
of  the  ducal  family  there,  about  950.     He  was 
startled  out  of  a  worldly  life  when  his  father  Ser- 
gius  killed  a  kinsman  in  a  duel  arising  out  of  a 
dispute  over  a  piece  of  property,  and  retired  to  the 
monastery  of  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe  near  Ravenna 
to  do  penance  forty  days  on  his  father's  behalf. 
His  ascetic  zeal  was  not  satisfied  here,  although  the 
monastery  had  been  reformed  not  long  before  by 
Majolus  of  Cluny.     He  began  to  live  a  hermit's 
life  near  Venice,  continued  it  in  Catalonia,  and 
then   returned   to   the   neighborhood 
SL  Romu-  of  Ravenna.     Wherever   he  went,  a 
aid.        group  of  disciples  formed  around  him; 
but  as  soon  as  they  were  sufficiently 
numerous  in  any  one  place,  he  gave  them  into  the 
charge  of  a  superior  and  left  them.     Most  of  these 
colonies  were  in  central  Italy;  the  three  most  impor- 
tant were  Val  di  Castro,  Monte  Sitrio  in  Umbria,  and 
Camaldoli,  where  he  estabUshed  a  monastery  in  1012. 
His  organization  shows  a  combination  of  the  West- 
em   cenobite  system   with  the  Eastern  anchorite 
life.     The  brothers  lived  in  single  cells,  with  an 
oratory   in    the   midst.     The   whole   P^ter   was 
recited    every  day;    the  only    written    memorial 
left  by  Romuald  was  an  exposition  of  the  Psalms, 
which,  however,  is  taken  almost  word  for  word 
from  that  of  Caasiodorus.     Meals  were  taken  in 
common,  but  they  were  exceedingly  scanty;  the 
brothers  went  barefoot  and  wore  their  hair  and 
beards  long;  the  rule  of  silence  was  strictly  ob- 
served.    They  busied  themselves  with  agriculture 
and  various  handicrafts,  those  near  the  sea  espe- 
cially with  the  making  of  baskets  and  nets.     We 
meet  for  the  first  time  in  these  hermit  colonies 
with  famuli,  the  later  lay  brothers,  who  relieved 
the   monks   of   the   more   burdensome   household 
duties.    The  rule  of  fasting  and  silence  was  not  » 
strict  for  them,  but  apparently,  as  at  Fonte  Avel- 
lana, they  had  to   take  lifelong  monastic   vows. 
This    institution  was  borrowed  by  Gualberto,  a 
disciple  of    Romuald's,  for  his  order  of    Vallom- 
brosa  and  further  developed  by  him  (see  Gual- 
berto, Giovanni).     Romuald's   activity  was  not 
confined  to  the  foimding  of  these  communities.   He 
made  a  deep  impression  upon    the   most   varieii 


365 


RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Calvinism 
Oambrldffe  PlatonUts 


classes,  and  exercised  a  great  influence  over  the 
emperor  Otto  III.,  who,  it  is  asserted  not  improb- 
ably, promised  him  to  exchange  the  crown  for  the 
cowl  after  he  had  conquered  Rome.  Though 
Romuald  disclaimed  any  intention  of  taking  part 
in  ecclesiastical  politics,  he  raised  his  voice  loudly 
in  Italy  against  simony  and  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy.  His  zeal  called  him  to  the  mission-field; 
disciples  of  his  penetrated  into  Russia  and  Poland, 
there  to  meet  death  for  their  faith,  and  the  de- 
sire of  the  martjrr's  crown  finally  took  the  aged 
hermit  himself  to  Hungary.  Ill  health  hindered 
his  work  there,  and  he  returned  to  die  in  1027. 

His  zeal  for  a  reform  of  monasticism  remained 
active  in  his  followers.  They  did  not,  however, 
emphasize  the  hermit  ideal  to  the  same  extent,  and 
the  Italian  movement  gradually  approximated  to 
that  of  Cluny.  Romuald's  spirit  was  best  followed 
in  the  community  of  Camaldoli,  which  received 
papal  oonfinnation  from  Alexander  II.  in  1072. 
Its  rule  was  first  written  in  1080  by  the  fourth 
prior,  Rudolph,  who  modified  in  some  respects  the 
extreme  strictness  of  Romuald's  prescriptions,  and 
also  founded  (1086)  the  first  convent  of  nuns  under 
this  rule,  San  Pietro  di  Luco  at  Mogello.  Camal- 
doli received  many  rich  gifts,  and  the  congregation 
spread  throughout  Italy,  without,  however,  pro- 
ducing any  very  notable  men  except  the  famous 
jurist  Gratian  (q.v.).  The  transition  from  the 
hermit  to  the  commum'ty  life  became  more  marked, 

in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Ambrose  the 

The  Camal-  Camaldolite  (q.v.)  of  Portico,  "  major  " 

dolese.      or  head  of  the  congregation  in  1431, 

supported  by  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  to  re- 
store the  old  ideals.  In  1476  the  community  of 
St.  Michael  at  Murano  near  Venice  renounced  the 
obedience  of  Camaldoli,  and  formed  a  group  of  dis- 
tinctly cenobitic  Camaldolese  houses,  oonfinnod 
as  a  congregation  by  Innocent  VIII.  In  1513 
Leo  X.  reunited  all  the  Camaldolese  monks  under 
the  headship  of  •Camaldoli,  providing  that  the  major 
should  hold  office  for  but  three  years,  and  be  chosen 
alternately  from  the  hermits  and  the  cenobites. 
But  in  1520  he  allowed  Paolo  Giustiniani  to  draw 
up  new  statutes  and  to  form  the  new  commu- 
nities of  hermits  which  he  was  to  found  into  an  in- 
dependent congregation  of  St.  Romuald.  This 
new  congregation,  which  took  its  name  from  Monte 
Corona  near  Perugia,  had  a  very  strict  rule;  it 
spread  through  Germany,  Austria,  and  Poland. 
A  fourth  congregation,  that  of  Turin,  was  founded 
in  1601  by  Alebsandro  di  Leva  (d.  1612),  to  take 
in  the  hermits  of  Piedmont.  A  branch  of  this  be- 
came practically  a  separate  congregation  on  ac- 
count of  the  pohtical  views  of  Richelieu,  who  was 
unwilling  that  the  French  hermitages  should  be 
subject  to  Italian  superiors.  By  a  brief  of  Urban 
VIII.  (1635),  its  head  was  always  to  be  a  French- 
man, and  directly  subject  to  the  pope.  From 
1642  Gros-Bois  near  Paris  was  its  mother  house. 
All  the  French  communities  perished  at  the  Revo- 
lution. The  congregation  of  Camaldoli  has  now 
six  houses,  including  Camaldoli  itself  and  one 
famous  for  its  picturesque  site  high  above  Naples. 
The  princippl  house  of  the  Murano  congregation  is 
t  San  Gregorio  in  Rome,  from  which  came  the  only 


Camaldolese  monk  who  has  occupied  the  papal 
throne,  Gregory  XVI.  (1831-46).  Outside  of  Italy 
there  is  only  the  community  of  Bielany  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Cracow,  belonging  to  the  congregation  of 
Monte  Ck>rona.  The  total  membership  of  the 
order  is  not  more  than  200.  Convents  of  nuns 
exist  only  in  Rome  and  Florence. 

(G.  GrCtzmachbr.) 

Biblxogbapht:  Petnis  Damiannn,  VUa  Romualdi  is  in  D»- 
mianiu,  Opera^  ed.  C.  CajetanuB,  iL  265  aqq.,  Rome,  1608, 
and  Af  PL,  oxUv.  063  aqq.  Another  Vita  is  in  ASB,  7th 
Feb..  ii.  124-140.  Conault:  Q.  B.  MittarelU  and  G.  D. 
Costadoni,  Annalea  Camaldulenaea,  9  vols.,  Venice,  1766- 
1773;  W.  Wattenbach.  DeutMchlandt  Ge9cKidU»queUen,  i. 
436,  BerUn.  1893;  C.  W.  Currier,  HUL  of  Relif/iauM  Ordert, 
pp.  118-123.  New  York,  1806;  P.  Helyot,  OrdvB  mona^ 
Hqtua,  vol.  v.;  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  KonongtUiontn, 
i.  203-208. 

CAMBRAI,  cOh'^bT^:  An  ancient  arohbishoprio 
in  the  north  of  France.  As  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century,  when  the  Franks  invaded 
Gaul,  Cameracum  was  an  important  town,  as  is 
evident  from  Gregory  of  Tours  {Hist.  Franearum, 
ii.  9).  On  the  death  of  Lothair  II.  it  passed  to 
Charles  the  Bald.  Later  its  possession  was  con- 
tested by  the  emperors,  the  counts  of  Flanders, 
and  the  king?  of  France.  It  was  taken  from  the 
French  by  the  Spaniards  in  1595,  but  has  been  a 
part  of  France  since  1677. 

The  traditional  list  of  its  bishops  begins  with 
Diogenes,  said  to  have  been  sent  by  Pope  Siridus 
(384-398);  but  this  is  untrustworthy.  Firm  his- 
torical ground  is  reached  -first  with  St.  Vedast, 
who  was  consecrated  bishop  of  St.  Remigius, 
bishop  of  Reims,  and  presided  over  the  churches 
of  Arras  and  Cambrai  until  his  death  in  540.  The 
see  was  transferred  to  Cambrai  under  Vedulf  (545- 
c.  580),  but  the  two  remained  united  until  Arras 
received  a  bishop  of  its  own  in  1093.  Among  later 
incumbents  of  the  see  of  Cambrai  may  be  men- 
tioned the  holy  Odo  (1105-06),  the  unfortunate 
Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva  (bishop  from  1368, 
antipope  1378-94),  the  renowned  Pierre  d'Ailly 
(1397- c.  1425);  and,  after  its  elevation  in  1559  to 
the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  F^nelon  (1695- 
1715),  and  Cardinal  Dubois  (1720-23).  The  Revo- 
lution deprived  Cambrai  of  its  metropolitan  dig- 
nity, subjecting  it  as  a  simple  bishopric  to  the  see 
of  Paris,  but  in  1842  it  was  once  more  made  an 
archbishopric,  with  Arras  as  suffragan.  Its  mag- 
nificent ancient  cathedral  was  destroyed  in  the 
Revolution,  with  the  exception  of  the  tower,  which 
fell  in  a  great  storm  in  1809.  The  present  cathe- 
dral was  formerly  the  Benedictine  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulcher. 

Bxbuoorapht:  M.  A.  1e  Glay,  Redurehea  nor  Vigiim  rnsbro' 
polilainB  de  Cambrai,  Cambrai,  1825;  idem,  Cameracum 
ehriatianum,  Lille,  1840;  H.  J.  P.  Piaquet.  La  France 
ponHfieaie,  e-v.  Cambrai,  22  vols.,  Pane,  1864-71;  KL, 
u.  1760-65. 

CAMBRIDGE     PLATFORM.     See     Conorboa- 

TIONALISTB,  IV.,  {  1. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLATONISTS:  The  name  usually 
given  to  a  succession  of  distinguished  En^h  di- 
vines and  philosophers  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
also  known  to  their  contemporaries  as  ''Latitude 
Men,"  from  the  breadth  and  comprehensiveness  of 


Cambridge  Flatonlsts 
Cameron 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


366 


their  teaching.  The  most  important  of  them  were 
Benjamin  Whichcote,  John  Smith,  Ralph  Cud- 
worth,  and  Henry  More.  Other  members  of  the 
school  were  Simon  Patrick,  Nathanael  Culverwel, 
John  Worthington,  George  Rust,  and  Edward 
Fowler;  while  Joseph  Glanvill  and  John  Norris, 
though  Oxford  men,  were  so  intimately  associated 
with  it  as  to  be  sometimes  included.  Starting 
with  many  of  the  same  thoughts  as  their  imme- 
diate predecessors  in  the  development  of  hberal  or 
rational  thought,  Hales  and  Chillingworth,  they 
aimed  less  than  these  at  ecclesiastical  comprehen- 
sion; their  purpose  was  to  find  a  higher  organon 
of  Christian  thought,  and  to  vindicate  the  essen- 
tial principles  of  Christianity  against  both  dog- 
matic excesses  within  the  Church  and  philosophical 
extravagances  without  it.  Unlike  the  former, 
too,  they  all  came  from  the  Puritan  side;  with  the 
exception  of  More,  their  leaders  were  members  of 
the  famous  Puritan  college  of  Emmanuel,  and  thus 
closely  bound  together  into  a  definite  group  or 
school.  The  main  source  of  their  inspiration  was 
the  study  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  not  only  in 
Plato  himself  but  in  his  Alexandrian  and  modem 
disciples.  This  Platonic  revival  was  important 
as  evoking  the  only  force  adequate  to  meet  the 
development  of  naturalism  in  a  direction  which 
threatened  the  distinctive  principles  of  religion. 
But  if  Platonism  was  the  positive  determinant 
factor  in  the  movement,  the  negative  influence 
which  formed  the  school  was  opposition  to  the  de- 
structive reasoning  of  Hobbes,  whose  materialistic 
tendency  they  met  not  only,  like  Clarendon  and 
others,  by  polemical  criticism,  but  by  a  well-or- 
dered scheme  of  thought,  whose  principles  had 
been  already  worked  into  unison  with  Christian 
philosophy.  Of  their  permanent  achievements, 
not  the  least  important  was  their  inculcation  of 
the  doctrine  of  toleration,  at  that  time  so  novel 
and  unpopular.  They  solved  the  religious  prob- 
lem, not  by  giving  it  up,  but  by  pushing  it  to  its 
legitimate  conclusion  and  drawing  the  essential 
distinction  between  dogma  and  religion,  which  is 
one  of  their  chief  contributions  to  modem  thought. 
Against  the  materialism  of  their  time,  they  labored 
to  prove  that  religion  was  a  transcendent  reality, 
a  substantive  power  binding  the  soul  to  God  and 
revealing  God  to  the  soul.  Their  writings  are  fre- 
quently obscure  and  involved,  and  they  show  a 
lack  of  critical  and  historical  judgment  in  their 
confusion  of  Platom'sm  and  Neoplatonism,  in 
their  speculative  f and  fulness,  and  in  their  misap- 
preciation  of  evidence.  But  their  services  to 
their  age  can  scarcely  be  overrated.  The  expo- 
nents and  advocates  of  a  comprehensive  Chiu'ch,  the 
purifiers  of  the  popular  theology,  they  were  at  the 
same  time  the  great  champions  of  the  reality  of 
religion  at  a  time  when  the  excesses  of  its  partizans 
were  driving  so  many  of  their  contemporaries  into 
imbelief.  See  the  separate  articles  on  the  various 
men  named  above. 

Bibliographt:  The  best  account  is  by  J.  Tulloch,  Rational 
Theology  and  Christian  Philoaophy  in  England,  vol.  ii., 
Edinbuish,  1872.  The  early  proepectus  was  a  pamphlet 
by  S.  P.  (Simon  PatrickT),  Brief  Account  of  the  New  Sect 
of  the  New  Latitude  Men,  London,  1662.  Consult  further: 
E.   Fowler,  Practicee  of  Certain  .  .  .  Divinee  .  .  .  Abu- 


eively  Called  Latitudinariane,  ib.  1671;  G.  Dyer.  Hietory 
of  the  UnivereUy  .  ,  ,  of  Cambridge,  ii.  91-101.  ib.  1814; 
W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Uiatory  of  .  .  .  RaJtianaliem  in  Europe, 
2  vols.,  ib.  1875  (an  ill-balanced  estimate);  F.  Greensieu 
Joeeph  OlanviU,  New  York.  1900;  E.  T.  Campacnac.  The 
Cambridge  Platoniate;  being  Sdectiona  from  Whieheoie. 
Smith,  and  Culverwel,  Oxford,  1901. 

CAMEL:  The  most  valuable  poBsessioii  of  the 
nomads  of  the  desert. 

The  Syrian  and  Egyptian  camel  is  the  sin^e- 
humped,  lank,  and  long-legged  CamdiM  dromeda- 
riu8.  Its  foremost  utility  is  that  of  common  car- 
rier ("ship  of  the  mainland"  was  its  poetical 
designation  even  prior  to  Islam).  Great  bodily 
strength  and  endurance  fit  it  for  this  service.  Its 
very  voracity  is  content  with  the  meanest  fodder 
of  the  driest  pasture  grasses,  half-dried  acacia 
twigs,  dry  straw,  and  the  like;  and  it  can  toil  days 
at  a  time  upon  an  exceedingly  small  stint  of  forage. 
At  such  times  the  fatty  hump,  which  when  in  good 
condition  weighs  as  much  as  thirty  poimds,  almost 
entirely  disappears.  It  is  no  less  easily  satisfied 
in  the  article  of  water.  In  spring  it  feeds  on  freshly 
dewed  grasses,  and  can  dispense  with  watering 
several  weeks  running.  In  the  dry  season  it  can 
hold  out  three  or  four  days  without  water;  and 
then,  when  it  reaches  a  watering-place,  it  swallows 
the  water  in  enormous  quantities.  Its  broad, 
fleshy,  cushioned  foot  prevents  it  from  sinking 
deeply  into  the  desert  sand. 

The  carrier  camel  bears  ordinarily  from  two  to 
three  hundredweight;  still  more  on  occasion  (cf. 
II  Kings  viii.  9).  Its  gait  at  a  walk  is  about  two 
and  one-half  miles  an  hour,  and  it  maintains  this 
pace  right  along  with  alacrity  and  freshness  for 
twelve  or  fourteen  hours  and  even  longer.  The 
riding  camel  differs  from  the  foregoing,  just  as  a 
noble  race-horse  from  the  heavy  draft-horse.  It 
can  cover  as  much  as  ninety  miles  a  day,  and 
this  for  several  days  together.  The  camel  saddle 
is  a  trough-shaped  wooden  seat  fastened  over  the 
hump  with  a  tight  gearing  both  front  and  back. 
This  is  covered  with  a  cushion.  The  rider  sits  as 
on  a  side-saddle.  For  women  and  children  palan- 
quins are  likewise  in  use,  with  seats  and  curtains 
(Gen.  xxiv.  61,  xxxi.  17).  The  camel  ministers  to 
the  Bedouins'  every-day  needs.  The  rather  thick 
and  fatty  camel's  milk  is  their  beverage;  and  their 
horses  often  drink  it.  The  flesh  of  the  camel,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  hump,  which  is  esteemed  a  peculiar 
delicacy,  is  said  to  be  hard  and  tough;  but  still  it  i» 
a  feast  for  the  Bedouin  to  kill  one  of  the  herd  and 
eat  meat.  They  also  occasionally  bleed  the  camel 
a  little  in  times  of  scarceness.  The  Israelites  ac- 
counted camel's  flesh  imdean.  The  Bedouins' 
coarse  cloaks  are  woven  of  camel's  hair  (Matt.  iii. 
4),  and  also  their  thick  tent-rugs.  The  hide  is 
worked  into  sandals,  thongs,  water-skins,  and  the 
like.     The  dung  is  dried  and  then  serves  for  fuel. 

The  camel  naturally  is  less  important  in  agri- 
cultural Palestine.  Yet  even  here  it  has  its  use- 
fulness as  beast  of  burden;  and  when  heavy  loads 
and  great  distances  are  in  question,  horses  and 
mules  are  not  to  be  compared  with  it.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  breeding  of  camels  on  a  large  scale 
is  found  under  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  xii.  16,  xxiv. 
10,  XXX.  43)  and  David  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  30).   But 


867 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCiX)PEDIA 


Cambridge  Platonists 
Cameron 


in  every  era  there  is  reference  to  the  manifold  uses 
of  camels  (e.g.,  II  Kings  viii.  9;  Isa.  xxx.  6;  I 
Chron.  xii.  40;  Ezra  ii.  67;  Neh.  vii.  69).  To  the 
poet  the  camel  in  its  wild  raging  during  the  rutting 
season  is  an  image  of  the  nations  which  in  their 
blind  passion  are  devoted  to  strange  gods  (Jer.  ii. 
23).  I.  Benzinqer. 

Bibltoorapht:  H.    B.    TriBtram,    Natural    History   of    the 

Bible,  p.  68  aqq.,  London,  1867;  idem.  Survey  of  Western 

Palestine,    Fauna   and    Flora,    ib.    1884;  U.    Blackburn. 

Bible  Beasts  and  Birds,  ib.  1886;  J.  G.  Wood.  Bible  Animals, 

ib.  1883;    idem.  Domestic  Animals  of  the  Bible,  ib.  1887; 

H.  C.  Hart,  AnimaU  of  the  BibU,  ib.  1888;  A.  E.  Knight. 

BibU   Plants  and  AnimaU,   ib.    1800;  DB,   i.   344-345; 

EB,  i.  633-636. 

CAMERA  APOSTOLICA.     See  Curia,  §  2. 

CAMERARIUS,  ca"m6-ra'ri-us  (CAMERMEIS- 
TER),  JOACHIM:  Protestant  humanist;  b.  at 
Bamberg  Apr.  12,  1500;  d.  at  Leipsic  Apr.  17, 
1574.  He  was  descended  from  an  old  Bamberg 
family  and  was  educated  there  till  his  thirteenth 
year,  when  his  parents  sent  him  to  the  University 
of  Leipsic,  where  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
study  of  Greek  under  Richard  Crocus,  Johann 
Metzler,  and  Peter  Mosellanus.  Subsequently  he 
removed  to  the  University  of  Erfurt,  where  he 
joined  the  circle  of  the  humanists,  became  master 
of  arts  (1520),  and  was  highly  esteemed  and  ad- 
mired for  his  knowledge  of  Greek.  In  1521  he 
went  to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he 
became  intimately  acquainted  with  Melanchthon. 
In  1525  he  accompanied  Melanchthon  on  his  jour- 
ney to  the  Palatinate,  and  thence  proceeded  to 
Basel  to  pay  homage  to  Erasmus.  In  the  same 
year  he  left  Wittenberg  and  went  to  Bamberg. 
From  here  he  accompanied  Canon  Fuchs  on  a 
journey  to  Prussia  (1525)  and  in  1526  was  called, 
upon  recommendation  of  Melanchthon,  to  the 
gymnasium  of  Nuremberg  as  teacher  of  Greek  and 
expounder  of  the  Latin  historians.  A  visit  to 
Melanchthon  at  Speyer  in  1529  during  the  diet 
held  at  that  city  brought  him  into  immediate  con- 
tact with  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  affairs  of 
the  time;  he  also  took  part  in  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg in  1535.  Conditions  at  Nuremberg  did  not 
satisfy  him,  although  he  had  intercourse  with  men 
like  W.  Pirkheimer,  W.  Linck,  Osiander,  Lazarus 
Spengler,  and  Albrecht  DUrer.  As  early  as  1528 
he  complained  of  the  coldness  and  indifference 
toward  the  humanistic  sciences  on  the  part  of  his 
contemporaries.  His  school  also  did  not  make 
progress,  and  in  1535  he  gladly  followed  a  call  to 
Tiibingen,  where  he  found  a  fruitful  field  for  his 
activity  as  teacher.  In  1541  he  removed  to  Leip- 
sic. Although  Camerarius  took  part  in  the  eccle- 
siastical dissensions  of  the  time,  his  chief  impor- 
tance lies  in  the  field  of  humanism  and  pedagogics. 
In  his  first  pedagogical  treatise  Prcecepta  honcsta- 
tis  atque  decorts  puerilia  (1528)  he  emphasized  as 
a  true  disciple  of  Melanchthon  humanistic  educa- 
tion as  a  necessary  preparation  for  all  later  voca- 
tions, but  humanistic  education,  as  he  holds,  has 
its  foundation  in  the  reverence  of  God.  In  ac- 
cordance with  his  view  that  the  Christian  religion 
should  be  taught  alongside  of  the  rudiments  of  the 
languages,  he  edited  the  chief  articles  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Greek  hexameters,  translated  the  Augs- 


burg Confession  into  Greek  and  composed  a  cate- 
chism in  the  same  language.  His  biographical 
works  are  of  great  value  as  sources,  and  show 
that  he  was  a  keen  observer,  especially  his  Narra- 
tio  de  Eobano  Heaso^  etc.  (Nuremberg,  1553),  Nar- 
ratio  de  Georgio  Principe  AnhaUino  (Leipsic,  1555), 
and  liis  famous  writing  De  Philippi  Melanchihonia 
ortUf  totius  vilcB  currictdo  et  morte,  imjdicata  rerum 
memorabilium  iemporis  illiiLe  hominumque  men- 
tione  .  .  .  narra/io  (Leipsic,  1566;  best  ed.  with  copi- 
ous notes  by  S.  T.  Strobel,  Halle,  1777;  the  text 
.reprinted  by  A.  F.  Neander,  Berlin,  1841).  Another 
prominent  work,  measured  by  the  standards  of  his 
time,  is  his  Hiatorica  narratio  de  Fratrum  Ortha- 
doxorum  ecclenie  in  Bohemia,  Moravia  et  Poloniaf 
which  was  first  edited  in  1605  by  his  grandson 
Joachim  Ludwig  Camerarius  and  is  still  valuable. 
Camerarius  also  edited  (though  badly)  the  letters 
of  Melanchthon  (Leipsic,  1569),  and  rendered  great 
services  to  historical  research  by  his  collection  of 
letters  from  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  which 
was  continued  by  his  son.  (T.  Koij)E.) 

Bxbliooraprt:  E.  C.  Bessel,  Joachim  Camerarius,  Nurem- 
berg, 1793;  H.  J.  K&mmel,  Joachim  Camerarius  in  NUm- 
berg,  Zittau,  1862;  F.  Sekt,  Ueber  einige  theologischen 
Sehnften  des  J.  Camerarius,  Berlin.  1888;  KL,  ii.  1758- 
1761;  ADB,  iii.  720  sqq. 

CAMERLINGO  (CAMERLENGO).  See  Curia,  { 1. 

CAMERON,  GEORGE  GORDON:  Free  Church 
of  Scotland;  b.  at  Pluscarden  (a  village  near  Elgin, 
71  m.  n.w.  of  Aberdeen),  Elginshire,  Sept.  13, 
1836.  He  was  educated  at  University  and  King's 
College,  Aberdeen  (M.A.,  1860),  Free  Church  Col- 
lege, Aberdeen  (1860-62),  and  New  College,  Edin- 
burgh (1863-65).  He  was  a  tutor  on  the  Conti- 
nent in  1862-63  and  in  1865-66  was  assistant 
minister  in  Leghorn,  Italy.  He  was  then  assistant 
minister  in  Dundee,  Scotland,  for  a  year  and  at 
Kuthrieston,  Aberdeen,  in  1867-69,  and  after  an- 
other year  as  temporary  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
Free  Church  College  in  1869-70  was  assistant  min- 
ister for  brief  periods  at  St.  Andrews,  Edinburgh, 
London,  and  North  Leith  in  1870-71.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  ordained  associate  minister  of  St. 
John's  Free  Church,  Glasgow,  and  retained  this 
position  until  1882,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Old  Testament  language  and  literature  in 
the  United  Free  Church  College,  Aberdeen,  where 
he  still  remains.  He  is  a  member  of  various  com- 
mittees for  the  general  work  of  his  sect,  and  has 
written,  in  addition  to  contributions  to  periodicals, 
MemoriaU  of  John  Roxburgh  (Glasgow,  1881). 

CAMERON  (CAMERO),  JOHN:  Scottish  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Glasgow  c.  1579;  d.  at  Montauban, 
France,  1625.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and  began 
to  give  lessons  in  Greek  there  at  the  age  of  twenty. 
In  1600  he  went  to  Bordeaux  and  was  soon  ap- 
pointed professor  of  the  humanities  at  Bergerac. 
From  1601  to  1603  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at 
S6dan.  Then  he  returned  to  Bordeaux  and  re- 
ceived a  scholarship  enabling  him  to  complete  his 
theological  studies.  He  became  tutor  in  the  fam- 
ily of  Calignon  and  went  with  his  pupils  to  Paris, 
Geneva,  and  Heidelberg.  At  the  university  of  the 
last-named  phire  on  Apr.  4,  1608,  he  supported  in  a 
a  public  discussion  theses  de  triplici  Dei  cum  ho- 


Oameron 
Camlaards 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


368 


mine  ftpdere.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  became 
a  minister  at  Bordeaux  and  had  great  success  aa 
a  preacher.  When  the  Protestants  were  driven 
from  the  town  after  eight  years  he  took  refuge  at 
Tonneins.  He  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
Academy  of  Saumur  in  1618.  In  1620  he  partic- 
ipated in  a  discussion  at  Orleans  with  Tilenus,  for- 
merly professor  at  S6dan,  and  controverted  his 
Arminian  propositions.  In  1622  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land called  him  to  London  and  appointed  him 
principal  and  professor  of  theology  at  Glasgow. 
But  the  jealousy  of  many  of  his  colleagues  forced  < 
him  to  leave  his  native  town  and  in  1623  he  re- 
turned to  Saumur.  The  following  3rcar  the  king 
authorized  him  to  teach  at  Montauban.  He  ar- 
rived there  at  a  time  when  there  was  violent  con- 
tention on  the  question  of  obedience  to  the  king 
and  took  sides  with  the  party  of  passive  obedience. 
On  May  15,  1625,  he  was  injured  in  a  public  tu- 
mult and  died  in  consequence  a  few  months  later. 
His  works  are:  Discours  apologiUque  pour  ceux  de 
la  religion  r^formie  (Bergerac,  1614);  TraiU  avqud 
sant  examines  lee  pr^jugie  de  ceux  de  VJ^glise  ro- 
maine  cantre  la  religion  rifamUe  (La  Rochelle, 
1616;  Eng.  transl.,  Oxford,  1624);  Theses  de  gratia 
et  libero  arhitrio  (Saumur,  1618);  Arnica  coUaHo  de 
graticB  et  humance  voluntatis  concursu  in  vocatione 
(Leyden,  1621);  Defensio  sententice  de  gratia  et  libero 
arbitrio  (Saumm*,  1624);  and  Pralectiones  (3  vols., 
1626-28).  G.  Bonet-Maurt. 

Bxblioobapbt:  Sources  for  a  life  are:  the  memoir  by  Cap- 
pel  prefixed  to  Cameron's  Opera,  Geneva,  1642;  Robert 
Baillie,  Letter$  and  Journals,  passim,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1775.  Consult  also:  D.  Irvins.  ScottUh  Writtrt,  i.  333- 
346,  London,  1850;  R.  Chambers,  Biographical  Diction- 
ary of  Eminent  Scotchmen^  i.  273-275,  Edinburgh,  1868; 
DNB,  viii.  295-296. 

CAMERON,  RICHARD,  CAMERONIANS:  Scotch 
covenanting  leader  (b.  at  Falkland,  Fifeshire; 
killed  at  Ayrsmoss  or  Airdsmoss,  Ayrshire,  July  22, 
1680),  and  his  followers.  Brought  up  in  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  early  impressed  by  the  serv- 
ices of  those  ministers  who,  ejected  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  (q.v.)  of  1662,  continued  to  preach  in 
the  fields,  Cameron  adopted  and  advocated  their 
view  that  it  was  wrong  to  accept  the  Declaration 
of  Indulgence  (q.v.)  of  1662,  although  it  mitigated 
their  lot.  Licensed  by  these  field  preachers,  al- 
though without  imiversity  training,  he  soon  be- 
came a  leader.  In  1679  he  went  to  Holland, 
whither  many  of  his  persecuted  coimtrymen  had 
gone  after  the  defeat  in  the  battle  of  Bothwell 
Bridge,  June  22, 1679;  in  1680  he  returned  and  with 
Donald  Cargill  (q.v.)  and  Thomas  Douglas  headed 
the  party,  which  after  him  was  called  "  Camero- 
nians,"  or  impersonally  "  Society  People."  Their 
platform  was  the  Declaration  of  Sanquhar  (pub- 
lished June  22,  1680),  drawn  up  by  Cameron  and 
others.  In  it  the  royal  authority  was  disowned 
because  of  its  tyranny.  This  action  brought  Cam- 
eron and  his  followers  immediately  into  trouble. 
A  band  with  him  at  its  head  was  attacked  by  the 
royal  troops  and  literally  cut  to  pieces. 

The  party  lived  in  and  were  united  in  "  socie- 
ties," which  had  become  somewhat  numerous  be- 
fore the  Revolution.  They  welcomed  King  Will- 
iam; but  they  did  not  approve  of   the  Revolution 


settlement,  and  did  not  join  the  Established  Church. 
They  objected  to  the  Church,  which  had  made 
many  unworthy  compromises;  were  displeased  at 
the  want  of  recognition  of  the  covenants;  did  not 
consider  that  the  independence  of  the  Church  was 
secured;  and  generally  believed  that  God  was  not 
sufficiently  honored  in  the  new  settlement.  They 
objected,  too,  to  the  recognition  of  Erastianism  in 
England.  In  1706  the  Rev.  John  Macmillan  of  Bal- 
maghie  joined  the  societies,  and  was  their  first 
minister.  In  1743,  another  minister  having  joined 
them,  they  constituted  ''the  Reformed  Pr^by- 
tery."  In  1774  a  similar  presbytery  was  formed 
in  the  United  States.  A  presbytery  was  consti- 
tuted likewise  in  Ireland.  About  1863  most  of  the 
Scotch  synod  came  to  be  of  opinion  that  there  was 
nothing  in  their  principles  requiring  them  to  ab- 
stain from  countenancing  the  political  institutions 
of  the  country,  e.g.,  from  voting  for  a  member  of 
Parliament;  but,  a  small  minority  having  a  dif- 
ferent opinion,  a  disruption  took  place.  In  1876 
a  union  took  place  between  the  larger  body  and 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Although  "Cam- 
eronians  "  has  always  been  a  comjnon  name  given 
to  those  who  refused  to  accept  the  settlement  of 
Church  and  State  under  William  and  Mary,  they 
repudiated  it  themselves,  preferring  to  be  called 
"  Reformed  Presbyterians."  See  Coveitamtebs; 
Pbesbtterians. 

Biblioorapht:  Biographia  preAvUriana,  vol.  i..  Edis- 
burgh,  1827  (life  of  Cameron);  R.  Wodrow,  HieL  of  Ae 
Sufferings  of  the  Church  of  Scoiland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1721-22; 
T.  MoCrie.  Sketches  of  Scottish  Church  HisL,  ib.  1875; 
J.  Cunningham,  Churdi  Hist,  of  Scotiand,  2  vols.,  ib. 
1883;  DNB,  viii.  301-302. 

CAMILLnS  DE  LELLIS.    See  Agonizants. 

CAMISARDS,  cam'i-zdrds:  The  name  generally 
applied  to  those  French  Protestants  who,  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  rose  in  arms  in  Languedoc 
and  waged  a  bloody  war  (1702-05)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restoring  their  Church.  Their  name  was 
derived  from  the  jacket  (camisia)  which  they  wore 
over  their  clothes  during  their  night  attacks. 
Neither  the  dragonades  nor  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  succeeded  in  destroying 
Protestantism  in  France;  but,  though  private 
worship  was  never  forbidden,  new  laws  were  con- 
tinually enacted  by  Louis  XIV.  in  his  attempt  to 

enforce  conformity  in  religion  through- 
Origin,      out  France,  which  made  it  more  and 

more  difficult,  and  at  last  almost  im- 
possible, for  a  French  citizen  to  adhere  to  the  Re- 
formed confession.  In  1686  and  the  following 
years  the  gatherings  in  the  desert  were  forbidden, 
and  fines,  imprisonment,  demolition  of  homes,  the 
galleys,  and  the  wheel  were  employed  as  punish- 
ments. Nevertheless,  with  the  pressure  grew  the 
power  of  resistance.  Religious  meetings  were  held 
by  night  in  secluded  places,  originally  presided 
over  by  refugee  clergy,  and  later  by  men  of  little 
learning,  but  fervent  in  prayers  and  exhortations. 
As  was  natural,  the  miseries  of  the  time  pro- 
duced a  corresponding  hope  of  the  future;  and 
books  like  Pierre  Jurieu's  UAccomplissement  des 
prophities  (Rotterdam,  1686)  and  Suite  de  Vac- 
complissement  (1687),  in  which  he  predicted  tfa« 


369 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oameron 
Camioards 


speedy  downfall  of  the  papacy,  contributed  to 
give  shape  and  direction  to  this  unconscious  move- 
ment. A  girl  appeared  as  prophetess  in  Dauphin6 
in  1688.  Other  prophets  arose  in  Vivarais.  The 
niunber  incret^sed  rapidly,  especially  in  the  C6- 
vennes  after  1700,  where  almost  a  fourth  of  the 
population  was  Protestant.  Despite  the  creation  of 
new  bishoprics  for  their  conversion  and  notwith- 
standing the  military  aid  given  by  the  State  to 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  ecstatic  phenomena 
increased  throughout  the  district,  sparing  neither 
old  nor  young.  In  the  trance,  when 
Fanatical  seized  by  convulsions,  and  pouring 
DiBorderB.  forth  words  of  repentance  and  ad- 
monition, often  in  pure  French  in- 
stead of  the  local  dialect,  those  ''  possessed  by  the 
spirit "  saw  troops  from  far-off  garrisons  come 
marching  toward  the  place,  they  singled  out  those 
among  their  comrades  who  should  fall  in  the  en- 
counter, they  recognized  the  traitors  among  them; 
and  these  predictions  were  always  accepted  with 
reverence  and  confidence,  and  often  proved  true; 
although,  on  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  proph- 
ecy later  steadily  declined.  Without  this  apoca- 
lyptic factor,  diseased  yet  sincere,  the  enthusiasm 
and  obstinacy  of  the  Camisards  is  unintelligible. 
Terming  themselves  "  children  of  God,"  and  their 
camp  the  "  camp  of  the  Eternal,"  they  relied  with, 
absolute  trust  on  divine  guidance  and  aid,  while 
their  fanaticism  in  destroying  churches,  like  their 
cruelty  in  killing  priests,  finds  its  explanation  in 
the  fact  that  they  believed  themselves  called  of 
God  to  extirpate  "  Babylon  and  Satan,"  as  they 
designated  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  and  their 
Church. 

Open  revolt  broke  out  in  1702,  when  a  priest 
named  Francois  de  Langlade  du  Chayla  undertook 
to  punish  the  refractory.  In  his  house  at  Pont 
de  Montvert,  in  the  present  department  of  Loz^re, 
he  built  a  cell  in  which  he  shut  up  his  recalcitrant 
parishioners,  and  tortured  them.  On  the  night  of 
July  23,  hearing  a  rumor  that  the  abb^  intended 
to  put  certain  prisoners  to  death,  the  Camisards 
ajBsembled  at  the  instigation  of  the  prophets  S^ 
guier,  Couderc,  and  Mazel,  burned  the  house,  lib- 
erated the  prisoners,  and  slew  the  priest.  B&ville, 
the  intend£Uit  of  Languedoc,  felt  a  particular  sat- 
isfaction in  pursuing  the  guilty.  Siguier  was 
caught  and  burned  at  the  stake  Aug.  12;  but  the 
rest  escaped  among  the  mountains,  where  they 
were  soon  reenforced  by  new  throngs  formed  by 
Castanet,  Catinat,  Roland,  and  others.  In  Jean 
Cavalier  (b.  at  Ribante,  department  of  Gard,  Nov. 
28,  1681)  they  found  an  able  leader. 
The  and  the  war  began  which  was  to  de- 
Camizard  populate  and  devastate  the  prov- 
Wan.  inoes  of  Languedoc,  Vivarais,  Gevau- 
dan,  and  Rouergue.  The  Camisards 
never  numbered  more  than  five  thousand,  and 
they  had  no  military  organization.  But  they 
fought  with  brutal  fury,  even  when  they  marched 
into  battle  with  psalms  on  their  lips,  while  the 
royal  troops  punished  them  with  torture  and  im- 
prisonment. In  their  camps  they  lived  as  in  a 
church,  preaching,  praying,  and  fasting;  and  they 
won  brilliant  victories,  particulariy  at  Sainte-Chatte, 
XL— 24 


Mar.  15,  1704.  BAville  was  unable  to  make  head 
against  them,  and  in  Feb.,  1703,  Marshal  Montre- 
val  was  sent  with  a  large  body  of  troops.  He  de- 
feated the  Camisards  repeatedly  (La  Jonguidre, 
Mar.  6;  La  Tour  de  B^lot,  Apr.  29),  but  the  cruel- 
ties practised  by  the  troops  won  new  adherents  to 
the  Protestant  cause,  even  though  he  razed  all  the 
houses  and  villages  in  the  upper  O^vennes,  thus 
rendering  20,000  homeless.  The  confusion  was  in- 
creased by  a  bull  of  Qement  XI.  (May  1,  1703), 
proclaiming  a  crusade  against  the  heretics  and 
creating  bands  which  equaled  their  opponents  in 
savagery.  In  Apr.,  1704,  Montreval  was  replaced 
by  Marshal  Villars.  Before  Villars  began  active 
operation,  he  surrounded  the  whole  district  with 
a  line  of  strong  military  posts,  thus  cutting  off  all 
communication  between  the  rebels  and  the  out- 
side world;  and  then  he  offered  pardon  to  all  who, 
within  a  certain  time,  laid  down  arms  and  sur- 
rendered. Cavalier,  who  saw  that  further  resist- 
ance was  useless,  left  the  country,  afterward 
fought  against  his  countrymen  in  Holland,  Italy, 
and  Spain,  and  settled  finally  in  England.  There 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  Jersey,  and  later  gov- 
ernor of  the  Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  in  Chelsea,  Lon- 
don, May  18,  1740.  His  former  comrades  branded 
him  as  a  traitor  and  continued  the  hopeless  strug- 
gle. Roland  fell  Aug.  14,  1704.  Castanet,  Catinat, 
Joanni,  and  others  fled  to  Geneva.  Without  lead- 
ers, the  Camisard  army  gradually  melted  away. 
In  1705  Catinat,  Ravanel,  and  some  of  their  col- 
leagues returned  and  conspired  to  raise  a  new  re- 
volt, only  to  die  at  the  stake  or  on  the  wheel.  A 
last  attempt,  made  by  Mazel,  Coste,  and  Claris  in 
1709  in  Vivarais  was  quenched  in  blood,  and  the 
French  Reformed  Church  was  definitely  blotted 
out.  [In  England  the  Camisards  were  known  as 
the  French  ft-ophets  (q.v.).] 

(ThSODOR  SCHOTTf.) 

Biblxoorapht:  For  boutom  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
standpoint  consult:  C.  J.  de  la  Baume,  RHation  hutorioue 
d€  la  rivoUe  dsa  Camiaardt,  ed.  Qoi£Fon,  Ntmes,  1874; 
J.  B.  Louvreleuil,  Le  Fanatiame  renouveli,  Avignon,  1704- 
1707;  Lettrea  choiatM  de  FUehier  avtc  une  rHakion  dea  fantk- 
tiguea  du  Vivaras,  Paris.  1715  (partiian);  Mimovna  de 
VirUendani  BdviUe,  Amsterdam,  1734  (serviceable); 
Mhnoirea  de  Villara,  The  Hague,  1734  (brief  but  impar- 
tial). Written  from  the  Protestant  side  are:  M.  Misson. 
Le  TJUdtre  aacri  dea  Civennea,  London,  1707  (by  an  eye- 
witness, but  partisan  and  unreliable);  J.  Cavalier,  Mem^ 
aire  of  the  Ware  of  the  C6vennea,  ib.  1712  (inaccurate). 
In  the  BuUetin  de  la  aocUU  de  I'hiatoire  du  proteaiantiame 
fran^aia  are  Le  Camp  dea  enfanta  de  Dieux,  1867,  pp.  273 
sqq.,  and  the  memoirs  of  Monbonnoux,  1873,  pp.  72  sqq. 
Read  also  Mimoirta  de  Roaael  d*Aigaliera,  ed.  Q.  Frost^rus, 
in  BiUiothique  UniveraeUe,  March-May,  1866,  and  A. 
Jiger,  Spiritua  miraculoaua  in  provincia  Sevennenai  rag- 
nana,  Tabingen,  1712.  Consult  further:  A.  Court,  Hia- 
toira  de  trwMea  dea  Civennea,  Villefranche,  1760,  ed.  Alaaji, 
1819  (rich  and  reliable):  I.  C.  K,  Hofmann,  OeachietUe 
dea  Aufruhra  in  den  Sevennen  unter  Ludtng  XIV.,  N6rd- 
lingen,  1837  (also  valuable);  N.  Peyrat,  HiaMre  dea 
paateura  du  diaert,  Paris,  1842  (picturesque  but  unreli- 
able); Q.  Frost^rus,  Lea  Inaurgia  proteatanta  aoua  Louia 
XIV.,  ib.  1868  (of  importance);  E.  Bonnemfere,  HiaUrire 
dea  Camiaarda,  Paris,  1860;  S.  Smiles,  Huguenota  in 
France  After  the  Edict  of  Nantea,  London,  1877;  C.  Tylor, 
Huguenota  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  pp.  265  aqq.,  Lon- 
don, 1892;  H.  M.  Baird,  The  Camiaard  Uprteing,  in  Papera 
of  the  American  Church  Hiat.  Society,  ii.  13-34,  New  York, 
1800;  idem,  Huguenota  and  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantea,  vol.  ii.,  ib.  1895. 


Campanella 
Oampbell 


THE  NEW   SCHAFF-HERZOG 


370 


CAMPANELLA,  TOMASO:  ItaUan  monk  and 
philosopher;  b.  at  Stilo  (50  m.  n.e.  of  Reggio),  Ca- 
labria, Sept.  5,  1568;  d.  in  Paris  May  21, 1639.  He 
entered  the  Dominican  order  at  the  age  of  fifteen; 
studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Cosenza  and 
Naples,  and  added  to  his  other  accomplishments  a 
knowledge  of  medicine,  astrology,  alchemy,  and 
magic.  He  boldly  rejected  the  Aristotelian  system 
and  chose  to  study  nature  rather  than  author- 
ity, whereby  he  made  many  and  powerful  oppo- 
nents. After  wandering  through  Italy  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  he  retiuned  to  Cosenza  in  1598,  and 
the  next  year  was  arrested  by  the  government, 
charged,  probably  truthfully,  with  being  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  to  free  Naples  from  the  Spanish 
dominion.  His  political  and  social  views  were  un- 
deniably dangerous.  He  was  kept  in  prison  till 
1626,  when  Pope  Urban  VIII.  succeeded  in  hav- 
ing him  transferred  to  the  Inquisition,  and  in  1629 
set  him  free.  For  a  few  years  he  lived  at  Rome, 
but,  not  feeling  secure  there,  in  1634  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  received  with  favor  by  Car- 
dinal Richelieu.  His  last  years  were  spent  in  pre- 
paring a  complete  edition  of  his  works,  of  which, 
however,  only  one  or  two  volumes  appear  to  have 
been  published.  The  philosophy  which  Campsr 
nella  would  substitute  for  that  of  Aristotle  was  in- 
complete and  fantastic,  influenced  by  Thomas 
Aquinas,  Bernardino  Telesio  (b.  at  Cosenza  1508), 
Raymund  Lully,  and  the  Cabala,  but  in  part  in- 
dependent and  in  certain  points  anticipatory  of 
the  work  of  more  modem  thinkers.  He  held  that 
God  has  made  a  twofold  revelation  of  himself,  in 
natiu^  and  in  the  Bible;  on  the  one  rests  philos- 
ophy, on  the  other  theology.  These  have  nothing 
to  do  the  one  with  the  other.  He  was  thus  able  to 
take  a  very  conservative  position  in  theology,  and 
stoutly  defended  Roman  Catholicism  and  the 
papacy  (as  in  his  Monarchic^  MessicB  and  DiacorH 
della  liberta  e  della  felice  suggettione  alio  state  eccle- 
aiastico,  Jesi,  1633).  Certainty,  he  taught,  is  found 
only  in  immediate  intuitions;  the  first  truth  is 
that  I  exist;  then  that  I  can,  that  I  know,  and 
that  I  want  or  will;  these  three  activities  indicate 
the  fimdamental  qualities  of  all  being  (potentia, 
sapientiaf  amor).  He  believed  that  matter  is  eter- 
nal and  that  the  world  was  created  through  emsr 
nations  from  the  deity.  His  views  concerning  so- 
ciety and  the  State  were  communistic;  they  are 
set  forth  in  his  Civitaa  soliSf  idea  reipublicce  philo- 
sophicoBf  printed  as  an  appendix  to  part  iii.  {poli- 
tica)  of  his  Realis  philosophioB  epUogiaticoB  partes 
iv,  hoc  estf  de  rerum  naiuraj  hominum  moribus,  po- 
lUicaf  et  oeconomica  (Frankfort,  1623);  there  is  an 
English  translation  (incomplete)  by  T.  W.  Halli- 
day  in  Ideal  Comrrumwealihst  vol.  xxiii.  of  "  Morley's 
Universal  Library"  (London,  1885). 

Biblioorapht:  Campanella  is  said  to  have  written  eighty- 
two  works,  most  of  them  during  his  long  imprisonment. 
He  gives  some  account  of  them  in  his  De  libri»  proprii» 
et  recta  ratione  atudendi  ayrUagma,  ed.  G.  Naud^,  Paris, 
1642.  Among  the  more  important  of  those  which  have 
been  published,  besides  the  ones  already  mentioned,  are: 
Philoeophia  aeneibua  demonatrata,  a  defense  of  Telesio, 
Naples,  1500;  Prodromua  pkUoaophiat  inataurandce^ 
Frankfort,  1617;  De  eeneu  rerum  et  moffia,  1620;  Apolo- 
gia pro  OeUileo,  1622;  Aatrologicorum  liiiri  vii,  1630; 
AtheUmua  triumphatua,  Rome,   1631;  Medicinaliufn  libri 


vii,  Lyons,  16.35;  De  gentUiamo  non  r^nendo  axtd  Z^ 
praedeatinatione  contra  Thomi^icoa^  Paris,  1636;  Pkil*^ 
phi<B  rationalia  partea  v,  videlicet  grammatiea,  diaUAz 
rhdorica,  poetica,  hiatoriographia,  1638;  Univermilia  p'.- 
ioaophia  aeu  metaphyaicarum  rerum  juxta  propria  degmm 
partea  iti,  li^iri  xviii,  1638;  De  monar^ia  hiapanva- 
Amsterdam,  1640.  Eng.  transl.,  A  Diacome  Tofuehin^  tk* 
Spaniah  Monarchy,  London,  1654.  A  selection  frozn  b- 
works  by  A.  d'Anoona  appeared  in  2  volumee  at  Txj-.i.. 
1854.  His  sonnets  have  been  translated  into  Sngliish  b? 
J.  A.  Symonds  with  the  sonnets  of  Michelangelo,  Le^- 
don,  1878.  For  his  life  and  criticism  of  his  writings  a:ii 
teachings  consult:  Cyprian,  Vita  et  phiio^ophia  T.  Ccn- 
panOla,  Amsterdam,  1705,  2d  ed..  1722;  M.  Baldacduc 
Vita  e  filoaofia  di  T.  Campanella,  Naples,  1840;  Bcru 
La  vita  e  le  opere  di  T.  Campanella,  Rome,  1878;  L.  As*- 
bile,  Fra  Tommaao  Campanula,  la  aua  oontfivra,  i  attA 
proceaai,  e  la  av4X  pazzia,  3  vols.,  Naples.  1882;  h^er. 
L'andata  di  Fra  T.  Campanella  a  Roma  dopo  la  lu^^ 
prigionia  di  Napoli,  ib.  1886;  idem,  Fra  T.  Campar^elba 
ne'  caatelli  di  Napoli,  in  Roma  ed  in  Pariffi,  2  vol^  ib. 
1887;  idem,  Del  carattsre  di  Fra  T.  Campanula,  ib.  l$9Gc 
£.  Nys,  T.  Campanella  et  aea  tlUoriea  potiUqtMea,  BneseU 
1880;  G.  S.  Felici,  Le  dottrine  filoao^ctHreUfnoae  di  T. 
Campanella,  Lanciano,  1805;  P.  Lafargue,  Ia  Die  Vc*- 
l&ufer  dea  neueren  Socialiamua,  pp.  46^506,  Stuttgart 
1805;  von  Koslowski,  Die  Erkenntnialehre  Campaneih*, 
Leipsie,  1807. 

CAMPANUS,  cam-pd'nus,  JOHAHIVES:  Re- 
former; b.  at  Alseseyck  (17  m.  n.e.  of  Msestricht)  in 
Belgium;  d.  at  Julich  (Juliers,  15m.  n.e.  of  Aachen) 
c.  1575.  He  studied  at  Cologne,  whence  he  was 
expelled  in  1520  for  opposing  the  scholastic  doc- 
tors; went  to  Jillich  and  was  noted  for  his  ve- 
hement Lutheranism;  went  to  "V^ttenberg  in 
1527;  was  present  at  the  Conference  of  Marburi: 
in  1529,  and  surprised  both  sides  by  his  presenta- 
tion of  the  view  that  the  bread  is  indeed  bread  and 
at  the  same  time  the  body  of  Christ  because  he 
makes  it  so.  He  was  not,  however,  allowed  to 
take  part  in  the  debate.  This  snub  and  others 
incurred  by  his  tendency  to  unorthodox  \iew& 
turned  him  against  the  Reformers  and  them 
against  him.  He  was  called  insane  because  be 
would  not  yield  to  their  arguments.  So  he  was 
repeatedly  imprisoned  and  died  a  prisoner.  In 
1530  he  prepared  a  book  in  Latin  and  German 
''  Against  All  the  World  Since  the  Apostles  "  and 
circulated  it  in  manuscript — ^no  complete  or  printed 
copy  is  known  to  exist,  but  extracts  have  be^n  pie- 
served  in  a  manuscript  by  Bugenhagen  (cf.  ZHT, 
1846,  pp.  495  sqq.).  In  1532  one  of  his  followers, 
Franz  von  Streitten,  published  a  popular  restate- 
ment of  his  views  which  he  dedicated  to  Kin; 
Frederick  of  Denmark.  He  taught  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  not  the  Third  Person  but  the  conmion 
essence  of  the  two,  while  the  Son  was  not  coeter- 
nal  with  the  Father  but,  created  out  of  his  es- 
sence, before  all  creatures.  He  was  likewise  an  Ana- 
baptist and  in  general  a  radical. 

(A.  HEGLERt)  K.  HOLL. 
Biblioorapht:  F.  S.  Bock,  Hiatoria  antitriniiarianam,  iL 
244  sqq.,  Leipsio,  1784;  G.  J.  Dlabacz,  Biograpkie  dea 
J,  Campanua,miteinem  Veraeichniaae  aeiner  .  .  .  Sdtrifl' 
en,  Prague,  1804;  K.  Rembert,  Die  "  WiederUtufer  "  tsi 
JUlich,  Berlin,  1809;  J.  Kdstlin,  MarUn  Luther,  voL  ii 
passim,  Berlin,  1903. 

CAMPBELL,  ALEXANDER:  Founder  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  (q.v.);  b.  near  Ballymena  is 
mile  from  Shane's  Castle  on  the  northern  shore  oi 
Lough  Neagh),  Coimty  Antrim,  Ireland,  Sept.  1:^. 
1788;  d.  at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  Mar.  4,  1866.    He 


371 


UKLIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPKDIA 


Oitmpanalla 
Campbell 


waa  the  son  of  Thomas  Campbell,  a  Seceder  minis- 
tor,  and  Jane  Cameigle.  Educated  at  Glasgow 
University,  he  went  to  America  in  1809,  whither 
his  father  had  preceded  him  two  years  earlier,  and 
settled  in  western  Pennsylvania.  While  at  Glas- 
gow he  had  come  in  contact  with  James  Alexander 
and  Robert  Haldane  iq.v.)  and  was  greatly  im- 
pressed by  their  teaching.  On  joining  his  father, 
he  fomid  Providence  had  guided  him  into  the 
same  liberal  and  independent  views.  Thomas 
Campbell's  fraternity  with  other  Christians,  his 
indifference  to  ecclesiastical  rules,  and  his  pleadings 
in  behalf  of  Christian  liberty  and  brotherhood  had 
brought  upon  him  the  censiu%  of  his  brethren; 
consequently  he  withdrew  from  them 
His  Father,  and  continued  to  plead  for  Christian 
Thomas  liberty  and  union,  dwelling  upon  the 
CampbelL  evil  of  divisions  in  religious  society, 
urging  the  Sacred  Word  as  an  infalli- 
ble standard  and  all-sufficient  and  alone-sufficient 
basis  of  union,  and  setting  forth  one  rule  to  govern 
himself  and  his  associates:  "  Where  the  Scriptures 
speak,  we  speak;  and  where  the  Scriptures  are  si- 
lent, we  are  silent."  On  Sept.  7,  1809,  he  formed 
The  Christian  Association  of  Washington  and  is- 
sued his  famous  Declaration  and  Address  (see  Dis- 
ciples OP  Christ).  In  May,  1811,  The  First 
Church  of  the  Christian  Association  of  Washing- 
ton Co.,  Pa.,  was  organized  at  Brush  Run  with 
twenty-nine  members;  here  Alexander  Campbell 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry  Jan.  1,  1812. 

Mr.   Campbell's  marriage  in   1812  to  Margaret 
Brown,  a  Presbyterian,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
subject  of  baptism.     After  diligent  study  of  the 
Scriptures  and  critical  examination  of  the  words 
*'  baptize  "  and  **  baptism,"  he  became  satisfied 
they  could  mean  only  "  immerse  "  and  "  immer- 
sion," and  that  believers  only  could 
Adopts      be  the  proper  subjects  of  this  ordi- 
Baptist     nance.     With    his    father    and    five 
Views,      others  he  was  immersed  by  Mathias 
Luse,   June    14,    1812.     ''  I   have  set 
out,"  he  said,  "  to  follow  the  Ajx)stles  of   Christ 
and  their  master,  and  I  will  be  baptized  only  into 
the  primitive  Christian  faith."     From   this  time 
Thomas  Campbell  conceded  to  his  son  the  guid- 
ance of  the  movement  he  had  originated.    The 
Brush  Rim  church  joined  the  Redstone  Baptist 
Association   after  full   statement  of  their  views, 
using  the  primitive  Confession  of  faith  instead  of 
a  religious  experience,  and  breaking  bread  weekly 
without  restricted  communion.     A  second  church 
on   the  same  basis  was  organized  in  Wellsburg, 
W.  Va. 

In  1820  Mr.  Campbell  held  his  first  public  dis- 
cassion.     lie  was  not  disputatious,  and  at   first 
declined  a  challenge,  but  it  was  forced  upon  him. 
The  debate  was  with  the  Rev.  John  Walker,  a  Pres- 
byterian, and  the  chief  point  debated 
Public      was  the  identity  of  the  covenants  upon 
Debates,     which  the  Jewish  and  Christian  insti- 
tutions rested.     His  later  discussions 
with  Rev.  N.  L.  Rice  on  baptism,  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  human  creeds  as  bonds  of  union,  a  debate 
which  lasted  sixteen  days  and  over  which  Henry 
Clay  presided  (1843),  with  Robert  Owen  on   the 


claims  of  Christianity  (at  Cincinnati,  1829),  and  with 
Archbishop  Purcell  on  the  claims  oif  Roman  Cathol- 
icism (also  at  Cincinnati,  1837)  are  masterpieces 
of  discussion  which  created  a  profound  impression 
in  their  time  and  did  much  to  extend  the  principles 
advocated  by  Mr.  Campbell. 

In  1823  Mr.  Campbell  began  the  publication  of 
The  Christian  Baptist.  In  the  first  seven  years 
from  his  little  coimtry  printing-office  he  issued 
46,000  volumes  of  his  works.  His  writings  were 
read  far  and  wide.  His  views  began  to  influence 
large  numbers  of  people.  He  was  assailed  as  a 
disorganizer,  but  it  was  not  his  aim  merely  to  over- 
throw the  existing  order  of  religious  society.  He 
was  well  aware  of  the  vast  benefit  resulting  to 
mankind  from  Christianity  even  in  its 
His  Views  most  corrupt  forms.  He  desired  sim- 
and  Aims,  ply  to  dethrone  the  false  that  he 
might  reestablish  the  true,  to  replace 
the  traditions  of  men  by  the  teachings  of  Christ 
and  the  Apostles;  to  substitute  the  New  Testa- 
ment for  creeds  and  human  formularies.  His 
work  was  positive,  not  negative.  In  1825  he  pub- 
lished in  The  Christian  Baptist  a  series  of  articles 
entitled  A  Restoration  of  the  Ancient  Order  of 
Things,  in  which  he  argued  for  the  abandonment 
of  everything  not  in  use  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians, such  as  creeds  and  confessions,  xmscriptural 
words  and  phrases,  theological  speculations,  etc., 
and  for  the  adoption  of  everything  sanctioned  by 
primitive  practise,  as  the  weekly  breaking  of  the 
loaf,  the  fellowship,  the  simple  order  of  worship, 
and  the  independence  of  each  church  under  the 
care  of  elders  and  deacons.  His  plea  was  not  for 
a  reformation,  but  for  a  restoration  of  the  original 
Church. 

In  1826  Mr.  Campbell  published  The  Sacred 
Writings  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists  of  Jesua 
Christ,  Commonly  Styled  the  New  Testament,  with 
notes.  In  this  work  he  Anglicized  the  Greek  words 
commonly  rendered  "baptism,"  "baptize,"  etc., 
being  the  first  to  do  so  in  an  Eng^h  version.  The 
principles  taught  by  the  Campbells  were  now  wide- 
spread, especially  among  the  Baptists;  but  in  1827 
Baptist  Associations  began  to  declare  non-fellow- 
ship with  the  brethren  of  "  the  Reformation  "  and 
from  this  time  dates  the  rise  of  the  people  known 
as  the  Disciples  of  Christ. 

In  1829  Mr.  Campbell  began  to  publish  the  Mil- 
lennial Harbinger,  a  magazine  which  he  continued 
to  issue  monthly  until  his  death.     In  October  of 
the  same  year  he  sat  in  the  Virginia  State  Consti- 
tutional Convention.     Ex-President  Madison,  one 
of  his   fellow  delegates,  said   of   him 
His  Most  afterward:    "  I    regard    him   as    the 
Active      ablest  and  most   original    expounder 
Years.      of  Scripture  I  ever  heard."     In  1840  he 
founded    Bethany    (}ollege    with    the 
Bible   as  a  text-book.     In  1847  he  traveled  and 
preached  in  Great  Britain.     This  was  his  busiest 
period;  he  traveled  thousands  of  miles,  lectured 
and  preached  constantly,  edited,  presided  over  the 
College,  and  held  public  discussions.    In  Jime,  1850, 
he  spoke  before  both  houses  of  Congress  at  the 
Capitol   at   Washington.     He  was  gifted  with  a 
fine  presence,  with  great  ease  and  skill  of  utterance, 


Oampbell 
Oampion 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


872 


with  fine  argumentative  powers,  and  with  a  great 
fund  of  information.  He  was  a  man  of  profound 
piety  and  broad  philanthropy.  **  Surely,"  said 
George  D.  Prentice,  "  the  life  of  a  man  thus  ex- 
cellent and  gifted  is  a  part  of  the  common  treasure 
of  society.  In  this  essential  character  he  belongs 
to  no  party,  but  to  the  world."  His  publications 
include  sixty  volumes.  F.  D.  Power. 

Bibuooraphy:  Robert  RichardBon,  MemoirB  of  Alexander 
Campbell,  Cincinnati,  1888;  B.  B.  Tyler,  in  American 
Chwdi  History  6ert««.  xii.  34-59.  New  York.  1804. 

CAMPBELL,  ARCHIBALD  EAN :  Anglican  bishop 
of  Glasgow  and  Galloway,  Scotland;  b.  at  Skipness, 
Argyll,  June  1,  1856;  graduated  B.A.  at  Cambridge, 
1880;  became  vicar  of  the  Walter  Farquhar  Hook 
Memorial  Church  in  Leeds,  1801;  was  consecrated 
bishop  1904. 

CAMPBELL,  GEORGE:  Church  of  Scotland 
divine;  b.  at  Aberdeen  Dec.  25,  1719;  d.  there  Apr. 
6, 1796.  He  was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, and  began  the  study  of  law  in  Edinburgh,  but 
changed  to  theology,  which  he  pursued  there  and  in 
Aberdeen ;  was  ordained  minister  of  Banchory  Teman 
(on  the  Dee,  20  m.  from  Aberdeen),  1748;  became 
one  of  the  ministers  of  Aberdeen,  1757;  principal  of 
Marischal  College,  1759,  professor  of  divinity,  1771; 
resigned  on  account  of  ill  health,  1795.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  in  1758  of  a  famous  philosophical 
society  of  Aberdeen,  which  included  among  its 
members  Thomas  Reid,  John  Gregory,  James 
Beattie,  and  other  distinguished  men.  His  pub- 
lications were  sermons  and  A  Disaertation  on  Mir- 
adea,  an  answer  to  Hume's  Esaay  (Edinburgh, 
1762;  3d  ed.,  with  corrections  and  additions  and 
correspondence  between  Hume  and  Campbell,  2 
vols.,  1797);  The  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  long  con- 
sidered a  standard  work  (2  vols.,  London,  1776; 
many  subsequent  editions);  The  Four  Ooapela, 
translated  from  the  Greek,  with  preliminary  disser- 
tations and  notes,  critical  and  explanatory  (2  vols., 
1789).  Posthumous  publications  were  Lectures  on 
Ecclesiasticai  History,  with  a  brief  Life  by  G.  S. 
Keith  (2  vols.,  London,  1800),  and  Lectures  on  Sys- 
tematic Theology  and  on  Pulpit  Eloquence  (1807). 
A  collected  edition  of  his  Theological  Works  ap- 
peared in  six  volumes  at  London,  1840. 

CAMPBELL,  JOHN  McLEOD:  Scotch  clergy- 
man; b.  at  Kilninver  (on  the  w.  coast  of  Scotland, 
60  m.  n.w.  of  Glasgow),  Argyllshire,  May  4,  1800; 
d.  at  Roseneath,  near  Helensburgh  (20  m.  n.w.  of 
Glasgow),  Dumbartonshire,  Feb.  27,  1872.  He 
studied  at  Glasgow  1811-20,  and  continued  his 
theological  course  at  Edinburgh;  became  minister 
of  Row  (near  Helensburgh),  Dumbartonshire, 
1825.  Here  he  preached  "  assurance  of  faith  ** 
and  an  "unlimited  atonement."  and  in  conse- 
quence was  tried  for  heresy  and  deposed  by  the 
General  Assembly  in  1831  (cf.  the  volimie  of  his 
Sermons  and  Lectures,  Greenock,  1832,  and  The 
Whole  Proceedings  Before  the  Presbytery  of  Dum- 
barton and  the  Synod  of  Glasgow  and  Ayr  in  the  Case 
of  the  Rev.  John  McLeod  Campbell,  1831).  He  re- 
tired to  Kilninver,  preached  in  the  Highlands  for 
a  year  or  two,  and  in  1833  became  pastor  of  an  in- 
dq>endent  congregation  in  Glasgow  and  remained 


there  till  compelled  to  retire  by  ill  health  in  1859. 
His  services  were  given  gratuitously  and  were  voy 
successful.  He  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  in- 
tellectual leaders  of  Scotland  and  was  highly  es- 
teemed for  his  personal  qualities.  His  theory  of 
the  atonement,  by  which  he  was  best  known  out- 
side of  Glasgow,  he  expressed  in  this  sentence  in 
the  book  on  the  Atonement  mentioned  below:  *'  It 
was  the  spiritual  essence  and  nature  of  the  suffer- 
ings of  Christ,  and  not  that  these  siifferin^  were 
penal,  which  constituted  their  value  as  entering 
into  the  atonement  made  by  the  Son  of  God,  when 
he  put  away  sin  by  a  sacrifice  of  himself."  He 
published  Christ  the  Bread  of  Life  (Glasgow,  1851), 
a  book  on  the  Eucharist  suggested  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  controversy  of  the  time;  The  Nature  of 
the  Atonement  and  its  relation  to  remission  of  sim 
and  eternal  life  (Cambridge,  1856;  4th  ed.,  1873); 
Thoughts  on  Revelation  (1862),  called,  forth  by  Es- 
says and  Reviews  (q.v.). 

Bibuoorapht:  A  volume  of  Beminiacenees  and  Reflenoia^ 
begun  in  1871  and  left  unfinished  at  his  death,  appeared 
in  London  in  1873,  edited  by  bis  son,  Donald  Campbell 
who  also  edited  his  Memorial,  2  vols..  London,  1877; 
J.  Vaughan.  in  Contemporary  Review^  June,  1878  (an  ac« 
count  of  Dr.  Campbell's  views);  DNB,  viii.  388-389. 

CAMPBELL,  REOmALD  JOHN:  Englifih  Con- 
gregationalist;  b.  at  London  Jan.  29,  1867.  He 
was  educated  at  University  College,  Nottingham, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1895),  and  en- 
tered the  Congregational  ministry  in  1895.  After 
being  pastor  of  Union  Church,  Brighton,  from  1895 
to  1903,  he  succeeded  Joseph  Parker  as  minister  of 
the  City  Temple,  London,  a  position  which  he  still 
retains.  In  theology  he  is  a  liberal  evangelicaL 
He  has  written:  Tfie  Restored  Innocence  (London, 
1898);  The  Making  of  an  Apostle  (1898);  A  Faiih 
for  Today  (1900);  City  Temple  Sermons  (1903); 
Sermon  to  Young  Men  (1904;  American  edition 
under  the  title  The  Choice  of  the  Highest,  Chicagp, 
1904);  Sermons  Addressed  to  Individuals  (1905); 
Song  of  Ages  (1906);  The  New  Theology  (1907}; 
New  Theology  Sermons  (1907);  Religion  and  Social 
Reform  (1907). 
Bibuoorapht:  A.  H.  Wilkeison,  ReginaUl  John  CampbdK 

Vie  Man  and  hie  Meeeage,  London,  1907. 

CAHPBELLITES.    See  Campbell,  Alexandeb; 
Disciples  of  Christ. 

CAMPEGGIO,    cOm-ped'jO     (CAMPE6I,     CAM- 
PEGGI,    CAMPEGIUS),   LORENZO:     Italian    cai^ 
dinal  and  statesman;   b.  at  Milan   Nov.  7,  1474; 
d.  at  Rome  July  25,  1539.     His  father  was  a  noted 
professor  of  law  at  Pa\'ia,  Padua,  and  Bologna,  and 
the  son,  adopting  his  father's  career,  became  lec- 
turer on  imperial  and  papal  law  and  the  Decretals 
at  Bologna  after   1499.     He  participated  in  the 
political  life  of  the  university  town  and  won  the 
attention  of  the  Curia  by  his  ardent  advocacy  of 
the  papal   cause  against  the  imperial  family  of 
Bcntivogli.     The  loss  of  his  wife  hastened  his  en- 
trance into  the  priestly  state,  for  which  he  had 
long   cherished   a   strong   inclination.     Julius   II. 
made  him  representative  for  Bologna  at  the  tribu- 
nal of  the  Rota  in  Rome  in  the  early  part  of  1511. 
In  August  he  went  as  nuncio  to  the  court  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  to  win  that  ruler  away  from 


373 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OampbeU 
Oitmplon 


hiB  support  of  the  Pisan  council  and  for  the  pope's 
scheme  of  a  Lateran  council.  Returning  success- 
ful in  1512  he  was  made  bishop  of  Feltre  and  sent 
as  nimcio  to  the  ooiut  of  Maximilian  Sforza  at 
Milan,  but  was  recalled  to  be  entrusted  with  a  sec- 
ond mission  to  the  imperial  coiut  with  the  object, 
this  time,  of  furthering  the  papal  plan  for  the  re- 
establishment  of  general  peace  in  Europe.  At 
this  post  he  remained  till  1517,  when  on  account 
of  his  **  preeminent  services  to  the  Apostolic 
chair  ''  and  for  a  fee  of  24,000  ducats  he  was  created 
cardinal  in  company  with  thirty  others.  Once 
mbre  Campeggio  was  sent  on  a  mission  of  universal 
peace,  this  time  to  England,  where  he  shared  the 
dignity  of  papal  legate  with  Cardinal  Wolsey  and 
participated  in  the  formation  of  the  General  League 
of  Peace  concluded  in  October,  1518.  In  the  same 
year  he  returned  to  Rome,  bearing  with  him  many 
royal  gifts  and  the  promise  of  the  succession  to  the 
bishopric  of  Salisbury.  He  became  bishop  of  Bo- 
logna in  1523,  but  resigned  the  office  two  years  later 
on  acquiring  possession  of  the  promised  English 
see  and  retained  it  till  1535.  He  enjoyed  at  the 
same  time  the  profits  from  a  Spanish  bishopric 
and  from  other  churches,  though  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  precisely  which.  Alone  among  the  car- 
dinals he  seems  to  have  won  the  confidence  of 
Adrian  VI.  and  to  him  (not  to  Egidio  of  Viterbo) 
must  be  attributed  the  authorship  of  the  reform 
memorial  addressed  to  the  pope.  After  the  ill 
success  of  the  papal  cause  at  the  first  diet  of  Nu- 
remberg, Campeggio  was  sent  to  Germany  to  work 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  Edict  of  Worms.  At 
the  second  Nuremberg  diet  he  met  the  demands 
of  the  German  princes  with  insulting  pride,  but  by 
all  his  efforts  could  not  prevent  the  assembly  from 
expressing  the  demand  for  a  meeting  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  German  nation  to  consider  means 
for  the  settlement  of  the  religious  question.  It  was 
Campeggio  who  was  primarily  responsible  for  the 
league  concluded  at  Regensburg  in  the  simimer  of 
1524  by  the  enemies  of  the  Reformation,  the  first 
of  the  partizan  confederations  that  were  to  result 
in  the  dismemberment  of  the  nation.  At  Regens- 
burg, too,  a  scheme  of  reform  for  the  clergy  was  for- 
mulated by  Campeggio  with  the  aid  of  Nausea  and 
Cochkeus,  a  scheme,  however,  which  never  attained 
practical  effect.  An  unsuccessful  mission  to  Eng- 
land in  1528-29  in  the  matter  of  the  divorce  of 
Henry  VIII.  was  followed  by  an  appointment  to 
the  imperial  court,  where  he  is  known  to  have  ad- 
vised Charles  V.  in  case  a  policy  of  conciliation 
toward  the  Protestants  proved  ineffective  **  to 
eradicate  the  poisonous  growth  with  fire  and 
sword."  At  the  same  time  he  did  not  disdain  to 
attempt  the  milder  means  of  bribery,  notably  in 
the  case  of  Melanchthon.  In  1532  Campeggio  re- 
turned to  Rome.  His  last  phase  of  activity  was 
in  connection  with  the  plans  of  Paul  III.  for  a  gen- 
eral council.  A  memorial  on  the  Centum  gravamina 
GtrmanoTunty  written  in  1536,  shows  that  by  that 
time  Campeggio  had  arrived  at  a  different  view  of 
the  claims  and  rights  of  the  German  nation. 

(T.  Brieoer.) 

Bxblxoobapbt:  C.  Sigonius,   Dt  vUa   LaurtrUii   Campegii, 
Bolocius    1681,  republished  in  Stgonii  Opera  omnia,  iii. 


631-fi76.  Milan,  1733;  S.  Fhaes,  RdmUehe  DokumerUe  tur 
Oeadiichte  der  EhMcheidurig  Heinrieha  VIII.,  1697-84, 
pp.  zvi.-zxxi.,  Paderborn.  1893. 

CAMPELLO,  COUirr  ENRICO  BE:  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Rome  in  the  year  1831;  d.  in 
the  year  1903.  Brought  up  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  he  became  priest  1855,  and  canon 
of  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  1868.  Feeling  himself  un- 
able, however,  to  accept  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility,  he  resigned  his  office  in  1881  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  Later  he  joined  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church,  and  founded  the  Reformed  Italian 
Catholic  Church,  of  which  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  by  Bishop  E.  Herzog  in  Switzeriand.  He 
worked  for  many  years,  first  in  Rome  without  suc- 
cess and  later  in  Umbria,  but  in  1902  returned  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  He  wrote:  Cenni  aiUO' 
biografici  che  rendono  ragione  deJV  iiacita  di  lui  daUa 
chiesa  pa-pale  (Rome,  1881). 
Biblioorapht:  A.  Robertson,  Couni  CampeUo  and  CaAolie 

Reform  in  Italy,  London,  1891. 

CAMPION,  EDMUND:  Jesuit;  b.  in  London 
Jan.  25,  1540;  hanged  there  at  Tyburn  Dec.  1, 1581. 
He  won  much  distinction  for  ability  and  scholar- 
ship at  school  in  London,  and  had  a  brilliant  career 
at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1561;  M.A., 
1565);  in  1567  he  was  ordained  deacon  in  the 
Church  of  England,  but,  having  always  been  a 
Roman  Catholic  at  heart,  in  1569  or  1570  he  went 
to  Ireland,  hoping  to  find  employment  in  a  new 
university  to  be  located  in  Dublin.  The  scheme 
fell  through  and  he  returned  to  England,  went 
thence  to  Douai,  where  he  openly  renounced  Prot- 
estantism, finished  his  theological  studies,  and 
took  the  degree  of  B.D.  In  1573  he  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  Ilome,  and  was  sent  to  Prague,  where 
he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  in  1578.  In 
Jime.  1580,  he  entered  England  as  a  missionary 
of  his  order,  and  preached  and  worked  there  with 
success  until  July,  1581,  when  he  was  arrested  and 
committed  to  the  Tower.  He  was  treated  with 
much  severity,  was  several  times  examined  under 
torture,  and  in  November  was  condemned,  after 
an  unfair  trial,  upon  a  charge  of  having  conspired 
to  dethrone  the  queen.  He  is  described  by  Prot- 
estants as  well  as  Roman  Catholics  as  a  man  of 
uncommon  ability,  an  eloquent  orator,  of  much 
diplomatic  skill,  and  amiable  in  disposition  and 
b'fe.  His  chief  work  was  the  Decern  rationea,  in 
which  he  challenges  the  Protestants  to  meet  him 
in  debate  and  professes  himself  ready  to  prove  the 
falsity  of  Protestantism  and  the  truth  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  by  argument  upon  any 
one  of  ten  topics,  finished  about  Easter,  1581,  and 
printed  ostensibly  at  Douai,  but  really  in  or  near 
London,  the  same  year;  it  was  spread  broadcaat 
at  commencement  at  Oxford  in  June  (best  edition 
by  Silvester  Petra^Sancta,  Antwerp,  1631;  Eng. 
transl.,  1606,  1632,  1687,  1827).  While  in  Ireland 
he  wrote  a  history  of  the  country  which  was  used 
by  Holinshed  in  compiling  his  Chronicles  (1577), 
and  was  printed  by  Sir  James  Ware  in  his  Hietary 
of  Irelarid  (Dublin,  1633;  reprinted  in  Ancient 
Irish  Histories,  1809). 
Bxbuoorapht:  R.   Simpaon,   Edmund  Campiam,  a  BioQ- 


Oamp-Keetinffs 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


374 


raphy,  London,  1867  ("  perhaps  the  most  able  mono- 
graph of  Catholic  history  ");  J.  A.  Froude,  Hiatory  of 
England^  vol.  xi.,  chap,  xxviii.,  London,  1870;  £.  L. 
Taunton,  The  Hiatory  of  the  JeauiU  in  England,  1680- 
1773,  ib.  1901;  J.  Gillow.  BUdiographical  Dictionary  of 
the  Engliah  Catholics,  i.  376-392,  London,  n.d.  (a  full  list 
of  his  works  is  appended):  DNB,  viii.  398-402. 

CAHP-MEETINGS:  Religious  gatherings  held 
in  a  grove,  usually  lasting  for  several  dajrs,  during 
which  many  find  shelter  in  tents  or  temporary 
houses.  The  main  features  are  the  open-air  preach- 
ing, the  night  prayer-meetings,  and  the  freedom 
of  the  life.  They  are  not  now  so  common  as  for- 
merly. The  first  meeting  of  the  kind  is  said  to 
have  taken  place  in  Kentucky,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  River,  in  1799,  imder  a  Presbyterian  and  a 
Methodist  minister.  These  denominations  at  first 
used  them  in  common;  but  gradually  the  Presby- 
terians withdrew,  and  they  became  almost  exclu- 
sively Methodist  and  Baptist  gatherings.  In  re- 
cent times  the  Methodists  have  purchased  tracts 
of  land  in  desirable  locations  on  the  seaboard  or 
inland,  and  turned  them  into  parks,  with  comfort- 
able houses,  streets,  post-offices,  meeting-places, 
Biblical  models,  etc.,  and  there  in  the  summer 
many  persons  live,  and  there  the  religioas  gather- 
ings of  different  kinds  are  held  daily.  Thus  the 
primitive  camp-meeting  is  continued  in  an  im- 
proved form.  The  credit  of  introducing  camp- 
meetings  into  EIngiand  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Lorenzo 
Dow  (q.v.),  an  eccentric  though  able  minister  of 
Methodist  views,  who  in  1807  proposed  it  in  Staf- 
fordshire. Two  Methodists,  William  Clowes  and 
Hugh  Bourne,  were  so  impressed  with  the  advan- 
tages of  this  style  of  service  that  they  persisted 
in  holding  them  after  they  were  disapproved  by 
the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1807;  for  doing  which 
they  were  finally  expelled.  I  n  1 8 1 0  they  founded  the 
Primitive  Methodists,  which  body  uses  the  camp- 
meeting.  The  Irish  Wesleyans  commenced  using 
them  in  1860. 
Biblioorapht:  S.  C.  Swallow,  Camp-Afeetitigt:  their  Origin, 

Hiet,  and  Utility,  aUo  their  Perternon,  New  York,  1878. 

CAMUS,  ca^mU',  de  Pont  Carr€,  JEAN  PIERRE: 
French  prelate;  b.  in  Paris  Nov.  3,  1584;  d.  there 
Apr.  25,  1652.  He  became  successively  bishop  of 
Belley  1609,  abbot  of  Aulnay  in  Normandy  1629, 
but  retired  to  the  Hospital  des  Incurables  in  Paris 
1651.  He  was  an  extremely  prolific  writer.  The 
catalogue  of  his  writings  (Paris,  1653)  contains  186 
titles.  Among  them  are  many  moral  romances, 
which  were  admired  in  his  time,  and  some  translated 
into  English,  but  are  now  forgotten.  He  is  still 
remembered  for  his  satirical  pamphlets  against  the 
mendicant  orders,  e.g..  Disappropriation  Clauatrelle 
and  PauvreU  Evangdique,  which  were  elaborately 
refuted  in  ArUv-Camua  (Douai,  1634),  and  especially 
for  the  fruit  of  his  great  intimacy  with  Francis  of 
Sales,  L* Esprit  du  bierirheureux  Francois  de  Sales 
(6  vob.,  Paris,  1641,  new  ed.,  3  vols.,  1840,  abridged 
by  Collot,  1737;  Eng.  transl.  of  abridgement.  The 
Spirit  of  S.  Francis  de  Sales,  London,  1880).  His 
dogmatic  work  in  the  Latin  translation  Appropin" 
qualio  Protestantium  ad  Ecclesiam  CathoHco-Ro* 
manam  is  in  vol.  v.  of  Migne's  Cours  de  ihiologie, 
BiBUOGaAPRT:  F.  Boulaa,  Camua,  Lyons,  1879. 

CANA.    See  Galilee,  II.,  §  4. 


CA^VAAN,  CANAANITES. 

The  Name  (5  1).  The  Hittitea  (|  7). 

Language  and  lieligion  ((  2).  The  Hivitee  (|  8). 

Conuneroe  ((3).  The  Horites  (|  9). 

Political  Relations  (f  4).  The  Periziites  (|  10). 

The  Earlier  InhabiUnt » ( ft  5 ).  The  Geshtirites  (ft  11). 

Peoples    Mentioned    in   the  The  Conquest  by   the    He- 
Bible  (ft  6).  brews  (ft  12). 

Canaan,  Canaanites,  are  names  given  in  the  Old 
Testament  and  elsewhere  to  the  land  acquired  by 
the  Hebrews  and  to  the  pre-Hebraic  people  who 
occupied  it.  Apart  from  a  few  cases  of  personifi- 
cation, Canaan  is  the  general  name  applied  to  the 
country  (Judges  v.  19;  in  JE,  Gen.  xlii.;  in  P,  Gen. 
xi.  31).  It  is  formed  from  Kana'  with  the  addition 
of  the  n  denoting  place;  the  simple  form  does  not 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  there  is  abundant 
evidence  in  the  Amama  tablets  and  elsewhere  that 
it  was  used.  It  is  also  clear  that  it  was  not  orig- 
inally a  proper  name.  The  significance  of  the 
word  is  not  clear,  though  many  attempts  to  dis- 
cover it  have  been  made.  It  seems  in  some  places 
to   have  the  signification  of  "Lowland"    (Nuol 

sdii.  29;  Josh.  v.  1;  Zeph.  ii.  5).  In 
I.  The  some  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  the 
Name.      word  is  used  to  denote  the  part  of 

Asia  under  Egyptian  control,  inclu- 
ding Phenicia;  but  the  general  custom  of  Egyptians 
was  to  designate  southern  Syria  by  J/aru  and  north- 
em  Syria  by  Rutennu.  In  the  Amama  tablets  it 
means  what  is  now  understood  by  Syria.  Old 
Testament  usage  varies.  In  Gen.  x.  19  (JE)  it  in- 
cludes Phenicia,  the  land  of  Israel,  and  Philistia, 
with  boundaries  imdefined  on  the  north,  a  usage 
followed  generally  by  D,  though  Deut.  xi.  24  ex- 
tends the  eastem  boundary  to  the  Euphrates.  The 
general  statement  is  justified  that  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament the  name  is  used  to  designate  what  is  now 
meant  by  Syria,  without  very  definite  boundaries, 
generally  excluding  lands  east  of  the  Jordan.  And 
Canaauites  designated  the  people  who  inhabited 
the  land  of  Canaan,  except  that  E  uses  "Amo- 
rites  "  (q.v.)  to  express  this  meaning. 

The  question  is  suggested  whether  the  Canaan- 
ites  had  anything  in  common  apart  from  their 
dwelling  in  the  land  so  designated.  Isa.  xix.  18 
mentions  "  the  language  of  Canaan,"  a  phrase 
which  implies  that  a  common  language  was  there 
used.  Of  course  there  were  dialectical  differences, 
say,  between  the  north  and  the  south,  but  these 
were  not  such  tlrnt  the  inhabitant  of  one  part  could 
not  understand  the  inhabitant  of  another.  His- 
toric antl  inscriptional  e\4dence  bears  this  out.  Be- 
sides unity  of  language  there  was  a  common  con- 
ception of  religion.  The  deities  were  originally 
nature-powers  such  as  the  sun,  the  heavens,  the 

moon,  thunder  and  lightning.     With 

2.  Language  advance  of  civilization  they  blended, 

and        while  worship  was  still  offered  at  nu- 

Religion.    merous  local   shrines.     At  these   the 

proper  names  of  the  deities  were  not 
generally  used,  the  gods  were  spoken  of  as  the 
Ba'al  "  Lord  "  or  the  Ba'alak  **  Mistress  "  of  the 
place,  e.g.,  Baal-IIermon,  "  Lord  of  Hermon." 
The  places  of  worsliip  were  the  tops  of  the  hula 
(see  High  Places).  Near  the  altar  stood  a  sacred 
vtone  or  tree  or  pillar.     If  there  were  an  image  of 


376 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Camp-Keetlnvs 
Canaan 


the  deity,  there  was  also  a  temple  or  a  house  and 
a  priest.  The  customs  of  worship  were  in  the 
closest  connection  with  the  work  of  daily  life,  the 
offerings  were  of  the  products  of  field,  garden, 
vineyard,  or  pasture.  In  the  cities  more  developed 
forms  took  their  place.  The  mjrth  was  everywhere 
employed,  at  first  in  local  fonn,  later  in  philosoph- 
ical  and  poetical  development  in  which  origins,  des- 
tinies, beginnings  of  human  customs,  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  cities  and  holy  localities  had  their  place. 
In  some  places  prostitution  for  religious  purposes 
was  practised,  also  self-mutilation  and  infant-sacri- 
fice. There  were  also  numerous  practises  which 
were  siurvivals  from  primitive  worship,  from  ani- 
mism, totemism,  and  fetishism.  The  culture  of  the 
people  had  in  general  a  conmion  stamp.  Baby- 
lonian influence  had  advanced  by  the  third  mil- 
lennium B.C.  at  least  as  far  south  as  central  Syria. 
Egypt's  influence  was  first  felt  about  1500  b.g. 
While  northern  Syria  immediately  bordered  on  the 
Euphrates,  a  desert  stretched  between  southern 
Syria  and  Egypt.  The  fact  that  the  Amama  tab- 
lets, which  are  classed  as  Egyptian  documents, 
are  in  the  cuneiform  shows  that  Babylonian  ideas 
were  dominant,  though  some  admixture  of  Egyptian 
ideas  must  be  allowed. 

The  middle  position  of  S3rria,  between  the  east 
and  the  west,  between  the  desert  and  the  sea,  in- 
troduces another  occupation  besides  those  men- 
tioned in  which  the  inhabitants  engaged,  com- 
merce.    Before  the  sea  was    traversed    by  ships, 

the    roads    from    the    Euphrates    to 

3.  Com-    Egypt  passed  through  north  and  south 

merce.      Syria.     Sea-travel    later  opened    up 

routes  which  included  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Red  Sea.  The  products  of  Canaan 
proper  were  small  in  proportion  to  those  resulting 
from  commercial  operations.  These  became,  there- 
fore, the  favorite  employment  of  the  Canaanites, 
and  their  name  became  synonymous  with  mer- 
chant (Ezek  xvi.  29,  R.  V.  margin). 

There  were  no  great  states  built  up  in  Canaan 
(the  Hebrews  are  not  here  under  discussion)  ex- 
cept that  of  the  Hittites  (q.v.),  who  possessed  a 
great  kingdom  in  northern  Syria.  Apart  from 
this  only  small  states  are  mentioned.  The  Amama 
tablets  make  known  a  number  of  these  as  at  war 
with  each  other  and  as  accused  of  unfaithfulness 
to  the  Pharaohs  Amenophis  III.  and  IV.  Egyp- 
tian overlordship  was  maintained  more  or  less 
completely  1500-1200  B.C.     The  sons  of  the  local 

kings  were  sent  to  Egypt  for  their 
4.  Political  education,  and  their  enthronement 
Relations,   when  they  succeeded  to  power  was 

the  deed  of  the  Pharaoh.  The  topog- 
raphy of  the  country,  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges 
with  intervening  valleys  and  wadis,  is  not  favor- 
able to  the  formation  and  maintaining  of  great 
states;  even  those  of  Damascus  and  of  Israel  were 
not  long-lived. 

According  to  the  representation  in  Gen.  x.  18b, 
the  Canaanites  had  spread  from  the  central  part 
toward  the  south.  This  can  not  be  proved,  but 
the  course  of  subsequent  historical  movements 
makes  it  probable.  The  custom  of  E  in  using 
"  Amorites "   to  connote  the  inhabitants  of  the 


land  and  the  known  course  of  the  progress  of  this 
people  is  one  of  these  indications.     Only  faint  rec- 
ollections  of   the    primitive  dwellers 
5.  The      are  preserved  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Earlier     in  such  passages  as  Deut.  ii.  10-11; 
Inhabitants.  II    Sam.  xxi.   16,   18,  20,  22,  where 
they  appear  as  "  giants,"  a  mythical 
term  (cf.  Amos  ii.  9).     From  them  the  Plain  of 
Rephaim  west  of  Jerusalem  received  its  name.     In 
the  passages  from  Samuel  quoted  above  Raphah, 
"  the  Giant,"  is  named  as  their  ancestor.     Deut. 
ii.  11  reckons  the  Anakim  as  belonging  to  them, 
and  Num.  xiii.  33  is  an  expression  of  their  physical 
stature;  their  chief  town  is  named  as  Kirjath-arba, 
the  latter  part  of  which  name  is  explained  as  the 
name  of  the  ancestor  and  the  greatest  of  the  Ana- 
kim (Josh.  xiv.  15,  XV.  13). 

The  Old  Testament  employs  the  term  Canaan- 
ites not  only  in  the  sense  explained  in  tlie  foregoing 
as  the  common  name  of  the  inhabitants  of  Canaan, 
but  also  in  an  ethnographical  sense  of  one  of  the 
stocks  included.     But  from  the  preceding  discus- 
sion the  doubt  is  raised  whether  this  usage  is  orig- 
inal or   has   ethnological  worth.     For  decision  of 
this  question  it  is  important  to  note  that  the  Ca- 
naanites are  mentioned  among  other  peoples  of 
Canaan  when   the  author  wishes  to 
6.  Peoples  note  a  great  number  of  peoples  whom 
Mentioned  the  Hebrews  had  subdued.     In  this 
in  the       case   a   settled    form   was   employed 
Bible.       with  an  alternative  form.     The  com- 
mon  form  was    ''  Canaanite,  Hittite, 
Amorite,  Perizzite,  Hivite,  and  Jebusite  "  (in  eleven 
passages),  in  which  the  intention  is  clear  to  place 
the  more  important  peoples  first  in  the  arrange- 
ment.    The  alternative  form  is  "  Amorite,  Periz- 
zite,  Canaanite,   Hittite,  Girgashite,   Hivite,  and 
Jebusite  "  (Josh,  xxi  v.    11).    This  last  is  varied 
by  the  insertion  of  Kenites,  Kenizzites,  and  Kad- 
monites  (Gen.  xv.  19-21),  or  by  the  omission  of  one 
or  more  from  the  list  (for  Kenites  see  Cain,  Ke^- 
NiTEs;  for  Kenizzites  see  Caleb,  Calebites,  and  see 
also  AMORrrES  and  Jebus,  Jebusftes). 

The  Hittites  have  become  more  familiar  through 
the  decipherment  of  the  hieroglyplis  and  cuneiform 
inscriptions  than  through  the  Old  Testament. 
Thothmes  III.  (c.  1500  b.c.)  first  came  into  con- 
tact with  them  in  the  district  later  known  as  Com- 
magene  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Syria.  A 
hundred  years  later  they  vere  in  i>ossession  of  a 
kingdom  which  stretched  from  the  Euphrates  to 
the  middle  Orontes,  including  Hamath  within  its 
bounds.  Rameses  II.  (c.  1300-1230  b.c.)  waged 
a  long  war  with  them,  and  in  the  twenty-first  year 
of  his  reign  made  a  treaty  in  wliich  a  demarcation 
of  the  boundaries  of  their  respective  realms  was 
agreed  upon.  About  1200  b.c.  this  kingdom  fell 
apart  into  a  nimiber  of  small  states.  In  the  ninth 
and  eighth  centuries  the  Assyrians  mention  a  small 
Hittite  kingdom  encountered  in  their  campaigns, 
that  of  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates.  They  also, 
use  the  phrase  "  land  of  the  Hittites  "  to  denote 
the  region  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Taurus 
range  and  south  as  far  as  Palestine.  But  this  can 
not  be  held  to  prove  that  the  Hittite  power  ex- 
tended so  far.     They  left  numerous  inscriptions, 


Oanada 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


376 


in  the  attempt  to  decipher  which  P.   Jensen  is 
particularly  engaged,  and  he  thinks  he  can  dis- 
cover in  the  Hittites  the  forerunners  of  the  Arme- 
nians.    The  Egyptians  call  the  Hit- 

7.  The      tites  J^ata,  the  Assyrians  call  them 
Hittites.     j^atti.    Old  Testament  passages  locate 

them  in  North  Syria  in  close  connection 
with  the  Arameans  (I  Kings  x.  29)  and  II  Kings  vii. 

6  associates  them  with  the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Musri 
(according  to  Winckler,  misread  **  Egypt/'  see 
A08TRIA,  VI.,  2,  3,  §  7).  And  the  Table  of  Na- 
tions in  Gen.  x.  15  with  its  context  leaves  no  doubt 
that  the  intention  was  to  locate  them  in  North 
Syria.  The  Hittites  in  the  service  of  David  (I 
Sam.  xxvi.  6;  II  Sam.  xi.  3)  were  probably  sol- 
diers of  fortune  who  had  come  south.  Some  few 
Old  Testament  passages  coincide  with  the  late 
Assyrian  usage  and  speak  of  the  land  far  south  as 
Hittite.    Ske  HrmrES. 

The  Hivites  are  associated  with  the  Amorites  in 
the  LXX.  text  of  Isa.  xvii.  0  (cf.  R.  V.  margin), 
but,  apart  from  the  stereotyped  formulas  mentioned 
afaK>ve,  seldom  appear  in  Scripture.     II  Sam.  xxiv. 

7  locates  them  among  the  Canaanites  dwelling 

south  of  lyre.    According  to  Judges 

8.  The      iii.  3,  cf.  Josh.   xi.  3,  their  country 
HiTites.     was  in  Lebanon  between  "  Baal-her- 

mon  and  the  entering  in  of  Hamath." 
Josh.  xi.  3  is  not  in  accord  with  II  Sam.  xxiv. 
7,  and  it  does  not  lighten  the  difficulty  to  substi- 
tute Hittites  for  EQvites. 

The  Horites  according  to  Gen.  xxxvi.  30  inhab- 
ited Mt.  Seir,  that  is  the  district  east  and  west  of 
the  valley  (the  wadi  Arabah)  south  of  the  Dead 

Sea.    They  were   destroyed   by   the 

9.  The      Edomites    (Deut.   ii.    12,    22).    Gen. 
Horites.     xxxvi.  20-30  counts  seven  branches 

of  the  Horites.  Gen.  xiv.  6  assigns  to 
them  the  mountain  east  of  the  wadi  Arabah.  Now- 
adays the  custom  prevails  to  connect  them  with 
the  people  named  ffaru  by  the  Egyptians,  who 
mean  by  it  South  Palestine. 

The  Perizzites  are  seldom  mentioned  except  in 
the  stereotyped  formulas;  in  three  J  passages,  Gen. 
xiii.  7,  xxxiv.  30;  Judges  i.  4,  they  are 
zo.  The     associated  with  the  Canaanites,  and 
Perizzites.  in  Josh.  xvii.  15  with  the   Rephaim, 
"Giants."    The  last  passage  would 
make  of  them  pre^Ganaanites,  for  which  the  J  pas- 
sages give  no  occasion,  but  locate  them   about 
Bethel,  Shechem,  and  Bezek,  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  Joseph  territory. 

The  Geshurites  are  in  Deut.  iii.  14;  Josh.  xii.  5, 

xiii.  11, 13  placed  in  the  Aramaic  district  of  Geshur, 

in  the  northern  part  of  the  Jaulan 

zx.  The  Ge-  east  of  the  Jordan;  but  Josh.   xiii. 

shurites.    2  and  I  Sam.  xxvii.  8  locate  them 

in    southern    Philistia.    Since   Well- 

hausen,  the  last  passage  has  been  made  to  read 

"  Gezerites  '*  instead.    But  it  must  be  concluded 

that  the  name  Geshurites  was  applied  to  nomads 

in  southern  Palestine.    Besides  the  foregoing  there 

appear   the  Girgashites  (Gen.  x.   16,  etc.),  to  be 

connected,  perhaps,  with  names  known  to  be  Phe- 

nidan;    the    Awim   (Deut.  ii.   23;  Josh.  xiii.  3), 

whose    residence  was    south    of  Gaza:  and    the 


Kadmonites  (Gen.  xv.  19),  of  whom    nothing  is 
known. 

The  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Hebrews  was 
rendered  easy  by  several  circumstances.  The  over^ 
lordship  of  the  Egyptians  became  about  1250 
B.C.  a  mere  name.  Moreover,  about  1400  B.C.,  ac^ 
cording  to  the  Amama  Tablets  (q.v.),  a  people  called 
the  Habiri  had  crossed  the  Jordan  westward, 
partly  because  the  chiefs  there  were  employing 
them  as  soldiers  and  partly  to  better  their  lot 
These,  related  to  the  Israelites,  were  indeed 
their  predecessors  along  the  same 
12.  The  route,  who  by  establishing  themselves 
Conquest  gave  the  invitation  to  others  to  settle 
by  the  there.  But  the  light-armed  Israel- 
Hebrews,  ites,  who  established  themselves  in 
the  more  open  country,  had  a  moit 
difficult  task  against  the  Canaanites  armed  with 
iron  weapons  and  chariots  of  the  same  material 
The  assault  of  the  Hebrews  was  not  made  with 
their  united  force  and  at  one  time,  as  the  narrati^^ 
in  Joshua  asserts,  but  in  two  divisions,  and  not  at 
the  same  time.  The  first  attack  was  made  by 
Simeon,  Levi,  and  Judah,  the  second  by  the  Joseph 
tribes  under  the  leadership  of  Joshua  (Judges  i.  1- 
3,  22).  A  series  of  victories,  reported  in  Josh. 
ii.-x.,  made  it  possible  for  the  Joseph  tribes  to  settle 
between  Bethel  and  the  Plain  of  Jezreel.  Accord- 
ing to  the  first  part  of  Joshua,  the  Hebrews  put  the 
ban  on  the  Canaanites,  i.e.,  exterminated  them. 
But  this  does  not  agree  with  other  statements. 
While  indeed  those  foes  were  perhaps  exterminated 
who  were  taken  in  actual  contest,  the  universal  ap- 
plication of  the  b&n  does  not  accord  with  many 
other  passages  of  Scripture.  The  Canaanites  were 
pressed  back;  progress  in  possession  was  made 
partly  by  subjecting  the  eariier  inhabitants,  partly 
by  peaceful  means.  In  the  former  case  the  Cajaaim- 
ites  became  slaves;  in  the  latter,  union  of  stocks 
was  brought  about.  The  victory  at  Taanach  under 
Deborah  and  Barak  assured  to  the  Hebrews  the 
control  of  the  Plain  of  Jezreel.  The  northern  dis- 
tricts of  Naphtali  and  Asher  retained  their  non- 
Israelitic  population  (see  Galilee).  The  southern 
stock  of  Judah  in  time  allied  itself  with  many  peo- 
ples of  alien  race  (see  Caleb,  Calebites,  and  cf. 
Gen.  xxxviii.).  The  remainder  of  the  non-Hebraic 
population  was  put  to  service  by  Solomon. 

It  is  this  reduction  of  the  Canaanites  to  servitude 
which  is  at  the  basis  of  the  narrative  in  Gen.  ix. 
20-27,  which  deals  with  Noah  and  his  three  sons. 
Wellhausen  has  made  it  plain  that  in  ix.  22  the 
words  "  Ham  the  father  of  "  are  an  intrusion  by 
the  editor  to  bring  the  section  into  harmony  with 
its  context.  Canaan  is  the  younger  brother  who 
is  there  subjected  to  his  brethren.  Shem  no  doubt, 
in  the  passage,  means  Israel,  and  Japhet  the  Phe- 
nidans,  and  Shem  and  Japhet  are  both  ruling  peo- 
ples. Canaan's  position  in  the  Table  of  Nations 
(q.v.)  is  quite  other  than  that  in  Gen.  ix.  20-27. 

(H.  GUTHE.) 

Bxbuooraphy:  K.  Budde,  Die  bibltHhe  UrgeaekU^te,  GiB»- 
sen.  1883;  A.  H.  Sayoe,  Race*  of  the  Old  Teekament,  htm- 
don,  1801  (brief,  needs  bringing  up  to  date);  idem.  The 
'  Higher  CriUciam '  and  the  MonumerUe,  ib.  1894;  idem. 
Patriar€hal  Paleetine,  ib.  1895  (the  last  two  books  are 
damaged  by  their  polemic  aim);  G.  F.  Mo<u«,  in  JAOS, 


377 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canaan 
Canada 


zv.  (1893).  pp.  Ixvii.-lxx.  (on  the  etymology);  J.  Ben- 
linger,  Ileiraische  Archdohgie,  §  12.  Freiburg,  1894; 
£.  Schrader.  Daa  Land  Amurru^  in  SitgungabtricMe  der 
Berliner  Akademie,  Dec.  20,  1894;  idem,  KAT,  Index 
■.w.  '*  Amoriter,"  "  Amurru,"  "  Kanaan  ";  J.  F.  Mo- 
Curdy,  HiMlory,  Prophecy  and  the  Monumenta,  vola.  i.-ii., 
New  York,  1895-06;  F.  Buhl,  Geograpkie  dea  alien  Palee- 
Hna,  I  46,  TQbingen,  1896;  F.  Hommel,  The  Ancient 
Hebrew  Tradition,  London.  1897;  G.  A.  Smith,  Hiaior- 
ical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  4-6,  ib.  1897  (on  the 
etymology);  L.  B.  Paton,  Early  Hiatory  of  Syria  and 
Paleatinet  New  York,  1901  (an  antidote  for  the  worlu  of 
Sayoe  and  Hommel);  W.  Erbt.  Die  Holier.  Kanaan 
im  ZeUalter  der  hebrdiachen  Wanderung  und  hebrAiachen 
Staatengriindungen,  Leipnio,  1906;  H.  Vincent,  Canaan 
d'apria  Vexploration  ricente,  Paris,  1907;  DB,  i.  347-348; 
EB,  i.  638-643.  The  literature  on  the  Amama  Tablets 
usually  diBCUsses  the  subject. 

CANADA:  A  country  of  North  America  occu- 
pying the  CD  tire  continent  north  of  the  United 
States  except  Alaska;  area,  3,745,574  square  miles; 
population  (1901),  5,371,315  (estimated  in  1906  at 
5,625,000). 

The  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  official  designation 
of  the  country,  was  formed  in  1867  by  a  confedera- 
tion of  the  eastern  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  (now  Ontario  and  Quebec),  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  Nova  Scotia,  the  coalition  being  recog- 
nized by  an  Act  of  Parliament  of  the  mother  coun- 
try. A  governor-general,  appointed  by  the  king 
of  England,  and  a  privy  council  administer  the 
government.  The  legislative  power  is  a  parlia- 
ment consisting  of  a  senate,  whose  members  are 
appointed  for  life  by  the  crown  on  nomination  of 
the  ministry,  and  a  house  of  commons 
Political  elected  every  five  yeans  at  the  longest. 
Biyisions  The  Dominion  now  comprises,  in  ad- 
and  Gov-  dition  to  the  provinces  already  named, 
emment  Manitoba  (admitted  1870),  British 
Columbia  (1871),  Prince  Edward 
Island  (1873),  Alberta  (1905),  Saskatchewan 
(1905),  and  the  Northwest  Territories  comprising 
the  districts  of  Assiniboia,  Athabasca,  Keewatin, 
Yukon,  Mackenzie,  Ungava,  and  Franklin.  Each 
province  has  its  own  "  lieutenant-governor,"  ex- 
ecutive council,  and  legislative  assembly.  Nearly 
three-quarters  of  the  entire  population  is  in  the 
two  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  and  almost 
ninety  per  cent  in  the  five  eastern  provinces.  The 
increase  during  the  last  decade  was  a  little  more 
than  eleven  per  cent.  There  is  no  State  Church, 
but  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Quebec  are  guaranteed 
the  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  previous  to  the 
English  occupation. 

The  Frenchman  Jacques  Cartier  took  possession 
of  the  Labrador  region  in  the  name  of  his  king  in 
1534,  and  in  1535-36  he  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence 
as  far  as  Montreal.    The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment was  at  Quebec  in  1608  under  the  lead  of 
Champlain.    The     gain     in     French 
History     colonists   was   slow,  and   the   stream 
and        flowed  westward  toward  the  Missis- 
Statistics,    sippi.     English     conquest     and     the 
peace  of  1763  brought  Canada  under 
English  control.    The  EInglish  and  Protestant  in- 
habitants were  considerably  increased  by  immi- 
gration of  English  loyalists  from  the  Unit^  States 
after  1783,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  received  a 
large  increment  during  the  nineteenth  century  by 


immigration  from  Ireland;  the  French  population 
also  was  augmented  after  1871  by  a  noteworthy 
number  of  Alsatians. 

The  following  is  the  table  of  religious  statistics 
from  the  census  of  1901 : 


Adventists 

Agnostics,  Atheists, 

etc 

Anglicans 

Baptists 

Baptiste,  Free 

Brethren 

Buddhists 

Catholic    Apostolio 

(Irvingites) 

Christadelphians. . . 

Christians 

Christian  Scientists. 
Church  of  Christ. . . 

Church  of  God 

Confucians 

Congregationalists. . 

Deists 

Disciples 

Dukhobors 

Evangelicals 

Friends  (Quakers). 

Greek  Church 

Holiness  Movement 

(Homerites) 

Jews 


8.068 

3.613 

680.620 

202.189 

24.288 

8.014 

10,407 

400 

1.030 

6.900 

2.619 

2,264 

351 

6,115 

28.293 

78 

14.900 

8,776 

10,193 

4,100 

16.630 

2,776 
16,401 


L«atter-day  Saints 
(Mormons) 

Lutherans 

Mennonites 

Methodists 

Mohammedans 

New  Church  (Swe- 
denborgians) 

Non-sectarian 

No  Religion 

Pagans 

Plymouth  Brethren 

Presbyterians 

Protestants 

Reformed     Episco- 


Roman  Catholics... 2, 
Salvation  Army. . . . 

Spiritualists 

Theosophists 

Timkers 

Unitarians 

United  Brethren. . . 

Universalists 

Unspecified 

Various   Sects 

Zionites. 


6.891 

92,624 

31.797 

916.886 

47 

881 

216 

4,810 

16,107 

2,774 

842.442 

11,612 

874 

229.600 

10.308 

616 

107 

1.628 

1,934 

4,701 

2,689 

43,222 

2,796 

42 


The  Roman  Catholics  constitute  41.5  per  cent  of 
the  entire  population.  They  are  most  numerous 
in  Quebec  (1,429,260;  86.7  per  cent  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  province);  in  Ontario  their  number 
is  390,304  (1.8  per  cent).  The  total  number  of 
Protestants  is  about  3,000,000  (56.2  per  cent). 
Nearly  all  of  the  Buddhists  and  Confucians  are  in 
British  (}olumbia,  whither  they  have  come  as  a 
result  of  the  active  trade  with  eastern  Asia.  The 
adherents  of  the  Greek  Church  are  mostly  immi- 
grants from  Russia  to  Manitoba,  Alberta,  and  As- 
siniboia; the  Dukhobors  (q.v.),  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  schismatic  branch  of  this  Church,  are 
in  Assiniboia  and  Saskatchewan.  Of  the  Jews  al- 
most half  (7,498)  are  in  Quebec  and  5,321  in  On- 
tario. Nearly  all  the  Mormons  are  in  Ontario 
(3,377)  and  Alberta  (3,212).  Of  the  Mennonites, 
15,246  are  in  Manitoba,  12,208  in  Ontario,  and 
3,683  in  Saskatchewan.  The  *'  pagans  "  are  the 
Eskimos  and  unconverted  Indians;  according  to 
some  authorities  their  number  is  much  larger  than 
that  given  by  the  census.  All  the  large  denomina- 
tions are  actively  engaged  in  missionary  work  in 
the  wide  domain  of  Canada,  operating  through 
permanent  stations  and  itinerant  missionaries. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  from  the  first 
been  particularly  successful  in  this  work,  and  the 
majority  of  the  Indians  converted  to  Christianity 
belong  to  this  Church.  The  "  various  sects  "  are 
110  in  number  and  include  seventy-nine  which  re- 
ported less  than  ten  members  each. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Canada  dates 
from  the  discovery.  Huguenots  were  allowed  to 
settle,  only  on  conditions  that  soon  proved  fatal  to 
their  religion.  In  1615  three  Recollect  priests  set- 
tled in  Quebec,  forming  the  earliest  regidar  estab- 
lishment. In  1625  the  Jesuits  arrived,  and  began 
their  missionary  and  educational  labors.     In  1657 


Oanada 
Oandllsli 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


378 


Francis  Xavier  de  Laval-Montmorency  (q.v.)  was 

named  vicar  apostolic   of  New  France,  becoming 

first  bishop  of  Quebec  in  1674.     Under 

The  Ro-     him  the  church  system  was  fully  or- 

man  Cath-  ganized.     For   some   time   alter   the 

olio         conquest,  the  see  of  Quebec  remained 

Church,  vacant,  as  the  EInglish  Government 
would  recognize  its  occupant  only  as 
the  head  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Canada,  and  not 
as  the  bishop  of  that  city.  The  difficulty  was,  how- 
ever, overcome.  In  1819  Joseph  Octave  Plessis 
(bishop  of  Quebec  from  1806)  became  the  first  Ca- 
nadian archbishop. 

As  organized  at  present  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  of  Canada  has  an  apostolic  delegate  (first 
appointed  by  Leo  XIII.),  who  resides  at  Ottawa. 
There  are  eight  provinces,  twenty  dioceses,  and 
four  vicariates  apostolic,  as  follows: 

Province  of  Halifax  (Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward  leland, 
and  New  Brunswick;  the  Bermuda  Islands  also  form  a  part 
of  the  archdiocese  of  Halifax);  archdiocese,  Halifax  (founded 
as  the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Nova  Scotia,  1817;  diocese, 
1842;  archdiocese,  1852);  dioceses,  Antigonish  (founded  as 
the  diocese  of  Arichat,  1844;  transferred  to  Antigonish, 
1886),  Charlottetown  (Prince  Edward  Island  and  the  Mag- 
dalen Islands,  1829),  Chatham  (1860).  and  St.  John  (1842). 

Province  of  Kingston  (Eastern  and  Northern  Ontario); 
archdiocese,  Kingston  (diocese,  1826;  archdiocese,  1889); 
dioceses,  Alexandria  (1890),  Peterborough  (1882),  and  Sault 
8te.  Marie  (1904). 

Province  of  Montreal  (Southern  and  Wejitem  Quebec); 
archdiocese,  Montreal  (diocese,  1836;  archdiocese,  1886); 
dioceses,  Joliette  (1904).  St.  Hyacinthe  (1852),  Sherbrooke 
(1874).  and  Valleyfield  (1892). 

Province  of  Ottawa  (parts  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Ottawa  and  the  region  about 
James  Bay);  archdiocese,  Ottawa  (diocese,  1847;  archdio- 
cese. 1886);  diocese,  Pembroke  (vicariate  apostolic,  1882; 
diocese,  1898). 

Province  of  Quebec  (Eastern  Quebec);  archdiocese,  Que- 
bec (vicariate  apostolic,  1657;  diocese,  1674;  archdiocese. 
1844);  dioceses,  Chicoutimi  (1878).  Nicolet  (1885),  Ri- 
mouski  (1867),  and  Three  Rivers  (1852);  vicariate  apostolic 
of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (prefecture  apostolic,  1882; 
vicariate.  1905). 

Province  of  St.  Boniface  (the  extreme  western  part  of 
Ontario.  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  Northwest 
Territories;;  archdiocese,  St.  Boniface  (diocese,  1847; 
archdiocese,  1871);  diocese,  St.  Albert  (1871);  vicariates 
apostolic.  Athabasca  (1862),  and  Saskatchewan  (1890). 

Province  of  Toronto  (Southwestern  Ontario);  archdio- 
cese, Toronto  (diocese,  1841;  archdiocese,  1870);  dioceses, 
Hamilton  (1856).  and  London  (1856). 

Province  of  Victoria  (British  Columbia,  the  Klondike  and 
Great  Slave  regions);  archdiocese,  Victoria  (1847);  diocese. 
New  Westminster  (vicariate  apostolic  of  British  (Columbia, 
1863;  diocese,  1890);  vicariate  apostolic  of  Mackenxie 
(1901). 

The  Official  Catholic  Dtredory  for  1906  gives  the  following 
figures:  number  of  priests  of  religious  orders,  1,116;  secular 
priests,  2,613;  churches,  2,495;  seminaries,  17,  with  1,183 
students;  universities  and  colleges,  45;  charitable  institu- 
tions. 202.  One  hundred  and  ten  Catholic  papers  are  named, 
and  the  list  of  religious  orders  includes  twenty-seven  for 
men  and  thirty-five  for  women,  the  larger  number  of  which 
are  actively  engaged  in  missionary  and  charitable  work. 
Laval  University  was  founded  at  Quebec  in  1852  and  has 
faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  arts. 

The  Anglican  Church  in  Canada  dates  from  its  con- 
quest by  England.  The  first  congregation  was  or- 
ganized in  Montreal  in  1766,  service  being  held  in 
the  chapel  of  the  Recollects  at  such  hours  as  the 
building  was  not  required  for  mass.  In  1774, 
while  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  secured  in 
all  its  previous  rights,  it  was  restricted  to  collect- 


ing its  church-dues  from  members  of  its  own  com- 
munion, and  the  purpose  was  intimated  of  estab- 
lishing a  Protestant  Church-     In  1791, 
The        when  Canada  first  received   a  consti- 
AngUcan    tution,  one-seventh  of  all  the  land  in 
Church,     the  colony  disposed  of  by  sale  or  grant 
to  colonists  was  "  reserved  "  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  Protestant  clergy.    In  1787  Charles  Ingts 
was  appointed  by  the  English  Crown    bishop  of 
Nova  Scotia — the  first  of  the  colonial  bishops;  in 
1793  Jacob  Mountain  was  appointed  bishop  of  Que- 
bec.   The  present  organization  includes  two  prov- 
inces and  twenty-three  bishoprics,  as  follows: 

Province  of  Canada  (the  Maritime  Provinces,  Quebec, 
and  Ontario);  archdiocese,  Montreal  (founded  1850;  arth- 
diocese,  1001;  since  1904  the  archbishop  has  borne  the  titk 
primate  of  all  Canada);  dioceses,  Algoma  (with  the  bts^p'<} 
seat  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  1873).  Fredericton  (1845).  Horoo 
(London,  1857),  Niagara  (Hamilton,  1875),  Nova  Scotii 
(Halifax,  1787),  Ontario  (Kingston,  1861),  Ottawa  (1896 i. 
Quebec  (1793).  Toronto  (1839). 

Province  of  Rupert's  Land  (the  territory  west  of  Ontarkt 
and  south  and  east  of  Hudson  Bay);  archdiocese,  Rupert's 
Land  (1849;  archdiocese,  1893;  the  cathedral  is  at  Wu^ 
nipeg);  dioceses,  Athabasca  (1884),  Calgary  (188S).  Kee- 
watin  (1901).  Mackeniie  River  (1874),  Mooeonee  (1872;. 
Qu'Appelle  (1884).  Saskatchewan  (1874).  Selkirk  (1891). 

Dioceses  not  forming  part  of  any  province:  Caledonia 
(1879).  Columbia  '1859)  Kootenai  (1901).  New  Westmia- 
ster  (1879). 

There  are  theological  schools  at  Lennoxville, 
Que.,  Montreal,  Toronto,  and  Winnipeg. 

For  the  history  and  information  ijx>ut  other  re- 
ligious bodies  of  Canada,  see  the  artides  on  the  dif- 
ferent denominations. 

Canada  has  a  good  system  of  public  instmctioii. 
each  province  managing  its  own  affairs  without 
centralized  system  for  the  entire  dominion.  Ele- 
mentary schools,  high  schools  or  coUe^ate  insti- 
tutes, and  normal  schools  lead  up  to  the  university, 
and  a  good  education  is  within  the 
Edtt-  reach  of  all.  The  expenses  are  met 
cation,  by  government  grants,  local  ajssesE^ 
ments,  and  school  fees.  Roman  Cath- 
olic schools  are  entitled  to  a  share  in  the  public 
educational  funds  by  the  agreement  of  1763,  and 
the  religious  question  has  1^  to  complications  in 
some  localities.  In  Quebec  there  are  two  distinct 
boards  of  school  commisdoners,  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic,  each  having  its  portion  of  the 
public  funds  and  managing  its  schools  as  it  sees  fit. 
In  Manitoba  there  are  no  separate  schools,  but  re- 
ligious instruction  may  be  given  in  the  school 
buildings  by  Protestant  or  Catholic  teachers. 

Bibliooraprt:  Statistics  and  other  information  may  be 
gathered  from  the  Canadian  Almanac,  Toronto,  the  5fc>- 
UsHcal  Year  Book  of  Canada,  Ottawa,  and  Le  Caitada 
eccUnaatiqtie,  Montreal,  all  annuals,  the  last  Roman  Cath- 
olic. On  the  English  Church  consult:  E.  R  StimsoiL 
Hi»tory  of  Separation  of  Church  and  State  in  Canada,  To> 
ronto,  1888;  J.  Langtry,  HiMtory  of  the  Church  in  Eagltn 
Canada,  London,  1892.  There  ia  also  a  Cjf€iopadia  <fif 
Methodiem  in  Canada,  Toronto,  1881.  For  early  Cathobr 
relations  consult  the  monumental  work,  ed.  R.  G.  niwaites. 
Je9uU  Relationa  and  AUied  Documents,  74  Tola.,  Gere- 
Urnd,  1896-1901. 

CANARY  ISLANDS.    See  Africa,  DI. 

CANDIDUS,  cOn-di'dtis  (WEISS),  PANTALEOH: 
Reformed  theologian;  b.  at  Ybbs  (60  m.  w.  of 
Vienna),  Austria,  Oct.  7,  1640;  d.  at  ZweibrQckn 


379 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canada 
CandUBh 


(55  m.  n.w.  of  Carlsruhe),  in  the  Palatinate,  Feb.  3, 
1608.     He  was  sent  in  his  tenth  year  to  Andreas 
Cupicius,  Evangelical  preacher  at  Weissenkirchen, 
for  instruction.     When  his  teacher  was  persecuted 
by  the  Jesuits  on  account  of  his  faith  and  thrown 
into  prison,  Candidus  attended  him  as  famulus  and 
fled  with  him  to  Hungary.     Returning  to  his  na- 
tive land,  he  continued  hLs  studies  with  the  aid  of 
Vitus  Nuber,  abbot  of  Saussenstein  (near  Ybbs), 
and  when  he  also  was  persecuted,  Candidus   ac- 
companied him  to  Duke  Wolfgang  of  ZweibrUcken. 
He   received  a  scholarship  from  the  duke  which 
enabled  him  to  acquire  a  thorough  himianistic  and 
theological  education  at  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, where  he  spent  about  seven  years  from  1558; 
he  became  amanuensis  of  Hubert  Languet  and  was 
on  intimate  terms  with  Melanchthon.    In  1565  he 
left  Wittenberg,  and,  after  having  taught  a  short 
time  in  the  Latin  school  of  ZweibrQcken,  became 
pastor  at  Hinzweiler,  then  deacon  at  Weisenheim 
and  ZweibrQcken,  and  in  1571  town  preacher  and 
general  superintendent  in  ZweibrQcken. 

The  Church  of  ZweibrQcken  had  been  foimded  by 
Johannes  Schweblin  in   accordance  with  the  Lu- 
theran doctrine  by  the  acceptance  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  and  the  Wittenberg  Concord  (q.v.)  of 
1536.    Duke  Wolfgang,  after  the  death  of  Melanch- 
thon, took  vigorous  measures  against  the  Philippists 
and  Calvinists  by  employing  strict  Lutherans  like 
Marbach,  Andrei,  and  Hesshus.    His  son,  John  I., 
continued  the  same  policy,  and  the  most  influential 
positions  were  filled  with  trustworthy  Lutherans 
such  as  Jacob  Heilbrunner  and  Jacob  Schopper. 
But  a  change  of  conditions  was  brought  about 
under  the  influence  of  the  Coimt  Palatine  John 
Casimir,  who  sent  his  cousin  John  a  statement  of 
the  conflicting  opinions  of  Reformed  princes  and 
theologians.     Thereupon  the  latter  demanded  in 
1578  a  general  convention  for  the  discussion  of 
these    questions.     Candidus,     who     had     always 
leaned  toward  Calvinism,  became  now  one  of  the 
most  influential  advocates  of  the  Reformed  cause, 
and  the  duke  himself  openly  confessed  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine,  although  he  had  signed  the  Formula 
of  Concord.    The  remonstrances  oCthe  Lutheran 
electoral  princes  were  of  no  avail,  nor  was  a  Lu- 
theran embassy  which  was  sent  in  1580,  consisting  of 
men  like  Marbach  and   Osiander.     Candidus  ac- 
cepted the  Reformed  Christology  and  the  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  in  1585 
edited  a  catechism  which  contributed  considerably 
to  the  eradication  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine.     More- 
over, he  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Re- 
formed theologians  of  Heidelberg  and  completed 
the  work  of  Calvinism  in  1588  by  bds  Christliche  und 
notwendige   Erkl&rung  des   Catechismi   aua   OoUes 
For(,  etc.,  which  in  its  wording  and  sense  follows 
closely  the  Heidelberg  catechism.    The  Reformed 
Church  service  was  introduced  in  the  same  way. 
The  dissensions  were  renewed  in  1593  at  the  re- 
ligious colloquy  of  Neuburg,  where  the  ZweibrQcken 
theologians  protested  against  any  innovations  and 
attempted  to  show  their  agreement  with  the  Au- 
gtistana.     Since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the    Church    of    ZweibrQcken    has    been 
counted  among  the  Reformed  Churches.     Candidus 


was  also  active  in  the  literary  field  and  has  left 
twenty  works,  written  mostly  in  Latin.  He  was 
especially  prolific  in  Latin  poetical  productions 
and  handled  the  elegiac  measore  with  ability. 

(J.  Schneider.) 

Bibliography:  F.  Butters,  ParUaUon  Candidu9,  ein  Leben»- 
bild,  Zweibracken.  1865;  L.  H&UBsor,  Oeachidtte  der 
rheiniachen  PfaU,  Heidelberg,  1856;  ADB,  a. v.,  vol.  iii. 

CANDLEMAS:  The  popular  English  name  for 
the  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary  or 
the  Presentation  of  Christ  in  the  Temple,  Feb.  2, 
derived  from  the  ancient  custom  of  blessing  candles 
on  that  day  for  use  in  church  and  elsewhere.  See 
Mary. 

CANDLEMAS  DAY.    See  Mary,  Festivals  of. 

CANDLER,  WARREN  AKIN:  Bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South;  b.  near  Villa 
Rica,  Ga.,  Aug.  23,  1857.  He  was  educated  at 
Emory  College,  Oxford,  Ga.  (B.A.,  1875),  and  en- 
tered the  North  Georgia  Conference  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  South,  in  1875,  holding 
various  pastorates  until  1880.  From  the  latter 
year  until  1888  he  was  editor  of  the  Christian  Advo- 
catCf  Nashville,  Tenn.,  the  ofiicial  organ  of  his  de- 
nomination, and  from  1888  to  1898  was  president 
of  Emory  College.  Since  1898  he  has  been  a  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  In 
theology  he  is  a  Wesleyan  Arminian.  He  has 
written:  History  of  Sunday  Schools  (New  York, 
1880);  Georgia's  Educational  Work  (Atlanta,  Ga., 
1893);  Christus  Auctor  (Nashville,  Tenn.,  1900); 
High  Living  and  High  Lives  (1901);  and  Great  Re- 
vivals and  the  Great  Republic  (1904). 


CANDLES. 
Service. 


See   Lights,  Use   of,   in    Divinb 


CANDLISH,    ROBERT    SMITH:    One    of    the 

founders  and  a  leader  of  the  Free  Church  of  Soot- 
land;  b.  in  Edinburgh  Mar.  23,  1806;  d.  there  Oct. 
19,  1873.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  (M.A.,  1823), 
and  at  the  divinity  hall  1823-26;  was  licensed  in 
1828  and  served  as  assistant  of  St.  Andrews,  Glas- 
gow, and  of  Bonhill,  Dimibartonshire;  in  1834  he 
became  minister  of  St.  George's,  Edinburgh,  where 
his  talent  as  a  preacher  soon  made  him  famous. 
In  1839  he  publicly  identified  himself  with  the 
party  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  which  afterward 
became  the  Free  Church,  and  in  all  the  public  pro- 
ceedings prior  to  the  disruption  in  1843,  especially 
in  the  debates  in  the  General  Assembly,  took  a 
leading  part;  after  the  disruption  he  was  foremost 
in  organizing  and  developing  the  Free  Church. 
His  eloquence  in  debate,  his  business  tact,  and  his 
high  character  enabled  him  to  retain  the  high  posi- 
tion he  had  gained  in  spite  of  a  somewhat  sharp 
and  abrupt  maimer,  and  a  tendency  to  what  some 
considered  diplomatic  management.  On  the  death 
of  Dr.  Chalmers  in  1847  he  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed him  as  professor  of  divinity  in  New  (}ollege, 
Edinburgh,  but  declined  the  appointment,  pre- 
ferring to  continue  minister  of  St.  George's;  in 
1862,  however,  he  became  principal  of  New  College, 
the  duties  involving  little  labor.  He  was  the 
chief  organizer  and  extender  of  the  school  system 
of  the  Free  Church,  which  was  afterward  incorpo- 


CanislnB 
Oanon  Law 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


380 


rated  with  the  national  system  of  education;  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in 
1845.  He  was  a  voluminous  author,  although 
lus  books  did  not  attam  a  very  large  circulation; 
among  his  writings  were:  ContribiUiona  Towards  the 
Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Geneeia  (3  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1843-62;  rev.  ed.,  2  vols.,  1868);  Scripture 
Characters  and  Miscellanies  (London,  1850);  Ex- 
amination  of  Mr.  Maurice*s  Theological  Essays 
(1854);  Life  in  a  Risen  Saviour,  discourses  on  I 
Cor.  XV.  (Edinburgh,  1858);  The  Two  Great  Com- 
mandmentSy  sermons  on  Romans  xii.  (London, 
1860);  The  Atonement,  its  Reality ,  Completeness,  and 
Extent  (1801);  The  Fatherhood  of  God,  the  first 
course  of  Cunningham  lectures  at  New  College, 
Edinburgh,  1864  (5th  ed.  enlarged,  2  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1890);  The  First  Epistle  of  John  Expounded 
in  a  Scries  of  Lectures  (1866);  Discourses  Bearing 
upon  the  Sonship  and  Brotherhood  of  Believers  (1872); 
Sermons,  with  memoir  (1873);  and  The  Gospel  of 
Forgiveness,  a  series  of  discourses  ( 1878). 

Bibliography:  W.  Wilson,  MemoriaU  of  R.  8.  Candliah, 
Edinbursh,  1880  (with  a  ooncluding  chapter  on  his  char- 
acter as  a  theologian  by  Robert  Rainy,  his  sucoeasor  as 
principal  of  New  College);  Jean  L.  Wataon,  Life  of  R.  S. 
CandUsh,  London,  1882. 

CANISIUS,  ca-ni'si-Qs  or  ca-nt'shxTS,  PETRUS 
(Peter  Kanis,  Canis,  Canijs):  A  Jesuit  to  whom 
the  order  owes  its  spread  in  Germany;  b.  at 
Nymwegen,  in  the  Netherlands,  May  8,  1521;  d. 
at  Freiburg,  Switzerland,  Dec.  21,  1597.  He 
studied  at  (}ologne  from  1535  to  1544  and  ob- 
tained the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  theology,  li- 
centiate of  arts,  and  master  of  arts  (i.e.,  doctor 
of  philosophy).  In  1543  he  went  to  the  Jesuit 
Pierre  Favre  (q.v.)  at  Mainz,  made  the  "spiri- 
tual exercises  **  (see  Jesuffs)  under  his  guid- 
ance, and  entered  the  order  as  a  novice.  With 
nine  like-minded  companions  he  founded  se- 
cretly at  Cologne  the  first  Jesuit  colony,  but 
the  city  coimcil  dissolved  the  body,  though  at 
the  intercession  of  the  university  the  members 
were  permitted  to  remain  in  the  city,  as  individuals. 
In  1545  Canisius  began  his  lectures,  preached, 
and  prepared  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  with  a  Latin  translation,  the  first 
volume  of  which  was  published  at  Cologne  in  1546. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  fervent  orator,  who  had 
agitated  especially  against  the  archbishop  Hermann 
of  Wied,  who  inclined  toward  Protestantism,  had 
obtained  such  authority  among  the  strictly 
Catholic  party  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  Schmal- 
kald  War  it  delegated  him  as  mediator  to  the  im- 
perial camp  at  Ulm.  Here  he  came  into  close 
relations  with  Cardinal  Otto  Truchscss,  bishop 
of  Augsburg,  who  was  destined  to  open  the  way 
for  him  into  Bavaria  and  insure  the  activity  of 
his  order.  Ignatius  Loyola  perceived  the  talent 
of  Canisius,  and,  to  perfect  him  in  the  spirit  and 
nature  of  the  order  and  make  him  a  chosen  vessel, 
called  the  young  man  to  Rome  and  employed 
I  am  for  two  years  in  Italy  at  Messina.  Upon  his 
return,  Canisius  conmienced  his  work  in  Bavaria 
in  1549,  in  1552  at  Vienna  and  in  the  Austrian  terri- 
tories, in  1555  at  Prague  with  the  two  objects  in 
view,  to  permeate  the  German  Catholics  with  the 


Jesuitic  spirit  of  piety,  and  to  repel  Protestantisa. 
At  Vienna  he  composed  the  Sttmma  dodriMs  ' 
Christiana,  the  ''  catechism,"  which  an  impml  ' 
edict  soon  introduced  into  ail  Austria;  in  fou  < 
hundred  editions  published  during  130  years,  it  j 
proved  an  excellent  means  of  mental  traimng 
(Eng.  transl.,  Paris,  1588).  His  other  litera.7 
productions  include  two  volumes  (De  Johaxnt 
Baptista,  Dillingen,  1571,  and  De  Maria  Ftrgzk/, 
Ingolstadt,  1577),  written  against  the  "  pestilenii- 
simum  opus,"  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.v.).  Bui 
his  literary  activity  against  Protestantism  w&$ 
unimportant  compared  with  what  he  aooomplisbei 
as  teacher  in  Vienna,  Dillingen,  and  Ingolstadt,  s^ 
adviser  of  Catholic  princes,  and  as  preacher  zdj 
pastor  of  very  large  circles.  Besides  the  colleges 
already  mentioned,  the  order  owes  to  him  the  est^ 
lishment  of  the  important  colleges  of  Augsburi:. 
Munich,  and  Innsbruck,  and  its  spread  to  Pobni. 
When  at  the  height  of  his  successes  he  attended 
the  Council  of  Trent  in  1562.  And  yet  in  the  long 
run  he  did  not  retain  the  confidence  of  the  leader^ 
of  bis  order.  '  The  general  stopped  him  when  be 
was  on  the  point  of  preparing  a  third  volume  i& 
the  refutation  of  the  "  Centuries  **  (De  potestate 
Petri  et  successorum).  His  last  achievement  wss 
the  founding  of  a  new  college  at  Freiburg  in  Swit- 
zerland. K.  BESfRATH. 

Biblioqrapht:  F.  Riew,  Der  9diae  Peinu  Canutw.  Frn- 
burs,  1865;  M.  Philippmn,  La  CorUre^RSvoluiUm  rtliffteum. 
Bruasels,  1880;  Delplaoe,  L'^UMinemeni  de  la  etrmpa^^ 
de  JfeuM  dans  lee  Paye  Bae,  ib.  1887;  P.  Drews,  P^frvi 
Canieitu,  der  erete  deuteche  Jeeuit,  Halle,  1892;  Epuhtis 
ei  acta  P.  CanUii,  ed.  O.  Braunaberger,  4  w>l8.,  Freibiirg, 
1896-1905. 

CANO,  ca'n5  (Canus),  MELCHIOR:  A  scholastic 
Dominican  of  the  University  of  Alcala;  b.  at  T^ 
ranc6n  (38  m.  w.  of  Cuenca),  Spain  [Jan.  1,  1509; 
d.  at  Toledo  Sept.  30,  1560].  He  took  part  in 
the  deliberations  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  espe- 
cially in  those  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the 
Eucharist,  opposing  the  efforts  made  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  that  the  cup 
should  be  given  to  the  laity.  Having  returned 
from  Trent,  Philip  II.  made  him  bishop  of  the 
Canaries,  wi^out  residence  there,  as  he  became 
provincial  of  his  order  in  Castile.  His  principal 
works  are:  Prcelectiones  de  pomitentia  and  De 
sacramentis  (both  Salamanca,  1550),  and  his 
Loci  theologici  (1563),  consisting  of  twelve  boob 
about  the  sources  whence  doctrinal  proofs  may 
be  derived;  the  ''  author itas  **  has  its  place  before 
the  "  ratio"  and  the  principal  source  is  of  course 
tradition.  Although  an  opponent  of  the  Jesuits, 
Cano  was  a  thoroughgoing  papal  theologian,  and  b€ 
was  a  scholastic,  although  he  opposed  **  false  "  scho- 
lasticism. For  his  opposition  to  the  Jesuits  he  had 
to  suffer  denimciations  which  caused  his  citation 
to  Rome  in  1556  as  "  perditionis  filius,  Melchior 
Canus,  diabolicis  motus  suasionibus,  non  erubuit 
pnrdicare,  antichristum  venisse."  By  the  exer- 
tions of  the  Spanish  government  the  citation  wa? 
not  headed.  But  the  Loci  theologici  were  place! 
on  the  Lisbon  index  in  1624,  and  were  much  altered 
by  the  expurgator.  K.  Bknratb. 

ninLiooRAPHT:  F.    H.    Reuaeh.    Der   Index  der  rerboinen 
Bucher,  i.  303  et  passim.  Bonn,  1883;  F.  Gaballero,  Co*- 


181 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OaniaiuB 
Oanon  Law 


quenMM  UluMires.  II.  Melehior  Cano,  pp.  279,  382,  Madrid, 
1871. 

CANON:  A  word  used  in  a  variety  of  senses  in 
ecclesiastical  terminology,  all  more  or  less  related 
o  the  primary  meaning  of  the  Greek  word  kandn, 
'  a  straight  rod  or  bar,  rule,  standard."  (1)  The 
lecisive  list  of  the  books  considered  as  forming  part 
»f  the  Holy  Scriptures  (see  Canon  of  Scripture). 
2)  In  ancient  usage,  any  official  church  list,  as  of 
hose  who  were  to  be  commemorated  in  the  liturgy, 
irhence  the  term  canonization,  or  of  the  clergy 
attached  to  a  certain  church,  whence  (3)  A  mem- 
ber of  a  body  of  clergy  living  together  imder  a 
nore  or  less  definite  rule  in  connection  with  a 
athedral  or  collegiate  church  or  in  a  quasimonas- 
ic  organization  as  canons  regular  (see  Chapter; 
^UGUSTiNiANs;  Premonstratensians).  (4)  The 
lecree  or  decision  of  a  council  for  the  regulation  of 
loctrine  or  discipline  (see  Canon  Law).  (5)  The 
ixed,  most  important  portion  of  the  mass,  from 
he  Sandua  to  the  Pater  noster.  (6)  In  the  hym- 
lology  of  the  Eastern  Church,  an  important  class 
►f  long  and  elaborate  hymns  usually  simg  in  the 
noming  office,  founded  mainly  on  the  Old  Testa- 
nent  canticles  then  used,  and  composed  of  either 
ight  or  nine  odes. 

CANONESS :  A  member  of  a  company  of  women 
mder  the  rule  of  an  abbess  and  bound  by  vows  of 
celibacy  and  obedience,  but  not  by  one  of  pov~ 
rty.  Some  canonesses  were  "  secular,''  and  the 
lOuses  they  lived  in  were  homes  for  ladies  of  the 
lobility;  but  others  were  "religious"  and  lived  in 
ninneries  of  the  Benedictine  or  Augustinian  order, 
•"ew  of  these  establishments  survived  the  Refor- 
nation,  and  their  inmates  generaUy  became  Prot- 
stants.  Some  of  the  houses  became  Protestant 
tomes  for  noble  ladies,  as  those  at  Gandersheim, 
lerford,  and  Quedlinburg  in  Germany. 

CANON  LAW. 


Africa  (S  1). 
Spain  (I  2). 
British  Isles  (fi  3). 
Frankish  Empire  (i  4). 
Further  Systematiiation. 
Foreninners  of  Gratian 

(§1). 
Gratian  (ft  2). 
Ck>llections  of  Decretals. 
Before  Gregory  IX.  (§  1). 
Collection     of     Gregory 

(J  2). 
Supplements  to  It  (S  3). 
,  Corpus  Juris  Canonici. 


I.  Definition  and  General  Dis- 
cussion. 
[.  Collections  of  Canons  and 

Decretals. 
,   Early  History.  I 

.   l"\Tnt  Codification. 
.  EarlioHt  Western  Collec- 
tions. 
The  Quesnelliana  ( J  1 ).  ( 

The  Prisca  (§2). 
(Collections  of  Diony»iu8 
(5  3). 
I.   Next  period,  by  Coun- 
tries. 

Canon  law  is  the  sum  total  of  the  legal  cnact- 
aents  of  the  Church. 

L  Definition  and  General  Discussion:  In  mod- 
m  times  the  differences  between  various  Christian 
Churches  have  brought  about  a  variance  of  law, 
ince  it  springs  in  the  first  instance  from  the  devel- 
pment  of  the  ecclesiastical  conscioasness;  and 
b  is  thus  possible  to  speak  of  Roman  Catholic  and 
^testant  canon  law.  While  the  expres.sion  is 
aost  coDunonly  used  in  connection  with  the  f or- 
der, it  is  not  quite  coextensive  or  identical  with 
he  law  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  but  desig- 
lates  rather  the  content  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici 
see  below,  II.,  7),  in   contrast  with    (he    newer 


regulations  based  on  the  decisions  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  concordats  and  bulls  of  circumscrip- 
tion of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  Vatican 
Council.  These  have  in  many  particulars  modified 
or  superseded  the  older  law,  until  a  new  codifica- 
tion of  the  whole  mass  of  enactments  has  become 
necessary,  and  is  now  contemplated  under  the 
direction  of  Pope  Pius  X. 

The  canon  law,  in  the  sense  thus  assigned  to  the 
term,  contains  a  large  number  of  regulations  per- 
taining to  matters  which,  according  to  modem 
constitutions,  have  been  withdrawn  from  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  and  placed  under  the  ordinary 
secular  tribunals.  These  provisions  have  thus 
ceased  to  be  operative.  They  include  the  relations 
between  Church  and  State,  the  legal  status  of 
heretics,  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  etc.  The  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  it  is  true,  still  maintains  in 
theory  the  permanent  validity  of  these  enactments, 
and  claims  the  same  preeminent  power  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  State  as  it  possessed  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Since  the  Reformation  and  the  upbuilding 
of  modem  nationalities,  however,  the  principle  of 
the  unity  of  jurisdiction  and  the  authority  of  the 
law  has  proved  irreconcilable  with  these  claims.  The 
freedom  and  independence  conceded  to  the  Church 
in  the  ordering  of  its  own  intemal  affairs  by  no 
means  involves  the  absolute  supremacy  and  validity 
of  the  canon  law  when  it  comes  into  conflict  with 
the  civil  law,  or  releases  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities from  their  responsibility  and  their  obedience 
to  the  State;  for  the  freedom  of  the  Church,  like 
all  other  freedom  in  the  modem  world,  is  a  free- 
dom within  the  bounds  of  the  law.  But  while  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  appeals  to  divine  mission 
and  inalienable  rights  in  support  of  its  protest 
against  these  limitations,  and  has  occasionally 
provoked  serious  conflicts  by  insistence  upon  its 
position  in  this  matter.  Protestantism  from  the 
very  start  took  a  much  more  restricted  view  of  the 
extent  of  ecclesiastical  operations  and  of  the  au- 
thority of  its  own  law,  sometimes,  where  it  is 
established,  working  directly  with  the  State,  but 
always  submitting  without  question  to  civil  ordi- 
nances. The  difference  is  seen  again  in  the  fact 
that  while  Roman  Catholicism  recognizes  only 
one  Church,  and  thus  only  one  valid  church  law, 
Protestantism,  though  holding  its  own  interpre- 
tation of  the  Christian  faith  for  the  true  one,  does 
not  claim  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  all  creatures, 
and  concedes  to  the  various  bodies  which  it  con- 
ceives as  forming  an  invisible  miity  the  right  to 
their -own  independent  action  in  matters  of  legis- 
lation. 

Canon  law,  the  outcome  of  the  Church's  devel- 
opment, rests  upon  positive  enactment,  and  the 
attempt  to  construct  a  natural  ecclesiastical  law 
on  rational  principles  must  necessarily  fail,  setting 
as  it  does  arbitrary  and  subjective  views  in  place 
of  the  positive  data  of  church  history.  A  philo- 
sophical treatment  of  church  law  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  great  importance.  It  grasps  in  their 
entirety  the  fundamental  principles  on  which  aa 
a  basis  the  actual  development  has  taken  place, 
correlates  them  with  the  objective  conceptions 
and  principles  of  the  Church  itself,  and  in  thik  way 


Canon  Law 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


382 


disQovers  not  only  the  errors  and  deviations  but 
the  inevitable  tendencies  and  direction  of  the  de- 
velopment. In  modem  times,  since  the  delimita- 
tion of  the  boundary  between  Church  and  State, 
doubt  has  been  cast  upon  the  independence  of  the 
church  law,  as  if  there  could  be  no  law  without 
the  action  of  the  State,  and  what  passed  for  law 
outside  this  action  was  only  an  et Ideal  standard, 
not  a  jiuidical.  The  law  of  the  State,  however, 
in  its  essence,  is  a  product  not  so  much  of  the  State 
as  of  the  national  consciousness  of  what  is  just, 
and  really  precedes  rather  than  follows  the  opera^ 
tion  of  the  State;  its  standards  do  not  have  to 
wait  for  sanction  until  the  State  declares  its  readi- 
ness to  enforce  them  by  pains  and  penalties.  The 
Church  as  a  distinct  moral  order  is  qualified  to 
regulate  and  develop  its  own  internal  functions 
and  institutions  of  its  own  motion.  It  is  true  that 
until  recently  Protestant  churches  have  to  a  large 
extent  been  orgam'zed,  especially  in  England  and 
Germany,  by  secular  legislation;  but  this  state 
of  things  is  really  an  anomalous  one,  not  corre- 
sponding to  the  essential  idea  and  meaning  of  the 
Church.  The  result  of  the  modem  settlement 
has  been  in  most  cases  to  leave  the  Church  free 
to  develop  independently  its  own  system,  without 
the  need  of  any  special  permission  or  privilege  from 
the  State  in  order  to  give  such  regulations  the  force 
of  law  within  the  Church.  Its  members  realize 
that  they  are  bound  to  the  fulfilment  of  such  or- 
dinances because  they  have  come  into  being  in 
a  regular  and  legal  manner,  and  so  long  as  they 
are  not  repealed  in  the  same  manner.  This  obli- 
gation is  not  a  mere  matter  of  conscience,  but  rests 
on  a  basis  of  positive  law,  because  the  standards 
of  action  imposed  by  it  are  the  expression  of  the 
will  of  the  Church  in  its  corporate  capacity.  Nor 
does  the  Church  lack  means  to  enforce  obedience 
by  the  withdrawal  of  blessings  which  it  alone  is 
empowered  to  impart  and  equally  empowered  to 
withhold.  According  to  the  Protestant  conception, 
it  is  true,  the  binding  force  of  ecclesiastical  regu- 
lations is  to  a  gTv-'at  extent  dependent  upon  the  will 
of  the  indi\idual  to  be  and  remain  a  member  of  the 
church  fellowship.  E.  Sehling. 

n.  Collections  of  Canons  and  Decretals. — 1.  Early 
History:  In  the  first  three  centuries  the  term  canon 
was  applied  to  the  standard  of  right  living  accepted 
in  the  Church,  resting  partly  on  written  and  partly 
on  oral  tradition.  When  the  synods,  especially 
the  general  ones,  became  the  main  agents  in  the 
development  of  church  life,  their  decisions  on  points 
of  practise  were  also  known  os  canons — ^though 
this  name  was  not  usually  applied  to  the  decrees 
of  local  synods  until  the  sixth  century,  after  their 
inclusion  in  the  great  and  widely  circulated  col- 
lections nad  given  them  a  status  and  an  authority 
in  a  measure  analogous  to  those  of  the  ecumenical 
councils.  With  the  development  of  the  primatial 
power  of  the  pope,  the  name  came  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  to  be  applied  also  to  his 
decrees,  and  finally  its  use  was  extended  in  medi- 
eval terminology  to  any  ecclesiastical  enactment. 
The  collections  of  canons  were  made  up  at  first 
of  the  decrees  of  councils  and  of  popes;  later  col- 
lections include,  in  addition  to  these,  ezcezpts  from 


the  Fathers,  from  letters  and  regulations  of  bi&hopF. 
from  Scripture,  and  even  from  Roman  law,  Fraak- 
ish  capitularies,  and  ordinances  of  German  es:- 
perors.  The  Council  of  Trent  employed  the  w®d 
exclusively  for  dogmatic  propositions  couched  m 
juridical  form  and  followed  by  an  anathema. 

2.  First  Oodlfioation:  During  the  primitive  &fe 
of  the  Church,  when  its  constitution  and  discipline 
rested  quite  simply  upon  the  precepts  of  Chrisi 
and  the  Apostles,  and  the  new  problems  which  w€x 
later  to  make  the  Christian  life  more  oomplioted 
had  not  yet  come  up,  there  was  no  need  for  a  cod- 
ification of  the  laws.  It  is  hardly  neoessaiy  to 
say  that  the  so-called  Apostolic  Constituti<M]s  xad 
Canons  (q.v.)  are  the  product  of  a  later  age.  Tht 
systematic  formulation  of  law  began  with  the  cloin- 
organization  of  the  Church  and  the  holding  of 
synods.  The  earliest  mention  of  a  Codex  eananu^* 
is  found  in  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedoa 
(451),  at  which  certain  canons  were  read  to  tk 
assembly  from  a  collection.  These,  though  num- 
bered consecutively  in  the  collection,  can  be  iden- 
tified as  the  sixth  of  Nicsea  (325)  and  the  fourth, 
fifth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  of  Antioch  (332; 
This  collection,  accordingly,  seems  to  have  con- 
tained the  canons  of  several  councils,  beginning: 
with  the  twenty  of  Nicsea  and  possibly  closing 
with  those  of  Antioch,  including  between  these 
twenty-five  of  Ancyra  (314),  fourteen  of  Neo- 
caesarea  (314),  and  twenty  of  Gangra  (c.  365). 
There  were  undoubtedly  other  collections  known 
in  this  period;  one,  which  is  still  recognizable  in 
the  oldest  Western  Latin  version,  which  omittaJ 
the  canons  of  Antioch;  others  which  included 
those  of  Laodioea  (between  347  and  381),  Con- 
stantinople (381),  and  Chalcedon  (451):  and  still 
others  which  had  also  those  of  Sardica  (347)  ai»i 
Ephesus  (431).  There  is,  however,  no  basis  for 
the  supposition  that  either  the  collection  read  from 
at  the  Coimcil  at  Chalcedon  or  any  other  of  these 
collections  had  an  official  character. 

8.  Earliest  Western  OoUeoUona:  Of  these  Gre^ 
canons,  only  those  of  Nicsea  were  at  first  accepted 
in  the  West,  and  those  of  Sardica  in  the  Latin 
original.  As  early  as  the  fifth  century,  howe^^er. 
there  were  collections  here  also  of  Greek  canons 
in  a  Latin  version,  through  which  the  Eastern 
decrees  gradually  acquired  authority.  Of  the« 
three  deserve  special  mention.  (1)  The  Isidoiian 
version,  incorrectly  so  called  because 
z.  The     it  is  found  in  the  great  collection  loos: 

Quesne/-  ascribed  to  Isidore  of  Seville,  is  the 
liana,  oldest.  It  seems  to  have  included 
originally  only  the  canons  comprised 
in  the  oldest  Greek  collection,  to  which  those  ot 
Antioch,  Laodioea,  and  Constantinople  were  added 
later.  It  was  probably  made  in  Italy;  its  date 
can  not  be  determined,  but  its  version  of  the  Nicene 
canons  was  known  in  Gaul  as  eariy  as  439.  It  ^ras 
first  published  in  1675  by  Paschafiius  Quesneil. 
from  a  manuscript  at  Oxford  of  a  collection  appar- 
ently made  in  Gaul  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  centurv. 
(2)  The  Versio  prisca,  made  in  Italy  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  fifth  century,  which  contains  the  canozb* 
of  Ancyra,  Neocssarea,  NicsBa,  Antioch,  Gangrr.. 
Constantinople,  and  Chalcedon;    frequent  uaeirsi 


383 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canon  Law 


made  of  it  for  the  completion  of  the  Isidorian 
^rersion  and  for  other  collections,  especially  Italian. 

It  was  first  published  by  Justeau  in 
2.  The  the  Bibliotheca  juris  canonici  from 
PHaca.      an   imperfect  manuscript,  then  more 

fully  and  accurately  by  the  Ballerini 
3rothers.  (3)  That  made  by  Dionysius  Exiguus, 
probably  in  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century, 
md  revised  early  in  the  sixth.    It  contains  fifty 

"apostolic  canons";  those  of  Nicaea, 

3.  Collec-    Ancyra,  Neocsesarea,  Gangra,  Antioch, 
tions  of      Laodicea,  and  Constantinople  from  a 

Dionysius.  Greek  collection;  from  another  twenty- 
seven  of  Chalcedon  in  a  new  version; 
twenty-one  of  Sardica  in  the  Latin  original;  and  the 
lets  of  the  Synod  of  Carthage  (419).  Somewhat 
ater,  probably  under  Pope  Synunachus  (498-514), 
Dionysius  made  another  collection  of  all  the  decrees 
)f  popes  known  to  him,  including  those  of  Siricius, 
[nnocent  I.,  Zosimus,  Boniface  I.,  Celestine  I., 
[jco  I.,  Gelasius  I.,  and  Anastasius  II.  Of  a  third 
jollection  made  by  order  of  Pope  Hormisdas 
514-523),  and  containing  the  original  text  of 
Gireek  canons  with  a  Latin  version,  only  the 
prologue  is  extant.  The  first  two,  however, 
combined  into  one,  soon  acquired  preeminent 
consideration;  Cassiodorus  (d.  536)  says  that  they 
vere  universally  preferred  in  the  Roman  church 
>f  his  time;  they  were  used  in  Africa,  the  Prankish 
jhurch,  Spain,  England,  and  Ireland.  They  were 
supplemented  in  course  of  time  by  the  decretals 
>f  Hilary,  Simplicius,  Felix,  Synunachus,  Hormis- 
las,  and  Gregory  II.  A  codex  thus  enlarged  was 
presented  by  Adrian  II.  to  Charlemagne  in  774; 
his  was  taken,  after  the  CapiUdare  eccleaiaaticum 
)f  789,  as  the  basis  of  the  Prankish  capitularies, 
Lnd  probably  sanctioned  at  the  Synod  of  Aachen 
n  802  as  the  official  code  of  the  Prankish  church. 

4.  Next  P«riod,  by  Countries:  The  canonical 
K>llections  of  the  succeeding  period  may  most 
conveniently  be  grouped  under  their  respective 
countries.  In  Africa  discipline  rested  primarily 
>n  the  decrees    of   home  councils,  special   weight 

being  given  to  the  Synod  of  Carthage 

1.  Africa,    in  419,  with  whose  acts  those  of  the 

synods  held  under  Aurelius  from  393 
vere  incorporated.  These  are  the  canons  included, 
hough  imperfectly,  in  the  collection  of  Dionysius; 
iiey  were  later  translated  into  Greek  and  received 
nto  Oriental  collections.  Of  other  African  col- 
cctions  only  two  require  special  mention — that 
nade  before  546  by  Fulgentius  Ferrandus,  a  Car- 
haginian  deacon,  under  the  name  of  Breviatio 
anonum,  containing  some  of  the  Greek  canons  in 
he  Isidorian  version  and  African  canons  down  to 
»23,  and  the  Concordia  canonunif  compiled  c.  690  (7) 
>y  Cresoonius,  possibly  a  bishop. 

Spain  had  its  collections  of  canons  and  decretals 
n  the  sixth  century,  as  is  shown  by  the  acts  of  the 

Council  of  Braga  in  563  and  the  Third 

2.  Spain,    of  Toledo  in  679.    The  enforcement 

of  order  and  discipline  required  a 
x>mpleter  codification,  and  a  large  collection  seems 
»  have  been  made  at  the  Foiuth  Coimcil  of  Toledo 
033).  By  later  additions  it  acquired  the  form  in 
vhich  it  is  now  printed  (Madrid,  1808).     Its  first 


or  conciliar  part  contains  the  Greek  canons  found 
in  the  Isidorian  version,  those  of  Sardica,  those  of 
the  Third  Council  of  Constantinople  (681),  and 
two  letters  of  Cyril  under  the  name  of  the  Council 
of  Ephesus;  nine  African  councils;  sixteen  Gallic 
councils,  from  314  to  549;  and  thirty-six  Spanish, 
from  305  (7)  to  694.  In  this  last  division,  to  the 
canons  of  the  Second  Council  of  Braga  is  appended 
a  collection  made  by  Martin,  archbishop  of  Braga, 
a  native  of  Pannonia  (d.  about  580),  by  free  trans- 
lation and  selection  of  Greek,  African,  Gallic,  and 
Spanish  canons.  The  second  part  contains  decre- 
tals of  the  popes  from  Damasus  to  Gregory  I.,  in- 
cluding all  that  Dionysius  had  placed  in  his.  The 
compiler  of  this  great  collection,  usually  cited  as 
Hispana,  is  unknown.  There  is  no  evidence  to 
show  that  Isidore  of  Seville  had  any  direct  hand  in 
it;  his  name  was  first  connected  with  it  by  the 
compiler  of  the  False  Decretals,  who  incorporated 
the  older  and  genuine  collection  with  them. 

In  the  British  Isles  the  Celtic  church  developed 
a  disciplinary  system  of  its  own  in  synods  of  whose 
proceedings  scarcely  anything  has  been  preserved. 
For  certain  fifth-  and  sixth-century  canons  of  a 
penitential      nature,     see     Penitential    Books. 
The   Anglo-Saxon   church   in  like   manner  relied 
for  a  long  time  on  its  own  legislative  resources, 
though    the    collection   of    Dionysius 
3.  British    was  known  here  in  the  seventh  century. 
Isles.       Except  the  penitential  ordinances  of 
Theodore,     Bede,    and     Egbert,    no 
Anglo-Saxon  canons  are  extant.    There  is,  however, 
an  Irish  collection  of  the  seventh  century  or  begin- 
ning of  the  eighth,  compiled  from  Scripture,  the 
Fathers,  numerous  Greek,  African,  Gallic,  Spanish, 
and  Irish  synods,  and  papal  decretals.    The  large 
number  of  Irish  canons  gives  a  specially  interesting 
insight  into  the  conditions  of  church  life  there. 

The  Prankish  empire,  before  the  period  mentioned 
above,  possessed  a  number  of  collections  of  Greek, 
Gallic,  and  Spanish  canons  and  papal  decretals, 
which,  however,  need  no  detailed  consideration. 
Besides  the  enlarged  Dionysian  collection,  the 
Hispana  was  also  known  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century,  and  was  used  to  complete  the  Codex  sent 
by  Adrian.  The  large  extent  of  this  material  and 
its  lack  of  chronological  arrangement  soon  brought 
about  attempts  at  selection  and  systematic  arrange- 
ment, which  were  frequent  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries,  and  of  which  some  deserve 
4.  Prankish  special  mention.  (1)  A  collection  in 
Empire.  381  chapters,  sometimes  foimd  inde- 
pendently, sometimes  as  a  fourth  book 
to  the  canonical  work  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Archbishop  Egbert  of  York.  It  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century,  and  is  important  be- 
cause of  the  use  made  of  it  by  Regino  (see  below, 
5)  and  of  the  help  which  it  gives  toward  explain- 
ing a  number  of  erroneous  titles  which  passed  over 
into  this  and  the  Decreta  of  Burchard  and  Gratian. 
(2)  The  Collectio  Acheriana,  so  called  from  its 
first  publisher  I^Ach^ry,  extant  in  numerous  manu- 
scripts and  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  eighth  or 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  Its  canons,  divi- 
ded into  three  books,  are  taken  without  exception 
from  Adrian's  edition  of  Dionysius  and  from  the 


Oanon  Law 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


384 


Hispana.  (3)  The  Penitential  of  Halitgar  of  Cam- 
brai,  compiled  between  817  and  831  at  the  request 
of  Archbishop  Ebbo  of  Reims.  Of  its  five  books 
the  first  two  are  taken  from  the  writings  of  Gregory 
I.  and  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  while  the  larger  part 
of  the  last  three,  as  well  as  the  prologue,  come 
from  the  two  collections  just  named,  especially  the 
second.  All  three  of  these  collections  are  con- 
structed with  special  regard  to  the  penitential  sys- 
tem of  the  time;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  col- 
lections made  by  Rabanus  Maurus,  particularly 
the  Liber  pcmitentium  ad  Otgarium  of  841  and  the 
Epistola  cui  Heribaldum  of  853,  the  main  purpose 
of  which  is  to  restore  the  ancient  discipline  by 
appeals  to  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  old 
canons  and  decretals.  A  somewhat  similar  char- 
acter is  seen  in  the  Capiiula  episcoporunif  or  small 
collections  made  by  individual  bishops,  sometimes 
with  the  assent  of  diocesan  synods,  for  the  regu- 
lation of  their  own  subjects,  usually  from  larger 
works,  but  occasionally  including  their  own  edicts 
and  the  provisions  of  local  law. 

6.  Further  By  stematization :  The  great  influ- 
ence of  the  secular  power  on  ecclesiastical  action 
in  the  Carolingian  period  tended  to  add  to  the 
earlier  church  law  a  large  amount  of  material,  fre- 
quently covering  matters  of  church  discipline,  in 
the  capitularies  of  the  Frankish  kings.  Efforts  at 
systematization  were  soon  called  forth  in  this  field 
also  by  practical  needs.  The  first  was  that  of 
Abbot  Ansegis,  which,  however,  as  it  contains 
nothing  but  capitularies,  does  not  need  further  con- 
sideration here.  It  is  different  from  the  work 
which  Benedict  Levita  of  Mainz  compiled  in  three 
books.  Its  purpose,  according  to  him,  was  the 
completion  of  the  work  of  Ansegis,  but  the  im- 
perial laws  form  only  a  small  part  of  its  contents, 
which  are  far  more  largely  taken  from  the  Bible, 
the  Fathers,  the  ancient  canons,  with  Roman 
statute  and  German  common  law.  The  special  in- 
terest of  this  collection  is  the  relation  in  which  it 
stands,  or  has  been  thought  to  stand,  to  the  Pteudo- 
Isidorian  Decretals  (q.v.). 

Between  the  ninth  and  twelfth  centuries  a  large 
number  of  compilations  came  into  being,  with  the 
purpose  of  bringing  the  wealth  of  material  scat- 
tered throughout  tlie  older  works  into  practical 
relation  with  the  more  modem  ecclesiastical  prin- 
ciples.    Unlike   the  smaller   collections  described 
above,  which  usually  served  rather  local  interests, 
these  are  as  a  rule  of  considerable  size  and  suf- 
ficiently general  to  be  used  outside  the  limits  of 
the  diocese    in  which    they  originate.     Some  of 
them  attained  a  wide  currency  and  no  little  prac- 
tical importance;    but  only  a  few  of  them  need 
be  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  this  article.  (1)  The 
as    yet    unpublished    CoUectio    Anselmo    dediccUa, 
taking  its  name  from  an  Archbishop  Anselm,  prob- 
ably Anselm  II.  of  Milan  (883-897). 
I.  Fore-    It  is  certainly  Italian  in  origin;  its 
runners     material  is  taken  partly  from  Adrian's 
of  Gratian.  edition  of  Dionysius  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  Carthaginian,  Gallic,  and 
Spanish  councils  from  the  Hispana,   and  partly 
from  the  False  Decretals,  the  Registrum  of  Gregory 
1.,  two  Roman  synods  under  Zacharias  (743)  and 


Eugehius  II.  (826),  the  laws  of  Justinian,  and  the 
Novelloe  of  Julian — ^though  probably  this  last  part 
was  interpolated  afterward.  It  is  important  not 
only  as  being  the  first  to  make  a  thorough  use  d 
the  code  of  Justinian,  but  as  being  the  source  of 
a  large  part  of  the  Decretum  of  Burchard,  and 
through  it  of  that  of  Gratian.  (2)  The  Libri  duo 
de  causis  synodalibus  et  disdplinis  ecclesiasticisr  ocm- 
piled  by  Regino,  abbot  of  PrQm  about  906,  at  the 
request  of  Rathbod,  archbishop  of  Treves,  to  be 
used  by  him  and  his  representatives  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  diocese.  This  work,  interesting  as 
another  source  of  Burchard's  as  well  as  for  its  im- 
mediate relation  to  the  synodal  courts  and  the 
practise  of  its  time,  was  later  enlarged,  re\*i««(i. 
and  borrowed  from  in  a  whole  series  of  similar 
collections.  (3)  The  Decretum  {Liber  decretarum, 
CoUectarium)  of  Bishop  Bupchard  of  Worms,  com- 
piled between  1012  and  1023.  The  important 
material  contained  in  its  twenty  books  embraces 
the  whole  range  of  church  discipline  and  order. 
A  peculiarity  of  Burchard  is  that  he  frequently 
ascribes  canons  of  councils  and  excerpts  from  Ro- 
man law,  the  capitularies,  or  penitential  ordinances 
to  one  of  the  older  popes  or  councils,  e^adently 
with  the  view  of  assuring  their  reception  as  author- 
itative— ^thus  misleading  later  compilers,  especiallj 
Gratian.  (4)  The  CoUectio  duodecim  parHum,  stilJ 
unprinted;  apparently  made  by  a  German  very 
soon  after  the  completion  of  Burchard's.  Theiner, 
who  was  the  first  to  call  attention  (in  his  LHsqui- 
sitiones  critical  Rome,  1836)  to  the  importance  of 
this  collection,  was  under  the  erroneous  impression 
that  it  was  a  source  of  Burchard's;  but  the  relation 
is  exactly  the  reverse.  It  contains,  however,  a 
number  of  interesting  Frankish  and  German  canons, 
some  of  them  probably  copied  directly  from  the 
original  documents.  (5)  The  collection  of  Bishop 
Anselm  of  Lucca  (d.  1086),  which  was  incorporated 
almost  bodily  in  the  Decretum  Gratiani,  and  which 
contains  a  number  of  papal  decretals  not  previously 
known,  and  probably  taken  from  the  Roman  ar- 
chives. (6)  The  collection  of  Cardinal  Deusdedit. 
dedicated  to  Pope  Victor  III.  (1086-^).  in  four 
books,  of  which  the  last  deals  with  the  freedom 
of  the  Church  from  secular  interference,  and  thus 
introduces  an  element  new  to  these  collection^. 
The  ample  use  made  of  the  Lateran  archives  gi\^ 
a  special  interest  to  his  collection,  much  of  which 
is  also  in  Gratian.  (7)  and  (8)  are  two  coUectioni 
attributed  to  Bishop  Ivo  of  Chartres  (d.  1117)— 
the  Decretum  in  seventeen  books  and  the  Pannor- 
mia  in  eight.  The  relation  of  these  two  works  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy;  and  if  Ivo's 
authorship  of  the  PannormiOf  at  one  time  often 
denied,  is  now  considered  certain,  the  Decretum, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  been  recently  thought  not 
to  be  his.  Both,  however,  were  abimdantly  drawn 
upon  by  Gratian,  as  was  also,  though  not  to  the  same 
extent,  another  unpublished  collection  (9),  known 
under  the  name  of  Collectio  irium  pcaiium.  Its 
first  part  contains  papal  decretals  down  to  Urban 
II.  (d.  1099)  in  chronological  order,  though  not 
complete;  the  second,  canons  of  councils,  amilariy 
arranged;  the  third,  a  separate  collection  of  csldods 
taken  from  the  Decretum  of  Ivo.     (10)  A   worir 


385 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oanon  Law 


frequently  used  by  the  Carredorea  Ramani  (see 
below,  7)  is  that  compiled  by  a  certain  Cardinal 
Gregory  in  1144,  principally  from  the  two  collec- 
tions Anselmi  and  Aruelmo  dedicata.  It  is  usually 
cited  as  PolycarpuSy  from  the  designation  given 
to  it  by  the  compiler  himself  in  his  preface,  ad- 
dressed to  Bishop  Didacus  of  Compostella. 

These  collections,  from  such  diverse  countries 
and  periods,  had  many  defects  when  it  came  to  a 
question  of  practical  use.  There  was  no  sort  of  gen- 
eral arrangement,  but  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  imi- 
versal  and  local  law  were  inextricably  mixed  up; 
discrepancies  and  contradictions  were  numerous; 
many  regulations  had  become  obsolete,  and  been 
replaced  in  actual  practise  by  others.  There  was 
great  need  for  the  compilation  of  a  new 
a.  Gratian.  work  which  should  give  a  compre- 
hensive survey  of  the  law  that  was  in 
force.  This  was  undertaken  by  Gratian,  a  brother 
of  the  Camaldolite  monastery  of  St.  Felix  at  Bo- 
logna. Between  1139  and  1142  he  compiled  a 
work  entitled  Concardantia  discardarUium  canonumy 
though  since  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  it  has 
usually  been  known  simply  as  the  Decretum  Gra- 
tiani.  It  is  composed  principally  of  the  material 
found  in  (3)  and  (5)  to  (10)  of  the  works  named 
in  the  last  section,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts. 
The  first  twenty  "  distinctions  "  in  the  first  part 
contain  propositions  as  to  the  sources  of  law,  which 
Gratian  designates  as  a  treatise  on  decretals, 
followed  by  other  treatises  on  qualifications  for  ordi- 
nation, on  ordination,  and  on  ecclesiastical  promo- 
tion. The  second  part,  though  other  subjects  occa- 
sionally come  in,  is  mainly  devoted  to  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  offenses,  and  legal  proceedings,  deal- 
ing in  the  last  nine  causa  with  the  law  of  matri- 
mony, with  a  separate  treatise  on  penance  put  into 
the  thirty-third.  The  last  part,  entitled  "  Of  con- 
secration," deals  with  religious  functions,  and  espe- 
cially the  sacraments,  in  five  distinctions.  The 
feature  most  characteristic  of  the  work  as  a  whole 
is  that  Gratian  did  not  content  himself  with  col- 
lecting canons  to  illustrate  and  enforce  the  prin- 
ciples to  which  they  related  and  arranging  them 
after  a  certain  rather  unsatiBfactory  system,  but 
in  the  first  two  parts  himself  elucidated  these  prin- 
ciples in  (generally  short)  explanations  to  which 
he  appended  the  canons  as  piUea  justificatives.  In 
these  dicta  of  his  the  attempt  is  frequently  visible 
to  reconcile  or  eliminate  the  discrepancies  appearing 
in  the  canons  as  they  stand. 

The  extent  to  which  the  Decrehim,  in  spite  of  all 
its  defects,  met  a  practical  want  of  its  day  is  seen 
by  the  approval  and  currency  which  it  attained. 
The  older  collections  were  superseded  by  it;  the 
work  which  Cardinal  Laborans  put  together  in 
1182,  containing  much  the  same  material  with  a 
really  better  arrangement,  failed  to  attract  atten- 
tion. The  wide  popularity  of  Gratian's  work  is 
to  be  explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  it  appeared 
at  a  time  when  Bologna  was  the  headquarters  for 
the  study  of  law.  The  laborious  activity  of  the 
glossators  of  the  Roman  law  afforded  a  model  for 
the  application  of  the  same  learned  method  to 
Gratian's  material.  He  himself  lectured  upon  it, 
and  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of 
n.-26 


canonists  who,  in  addition  to  their  lectures,  like 
the  civil  jurists,  expoimded  separate  passages  of 
the  Decretum  by  glosses  or  conmientaries  (see 
Glosses  and  Glossators  of  Canon  Law).  In 
this  way  it  became  known  far  and  wide;  and  its 
authority  was  further  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  popes  made  use  of  it  and  cited  it.  It  wsb 
never,  indeed,  expressly  confirmed  by  any  pope,  or 
received  in  the  Church  as  an  official  codex;  but 
the  influence  of  the  university  insured  its  respect- 
ful acceptance  and  its  application  in  practise.  It 
was  not  long  before  others,  particularly  a  pupil  of 
Gratian's  named  Paucapaleo,  added  canons  here 
and  there  to  make  it  more  complete — at  first  in 
the  form  of  marginal  glosses,  but  later  as  a  part  of 
the  text,  with  the  designation  PaUa,  which  must 
have  referred  originally  to  the  above-named  scholar 
(though  other  interpretations  have  been  attempted) 
and  then  have  been  adopted  as  a  specific  term  for 
these  additions.  That  they  must  early  have  crept 
into  the  text  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  ma- 
jority of  them  are  accepted  in  the  work  of  Cardi- 
nal Laborans,  a  few  years  later. 

e.  OollectionB  of  Decretals:  Great  as  was  the 
popularity  and  the  practical  importance  which  the 
Decretum  acquired  at  the  outset,  it  appeared,  none 
the  less,  in  a  period  characterized  by  great  legisla- 
tive activity  on  the  part  of  the  popes,  who  were  now 
approaching  the  height  of  their  power.  The  decre- 
tals issued  from  the  twelfth  century  on  contained 
an  extraordinary  wealth  of  new  material  for  eccle- 
siastical law,  which  in  many  particulars  altered  and 
fiuther  developed  the  previous  discipline  of  the 
Church;  and  thus  it  was  not  long  before  the  work 
of  Gratian,  which,  when  it  was  compiled,  represented 
practically  the  whole  extant  canon  law,  came  in- 
evitably to  be  regarded  as  antiquated  or  incom- 
plete, and  the  need  of  new  collections  was  felt. 
These,  because  they  were  composed  almost  wholly 
of  papal  decrees  and  the  canons  of  councils  held 
under  the  pope's  eye,  were  usually  known  as  col- 
lectionea  decretalium. 

Of  such  collections  made  before  Gregory  IX., 
five  deserve  special  mention.  (1)  The  Breviarium 
extravagantium,  completed  about  1191  by  Bernard, 
dean  of  Pavia.  The  title  comes  from  the  fact  that 
the  laws  included  in  it,  principally  new  ones,  were 
such  as  were  not  found  in  the  Decretum^  but,  so  to 
speak,  wandered  about  homeless  (extra  Decretum 
vagantee),  Bernard  took  his  material  partly  from 
some  older  collections,  of  which  he  names  explic- 
itly the  Corpue  canonum  (probably  the  CoUectio 
Anaelmo  dedicata)  and  Burchard,  and  partly,  espe- 
cially for  the  newer  decretals,  from  collections  made 
after  Gratian.  In  the  division  and  arrangement 
of  his  work,  he  evidently  took  the  code  of  Jus- 
tinian for  a  model.  The  first  book  deals  with  eccle* 
siastical  offices  and  prerequisites  for  judgment;  the 
second,  with  judicial  tribunals  and  their  procedure; 
the  third,  with  the  clergy  and  relig- 
X.  Before  ious  orders;  the  fourth,  with  mar- 
Gregoiy  IX.  riage,  and  the  fifth  with  crime  and  its 
punishment.  The  work  was  accepted 
by  the  Bolognese  teachers,  and,  as  the  first 'of  its 
kind,  became  known  as  CampUatio  prima.  (2)  By 
order  of  Innocent  III.  the  papal  notary  Petrus  Col- 


Oanon  Lftw 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


livacinus  of  Benevento  made  a  collection  of  the  de- 
cretals of  that  pope,  issued  in  the  first  eleven  years  of 
his  pontificate,  to  1210,  based  upon  two  earlier  ones 
which  had  not  been  received  at  Bologna  because 
they  contained  unauthentic  documents.  Innocent, 
sending  the  new  work  to  the  universities,  guaranteed 
its  fidelity  to  the  Regeata,  thus  making  it  the  first 
codification  of  canon  law  expressly  authorized  by 
any  pope.  This  Compilatio  tertia,  as  it  is  called, 
marloi  a  turning-point  in  the  history  of  canon  law. 
The  action  of  Honorius  III.,  and  still  more  of  Greg- 
ory IX.,  shows  how  the  development  of  ecclesias- 
tical law  had  by  their  time  become  an  exclusive 
privilege  of  the  pope.  (3)  Though  written  after 
the  last-named,  that  which  contains  the  decretals 
of  the  popes  from  Alexander  III.  to  Innocent  III. 
is  known  as  Compilatio  aecunda  from  its  place  in  the 
chronological  order.  These  particular  decretals  had 
already  been  compiled  by  two  KngJishmen  at 
Bologna,  Gilbert  and  Alan,  but  the  imiversity  had 
not  approved  their  work,  and  it  was  now  done  over 
by  Johannes  Galensis  (John  the  Welshman),  his 
collection  being  accepted.  (4)  The  Lateran  Coun- 
cil of  1215  gave  occasion  for  another  compilation, 
known  as  Quarta,  which  included  the  decrees  of 
the  council  and  the  papal  pronouncements  of  the 
years  following  1210.  Its  compiler  is  unknown. 
(5)  In  1226  Honorius  III.  sent  to  Bologna  a  col- 
lection of  his  own  decretals  and  the  constitutions 
of  Frederick  II.  It  was  accepted  as  CompiUuio 
quintOf  but  was  soon  superseded,  with  the  other 
four,  by  the  official  collection  of  Gregory  IX. 

In  1230  Gregory  entrusted  his  chaplain  Raymond 
of  Pefiaforte  with  the  preparation  of  a  new  collec- 
tion which  should  reduce  all  that  had  gone  before 
to  a  consistent  and  intelligible  whole.  Raymond 
omitted  a  number  of  sections  from  the  older  com- 
pilations in  order  to  avoid  repetitions  or  discrep- 
ancies, revised  some  older  decretals  to 
2.  Collection  bring  them  into  harmony  with  the 
of  Gregory,  most  recent  legislation,  condensed 
some  long  documents,  and  divided 
others  into  parts  which  could  be  classified  by  their 
subjects.  This  compilation  was  sent  to  Bologna 
by  the  pope  in  1234  as  the  only  authorized  collection. 

The  legislative  activity  of  the  succeeding  popes 
soon  made  supplements  necessary,  which  were  sent 
by  them  to  the  imiversities  as  separate  compilations, 
but  were  intended  to  be  added  to  the  Gregorian 
collection.  Thus  Innocent  IV.  in  1245  sent  to 
Bologna  and  Paris  a  list  of  the  initial  words  of  his 
bulls,  desiring  that  they,  as  well  as  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Lyons,  should  be  inserted  in  their 
proper  places  in  the  decretals  of  Gregory  IX.; 
thus  too  the  decretals  of  Alexander  IV.,  Urban  IV., 
and  Clement  IV.  were  put  together  in  special  col- 
lections. Gregory  X.  commimicated  to  the  univer- 
sities the  acts  of  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274), 
and  the  same  was  done  with  a  collection  of  five 
decretals  of  Nicholas  III. 

The  same  reasons  which  had  influenced  Gregoiy 
IX.  induced  Boniface  VIII.  to  combine  all  the  post- 
Gregorian  decretals  with  his  own  nimierous  bulls 
into  a  single  whole.  In  his  bull  of  publication 
addressed  to  the  universities  of  Bologna  and  Paris, 
he  emphasized  the  uncertainty  which  had  prevailed 


in  regard  to  the  authenticity  of  some  decreUKtc 
eliminate  which  he  had  had  a  thorou^  revision  &d>! 
verification  made.  He  promulgita 
3.  Supple-  the  new  compilation  in  1298  under  tix 
ments  to  It.  name  of  Libigr  sextus,  as  being  a  com- 
pletion of  the  five  books  of  the  GI^ 
gorian  collection.  The  decretals  subsequently  is- 
sued  by  Boniface  himself  (including  the  fames 
bull  Unam  sanctam)  and  by  his  sueoesaor,  Boiedie^ 
XI.,  sixteen  in  number,  were  frequently  appended 
to  the  Liber  aexhu,  though  without  official  au^oritj. 
Clement  V.  had  the  decisions  of  the  Council  d 
"Nnenne  (1311)  and  his  own  decretals  collected  (re- 
cording to  the  traditional  syBtem)  into  five  books, 
which  he  promulgated  in  1313,  apparently  unds 
the  title  of  Liber  aeptimtte,  and  sent  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Orleans.  Then,  however,  he  stopped  its 
further  circulation  and  had  it  revised,  so  that  it 
was  sent  to  Paris  and  Bologna  only  by  his  succes- 
sor John  XXII.  in  1317.  This  collection  ultimatdj 
became  known  as  the  Clementine  ConstitutioDs. 
The  difference  between  it  and  the  other  post-Gre- 
gorian  compilations  was  that  while  they  had  boni€ 
to  a  certain  extent  the  character  of  exclusive  codes, 
it  did  not  exclude  the  other  Extrava^anles  which 
had  appeared  since  the  Liber  aextus,  and  that  i: 
contained,  besides  the  canons  of  Vienne,  nothing 
but  Clement's  own  decretals. 

The  reason  for  this  abandonment  by  Clement  V. 
and  John  XXII.  of  the  system  of  their  predeces- 
sors was  the  difiicult  situation  in  France,  and  tht 
desire  to  avoid  provoking  a  rejection  of  their  com- 
pilation by  including  in  it  matter  which  was  certais 
to  excite  violent  opposition  there.  This  account: 
for  the  fact  that  no  further  official  collections  of 
decretals  were  published.  The  increasing  difficul- 
ties of  the  papacy  with  the  secular  power  and  with 
national  churches  made  the  reception  of  such  thinp 
problematical,  at  the  same  time  that  it  claimed  the 
best  eneigies  of  the  popes  for  other  matters.  Of 
collections  subsequently  published,  though  do 
longer  by  the  popes  themselves,  with  the  title  ci 
ExtravagatUeSf  two  have  retained  some  importance 
to  the  present  day,  because  of  their  inclusion  in  the 
Corpus  juris  canonici.  When  at  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  booksellers  Gering  and  R«n- 
boldt  in  Paris  imdertook  an  edition  of  all  the  parts 
of  the  Corpus,  they  entrusted  the  editing  of  the 
Decretum,  the  Liber  sextus,  the  Clementina^  and  the 
Extravagardes  to  Jean  Chappuis,  who  made  a  new 
arrangement  of  the  last>named,  preserved  in  all 
subsequent  editions.  He  divided  than  into  two 
collections;  the  first,  Extraoagantes  Johannis  Paptt 
XXIL,  contained  twenty  decretals  of  that  pope^ 
put  together  by  himself  in  a  chronologically  con- 
sistent whole  and  ^ossed  by  Zenzelinus  de  Cassiac^ 
in  1325;  the  second,  seventy-four  (originally  sev- 
enty) decretals  of  popes  from  Urban  IV.  (1261-64) 
to  Sixtus  IV.  (1471-84),  known  as  Eatropoganies 
communeSf  not  because  they  belong  to  a  number 
of  popes,  but  because  they  are  the  commonly  cit^d 
ones — though  no  single  previous  edition  had  con- 
tained more  than  thirty-three  of  th^e.  In  1590 
Petrus  Matthseus  published  at  Lyons  a  Liber  sepd- 
mus  containing  decretals  from  Sixtus  IV.  to  Sittcs 
V.  (1586-90);  but  this,  though  printed  as  an  ap- 


387 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Oanon  X<aw 


pendix  to  many  old  editions  of  the  Corpxis  juris 
canonicif  never  met  with  much  recognition  or  use. 
Gregory  XIII.  appointed  a  commission  to  prepare 
an  official  Liber  aeptimtta,  but  the  work,  which 
finally  included  the  dogmatic  decrees  of  Florence 
ajid  Trent,  was  not  completely  printed  until  1598, 
in  the  pontificate  of  Clement  VIII.,  imder  whose 
name  it  appeared;  and  then  Clement,  for  some 
reason  now  unknown,  refused  to  approve  it.  No 
further  systematic  collection  of  later  decretals  has 
been  imdertaken,  though  frequent  chronological 
arrangements  of  them  have  been  published  imder 
the  title  of  BuUaria  (see  Briefs,  Bulls,  and  Bul- 
laria). 

7.  Ccrims  Juris  Oanoniol:  It  remains  to  give  an 
account  of  the  Corpus  juris  canonicif  by  which  name 
it  has  been  customary  since  the  sixteenth  century 
to  designate  the  collection  formed  by  combining 
the  Decretum  Graiiani,  the  decretals  of  Gregory  IX., 
the  Liber  sextus,  the  Clementina,  and  the  two  col- 
lections of  Extravagantes  made  by  Chappuis.  The 
name  was  applied  to  Gratian's  work  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  by  Innocent  IV.  to  the  Gregorian  col- 
lection; Pierre  d'Ailly,  in  his  treatise  De  necessi- 
tate refarmatumiSf  written  at  the  oi)ening  of  the 
Council  of  Constance,  speaks  of  the  reservations 
prescribed  "  in  corpore  juris  canonici,"  where  there 
is  no  doubt  that  he  means  the  sum  of  the  collec- 
tions named  above,  with  the  exception  of  the  as 
yet  non-existent  Exiravagantes.  During  the  coun- 
cil the  term  Carpus  juris  or  jus  scriptum  was  con- 
stantly employed  in  contradistinction  to  the  post- 
Clementine  Exiravagantes,  and  similarly  at  the 
Council  of  Basel.  The  legal  authority  of  the  Ex- 
iravagantes was,  in  fact,  frequently  contested,  and 
the  thesis  of  the  independent  validity  of  every 
papal  pronouncement,  which  had  had  practical 
effect  since  Innocent  III.,  no  longer  recognized. 
So  far,  then,  this  distinction  was  justified,  and 
while  no  new  accepted  collection  was  added  to  the 
ClemenHna  the  previously  accepted  Carpus  might 
be  considered  as  closed.  The  name  does  not  occur 
in  the  oldest  printed  editions,  which  is  to  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  the  component  parts  were 
usually  printed  separately.  In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  became  usual  for  these  parts,  together  with 
Chappuis's  two  collections  of  Exiravagantes,  to  be 
published  by  the  same  house  in  three  volumes,  the 
first  containing  Gratian's  work,  the  second  the 
decretals  of  Gregory  IX.,  and  the  third  the  re- 
mainder with  the  fosses.  In  the  latter  half  of 
this  century,  however,  it  was  more  common  to  omit 
the  fosses  and  bind  the  whole  in  one  volume,  so 
that  the  inclusive  title  now  becomes  usual.  The 
edition  of  Demochares  (Paris,  1550,  1561)  showed 
a  certain  amount  of  critical  spirit,  but  with  little 
result.  During  the  sessions  of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent 
the  need  of  revision  was  clearly  apparent,  and 
Pius  IV.  in  1563  established  a  commission  of  car- 
dinals and  other  scholars  for  this  purpose.  Under 
his  successors,  Pius  V.  and  Gregory  XIII.,  it  was 
confirmed  and  enlarged  to  thirty-five  members. 
The  work  of  these  Correctares  Ramani,  as  they  are 
called,  was  completed  in  1580,  and  the  resulting 
revised  edition  published  at  Rome  in  1582.  Though 
they  had  rendered  valuable  service,  much  remained 


to  be  done,  as  was  made  evident  by  the  editions  of 
Antonius  Augustinus  and  Berardus — ^to  say  noth- 
ing ot  the  modem  ones.  The  earlier  editions 
usually  contained  a  number  of  appendices,  inclu- 
ding the  Institutiones  juris  canonid  of  Paul  Lancelot, 
professor  at  Perugia  imder  Paul  IV.  (1555-59), 
the  Liber  septimus  of  Petrus  Matthseus,  etc. 

For  the  internal  relations  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  Corpus  juris  canonid  is  still  the  au- 
thority in  common  law,  though  with  some  limita- 
tions. The  appendices  are  not  considered  author- 
itative, especially  those  just  named,  unless  the  single 
decretals  contained  in  the  last  of  them  have  been 
universally  received;  and  the  same  principle  applies 
to  the  Exiravagantes,  The  position  taken  at  the 
ooimcils  of  Constance  and  Basel  was  not  affected 
by  the  edition  of  Gregory  XIII.,  whose  purpose 
was  not  to  give  them  an  official  character  by  in- 
cluding them,  but  merely  to  establish  a  correct 
and  authentic  text  of  the  documents  which  had 
previously  been  included  in  widely  circulated  col- 
lections. Acting  on  the  same  principle  in  regard  to 
this  edition  of  Gregory  XIII.,  most  modem  can- 
onists deny  the  positive  authority  of  the  Decretum 
Oratiani  as  such,  since  it  was  a  mere  private  col- 
lection, never  officially  authorized  by  the  Church 
or  the  pope,  and  regard  it  only  as  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  documents  for  the  history  of  canon  law. 
This  view  was  even  expressed  in  a  decision  of  the 
Rota  Romana,  too  long  to  quote  here,  and  more 
than  once  by  Benedict  XIV.  But  though  this 
may  be  theoretically  the  case,  yet  in  practise  the 
Decretum  has  retained  a  large  measure  of  authority; 
and  Gregory  XIII.  himself  would  scarcely  have 
displayed  so  much  seal  in  having  it  edited  and 
completed  if  he  had  regarded  it  as  no  more  than 
a  private  compilation,  without  legal  authority. 
Its  contents,  however,  have  in  the  lapse  of  time 
been  to  a  great  extent  modified  or  rendered  obso- 
lete by  later  decretals,  so  that  its  practical  impor- 
tance is  small. 

Besides  th^  general  principle  that  a  new  law 
supersedes  an  older  one,  which  has  destroyed  the 
validity  of  so  much  that  is  in  the  Corpus  juris 
(not  merely  in  Gratian's  part  of  it),  the  course  of 
secular  legislation  since  the  fourteenth  century  has 
had  a  marked  influence  in  the  same  direction. 
The  canon  law  covers  not  merely  the  doctrine, 
worship,  sacraments,  and  discipline  of  the  Church, 
but  a  vast  mass  of  other  things  in  which  eccle- 
siastical interests  were  supposed  to  be  concerned, 
such  as  vows,  oaths,  betrothals,  wills,  funerals, 
benefices,  church  property,  tithes,  and  the  like. 
The  reaction  against  the  all-embracing  claims  of 
the  Church  has  taken  many  of  these  things  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  (see  Juris- 
diction, Ecclesiastical),  while  by  its  proclama- 
tion of  the  principle  of  the  unity  of  national  law 
and  govemment  it  has  reduced  the  Church  to  the 
position  of  any  other  corporation  within  the  limits 
of  the  State;  and  thus  a  large  number  of  canonical 
provisions,  such  as  those  covering  the  procedure 
against  heretics,  which  conflict  with  the  civil  con- 
stitution, have  necessarily  become  ineffective.  In 
France,  Belgium,  and  Italy  it  is  still  regarded  as 
a  part  of  the  general  body  of  law.    In  the  German 


QanoBlAw 
Oanon  of  Soilptnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


888 


Empire,  after  gradual  restrictions  in  many  of  the 
component  states,  it  ceased  on  Jan.  1,  1900,  to 
have  any  legal  .validity  outside  of  the  internal  dis- 
cipline of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

(J.  F.  VON  SCHULTE.) 

Biblioobafht:  On  the  oonoeption  and  apologeii«  of 
ehuroh  law  oonmilt:  W.  T.  Knig,  Dot  KirehermdU  nock 
GrumUMgen  der  Vwmunft  uf»d  im  Liehie  dM  ChriitmUumt, 
Leipno.  1826,  cf.  F.  Schirmer,  KirdiiengesehidUliehs  Un- 
iermidiungen^  Berlin,  1829;  C.  Oraes,  Zur  BtffriifabMtim' 
mun4f  und  WUrdigun^f  d$9  KirehenrtchUt  Qrai,  1872. 

Collectiona  or  diseeta  supplementing  those  mentioned 
in  the  text  are:  Z.  B.  van  EiqMn,  Ju9  eeeUaiaatieum  uni- 
veraale,  2  vols.,  Louvain,  1700;  A.  ReiffenstOl,  J%i»  oanoni- 
eum  univeraaU,  3  vole.,  Venioe,  1704;  J.  H.  BAhmer, 
Ju9  eeeUtiagiieum  iVotetlsnliiim,  6  vole.,  Halle,  1714; 
F.  SohmalscrClber,  Jim  ecdMiaaHeum  univermtU^  3  vole., 
Incolstadt,  1726.  Other  diecuarionfl  are:  J.  F.  Sehulte, 
Dm  katholUeh0  KirdienredU,  2  vole.,  Gieaaen,  1856-60; 
D.  Craieeon,  Manuals  totitu  jurU  eanonici,  4  vole.,  Paris, 
1863;  F.  Walter,  Lehrbudi  dss  KireKsnrtehtB  aUer  ehriBUiehtn 
Konfeuionsn^  14th  ed.,  Bonn,  1871;  F.  Thudieum,  Kirehen- 
recht,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1877-78;  A.  L.  Riohter,  Lehr- 
huch  d$9  luUholMiim  und  evanodtMchen  Ktr^mreehU, 
8th  ed.  by  W.  Kahl.  Leipsic,  1877-«6;  W.  Kahl.  Kireken^ 
reeht  und  KireUnpolUik,  Freiburg,  1804;  E.  Geigel, 
ReicKs-  und  niehtlAnductiM  Kirehen^  und  SHftttn4f9rtehtt 
Strasbuzg,  1900;  E.  Friedberg.  Lehrhuch  det  kathol%$d^»n 
und  mangdiscken  KireKenrtehU,  Leipdo,  1903. 

Works  in  £ng.  on  the  general  question  are:  J.  Fulton, 


Index  C/inonwn,  Gk.  Text  toith  TraTielatiim  and  Cemjit 
Digeet  of  Canon  Law  of  the  Univeraal  Cktuxk^  Nev  Yoi 
1892;  S.  B.  Smith.  ElemenU  of  EcdeeiatHeal  Lax,  va 
Reference  to  the  Syllabus,  ConmtUutionee  apoetalkm  «& 
of  Pope  Piue  IX.,  the  Council  of  the  VaOeam  .  ...I 
vols.,  ib.  1893-94.  For  Knglieh  church  law  ooaaoR 
K  Gibson,  Codex  juris  ecdeeiaeiici  AngUcanL  «r,  3$ 
Statutes,  Constitutions,  Canons,  Rubrics,  and  Artida  . . . 
Methodically  Dioestsd  .  .  .  wOK  a  Cowuneniary,  LoDdea, 
1713,  cf.  [M.  Foster],  An  Examination  of  the  Sditm  ^ 
Church-Power  Laid  Down  in  the  Codex  jvria  eed.  At^ 
eani,  ib.  1735;  C.  H.  DaTis,  Enolisk  ChwA  Cemim  d 
1604;  with  historical  Introduction  and  Notet,  ib.  \m. 
M.  £.  C.  Waloott,  Constitutions  and  Canons  BdmaAd 
of  the  Church  of  England  Referred  to  Their  Original  Sevm 
.  .  .  ,  ib.  1874;  Sir.  W.  Phillimore.  Law  of  As  Ourds 
England,  2  vols.,  ib.  1895;  F.  W.  Maitland,  Csiira  Ut 
in  England,  ib.  1898;  A.  T.  Wiigmaa,  CoMliiiitis^ 
Aitthority  of  the  Bishops  in  ihs  Catholic  Chwxh  IUmA^ 
by  History  and  Canon  Law,  ib.  1809.  Consult  abo  E 
Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church.  A  Cydopadia  of  Cam 
Law  for  Engiish-epeaking  Countriee,  London,  190& 

For  American  church  law  consult:  F.  Vinton,  Ma/ad 
Commentary  on  the  General  Canon  Law  of  Ae  Pnkik< 
Episcopal  Church,  New  York,  1870;  M.  Hoffmann,  Etet- 
siastical  Law  in  ths  Stale  of  New  York,  ib.  1868;  idea 
Ritual  Law  of  the  Churtk,  ib.  1872;  W.  S.  Vmy.  n* 
General  Ecclesiastical  Constitution  of  tike  Amerieen  Ckmk 
ib.  1891;  Revised  Conetitution  and  Canons  of  the  Pnte- 
tant  Episcopal  Chwdi,  ib.  1895;  H.  J.  Desmond.  Tit 
Church  and  the  Law,  with  Special  Reference  to  BakusAd 
Law  in  tike  United  States,  Chicago.  1898. 


.  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  History  Among  the  Jews. 
Traditional  Account  of  the  Rise  of 

the  Collection  (|  1). 

The  Theory  of  the  Synagogue  (|2). 

Criticism  of  the  TwoTheoriee(f  3). 

Positive  Exposition,  a.  The  Pen- 
tateuch—the So-called  "  First 
Canon  ";  b.  The  Historico-pro- 
phetic  and  Distinctively  Pro- 
phetic Books — the  **  Second 
Canon  ";  c.  The  Hagiographa — 
the"  Third  Canon  "  (f  4). 

2.  Witnesses  for  the  Second  and  Third 

Parts  of  the  Canon. 
8.  Supposed  Jewish  Dissent  from  the 

Canon. 
4.  History    of    the  Old    Testament 
Canon  Among  the  Jews. 
The  Triple  Division  (|  1). 
Order  (f  2). 


CANON  OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Number  of  the  Canonical  Books 
(18). 

5.  The  Old  Testament  Canon  in  the 

Christian  Church. 
Patristic  and  Medieval  Writers  (|1 ). 
The  Ancient  Oriental  Versions  (|  2). 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  (|  3). 
The  Greek  Church  (|  4). 
The  Protestant  Church  (|  5). 

6.  The  Names  of  the  Old  Teetament 

and  of  Its  Chief  Divisions. 
II.  The  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  Terms  Used. 

2.  The  New  Teetament.  170-220. 
The  Four  Gospels  (f  1). 
The  Pauline  Letters  (f  2). 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostlee  (f  3). 
The  Apocalypse  (f  4). 
The  Catholic  Epistles  (|  5). 
Writings  Temporarily  Regarded  as 

Canonical  (f  6). 


Summary  ({  7). 

3.  The  New  Testament.  14O-170i 
ICardon's  Bible  (|  1). 

The  Bible  of  the  Valentiiusni  (i  I) 
The  ApoetoUo  Writings  in  Jastu 
Martyr  (»  3). 

4.  The  Oldest  Traces  and  the  Onp 

of  Collections  of  Apostolic  Wo- 


Canon  of  Scripture  is  a  term  that  designates  the 
books  of  the  Bible  accepted  as  authoritative.  The 
word  "  canon "  (Gk.  kanOn)  means  primarily  a 
straight  staff,  then  a  measuring-rod,  hence,  figura- 
tively, that  which  is  artistically,  scientifically,  pr 
ethicjEdly  a  guide  or  a  model;  so  in  the  earliest 
Christian  use  (Gal.  vi.  16;  Phil.  iii.  16;  Clement  of 
Rome,  i.  7,  41)  the  canon  was  a  leading  thought, 
a  normal  principle.  The  next  change  of  meaning 
(indicated  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Strom.,  VII. 
xvi.  94)  was  to  a  type  of  Christian  doctrine,  the 
orthodox  as  opposed  to  the  heretical.  Since  300 
the  plural  form  "  canons  "  has  been  used  of  eccle- 
siastical regulations  (see  Canon).  Now,  since  the 
Christian  doctrines  were  professedly  based  upon 
the  Scriptures,  the  writings  themselves  were  natu- 
rally known  as  the  canon;  and  the  test  of  the 
canonicity  of  any  particular  writing  was  its 
reception  by  the  Church.  The  earliest  use  of 
the  word  in  this  sense  is  in  the  fifty-ninth 
canon  of  the   Council  of  Laodioea    (363),    "No 


The  Collection  of  Paoline  Lettes 

(§1). 
The  *'  Gospel  "  (|  2). 
Other  Writings  (f  3). 
6,  Oriflen  and  his  School. 

6.  The  Original   New  Testsmest  d 
the  Syrians. 

7.  Ludan  and  Eusebius. 

8.  Athanasius. 
0.  The  Development  in  the  Orieit 

till  the  Time  of  Jnstinita 
10.  The  Assimilation  of  the  Watt 

psalms  of  private  authorship  can  be  read  in  the 
Church,  nor  imcanonical  books,  but  only  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments," 
and  contemporaneously  in  Athanssius  {Epittck 
featalia,  i.  961,  Paris,  1698).  A  few  years  later  tiie 
use  was  general. 

L  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament—l.  Hlitoir 

Among  the  Jews:  The  theory,  which  was  abnoet 

universally  received  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  thst 

Esra  was  the  author  of  the  Old  Te^ 

X.  Tradi-   tament  canon,  dates  from  the  first 

tional  Ac-  Christian  oentiuy;   for  it  is  found  i 

count  of  the  IV  (II)    Ezra  xiv.  44  that  Esra  wss 

Rise  of  the  inspired  to  dictate  during  forty  dajs 

Collection,  to    five   men  ninety-four   bodkS,  of 

which  twenty-four  were  to  be  po^ 

lished.    These  twenty-four  quite  evidently  are  the 

twenty-four  books  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  accordiaj 

to  the  counting  given  below;   and  the  seventy  tf^ 

the  Jewish  Apociypha  alluded  to  in  the  Gatpd «/ 

Nicodemus  xxviii.   (ANF,  viii.  453).    What  tie 


389 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Oanon  IJaw 
Oanon  oX  Soriptaro 


Fathers  have  to  say  upon  this  matter  is  derived 
in  part  from  IV  Ezra,  and  is  equally  fabulous. 

The  theory  above  mentioned  has  been  supposed 
to  be  the  one  prevalent  among  the  Jews  themselves. 
But  this  has  no  other  support  than 
2.  The  The-  that  the  eminent  rabbis  David  Kimchi 
cry  of  the  (d.  1240)  and  Elias  Levita  (1472> 
Syiiagogae.  1549)  remarked  on  the  work  of  Ezra 
and  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 
in  bringing  together  the  twenty-four  books  in  their 
divisions.  The  only  Talmudic  passage  which  can 
be  quoted  directly  in  its  behalf  is  in  Baba  Baihra  ; 
for  the  other  quotations  commonly  made  prove 
merely  the  care  of  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great 
Synagogue  for  the  law,  not  for  the  canon;  indeed, 
mostly  for  the  oral  law,  and  some  also  for  altera- 
tions in  the  text.  The  passage  is  in  these  words: 
''  The  order  of  the  prophets  is  Joshua  and  Judges, 
Samuel  and  Kings,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  Isaiah 
and  the  Twelve.  Hosea  is  the  first,  because  it  is 
written,  'The  beginning  of  the  word  of  Jehovah 
by  Hosea '  (i.  2).  Did  God,  then,  speak  to  Hosea 
first?  and  have  there  not  been  many  prophets 
between  him  and  Moses?  R.  Johanan  explained 
this  as  meam'ng  that  Hosea  was  the  first  of  the 
four  prophets  who  prophesied  at  that  time, — 
Hosea,  Isaiah,  Amos,  and  Micah.  Why,  then,  was 
he  not  put  first?  Because  his  prophesy  stands  next 
to  that  of  the  latest  prophets,  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
and  Malachi:  he  is  therefore  counted  with  them. 
So  this  prophet  should  have  been  kept  by  himself, 
Guid  inserted  before  Jeremiah?  No:  he  was  so 
small  that  he  might  then  easily  have  been  lost. 
Since  Isaiah  lived  before  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel, 
>ught  he  not  to  have  been  put  before  them?  [No.] 
because  Kings  closes  with  destruction,  Jeremiah  is 
mtirely  occupied  with  it,  Ezekiel  begins  with  it 
>ut  ends  with  consolation,  while  Isaiah  is  all  con- 
lolation;  hence  we  can  not  connect  destruction 
urith  destruction,  and  consolation  with  consolation. 
But  Job  lived  in  the  time  of  Moses;  why  should 
le  not  come  in  the  first  part?  No;  for  it  would 
lever  do  to  begin  with  misfortime.  Yet  Ruth 
ontains  misfortune?  True;  but  it  issues  in  joy. 
Ind  who  wrote  them?  Moses  wrote  his  book  and 
he  Balaam  section  and  Job.  Joshua  wrote  his 
KX>k  and  eight  verses  in  the  Law  (Deut.  xxxiv. 
^12).  Samuel  wrote  his  book.  Judges  and  Ruth. 
>avid  wrote  Pbalms  for  ten  Elders.  Jeremiah 
rrote  his  book.  Kings,  and  Lamentations.  Heze- 
iah  and  his  company  wrote  Isaiah,  Proverbs, 
be  Song,  and  Ecclesiastes.  The  men  of  the  Great 
3magogue  wrote  Ezekiel,  The  Twelve,  Daniel,  and 
^ther.  Ezra  wrote  his  book  and  the  genealogies 
1  Chronicles  up  to  his  time.  That  is  a  support 
>r  the  saying  of  Rab;  for  Rab  Jehuda  says,  in  the 
ame  of  Rab,  '  Ezra  did  not  leave  Babylon  until 
e  had  written  his  own  family  register.'  Who 
[ided  it?  Nehemiah  the  son  of  Hachaliah."  The 
nderstanding  of  this  passage  depends  upon  ob- 
srving  that  the  word  "  wrote  "  is  used  in  different 
maes,  of  actual  authorship,  of  editorship,  and  of 
lerely  collecting  and  placing  together  books  which 
ad  not  before  been  brought  into  connection.  It 
ill  be  perceived  that  the  passage  says  nothing 
30ut  the  closing  of  the  canon,  but  also  that  it 


would  readily  furnish  ground  for  the  idea  that  the 
canon  was  closed  in  the  time  of  Ezra  and  the  Great 
Synagogue. 

Both  theories  agree  in  assigning  the  collection 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  Ezra  and  his  companions 
and  successors,  and  also  asserting  that  the  division 
into  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Hagiographa 
(see  below)  was  primitive.  But  against  this,  two 
objections  may  be  urged:   (1)  Critical 

3.  Criticism  investigation  assigns  the  first  part  of 
of  the  Two  the  Book  of  Daniel,  on  account  of  its 

Theories.  Greek  words,  to  a  time  when  Greek 
was  imderstood,  and  the  second  part  to 
the  Maccabean  age  (see  Daniel,  Book  of);  (2)  The 
position  of  some  of  the  historical  books,  e.g.,  Ezra 
and  Daniel,  among  the  Hagiographa,  is  inexpli- 
cable if  the  canon  was  made  at  one  tune.  Moses 
Maimonides,  David  Kimchi,  and  Abarbanel  ex- 
plained the  fact  by  a  difference  in  inspiration.  But 
Christ  calls  Daniel  a  prophet  (Matt.  xxiv.  15;  Mark 
xiii.  14). 

The  Hebrews,  like  other  ancient  peoples,  pre- 
served their  sacred  writings  in  sacred  places.  So 
the  law  was  put  by  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant (Deut.  xxxi.  26),  with  its  additions  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xxiv.  26);  Samuel  laid  the  law  of  the 
kingdom  "  before  the  Lord  "  (I  Sam.  x. 

4.  PoBitive  25);  Hilkiah,  the  high  priest  under 
Exposition.  Josiah,  found  the  l^k  of  the  law 
a.  The  Pen-  "in  the  house  of  the  Lord"  (II  Kings 

tateuch —  xxii.  8).  We  are,  therefore,  safe  in 
the  So-called  believing  that  since  the  time  of  Mo- 
'' First  ses  docimients  and  intelligence  con- 
Canon."  ceming  the  Mosaic  giving  of  the  law, 
besides  the  tables  of  the  covenant,  and 
also  whatever  of  law  and  history  Moses  had  written, 
were  carefully  preserved  in  the  sanctuary  (Ex. 
xxiv.  4,  7,  xxxiv.  27;  Num.  xxxiii.  2).  The  priests 
also  would  retain  partly  oral  and  partly  written 
information  (subsequently  combined  in  the  Priest- 
code)  in  regard  to  many  similar  matters.  The 
existence  of  an  authoritative  code  is  proved  (a)  by 
the  use  of  the  "  Book  of  the  Covenant "  in  Deut., 
and  (b)  in  the  Priest-code;  (c)  by  Hos.  viii.  12; 
(d)  by  II  Kings  xxii.  The  Books  of  Kings,  finished 
during  the  exile,  mention  by  name  the  "  Book  of 
the  Law  of  Moses,"  by  which  only  Deuteronomy  is 
meant  (cf.  II  Kings  xiv.  6;  Deut.  xxiv.  16;  I  Kings 
ii.  3;  II  Kings  xxiii.  25).  The  mention  of  the  Book 
of  the  Law  of  Moses  (Josh.  i.  7-8;  viii.  31,  34, 
xxiii.  6)  can  not  be  taken  without  limitation,  since 
it  proceeds  from  the  Deuteronomic  editor  of  Joshua. 
Hag.  ii.  11-13  shows  the  existence  of  the  Priest- 
code,  dealing,  as  the  passage  does,  with  two  stat- 
utes of  that  code.  The  Wellhausen  hypothesis, 
that  the  Priest-code  was  the  private  possession  of 
Ezra  till  445  B.C.,  and  that  Neh.  viii.-x.  tells  of 
the  introduction  of  the  law,  is  in  incompatible 
contradiction  with  that  passage.  The  lowest  date 
for  the  separation  of  Joshua  [from  the  Pentateuch] 
is  the  time  of  Nehemiah  and  the  Samaritan  schism. 
The  prophets  were  the  spiritual  exhorters  and 
guides  of  the  people,  and  therefore  held  in  high 
esteem  by  the  faithful,  whose  natural  desire  to 
have  a  collection  of  their  writings  there  is  every 
reason    to   believe    wsjb    early  gratified.    At  idl 


Oanon  of  Soripture 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


390 


events,  it   is   quite    evident   from   the  prophetic 
parallels  that  the  prophets  were  acquainted  with 
one  another's  writings.    The  loss  of  so 
b.  The  Hist-  much  sacred  literature  in  the  destruc- 
orico-pro-     tion  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldeans 
phetic  and    made  the  collection  of  the  remaining 
Distinct-      historic  as  well  as  prophetic  bool^ 
iveiy  Pro-    the  more  imperative.    The  success  of 
phetic        a  collection  of  historical  books  was 
Books — the    furthered    by  the  fact    that    Joshua 
''Second      continued  the  narrative  of  the  Pen- 
Canon."      tateuch.     Since  Kings  continues  the 
history  in  I  and  II  Sam.,  and  may  be 
placed  in  the  latter  half  of  the  exilic  period,  the 
close  connection  with  the  earlier  prophets  gave  the 
name  to  them  of  "  the  Former  PVophets "  and 
secured  a  high  estimate  for  them  on  the  return  from 
Babylon. 

David  and  Solomon  began  the  arrangement  of 
the  temple  praise-service  and  a  collection  of  P&alms, 
and  later  collections  and  individual 
c.  The  Ha-  P&alms  were  added.  The  time  of 
giographa  Nehemiah  was  very  productive.  The 
— ^the  **  Third  division  into  five  books  is  older  than 
Canon."  the  Chronicler.  The  first  collection 
of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  (cf.  Prov. 
X.  1-xxii.  16)  was  so  highly  valued  that  Hezekiah 
ordered  a  second  to  be  prepared  (Prov.  xxv.  1). 
The  name  of  the  wise  man  sufficed  to  recommend 
Canticles;  its  age  and  contents,  the  Book  of  Job. 
Lamentations  appealed  directly  to  every  patriotic 
Jew  diuing  the  exile,  and  was  accepted  as  sacred, 
although  Jeremiah  was  not  its  author.  Ruth,  by 
age,  and  especially  by  its  genealogy  of  David,  was 
put  in  the  third  canon,  and  formed  an  introduction 
to  the  Psalter.  These  early  writings  were  followed 
gradually  by  the  others,  Ezra-Neh.,  I  and  II  Chron., 
Eccles.,  Esther  (an  explanation  of  Purim,  the 
festival  the  Persian  Jews  brought  back  with  them), 
and  finally  Daniel,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees. 
After  this  time,  and  down  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  70  a.d.,  the  nation  was  so 
affected  by  Greek  customs,  and  divided  by  the 
growing  rival  parties,  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees, 
that  its  religious  development  was  too  much  hin- 
dered for  any  work  to  receive  universal  recognition, 
and  hence  canonicity.  The  reception  of  Dan.  into 
the  canon  appears  explicable  under  the  circum- 
stances only  if  a  Daniel  narrative,  the  basis  of  Dan. 
ii.-vi.,  already  existed  (cf.  Ezek.  xiv.  14,  20;  xxviii. 
3).  Not  long  after  the  Maccabees,  the  second 
collection  or  canon  received  its  name,  the  Prophets, 
descriptive  not  only  of  a  portion  of  its  contents, 
but  of  their  authorship;  and  thus  the  three  divi- 
sions of  the  Old  Testament  canon — the  Law,  Proph- 
ets, and  Hagiographa — dated  from  the  second 
century  B.C.  (cf.  the  Prologue  to  Ecclesiasticus). 
Valentin  Loescher  {De  causis  linguoe  Hebroece,  p.  71, 
Leipsic,  1706)  said  rightly:  "  The  canon  came  not, 
as  they  say,  by  one  act  of  man,  but  gradually 
from  God." 

2.  Witnesses  for  the  Second  and  Third  Parts  of 
the  Canon:  Jesus  Sirach  (Ecclus.  xlvi.-xlix.,  es- 
pecially xlix.  10)  shows  acquaintance  only  with 
the  F^phets  in  the  wider  sense,  the  '*  second 
canon."    His  grandson  testifies  to  the  third  divi- 


sion also.  The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees,  dsad 
by  Niese  (KriHk  der  beiden  Makkabdairiicher,  Ber- 
Un,  1900)  125-124  B.C.,  in  the  section  L  IOhl  U 
contains  an  account  of  the  recovery  of  the  saerej 
fire,  a  quotation  from  the  "  records  "  of  Jer^ 
miah  (a  lost  apocryphal  writing);  and  then  fa- 
lows  ii.  13:  "  And  the  same  thin^  also  wm 
reported  in  the  records,  namely,  the  memoirs  os 
Nehemiah  [another  apocryphal  writingi]^  and  how 
he,  founding  a  Ubrary,  gathered  together  the  books 
concerning  the  kings  and  prophets,  and  those  of 
David,  and  epistles  of  kings  oonoeming  holy  gifts-' 
This  reference  to  the  "  epistles  of  kings  concerning 
holy  gifts  "  can  not  denote  the  Book  of  Esra,  ixx 
only  a  collection  of  documents  r^aiding  inter- 
national matters,  such  as  would  be  of  value  U>  a 
statesman  b'ke  Nehemiah,  and  which  had  cooose- 
tion  with  the  temple  and  its  ofiFerings.  It,  there- 
fore, bears  witness  to  Nehemiah's  collection  of  the 
second  canon  substantially  as  we  have  it  to-daj, 
in  addition  to  the  Pbalms  and  the  documents  so 
weighty  for  the  rebuilt  city.  The  next  verse, "  And 
in  like  manner  also  Judas  gathered  together  all 
those  books  that  had  been  scattered  by  reason  of 
the  war  we  had,  and  they  are  with  us,"  applies 
only  to  the  third  canon.  Therefore,  the  last  m- 
largement  of  the  Hebrew  canon  took  place  under 
Judas  Maccabsus;  although  probably  most  of  the 
books  of  the  third  canon  had  previously  been 
preserved  in  the  temple  archives. 

Philo  had  the  same  canon  as  ours  (cf .  C.  Si^ri^. 
Philo,  p.  161,  Jena,  1875),  and  quotes  from  almoid 
all  the  books;  while  from  the  Apocrypha  he  makes 
no  excerpts  or  citation,  not  giving  it  the  honor  be 
accords  to  Plato,  Hippocrates,  and  several  other 
Greek  writers.*  The  New  Testament  contains  quo- 
tations principally  from  the  Pentateuch,  Prophets 
and  Psalms,  as  might  be  conjectured  from  its  scope, 
but  recognises  the  threefold  division  of  the  canon 
(Luke  xxiv.  44).  In  this  verse  "  The  Ptealms  ' 
does  not  stand  for  the  entire  Hagiographa;  for 
our  Lord  meant  to  emphasise  the  fact  that  the 
Psalms  spoke  of  him.  The  use  of  the  phrase 
"the  Law  and  the  Prophets"  (Matt  v.  17; 
Acts  xxviii.  23)  does  not  imply  a  division  into  two 
parts.  The  Syrians  used  the  same  expression  for 
the  whole  Old  Testament.  The  absence  of  quota- 
tion in  the  New  Testament  of  any  Old  Testament 
book  argues  nothing  against  its  canonicity.  The 
use  by  the  New  Testament  of  Apocrypha  or  Pseud- 
epigrapha  has  no  bearing  on  the  canonical  status 
of  the  books  used  or  cited.    Josephus  (Apion,  I  $) 


*  P.  G.  LudoB.  Die  Therapeuien  und  ikn  SieUuno  in  dtr 
Atkeae,  Strasburs,  1880.  has  proved  that  the  />•  vtte  amktt- 
flativa  was  not  written  by  Philo,  and  oonseqoently  the 
classic  paasase — "  In  every  house  there  is  a  sacred  shrioe. 
which  is  called  the  holy  place,  and  the  monastery  in  wiucfa 
they  [the  Therapeutics]  retire  by  themselves,  and  perforra 
all  the  mysteries  of  a  holy  life  .  .  .  studying  in  that  pb« 
the  laws  and  the  inspired  words  throush  the  prophets  and 
hymns  and  the  other  [writings],  by  which  knowledge  khA 
piety  are  increased  and  perfected  "  {De  vUa  corUempL^  iii  > 
which  is  the  only  direct  reference  to  the  threefold  divisiot: 
of  the  canon  found  in  Philo's  works  (genuine  and  pretendeii} 
— must  be  given  up.  [The  passage  is  translated  by  C.  D. 
Yonge.  Phiio,  in  Bohn's  Library,  iv.  6.  F.  C.  Conybeare.  ia 
his  edition  of  Philo  About  the  ConUmpUUiiM  lAh  (Oxftfd, 
1805)  defends  the  Philonian  authorship.] 


801 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OanoB  of  Soripture 


bears  the  strongeBl  teBtimony  for  the  canon,*  and, 
as  is  evident,  expresses  the  national  and  not  his 
private  opinion.  And,  further,  the  books  mentioned 
are  not  mere  literature,  but  a  sacred,  divine  collec- 
tion. He  enumerates  twenty-two  books;  thus,  1. 
The  five  books  of  the  Law;  2.  The  thirteen 
Prophets,  counting  the  twelve  minor  Prophets  as 
one  book,  and  Lamentations  with  Jeremiah;  3. 
The  four  Hagiographa — Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  and  Canticles.  But  this  arrangement  is  not 
to  be  looked  upon  as  either  old  or  correct. 

8.  Supposed  Jerwlsh  Disaent  trom  the  Oanon : 
This  dissent  is  not  real,  only  apparent;  but  appeal 
has  been  made  (a)  to  the  Talmudical  controversies 
about  certain  books,  e.g.,  Esther;  on  further  ex- 
amination these  "  controversies  "  are  perceived  to 
be  mere  intellectual  displays;  there  is  no  intention 
of  rejecting  any  book,  (b)  The  Book  of  Sirach,  it 
is  said,  is  quoted  as  Scripture;  but  there  is  no  proof 
that  it  was  regarded  as  Scripture,  and  the  two  or 
three  quotations  are  memorUer,  and  probably  made 
tmder  a  misapprehension  of  their  source,  (c)  A 
high  regard  for  the  Book  of  Baruch  is  asserted, 
but  all  Jewish  literature  furnishes  no  proof.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  late  origin  of  the  book  is  against 
the  assimiption;  it  is  dependent  upon  Dan.  ix., 
and  was  not  composed  till  after  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  (d)  The  Septuagint  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  show  that  the  Alexandrian  Jews 
had  a  different  canon  from  the  Palestinian,  be- 
cause books  are  added  to  the  canonical  twenty- 
four  and  additions  are  made  to  some  of  the  ca^ 
nonical  books;  but  this  does  not  follow.  For  the 
Palestinian  idea  of  a  canon  (namely,  the  compo- 
sitions of  inspired  prophets,  a  class  of  men  not  then 
existent)  was  not  known  in  Alexandria,  where, 
on  the  contrary,  the  statement  of  Wisdom  (vii. 
27),  "[Wisdom]  from  generation  to  generation 
entering  into  holy  souls  prepares  them  friends  of 
God  and  prophets,"  was  fully  believed,  as  by  Philo 
(cf.  De  cherubim,  ix.)  and  Josephus  {War,  I.  iii.  5, 
II.  viii.  12,  III.  viii.  3,  0),  who  even  declared  that 
they  themselves  had  been  at  times  really  inspired, 
and  freely  accorded  the  fact  unto  others.  There- 
fore, to  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  there  was  no  im- 
propriety in  enlarging  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament,  not  only  by  additions 
of  sections  to  the  canom'cal  books,  but  of  en- 
tirely new  books.  The  great  respect  entertained 
for  the  Septuagint  was  extended  to  these  addi- 
tions, but  without  giving  the  latter  any  canonical 
authority.  There  was  no  Alexandrian  canon; 
for  neither  the  number  nor  the  order  of  the  books 
added  was  fixed. 


*ThiB  paasage  in  oondenaed  form  is  m  follows:  "  We  have 
twenty-two  books  containinc  the  reoordB  of  all  the  jMut 
timefl,  and  justly  believed  to  be  inspired.  Five  of  them  are 
Moses'.  These  contain  his  laws  and  the  traditions  of  the 
origin  of  mankind  till  his  death.  From  Moses  to  Artazerxes 
the  prophets  made  the  record  in  thirteen  books.  The  re- 
maining four  books  contain  hymns  to  Giod,  and  precepts 
for  the  conduct  of  human  life.  The  history  written  since 
that  day.  though  aocuratet  is  not  bo  much  esteemed,  beosuse 
there  has  not  been  an  exact  succession  of  prophets.  No 
one  dares  add  to.  take  from,  or  alter  them;  but  all  Jews 
esteem  these  books  to  contain  divine  doctrines,  and  are 
willing  to  die  for  them." 


4.  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Oanon  Amonc 

the  Jews:     The  Triple  Division  of  the   Hebrew 

canon  is  testified  to  by  the  prologue  to  Sirach  and 

the  New  Testament  (Luke  xxiv.  44). 

I.  The      The  Septuagint  gave  up  this  division  in 

Triple      favor  of  a  different  one — ^the  present 

Division.    Christian  arrangement  of  the  books 

in  the  order,  history,  {K)etiy,  prophecy 

— and  inserted  the  apocryphal  books  and  sections 

in  appropriate  places. 

The  order  of  the  books  in  the  Hebrew  canon  is 
as  follows:  1.  The  Tarah  or  "Law"— the  five 
books  of  Moses;  2.  The  Nebkiim  or 
2.  Order.  "  Prophets  "—(a)  the  "  Former  Proph- 
ets/' Joshua,  Judges,  I  and  II  Samuel, 
I  and  II  Kings;  (b)  the  ''  Latter  Prophets,"  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah.  Ezekiel,  the  twelve  minor  Prophets; 
3.  The  Kethubhim  ("  Writings  ")  or  Haffiographa— 
Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamenta- 
tions, Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  and 
Nehenuah,  I  and  II  Chronicles,  in  all,  twenty-four 
books.  The  view  once  entertained  that  Ruth  and 
Lam.  once  were  in  the  second  canon  and  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  third  when  it  was  formed  has  no  basis 
in  fact.  The  principle  of  arrangement  of  the  his- 
torico-prophetical  books  is  chronological.  The 
Mishnah  arranges  the  prophetical  books  proper  in 
order  of  length:  Jer.,  Ezek.,  Isa.,  the  Twelve. 
But  with  this  went  probably  the  recollection  that 
as  a  whole  Isa.  was  later  than  Jer.  and  Ezek.  The 
Masorites  put  Isa.  first.  In  some  MSS.  of  the 
third  canon  the  most  important  book,  Ps.,  intro- 
duced by  Ruth,  is  at  the  head,  then  Job  and  the 
three  books  connected  with  Solomon's  name,  and 
the  four  latest  books  at  the  close.  The  Masorites 
arrange:  Chron.,  Ps.,  Job,  Pro  v.,  Ruth,  Song  of  Sol., 
Eccles.,  Lam.,  Esther,  Dan.,  Ezra.  Manuscripts 
differ  greatly  in  the  order  of  these  books. 

Jewish   tradition,   except   when   influenced   by 
Alexandria,    unanimously   gives    the    number   as 
twenty-four.     Nevertheless,  it  is  usual  to  say  that 
the  original  reckoning  was  twenty-two.    If,  how- 
ever, the  witnesses  for  the  latter  num- 
3.  Number  ber  be  not  counted,  but  weighed,  it  is 
of  the      plain  that  the  authority  they  rest  upon 
Canonical   is  Alexandrian;  and  this  is  worthless 
Books,      for  getting  at  the  primitive  reckoning, 
because  the  Alexandrian  Jews  not  only 
altered  the  order  and  division  of  the  books,  but 
added  to  them  others  not  in  the  canon.    Further- 
more, the   Alexandrians   arrived   at   the   number 
twenty-two  by  joining  Ruth  to  Judges,  and  Lam- 
entations to  Jeremiah.    Having  thus  made  twenty- 
two,  they  were  impressed  with  its  numerical  agree- 
ment with  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet.    This  idea  was  thought  significant,  part 
of  the  divine  intention  indeed;   and  so  it  became 
fixed  in  the  Jewish  mind.    The  Church  Fathers 
took  it  up  in  their  uncritical  fashion;  and  so  it  has 
come    down    to    our    day.     Josephus    first    gives 
twenty-two;  but  he  makes  greater  use  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint than  of  the  Hebrew  original.     It  is  note- 
worthy that  Epiphanius  and  Jerome,  who  reckon 
the  books  twenty-two,  mention  also  twenty-seven; 
i.e.,  the  Hebrew  twenty-two  letters,  with  the  five 
final  letters  (the  letters  which  have  a  special  form 


Canon  of  Soriptnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


3d2 


when  at  the  end  of  a  woxxl);  made  by  separating 
the  double  books,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  and 
Ezra.  But  this  double  counting  was  only  possible 
for  Jews  using  the  Septuagint,  since  the  original 
does  not  divide  these  books.  Further,  neither  in 
the  Talmud  nor  in  the  Midrash  is  there  the  least 
trace  of  any  acquaintance  with  the  number  twenty- 
two;  but,  on  the  contrary,  twenty-four  is  always 
given,  not  because  it  corresponds  with  the  twenty- 
four  Greek  letters,  but  simply  as  the  natural  result 
of  the  gradual  rise  of  the  canon.  In  the  present 
printed  Hebrew  Bible  the  number  is  thirty-nine, 
similarly  ooimted,  though  not  arranged,  with  those 
of  Protestant  Bibles. 

6.  The  Old  Testament  Oanon  In  the  Ohristlan 

Ohuroh:  The  Fathers  did  not  impugn  the  authority 

of  the  Old  Testament;  but,  because  of  the  imiversal 

use  of  the  Septuagint,  they  recognized 

z.  Patristic  as  Scripture  what  we  regsird  as  Apoc- 

and        rypha.    Origen,  who  counts  only  the 

Medieval    books  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  yet  speaks 

Writen.     of  Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  and  the 

Epistle  as  in  one  [book].    Justin  Martyr 

used  the  additions  to  Daniel;  Irensus,  Tertullian, 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  Cyprian,  and  others  used 

the  Apocr3rpha  with  the  same  formula  of  citation  as 

when  they  used  the  Old  Testament.    From  the 

fourth  oentiuy  the  Greek  Fathers  make  less  and 

less  use  of  the  Apocrypha;  while  in  the  Latin 

Church  conciliar  action  justified  and  emphasized 

their  use.    Jerome  alone  speaks  out  decidedly  for 

the  Hebrew  canon.     During  the  Middle  Ages  the 

Apocrypha  were  not  recognized  by  the  majority 

of  the  Greeks;  while  just  the  opposite  was  true  of 

the  Latins,  although  not  a  few  followed  Jerome. 

The  Book  of  Esther,  because  of  its  contents,  was 
sometimes  excluded  from  the  Christian  Old  Testa^ 
ment  canon.  Melito  of  Sardis  (170  a.d.)  onoits  it 
from  his  list  (see  Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl.,  IV.  xxvi.), 
although  perhaps  it  has  rather  dropped  out  after 
Esdras  (Ezra),  inasmuch  as  in  other  lists  it  comes 
next  to  this  name.  It  is  also  omitted  by  Atha- 
nasiuB  (Epistola  Featalis,  i.  961,  ed.  Bened.), 
Gregory  Nazianzen  {Carm.,  xxxiii.),andin  the  sixth 
century  by  Junilius  (De  partibus  legis  divin<JB,L  3-7). 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  included  in  the  canon  by 
Origen,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  Epiphanius. 

The  old  Syrian  Church  did  not  receive  the  Apoc- 
rypha.   They  are  not    in    the  Peshito,  although 
found    in    a    later  Syriac   translation.    Ephraem 
Syrus     (d.      373)     does     not     give 
2.  The      them  canonical  authority.    Aphraates 
Ancient    (fourth    century)    cites    from    every 
Oriental     canonical  book,  but  uses  the  Apoc- 
Versions.    rypha  sparingly  and  not  in  such  a 
way  that  they  must  be  regarded  as 
canonical.     A  great  difference  is  perceptible  in  the 
Peshito  translation  between  Chronicles    and    the 
other  books.    This  has  started  the  query  whether 
Chronicles   was    accepted    as   canonical    by   the 
Syrian  Church.    The  Nestorians  certainly  rejected 
it   and  Esther.     The    Ethiopic     translation    fol- 
lows   the    Septuagint   throughout,    and    contains 
not  only  the  canonical  but  also  the  apocryphal 
books,  except  that  for  I  and  II  Maccabees  it  sub- 
stitutes two  books  of  its  own  imder  the  same  name, 


and  some  pseudographs  of  which  the  Greek  text- 
do  not  now  exist;  for  the  Ethiopic  Church  make& 
even  less  difference  than  the  Alexandrian  betwe^ 
canonical  and  uncanonical  books.  (See  PsEjn>- 
BPiORAPHA,  Old  Testament.) 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  committed  to  the 

use  of  the  Apocrypha  as  Scripture  by  the  deci^'on 

of  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  at  the  fourth 

3.  The  session.  In  order  to  get  a  nonmJ 
Roman  text  for  purposes  of  quotation,  a  Bible 
Catholic  was  published  in  Rome  in  1592  under 
Church,     the  order  and  care  of  the  po|>e.     Iq 

it  is  given  Jerome's  remark,  that  the 
additions  to  Esther  and  Daniel  which  are  printed 
are  not  in  the  Hebrew  text;  and  in  smaller  type 
the  candid  announcement  is  prefaced  to  the  Prayer 
of  Manasses  and  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books  of 
Ezra,  that,  while  it  is  true  they  are  not  in  the  Scrip- 
ture canon  of  the  Council  of  Trrait,  they  are  still 
included  because  they  are  quoted  occasi<mally  by 
certain  of  the  Fathers,  and  are  found  both  in  printed 
and  manuscript  copies  of  the  Latin  Bible.  The 
decree  of  the  council  was  not  passed  without  oppo- 
sition; and  later  Roman  Catholics,  such  as  Du 
Pin,  Dissertation  pr&iminaire  ou  proligom^nes  sur  la 
Bt&[e,  Paris,  1699;  and  B.  Lamy,  Apparatus  hiblicus, 
II.  V.  333,  Lyons,  1723,  have  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish two  classes  of  canonical  books — ^the  proto- 
canonical  and  the  deuterocanonical — ^attributing 
to  the  first  a  dogmatic,  and  to  the  second  only  an 
ethical  authority;  but  this  distinction  contravenes 
the  decision  of  Trent,  and  has  found  little  support. 
In  early  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  many 
distinguished  three  kinds  of  writings,  the  canon- 
ical, recognized,  and  apocryphal.  So  the  "  Easter 
Epistle  "  of  Athanasius.  The  synods  of  Constan- 
tinople (1638),  Jassy  (1642),  and  Jerusalem  (1672) 
expressly  reject  the  view  of  Cyril  Lucar,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  and  others,  which 

4.  The  distinguishes  the  canonical  form  from 
Greek      the  apocryphal.    And  the  last,  which 

Church,  is  the  most  important  in  the  history 
of  the  Eastern  Chiut^h,  defined  its 
position  in  regard  to  the  Apocrypha  in  the  answer 
to  the  third  question  appended  to  the  Confession  of 
Dositheus,  in  which  it  expressly  mentions  Wisdom, 
Judith,  Tobit,  History  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  His- 
tory of  Susazmah,  the  Maccabees  (four  books),  and 
Ecclesiasticus  as  canonical.  Reuss  {GesckiclUe  der 
heiligen  Schriften,  §338,  Brunswick,  1878)  says 
that  the  official  Moscow  edition  of  the  Bible  of 
1831  has  all  the  Apocrypha,  Ezra,  in  both  recen- 
sions, with  Neh.  and  I-IV  Mace,  at  the  end  of  the 
historical  books,  the  Prophets  before  the  seven 
Poetical  or  Wisdom  books.  But  the  "  Longer  Cate- 
chism" of  Philaret  (Moscow,  1839),  the  most  au- 
thoritative doctrinal  standard  of  the  orthodox 
Greco-Russian  Church,  expressly  leaves  out  the 
apocryphal  books  from  its  list  on  the  ground  that 
"  they  do  not  exist  in  the  Hebrew  "  (cf.  Schaff, 
Creeds,  ii.  451).    See  Eastern  Chitrch,  III.,  {  9. 

The  Lutheran  symbols  do  not  give  any  express 
declaration  against  the  Apocrypha.  Nevertheless, 
they  are  dem'ed  dogmatic  value.  Luther  transla- 
ted them,  not,  however,  III  and  IV  Eira,  and 
recommended  them  for  private  reading,  except- 


393 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canon  of  Soriptnre 


ing  Baruch  and  II  liiaoc.    In  the   first   complete 

edition  of  the  Bible  (Zurich,  1530)  the  Apocrypha 

stood  at  the  end.    With   this   agree 

5.  The      the  decisions  of  the  other  Reformed 

Protestant  churches:  the  "Gallican  Confession/' 
Church.  1559,  §§  3,  4;  "Belgic  Confession/' 
1561,  §§4r-6;  "Thirty-nine  Articles," 
1562,  {  6  (cf.  Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom,  iii.). 
The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  contains  readings 
from  the  Apocrypha  and  especial  recommendation 
of  portions  of  Wisdom  and  Sirach.  At  the  Synod 
of  Dort  (1618),  Gomarus  and  others  raised  an 
animated  discussion  by  demanding  the  exclusion 
of  the  apocryphal  Ezra,  Tobit,  Judith,  and  Bel 
and  the  Dragon  from  the  Bible.  This  the  synod 
refused  to  do,  although  speaking  stron^y  against 
the  Apocrypha.  Similarly  opposed  to  them  was 
the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  1647,  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  i.  3;  the  Arminians,  Confessio 
.  .  .  pastorum,  qui  .  .  .  remonstrantes  vocantur,  i. 
3,  6;  the  Sodnians  (Ostorodt,  UrUerrichtung  von 
den  vomehmsten  Hauptpunckten  der  chrisUichen 
Religion,  Rakau,  1604)  and  the  Mennonites  (Johann 
Ris,  ProBcipuorum  ChrisHancB  fidei  articulorum 
brevis  confessio,  xxix.)  agree  with  the  other  Protes- 
tants. For  histoty  of  the  relation  of  the  Bible 
societies  to  the  Apocrypha,  see  Biblb  SocisriBS. 
For  the  Apocrypha  in  general,  see  Afocrtfha. 

6.  The  Names  of  the  Old  Testament  and  of  Its 
!^hief  Divisions:  (a)  Hebrew.  Neh.  viii.  8  has  the 
expression  MUfra,  "  Reading,"  which  here  must 
tignify  the  Law.  Dan.  ix.  2  has  Sepherim,  "the 
3ook8  ";  Kitebe  hakJ^odesh,  "the  Holy  Writings,"  is 
falmudic.  The  division  into  three  parts  is  common 
n  the  Talmud,  with  the  names  Torah,  Nebhtim,axid 
K^ethvbhim,  "  Law,  Prophets,  and  Writings,"  with 
he  abbreviation  TNK.  Often  the  whole  is  em- 
braced in  the  term  Torah,  The  first  part  is  named 
Jso  "The  Five  Fifths  of  the  Law."  The  first 
»art  of  the  prophetical  canon  is  called  "  the  Former 
Vophets  " ;  the  second  part "  the  Latter  Prophets." 
'he  third  part  of  the  canon  is  known  as  "the 
V^ritings  "  and  "  the  Sacred  Writings."  The  Song 
f  Sol.,  Ruth,  Lam.,  Eccles.,  and  Esther  are  classed 
3gether  as  MegHlot,  "  Rolls."  The  second  and  third 
arts  are  often  named  together  as  the  Jtabbalah, 
3)  Greek.  It  may  be  concluded  that  by  the  time 
f  the  translator  of  Ecdus.  the  words  "  the  Books  " 
ere  in  use,  slnoe  he  speaks  of  "  the  other  [books]," 
the  rest  [of  the  books]."  In  the  New  Testament 
ley  are  called  "the  Scripture,"  "Holy"  or 
Sacred  Writings";  the  Pentateuch  is  called  "the 
Id  Covenant "  in  II  Cor.  iii.  14.  Among  the  Greek 
athera  the  following  names  are  used:  "  The  Books 
:  the  Old  Covenant,"  "  The  Sacred  (Holy)  Wri- 
ngs of  the  Old  Covenant,"  the  "  Old  Covenant," 
the  Twenty-two  Books  of  the  Old  Covenant," 
the^  Covenant  Books,"  and  "  Law  and  Prophets." 
•)  Latin.  Vetus  testamentum  translates  Hebr. 
r^lh,  "covenant";  instrumentum,  totum  instru- 
entum  tUriusgue  testamenti,  vetus  scriptura,  vetus 
r ,  and  veteris  legis  libri  are  used.  (H.  L.  Strack.) 
II.  The  Canon  of  the  New  Testament — 1.  The 
enis  TTsad:  Alongside  the  word  canon,  expressing 
le  idea  of  the  collection  of  scriptures,  were  used 
le    terms  "covenant"    (derived  from  the  Old 


Testament,  Ex.  xxiv.  27),  "  Scripture  "  or  "Scrip- 
tiu'es  "  with  the  qualifying  words  "  holy,"  "  sa- 
cred," "  divine,"  or  "  of  the  Lord,"  also  "  Law 
and  Gospel,"  "  Prophets  and  Apostles."  The  word 
endiothdcos,  "  contained  in  the  covenant,"  was  op- 
posed to  apokryphos,  "  apocryphal,"  the  former 
word  often  containing  the  meaning  "  used  in  public 
service." 

2.  The  New  Testament,  170-820:  Since  there 
are  at  command  no  specific  reports  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  New  Testament,  an  examination  of 
the  facts  which  may  throw  light  upon  the  problem 
must  be  made  in  order  to  discover  that  origin. 
A  starting-point  is  found  in  the  period  of  the  con- 
test between  the  Gnostic  sects,  particulariy  the 
Marcionites  and  the  Valentinians,  and  the  ortho- 
dox. The  Montanistic  movement  was  under  way 
during  this  period,  though  it  was  concerned  not 
so  much  with  the  New  Testament  as  with  its  own 
objects.  The  Church  had  a  New  Testament  already 
commonly  so  called,  over  against  the  Montanistic 
contention  of  a  new  period  of  prophecy  already 
opened  which  was  to  lead  the  way  to  a  wider  devel- 
opment. The  Church  regarded  the  age  of  revelation 
as  closed  with  the  death  of  the  last  surviving 
apostle  and  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  as  com- 
pleted, though  discussion  still  went  on  as  to  the 
inclusion  of  some  books  therein.  In  opposition 
to  Marcion  and  Montanus  the  Church  had  the 
feeling  ithat  it  had  an  inviolable  possession  in 
the  two  Testaments,  and  the  Montanist  himself 
distinguished  them  from  the  body  of  "new 
prophecy." 

Opposed  to  the  gospel  which  Marcion  prepared 
for  his  communities,  to  the  Evangelium  veritcUis 
used  by  the  Valentinians  alongside  the  four  Gos- 
pels of  the  Church,  to  the  discarding 
z.  The  Four  of  the  Johannean  Gospel  by  the  Alogi, 

Gospels,  and  to  the  exclusive  use  of  Matthew  or 
Mark  by  other  parties  of  the  Church, 
is  the  statement  of  Irenteus  that  the  spirit  which 
created  the  world  had  given  to  the  Church  its  gos- 
pel in  fourfold  form  (Hcer,,  III.  xi.  8),  to  violate 
which  was  a  sin  against  God's  revelation  and  spirit. 
The  unity  of  these  is  asserted  in  the  designation 
of  them  as  "  the  Gospel "  (in  the  singular),  and 
in  the  titles  "  the  Gospel  according  to  Matthew," 
etc.  Clement  of  Alexandria  in  his  discussion  of 
the  origin  of  the  Gospels  dealt  only  with  the  four. 
Recollection  was  soon  lost  of  the  fact  that  a  gospel 
not  among  the  four  had  striven  to  be  retained  in 
use  in  public  service,  and  that  one  of  the  four  had 
had  to  win  its  place  among  them.  But  even  the 
Alogi  did  not  deny  that  the  Fourth  Gospel  belonged 
to  the  age  of  John  and  had  ever  since  been  in  the 
Church.  Tatian's  preparation  for  the  Syrians  of 
the  "  Diatessaron  "  witnesses  by  its  very  title  to 
the  fact  that  for  an  ecclesiastical  book  of  the  Gos- 
pels no  other  sources  than  the  four  were  conceivable. 
The  very  penmssion  given  by  Serapion  of  Antioch 
(c.  200)  to  certain  of  his  parishioners  to  read  a 
gospel  called  that  of  Peter,  which  he  gave  without 
reading  the  book  and  through  confidence  in  them, 
really  speaks  for  the  same  set  of  facts,  as  does  the 
subsequent  annulment  of  the  permission.  Origen 
sums  up  the  practise  of  that  period  in  the  saying: 


Oaaon  of  Scripture 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


394 


"  The    Church    values    only    the    four    Gospels " 
(/  Horn,  in  Lucam). 

Generally  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul  were  received. 

If  in  the  Muratorian  Canon  the  reception  of  four 

private  letters  is  justified,  it  appears  to  have  been 

caused  less  by  a  recollection  of  a  late 

2.  The      introduction  of  them  into  public  serv- 

Pauline     ice  than  through    a    thought-process 

Lettenu     of   the   author,   equatiag   the   seven 

letters  of  Paul  to  the  communities  in 

83rmbolical  fashion  with  the  letters  to  the  seven 

chiu*ches  of  the  Apocalypse.     No  statement  can 

be  made  regarding  any  favorable  feeling  for  the 

letters  to  the  Laodiceans  and  the  Alexandrians 

there  rejected.    Great  difference  of  opioion  existed 

as  to  Hebrews.    The  Alexandrians  regarded  it  as 

Pauline,    and    Origen    supposed    it    substantially 

Pauline  through  one  of  Paul's  disciples,  a  position 

which  was  widely  adopted  in  the  eastern  Church. 

But  the  western  Church  disputed  its  Paulinity, 

while  holding  it  in  high  esteem.    This  was  the  case 

in  Lyons,  Rome,  and  Carthage.      In  the  Montar 

nistic  and  Novatian  Churches  there  was  a  decided 

tendency  to  ascribe  it  to  Barnabas. 

Of  the  Book  of  Acts  all  that  need  be  said  is  that 
its  name,  its  general  recognition  as  of  Lucan  author- 
ship, its  position  between  the  Gos- 
3.  The  Acti  pels  and  the  Pauline  Epistles  in  the 
of  the      Muratorian  Canon,  its  abundant  use 
Apostles,    by   Irensus,   Tertullian,  and   others, 
and  the   condemnation  by  Tertullian 
of  Marcion  for  rejecting  it   speak  abundantly  for 
its  canonidty. 

The  strongest  proofs  are  found  of  the  reception 
of  the  Apocalypse  by  all  parts  of  the  Church.    It 
was  cited  by  Theophilus  of  Antioch  about  180,  and 
by  the  church  of  Lyons  in  177,  as  "  Holy  Scrip- 
ture."   Neither  Irensus  nor  the  Muratorian  Canon 
regard  any  defense  of  it  as  necessaiy. 
4.  The      As  against  the  high  value  attached 
Apocalypse,  to  it  by  the  Montanists,  the  Alogi 
scornfully  criticized  it  as  the  work 
of  Cerinthus.    Caius  of  Rome  assmned  this  atti- 
tude also,  and  Hippolytus  defended  it  against  him. 
But  the  general  feeling  of  the  catholic  Qiurch  was 
that  the  book  was  inspired,  written  about  95  a.d., 
and  properly  closed  the  New  Testament. 

The  position  of  the  Catholic  Epistles  about  200 

was  a  very  varied  one,  though  about  300  they  were 

known  as  one  division  of  the  New  Testament.    II 

and  in  John  must  have  been  attached  to  I  John, 

if  their  history  in  the  Church  and  their 

5*  The      preservation   are  understood.    Testi- 

Cafholic     mony  to  II  John  comes  from  Irensus 

Epistles,    and  Clement  of  Alexandria;   that  III 

John   was   not   treated   by   Clement 

docs  not  really  damage  the  case.    The  doubt  which 

stood  in  the  way  of  the  imconditional  recognition 

of  II  and  III  John  was  soon  banished.    It  is  almost 

certain  that  the  Muratorian  Canon  designated  the 

two  lesser  epistles  as  recognized.     Where  it  was  not 

known  that  the  Apostle  John  was  by  his  disciples 

called  "the  Elder,"  there  was  likelihood  of  the 

authorship  of  those  two  being  questioned  on  the 

matter  of  genuineness.    Their  brevity  was  against 

both  frequent  citation  and  frequent  use  in  public 


and  equally  against  serious  question.  Jude,  a 
one  of  the  Catholic  Epistles,  was  the  subject  oi 
comment  by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  The  Mura- 
torian Canon  quoted  it  as  received.  Tertullbn 
cited  it  as  the  convincing  writing  of  an  aposUe, 
though  Origen  remarked  that  it  was  not  generslh 
received.  In  the  fourth  century  it  was  amoc^ 
the  arUtleffomena  (Eusebius,  Hist,  eccl..  III.  xxv.  oi. 
The  canonicity  which  it  had  in  the  earlier  times 
was  later  lost  for  it  in  a  wide  circle  of  the  Churd, 
James,  though  read  in  the  West  in  eaiiy  times  a&j 
known  probably  both  to  Irensus  and  to  Hippolytus, 
was  until  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  not  in 
the  New  Testament  of  the  western  Ghurdi.  Tae 
Canon  Muratori  is  silent;  among  the  Greeks  of 
the  East  it  was  among  the  generally  reoogzuKd 
scriptures.  Though  Origen  placed  it  among  the 
antiiegomena,  in  Codex  ClaromarUanus  it  standr 
before  I  John.  A  noteworthy  fact  is  that  Methodios 
mistakenly  ascribed  it  to  Paul.  In  325  it  was  by 
many  considered  not  genuine  and  EHisebius  put  it 
among  the  antUegomena  {HisL  ecd..  III.  xxv.  3) 
The  general  recognition  of  I  Peter  about  the  j&t 
200  is  vouched  for  by  Irenasus,  the  Epistle  of  Lyons, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  Hippolytm 
The  silence  of  the  Muratorian  Canon  would  have 
been  inexplicable,  and  to  it  must  refer  the  remark 
that  a  letter  of  Peter  is  received  as  is  the  Apoca- 
lypse. Against  II  Peter  there  were  many  protesti*. 
At  Rome  it  was  not  unknown,  but  was  not  on  the 
same  footing  as  I  Peter.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
Irensus  knew  it.  Origen's  personal  opinion  was 
favorable,  but  he  recorded  a  divided  opinion  in  the 
Chureh  concerning  the  letter.  In  the  East  its 
position  was  different  from  that  of  I  Peter  in  that 
there  it  was  not  a  New  Testament  book  (Eusebius, 
Hist  ecd.,  IV.  xxv.  8).  As  late  as  380  Didymus 
pronounced  it  uncanonical  and  the  Syrians  deter- 
minedly rejected  it.  Of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas 
it  may  be  said  that  Clement  of  Alexandria  seexDs 
to  have  included  it  among  the  Catholic  £}pistles,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  Origen.  Codex  Claromontanut 
puts  it  after  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles  and  before 
Revelation.  It  is  pertinent  here  to  remark  that 
the  first  and  second  Epistles  of  Clement  are  by  the 
Carumea  Apoetoloruin,  Ixxxv.,  put  between  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  Didache.  I  Clemeot 
is  elsewhere  given  as  a  Catholic  Epistle;  at  Corinth 
it  was  used  occasionally  in  public  service,  a  usage 
which  spread  to  Alexandria  and  to  Syria.  It  was 
cited  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  by  Origen. 
But  its  connection  with  the  New  Testament  was 
less  firm  even  than  that  of  Barnabas;  in  the  West 
it  was  not  considered  as  of  the  canon,  and  Iremeus 
seems  to  have  employed  it  as  belonging  to  the  sub- 
apostolic  age. 

The  Shepherd  of  Hennas  was  used  as  scriptuie 
by  Irenteus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  in  An- 
tioch.    At  the  beginning  of  the  third 
6.  Writings  century  there  was  in   Cathob'c  and 
Temporarily  Montanistic    cireles    a    loosening  of 
Regarded    the  connection  between  this  book  and 
as  Canonical,  the   canon.    Tertullian,   contrary  to 
his    earlier    practise,  owing    to    the 
laxity  of   discipline   attributed  to  this  book,  de- 
clared that  it  should  be  regarded  as  apocryphal 


395 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canon  of  Scripture 


and  even  as  falae.  The  Muratorian  Canon  ex- 
cluded it  from  the  regular  and  public  reading  of 
the  Scriptures,  though  its  perusal  was  permitted 
and  even  enjoined.  This  was  the  first  attempt 
to  form  a  secondary  canon.  There  are  two  Latin 
translations  of  the  book,  and  an  unknown  Roman 
bishop  cited  it  as  scripture,  while  Novatian  and 
Commodian  indorsed  it,  and  the  Latin  liturgies 
show  its  influence.  Yet  by  an  ecclesiastical  de- 
cision about  200-210  the  Shepherd  was  set  outside 
the  canon.  While  Clement  of  Alexandria  did  not 
include  the  Shepherd  in  his  brief  commentary,  he 
did  treat  the  Apocaljrpse  of  Peter,  a  little  book  of 
about  300  lines.  This  book  closed  the  canon  of 
Codex  ClaramorUanua ;  but  the  Armenian  List  put 
it  among  the  Apocrypha,  and  Eusebius  (HUL  eccl,, 
III.  XXV.  4,  cf.  iii.  2)  declared  against  its  genuine- 
ness. Sozomen  says  that  it  was  used  as  late  as 
430  in  Palestine  at  Easter.  The  Didache  was  cited 
and  used  as  scripture  by  Clement  and  Origen,  and 
during  the  next  oentiuy  this  was  its  status  in  Egypt. 
Eusebius  (Hist  ecd.,  III.  xxv.  4)  put  it  among  the 
anixlegomena  of  the  second  grade.  It  was  known 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Antioch  and  in  the  West. 
The  apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  often 
read  in  the  early  Church  without  question.  The 
Acts  of  Paul  came  the  nearest  to  winning  canonical 
authority,  and  received  favorable  notice  from 
Clement  and  Tertullian. 

The  New  Testament  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Church  of  170-220  included  as  in  quite  definite 
authority  the  four  Gospels,  thirteen  letters  of  Paul, 
Revelation,  I  Peter,  I  John  (to  which  were  attached 
II  and  III  John),  probably  also  Jude. 
7.  Summary.  Up  to  210  the  Shepherd  was  also  in- 
cluded. On  the  other  hand,  there 
were  questioning  about  James,  Hebrews,  II  Peter, 
the  Apocalypse  of  Peter,  the  Didache,  Barnabas, 
I  and  II  Clement,  Acts  of  Paul,  and  the  Shepherd. 
The  polemic  against  Marcion,  the  Gnostics,  and  the 
Alogi  brought  the  discussion  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment canon  to  a  focus  about  the  time  of  Irenaeus 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria.  There  was  yet  lacking 
that  definiteness  of  organization  of  all  the  churches 
which  alone  could  seciue  uniformity.  The  New 
Testament  of  about  200  was  not  the  result  of  a 
revolution  occurring  150-170,  but  of  a  broad  de- 
velopment which  was  many-sided.  The  sharply 
bounded  canon  of  Marcion  had  pointed  the  way 
to  a  definiteness  in  canonicity  which  the  Church 
was  soon  to  follow. 

8.  The  New  Testament,  140-170:  Valentinus 
had  founded  his  school  which  had  divided  into  many 
sections  and  spread  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Tigris 
with  a  rich  literaiy  activity  and  yet  a  general  con- 
sensus of  action.  Marcion  founded  his  church  at 
Rome  after  he  had  separated  from  the  catholic 
Church  probably  about  147.  Alongside  the  polemic 
against  these  movements,  Christian  writers  were 
engaged  in  the  apologetic  of  the  Church  which  was 
to  go  before  the  pagan  rulers  and  populations. 
The  apologetic,  however,  found  far  less  occasion  to 
deal  with  the  Christian  Scriptures  than  did  the 
writings  against  the  heretics. 

Knowledge  of  Marcion's  Bible  is  due  chiefly  to 
Tertullian,  who  claimed  to  use  as  a  weapon  against 


the  heretic  his  own  New  Testament,  and  so  came  to 
traverse  the  latter  from  beginning  to  end.  After 
Tertullian  as  a  source  of   knowledge  comes  Epi- 

phanius  (/fcer.,  xlii.),  and  a  number  of 

I.  Marcion's  citations  from  Greeks  and  Syrians  up 

Bible.       to  the  fifth  century  which  enable  one 

to  reconstruct  quite  securely  Marcion's 
canon.  Marcion  issued  not  only  his  New  Testa- 
ment but  also  his  Antithesis  as  a  defense  of  his 
dogmatic  position  and  of  his  critical  edition  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  this  became  the  doctrinal 
basis  of  his  Church,  which  was  studied  by  Tertul- 
lian, Ephraem  Syrus,  and  others.  His  Bible  con- 
sisted of  a  "Gospel"  and  an  "Apostle,"  both 
anonymous.  Since  Paul  seemed  to  him  the  one 
preacher  of  an  unadulterated  gospel,  his  "  Apostle  " 
embraced  ten  epistles  of  Paul  and  in  the  following 
order:  Gal.,  I  and  II  Cor.,  Rom.,  I  and  II  Thess., 
Laodiceans  (i.e.,  Eph.),  Col.,  Phil.,  Philem.  It  is 
of  course  evident  that  this  collection  must  have 
been  received  by  him  from  the  Church.  He  sought 
to  show  that  the  letter  to  the  Ephesians  was  the 
letter  to  the  Laodiceans  mentioned  in  Col.  iv.  16. 
Galatians  he  especially  prized  because  of  the  anti- 
Judaic  polemic  it  contains.  I  and  II  Tim.  and 
Titus  he  discarded  as  private  letters,  Philemon  was 
admitted  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a  letter  to  a  church 
in  a  household,  and  this  alone  was  left  intact  and 
imedited.  For  the  criticism  of  the  writings  he 
received  he  depended  neither  upon  historic  tra- 
dition nor  on  testimonies  to  historicity;  his  basis 
was  his  own  subjective  conception  of  what  true 
Christianity  was  and  what  the  Pauline  Gospel 
was;  from  this  standpoint  proceeded  all  his  text- 
criticism.  That  he  recognized  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
the  basis  of  his  own,  as  the  work  of  one  of  the  Paul- 
ine school  is  shown  by  his  elimination  of  the  words 
"  the  beloved  physician  "  in  Col.  iv.  14.  His  gos- 
pel, so  far  as  its  text  can  be  made  out,  proves  that 
he  had  before  him  the  third  Gospel,  and  this,  in  con- 
sequence of  its  long  association  with  the  first  and 
second  Gospels,  had  received  amplifications  of  its 
text  from  them.  But  no  trace  of  influence  due  to 
extracanonical  Gospels  upon  Marcion  has  ever  been 
shown.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  canon  of  the 
Gospels  of  the  Church  at  Rome  from  about  140 
on  was  our  four  Gospels.  Marcion's  canon  of  the 
epistles  coincides  with  that  of  the  Mtuntorian 
Canon.  It  is  natural  that  he  should  place  no  value 
upon  the  letters  of  Peter,  John,  or  James,  the  last- 
named  especially  in  view  of  Gal.  ii.  0,  12.  Acts  and 
Rev.  he  appears  to  have  expressly  rejected.  In 
comparison  with  the  ecclesiastical  New  Testfftnent 
not  only  of  his  times  but  of  the  next  two  centuries 
with  its  varying  boundaries  and  its  variant  text, 
the  Marcion  canon  is  a  sharply  drawn  work  of  art 
in  miaiature,  though  it  was  the  work  of  an  arbitrary 
lawgiver. 

What  Marcion  accomplished  with  knife  and 
eraser  the  Valentinians  sought  to  do  by  means  of  ^ 
exposition.  Since  they  had  not  voluntarily  sep- 
arated from  the  Church,  but  merely  distinguished 
themselves  from  the  communes  ecdesiasticif  they 
had  no  objection  to  raise  to  the  common  edi- 
tion of  the  "  Prophets  and  Apostles."  They 
needed  no  special  Bible.     They  used  the  Gospels 


Oanon  of  Soriptnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


306 


freely,  particularly  the  Fourth.    Apart  from  the 

prologue  to  this  last,  the  structure  of  the  series  of 

eons  of  Valentinus  are  unintelligible. 

2.  The  Heraclion  commented  on  all  four  of  the 
Bible    of    Gospels.    In  the  different  branches  of 

the  Valen-  this  sect  Eph.,  Col.,  and  I  Cor.  were 
tinians.  especially  valued,  but  Rom.,  II  Cor., 
Phil.,  and  Gal.  were  also  used.  In 
their  criticism  of  the  Gospels  they  laid  stress 
upon  a  secret  tradition.  They  used  also  an  Evan- 
gelium  veriUUis,  a  fifth  Gospel,  which  probably 
contained  the  eum  of  apocryphal  tradition,  derived, 
according  to  Serapion,  not  from  the  Docetes  but 
from  their  precursors.  The  Gospel  of  Peter  may 
have  arisen  about  150  from  the  eastern  branch  at 
Antioch  as  did  the  Evangdium  verUaHa  among  the 
western  school  of  Valentinians.  To  a  branch  of 
the  Valentinian  school  of  Asia  Minor  belonged 
Leucius,  the  author  of  the  Acts  of  Peter  and  John. 
They  probably  used  also  the  Gospel  of  the  Infancy. 
Leucius  wrote  also  a  "  Joumeyings  of  John,"  sug- 
gested by  the  "  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches  "  of 
Revelation.  In  short,  the  foundation  of  the  canon 
of  the  most  important  schools  of  Gnostics,  140-170, 
is  that  of  the  Church  of  200,  only  that  these  "  men 
of  the  spirit "  used  alongside  of  the  canonical  wri- 
tings a  mass  of  other  traditions  and  poetical  and 
subjective  creations  which  were  not  employed 
among  the  orthodox. 

In  his  short  description  of  the  Sunday  service  as 

observed  by  Christians  in  city  and  country,  Justin 

names  as  taking  the  first  place  the  reading  of 

the  "  Memorabilia  of  the  Apostles," 

3.  The  "  which  are  called  Gospels  "  (I  Apol- 
Apostolic  ogy,  lxvi.-4xvii.,  ANF,  i.  185-186), 
Writings  and  the  "  collection  of  the  Prophets." 
in  Justin    "  Gospel  "  in  the  singular  is  also  used 

Martyr,     by  the  Jew  Trypho  and  by  Justin  as  a 

collective.  Out  of  deference  for  his 
readers  who  were  not  acquainted  with  the  term 
"  gospel,"  Justin  commonly  used  the  term  Apo- 
mnemoneumata,  ''  Memorabilia."  While  generally 
such  memorabilia  took  their  name  from  the  author, 
Justin  named  these  from  the  subject,  *^  The  Memo- 
rabilia of  our  Savior."  As  under  the  term  *'  proph- 
ets" the  whole  Old  Testament  is  included,  the 
term  mtmorabUta  in  Justin  may  include  the  New 
Testament  writings.  The  answer  to  the  question 
what  gospels  are  meant  has  long  been,  those  com- 
monly used  about  150  in  the  places  Justin  visited 
or  lived  in,  in  Ephesus  and  Rome,  in  the  public 
service  and  known  as  the  product  of  the  Apostles  or 
their  disciples.  Trypho  (Dialogue,  x.)  speaks  of 
the  "  so-called  gospel  "  as  a  totality,  a  unit.  They 
can  be  no  other  than  what  Marcion  criticised  and 
Valentinians  so  fully  employed.  In  one  place 
Justin  expressly  discriminated  between  the  Apostles 
and  their  disciples  in  a  passage  which  goes  back  to 
Luke  xxii.  44  {Dialogue^  ciii.).  He  named  the 
second  Gospel  "The  Recollections  of  Peter,"  a 
designation  which  implies  the  old  tradition  of  the 
connection  of  this  Gospel  with  that  apostle.  What 
has  partly  or  entirely  produced  the  idea  that  Jus- 
tin's "  memorabilia  "  are  not  the  Gospels  of  the 
Church  is  first  the  looseness  and  inexactness  of 
quotation,  and  second  the  material  additions  of 


facts  or  reports  grounds  for  which  aje  not  founi 
in  the  Gospels.  But  in  Justin's  dtations  exactsc^* 
is  no  more  to  be  expected  than  in  dement 's;  azyi 
much  that  appears  apocryphal  to  us  may  have  b<ri:i 
read  in  the  Gospels  of  his  time.  Justin  regarce>i 
Revelation  as  the  work  of  the  apostle  John  and  as  a 
true  testimony  of  Christian  prophecy.  Investigati cc 
of  his  writings  shows  contact  of  Justin  with  Rom. 
I  Cor.,  Gal.,  Eph.,  Col.,  II  Theas.,  Heb.,  I  Pet 
Acts  and  the  Didache:  more  questionably  witL 
Phil.,  Titus,  I  Tim.,  and  James. 

4.  The  Oldest  Traces  and  the  Origin  odT  CoUee- 
tionaof  Apostolic  Writings:  From  the  precediii^ 
array  of  facts  it  appears  that  by  140  in  the  entiit 
circle  of  the  cathoU^  Church  the  collection  com- 
prising the  four  Gospels  and  thirteen  Epistles  0: 
Paul  were  read  alongside  of  the  Old  Testament 
writing,  and  that  in  one  part  or  another  of  the 
Church  other  writings  such  as  Acts,  Rev.,  Heb.. 
I  Pet.,  James,  and  the  Epistles  of  John  were  held 
in  like  honor. 

The  collection  of  Pauline  letters  seems  to  go 

back  to  the  first  century,  judging  from  I  Clement, 

the  Ignatian  Epistles,  and  Polycarp.     The  bishops 

of  Smyrna  and  Antioch  had  a  knowledge  of  Paul 

which    involved    acquaintance    with 

z.  The      his  letters,  and  the  way  in  which  they 

Collection  employ  them  shows  that  the  letters 

of  Pauline  were  before  theuL     Polycarp  advised 
Letters     the  Philippians  to  read  Paul's  letters 
for  edification;    Ignatius  knew  Eph. 
under  the  title  used  later  by  Marcion  as  part  of  an 
ecclesiastical  collection.     Polycarp  included  Phil. 
and  Thess.  in  a  group  directed  to  the  Macedonians 
just  as  Tertullian  knew   them  a   century   lat«r. 
Clement  seems  to  make  the  collection  begin  with 
I  Cor.,  an  order  which  the  Muratorian  Canon  sup- 
ports, closing  with  Rom.    This  aggregation,  which 
contained  abo  the  order  Phil.-Thess.  and  the  title 
"  to  the  Ephesians,"  has  every  claim  to  originality 
and  to  have  circulated  before  97.    That  there  wa!s 
an  interchange  of  letters  among  the  churches  before 
this  collection  was  made  is  dear  from  Col.  iv.  16, 
but  the  circulation  and  use  implied  in  II  Pet.  ill.  15 
involve  a  collection  in  one  manuscript,  perhaps 
not  official  but  private.    The  passage  last  cited 
implies  a  Pauline  letter  to  Jewish  Christians,  and 
I  Cor.  V.  9  and  Phil.  iii.  1  imply  other  lettere  of 
Paul  which  have  not  survived.    These  facts  suggest 
a  deliberate  selection  from  the  available  letters  of 
Paul,  made  probably  in  some  important  center  of 
Christianity,  which  came  into  general  use  and  wa> 
seen  to  be  available  for  public  service.     But  the 
settlement  of  the  order  of  arrangement  implies 
that  the  collection  was  made  very  eariy,  soon  after 
the  death  of  Paul.     Where  this  was  done  can  not 
be  stated,  though  the  placing  of  I  and  II  Cor.  at 
the  head  suggests  Corinth.     Rome  is  also  to  be 
thought  of  as  explaining  the  closing  of  this  col- 
lection with  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

The  word  euaggelian,  which,  150-200,  designated 
the  collection  of  four  Gospels,  is  frequently  found 
in  the  earlier  literature  so  used  that  by  it  must  be 
meant  a  written  exposition  of  the  words  and  deeds 
of  Jesus  in  possession  of  the  churches  and  gener- 
ally known  to  the  communities  {Didache,  viii.  2; 


307 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


OaaoB  of  Soripture 


//  Clem.,  viii.  5;  Ignatius,  Sm^^maf  v.  1;  Philc^ 
<ielphia,  viii.  2).  That  "  Gospel  "  was  the  authori- 
tative document.  The  general  knowl- 
2.  The  edge  of  its  contents  involves  its 
*'GofpeL"  regular  use  in  public  service.  It  was 
cited  with  the  formula  **  the  Lord 
says/'  with  or  without  the  addition  "  in  the  Gos- 
pel," and  with  the  formula  (used  with  Old  Testament 
citations)  "  it  ib  written."  But  what  was  this 
*'  Gospel  "7  A  clear  imderstanding  of  what  it  was 
existed  between  the  writers  of  the  period  90-140 
and  their  readers.  Papias  declared  that  during 
the  lifetime  of  John  in  the  vicinity  of  Ephesus  a 
Gospel  of  Mark  was  used,  and  Cerinthus,  a  con- 
temporaiy  of  John,  preferred  it  to  the  others 
(IreniBUs,  Hcer,,  III.  xi.  7,  cf.  I.  xxvi.  1).  Papias  a»- 
serted  that  the  Hebrew  Matthew  was  long  used  in 
the  province  of  Asia  with  the  aid  of  oral  interpreta- 
tion until  a  Greek  version  superseded  it.  Even  the 
Fourth  Gospel  recalls  the  very  words  of  Mark  and 
Luke  (T.  Zahn,  Einleitung,  Leipsic,  1900,  pp.  50&- 
606,  520).  The  spurious  passage  Mark  xvi.  9-20  is 
derived  from  Luke,  John,  and  Papias.  The  earliest 
Gospels  of  the  Infancy  and  the  Gospels  of  Peter 
and  Marcion  go  back  to  the  canonical  Gospels. 
In  the  literature  of  95-140  among  a  mass  of  ordi- 
nances for  ecclesiastical  direction  only  four  gospel 
citations  are  not  traceable  to  the  four 'Gospels 
(//  Clem.,  V.  2, 4,  viii.  5,  xii.  2-6;  Ignatius,  Smyrna, 
iii.  2).  Such  imcanonical  sayings  as  these  .four 
were  circulated  orally  as  well  as  in  writing;  Papias 
about  125  collected  many  of  them.  Of  the  origin 
of  the  making  of  the  Gospel  canon  there  is  no  trust- 
worthy report,  nor  can  it  be  said  where  it  took  form. 
Other  writings  which  are  foimd  afterward  a»- 
nigned  to  the  New  Testament  were  not  unified  in 
any  one  collection  as  were  the  Gos- 
3.  Other  pels  and  the  Pauline  Epistles.  They 
Writings,  appeared  first  either  as  indisputable 
or  as  debated  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  stage  it  then  had  reached.  A  very 
wide  use  in  extended  circles  of  the  Church  during 
public  service  is  provable  for  I  Pet.,  I  John,  Rev., 
and  the  Shepherd,  none  of  which  was  originally 
addressed  to  a  sin^e  community. 

6.  Orlffen  and  HU  Sohool:  During  the  third 
century  the  New  Testament  underwent  no  essen- 
tial change.  The  achievement  of  Origen  was  the 
comparison  of  the  content  of  the  traditional  posses- 
sion of  various  commimities.  His  varied  life  and 
travels  gave  him  the  opportunity  to  learn  through 
5>bservation  existing  variations;  his  philological 
training  and  his  decided  vocation  for  learned  work 
in  the  service  of  the  Church  qualified  him  to  pro- 
noimce  a  discreet  judgment.  Before  217  he  was 
welcomed  at  Rome  as  one  of  the  rising  stars  of  the 
Church;  his  travels  took  him  to  Athens,  Antioch, 
and  CsBsarea  in  Cappadocia,  while  his  later  years 
were  spent  in  Palestine.  Students  flocked  to  him 
both  in  Alexandria  and  in  Palestine.  But  Bible  stu- 
dent though  he  was,  he  was  no  thoroughgoing  critic. 
He  quoted  Prov.  xxii.  28  in  reference  to  discussion  of 
the  canon;  tradition  spoke  for  him  the  last  word, 
though  indeed  that  tradition  was  to  be  investigated. 
Hence  he  voiced  the  distinction  between  the  homo- 
logaumena,  the  writings  universally  recognised  as 


scripture,  and  the  antileg&mena,  or  those  more  or 
less  opposed.  To  the  former,  according  to  Origen, 
belonged  the  four  Gospels,  thirteen  Pauline  Epis- 
tles, I  Pet.,  I  John,  Acts,  and  Rev.,  the  last  the  clo- 
sing book  of  the  New  Testament.  To  the  latter 
belonged  Heb.,  II  Pet.,  II  and  III  John,  Jas.,  Jude, 
Barnabas,  the  Shepherd,  the  Didache,  and  the 
Gospel  of  the  Hebrews.  Hebrews  was  frequently 
cited  by  him  as  though  Pauline  and  canonical, 
especially  in  his  earlier  writings;  and  he  defended 
its  Paulinity  rather  as  coming  through  a  member 
of  Paul's  school  than  from  Paul  himself.  II  Pet. 
was  also  frequently  cited  by  him  as  scripture, 
in  which  his  scholar  Firmilian  followed  him.  Jas. 
was  also  frequently  cited  both  as  scripture  and  as 
**  the  apostle  James."  Jude  appears  to  have  been 
valued  by  him,  though  not  often  appearing  in  his 
writings.  Barnabas  is  called  a  Catholic  Epistle 
and  in  the  Onomaaticon  is  put  with  the  other 
Catholic  Epistles.  He  regarded  the  Shepherd  as 
an  inspired  work  and  useful.  He  appears  also  to 
have  cited  the  Didache  as  scripture.  The  Gospel 
of  the  Hebrews  is  not  mentioned  in  his  list  of  the 
apocryphal  gospels;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  often 
dted  with  the  formula  he  used  when  citing  from 
such  writings.  He  sharply  discriminated  the 
Jewish-Christian  communities,  whose  one  gospel 
this  was,  from  the  heretical  Ebionites  on  the  ground 
that  the  former  held  fast  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of 
faith. 

The  allegorical  interpretation  by  means  of  which 
Origen  undertook  to  reconcile  the  most  divergent 
materials  and  the  most  varied  writings  and  to  unite 
them  thus  in  one  Bible  found  opposition.  The 
composition  of  Nepos,  bishop  of  Arsinoe,  "  Against 
the  Allegorists"  advanced  and  spread  a  chUiasm 
which  to  Bishop  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  about 
260  appeared  unendurable.  To  Origen  it  appeared 
that  Rev.  was  written  by  an  inspired  man  of  the 
apostolic  age  named  John,  but  the  difference  in 
stylo  and  conception  from  the  Fourth  Gospel  did 
not  allow  its  ascription  to  the  apostle.  It  was 
especially  a  book  for  the  application  of  the  alle- 
gorical method. 

6.  The  Original  New  Testament  of  the  Sirrians: 
On  the  beginnings  of  the  church  in  Edessa  there  is 
a  legendary  report  in  Qyriac,  The  Doctrine  of  Addoi, 
ed.  Phillips,  London,  1876,  which  contains  some 
significant  words  about  the  books  introduced  there 
for  use  in  the  service.  Addai,  the  founder  of  the 
church  of  Edessa,  is  made  to  say  expressly  that 
beside  the  Old  Testament  no  other  scriptures  shall 
be  read  than  the  Gospel,  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  and 
the  Acts.  And  by  the  Gospel  is  doubtless  meant 
the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian.  On  the  other  hand, 
Ephraem  knew  well  the  four  Gospels,  and  a  Syrian 
canon  contained  not  the  Diatessaron  but  the  four 
Grospels  in  our  order.  The  Syrian  collection  of 
the  Pauline  letters  embraced,  about  330-370,  ac- 
cording to  the  commentaries  of  Aphraates  and 
Ephraem,  Heb.  and  the  apocryphal  III  Cor.,  but 
not  Philem.  The  last-named  book  failed  to  appear 
in  the  otherwise  complete  commentary  of  Ephraem. 
A  summary  from  Sinai  gives  Philem.  at  the  end 
and  does  not  contain  III  Cor.;  on  the  other  hand, 
it  has  a  II  Phil.,  which  may  be  another  name  for 


Oanon  of  Sorlptnre 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


898 


III  Cor.  It  is  now  known  that  this  apocryphal 
writing  is  but  a  section  out  of  the  Acts  of  Paul 
which  belongs  to  the  period  about  170  at  the  earliest. 
It  could,  therefore,  not  have  belonged  to  the  original 
Syrian  Canon.  Tatian  became  a  Christian  at  Rome, 
and,  according  to  the  legend,  the  canon  of  the  Epis- 
tles was  received  from  Rome.  Eusebius  (Hist, 
eccl,,  IV.  xxix.  6)  heard  an  obscure  report  that  there 
was  a  recension  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  by  Tatian. 
The  oldest  Syrian  text  both  of  Epistles  and  of 
Gospels  has  a  relationship  to  the  Western  text. 
The  Sinai  sunmiary  throws  new  light  on  the  sub- 
ject.   The  order  of  the  Epistles  there  is  Gal.,  I  and 

II  Cor.,  Rom.,  Heb.,  and  so  on,  and  just  this  is  the 
order  in  which  Ephraem  commented  upon  them 
and  it  is  the  order  of  Mardon,  and  no  one  was  more 
likely  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  Marcion  than 
Tatian.  It  is  veiy  remarkable  too  that  in  the 
Syriac  sunmuuy  II  Tim.  is  mentioned,  but  I  Tim. 
is  omitted.  The  Syrian  Church  could  not  maintain 
its  original  individuality.  While  before  the  time 
of  Aphraates  and  in  the  third  century  it  received 
Heb.  and  I  Tim.,  it  could  not  exclude  all  the  Cath- 
olic Epistles.  The  Syriac  translation  of  Eusebius's 
Church  History,  which  Ephraem  had  diligently 
read,  acquainted  the  Syrians  with  the  older  his- 
tory of  the  New  Testament.  Intercourse  sprang 
up  in  the  fourth  century  between  Greek  and  Syrian 
Christians,  and  Greeks  and  Greek  Bibles  appeared 
in  Edessa;  it  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  that  Ephraem 
was  familiar  with  all  the  Catholic  Epistles.  In  the 
Peshito  a  selection  was  made  of  Jas.,  I  Pet.,  I  John, 
while  II  Pet.,  II  and  III  John,  Jude,  and  Rev. 
were  excluded. 

7.  Luoiaa  and  BuMbius:  While  the  New  Tes- 
tament of  the  early  Church  in  Antioch  had  its  indi- 
viduality, the  canon  of  Chiysostom  was  exactly  that 
of  the  Peshito  and  carried  the  exclusion  of  II  and 

III  John  back  to  the  decision  of  the  Fathers.  This 
can  not  be  due  to  the  efforts  of  Eusebius,  since  he 
would  set  aside  the  Apocalypse,  but  would  recog- 
nise the  seven  Catholic  Epistles;  to  reach  the  roots 
of  the  matter,  one  must  go  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  exegetical  school,  to  Ludan.  Report  says 
that  Lucian  was  bom  in  Samosata  and  that  he 
labored  in  Edessa  before  he  became  a  priest  and 
the  founder  of  the  school  in  Antioch.  It  is  doubt- 
less true  that  he  extended  his  text-critical  work  to 
the  New  Testament,  and  that  his  recension  of  that 
as  well  as  of  the  Septuagint  was  diffused  as  far  as 
Constantinople.  So  that  the  Antiochean  school's 
text  of  about  380-450  probably  goes  back  to  Ludan 
and  was  a  compromise  between  the  Edessan  and 
the  Antiochean  traditions.  Rev.  was  excluded 
while  Jas.,  I  Pet.,  and  I  John  of  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles were  taken  in.  This  doubtless  influenced  the 
Peshito. 

In  Palestine  the  Bible-studies  of  Origen  were 
continued  by  Pamphilus  and  Eusebius.  But 
Eusebius  was  affected  both  by  the  Origenistic 
tradition  and  by  the  Antiochean  school,  with 
representatives  of  which  he  was  connected  in  the 
debate  over  the  Trinity.  In  his  Church  History 
according  to  his  promise  he  has  diligently  given 
the  pronoimcements  of  earlier  writers  about  the 
anHUgomena  of  the  New  Testament,  and  also  in- 


teresting information  about  both  acknowledged 
and  doubtful  writings.  With  Origen,  he  found 
two  classes,  homohgoumena  and  antUeffomena  ;  but 
the  second  he  divided  into  two  subclasses,  the  one 
containing  the  books  he  would  have  acknowledged 
and  the  other  the  notha  or  '*  spurious."  His  table 
then  is:  (1)  Homologoumena,  the  Gospels,  Acts, 
fourteen  Pauline  Epistles,  I  Pet.,  I  John,  and  Rev.; 
(2)  AntiUgamenat  (a)  the  better  sort,  Jas.,  Jude, 
II  and  III  John,  and  (b)  the  notha.  Acts  of  Paul, 
Shepherd,  Apocalypse  of  P^ter,  Barnabas,  and  the 
Didache.  But  Eusebius's  treatment  is  not  always 
either  dear  or  consistent.  He  uses  a  term  endia- 
thdco$,  '' within-the-New-Testament,"  as  a  syno- 
nym of  homologoumenaa  and  appears  thereby  to 
exclude  from  the  New  Testament  the  first  class  of 
the  antiUgamena.  On  the  other  hand,  in  naming 
the  second  subdivision  of  the  antiUgomena  "  spuri- 
ous "  he  seems  to  argue  the  genuineness  of  the  first 
subdivision.  But  for  him  the  seven  Catholic 
Epistles  are  a  closed  collection.  It  was  about  Rev. 
that  Eusebius  foimd  it  hard  to  come  to  a  decision. 
Many  times  he  dies  it  and  adduces  the  strongest 
testimony  for  its  eccledastical  importance  {Hist, 
eccl,,  IV.  xviii.  8,  xxiv.  1,  xxvi.  2,  V.  viii.  5,  xviii. 
14,  VI.  XXV.  9).  But  when  in  III.  xxiv.  18  he 
reports  the  vacillation  of  opinion  about  the  book, 
he  calls  attention  to  the  influence  of  the  Lucian 
school.  He  dtes  it  as  "  the  so-called  Apocal3q)6e 
of  John  "  (III.  xviii.  2,  cf.  xxxix.  6),  briefly  refers 
to  the  vituperation  of  Caius  (III.  xxviii.),  and  notes 
the  more  cautious  criticism  of  Dionysius  (VII.  xxiv. 
5).  His  conjecture  that  another  John  wrote  it 
he  follows  out  with  diligence,  and  in  the  interest 
of  this  hypothesis  seeks  to  prove  the  existence  of 
a  presbyter  John  as  distinct  from  the  apostle.  He 
would  disrobe  the  book  of  its  apostolic  dress  and 
remove  it  from  the  New  Testament,  though  he 
never  expressly  utters  this  decision.  On  account 
of  its  quite  universal  recognition  in  the  Church 
he  leaves  open  the  choice  between  pladng  it  among 
the  homologoumena  or  among  the  noOia.  Apart 
from  this  book,  however,  his  New  Testament  is 
the  same  as  ours.  The  making  of  fifty  copies  of 
the  New  Testament  on  parchment  for  Constantine 
gave  him  an  opportunity  to  diffuse  his  opinions, 
and  the  result  showed  that  he  inclined  to  the  Ludan 
form  of  text  rather  than  to  the  Origenistic,  though 
induding  therein  the  lesser  Catholic  Epistles. 

8.  Athanasius:  According  to  the  Easter  Letter 
of  367,  recently  recovered  through  a  Coptic  trans- 
lation, in  which  is  given  a  view  of  the  continuous 
imdiscriminating  usage  of  all  kinds  of  Apocrypha 
as  scripture  in  the  ecclesiastical  province  where 
Athanasius  was,  there  was  afforded  him  the  oppor- 
tunity of  setting  forth  a  definitely  limited  canon 
arranged  in  order  of  books  and  in  groups.  He  was 
the  first  to  name  the  twenty-seven  books  of  the  New 
Testament  as  exclusively  canonical.  He  ignored 
the  opposition  to  which  several  of  them  had  so  long 
been  subjected,  notably  II  Pet.,  which  Didymus 
continued  to  oppose.  But  not  to  break  completely 
with  the  Alexandrian  tradition,  he  placed  in  sharp 
distinction  from  the  *'  canonized "  books  and 
equally  from  the  apocryphal  ones  a  class  of  ana- 
gignoskomena.    The  Fathers  had  designated  these 


899 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oanon  of  Soriptore 


as  to  be  placed  before  the  catechumens  for  their 
instruction.  They  included  Wisd.  of  Sol.,  Ecdus., 
Esther,  Judith,  Tobit,  the  Didache,  and  the  Shep- 
herd. The  Didache  had  great  influence  upon  the 
Uturgy  in  Egypt,  and  to  the  Shepherd  Athanasius 
himself  attached  high  value.  The  surprising  ele- 
ment, however,  is  the  complete  silence  concerning 
other  writings  which  at  least  in  Alexandria  had 
equally  with  the  Didache  and  the  Shepherd  been 
reckoned  with  New  Testament  writings.  Serapion, 
the  friend  of  Athanasius,  had  cited  Barnabas  as 
"  the  most  honored  apostle  Barnabas  "  along  with 
the  Romans  of  Paul,  and  in  Codex  SinaiHcus  it 
stood  between  Rev.  and  the  Shepherd.  The  New 
Testament  of  twenty-seven  books  seemed  to  be 
as  firmly  settled  as  that  of  Eusebius's  twenty-six 
had  been.  And  this  view  came  to  have  the  victory 
in  the  Church,  ruling  out  finally  the  shorter  canon 
of  Eusebius  and  the  use  of  a  class  of  books  merely 
for  the  instruction  of  catechumens. 

9.  The  Davelopment  In  the  Orient  till  the  Time 
of  Justinian:  The  peculiar  criticism  of  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  did  not  essentially  change  the  sit- 
uation established  by  Lucian  and  Eusebius.  The 
concordant  testimony  of  Theodore's  opponent 
Leontius  and  of  his  admirer  Jesudad  is  that  Theo- 
dore rejected  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles.  And 
since  as  an  Antiochean  he  rejected  the  Apocalypse, 
his  New  Testament  was  the  Syrian  one  of  about 
340.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  Pauline  Epistles 
(Rom.,  I  and  II  Cor,,  Heb.,  Eph.)  he  followed  the 
Syrian  usage  in  respect  to  Heb.,  and  the  Greek  in 
respect  to  Rom.  and  Gal.  He  defended  the  cano- 
nicity  of  Philemon,  but  rejected  III  Cor.  It  is  no 
wonder  that,  admired  as  he  was  by  the  Syrian 
N^cstorians,  these  latter  adopted  his  canon.  And 
the  Nestorian  Jesudad  (ninth  century)  still  regarded 
:he  three  greater  Catholic  Epistles  as  a  sort  of 
mtilegomena.  How  tenacious  the  opposition  to 
/he  Apocalypse  was,  as  also  that  to  the  four  lesser 
I^atholic  Epistles,  has  been  shown  above.  Never- 
theless, by  the  sixth  century  the  Apocalypse  had 
von  all  along  the  line  from  Jerusalem  to  Constan- 
inople.  If  Philoxenus  of  Mabug,  c.  508,  had  Rev. 
ind  the  lesser  Catholic  Epistles  translated  for  the 
irst  time  into  Syriac,  this  implies  that  in  the  con- 
iguous  Greek  ecclesiastical  province,  in  the  patri- 
archate of  Antioch,  the  Apocalypse  was  no  more 
gnored  as  it  was  c.  400,  that  on  the  contrary  it 
vas  again  received.  About  the  year  600  Andrew 
vrote  in  Csesarea  his  great  conmientary  on  the 
Ipocalypse,  in  which  with  a  certain  assiduity  by 
ippeal  to  the  older  teachers  from  Papias  to  Cyril 
le  defended  the  inspiration  of  the  book,  and  in  a 
lote  on  Rev.  xxii.  18--19  assailed  the  critics.  About 
SO  Leontius  designated,  in  lectures  delivered  in 
he  monastery  at  Jerusalem,  the  "  Apocalypse  of 
he  Holy  John"  as  the  latest  canonical  book  of 
he  Church. 

lO.  The  Assimilation  of  the  West:  By  the 
acillation  and  the  attempts  at  fixation  which  the 
anon  underwent  in  the  East  the  Latin  Church  was 
ot  immediately  affected.  Until  the  fourth  cen- 
ury  the  New  Testament  there  excluded  Heb.,  had 
n  incomplete  canon  of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
ut  included  the  Apocalypse,  which  was  seriously 


assailed  only  by  Caius.  The  events  of  the  fourth 
century  made  isolation  impossible.  The  settle- 
ment of  Pierios,  "  the  new  Origen,"  in  Rome  was 
a  significant  preparation.  There  followed  the 
councils,  the  exile  of  Athanasius  in  Trier  (336-337), 
in  Rome  (340-343),  and  in  other  parts  of  the  West 
(till  340);  of  Hilary  of  Poitiers  in  Asia  Minor 
(356-360),  of  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  Eusebius  of  Ver- 
celli,  and  others;  the  long  sojourn  of  Jerome  and 
Rufinus  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  during 
this  whole  period  the  close  connection  of  Latin 
Church  literature,  especially  of  exegesis,  with  Greek 
models.  The  ecumenical  consciousness  of  the 
Church  overleaped  all  barriers  and  affected  even 
the  canon.  The  influence  of  Athanasius  in  this 
respect  is  not  to  be  imderestimated,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  production  of  a  recension  of  the 
Bible  at  Rome  340^43. 

Hebrews,  prized  by  the  Novatians  as  a  produc- 
tion of  Barnabas,  began  after  the  time  of  Hilary  and 
Lucifer  to  be  quoted  more  and  more  in  the  West 
as  Pauline  and,  therefore,  canonical.  The  growth 
of  sentiment  in  favor  of  James  took  place  unnoted, 
as  did  that  of  the  lesser  Catholic  Epistles.  The 
African  Canon  (350-365),  published  by  Mommsen, 
has  a  more  or  less  official  air;  it  makes  no  mention 
of  Heb.,  Jas.,  or  Jude,  but  includes  I  and  II  Pet., 
I,  II,  and  III  John;  but  it  was  corrected  by  a  re- 
viser so  as  to  omit  II  Pet.  and  II  and  III  John. 
In  a  synod  of  c.  382  the  controlling  spirit  was 
Jerome,  so  that  II  and  III  John  were  received  as 
the  presbyter's  while  the  rest  of  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles were  ascribed  to  Apostles.  Hebrews  was  reck- 
oned as  a  fourteenth  Pauline  letter.  The  influence 
of  Augustine  was  dominant  in  the  synods  of  Hippo 
(383)  and  Carthage  (397),  the  pronouncement  of 
which  was  for  thirteen  Pauline  Epistles,  to  which 
Hebrews  was  added  as  a  sort  of  stranger. 

The  history  of  the  canon  was  closed  in  the  West 
by  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  a  hundred 
years  earlier  than  in  the  East.  (T.  Zahn.) 

Bibuoorapht:  On  the  general  topic  of  the  canon  for  the 
reader  of  English  poraibly  the  belt  survey  of  the  results 
of  modem  scholarship  is  W.  Sanday.  Intpiratian  .  .  . 
Early  Huiory  and  Orioin  of  the  Doetins  of  Biblical  In- 
sptroliofi,  London,  1896  (fkirly  advanced  on  the  O.  T., 
conservative  on  the  N.  T.);  L.  Gaussen,  Le  Canon  dot 
aainteo  ierituret  au  double  point  do  vue  do  la  odence  ot  do 
la  foi,  2  vols.,  Geneva,  1860,  Eng.  transl.,  London,  1863; 

E.  Reuse,  Hittoiro  du  oanon  deo  aainteo  Scrituroo  dan* 
Viglioo  ehriUenno,  Strasburg,  1864,  Eng.  transL,  Edin- 
burgh, 1891;  T.  H.  Home,  Introduction  to  tho  Critical 
Study  .  .  .  of  the  Holy  Seripiwroo,  3  vols.,  London.  1872 
(though  written  a  century  ago,  it  contains  much  that  is 
still  valuable);  8.  Davidson,  The  Canon  of  the  Bible,  ib. 
1880  (radical,  but  the  work  of  a  scholar);  F.  Overbeck, 

'  Zur  Oeedtiehto  deo  Kanono,  Chemnits,  1880  (contains  an 
essay  on  the  origin  of  the  canon);  J.  J.  Given,  The  Truth 
of  Scripture  in  Connection  with  .  ,  .  the  Canon,  Edin- 
burgh, 1881;  G.  T.  Ladd.  The  Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scrip- 
ture, 2  vols..  New  York,  1883  (abstract  and  wordy,  but 
scholarly);  C.  A.  Briggs,  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  chaps, 
v.-vi.,  ib.  1899;  W.  H.  Bennett  and  W.  F.  Adeney, 
Biblical  Introduction,  London.  1899  (brief,  but  accurate); 

F.  E.  C.  Gigot,  Oeneral  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Holy  Scripturee,  vol.  i..  New  York.  1901  (an  example 
of  the  newer  Roman  Catholic  scholarship). 

On  the  canon  of  the  O.  T.  there  are  four  works  of  first 
rank,  vis.;  H.  E.  Ryle.  Canon  of  the  O.  T.,  London.  1892; 
F.  Buhl,  Kanon  und  Text  dee  A.  T.,  Leipdc,  1891,  Eng. 
transl.,  Edinburgh,  1892  (a  short  treatise,  but  lucid  and 
uncumbered    with    technicalities);  Q.    Wildeboer,    if  si 


Oanonioal  Hoars 
Oantor 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


400 


onataan  van  den  Kanon  d$$  Ouden  Vm-hondi,  Groningen, 
1891,  Eng.  tnnsl.,  Oriffin  of  Uu  Canon  of  the  O.  T.,  Lon- 
don. 1896  (much  like  Buhl);  £.  Kautiach,  AbriM  dm- 
G0§ehiefUe  df  alUnlaiiMfUlithsn  Sehrifttumt,  Freiburs,  1897, 
Enc.  trand.,  London,  1808  (lucid,  altogether  a  model 
brief  dtBcuesion).  Other  woriu  which  may  be  consulted 
are:  J.  FOrst,  Der  Karum  dM  A.  T.,  Leipoic,  1868;  A. 
Loisy,  Hutoiro  du  Canon  do  VA.  T.,  Paris,  1890  (Roman 
Gatholio  and  teientific);  G.  H.  Dalman,  TradiUo  Rab- 
hinorum  voierrima  do  librorum  V.  T.  ordino  ot  originot  Leip- 
rio,  1891;  Smith,  OTJC;  X.  Koenig,  Eooai  nor  la  for- 
motion  du  Canon  do  VA,  T„  Paris,  1894;  W.  J.  Beecher, 
Tho  Attooed  TripU  Canon  of  the  O.  T,  in  JBL,  xv. 
(1896)  118-128;  W.  H.  Green,  Otnoral  JntrodueHon  to  the 
O.  T.,  2  vols..  New  York,  1898-D9  (states  the  ex- 
treme oonserratiTe  position);  Magnier,  t^tudo  our  la 
oanonieitS  do  VA.  T„  Paris,  1899;  F.  E.  C.  Gigot.  Oontral 
Jnirodudion  to  tho  Study  of  tho  Holy  Saipturoa,  vol.  i^ 
New  York,  1900;  J.  P.  Peters,  Tho  Old  Toatamontand  tho 
Now  Scholar^ip,  New  York,  1901. 

On  the  N.  T.  canon  the  best  work  is  by  B.  F.  Westoott, 
A  Oenoral  Survey  of  tho  HioU  of  tho  Canon  of  tho  N.  T., 
London,  1889;  K.  A.  Gredner,  OoochiehU  dot  noutoota- 
mentlichon  JCanons,  Berlin,  1860  (though  an  old  work, 
much  of  the  material  is  still  usable);  R.  F.  Grau,  Ent- 
wieklunooooochidito  doo  noutaatamon&idhon  SchrifUhunu, 
2  vols.,  Gatersloh,  1871;  A.  H.  Charteris,  CanonieUy: 
a  CoUoetion  of  early  TeoHmonioo  to  tho  Canonical  Booko 
of  tho  N.  T.,  London,  1880;  idem,  Tho  N.  T.  Scnpturoo, 
their  Claime,  HiaL,  and  Authority,  ib.  1882  (a  popular 
form  of  the  preceding);  T.  Zahn,  For§ehun4fen  eur  Ot- 
scAscAls  deo  neutootamentlithen  Kanona,  6  parts,  Erlangen, 
1881-93;  idem,  OaaehiOUo  doa  neuteetaimenaichen  Kanona, 
£>langen  and  Leipdo,  1888-92;  A.  Loisy,  Hiatoiro  du 
Canon  du  N,  T..  Paris,  1891;  H.  J.  Holtsmann,  Hia- 
ioriaehrkritiadte  Einleiiung  in  doa  N,  7.,  Freiburg,  1892; 
G.  Salmon,  Hiatorieal  JntrodueHon  to  the  Study  of  the 
Booka  of  the  N.  T.,  London.  1894;  A.  Hamaok.  Doa  N.  T. 
urn  doa  Jahr  BOO,  Freiburg,  1889;  idem,  Altehriatliehe 
Litteratur,  2  vols.,  Leipsic,  1897-1904  (exhaustive);  B. 
W.  Bacon,  JntrodueHon  to  N,  T.,  New  York,  1900  (con- 
densed); D.  S.  Mussey,  ttiae  of  the  N.  T.,  ib.  1900;  A. 
JOlicher,  Einleitung  in  daa  N.  T.,  TQbingen,  1901,  Eng. 
transl.,  London,  1904;  C.  R.  Gregory,  Canon  and  Text  of 
the  N,  T.,  Edinburgh,  1907;  J.  Leipoldt,  Oeachiehie  dee 
neuteatamentliehen  Kanona,  vol.  i.,  J)ie  Entatehung,  Leipsic, 
1907. 

CAirOllICAL  HOURS:  Certain  portions  of  the 
day  set  apart  according  to  the  rule  (canon)  of  the 
Church  for  prayer  and  devotion.  It  seems  likely 
that  the  Apostolic  Church  observed  the  Jewish 
custom  of  praying  three  times  a  day  (Ps.  Iv.  17: 
Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  1,  x.  30),  at  the  thixd,  sixth,  and 
ninth  hour.  In  the  fourth  century  the  zeal  of  the 
Psalmist  ("  seven  times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee," 
cxix.  164)  was  held  up  for  Christian  imitation  by 
Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Hilary,  and  by  the  time 
of  Cassian  (d.  about  435)  it  had  become  a  general 
rule  of  devotion.  (See  Breviart.)  In  England 
the  term  "  canonical  hours  "  also  refers  to  the  time 
within  which  marriage  may  legally  be  solemnized 
in  a  parish  church  without  a  license,  which  was 
from  eight  to  twelve  in  the  morning,  until  a  re- 
cent Act  of  Parliament  extended  it  to  three  in  the 
afternoon. 

CANOmZATION:  The  process  of  attributing 
the  title  of  saint  to  a  man  or  woman  already  known 
as  "  blessed."  The  word  refers  to  the  inclusion 
of  the  person's  name  in  the  list  (canon)  of  the  saints 
and  recognizing  his  right  to  a  fitting  veneration, 
which  includes  the  setting  apart  of  a  day  in  the 
ecclesiastical  calendar  for  the  commemoration  of 
the  saint's  feast,  together  with  an  office  in  the 
breviary  and  a  mass  for  the  day  in  his  honor. 
To  promote  the  veneration  of  a  saint  throughout 


the  universal  Church,  no  better  method  existed 
than  to  seek  papal  confirmation  of  his  daim^. 
This  probably  happened  now  and  then  e\ea  in 
early  times,  or  the  popes  gave  such  oonfirmatkn 
of  their  own  motion.  We  have  definite  evidesoe 
of  the  formal  canonization  of  Bishop  Ulric  d 
Augsburg  in  093.  But  canonLsation  as  a  right 
reserved  exclusively  to  the  pope  appears  first  Hoder 
Alexander  III.  (1159-^1).  The  bishops  continued 
to  feel  justified  in  canonizing  for  their  own  dio- 
ceses, until  this  was  declared  unlawful  by  Urban 
VIII.  in  1625  and  1634.  At  present  a  formal  z&d 
veiy  carefully  regulated  process  is  gone  through 
before  canonization.  The  candidate,  having  died 
in  good  repute,  is  first  designated  as  "  of  pious 
memoiy,"  and  when  a  regular  investigation  hu 
been  set  on  foot,  as  "  venerable."  If  it  is  ood- 
clusively  shown  that  he  has  lived  a  holy  life 
and  worked  miracles,  his  beatification  may  be 
requested,  but  normally  not  until  fifty  years  after 
hiB  death.  The  process  is  first  conducted  by  tiK 
bishop  of  his  home;  a  commission  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  examines  whether  it  is  permissible, 
in  which  case  papal  authority  to  proceed  is  granted. 
In  order  to  make  the  necessary  demonstration  that 
the  candidate  possessed  "  heroic "  virtues  and 
worked  miracles,  three  separate  investigations  are 
held — one  before  the  Congregation  of  Rites,  one 
before  the  whole  college  of  cardinals,  and  one  before 
a  consistory  held  under  the  pope's  presidency. 
When  the  pope  has  approved  the  request,  a  brief 
is  drawn  up  which  grants  the  title  of  betUuSf  and 
determines  the  limits  of  the  consequent  culius, 
including  commemoration  and  invocation  in  public 
worship,  the  erection  of  altars,  public  exposition  of 
relics,  and  the  like.  The  solemn  publication  of  the 
decree  of  beatification  takes  place  in  St.  Peter's. 
After  repeated  miracles  and  a  similar  process  of 
investigation,  canonization  may  follow  later,  with 
still  more  imposing  ceremonies,  the  pope  or  his 
representative  singing  high  mass  in  honor  of  the 
new  saint.  While  the  veneration  of  the  "  blessed  " 
is  limited  to  a  certain  definite  part  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  that  of  the  saints  is  extended  to 
the  entire  Church.  (N.  Bonwstsch.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Oiusto  Fontaaini.  Codex  amatituHonum 
Quaa  eumnU  ponHficaa  ediderunt  in  aoUmni  eammiaatiatie. 
99S-17M9,  Rome,  1729;  W.  Hurd,  Rcligioue  Ritea  end 
Ceremoniea,  p.  244,  London,  1811;  C.  Elliott,  Delineation 
of  Roman  Catholiciam,  book  iv.,  chap.  4.  New  York,  1S42; 
Boiseonnet,  IHcHonnaire  .  .  .  dee  drimoniea  .  .  .  eaerSai, 
in  Mizne.  EneytUtpSdie  thiologique,  zv-.-xvii.;  L.  Ferraru^ 
Prompta  bibliotheea  oanoniea,  8.T.  *'  Veziermtio  Sancto- 
rum," new  ed.,  Rom«,  1844-45. 

CARSTEIN,  cOn'stoin,  KARL  HILDEBRAin), 
BARON  VON:  Founder  of  the  Canstein  Bible  In- 
stitute at  Halle;  b.  at  Lindenberg  (a  village  near 
FUrstenwalde,  21  m.  w.  of  Fnmkfort)  Aug.  4. 
1667;  d.  at  Berlin  Aug.  19,  1719.  After  comple^ 
ting  his  legal  studies  at  the  University  of  Frankf ort- 
on-the-Oder,  in  1686,  he  traveled  through  Holland, 
En^and,  France,  Italy,  and  southern  Germany, 
but  was  called  to  Berlin  by  the  death  of  the  Elector 
in  1688.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber,  but  resigned  afUr 
a  few  years,  and  enlisted  as  a  volimteer  with  the 
Brandenburg  troops  sent  to  Flanders.    There  he 


401 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Canonical  Hour* 
Cantor 


fell  seriously  ill,  was  converted,  and  after  recovering 
his  health,  returned  to  Berlin,  where  he  lived  in 
retirement,  devoting  himself  to  philanthropy.  In 
1691  he  became  acquainted  with  Spener,  and  thus 
formed  a  lifelong  friendship  with  August  Hermann 
Francke  (q.v.)»  whom  he  aided  in  all  his  enter- 
prises. 

A  literary  result  of  Canstein's  unceasing  study 
of  the  Bible  was  his  Harmonie  und  Audegung  der 
heiligen  vier  Evangelisten  (Halle,  1718),  but  his 
crowning  life-work  was  his  establishment  of  the 
Canstein  Bible  Institute.  Seeking  to  make  the 
Scriptures  known  in  the  widest  circles,  he  ex- 
pounded his  views  in  a  small  pamphlet  entitled 
Ohninassgebender  Vorachlag,  wie  Gotteswort  den 
Armen  eur  Erhauung  um  einen  geringen  Preis  in 
die  Hdnde  zu  bringen  set  (Berlin,  1710),  in  which  he 
expressed  his  conviction  that  the  use  of  stereotype 
plates  would  render  it  possible  to  sell  copies  of  the 
New  Testament  for  two  groschen,  and  of  the  entire 
Bible  for  six.  His  first  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment appeared  at  Halle  in  1712,  and  was  followed 
by  the  entire  Bible  in  the  next  year.  Before  Can- 
stein's  death  the  New  Testament  had  appeared  in 
twenty-eight  editions,  and  the  Bible  in  eight  octavo 
and  eight  duodecimo  editions,  making  a  total  of 
about  100,000  New  Testaments  and  40,000  Bibles. 
When  the  foimder  died,  Francke  took  charge  of  the 
Institute.  In  1727  the  buildings  were  enlarged, 
and  in  1734-i35  the  Cansteinische  Buckdruckerei 
was  established.  The  Bible  was  printed  in  Bohe- 
mian and  Polish  in  1722,  and  in  1868-69  versions 
in  Wendish  and  Lithuanian  appeared.  The  re- 
vised text  of  Luther's  version  was  also  first  printed 
by  this  Institute  (Halle,  1892).  See  Bible  So- 
cieties, II.,  1. 

CAlfTATA.    See  Music,  Sacred,  II.,  2,  §  5. 

CAIVTERBURY:  The  ancient  metropolitan  see 
of  England.  The  city  is  of  great  antiquity,  suc- 
ceeding the  British  village  of  Durwhem,  the  Ro- 
man Durovemum,  and  the  Saxon  Cantwarabyrig. 
Augustine,  sent  from  Rome  by  Gregory  the  Great 
in  596  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons,  made  it  the 
headquarters  of  his  missionary  activity;  but  it 
was  not  until  the  episcopate  of  the  great  organizer 
Theodore  of  Tarsus  (668-690)  that  the  claim  of  the 
see  to  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  of 
England  was  acknowledged  by  the  other  bishops 
and  confirmed  by  Pope  Vitalian.  This  authority 
extended  over  Ireland  as  well  until  the  elevation 
of  the  see  of  Armagh  (q.v.)  to  primatial  rights. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  important  position  of 
York  in  the  north  of  England,  the  archbishops  of 
that  see  for  a  long  time  contested  the  first  place 
with  Canterbury,  and  it  was  not  until  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Alexander  III.  (1159-81)  that  the  latter 
enjoyed  an  unquestioned  primacy.  Among  the 
long  line  of  archbishops  some  distinguished  names 
occur:  Dimstan  (959-988);  .fflfheah  martyred  by 
the  Danes  (1006-12);  Lanfranc  (1070-89)  and 
Anselm  (1093-1109),  the  great  defenders  of  the 
rights  of  the  Church  and  people  against  the  first 
Norman  kings;  Thomas  Becket  (1162-70),  mur- 
dered in  the  cathedral  itself  for  his  resistance  to  the 
king's  encroachments;  Stephen  Langton  (1207-28). 
U.— 26 


William  Warham  (1503-32)  was,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  two  years'  tenure  of  the  see  by  CardinaJ 
Pole  under  Mary  (1556-58),  the  last  Roman  Cath- 
olic archbishop.  Thomas  (>anmer  (1533-56)  begins 
the  Anglican  succession,  followed  by  Parker, 
Grindal,  and  Whitgift  imder  Queen  Elizabeth. 
William  Laud  (1633-45)  kept  up  the  earlier  tra- 
ditions of  the  see  by  giving  his  life  for  his  principles; 
but  in  the  post-Reformation  annals  few  names  of 
great  significance  occur — though  Archbishops  Tait, 
Benson,  and  Temple  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  men  of  broad  and  statesman- 
like abilities.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
ranks  as  the  first  peer  of  the  realm  after  the  princes 
of  the  blood  royal,  and  has  the  right  to  crown  the 
sovereign  and  to  other  secular  prerogatives.  The 
cathedral  in  its  present  shape  was  begun  by  Lan- 
franc on  the  site  of  St.  Augustine's  monastery; 
it  contains  work  extending  from  his  time  to  that  of 
Prior  Goldstone  in  the  fifteenth  century,  thus  ex- 
hibiting specimens  of  all  schools  of  Gothic,  and 
afifording  the  best  guide  to  the  study  of  the  devel- 
opment of  architecture  in  England.  From  the 
death  of  Becket  until  the  Reformation,  it  was  a 
favorite  place  of  pilgrimage.  His  body,  brought 
from  the  crypt,  was  placed  in  1220  in  a  shrine  of 
such  magnificence  that  Erasmus,  who  visited  it  in 
1512,  recorded  that  ''  gold  was  the  meanest  thing 
to  be  seen."  In  1538  Henry  VIII.  destroyed  the 
shrine,  as  that  of  a  rebel  against  royal  authority, 
and  confiscated  its  treasures.  Among  the  other 
interesting  ecclesiastical  remains  in  Canterbury 
are  St.  Martin's  church,  said  to  be  the  oldest  in 
England  and  to  date  in  part  from  the  period  of 
the  Roman  occupation,  and  the  first  house  of  the 
Dominicans  in  England.  See  the  biographical 
notices  of  Augustine,  Theodore,  and  other  arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury;  also  the  articles  Anglo- 
Saxons,  Conversion  op  the;  Celtic  Church  in 
Britain  and  Ireland;   England,  Church  of. 

Bxbuoorapht:  The  history  of  the  diocese  is  given  by  R. 
C.  Jenkins,  in  IHoceaan  Hititarie»,  Canlerbury,  London, 
1880.  On  the  cathedral  consult:  A.  P.  Stanley,  Hi»- 
toneal  Memorials  of  Canterbury  Caihodral,  ib.  1900;  J.  M. 
Cowper,  Memorial  Ineeriptione  of  the  Cathedral  Church 
of  Canterbury,  Canterbury,  1807.  For  the  monastery 
consult:  Liter  a  Canhuxrienaet.  Letter  Booke  of  the  Monaa- 
lery  of  Christ  Church,  3  vols.,  ed.  by  J.  B.  Sheppard  for 
Rolls  Series,  London.  1881-80.  Consult  also:  S.  R.  Gar- 
diner, Student's  Hist,  of  England,  passim,  ib.  1805;  W. 
Bright,  Early  English  Church  Hist.,  Index,  Oxford,  1807; 
W.  A.  Shaw,  History  of  the  English  Church,  1640-1660, 
London,  1000  (contains  much  material);  W.  W.  Capes, 
English  Church  in  14th  and  16th  Centuries,  ib.  1000;  W. 
R.  W.  Stephens.  The  English  Church,  1066-1272,  p.  33, 
ib.  1001;  J.  Gairdner,  The  English  Churdi  in  the  ISth 
Century,  pp.  1,  66,  104,  et  passim,  ib.  1003 

CANTHARUS:  A  well,  cistern,  fountain,  or 
simply  a  vessel  for  water,  in  the  center  of  the 
atrium  just  in  front  of  the  entrance  of  the  ancient 
basilica,  used  by  the  faithful  for  the  ablution  of 
hands  and  face  before  entering  the  church  build- 
ing.   See  Holy  Water. 

CANTICLES.    See  Sono  of  Solomon. 

CANTOR:  A  name  applied  in  the  early  Church 
to  those  who  were  specially  set  apart  to  conduct 
the  singing.  They  are  mention^  as  a  special 
class  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  and  in  the 


Cans 
OikpenuMim 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


m 


canoDB  of  the  Council  of  Laodioea  (365),  and  were 
set  apart  by  the  clergy  with  a  particular  rite.  In 
the  later  Western  Church  the  name  was  alao  applied 
in  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches  to  one  of  the 
canons  who  had  the  oversight  of  the  musical  in- 
struction of  the  younger  members  and  led  the 
musical  part  of  the  service;  called  also  precentor. 
It  is  sometimes  used  quite  generally  for  specially 
designated  singers,  whether  derical  or  lay,  who 
intone  or  begin  the  psalms,  antiphons,  and  hymns. 

CANZ,  cOntz,  ISRAEL  GOTTLIEB.  See  Wour, 
Christian,  and  the  Wolffian  School. 

CAPECELATRO,  cd-p^'chd-ld'trO,  ALFOHSO: 
Cardinal  priest;  b.  at  Marseilles  Feb.  5,  1824. 
He  entered  the  oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  and  in 
1878  was  appointed  sublibrarian  of  the  Holy 
See.  Two  years  later  he  was  consecrated  arch- 
bishop of  Capua,  and  in  1885  was  created  car- 
dinal priest  of  Santi  Nereo  ed  Achilleo.  In  the 
following  year,  however,  he  chose  the  church  of 
Santa  lAaiiA  del  Popolo  in  preference  to  that  of 
Santi  Nereo  ed  Achilleo.  He  still  retains  his  archi- 
episcopal  see,  and  also  remains  the  official  librarian 
of  the  Holy  See.  In  addition  to  a  number  of 
briefer  contributions,  he  has  written:  Storia  di 
Santa  Caterina  e  del  papato  del  auo  tempore  (2  vols., 
Naples,  1856);  Newman  e  la  religiane  cattolica  in 
Inghilterra  (2  vols.,  1859);  La  vita  di  OeeH  Crieto 
(1862);  Storia  di  San  Pier  Damiano  e  del  euo  tem^ 
pore  (Florence,  1862);  ScritH  Vari  religiosi  e 
eociali  (3d  ed.,  Milan,  1873);  La  dottrina  cattolica 
(3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  Sienna,  1879);  Vita  di  San  Filippo 
Nen  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1879;  Eng.  transl.,  by  T.  A. 
Pope,  London,  1882);  Prose  sacre  e  morale  (Sienna, 
1884);  and  Nuove  Prose  (2  vols.,  Milan,  1899). 
An  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  eighteen 
volimies  at  Rome  in  1886-93. 

CAPE  COLONY:  The  most  important  of  the 
British  possessions  in  South  Africa,  comprising, 
in  general,  that  portion  of  the  continent  south  of 
the  Orange  River;  area,  277,000  square  miles; 
population  (1904),  2,409,804,  of  whom  less  than 
one-fourth  (not  quite  580,000)  are  Europeans  or 
whites;  the  remainder  (still  predominantly  heathen) 
includes  1,114,100  Kafirs  and  Bechuanas,  310,- 
720  half-breeds  classed  as  Fingo  stock,  91,260  Hot- 
tentots, 15,680  Malays,  and  298,340  classed  as 
half-breeds  and  of  miscellaneous  origin. 

The  more  important  religious  bodies  of  the  colony 
are  as  follows:  (1)  The  DtUch  Reformed  Church, 
with  399,500  members  (1904),  of  whom  296,800 
were  white.  It  is  the  church  of  the  original  Euro- 
pean (Dutch)  settlers,  who  spread  widely  through 
the  land  by  conquest  from  1652  onward.  Their 
Church  is  governed  by  a  general  synod,  whose 
sessions  are  held  every  three  years.  The  separate 
congregation  is  administered  by  a  church  council 
(kerkeraad)f  and  six  to  twelve  congregations  con- 
stitute a  congregational  circuit  ("  ring "),  whose 
chosen  representatives  become  members  of  the 
General  Synod.  A  standing  conmiittee  of  the 
Synod  administers  the  principal  affairs  of  the  Church 
as  a  whole.  The  colored  congregations  are  for 
the  most  part  the  result  of  missionaiy  labor;  only 


a  small  number  of  their  dergy  have  a  higher  ec> 
cation.     (2)  The  Church  of  England,  281,440  rotr 
bers  (122,560  white).    The  diocese  of  Cape  Tcv 
was  founded  in  1847;  the  incumbent  has  boroe  *.- 
title  of  archbishop  since  1897  and  is  metropolis: 
of  the  province  of  South  Africa,  which  oompnse 
nine  dioceses  besides  the  metropolitan  see^rj. 
Bloemfontein   (formerly  the  Orange   Free  Sum. 
formed     1863),    Grahamstown     (1853),  Lebocir 
(1891),    Mashonaland     (1891),     Natal     (fonK::: 
Maritsburg,    1853),    Pretoria    (1878),    St.    Hebii 
(1859),  St.  John's,  Kaffiaria  (1873),  and  Zulok^i 
(a  missionaiy  bishopric,  1870).     (3)  The  TTHf^i^ 
Methodist  Church  of  South  Africa,  277,300  mem^1e^ 
(35,900  white).    This  body  very  early  emplcr^. 
colored  teachers  and  has  applied  less  rigorous  te<t> 
of  conversion  than  others;    in  1891  it  had  abc.: 
1,250  lay  helpers.    Two  other   Methodist  bocir' 
have  an  inconsiderable  aggregate  membership.   '4 
CongregationalistSy  112,200    members  (5,000  Eiuo- 
peans),  for  the  most  part  connected  with  tl^  Im- 
don  Missionary  Society.    The  Congregational  Unioi 
of  South  Africa  was  fonned  in  1900  from  the  Un:.-: 
of  South  Africa  (1877)  and  the  Union  of  Nat&l  asu 
Southeastern    Africa     (1882).     (5)     Pre^nfteriarj^, 
88,660    members    (26,360    of    European    orig^i 
The  Scotch  Church  began  missionary  activity  i: 
the  east  of  the  colony  in   1821.     (6)  Lutheran,' 
37,050  members   (13,100   Europeans),   mostly  • 
German  origin.    They  are  united  in  the  Gencj: 
Evangelical    Lutheran  ^Synod    of    South    Afiics. 
(7)  The  Rhenish  Mission  Church  has  20,800  mex- 
bers  and    (8)   the  Moravians  23,100,    neariy  it 
colored.     (9)    The    African    Methodist    Epiaeoy, 
Church  has    12,060  members;     (10)    the   Baptu<^ 
number  14,100,  of  whom  9,950  are  white,  the: 
congregations   being   organised    practically   on  s 
European    basis;    (11)  the  Church  of  Christ  hi^ 
7,600   members  (1,075   Europeans),  and  (12)  t^^ 
South  African  Reformed  Church  6,210,  nearly  ji 
Europeans.    Further,  there  is  a  group  of  missi^^ 
congregations,  of  which  the  largest  is  Dutch  (4,79)  > 
and  the  smallest  American  (215),  and  more  thsz 
forty  additional  sects  or  denominations   witces? 
the  tendency  to  religious  division  which  manifest' 
itself  in  English-speaking  lands.     For  further  in- 
formation   concerning    missionary    activity,    9e« 
Africa,  II. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  had  a  vigorous 
growth  in  the  last  ten  years,  and  now  counts  men 
than  37,000  members  (28,500  of  European  origin  t 
The  organisation  includes  the  apostolic  vicariste^ 
of  western  and  eastern  Cape  Colony,  dating  it- 
spectively  from  1837  and  1847,  with  residence  sx 
Cape  Town  and  Port  Elizabeth,  and  the  apost^^^lie 
prefecture  of  central  Cape  Colony  (1874),  wiit 
residence  at  Cape  Town.  The  Roman  Catbojc 
Church  is  active  throughout  South  Africa  and  hts 
established  vicariates  for  Natal  (1850),  the  Trans- 
vaal (1904),  and  Orange  Free  State  (1886),  and  s 
prefecture  of  Basutoland  (1894). 

The  Oreek  Orthodox  Church  reckons  l.aiO  a^i- 
herents,  almost  exclusively  European.  The  I^rnf!- 
ites  have  decreased  on  account  of  emigration:  >ti 
19,500  remain.  Mohammedanism  is  repraaratt^i 
by  22,630  members  (among  them  15,100  MalsTst. 


408 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cans 
OapemAum 


and  2,035  Hindus  are  enumerated.  In  spite  of 
the  missionary  seal  of  so  many  Christian  sects, 
more  than  half  the  natives  continue  in  heathenism, 
the  official  figures  of  colored  heathen  being 
1 ,015,230. 

The  number  of  illiterates,  after  deduction  of 
children  under  school  age,  is  1,368,000.  The 
religious  bodies  are  engaged  in  active  rivalry  to 
meet  the  needs  of  education  and  thereby  to  in- 
crease their  numbers,  and  the  government  has 
latterly  applied  itself  to  the  building  and  equip- 
ment of  schools  on  a  scale  of  greatly  increased 
expenditure.  Attendance  at  school  was  made 
compulsory  in  1905.  Wilhelm  Goetz. 

Bibuoorapbt:  For  feneral  facts  and  status,  J.  Bryoe,  /m>- 
pretHonB  of  South  Africa^  London,  1890.  For  statistics. 
South  African  Year  Book,  annual,  London.  For  phases 
of  mission  and  other  church  work  consult:  A.  T.  WirK- 
man,  HUtory  of  the  BnglUh  Church  in  South  Africa,  Lon- 
don. 1806;  A.  G.  8.  Gibson.  Skotehet  of  Churdi  Work  in 
the  Dioeeee  of  Capetown,  Gape  Town.  1000;  MiaeionChron^ 
ieU  of  the  Scottieh  Church,  with  the  Kaffrarian  Dioeeean 
Quarterly,  Edinburgh;  SoujOi  African  Catholie  Magaaine, 
Cape  Town;  Reporte  of  the  Weeleyan  Mieeione  in  Ms  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  Dietriet,  annual.  Gape  Town;  Almanak  voor 
de  gerefoormeerde  Kerk,  annual.  Gape  Town;  HandoLin- 
gen  [dor  Vergadering  van  de  eyriode  der  gerefoormeerde 
Kerk,  Cape  Town  (published  subsequent  to  the  meeting  of 
each  synod);  J.  liackensie,  Day-Dawn  in  South  Africa, 
London,  1884;  idem,  London  Miseionary  Society  in  JSouth 
Africa,  ib.  1888;  A.  Brisg,  Mieeionary  Life  in  the  South 
of  Ms  Dark  Continent,  ib.  1888;  W.  8.  Walton.  Cape  Gen- 
eral Mieeion,  ib.  1880;  A.  G.  8.  Gibson.  Eight  Yeare  in 
Kaffraria,  ib.  1801;  T.  Cook,  My  Mieeion  Tour  in  South 
Africa,  ib.  1806;  Meransky.  in  Mieeioneaoitechrift,  1807- 
1808;  Baeler  Mieeionemagaein,  1000. 

CAPENy  ELMER  HEWITT:  Universalist;  b.  at 
Stoughton,  Mass.,  Apr.  5,  1838;  d.  at  Medford, 
Mass.,  Mar.  22,  1905.  He  was  graduated  at  Tufts 
College,  1860;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1863;  was  pas- 
tor of  the  Independent  (Universalist)  Christian 
Society  of  Gloucester,  Mass.,  1865-69;  of  the  First 
Universalist  Church  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  1870-75; 
and  after  1875  president  of  Tufts  College,  Medford, 
Mass.  He  belonged  to  the  school  of  Universalists 
who  make  the  final  triumph  of  good  over  evil  a 
corollary  of  the  nature  of  God — a  result  to  be 
wrought  out  through  those  moral  processes  which 
are  seen  in  operation  around  us.  He  was  member 
of  the  legislature  from  Stoughton,  1859-60.  His 
publications  consisted  of  sermons,  addresses,  re- 
ports, etc. 

CAPERNAUM,  ca-per'na-xmi:  The  name  of  a 
Galilean  city,  situated  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  The 
form  of  the  word  follows  the  texiua  receptua,  though 
the  best  manuscripts  give  Caphamaum,  It  is  a 
compound  name  meaning  "  village  of  Nahum " 
or  "of  consolation."  Jesus  made  it  the  center  of 
his  Galilean  activities  and  it  was  called  "  his  own 
city  "  (Matt.  iv.  13,  ix.  1);  his  disciples  Simon  Peter 
and  Andrew  had  a  house  there;  he  taught  in  the 
synagogue  there,  in  Peter's  house,  and  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  performed  a  number  of  wonderful  cures. 
There  he  obtained  his  disciples  Peter,  Andrew, 
and  Levi-Matthew,  and  near-by  James  and  John 
(Mark  i.  16-17,  19,  ii.  14).  The  city  lay  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  sea,  had  a  customs-office  and 
royal  collector  and  a  garrison  in  command  of  a 
captain  who  was  a  friend  of  the  Jews  and  had  built 
them  a  synagogue.    Josephus  in  describing  the 


plain  of  Gennesaret  (War,  III.  x.  8)  speaks  of  a 
copious  spring  watering  the  plain  which  was  called 
by  the  inhabitants  Capernaum.  There  are  still 
near  the  north  of  the  plain  two  springs.  One  of 
these,  the  Ain-el-Tine,  issues  from  the  rock  imder 
the  roots  of  a  fig-tree  not  far  from  Khan  Minyeh. 
But  this  can  not  be  the  one  meant  by  Josephus, 
since  it  lies  too  low  to  water  the  plain.  The  other 
lies  northwest  of  the  first  and  outside  the  boundaries 
of  the  plain.  This  is  the  most  copious  spring  in 
Galilee,  stronger  by  far  than  the  Banias  source  of 
the  Jordan,  known  now  as  Ain-el-Tabigah,  the 
waters  of  which  are  collected  in  a  hexagonal  res- 
ervoir of  old  masonry,  showing  that  the  spring 
was  used  for  irrigation  purposes.  This  is  doubtless 
the  spring  mentioned  by  Josephus,  and  Capernaum 
must  have  been  in  the  neighborhood,  and,  like 
the  spring,  not  within  the  limits  of  the  plain. 
Josephus  states  (Life,  Ixxii.),  that  in  a  skirmish 
against  the  troops  of  Agrippa  II.  which  took  place 
on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  he  was  thrown  from 
his  horse  and  woimded,  and  had  himself  carried 
to  the  village  Cephamome  and  in  the  following 
night  to  Tariches.  In  spite  of  different  textufd 
readings  of  the  name  of  the  place,  it  is  probable 
that  Josephus  here  meant  Capernaum. 

Eusebius  (Onanuuticon,  273)  discusses  "  in  the 
borders  of  Zebulim  and  Naphtali"  of  Matt.  iv. 
13  in  connection  with  Isa.  ix.  1.  The  meaning  of 
the  phrase  is  **  in  the  district  of,"  not  "  on  the 
boundary  of."  With  Tel-Hum  goes  well  Jerome's 
statement  of  two  Roman  miles  as  the  distance 
between  Chorasin  and  Capernaum  (the  "  twelve 
miles  "  of  Eusebius  seems  a  copyist's  error).  Put 
alongside  the  foregoing  that  Capernaum  and 
Bethsaida  were  adjacent  (Epiphanius,  Hcer.,  1.  15), 
and  early  reports  are  quite  exhausted. 

Tel-Hum  is  the  one  old  site  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
spring,  forty  minutes  distant  in  a  northwestern 
direction.  E.  Robinson  in  1838  visited  and  de- 
scribed the  ruins,  some  quite  pretentious  buildings, 
of  black  basalt  and  limestone,  among  which  travel- 
ers have  thought  they  identified  the  remains  of  a 
synagogue.  The  name  of  the  foimtain,  even  though 
forty  minutes  away,  makes  for  the  identification 
of  Tel-Hum  ^th  Capernaum.  And  the  form  Tel- 
Hum  may  be  an  Arabic  variation  for  Tenhum,  ab- 
breviated from  the  Talmudic  Kaf  Tanhumim 
("  VUlage  of  Consolation"). 

The  Franciscan  Quaresmio  in  1616-26  identified 
Khan  Minyeh  near  Ain-el-Tine  as  the  site  of  Caper- 
naum, and  he  has  been  followed  by  many  scholars. 
On  this  site  appear  the  traces  of  the  larger  streets 
which  a  garrison  city  seems  to  require.  A  con- 
elusion  has  been  urged  that  John  vi.  1-21  and 
Mark  vi.  45-53  imply  that  Capernaum  was  on  the 
plain  of  Gennesaret,  but  this  falls  after  close  exam- 
ination of  the  passages.  Arguments  drawn  from  the 
element  "Minyeh"  in  the  modem  name  have  also 
no  cogency. 

The  ruins  of  Tel-Hum  belong  now  to  the  Fran- 
ciscans, who  have  enclosed  them  with  a  wall,  in- 
tending to  excavate  there  in  the  future. 

(H.  GUTHE.) 

BnuooEAPirr:  Authorities    and    literature    favorinc    Tel- 
Hum  are:  J.  Wilson,  Lande  of  the  Bible  Vieited  and  De- 


8SS 


^perolani 
Ital  Punishment 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


401 


9(rihed,  ii.  13»-149,  London.  1847:  A.  E.  Wilson  and  W. 
Warren,  Recovery  of  Jenualem,  pp.  375-387,  ib.  1871: 
W.  M.  ThomBon,  Land  and  the  Book,  3  toU.,  New  York, 
1880.  i.  352-366  of  London  ed..  1873;  V.  Qu^rin,  Do- 
ecriviwn  .  ,  .  de  la  PaUetine,  part  3.  OaliUe,  i.  227-228, 
Paris,  1880;  F.  Buhl,  Geogravhie  dm  alien  Pal&eUna,  pp. 
224-225,  Freiburg,  1896.  Favoring  Khan  Minyeh  are: 
A.  P.  Stanley,  Sinai  and  PaleeHne,  London,  1866;  E. 
Robinson,  Biblical  Reeeanhee,  Boston,  1868;  T.  Keim, 
Jesus  of  Naeara,  2  vols.,  London,  1870;  C.  R.  Conder, 
Tent  Work  in  PaleeHne,  ib.  1880;  A.  Henderson,  Palee- 
fiiM,  Edinburgh,  1885;  G.  A.  Smith,  Hiatarical  Geography 
of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  456-457.  London,  1807;  DB,  i.  850- 
351;  EB,  i.  006-608. 
CAPEROLAin,     e(l-p«"r5-l(l'nt.    See     Francib, 

Saint,  of  Abbibi,  and  thk  Franciscan  Ordkr, 

IIL,i7. 
CAPEROLO,  c(l-p6'W^l6,  PIBTRO.    See  Francis, 

Saint,  of  Assisi,  and  the  Franciscan  Order. 
CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS.    See  Africa,  III. 

CAPERS,  ELLISON:  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop 
of  South  Carolina;  b.  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct. 
14, 1837;  d.  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  Apr.  22, 1008.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  South  Carolina  Military 
Academy  1857,  was  assistant  professor  there 
185^-60.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Qvil  War  he  en- 
tered the  Confederate  Army,  in  which  he  attained 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  From  the  close  of  the 
war  until  1868  he  was  secretary  of  the  South  Caro- 
lina Legislatiu^,  but  in  the  mean  time  studied  the- 
ology, and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1867. 
He  was  then  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Greenville, 
S.  C,  1867-87,  except  for  a  year  (1875-76)  as  rector 
of  St.  Paul's,  Selma,  Ala.,  and  of  Trinity,  Columbia, 
S.  C,  1887-93.  In  1886  he  had  been  tendered  and 
had  declined  the  bishopric  of  Easton,  but  in  1893 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  South  Carolina. 
Bibuoorapht:  W.  S.  Peiry,    The  Epiecopate  in  America, 

p.  365.  New  York,  1806. 

CAPHTORy  caf'tor:  A  locality  provisionally 
identified  with  Crete,  though  the  question  can  not 
be  regarded  as  settled.  According  to  Amos  ix.  7 
it  was  the  original  home  of  the  Philistines;  Jer. 
xlvii.  4  (Masoretic  text)  makes  of  it  an  island  or 
coast-land;  Deut.  ii.  23  and  Gen.  x.  14  use  the 
term  "  Caphtorim  "  of  the  inhabitants.  The  early 
tradition  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  Septua- 
gint,  Vulgate,  Peshito,  and  Targums  uae  "  Cappa- 
docia"  and  '' Cappadocians  "  in  Amos  ix.  7  and 
Deut.  ii.  23;  this  was  based,  however,  on  a  misun- 
derstanding. Attempts  to  find  the  meaning  have 
been  made  by  investigating  the  word  *'  Cherethites  " 
(I  Sam.  XXX.  14-16;  Zeph.  ii.  5;  Eaek.  xxv.  16), 
used  of  a  people  in  the  Philistine  region  and  of  Phi- 
listine stock.  The  transliterations  of  the  Hebrew 
in  the  Septuagint  show  that  the  latter  did  not  un- 
derstand the  meaning.  In  the  prophetical  books  the 
form  KrUes  is  used  by  the  Septuagint,  implying  im- 
migration from  Crete;  but  how  far  this  rested  upon 
data  known  to  the  interpreters  is  indeterminable. 

On  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  time  of  Thothmes 
III.  appears  mention  of  a  land  the  name  of  which 
takes  a  form  corresponding  to  "  Caphtor  "  minus  the 
final  consonant  (Kefti).  Ebers  explained  this  by 
*'  Phenidans,"  only  to  have  the  explanation  shown 
untenable  by  W.  Max  Mailer.  Accordmg  to  G. 
Stemdorff,  the  Egyptian  word  connotes  "  islands  of 
the  £gean  ";  and  the  same  authority  notes  among 


the  representations  of  tribute  to  Thothmes  III 
from  the  Kefti  vessels  of  the  Myoensan  type  of  aba® 
145Q-1250  B.C.  The  Kefti  must  have  been  within 
the  sphere  of  influence  of  Myoeiuean  culture.  Bst 
MQller  connects  them  with  Cilicia.  Evans  in  b 
investigations  in  Crete  has  discovered  numenrj! 
evidences  of  the  existence  there  of  Mycenseai 
eidture,  thus  bringing  Crete  within  the  sphere  d 
influence  of  that  civilisation.  Alongside  of  than 
are  articles  of  Egsrptian  workmanship,  shoving 
exchange  of  commodities  between  Egypt  ani 
Crete.  Steindorff  puts  the  two  facts  together,  ana 
equates  Crete  and  the  Egyptian  Kefti.  But  ttu- 
may  prove  superfluous  provided  success  is  attained 
in  geographically  defining  the  word  kptar  rececthr 
found  at  Ombos,  a  word  which  closely  oorrespo&ii 
with  the  Hebrew  Caphtor.  The  eqiiation  Kefti  - 
kptar  is  not  fully  proved.  (H.  Guthe.) 

Bxbuoobapbt:  W.  M.  MOller,  Aeien  und  Eur^pa,  pp.  S3? 
■qq.,  I^eipne,  1803;  idem,  in  MittheihisHfen  dm-  voHe- 
aeiatiechen  Geeeliechaft,  i.  1  aqq.,  1000  (plaoes  Caphtor  cs 
ih*  Ljtaan,  or  Carian  coast);  G.  Ebera,  Aegypien  umd  & 
BlUher  Moeie,  p.  130,  Leipac,  1868;  G.  A.  Smith,  fltf- 
iorical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  p.  171,  London.  1607; 
DB,  i.  351-352;  EB,  i.  008-700;  JE,  uL  563-654. 

CAPISTRANO,  GIOVAKin  DI:  Franciscan;  b.  at 
Capistrano  (22  m.  s.e.  of  Aquila),  in  the  Abruzzi. 
1386;  d.  at  Illok  (Ujlak,  26  m.  w.  of  Peterwaidem:. 
Slavonia,  Oct.  23,  1456.  He  first  studied  juris- 
prudence, but  joined  the  Franciscans  in  1416  and  h 
the  school  of  Bemardin  of  Sienna  became  a  theob- 
gian  and  preacher.  After  1426  he  acted  as  inquisi- 
tor against  the  Fratricelli  and  Jews,  and  by  cruel 
measures  attained  a  moderate  success.  His  main 
achievement  was  the  defense  and  extension  of  tbe 
order  of  the  Observantines,  of  whom  he  was  made 
vicar-general  in  Italy  in  1446.  In  1451  he  was  sent 
to  Gennany  against  the  Hussites.  Followed  by 
large  crowds,  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  is  reported  to 
have  performed  320  miracles  on  the  way,  while  th? 
number  of  his  hearers  is  said  to  have  increased  from 
150  to  300,000.  He  intended  now  to  go  to  BohemU 
to  destroy  the  heresy  there;  a  disputation  to  which 
he  was  invited  by  the  Utraquist  bishop  Rokycxana 
he  managed  to  avoid,  and  finally  he  did  venture  to 
enter  the  country.  .£neas  Silvius  states  that  he 
did,  indeed, converts  few  Hussites,  but,considenii| 
the  multitude  of  the  heretics,  they  are  hardly  worth 
mentioning.  At  any  rate  Bohemia,  in  spite  of  hi$ 
sermons,  remained  as  it  was  before.  By  way  d 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Lusatia,  he  went  to  Si)^& 
and  Poland,  and  on  account  of  his  sermons  and 
miracles  was  everywhere  revered  like  a  saint. 
After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  he  tried  to 
induce  the  princes  of  Germany  at  the  Diets  d 
Frankfort  and  Wiener-Neustadt  to  make  war 
against  the  Turks,  but  failed,  and  was  very  little 
successful  generally  in  preaching  the  cross.  He 
went  to  Hungary  in  1455  and  when  Mohammed  II. 
advanced  against  Belgrade  (1456)  Capistrano,  the 
papal  legate  Carjaval,  and  John  Hunyadi  were 
almost  the  only  men  who  bestirred  themselves  to 
repel  the  foe.  In  spite  of  his  age,  (Capistrano  with 
a  number  of  crusaders  went  to  Belgrade  and  by  a 
daring  sally  gave  Hunyadi  opportunity  to  best  the 
Turks.    For  this  the  friends  of  his  order  have  cek- 


406 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OAperolaxil 
Oapltal  Punlshmant 


brated  him  as  savior  of  Europe.  He  died  soon  after, 
exliauBted  by  hardships.  Although  revered  in  his 
lifetime  as  a  saint,  he  was  not  canonized  until 
1690.  Prominent  contemporaries,  among  them  the 
subsequent  pope  Pius  II.,  expressed  some  doubts 
as  to  his  miracles  and  had  no  favorable  opinion  of 
him  because  of  his  bragging  self-glorification  ond 
choleric  irritability.  E.  Lempp. 

Bibuookapht:  Tba  early  VUtB  and  some  of  John's  letters 
are  in  ASB,  Oct.,  x.  260-^662,  with  which  cf.'  L.  Wadding, 
AnnaU9  Minorwn,  vols.  iv.-Ti..  Leyden,  1648,  orix.-xiii., 
Rome,  1734  (an  excellent  source).  The  most  comprehen- 
sive biosraphy  is  by  A.  Hermann,  CapUtranuM  triumphan*, 
Cologne,  1700;  the  first  scientific  life  is  by  G.  Voigt,  in 
SybelB  HiUarxBchs  Zeitaehnft,  X.  (1863)  10-06;  cf.  idem. 
Enea  Silvio  di*  Fieeolomini,  vol.  ii..  Berlin,  1860;  the  latest 
life  is  by  E.  Jacob,  Johannet  von  Capiabxmo,  Breshiu,  1003. 
A  oonaiderable  list  of  literature  is  given  in  Potthast,  Wbq- 
iMiser,  pp.  1306-07. 

CAPITAL  PUmSHMENT. 

I.  The  Historical  Derelopment  of  Capital  Punishment. 
In  Primitive  Society  (f  1). 
In  Roman  Law  (f  2). 
Attitude  of  the  Church  (f  3). 
II.  Place  of  Religious  Ideas  in  the  Question. 
III.  Capital  Punishment  in  Modem  Times. 

L  The  Historical  Development  of  Capital  Pun- 
ishment: It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
killing  of  a  person  guilty  of  grievous  crime  does  not, 
in  primitive  society,  belong  to  the  class  of  deliberate 

ordinances  enacted   by  the  commu- 

X.  In      nity.     It  is  rather  a  form  of  the  im- 

Primitive  pulse  of  revenge,  which  the  primitive 

Society,    institutions  of  all  the  older  civilised 

nations  first  tolerate,  and  then  regu- 
Ate  and  uphold  or  limit  (see  Blood-Revenge).  In 
3rimitive  conditions  revenge  has  a  twofold  opera- 
Jon.  It  m  directed  in  some  cases  against  offenses 
vhich  affect  the  individual  or  tl^  family  (such  as 
heft,  adultery,  and  the  murder  of  a  freeman);  in 
hese  cases  the  injured  family  proceeds  against  the 
>frender  or  his  family,  and  the  community  takes 
>art  only  in  the  interests  of  public  peace,  by  estab- 
ishing  a  penalty  on  payment  of  which  the  offender 
9  to  be  safe  from  revenge.  Quite  a  different  form 
>f  procedure  is  that  against  crimes  which  offend 
he  consciousness  of  the  whole  community  (sacri- 
?ge,  unnatural  vices,  treason  in  war,  etc.).  Here 
he  vengeance  of  the  community  is  provoked,  and  it 
cts  first  by  formal  delivery  of  the  offender  to  the 
k'ill  of  the  members  or  outlawry,  then  later  by  ac- 
ual  execution,  in  connection  with  which  sacred 
eremonies  analogous  to  those  of  sacrifice  are  often 
3und.  As  organized  government  grows  stronger, 
;  takes  an  official  interest  in  crimes  which  were 
riginally  in  the  private  sphere,  withdraws  them 
-om  individual  vengeance,  and  subjects  them  to 
apital  punishment.  Religion  has  its  influence 
ere;  the  interference  of  government  in  such  cases 
I  usually  brought  about  by  the  conception  that  the 
rime,  apart  from  the  injury  to  the  inmiediate  vic- 
ms,  defiles  the  community  and  must  be  punished 
I  order  to  retain  peace  with  the  deity.  This  can 
e  clearly  shown  in  the  Greek  law  of  the  post- 
[omeric  age,  less  clearly  but  still  probably  in  an- 
ent  Roman  law;  and  the  same  course  was  followed 
I  Hebrew  history.  In  the  primitive  law  (cf.  Ex. 
Ki.  12  sqq.)  the  murderer  is  exposed  to  the  pursuit 
:  the  avenger  of  blood,  and  the  elders  of  the  com- 


munity cooperate  only  to  the  extent  of  driving  the 
fugitive  from  an  asylum  and  delivering  him  to  the 
avenger.  In  the  case  of  the  other  crimes  men- 
tioned in  Ex.  xxi.  the  punishment  of  death  is  either 
private  vengeance,  or  at  most  a  sort  of  tribal 
vengeance  or  lynch  law.  As  late  as  the  period  of 
Deut.  xix.  the  blood-vengeance  is  mentioned;  but 
by  the  side  of  it  appears  the  idea  that  the  whole  com- 
munity is  affected  with  blood-guiltiness  by  a  de- 
liberate murder,  and  must  be  purified  by  the  death 
of  the  offender.  The  same  law  began,  when  priestly 
influence  increasingly  dominated  all  departments  of 
life,  to  be  applied  to  other  offenders  (blasphemers, 
traitors,  adulterers,  etc.).  The  formal  abandon- 
ment to  the  avenger  was  replaced  by  stoning,  in 
which  all  the  men  of  the  community  took  part. 

In  so  far  as  the  religious  influence  remained  a 
permanent  factor  in  the  penal  code,  the  Jewish 
State  stands  alone  among  the  Mediterranean  com- 
munities. In  the  others,  especially 
3.  In  the  Greek  and  Roman,  punishment 
Roman  became  exclusively  a  matter  of  secu- 
Law.  lar  enactment.  Li  the  Roman  the 
principle  is  continuously  applied  from 
the  fifth  century  that  the  death  penalty  (whether 
by  decapitation,  burning,  or  throwing  down  a 
precipice)  is  due  to  all  grave  crimes  (including 
murder,  arson,  perjuiy,  treason,  etc.);  but  in  prac- 
tise this  was  mitigated  by  the  frequent  substitution 
of  the  **  interdiction  of  fire  and  water,"  i.e.,  banish- 
ment from  the  community,  especially  after  the 
introduction  of  the  provocatioad  papulvm,  an  appeal 
to  the  whole  body  of  the  people  against  the  decision 
of  consuls  and  other  magistrates  empowered  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  outlawry.  In  the  last  two 
centuries  of  the  republic  capital  punishment  was 
seldom  applied,  to  members  of  the  upper  classes  at 
least.  But  it  was  never  abolished,  and  when  the 
reorganization  of  the  Roman  system  took  place 
under  imperial  legislation  it  was  again  more  fre- 
quently employed,  even  against  Roman  citizens. 
Thus  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  it  was  an 
accepted  institution  throughout  the  Roman  Empire, 
though  with  variations  in  usage  due  to  local  law. 

The  teaching  of  Christ  made  no  substantial  alter- 
ation in  these  conditions.  Of  his  own  recorded 
sayings,  the  only  one  directly  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject is  Matt.  xxvi.  52,  which  (like  Gen.  ix.  5)  refers 
rather  to  the  eternal  working  out  of  the  divine 
justice  in  the  abstract.  But  Paul  speaks  expressly 
in  Rom.  xiii.  1  sqq.  of  the  legal  death-pexialty — 
although  here  it  is  merely  designated  as  reconci- 
lable with  the  divine  law,  not  required  or  imposed 
as  a  duty  upon  the  State.  Accordingly  Christian 
teaching  made  no  change  in  the  Roman  law,  and, 
when  the  Christians  became  dominant,  after  having 
been  for  two  centuries  frequent  victims  to  its  pro- 
visions, they  still  allowed  it  to  take  free  coiubc. 
In  fact,  it  was  applied  with  increasing  frequency 
even  to  Roman  citizens  of  the  higher  classes,  and 
from  the  time  of  Constantine  to  a  large  number 
of  minor  offenses. 

Although  the  Church  was  more  firmly  and  fully 
organized  when  it  came  into  contact  with  the  insti- 
tutions of  the  new  Germanic  kingdoms,  and  assumed 
the  right  of  extensive  interference  with  their  penal 


gapital  PunUhment 
aplto 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


406 


legislation  on  principles  resembling  those  of  the 
Jewish    theocracy,  its  influence   in  the   question 

of  capital  punishment  was  not  deci- 

3.  Attitude  sive.     Gennanic    law    at    first,    like 

of  the      all  primitive  systems,  made   private 

Church,     vengeance  and  the  mitigation  of  it  by 

surrender  of  property  on  the  part  of 
the  offender  the  principal  factor  in  the  punishment 
of  crime.  The  Church  undertook  to  regulate  this 
to  the  extent  of  minimizing  private  vendettas, 
both  by  providing  and  supporting  means  of  recon- 
ciliation between  the  contending  parties  and  by 
strengthening  orderly  official  justice.  But  in  spite 
of  the  "horror  of  bloodshed"  consistently  em- 
phasized by  the  Church,  which  from  the  tenth 
century  on  created  an  impressive  mechanism 
against  private  vendettas  in  the  Truce  of  God  (q.v.)i 
it  was  obliged  to  give  a  general  support  to  the 
gradual  upbuilding  of  the  secular  system  of  corporal, 
including  capital,  punishment  in  the  kingdoms  of 
western  Europe.  When  the  death-penalty  had 
been  finally  established  as  a  regular  part  of  settled 
secular  law,  the  Church  in  theory  took  the  position 
of  a  simple  spectator  of  its  exercise.  It  forbade 
the  clergy  to  take  any  part  in  its  administration, 
laid  down  the  principle  Eccleaia  rum  aUU  sanguinem 
("  The  Church  does  not  thirst  for  blood  "),  and 
admonished  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  provide 
asylums  and  in  other  ways  to  work  for  mercy  to  the 
offender  in  the  hope  of  his  improvement.  This 
position  was  somewhat  modified  when  the  war 
against  heresy  began.  Even  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  State  threatened  heretics  with  death  in 
isolated  cases  in  France  and  Germany;  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  growth  of  heresy 
led  to  a  formal  alliance  between  Church  and  State, 
by  which  Frederick  Barbarossa  in  1184,  and  then 
other  sovereigns  of  southern  Europe,  pledged  the 
pope  the  support  of  the  secular  arm  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  heresy.  The  penalties  were  at  first  outlawry, 
infamy,  and  confiscation  of  goods;  but  in  1224 
Frederick  II.  approved  of  death  by  fire  as  the  pen- 
alty in  Lombardy;  and  this  penalty,  soon  applied 
throughout  Italy,  was  not  only  sanctioned  but 
directly  called  for  by  Gregory  IX.  It  was  not  long 
before  the  new  principle  was  extended  to  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  Spain,  and  the  death-penalty, 
while  theoretically  administered  by  secular  officials, 
was  actually  the  consequence  of  an  eodesiaBtical 
condemnation. 

The  teaching  of  the  Reformers  brought  about 
no  essential  alteration  in  the  general  attitude  to- 
ward capital  punishment;  it  might  seem  that  the 
Reformation  strengthened  the  institution,  but 
really  this  attitude  is  rather  the  result  of  contem- 
porary conditions.  The  death-penalty  had  been 
more  frequently  employed  in  all  European  states 
since  the  fifteenth  century  as  a  result  of  violent 
proletarian  risings  and  the  increase  of  the  dangerous 
unemployed  and  vagabond  population,  and  the 
period  from  1530  to  1630  is  that  in  which  the  num- 
ber of  executions  reached  its  high-water  mark. 
When  a  reaction  came  about,  it  was  directed  pri- 
marily against  an  excessive  use  of  this  penalty, 
and  then  toward  the  establishment  of  penitentia- 
ries   (London  1580,    Amsterdam    1506,  Hamburg 


1622,  etc.),  which  brou^t  about  a  decrease  in  tir 
number  of  executions.  The  movement  for  the  abo- 
lition of  capital  punishment  did  not  proceed  fit- 
a  religious  source.  While  Locke,  Voltaire,  Monte^ 
quieu,  and  Thomasius  had  aU  recognized  it  as  ^ 
necessary  part  of  the  social  system,  and  Roisse^ 
in  the  Cantrat  social  had  left  it  theoretically  fr^ 
play,  it  was  Cesare  Beccaria  in  1764  who,  as  a  deduc- 
tion from  Rousseau's  general  ideas,  proclaimed  he 
irreconcilability  with  abstract  justice.  In  modmi 
times  no  agreement  has  been  reached  on  the  ha^ 
of  religious  convictions. 

n.  Place  of  Religious  Ideas  in  the  Question: 
The  historical  outli^  given  above  shows  dea^ 
that  the  sanction  and  province  of  capital  punish- 
ment in  secular  law  can  not  be  brought  directlr 
under  religious  control.  The  old  philosophical  doc- 
trine of  the  "  Christian  State  "  is  now  no  loopr 
recognized.  On  modem  principles^  the  State's 
justification  for  existence  lies  in  its  necessity  to  the 
unhampered  development  of  human  activity;  and 
on  this  rests  its  power  of  punishing,  and  in  partlco- 
lar  its  right  to  apply  the  deatb-p^ialty.  The  ed- 
sential  characteristics  of  a  just  and  proper  pun- 
ishment will  thus  have  to  be  determined  by  a  comse 
of  empirical  historical  research 

In  the  older  development  of  the  penal  code  ci  aD 
nations,  corporal  punishment  is  found  concuneotir 
with  penalties  affecting  the  property  of  the  offender; 
but  the  corporal  is  finally  preferred  because  it  l> 
capable  of  application  alike  to  all,  while  mooer 
fines  have  a  varying  effect  according  to  the  wealth 
of  the  offender.     By  degrees  the  permission  of  com- 
pounding for  corporal  penalties  is  abolished,  with 
the  gradual  building  up  from  the  twelfth  century 
of  modem  principles  of  government.     The  death- 
penalty  is  increasingly  preferred  as  emphasizicg 
the  thought  of  the  equality  of  all  men  before  the 
law.     It  is  misused  for  a  time  as  the  easiest  way  d 
ridding  society  of  dangerous  persons,  and  then,  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the  que^ 
tion  is  widely  discussed  how  far  it  ought  propeiiy 
to  be  applied,  and  the  principle  of  justice  is  urged 
in  favor  of  its  restriction  to  very  grave  crimes. 
These  arguments,  however,  produced  no  great  effect 
until  the  reaction  from  the  excessive  use  of  it  led  to 
the  creation  of  a  third  form  of  penalty  in  a  regular 
system  of  imprisonment,   thoroughly  established 
about    1700.    The    considerations    which    moved 
John  Howard  and  others  in  the  eighteenth  century 
to  agitate  for  prison  reform  on  the  ground  of  htunso- 
ity  led  also  to  the  more  frequent  discussion  of  the 
desirability  of  abolishing  capital  punishment,  and 
finally  to  an  almost  universal  recognition  of  the 
sole  ground  on  which  its  maintenance  can  be  de- 
fended.    It  is  now  admitted  that  on  grounds  of  hu- 
manity the  State  has  no  right  to  annihilate  the 
individual  existence,  and  that  so  far  as  these  grounds 
go,  the  heaviest  penalty  that  may  be  inflicted  is  that 
of  penal  servitude  for  life.     From  the  standpoint, 
however,  of  abstract  justice,  it  is  still  possible  to 
defend  the  death-penalty,  not  in  the   interest  of 
terrifying  offenders,  nor  yet  on  the  basis  of  a  ki 
talioniSj  but  on  that  of  a  proportion  between  crime 
and  penalty,  which  may  fairiy  demand  that  the 
severity  of  the  punishment  shall   correspond  in 


407 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Capital  Punialmieiit 
Oaplto 


some  measure  to  the  importance  of  the  social  func- 
tion injured  by  the  crime.  With  this  is  connected 
the  requirement  that  the  penalty  shall  be  impres- 
sive— as  much  so  as  the  crime — in  order  that  the 
authority  of  the  law  shall  be  upheld,  and  equal, 
falling  with  the  same  severity  on  all  classes  of  the 
community.  The  validity  of  this  argument  will 
be  denied  by  those  who  reject  the  principle  of  equiv- 
eJent  compensation  and,  taking  their  stand  ex- 
clusively on  the  principle  of  humanity,  seek  as  the 
result  of  punishment  the  amelioration  of  the  offender 
uid  the  deterrence  of  him  from  any  further  crimes. 
But  the  fact  that  many  of  those  who  take  this 
theoretical  view  acquiesce  in  the  retention  of  capi- 
tal punishment  in  practise  shows  that  the  tradi- 
tional verdict  of  many  centuries  as  to  the  relation 
3f  crime  and  punislunent  is  still  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  any  discussion  of  this  question. 

(Richard  Schmidt.) 

m.  Capital  Punishment  in  Modem  Times:  In 
nodem  times  the  maintenance  or  abolition  of  the 
ieath-penalty  has  been  considered  mainly  from  the 
standpoint  of  social  utility  and  social  justice.  In 
:,he  history  of  penology  the  influence  of  Christian 
md  humane  sentiments  has  been  distinctly  felt; 
3ut  many  drastic  punishments  have  been  laid 
iside,  not  because  they  were  cruel  and  severe,  but 
because  they  were  indffective.  As  mutilation  has 
deen  practically  abandoned  in  civilized  countries, 
K>  reliance  upon  capital  punishment  as  a  means  of 
repressing  crime  has  beien  greatly  weakened.  A 
conclusive  proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  restriction  of 
the  number  of  offenses  to  which  it  is  applied. 
Scarcely  more  than  a  century  ago  200  offenses 
nrere  included  in  the  list  of  capital  crime  in 
England.  Until  1894  twenty-five  offenses  were 
nade  capital  under  the  military  code  of  the  United 
States,  twenty-two  imder  the  naval  code,  and 
leventeen  under  the  penal  code.  Under  Federal 
aws  the  number  of  capital  offenses  has  now  been 
-educed  to  three.  Many  advocates  of  capital  pun- 
shment  to-day  are  willing  to  limit  its  application 
vhoUy  to  cases  of  murder. 

Publicity  was  formerly  regarded  as  absolutely 
lecessary  for  the  deterrent  effect  of  executions. 
Sven  after  death  the  body  of  the  criminal  was  ex- 
x)6ed  for  weeks  on  the  gibbet  as  a  warning  to  male- 
actors.  The  practise  of  gibbeting  has  now  been 
ibandoned,  and  the  practise  of  public  execution 
s  gradually  following  it.  Within  recent  years 
;even  or  eight  States  of  the  Union,  including  New 
^ork,  Massachusetts,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota, 
lave  decided  that  attendance  on  executions  should 
x;  limited  to  a  nmnber  of  legal  or  specified  witnesses. 
The  governors  of  Georgia  and  Kentucky  have  rec- 
>mmended  similar  legislation.  In  several  States 
;he  electric  chair  has  been  substituted  for  the  gal- 
ows  with  a  view  of  mercifully  rendering  death  in- 
(tantaneous.  Other  States  of  the  Union  have 
ibolished  the  death-penalty  altogether.  Michigan 
ibolished  it  in  1847,  Rhode  Island  in  1852,  Wiscon- 
sin in  1 853.  Maine  abolished  it  in  1 876,  restored  it  in 
L883,  and  again  abolished  it  in  1887.  In  1903  New 
Hampshire  abolished  the  death-penalty  for  murder 
in  the  first  degree  unless  the  jury  should  have  fixed 
the  same  to  the  verdict;  otherwise  the  sentence  is  for 


life  imprisonment.  In  Kansas  there  have  been  no 
official  executions  since  1872,  as  no  governor  has 
exercised  his  power  to  order  the  execution  of  a 
prisoner.  In  1907  the  legislature  amended  the  law 
by  substituting  life  imprisonment  for  the  death- 
penalty.  The  governor  of  Nebraska  in  1903  urged 
the  legislature  to  abolish  capital  pimishment.  Col- 
orado abolished  the  death-penalty  in  1897,  but 
restored  it  1901,  as  a  result  of  a  lynching  outbreak 
ml900. 

In  its  session  190&-07  the  subject  of  the  abolition 
of  capital  punishment  occupied  a  prominent  place 
in  the  discussions  of  the  French  parliament  without 
final  result.  Russia,  one  of  the  first  countries  to 
respond  to  the  appeal  of  Beccaria,  abolished  it  in 
1753,  except  for  political  offenses.  It  was  abol- 
ished in  Portugal  in  1867,  in  Holland  in  1870,  in 
Italy  in  1890;  and  it  has  been  abolished  in  the 
majority  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  in  Costa  Rica,  Brazil, 
Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Venesuela,  and  three  states  of 
Mexico.  Some  coimtries  which  have  not  formally 
abolished  it  by  legislative  act  have  suppressed  it  in 
practise.  This  is  true  of  Belgium,  and  of  some 
states  of  Mexico.  It  remains  yet  to  be  proven  that 
an  increase  in  capital  crimes  has  foUowed  the  abo- 
lition of  the  death-penalty  in  any  country.  On  the 
contrary,  the  higher  development  of  civilisation  in 
these  countries,  the  growth  of  the  humane  senti- 
ment, and  increased  reliance  upon  educational  and 
preventive  measures,  instead  of  upon  drastic  de- 
terrent laws,  have  led  to  a  gradual  reduction  of 
crimes  of  violence.  Samuel  J.  Barrows. 

Bxblxoorapht:  O.  B.Cheever,  FunUhmerU  5v  Death:  Ut  Au^ 
iKoriiy  and  Expediency,  New  York,  1840  (one  of  the  most 
vigorous  defeofles  of  the  prftctiae);  H.  Seeger,  Abhandlun^ 
Oen  aue  dem  Strafrechte,  TQbingen,  IS6S;  C.  J.  Mittei^ 
maier,  Die  Todeeetrafe  naeh  den  Broebnieeen  der  wieeen- 
mAafUidten  Foreehungen,  Heidelbei«,  1862  (the  standard 
wwk  against  capital  punishment,  Eng.  oondensation  by 
J.  M.  Moir,  CapUal  PuniekmmU,  London,  1865);  R.  E. 
John.  Ueber  die  Todeeetrafe,  Berlin,  1867;  H.  Hetsel, 
Todeeetrafe  in  ihrer  kuUurgeeehidUlidien  EntwicMung,  ib. 
1870;  F.  von  Holtsendorff,  D<u  Verhreehen  dee  Mordee 
und  die  Todeeetrafe,  ib.  1876;  L.  ron  Bar,  Handbuth  dee 
deutedten  Strafreehte,  vol.  i.,  ib.  1882;  H.  Romilly,  The 
Puniehment  of  Death,  London,  1886;  A.  J.  Palm,  The 
Death  Penalty,  New  York.  1801;  J.  MacMaster.  The  Divine 
Purpoee  of  Capital  Puniehment,  London.  1802;  8.  R.  D. 
K.  Olivecroner,  De  la  peine  de  la  mort,  Paris,  1803;  R. 
Schmidt,  Auftfoben  der  Strafreehtepfiege,  pp.  178  sqq..  224 
sqq.,  Leipdo,  1806;  R.  Katsenstein,  Todeutrafe  in  einem 
neuen  Reidieetrafoeeettbueh,  Berlin,  1002;  D.  P.  D.  Fabius. 
De  doodetraf,  Amsterdam,  1006.  For  the  ancient  enact- 
ments conralt  JwieprudenUa  anteiuBUniana,  ed.  E. 
Buschke,  6th  ed.,  Leipao,  1886  (cf.  Index  under  "Capite 
puniuntur")«  And  "The  Institutes  of  Justinian,"  Book 
IV.,  title  xvui..  in  Moyle's  transl..  4th  ed..  pp.  206-2(^7. 
Oxford.  1006;  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Infamia;  Ue  Place  in 
Roman  PvbHc  and  Private  Law,  1804. 

CAPITO,  ca-pt'to,  WOLFGAlfG:  Reformer  at 
Strasburg;  b.  at  Hagenau  (16  m.  n.  of  Straaburg) 
1478;  d.  at  Strasburg  Nov.,  1541.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  blacksmith  named  Koepfel,  whence  the 
Latin  name  CapUo,  Having  passed  the  schools  at 
Pforzheim  and  Ingolstadt,  he  studied  at  Freiburg 
first  medicine,  then  law,  and  finally  theology.  In 
1512  he  became  parish  priest  at  Bruchsal  and  there 
made  the  acquaintance  of  (Ecolampadius  and 
Pellican.  Called  to  Basel  in  1515  as  preacher  and 
professor,  he  became  intimate  with  the  humanists, 
including  Erasmus,  and,  abandoning  scholasticism. 


Oapito 
Oapp«l 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4<% 


betook  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible.  He 
published  the  Psalter  in  the  original  (1516),  be- 
came personally  acquainted  with  Zwingli  and  from 
1518  corresponded  with  Luther.  Q>ntrary  to 
all  expectation,  he  was  appointed  in  1519  chaplain 
to  Albert,  elector  and  archbishop  of  Mains.  For 
a  time  he  tried  to  mediate  with  humanistic  liber- 
ality between  the  elector  and  Luther,  but  in  1522 
he  was  brought  over  completely  to  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation,  and  resigned  his  position  at  Mains. 
In  May,  1523,  he  went  to  Strasburg  and  as  provost 
of  St.  Thomas  (a  position  obtained  by  the  favor  of 
Leo  X.)  preached  in  accordance  with  his  conviction. 
In  1524  he  married  and  became  pastor  of  the  Jimg- 
St.  Petergemeinde;  From  this  time  on,  he  belonged, 
with  Butzer  and  the  burgomaster  Jacob  Sturm, 
to  the  leaders  of  the  Strasburg  Reformation.  In 
his  Kinderbericht  (1527  and  1529)  he  prepared  a 
catechism,  which,  by  its  peculiar  arrangement  and 
characteristic  treatment  of  the  matter,  forms  a 
noteworthy  pendant  to  Luther's  contemporaneous 
smaller  catechism.  With  Butzer,  Capito  prepared 
the  C<mfe88to  TetrapolUana  (1530).  His  most  im- 
portant reformatory  work  is  the  Bemer  Synodus, 
the  result  of  the  synod  held  at  Bern  in  1532,  a  kind 
of  church-discipline  and  pastoral  instruction,  dis- 
tinguished by  apostolic  power  and  unction,  great 
simplicity,  and  practical  wisdom.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  Butzer's  efforts  to  bring  together  the 
Evangelicals  of  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland. 
He  also  had  part  in  bringing  about  the  Wittenberg 
Concordia  of  1536.  Toward  the  Anabaptists  and 
other  sectaries  who  disturbed  the  church  at  Stras- 
burg he  was  more  friendly  and  confiding  than  Butzer, 
and  for  a  time  sided  with  them,  thus  destroying  the 
good  understanding  between  himself  and  Butzer. 
But  in  1534  he  became  convinced  of  the  necessity 
of  stricter  measures  against  the  Anabaptists.  Char- 
acteristic of  Capito  were  not  only  his  mildness  and 
large-heartedness,  but  also  a  certain  timidity  and 
uncertainty  in  his  theological  and  ecclesiastical 
position.  However,  this  was  not  due  to  diplomatic 
opportunism,  but  to  a  sincere  repugnance  to  un- 
fruitful theological  controversy  and  a  religious 
individuality  which  had  more  regard  to  the  inner 
possession  of  the  fruits  of  salvation  than  to  a 
dogmatic  definition  of  the  doctrine  of  salvation. 

He  died  of  the  plague  after  having  attended  the 
Diet  at  Regensburg.  Paul  GRtlNBERo. 

Biblioorapht:  J.  W.  Baum,  Capito  und  Butxer,  Elberfeld, 
1860;  ADB,  iu.  772-776;  A.  Baum.  Magi^trai  und  Refor- 
mation in  StroMbuTQ  bie  1629,  Strasburg,  1887;  C.  Ger- 
bert,  GeBchidUs  d«r  StraaAurger  Sekienbetoeffung  .  .  . 
ISt^lBSA,  ib.  188Q;  A.  Ernst  and  J.  Adam.  KaUcheti»ch§ 
Oeachichte  det  EIsosmb,  pp.  22-36,  ib.  1897;  S.  M.  Jack- 
son. Huidreich  Zwinifli,  passim.  New  York.  1903;  J.  Ficker. 
Theaaurua  Baumkmua,  pp.  52-67.  Strasburg,  1905;  A. 
Hulshof.  Oeachiedenia  tun  de  Doopageginden  te  Straataburg 
van  16M6  M  1567,  Amsterdam.  1905. 

CAPirULARIES:  A  term  which  designates  a 
certain  class  of  royal  edicts  in  the  Carolingian 
period,  and  which  is  frequently  employed  not  only 
for  the  Carolingian  capUtUaria  but  also  for  the 
edidaj  propceptioneSf  decreta,  or  decretiones  of  the 
Merovingian  kings  and  the  mayors  of  the  palace 
under  Amulf.  They  are  distinguished  from  the 
other  class  of  diplamata  or  mandata,  not  so  much 
by  the  division  into  chapters,  from  which  they  get 


their  name,  or  by  the  general  nature  of  their  pro- 
visions as  by  their  form  and  by  the  abaence  of  iij 
attestation  in  the  way  of  signatures  or  seal.  Tn' 
absence  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  they  iren 
either  put  into  execution  by  the  kings  in  persoi 
or  had  to  pass  through  the  hands  of  officials.  11^ 
attained  their  highest  importance  uoder  Cfa^- 
magne,  and  were  scarcely  less  used  tinder  Locds 
the  Pious;  after  his  death  they  ceased  in  the  Ear. 
Franldsh  kingdom,  to  be  kept  up  for  a  while  in  tk 
West  Franldsh  and  in  Italy  by  his  sons  and  grani- 
sons,  disappearing  here  also  toward  the  end  of  tic 
ninth  century.  They  contain  partly  instnictic^ 
for  officials,  especially  the  missi  dtnninici,  arr: 
partly  supplements  or  modifications  of  the  ok 
tribal  law;  but  to  a  still  greater  extoit  they  an 
substantive  regulations  for  all  departments  of  both 
secular  and  ecclesiastical  life.  The  former  indaie 
the  most  diverse  matters,  of  administration,  ooid- 
meroe,  the  army,  markets,  coinage,  toUs,  protectkiD 
against  robbers,  etc.  These  substantive  legulatioci 
go  deeply  into  not  merely  the  external  organizauoD 
of  the  Church  and  its  relation  to  the  temponl 
power,  but  also  the  monastic  system,  educatioo 
church  discipline,  and  even  liturgical  matters. 

The  origin  of  the  capitularies  and  the  basis  of 
their  authority  have  been  much  discussed.  Toe 
prevalent  view,  derived  in  the  first  instance  fran 
Boretius,  distinguishes  between  capUvlaria  Ug^'trji 
addenda  and  per  se  scribenda,  which  means  prac- 
tically a  class  of  laws  originating  (like  those  spe6i- 
ically  known  as  leges)  in  the  assent  of  the  wbok 
people,  and  another  class  originating  frcnn  the  Idsi: 
alone,  at  most  with  the  advice  of  the  nobles  as- 
sembled in  a  diet.  But  there  seems  to  be  no  sd- 
ficient  ground  for  this  distinction  between  popukr 
and  royal  law;  in  so  far  as  there  is  any  contrasr 
between  leges  and  capUiUaria,  it  may  be  fully  ex- 
plained by  the  special  reverence  which  was  felt  for 
the  ancient  tribal  law.  In  the  cases  in  which  the 
capitularies  do  not  oontsdn  merely  instructions 
to  officials,  they  were  less  legislative  enactmenia 
than  promulgations  of  a  law  already  existing. 
This  law,  so  far  as  we  can  trace  its  origin,  came  into 
being  with  the  assent  of  the  temporal  and  spiritud 
lords,  assembled  in  diets  or  synods.  But  the  diet 
must  not  be  conceived  of  as  a  representative  as- 
sembly of  the  whole  people;  its  decisions  were  held 
to  be  binding  upon  the  individual  by  virtue  of  Ins 
allegiance  to  the  sovereign,  and  the  period  of  the 
capitularies  is  precisely  that  in  which  the  oath  of 
allegiance  was  most  pimctiliously  required  from 
all  adults  within  the  empire.  The  multipUcatioo 
of  capitularies  led  before  long  to  the  need  of  codib- 
cation;  for  the  collection  made  by  Ansegis  of 
Fontanella,  see  Anseois,  and  for  the  forged  capit- 
ularies appended  to  his  collection  by  Benedictus 
Levita,  see  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals. 

(Siegfried  Rietschel.) 
Biblioorapht:  Critical  editions  of  the  Capibdaria  rtipm 
Francorum,  ed.  O.  H.  Perts.  are  in  MGH,  Legum^  i..  J-. 
1836, 1837;  and.  ed.  A.  Boretius  and  V.  Krauae,  ib.  l^^ 
Bectio  II.  i..  ii.,  1883-97  (cf.  A.  Boretius.  in  GGA,  ISSi  T9- 
65  sqq.,  1884,  pp.  713  sqq.).  Consult:  A.  Boretius.  [he 
KapUuiarien  im  Langobardenreieh,  Halle,  1864:  idea. 
Beiiriige  aw  KapUularienkriHk,  Leipaic,  1874;  R.  Soha. 
Die  frdnkiaehe  Reidia-  und  GerieAtaverfaatung,  pp.  I^^ 
eqq.,  Weimar,  1871;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  De  la  cof^^v- 


409 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Capito 
Cappel 


tion  dea  UHm  au  tempa  dea  CaroHngierUt  in  Revue  hietoriquet 
iii.  (1878)  3  aqq.;  M.  Th^enin,  Lex  et  eapUuIa,  in  MS- 
lanoee  de  Vicole  dee  hatttee  itudee,  pp.  137  sqq.,  1878;  H. 
Bninner,  Deutacfie  Rechtegeeehidite^  i.  639  Bqq.,  Leipeic, 
1906;  E.  Glasflon,  Hietoire  du  droit  et  dee  inetUutione  poll- 
Hquee  et  adtninieiraHvee  de  la  France^  i.  281  Bqq.,  Paria. 
1890;  O.  Seeliser,  Die  Kapitularien  der  Karolinger^  Mu- 
nich. 1893;  R.  8chr5der,  Lehrbudi  der  deutechen  Reehte- 
oeecKichte,  pp.  253  sqq.,  Leipsic,  1902. 

CAPPADOCIA,  cap^'pa-do'shi-a.  See  Asia  Minor 
IN  THE  Apostolic  Time,  XL 

CAPPEL  (CAPPELLUS) :  A  French  family  which 
produced  many  noteworthy  statesmen  and  schol- 
ars between  the  fifteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, as  well  as  three  theologians,  Louis  Cappel 
the  Elder,  Jacques  Cappel  the  Third,  and  Louis 
Cappel  the  Younger. 

1.  Louis  Cappel  the  Elder:  Reformed  theo- 
logian; b.  at  Paris  Jan.  15,  1534;  d.  at  S^an 
Jan.  6,  1586.  Despite  the  early  death  of  his  father, 
he  received  an  excellent  education,  and  in  his  twen- 
ty-second year  went  to  Bordeaux  to  study  law, 
but  before  long  accepted  a  professorship  of  Greek. 
Becoming  acquainted  with  certain  of  the  Reform- 
ers, he  was  converted  to  their  doctrines,  and  went 
to  study  theology  at  Geneva,  where  Calvin  con- 
trolled the  Church.  Returning  to  Paris  about 
1560,  he  won  the  confidence  of  his  coreligionists 
by  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  the  Reformed,  and 
was  finally  ordained  pastor.  He  officiated  suc- 
cessively at  Meaux,  Antwerp,  and  Clermont,  but 
the  constant  outbreak  of  disturbances  rendered 
any  continuous  activity  impossible,  and  he  was 
repeatedly  obliged  to  retire  to  S^dan,  where  he  was 
safe,  since  it  lay  in  the  duchy  of  Bouillon.  In 
1575  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at 
the  University  of  Leyden,  but  was  recalled  in  the 
following  year  to  France  and  made  preacher  and 
professor  of  theology  at  S^an,  hofding  these 
positions  imtil  his  death. 

2.  Jacques  Cappel  the  Third:  Nephew  of  the 
preceding;  b.  at  Rennes  Mar.,  1570;  d.  at  S^an 
Sept.  7,  1624.  After  completing  his  theological 
education  at  S^an,  he  went  in  1593  to  his  ances- 
tral estate  le  Tilloi,  where  he  preached  for  several 
irears.  In  1599  he  accepted  a  call  to  S^an  as 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  eleven  years  later  was 
ippK>iDted  professor  of  theology.  His  learning, 
)iety,  and  charity  won  him  high  esteem.  Among 
lis  numerous  works  special  mention  may  be  made 
>f  his  Observationea  in  selecta  Peniateuchi  loca  (ed. 
r.  Cappel,  in  his  Commeniarii  et  notes  criticce  in 
7ettis  Teatamentum,  Amsterdam,  1689)  and  his 
iistoTta  sacra  et  exotica  ab  Adamo  usque  ad  Augusti 
*rtum  (S6dan,  1612). 

8.  Louis  Cappel  the  Younger:  Youngest  brother 
»f  the  preceding;  b.  at  St.  £lier  (a  village  near 
;^an)  Oct.  15,  1585;  d.  at  Saumur  June  18, 
658.  His  father,  Jacques  Cappel  the  Younger, 
frho  had  been  a  parliamentary  counselor  at 
Serines,  had  been  forced  to  resign  on  account  of 
lis  conversion  to  the  Reformed  Church  and  had 
)een  driven  by  the  adherents  of  the  League  from 
lis  estates  of  le  Tilloi.  During  his  flight  to  his 
>rother  Louis  Cappel  the  Elder  at  S^dan,  his  son 
vaa  bom  and  named  for  his  uncle.  After  his 
ather's  death  in  1586,  the  boy  was  taken  by  his 


mother  to  le  Tilloi,  where  he  was  educated  by 
Roman  Catholics  until  his  brother  Jacques  Cappel 
took  him  from  their  charge.  He  then  studied 
theology  in  S^an,  and  in  1609  received  from  the 
church  in  Bordeaux  the  means  to  study  four  years 
in  England,  Belgium,  and  Germany.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at 
Saumur,  but  in  1621  the  war  forced  him  to  take 
refuge  with  his  brother  at  Sddan,  where  he  re- 
mained three  years.  In  1626  he  became  professor 
of  theology,  and  through  him,  together  with  Molse 
Amyraut  and  Josu^  de  la  Place,  Saumur  attained 
high  fame.  Of  his  five  sons  two  died  in  early  youth, 
the  eldest,  Jean,  became  a  convert  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  the  youngest,  Jacques  the 
Fourth,  when  eighteen  years  of  age  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Saumur.  Louis 
Cappel  was  a  man  of  piety,  sincerity,  courage, 
energy,  and  learning.  His  life-work  was  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  text  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  refutation  of  false  views  con- 
cerning it.  His  first  book.  Arcanum  punctationia 
revetatum,  was  completed  in  1623,  and  sought  to 
prove  that  the  Hebrew  punctuation  did  not  orig- 
inate with  Moses  and  the  other  Biblical  authors, 
but  had  been  introduced  by  Jewish  scholars  after 
the  completion  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  The 
novelty  of  the  book  is  not  its  assertion,  but  its 
logical  proof.  The  work  was  sent  by  its  author  to 
various  scholars  for  their  opinions,  but  while  Bux- 
torf  at  Basel  counseled  caution,  Erpenius  at  Leyden 
had  it  printed  anonymously  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility in  1624.  The  book  found  a  friendly  reception 
in  many  quarters,  but  twenty  years  later  Buxtorf 's 
son  attacked  the  author  bitterly  in  his  Tractatus 
de  punctorum  origine  (Basel,  1648).  Cappel  replied 
with  his  Vindiem  arcani  punctaiionis,  although  it 
first  appeared  thirty  years  after  his  death  in  the 
Commeniarii  et  notes  critica  in  Vetue  Teaiamentum 
edited  by  his  son,  Jacques  Cappel  the  Fourth 
(Amsterdam,  1689).  His  second  famous  work 
was  the  Critica  sacra  (Paris,  1650),  based  on  the 
theory  of  the  integrity  of  the  text  and  completed 
in  1634,  although  it  remained  unprinted  for  many 
years  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Protes- 
tants in  Geneva,  Leyden,  and  S^an.  The  work 
is  divided  into  six  books  with  the  following  sub- 
jects: parallel  passages  in  the  Old  Testament; 
citations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New;  the 
various  readings  of  the  keri  and  kethibh,  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Oriental  and  Occidental  Jews,  printed 
Bibles,  and  the  Masoretic  and  Samaritan  texts 
of  the  Pentateuch;  deviations  in  the  Septuagint 
from  the  Masoretic  text;  variants  in  other  ancient 
translations,  the  Talmud,  and  early  Jewish  writings; 
the  choice  of  readings  and  the  restoration  of  the 
original  text.  Cappel  was  obliged  to  meet  repeated 
attacks.  Even  when  his  work  first  appeared,  it 
contained  a  defense  against  the  younger  Buxtorf, 
who  had  learned  the  contents  of  the  book 
before  it  was  printed,  and  had  combated  it  in  the 
Tractatua  already  mentioned.  Certain  passages 
which  had  been  omitted  in  the  original  edition 
against  his  will  were  added  by  Cappel  in  his  Epia- 
tola  apologetica  (Saumur,  1651),  another  work  in 
his  own  defense.    A  new  edition  of  the  Critica 


Cappel 
Oaraooioli 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


410 


sacra  was  prepared  by  G.  J.  L.  Vogel  and  J.  G. 
ScharfenhBBrg  (3  vols.,  Halle,  1775-«6).  His  third 
important  writing  was  the  DitUrtba  de  veria  et 
antiquis  Hebrctorum  Uteris  (Amsterdam,  1645),  in 
which  he  proved  the  priority  of  the  Samaritan 
script  over  the  square  characters  and  Mius  refuted 
the  treatise  of  the  younger  Buxtorf,  De  liUerarum 
Hsbraicarum  genuina  antiquitate  (1643).  In  these 
writings  Cappel  discussed  problems  which  were  of 
the  utmost  importance  to  the  Protestants  in  their 
controversy  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  Gf  his 
opponents  the  younger  Buxtorf  was  the  most  im- 
portant, and  had  practically  all  the  theologians  of 
Germany  and  Switzerland  on  his  side,  while  many 
prominent  scholars  of  France,  England,  and  Hol- 
land defended  the  views  of  Cappel.  The  first  sen- 
tences of  the  Helvetic  Consensus  Formula  of  1675 
are  directed  against  Cappel,  the  greater  number 
of  the  rest  being  aimed  at  Amyraut.  In  later 
times  a  fairer  and  calmer  judgment  prevailed  con- 
cerning the  investigations  of  Cappel,  and  his  results 
are  now  generally  accepted.  A  list  of  his  printed 
and  unprinted  works  is  given  by  his  son  Jacques 
in  the  Commentarii  noted  above.  Special  mention 
may  also  be  made  of  his  Templi  Hieroaolymilani 
delineaHo  triplex  and  Chronologia  sacra  (both  con- 
tained in  Walton's  Polyglot),  as  well  as  of  his 
Historia  apostolica  illustrata  (Greneva,  1634).  [His 
Pivot  de  la  foi  et  religion  (Saumur,  1643)  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  P.  Marinel  (London,  1660).] 

Carl  Bertheau. 

BiBLiooBAPHT :  Nio^roii,  Mfynoiret,  vol.  zxii.;  Biogra- 
phie  univeraelle,  vii.  7&-80,  Paria.  1813;  I.  A.  Dorner, 
(ienchidtU  der  prote»tanti»chen  Theologie,  pp.  450  sqq.. 
Munich.  1867,  £ng.  transl.,  Kdiaburgh.  1880;  L.  Diestel, 
GeachichU  des  Alien  Te$iam9nta  in  der  efuriailiehm  Klreht, 
pp.  336  sqq.,  346  sqq..  Jena.  18G8;  G.  Schnedermann, 
Die  Controvert  dee  L.  Cappellua  mit  den  BiuUorfen,  Leip- 
oic,  1878;  C.  A.  Briggs.  Study  of  Holy  Scripture,  pp.  222 
sqq..  New  York.  1899. 

CAPREOLUS,  JOHANIIES:  The  most  distin- 
guished Thomist  theologian  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury; d.  1444.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  Accord- 
ing to  Qu<^tif,  he  joined  the  Dominican  order  at 
Rodez.  The  subscriptions  of  the  four  books  of  his 
Defensiones  (first  printed  in  Venice,  1483),  where 
he  is  described  as  of  Toulouse,  tell  that  he  finished 
the  first  book  in  1409  at  Paris,  where  he  was  then 
lecturing,  the  others  at  Rodez  in  1426,  1428,  and 
1433.  So,  at  least,  Qudtif  asserts;  but  an  extant 
copy  of  the  editio  princeps  assigns  the  composition 
of  the  first  three  books  to  1409,  and  the  fourth  to 
1432,  no  place  given;  and  the  second  edition 
(Venice,  1514-15)  gives  1409  for  the  first  two, 
1428  and  1432  for  the  others,  all  in  Paris.  The 
diversity  renders  all  the  dates  uncertain;  nor  can 
we  be  sure  of  the  date  (Apr.  6,  1444)  assigned  to 
his  death  by  an  inscription  on  his  tomb  at  Rodez, 
of  evidently  later  composition.  The  Dominicans 
of  Toulouse  assert  that  he  was  for  some  time  at 
the  head  of  their  studium  generaU.     (A.  Hauck.) 

Biblxooraprt:  J.  Qii^tif  and  J.  £ohard,  Seriptorea  ordinia 
prtgdicatorum,  i.  796  sqq.,  Paris,  1719;  K.  Werner,  Der 
heilioe  Thomaa  von  Aquino,  iii.  151  sqq.,  Regensburg,  1859. 

CAPTIVITY  OP  THE  JEWS.  See  Israel,  His- 
tory OF,  I.,  5  9. 


CAPUCHIlfS:  A  branch  of  the  order  of  Frss 
ciscans,  founded  in  the  third  decade  of  the  sii:t<^^ : . 
century  by  Matteo  di  Bassi,  an  Obaervantine  Fran- 
ciscan. Repeated  attempts  had  been  made  tirfe 
the  fourteenth  century  to  restore  the  primitjr> 
strength  and  simplicity  of  the  Franciscan  ri' 
and  one  of  these  movements  was  oonoemed  e:>]*^ 
dally  with  the  habit  of  the  order.  In  connert..^ 
with  this  attempted  reform,  Matteo  was  told  hy  s 
brother  monk  that  the  cowl  worn  by  St.  Fnn-.j 

differed  essentially  from  that  adoptrj 

Early       by  his  order.     Matteo  thereupon  Irft 

History,     his   monastery   of   Montefaloone  ana 

hastened  to  Rome,  where  in  15-'»^  >: 
obtained  permission  from  dement  VII.  to  wear  i 
pyramidal  hood  and  a  beard,  to  live  as  a  herru: 
and  to  preach  wheresoever  he  wished,  on  conJdTi  i 
that  he  should  report  annually  to  the  pro^-mciJ 
chapter  of  the  Observantines.  Matteo's  exam:* 
was  followed  by  his  fellow  Observantines  LodoM*^' 
and  Raffaelle  di  Fossombrone,  both  of  whom  re- 
ceived similar  privileges  from  the  pope;  and  ty 
three,  soon  joined  by  a  fourth,  found  a  home  wiirj 
the  Camaldolites  and  the  duke  of  Camernv 
Through  the  duke's  influence,  they  were  recei\Tii 
among  the  Conventuals  in  1527,  whereupon  Loio- 
vioo  and  Raffaelle  returned  to  Rome  and  obtaiiifi 
from  the  pope  the  bull  of  May  18,  1528,  by  wiiich 
they  were  permitted  to  preach  repentance,  have  try 
care  of  souls,  especially  of  abandoned  siniicr>, 
and  form  a  congregation  with  the  pri\'ileges  aln^  iy 
granted  them.  They  were  freed,  moreover.  fn>r: 
the  Observantines  and  placed  under  the  contn>l  d 
the  Conventuals,  since  their  vicar-general  mu.<t  \.*: 
confirmed  by  the  general  of  the  Conventuals,  whi.e 
they  were  to  receive  visitations  from  the  Conven- 
tuals and  were  obliged  in  their  processions  to  nuirch 
under  the  cross  either  of  the  Conventuals  or  the 
parish  clergy.  The  members  of  the  new  ori'-r 
speedily  became  conspicuous  by  their  long  bearJ^ 
and  pointed  hoods  or  capuches,  whence  they  wens 
termed  Capuchins  in  ecclesiastical  documents  aa 
early  as  1536  (Capucini  ordinis  fratrum  minarum 
or  Fratres  minores  Capucini).  Their  first  momv^ 
tery  was  given  them  by  the  duchess  of  Camerico. 
but  by  1529  they  possessed  four  houses  and  in  the 
same  year  their  first  chapter  was  convened.  At  tbv> 
same  time  the  rules  of  the  order  were  drawn  up. 
and  thenceforth  remained  essentially  unchanged. 

The  Capuchins  were  required  to  preserve  the 
primitive  service,  to  refuse  all  compensation  for 
singing  mass,  to  devote  two  hours  daily  to  silent 
prayer,  to  observe  silence  throughout  the  day  with 
the  exception  of  two  hours,  to  practise  flagellatinn. 
to  beg  only  what  was  necessary  for  each  day,  t*^ 
provide  only  for  three  or  at  most  seven  days,  ani 
never  to  touch  money.     The  use  of  meat  and  wine 

in  strict  moderation  was  allowed,  bu' 
Rule,      the  friars  were  forbidden  to  b^  for 

meat,  eggs,  or  cheese,  although  they 
might  accept  them  when  they  were  offereil.  The 
habit  was  to  be  poor  and  coarse,  and  the  brothers. 
who  might  ride  neither  on  horseback  nor  in  wagons. 
were  required  to  go  barefoot,  sandals  being  allowi>ii 
only  in  special  cases.  The  monasteries,  which 
were  to  contain  at  most  ten  or  twelve  friars  each, 


411 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


loU 


were  to  be  fitted  in  the  most  meager  mamier  pos- 
sible. In  addition  to  the  general,  the  Capuchins 
had  provincials,  custodians,  and  guardians,  but 
no  procurators  or  sjmdics.  Elections  were  held 
annually,  except  in  the  case  of  the  general,  who 
was  elected  by  the  chapter  triennially. 

The  first  vicar-general  was  Matteo  di  Bassi 
himself,  but  two  months  after  his  election  in  1529 
he  resigned,  and  in  1537  returned  to  the  Obser- 
vantines.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lodovico  di  Fos- 
Bombrone,  who  failed  of  reelection  in  1535  Tand  was 
expelled  for  exciting  dissatisfaction  within  the 
order.  The  next  heads  of  the  Capuchins  were 
Giovanni   de    Fano   and   Bernardino 

Since  the    Ochino  (q.v.).      The  defection  of  the 

Reforma-  latter  to  Protestantism  in  1543  caused 
tion.  Paul  III.  to  contemplate  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  order,  and  for  a  number 
of  years  the  Capuchins  were  forbidden  to  preach. 
The  result  of  Ochino's  act  was  the  transformation 
of  the  Capuchins  into  a  rigidly  ultramontane  order 
which  renounced  all  independent  judgment  in 
matters  of  faith  and  doctrine. 

After  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
spread  of  the  order  was  rapid.  Originally  re- 
stricted to  Italy,  it  was  established  in  l^ttpe  at 
the  request  of  Charles  IX.  in  1573,  and  i?^93 
entered  Germany,  after  having  already  been\n- 
planted  in  Switzerland.  In  1606  it  was  in  Spain, 
and  thirteen  years  later  was  freed  from  the  Con- 
ventuals and  received  its  own  general,  as  well  as 
the  right  to  march  in  processions  imder  its  own 
cross.  The  Capuchins,  who  then  had  1,500  monas- 
teries and  fifty  provinces,  followed  the  Spaniards 
and  Portuguese  across  the  sea,  and  toiled  valiantly 
for  the  Church  in  America,  Africa,  and  Asia  beside 
their  great  rivals,  the  Jesuits.  In  the  suppression 
of  the  monastic  orders  in  France  and  Germany 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Capu- 
chins suffered  severely,  and  had  also  to  endure 
[nuch  south  of  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  nineteenth 
century,  however,  they  again  prospered,  and  at  its 
close  numbered  fifty  provinces  with  534  monas- 
teries and  294  hospices.  The  twenty-five  Italian 
provinces  are  officially  suppressed,  but  retain  a 
imited  existence.  Of  the  other  twenty-five,  Gei^ 
nany  contains  two,  Austria  and  Hungary  seven 
Switzerland  two,  Belgium  and  Holland  one  each, 
Prance  five.  Great  Britain  three,  Russia  and  Po- 
and  two,  and  the  United  States  two,  that  of  De- 
troit with  sixty-eight  fathers  and  that  of  Pitts- 
>urg  with  sixty-five. 

Capuchin  nims  were  founded  at  Naples  in  the 
Srst  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  although, 
itrictly  speaking,  they  are  a  branch  of  the  Clares, 
rhey  now  have  a  number  of  houses  in  France, 
[taly,  Spain,  and  America,  and  are  subject,  when  the 
lunnery  contains  the  full  number  of  thirty-three, 
x>  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  of  the  Capuchins, 
ind  in  other  cases  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in 
vhich  they  live. 

CapuchLa  scholars  have  been  authors  of  works  of 
xiification,  practical  exegesis,  moral  theology,  and 
lermons.  Among  their  most  famous  preachers 
lave  been  Ochino,  John  Forbes,  St.  Laurence  of 
Srindisi,  Jacques  Bolduc,  Conrad  of  Salzburg,  and 


Martin  of  Cochem.  Father  Joseph,  the  confidant 
and  adviser  of  Richelieu,  and  Father  Matthew, 
the  noted  temperance  lecturer,  were  Capuchins. 

(O.  ZdCKLERf.) 
Bibuoorapst:  Soutom  for  the  history  are:  Z.  BoveriuB. 
Annalsa  .  .  .  ordinia  minorum  nve  Franeiaei  qui  Capu- 
eini  nuneupatur,  vols,  i.-ii.,  Leyden,  1632-39,  vol.  iii.,  by 
Maroellin  de  Pin,  1676;  MichAel  a  Tugio.  BuUarium  or- 
dinia  frairutn  minorum  .  .  .  Capueinorumt  7  yols.,  Rome, 
1740-62;  OrdinaHonea  et  deeiiionM  capUulorum  gene- 
ralium  Capudnorum,  ib.  1851;  AnaUda  Capueinorum,  an 
annual,  ib.  1884  sqq.  Consult  further:  Heimbucher, 
Orden  und  Konoreoationen,  i.  279,  315-328,  359,  361-362; 
L.  Wadding,  AnnaUa  Minorum,  2d  ed.  by  J.  M.  Fonseca, 
xvi.  207,  24  vols..  Rome,  1731-1860;  Helyot,  OrdrM 
monaatiquea,  vii.  164-180;  P.  Lechner,  Leben  der  HeUigtn 
.  .  der  Kapuzinar,  3  vole.,  Munich,  1863;  A.  M.  Ilg, 
0ei9i  det  .  .  .  Franz  von  Aaaiai  dargeatMt  in  Lebenabild- 
em  aua  der  GeschicfUa  dea  Kapuiiner-Ordenat  Augsburg, 
1876;  K.  Benrath,  B.  Ochino,  passim,  Leipeic,  1892; 
Currier,  Ralioioua  Ordera,  pp.  244-248. 

CAPUTUTI,  ca-pQ'ti.Q"tl  ("hooded,"  "ca- 
puched'';  also  known  as  Paciferi  and  Blancs 
Chaperons):  A  society  foimded  in  1183  at  Puy-en- 
Velay  (Le  Puy,  68  m.  s.w.  of  Lyons)  in  the  Au- 
vergne  by  a  poor  artisan  called  Durand  to  oppose 
the  fearful  devastations  caused  by  the  mercenary 
and  predatory  bands  of  the  "  Braban^ons "  or 
"  Cotereaux."  Durand  claimed  that  the  Madonna 
had  authorized  him  to  do  this;  the  members  of  the 
society  were  to  wear  a  white  dress  with  a  capuche  and 
a  leaden  image  of  the  wonder-working  Madonna  of 
Puy.  Organized  after  the  manner  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical brotherhood,  the  Caputiati  followed  the  royal 
troops  and  took  bloody  vengeance  on  the  destroyers 
of  peace.  The  society  did  not  last  long.  Later 
reports,  but  little  reliable,  make  its  members  rebels 
against  State  and  Church,  who,  as  is  alleged,  were 
routed  about  1186  and  condemned  to  do  penance. 
Even  in  late  times,  from  too  implicit  reliance  on 
these  reports,  the  Caputiati  have  been  considered 
a  sect  opposed  to  the  Church. 

Herman  Haupt. 

Bibuoorapbt:  A.  Kluokhohn,  Oaachiehta  dea  Ootteafriodena, 
pp.  126  aqq.,  Leipdo,  1857;  E.  S^michon,  La  Paix  at  la 
irh>e  de  I>t«tt,  pp.  194,  390,  Paris.  1857;  L.  Huberti.  Studien 
gurRachtaoaachidUa  dea  OoUea-  und  Landfriedena,  i.  462  aqq., 
Anebaeh,  1892;  Legrand  d'Auesy,  in  NoHoea  ei  extraita 
dea  manuacrita  de  la  BiUiolMque  Nationale,  tom.  v.,  anno 
Yii.,  pp.  290-293,  Paris,  1798-99. 

CARACCIOU,  cd-rd'chl-d'ai,  6ALEAZZ0  (Mar- 
chese  di  Vico):  Italian  Protestant;  b.  at  Nicies 
1517;  d.  at  Geneva  July  5, 1586.  He  was  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  Italians  who  sought  a  refuge 
at  Geneva  when  the  reaction  came  over  Italy; 
his  mother  was  a  sister  of  Pope  Paul  IV.,  he  was 
in  the  royal  service,  and  his  wife  was  a  Cdraffa. 
At  Naples  he  became  acquainted  with  Juan  de 
Vald^s  and  Peter  Vennigli,  who  at  that  time 
preached  there,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  these 
reformatory  men.  The  evangelical  ideas  which  he 
imbibed  at  Naples  and  which  caused  him  many 
struggles  in  his  family  and  in  society,  were  deepened 
by  a  journey  to  Germany  in  1544.  He  found  it 
impossible  to  make  open  profession  at  Naples; 
the  efforts  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  after  the 
Spanish  pattern  were  frustrated  by  the  resistance 
of  the  people  in  1547  bordering  on  a  revolution; 
but,  nevertheless,  the  vice-regent  urged  the  sup- 
pression   of   every    anti-Roman   opinion.    Carac- 


Oarlstei 


istadt 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


41: 


cioli  decided  to  forsake  fatherland,  position,  and 
possessions  rather  than  to  continue  as  a  hypocrite. 
Pretending  to  go  to  the  imperial  court  at  Augs- 
burg, he  left  Italy,  his  wife  refusing  to  follow  him. 
He  reached  Geneva  Jirne  8,  1551,  and  joined  the 
Italian  community  which  was  founded  there  in 
1542.  All  efforts  of  his  people  to  bring  him  back, 
renewed  by  Paul  IV.,  after  his  accession  in  1555, 
were  in  vain.  Toward  the  end  of  1555  he  became 
a  citizen  of  Geneva.  He  kept  up  correspondence 
with  his  wife  and  his  son  and  in  1558  met  them 
once  more  in  a  little  isle  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  in 
the  paternal  castle  at  Vico;  as  they  refused  to 
follow  him,  in  spite  of  his  entreaties,  he  left  them 
forever.  The  consistories  of  Geneva  and  other 
places  declared  his  marriage  dissolved,  and  in 
1560  he  married  again.  K.  Benrath. 

Biblioorapht:  His  life  was  written  by  N.  Balbani,  Hi9- 
toria  deUa  Vita  di  G.  Caraccioli,  Genevft.  1687,  repub- 
liflhed,  Florence.  1876. 

CARAFFA,  cd-raf'fd,  GIOVAKin  PIBTRO.  See 
Paul  IV.,  Pope. 

CARCHEMISH,  cdr'che-mish  (modem  Jerabis): 
A  city  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates 
in  the  upper  part  of  its  course.  In  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  the  name  denotes  either  a  Hittite  state 
or  the  capital  of  that  state,  which  long  maintained 
itself  against  the  Assyrians.  Its  earlier  identifica- 
tion with  Circesium,  at  the  confluence  of  theChebar 
with  the  Euphrates,  is  obsolete.  The  earliest  men- 
tion dates  from  Ammi-zaduga  (about  2200  B.C.), 
which  speaks  of  the  weight  (measure)  of  Carch&- 
mish,  a  mention  which  agrees  with  a  later  Assyrian 
note  of  the  **  Mina  of  Carchemish,"  and  with  the 
city's  location  on  one  of  the  most  important  routes 
of  commerce.  It  appears  first  in  Assyrian  annals 
in  the  accounts  of  Tiglath-Pileser  I.  about  1110  B.C. 
The  Hittite  power  was  at  that  early  date  already 
breaking  under  the  pressure  of  the  northern  immi- 
grations then  going  on,  and  was  completed  later 
by  the  Aramean  migrations.  King  Sangara  paid 
tribute  to  Asshumasirpal  (about  880  B.C.),  was 
worsted  in  a  conflict  with  Shalmaneser  II., and  was 
compelled  again  to  pay  heavy  tribute  and  to  send 
his  daughter  to  the  Assyrian's  harem.  Its  last 
king,  Pisiris,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Sargon  II., 
717  B.C.,  and  imder  Sennacherib  the  region  was  made 
an  Assyrian  province.  Near  it  was  fought  the 
battle  between  Nebuchadrezzar  and  Necho  which 
decided  the  fate  of  western  Asia.    (A.  JerIimias.) 

Biblioorapht:  G.  Masp^ro,  De  Carchemia  oppidi  titUt  Leip- 
sic,  1872;  idem,  Strugale  of  the  Nationa,  pp.  144-145. 
London,  1896;  J.  Menant,  Kar-Kamia,  aa  poaiHon,  an 
appendix  to  the  Fr.  transl.  of  A.  H.  Sayoe's  HittUea,  Paris, 
1801;  W.  M.  Mailer,  Aaien  und  Ettropa  nach  aUAoyp- 
Haehen  Denkm&lem,  p.  263,  Leipric,  1893;  DB,  i.  353; 
EB,  i.  702-703. 

C ARDALE,  JOHN  BATE :  Apostle  of  the  Catho- 
lic Apostolic  Church;  b.  in  London  Nov.  2,  1802; 
d.  at  Albury  (26  m.  s.w.  of  London),  Surrey,  July 
18,  1877.  After  his  schooling  at  Rugby  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1822,  became  head  of  a 
London  firm  of  solicitors,  and  retired  with  a  com- 
petency in  1834.  He  had  already  become  inter- 
ested in  the  religious  movement,  originating  in  Scot- 
land, known  as  the  ''  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  *' 


(q.v.),  whose  distinguiflhing  feature  is  its  beL< 
in  the  revival  of  the  ministries  and  gifts  seen  z.  I 
the  apostolic  age  of  the  Church,  especially  of  x^ 
ministries  of  apostles  and  prophets.  Sir.  C«r- ! 
dale  was  the  first  called  of  the  twelve  "  apostle-  ~ 
of  the  Church,  Henry  Drununond  (q.v.)  bcji^ 
the  second.  This  was  in  1832,  although  it  was  d  * 
until  July  14,  1835,  when  the  number  was  cosd- 
pleted,  that  the  twelve  were  formally  set  af  i.t 
to  their  work  as  an  Apostolic  College-  Mr.  Car- 
dale  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  anonjT&  -^ 
religious  publications,  the  most  noteworthy  o: 
which  was  Beaqdins  upon  the  lAturgy,  LoiKi*  ^ 
vol.  i.,  184^-51,  vol.  ii.,  1852-78-  G.  C.  Boase.  ^ 
the  Dictionary  of  NaHonaL  Biography,  says  of  Lin 
"His  strength  of  will,  calmne«B  and  deames.^  f 
judgment,  and  kindness  of  heart  and  mazmv-. 
added  to  the  prestige  of  his  long  rule,  made  \  l-u 
a  tower  of  strength.  He  was  indefatigable  e. 
labour,  of  which  he  accomplished  a  vast  amour  t 
besides  Latin  and  Greek,  he  was  a  good  French  an . 
Grerman  scholar,  and  late  in  life  learned  Danish.^ 
Samuel.  J.  Ajn>REWd. 
Bibuoorapht:  DNB^  ix.  30-38. 
CARDINAL.    See  Curia,  §  1. 

CAREY,  WILLIAM:    Baptist  miasioiiary and Or- 
entalist;     b.    at   Paulerspury,    Nortfaamptonshirt 
Eng.,  Aug.  17,  1761;  d.  at  Serampur,  India.  Jcne 
9,   1834.     By  baptism  a  member  of   the  Est^ 
lished  Church,  he  was  eariy  in  life  convinced  d 
the  Scriptural   authority  for   the    Baptist    \ieiFi. 
and  joined  this  sect,  in  which  he  soon  became  a 
preacher.     His    congregations    were     very    poor, 
and  he  supported  himself  and  family   by  sbce 
making.     But  his  thirst  for  knowledge  was  strong: 
and  he  managed,  notwithstanding  the  pressure  d 
poverty,  to  acquire  Latin,  Gieek,  H^rew,  and  a 
goodly  amount  of  other  useful  learning,  especiai> 
in  natural  history  and  botany.     His  attention  v^ 
turned  to  the  heathen,  and  he  saw  plainly  his  dutr 
to  go  to  them.     On  Oct.  2,  1792,  largely  through 
his  exertions,  the  first  Baptist  missionary  societr 
was  foimded;    and  on  June  13,  1793,  he  and  \k 
family  sailed   for    India,    accompanied    by   John 
Thomas,  who  had  formerly  lived  in  Bengal.    On 
reaching  Bengal  early  in  1794,  Carey  and  his  com- 
panion lost  all  their  property  in  the  Hugli;    bet. 
having  received  the  charge  of  an  indigo-factorj 
at  Malda,  he  cut  off  his  pecuniary  connection  with 
the  missionary  society,  and  began  in  earnest  wba: 
instead  of  regular  missionary  labor,  was  to  be  the 
work  of  his  life — the  study  of  and  translation  boib 
from  and  into  the  languages  of  India.     In  1799  tbe 
factoiy  was  closed;    and  he  went  with  Thomas  to 
Kidderpur,    where    he    had    purchased     a   small 
indigo-plantation.     Here,  joined  by  Marshman  aai 
Ward,  he  started,  under  bright  hopes,  a  misskfi. 
but  soon  encountered  the  opposition  of  the  Indiio 
government,  which  forbade  the  mission's  enlarge- 
ment, and  compelled  its  removal,  at  a  great  peco- 
niary   loss,   to    Serampur,   a    Danish    settkroent 
(1800),  where  it  took   a  fresh  lease  of  life.    Fof 
some  time  Carey  and  Thomas  had  been  diligently 
at  work  upon  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  is 
Bengali.     In   1801  it  was  published  by  the  press 


413 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


OarafCk 
OarUtadt 


Carey  instituted.  About  the  same  time  the  Marquis 
3f  Wellesley  appointed  him  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  in  the  Fort  William  College,  which  the 
marquis  had  founded  at  Calcutta  for  the  instruction 
Df  the  younger  members  of  the  British  Indian  civil 
aervice.  Carey  held  this  position  for  thirty  years, 
uid  taught  Bengali,  Mahrati,  and  Sanskrit.  He 
nrrote  articles  upon  the  natural  history  and 
Dotany  of  India  for  the  Asiatic  Society,  to  which 
ie  was  elected,  1805,  and  thus  made  practical 
application  of  acquisitions  of  former  years;  but 
:his  was  only  a  part,  and  by  far  the  less  val- 
jable  part,  of  his  work.  That  which  has  given 
lim  his  undying  fame  was  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  in  whole  or  in  part,  either  alone  or  with 
>thers,  into  some  twenty-^ix  Indian  languages. 
The  Serampur  press,  under  his  direction,  ren- 
iered  the  Bible  accessible  to  more  than  three  hun- 
dred million  human  beings.  Besides,  he  prepared 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  several  tongues;  e.g., 
Mahratta  Grammar ,  1805;  SanacrU  Grammar ,  1806; 
ifahratta  Dictionary,  1810;  Bengalee  Dictionary, 
1818;  and  a  dictionary  of  all  Sanskrit-derived 
anguages,  which  unhappily  was  destroyed  by  a 
fire  in  the  printing  establishment  in  1812.  Later 
students  have  discovered  errors  and  omissions  in 
these  works;  but  all  honor  is  due  to  Carey  for 
•  breaking  the  way,"  and  every  inhabitant  of 
India  is  liis  debtor. 

Sibliooraphy:  John  Taylor,  Biographical  and  Literary 
NoticM  of  William  Carey.  Bibtiographieal  NoHcea  of 
Worka  ....  Northampton,  1886;  J.  C.  Marahman,  Life 
and  Timee  of  Carey,  Marahman  and  Ward,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don. 1859;  J.  Culross,  William  Carey,  New  York,  1882; 
Geonee  Smith.  Life  of  WiUiam  Carey,  London,  1887;  H.  O. 
D wight,  H.  A.  Tupper,  and  E.  M.  Bliss,  Encyelopctdia  of 
Miaeiona,  pp.  133-134,  New  York,  1904;  DNB,  ix.  77. 

CARGILL,  DONALD  (or  DAlflEL) :    One  of  the 

coders  of  the  Scotch  Covenanters;  b.  in  the  parish 
>f  Rattray,  Perthshire,  1619;  beheaded  at  Edin- 
burgh July  27,  1681.  He  was  educated  at  Aber- 
leen  and  St.  Andrews;  and  about  1650  he  became 
>astor  of  the  Barony  Church,  Glasgow.  In  1661, 
vhcn  Episcopacy  was  established  in  Scotland,  he 
efused  to  accept  his  charge  from  the  archbishop, 
ind  was  banished  (1662)  beyond  the  Tay;  but  he 
lid  not  go;  instead  he  became  one  of  the  ''  field 
>reacher8,"  who,  deprived  of  their  churches, 
>rcached  in  the  open  air.  In  1679  he  joined  Cam- 
eron, Douglas,  Hamilton,  and  others  in  the  rebellion 
i^ainst  prelacy,  which  arose  out  of  the  "  Rutherglen 
:>eclaration  "  of  May  29  of  that  year,  and  with  his 
allow  Covenanters  endured  the  defeat  of  Bothwell 
Bridge,  June  22.  He  fled  to  Holland,  but  soon 
ie turned.  The  next  year  he  and  Cameron,  with 
heir  adherents,  drew  up  the  *'  Sanquhar  Declara- 
ion,''  June  22.  The  government  set  a  price  upon 
he  leaders'  heads.  They  were  attacked  at  Ayrs- 
noss,  July  22,  and  Cameron  was  slain;  but  Cargill 
(ucceeded  to  the  leadership,  and,  as  if  to  testify 
n  the  most  signal  manner  his  abhorrence  of  the 
;yTannical  persecutors,  he  publicly  excommunicated 
;he  king  and  several  of  the  nobles  at  a  field-preach- 
ng  held  at  Torwood  in  Stirlingshire  in  September. 
SVhcn  the  Duke  of  York,  one  of  the  "  excommu- 
licated,"  came  to  Scotland,  the  persecution  of  the 
followers    of   Cargill  increased.    He  himself  was 


hunted  from  place  to  place;  but  on  July  11,  1681, 
he  was  captured  between  Clydesdale  and  Lothian, 
and  taken  to  Edinburgh  for  trial.  He  readily 
confessed  that  he  had  done  what  the  council  had 
called  treason.  The  council  were  equally  divided 
whether  to  imprison  him  for  Hfe  or  to  execute  him; 
but  the  vote  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  decided  in  favor 
of  the  latter — a  vote  which  cost  Argyle,  later  on, 
the  support  of  the  Covenanters,  to  say  nothing  of 
deep  remorse.  Accordingly  Cargill  was  put  to 
death.     See  Covenanters. 

Biblioobapht:  Biographia  preabyteriana,  vol.  ii..  Edin- 
burgh, 1827  (life  of  Cargill);  R.  Wodrow,  HiaL  of  the 
Sufferinoa  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1721-22 
T.  McCrie,  Sketchea  of  ScoUiah  Church  Hiat,  ib.  1875; 
J.  Cunningham,  CAurcA  Hiat.  of  Scotland,  2  vols.,  ib.  1883; 
DNB,  ix.  7»-80. 

CARLILE,  WILSON:  Church  of  England;  founder 
of  the  Church  Army  (q.v.) ;  b.  at  Brixton  (a  suburb 
S.W.  of  London)  Jan.  14,  1847.  He  was  educated 
at  Highbury  College,  London,  but  did  not  take  a 
degree.  He  entered  conmiercial  life  in  1862,  but  in 
1878  matriculated  at  the  London  College  of  Divinity, 
and  was  ordered  deacon  in  1880  and  ordained 
priest  in  the  following  year.  He  was  curate  of 
Kensington  from  1880  to  1882,  when  he  founded 
the  Church  Army  in  the  Westminster  slums,  and 
in  1890  established  the  Social  System  of  Church 
Army  in  Marylebone.  He  was  also  rector  of 
Netteswell,  Essex,  in  1890-91,  and  since  the  latter 
year  has  been  rector  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill,  Eastcheap, 
London.  He  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  in  1906, and  has  written: 
The  Church  and  Conversion  (London,  1882);  Spiri- 
tual DifficuUiee  (1885),  and  The  Continental  Outcast 
(in  collaboration  with  V.  W.  Carlile;  1906). 

CARLSTADT,  cOrl'stat  (KARLSTADT,  CAROL- 
STADT),  ANDREAS  RUDOLF  BODENSTEIN  VON: 

Protestant  Reformer;  b.  at  Karlstadt  (14  m.  n.w.  of 
Warzburg),  Bavaria,  c.  1480;  d.  at  Basel  Dec.  24, 
1541.  The  assumption  that  he  pursued  his  aca- 
demical studies  at  foreign  universities  rests  upon 
a  confusion  with  his  later  journey  to  Rome.  In 
the  winter  term  of  1499-1500  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Erfurt,  where  he  remained  until  1503, 
and  then  removed  to  Cologne.  In  1504  he  turned 
to  the  newly  established  University  of  Wittenberg, 
in  which  he  acquired  considerable  fame  as  a  teacher 
of  philosophy.  He  was  a  sealous  adherent  of 
scholasticism,  advocating  the  imoon- 
Training  ditional  authority  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Life  to  By  1510  he  had  obtained  all  the  higher 
15x8.  academical  degrees.  In  1508  he  re- 
ceived a  canoniy  at  the  collegiate 
church  in  Wittenberg  and  in  1510  became  arch- 
deacon. As  such  he  had  to  preach  and  read  mass 
once  a  week  and  to  lecture  at  the  university.  In 
1515  he  left  Wittenberg,  without  the  permission 
of  the  imiversity  and  the  elector,  and  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  studied  law  and  took  a  degree, 
hoping  to  obtain  the  first  prelacy  at  Wittenberg, 
for  which  legal  training  was  necessary.  He  did 
not  succeed,  however,  in  obtaining  the  position 
after  his  return.  His  journey  to  Rome  brought 
about  a  rupture  with  scholasticism.  The  evidence 
of  the  worldliness  of  the  papacy  which  Carlstadt 


Oitflstadt 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


414 


saw  in  Rome  may  have  been  the  chief  factor  in 
the  change  of  his  religioua  views.  His  151  theses 
of  Sept.,  1516,  contain  the  fundamental  traits  of 
his  later  theology.  He  combats  the  scholastics 
and  Aristotle  (theses  xxxvii.,  cxliii.)^  and  even 
anticipates  Luther,  en  the  basis  of  Augustine,  con- 
cerning the  inability  of  the  human  will  to  attain 
unto  God  and  in  attributing  the  act  of  redemption 
exclusively  to  the  work  of  divine  grace.  Thus  no  di- 
rect dependence  of  Carlstadt  upon  Luther  can  be  as- 
sumed ;  each  influenced  the  other  after  1516,  although 
a  bond  of  personal  friendship  never  united  them. 

In  the  spring  of  1518  Caristadt  published  a 
comprehensive  collection  of  theses,  on  the  occasion 
of  Eck's  attack  upon  the  ninety-five  theses  of 
Luther.  Here  he  affirms  for  the  Bible  the  most 
absolute  authority  as  a  source  of  religious  knowl- 
edge and  adheres  to  its  literal  interpretation.  In 
June  and  July  a  disputation  took  place  between 
Carlstadt  and  Eck,  and  although  the  fonner  was 
always  equal  to  the  dialectic  cleverness  of  his 
opponent,  he  became  more  and  more  conscious  of 
the  impossibility  of  reconciling  his  convictions  with 
the   ruling  doctrine  of  the  Church. 

Deviates  He  emphasised  more  and  more  the 
from       efficacy  of  divine  grace  alone  in  the 

Church  redemption  of  humanity,  and  wrote 
Teachings,  polemical  treatises  against  the  church 
doctrine  of  justification  by  works  and 
against  indulgences.  In  1521  he  went  to  Denmark 
by  invitation  of  King  Christian  II.  and  helped  in 
the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  but  after 
a  few  weeks  in  Copenhagen  he  had  to  give  way 
before  the  united  resistance  of  nobility  and  clergy. 
In  June  he  was  again  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  ex- 
pressed his  views  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
a  treatise  Von  den  Empfahim  Zeichen  und  Zuaag 
des  heUigtn  Sacramenta,  In  this  treatise  he  still 
clings  to  the  corporal  presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacra- 
ment, but  looks  upon  it  only  as  a  sign  of  divine 
promise.  In  another  treatise  Caristadt  places 
beside  the  literal  explanation  of  Scripture  a  spiritual 
interpretation  which  penetrates  its  deeper  sense 
and  rests  upon  divine  interpretation.  Here  are 
to  be  found  certain  points  of  contact  between  the 
views  of  Carlstadt  and  those  of  the  enthusiasts. 

The  attitude  of  Carlstadt  in  the  Wittenberg 
disturbances  and  his  doings  there  during  Luther's 
stay  at  the  Wartburg  have  frequently  been  repre- 
sented in  an  erroneous  light.  When  the  Augus- 
tinians,  in  Oct.,  1521,  refused  to  hold  mass  and 
demanded  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
in  both  kinds,  the  university  appointed  a  com- 
mission of  four  theologians,  among  them  Carlstadt, 
to  investigate.  Against  the  more  decided  attitude 
of  Melanchthon,  Carlstadt  conceded  that  the  abo- 
lition of  the  mass  could  only  be  accomplished 
with  the  consent  of  the  magistracy.  A  letter, 
expressing  the  same  spirit  and  signed 

The  Ref-  by  seven  professors,  was  sent  to  the  elec- 
ormation  at  tor.  As  the  excitement  did  not  abate, 
Wittenberg,  Carlstadt  tried  to  quiet  the  more  strenu- 

X53x-aa.  ous  by  emphasizing  the  Gospel  as  the 
proper  guide  in  all  actions.  Never- 
theless, the  disturbances  continued  until  on 
Christmas  day  he  administered  the  Lord's  Sup- 


per in  both  kinds.  His  action  was  approved 
by  all  Evangelicals.  From  this  moment  he  was 
silently  acknowledged  as  the  leader  of  the  reforma- 
tory movement  in  Wittenberg.  He  did  not  stop 
with  the  refonnation  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  At  the 
end  of  1521  and  at  the  beginning  of  1522  auricular 
confession,  the  elevation  of  the  host,  and  the  in- 
junctions concerning  fasting  were  abolished.  Jan. 
19,  1522,  Caristadt  marri^.  On  being  informed 
of  the  events  in  Wittenberg,  the  so-called  Zwickau 
prophets  arrived  (see  Anabapttbts,  II.,  §  1 ;  Zwickau 
Pbophetb),  but  Carlstadt  kept  aloof;  it  was  only 
at  the  end  of  1522  that  he  began  to  correspond 
with  Thomas  MOnser  (q.v.).  He  proceeded  in  his 
reforms  in  entire  conformity  with  the  Council  of 
Wittenberg,  in  which  he  saw  the  supreme  author- 
ity in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  city.  He 
soon  opened  the  battle  against  pictures  in  the 
churches,  in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  coun- 
cil. Some  small  excesses  occurred,  which,  how- 
ever, were  severely  condemned  by  both  the  council 
and  Carlstadt. 

These  ecclesiastical  changes  had  aroused  the 
displeasure  of  Frederick  the  Wise,  who  was  espe- 
cially offended  by  the  abolition  of  the  mass.  Cari- 
stadt and  Melanchthon  were  called  to  account. 
Melanchthon  immediately  showed  himself  sub- 
missive; Carlstadt  also  promised  in  Feb.,  1522,  to 
renounce  further  innovations  after  he  had  carried 
through  the  reforms  which  he  deemed  essential. 
But  Frederick  desired  an  entire  rehabilitation  of 
the  Old  Church  usages.  The  course  of  events  made 
it  impossible  for  Luther  to  remain  at  the  Wartburg. 
He  did  not  agree  with  Carlstadt's  radical  measures, 
believing  that  forbearance  ought  to  be  shown 
toward  the  weak.  After  his  arrival  at  Wittenberg, 
on  Mar.  6,  he  succeeded  in  shaking  the  dominating 
position  of  Carlstadt  and  counteracting  his  reforms. 
The  Lord's  Supper  8vb  una  specie  was  restored,  also 
the  elevation  of  the  host.  Carlstadt  remained 
as  professor  in  the  university,  but  lost  all  his  influ- 
ence. As  he  was  thus  deprived  of  the  possibility 
of  being  active  in  a  practical  way,  he  devoted  himself 
to  speculative  theology.  His  views  were  somewhat 
mystical,  but,  unlike  the  true  mystics,  Carlstadt 
was  not  satisfied  with  the  contemplative  rapture 
in  the  union  of  the  soul  with  God,  and  set  up  ethical 
standards  for  the  practical  realization  of  his  new 
convictions.  In  his  desire  to  do  away  with  all 
intermediary  agencies  in  the  religious  communica- 
tion between  God  and  man,  he  denied  the  indelible 
character  of  orders  and  did  not  even  acknowledge 
the  ministry  as  a  special  profession.  He  called 
himself  after  1523  '*  ein  neuer  Lai"  put  off  his 
clerical  robes,  and  lived  for  some  time  as  a  peasant 
in  Segrena,  near  Wittenberg,  with  relatives  of  his 
wife. 

In  1524  Carlstadt  became  preacher  in  Orlamfinde, 
where  he  carried  on  the  reform  of  the  church  serv- 
ice as  he  had  done  two  years  before  ia 

At  Oria-    Wittenberg.    He  expoimded  the  book 
miindSy     of  Acts  daily  to  his  congregation,  and 
1524.       on  SimdayB  and  holidays  the  Gospel  of 
John.     In  the  course  of  his  develop- 
ment Caristadt  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  not  sacramenta 


L16 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oarlatadt 


Vt  the  same  time  he  strongly  attacked  the  mass. 
Igainst  Luther  he  wrote  Verstarid  des  Worts  PauLi 
^ch  begeret  ein  Verbannter  sein.  Without  men- 
ioning  Luther's  name,  he  shows  the  dangerous 
X)n8equences  to  which  the  exaggeration  of  the 
>rinciple  concerning  forbearance  for  the  weak  might 
ead.  Apart  from  his  controversial  writings, 
!^arlstadt  emphasized  the  necessity  of  personal 
ievotion  and  sanctification. 

Carlstadt  did  not  derive  his  political  or  social 
>rinciples  from  his  theological  views.  When 
^lanzer's  revolutionary  measures  in  Allst&dt  became 
hreatening,  Carlstadt  cautioned  him,  and  he  in- 
iuced  the  people  of  OrlamQnde  to  separate  them- 
lelves  formally  from  those  of  Allst&dt.  Neverthe- 
ess,  the  points  of  difference  between  Wittenberg 
md  OrlamUnde  were  so  considerable  that  the  uni- 
versity took  active  measiunes  against  Caristadt. 
IfUther  met  Carlstadt  at  Jena,  in  Aug.,  1524,  and 
hence  proceeded  to  OrlamUnde;  he  waa  not  suc- 
cessful, however,  in  settling  the  difficulties.  In 
^ptember  Carlstadt  with  his  family,  his  adherents 
tfartin  Reinhard,  preacher  in  Jena,  and  Gerhard 
^esterburg,  his  brother-in-law,  were  expelled  from 
;he  territory  of  the  elector.  Carlstadt  now  en- 
x>untered  a  time  full  of  hardships  and  dangers,  but 

he  developed  an  extraordinary  activity 

Hard-     as  a  writer.    The  assumption  of  the 

ships  of  his  corporal   presence   of   Christ   in   the 

Later  Life.  Lord's  Supper  is,  according  to  him, 

in  contradiction  to  the  fundamental 
presuppositions  of  Christian  doctrine.  He  found 
idherents  to  these  ideas  not  only  among  the  people, 
3ut  many  even  in  the  clergy.  In  Oct.,  1524,  he 
sojourned  at  Strasburg,  then  lived  temporarily 
n  Heidelberg,  Zurich,  Basel,  Schweinfurt,  Kit- 
singen,  and  Ndrdlingen.  He  was  active  for  a  con- 
dderable  time  in  Rothenburg-on-the-Tauber,  where 
lis  sermons  carried  away  the  great  majority  of  the 
ntizens.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  Peasants' 
IVar  broke  out  in  Rothenburg.  Carlstadt  was  sent 
LS  envoy  to  the  peasants,  thus  making  himself  un- 
K>pular  among  them.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
Bouth  German  peasants  and  the  capture  of  Rothen- 
burg by  Margrave  Casimir,  Carlstadt  escaped  from 
;he  town  with  difficulty.  The  collapse  of  his  hopes 
>roke  down  his  power  of  resistance.  He  wrote 
lumbly  to  Luther  to  open  the  way  for  his  return 
x>  Saxony.  Luther  took  pity  upon  him,  and 
I^arlstadt  returned  to  Wittenberg  after  he  had 
scanted  to  some  degree  his  doctrine  oonoeming  the 
Liord's  Supper;  but  he  had  to  pledge  himself  not 
)o  teach  or  preach.  He  lived  at  first  in  Segrena, 
ifter  1526  in  Bergwitz,  where  he  had  to  earn  his 
iving  like  a  peasant.  Before  the  close  of  the  year 
le  was  reduced  almost  to  poverty,  and  he  removed 
x>  the  little  town  of  Kemberg  and  kept  a  small 
(tore.  He  soon  retracted  his  former  recantation 
ind  was  compelled  to  flee.  In  Mar.,  1529,  he  was 
idth  Melchior  Hofmann,  the  Anabaptist,  in  Hol- 
itein.  Being  expelled  hence  also,  he  wandered 
prith  Hofmann  to  East  Friesland,  where  he  remained 
imtil  the  beginning  of  1530  and  gathered  a  great 
number  of  adherents.  Thence  he  went  to  Switzer- 
land, where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Zwingli, 
who  secured  for  him  a  position  as  assistant  preacher 


in  Zurich.  In  Sept.,  1531,  he  became  preacher  in 
Altst&tten  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  but  the  un- 
fortimate  battle  near  Kappel  (Oct.  11)  compelled 
him  after  a  few  months  to  return  to  Zurich,  where 
he  lived  in  close  union  with  the  Reformers  of  that 
city.  The  preachers  of  Zurich  took  Carlstadt's 
part  when  Luther  renewed  his  attacks.  In  1534 
he  was  called  to  Basel  as  preacher  and  professor 
in  the  university.  Here  he  became  involved  in 
disputes  with  Myoonius;  the  people  took  Carl- 
stadt's part,  but  he  estranged  himself  from  his 
friends  in  Zurich.  He  fulfilled  his  last  public  task 
in  1536,  when  the  government  of  Basel  sent  him 
with  Grynsus  to  Strasburg  to  negotiate  with  the 
theologians  of  that  city  concerning  a  reconciliation 
with  the  Wittenberg  theologians  on  the  question 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  showed  a  very  concilia- 
tory spirit,  which  was  not  approved  by  the  Swiss 
theologians. 

Carlstadt's  eariiest  writings,  De  inUntUmibuM 
(1507),  DisHnctiones  aive  formalitatea  Thamista 
(1508),  were  of  a  scholastic  nature.  Hia  journey 
to  Rome  occasioned  his  treatise  Von  pApatlicher 
Heiligkeit  (1520),  in  which  he  criticized  the  abuses 
of  popery.  In  De  cananxcis  scripturia  (1520)  he 
laid  down  the  results  of  his  investigations  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament  writings;  he  shows  him- 
self a  free  and  independent  critic,  but 
Writings,  does  not  shake  the  authority  of  the 
literal  sense.  In  1521  appeared  Von 
den  Empfahem  Zeichen  und  Zueag  dee  heiligen 
Sacramente  and  Von  OelUbden  Unterrichtung ;  in 
the  latter  treatise  he  advocated  the  abolition  of 
monastic  vows,  especially  the  vow  of  celibacy. 
In  Sept.,  1521,  appeared  De  legie  liiera  aive  came  et 
epirUu;  here  Carlstadt  propounded  for  the  first 
time  an  entirely  new  principle  of  interpretation 
which  became  of  much  importance  in  the  further 
development  of  his  theology — ^the  spiritual  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  of  Scripture.  Against 
pictures  in  churches  he  wrote  in  1522  Von  AbAuung 
der  BUder,  In  1524  he  published  Prieetertum  und 
Opfer  Ckrieii,  After  his  expulsion  from  Saxony 
in  1524  appeared  the  most  radical  of  his  writings, 
Ob  man  gemach  faren  eoll,  in  which  he  denies  the 
corporeal  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  Ameig  eUicher  Hauptariikel  christiicher  Lehre, 
which  contains  a  comprehensive  summary  of  his 
views.  He  combats  the  central  position  which 
the  conception  of  sin  had  assumed  in  Luther's 
theology,  as  he  understood  it,  and  emphasizes  the 
necessity  that  Christian  liberty  and  justice  must 
produce  fruits  in  good  works. 

(Hermann  Baroe.) 

Bibuoobapst:  The  authoritative  biosraphy  is  H.  Barse, 
Andrta9  BonUnaUin  von  Karlttadt,  2  vols..  Leipsio.  1006. 
Among  the  older  literature  the  following  may  be 
consulted:  Mayer,  DiMertatio  de  KaroUtadio,  Oreifs- 
wald,  1703;  F(lsslin«  LeberieoeechiehU  dM  A.  B.  wm 
KarUtadi,  Frankfort.  1776;  J.  F.  KGhler.  BeitrOge  sur 
ErgOnMuno  der  deuUdten  Littaratur,  i.  I>ld2,  ii.  239-269, 
2  vols..  Leipeic.  1792-94;  M.  Kirchhofer,  Oewald  My- 
coniitt,  pp.  153.  316-343.  Zurich.  1813.  More  modem 
treatment  will  be  found  in:  A.  W.  DieckhofT.  De  Card' 
atadio  Luiherana  dodrina  contra  Eckium  defeneore,  Q6t- 
tingen.  1860;  idem.  Die  evanoelieehe  AbendmahUlehre  im 
ReformaHoneaeiiaUer,  ib.  1854;  Jiger.  A.  B.  mm  Karl- 
eladi,  Stuttgart.  1856;  G.  P.  Fisher.  The  ReformaHan,  pp. 
93.  113,  New  York.  1873;  W.  Walker.  Tkt  R^ormaiion, 


Oarlatadt 
Oarmel 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


41! 


pMflim,  ib.  1000:  J.  Kdstlin,  Martin  Lulher,  pMsim,  2 
▼oU.,  Berlin,  1903  (important);  Cambridgt  Modem  HU- 
tory,  vol.  ii.,  The  Reformation,  paaeim,  ib.  1904;  Moeller, 
Chiietian  Church,  vol.  iii.  paaaini,  especially  pp.  27-35; 
Schaff,  Chrietian  Church,  vol.  vi.  pMsim.  Consult  also: 
O.  Bauoh.  in  ZKO,  xi.  (1890)  448  sqq.  (on  CarUtadt's 
scholasticism);  D.  Sohftfer,  ib.  xiii.  (1892)  311  (on  the 
De  legit  Uiera). 

CARLSTADT,  JOHANN.    See  Draconites. 

CARLYLE,    THOMAS:    Historian,    biographer, 

and  easayiBt;  b.  at  Ecclefecban  (60  m.  8.  of  Edin- 

biu^h),  Dumfrieflshire,  Scotland,  Dec. 

Life  and    A,  1795;    d.  in  London  Feb.  5,  1881. 

Writings.  He  was  early  noted  for  his  extraordi- 
nary memory,  and  for  his  love  of  read- 
ing. He  entered  the  University  of  Edinbuigh  in 
1810,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  mathematician, 
but  declared  that  he  owed  nothing  to  the  university 
but  the  miscellaneous  reading  afforded  by  its 
hbrary.  Having  abandoned  the  study  of  theology, 
he  taught  mathematics  in  the  high  school  at  Annan 
for  two  years.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  Burgh  School  at  Kirkcaldy.  Here  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  German,  and  translated 
Legendre's  Oeometry,  adding  an  introductory  essay 
on  proportion. 

Carlyle  removed  to  Edinburgh  in  1818,  where  he 
supported  himself  by  literary  work,  pursued  a 
large  and  varied  course  of  reading,  and  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  German.  From  1820 
to  1823  he  contributed  a  number  of  articles  to  the 
Edinburgh  Encydopcedia  and  the  Edinburgh  Review, 
In  1824  he  introduced  Goethe  to  English  readers 
by  the  translation  of  WUhelm  Meiater*s  Lekrjahre, 
and  in  1825  published  the  Life  of  Schiller.  He 
married  Jane  Welsh  in  1826,  and  removed  in 
1828  to  Craigenputtoch,  where  he  wrote  his  Crit- 
ical and  Miacellaneoua  Esaaye,  and  Sartor  Resartua, 
a  philosophic  romance  in  the  form  of  a  treatise  on 
dreaa,  containing  his  views  on  the  problems  of 
religion  and  life;  it  was  published  during  1833-34, 
in  Fraeer's  Magazine. 

In  1834  he  removed  to  London,  to  the  house  in 
Gheyne  Row,  Ghelsea,  where  he  resided  until  his 
death.  In  1837  appeared  The  French  Revolution, 
the  first  of  his  works  to  which  his  name  was  for- 
mally attached.  In  the  same  year  he  began  lec- 
turing, and,  during  1837-43,  delivered  courses  on 
Oerman  Literature,  The  Periods  of  European  Cul- 
ture, the  Revolutions  of  Modem  Europe,  and  Heroes 
and  Hero-Worship,  besides  publishing  Chartism,  a 
political  treatise,  and  Past  and  Present. 

One  of  his  most  important  woiks,  Oliver  Crom- 
well's Letters  and  Speeches,  was  issued  in  1845,  and 
produced  a  great  revolution  of  sentiment  in  favor 
of  Cromwell.  In  1840  Carlylo  inaugurated  the 
movement  which  resulted  in  the  London  Library, 
of  which  he  was  afterward  elected  president.  Dur- 
ing 1848-^50  he  wrote  a  number  of  political  and 
social  treatises,  notably  The  Latter  Day  Pam- 
phlets, the  ultimate  and  most  violent  expression 
of  his  political  creed. 

The  Life  of  John  Sterling,  especially  valuable 
as  a  partial  expression  of  his  own  religious  views, 
appeared  in  1851.  His  magnum  opus.  The  History 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  begun  in  1858,  and 
finished  in  1865.    It  is  a  monument  of  patient 


industry  and  minute  research,  and  contains  . 
complete  political  history  of  the  eighteenth  f^> 
tury.  In  1866  Carlyle  was  choeen  rector  <rf  i  - 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  delivered  an  in2> 
gural  on  The  Choice  of  Books.  Mrs.  Caririe  u-d 
during  his  absence  on  this  occasion  (Apr.  2: 
A  few  newspaper  articles,  with  Historicai  Shi^ia 
of  the  Early  Kings  of  Norway,  and  The  Partra-:* 
of  John  Knox,  marked  the  next  five  years,  aaj 
completed  his  literary  labors. 

Cariyle's  life  is  mariced  by  great  unity  of  per- 
pose  and  concentration  of  energy.  He  lived  :cr 
literature.  With  his  imaginative  genius,  Li 
poetic  insight,  and  his  opulent  diction,  he  wa^  i 
poet  by  constitution;  but  his  lack  of  the  sense .'' 
form  and  proportion,  and  his  inip>atienoe  of  man- 
ured expression,  made  him  despise  poetry.  He  ^  3 
preacher  and  a  prophet  rather  than  an  aitL< 
His  keen  sense  of  the  grotesque,  with  the  htl. 
depth  of  his  nature,  made  him  a  humorist  at  oe^ 
racy,  subtle,  and  satirical;  but  this  element  dercl- 
op^  itself  disproportionately,  and  ran  into  rp- 
icism  as  he  grew  older. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  admixture  of  ethic* 
and  philosophy  in   his  writings,    it   is  well-nli^ 

impossible   to   define    accurately  ks 

Ethics      position   as  a  philosopher,   morali^'. 

and        or  reUgionist.     Veracity  is  the  ba.^ii 

Philosophy,  of  his  ethical  conceptions,  by  which  be 

means  the  disposition  to  gp  behbi 
appearances  to  facts,  and  the  assertion  of  reality  as 
against  mere  symbols  and  conventionalities.    Eji 
hatred  of  shams  is  intense,  and  often  leads  him  mto 
needless  roughness  of  speech.     His  ethical  ides! 
is  defective  from  its  identification  of  physical  and 
moral  order,  of  might  and  right.     It  is  too  sub- 
jective, lodging  the  test  of  right  in  each  mac's 
moral  consciousness.     Hence  his  fundamental  fal- 
lacy, expounded  in  Hero-Worship,  and  applied  ic 
Frederick — the  reverence   for  strength,    regardless 
of  moral  quality.     He  is  a  dangerous  guide,  there- 
fore,  as  a  historian    and    political     philosopher. 
His  conception  of  history  as  only  the  record  d 
the  world's  great  men  is  radically  false.     He  has 
no  sense  of  the  popular  power  in  the  solution  of 
political   problems.     The   moral    teaching  of  his 
histories  is  unsound  in   blinding  the   reader  to 
vice  through  the  admiration  of  greatness.    The 
logical  outcome  of  his  political  philosophy  is  sla- 
very and  despotism.     As  a  historian  he  is  distm- 
guished  by  exact  and  laborious  attention  to  detsSi. 
He  studies  folios  and  pasquinades  alike;    and  no 
detail  of  topography,  feature,  or  costume  escapes 
him.     His  histories  are  a  series  of  striking  por- 
traits or  pictures.     He  stands  committed  to  no 
philosophical  system.     With  much  talk  about  the 
real  and  practical,  his  philosophy  is  intuitional  aod 
sentimental,  emphasizing  feeling  above  reason. 

Theologically  he  can  not  be  accuratdy  placed. 
The  Life  of  Sterling  throws  most  light  upon  hk 

religious    views.      He  may  fairly  be 

Religious    regarded  as  a  theist.      He  is  zxiainlj 

Views,      silent  on  the  truth  of  creeds,  always 

reverential  toward  Christ,  and,  whOe 
agreeing  that  Christianity  is  the  supreme  religion. 
denies  that  it  embraces  all  truth.     He  seems  to  hdi 


17 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oarlstadt 
Oarmel 


:SLt  responsibility  to  God  is  the  essential  truth 
reshadowed  in  all  religions,  and  that  the  essence 
all  religion  is  to  keep  conscience  alive  and  shining. 
e  believes  in  retribution  as  the  natural  outteme 
iRrrong.  He  revered  genuine  piety,  and  his  own 
oral  life  was  singularly  pure.  As  a  critic  he  has 
"eat  knowledge  and  keen  discernment,  but  is  too 
kble  to  be  swayed  by  his  personal  prejudices. 
His  earlier  style,  as  in  the  essays  on  Bums  and 
M>tt,  was  natural,  simple,  dignified,  and  vigorous. 
ia  later  style  is  figurative,  abrupt,  enigmatical, 
znetimes  turgid  and  involved,  inverted,  declama- 
•ry,  and  at  times  coarse,  yet  withal  often  beauti- 
I,  rich,  and  powerful,  and  always  picturesque. 

M.  R.  Vincent. 
blioorapht:  DNB^  ix.  127  appends  to  aeoount  of  Car- 
lyle's  life  a  list  of  the  uncollected  writings  as  well  as  of 
his  books.  K  H.  Shepherd  has  published  a  BihUoffraphy 
of  Ttumuu  CarlyU,  London,  1881,  and  in  Nolf  and 
Queries,  6th  series,  iv.  145,  201,  226  are  lists  of  articles 
referrinc  to  Garlyle.  The  authorities  for  Garlyle's  life 
Are  his  Reminiactneet,  ed.  J.  A.  Froude,  London,  1881; 
J.  A.  Froude,  Thomaa  CarlyU,  a  Hiatary  of  tk$  FirH  Party 
Yeara  of  hia  Life,  2  vols.,  1882,  and  HtMtory  of  Ma  lAfa  in 
London,  2  vols.,  1884;  Corraapondonea  of  Thomaa  Car- 
lyU  and  Ralvh  Waldo  Bmtraon,  ed.  C.  E.  Norton,  Boston, 
1883;  Lattera  and  Mamoriala  of  Jane  WOik  CarlyU,  pr^ 
•pared  ...  by  Thomaa  CarlyU  and  edited  hy  J.  A.  Froude, 
3  vols.,  London,  1883. 

For  accounts  of  his  life  and  estimates  of  his  writings 
and  activities  consult:  O.  BfacCrie,  The  Relioion  of  our 
lAterature,  Baaaya  upon  Thomaa  CarlyU,  London,  1876; 
M.  D.  Conway,  Thomaa  CarlyU,  ib.  1881;  E.  D.  Mead, 
The  Philoeophy  of  CarlyU,  Boston,  1881;  K  H.  Shep- 
herd, Memoira  of  the  Life  and  WriHnga  of  Thomaa  CarlyU, 
London,  1881;  H.  James,  Literary  Remaina,  Some  Per- 
aonal  ReeoUeeOona  of  CarlyU,  Boston,  1884;  D.  Masson, 
CarlyU  peraonaUy  and  in  hu  WriHnga,  London,  1886; 
A.  8.  Arnold,  The  Story  of  Thomaa  CarlyU,  ib.  1888; 
E.  FlOgel.  r.  CarlyUa  rtLioiHee  und  siltficAs  Bntvoidduno 
Mfuf  WeUanaehauung*  I^eipsie,  1887,  Eng.  transl.,  Lon- 
don, 1891;  J.  M.  Robertson,  Modem  Humaniata,  Socio- 
logical  Studiea  of  CarlyU,  ib.  1801  {  David  Wilson.  Mr. 
Froude  and  CarlyU,  New  York,  1808;  May  Alden  Ward, 
Propheta  of  tka  Nineteenth  Century,  Boston,  1000;  J.  M. 
Sloan,  The  CarlyU  Country,  PhiUdelphia,  1003;  H.  Paul, 
Life  of  Froude,  London,  1006;  lUuatrated  Memorial 
Volume  of  the  CarlyWa  Houae  Purehaae  Fund  Committee, 
ufith  Catalogue  of  CarlyWe  Booka,  MSS.,  Pieturea,  and 
Furniture,  London,  1807. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS:  Apostle  of  the  Catholic 
postolic  Church  (q.v.) ;  b.  at  King's  Grange  (90  m. 
w.  of  Edinburgh),  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland, 
Illy  17,  1803;  d.  at  Albury  (26  m.  s.w.  of  London) 
an.  28,  1855.  After  studying  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
ersity  he  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1824. 
he  same  year  by  the  death  of  a  relative  the  dor- 
tant  title  of  Baron  Cariyle  passed  over  to  him. 
n  1831  he  figured  as  legal  counsel  of  the  Rev.  John 
[cLeod  Campbell  (q.v.)  in  the  famous  Row  heresy 
ase.  He  believed  that  the  revival  in  Scotland 
f  the  speaking  in  prophecy  and  tongues  was  a  true 
rorlc  of  the  Spirit,  and  in  Apr.,  1835,  was  himself 
ailed  to  the  apostolate.  Thereupon  he  gave  up 
is  practise  at  the  bar  and  settled  with  his  wife 
t  Albury,  where  was  the  seat  of  the  Apostolic 
lollege,  and  the  center  of  its  work.  He  was  much 
a  Germany,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  many 
heologians,  among  them  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch  (q.v.) 
nd  C.  J.  T.  Boehm.  In  1845  he  published  at 
x)ndon  The  Moral  Phenomena  of  Germany ^  which 
ntroduced  him  to  King  Frederick  William  IV.  of 
i^rufl8ia.  He  wrote  many  pamphlets,  among  which 
n,— 27 


may  be  mentioned  Pleadings  with  my  Mother ,  the 
Church  of  Scotland  (1854).  A  volume  of  his  col- 
lected writings  was  published  in  1878. 

Samuel  J.  Andrkwb. 

CARMEL :  The  mountain  in  the  west  of  Palestine 
which  separates  the  Plain  of  Acre  from  the  Plain  of 
Sharon.  I  Kings  xviii.  40-46  locates  it  near  the 
Kishon  and  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Jezreel 
(q.v.);  Joshua  zix.  26  and  Jer.  xlvi.  18  locate  it 
as  the  southern  boundary  of  Asher  and  as  abutting 
on  the  sea.  Jabal  Karmal  is  the  name  it  still  bears, 
and  it  is  also  called  "  Mount  of  the  Holy  Elijah." 
In  the  Hebrew  the  name  has  the  article,  and  means 
"wooded  garden,"  setting  forth  the  contrast 
between  the  greenness  of  Carmel  and  the  bareness 
of  the  hills  of  central  Palestine.  This  fact  is  often 
referred  to  in  Scripture,  the  wooded  Bashan,  Leb- 
anon, and  Carmel  being  named  together,  though 
the  bushy  rather  than  forest  growth  of  the  last  is 
sometimes  noted. 

The  mountain  is  wedge-shaped,  with  the  edge 
toward  the  sea;  the  western  extension  turning 
toward  the  south  runs  approximately  parallel  to  the 
coast,  while  the  northern  cliffs  curve  gently  along 
the  plain  of  the  Kishon.  Its  stone  is  a  gray  lime- 
stone, and  caves  are  numerous.  It  is  about  thir» 
teen  miles  in  length  and  eight  and  a  half  broad  at  its 
eastern  end.  It  is  marked  off  by  the  Wadi-al-Milh, 
emptying  into  the  Kishon,  and  the  Wadi-al-Matabin, 
which  flows  to  the  coast  plain. 

The  northern  point  is  occupied  by  the  convent 
of  the  Carmelites  and  a  shelter  provided  for  pil- 
grims. The  situation  affords  an  imobstructed  view 
both  of  the  coast  to  the  south  and  of  that  to  the 
north  as  far  as  Acre.  There  are  at  present  only  two 
villages  on  the  mountun,  both  in  the  southern  part 
and  inhabited  by  Druses.  In  earlier  times  the 
mountain  was  more  densely  populated,  as  is  shown 
by  the  remains  of  dstems  and  oil-  and  wine-presses. 
In  1820  the  Druses  made  seventeen  settlements 
there,  but  in  the  Turco-Egyptian  war  all  were 
destroyed  but  two. 

'  From  its  striking  characteristics  of  position,  form, 
and  abundance  of  tree-growth,  it  is  hardly  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Carmel  was  a  sacred  place. 
I  Kings  xviii.  connects  this  fact  with  the  memory 
of  Elijah.  The  site  of  the  episode  related  there  is 
given  by  tradition  as  El-Mahraka,  "the Place  of 
Burning,"  a  terrace,  1,600  feet  above  the  sea,  where 
are  a  [Druse]  chapel  and  some  ruins.  Beneath  this 
on  the  bank  of  the  Kishon  is  a  little  mound  to 
which  the  name  "Hill  of  the  Priests"  is  given, 
pointed  out  as  the  place  where  the  priests  of  Baal 
were  slain.  Tradition  locates  also  the  place  where 
Elijah  dwelt,  in  a  valley,  in  which  there  is  a  spring 
known  as  Ain-al-Sih,  about  two  miles  south  of  the 
convent.  The  Mohammedans  regard  the  place  as 
sacred,  and  point  out  the  site  of  Elijah's  garden, 
where  appear  numbers  of  "  Elijah's  melons," 
geodes  which  characterize  the  Carmel  formation. 
Near  it  the  first  monastery  was  built  about  1200, 
replaced  by  a  new  one  somewhat  later,  which  was 
destroyed  by  Abdallah  Pasha  in  1821  that  it  might 
not  be  used  as  a  fort  by  his  enemies.  It  was  re- 
constructed about  1828,  and  the  church  is  built  over 


Caroline  Books 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


42l 


an  '*  Elijah-grotto  ";  that  is,  a  cave  in  which  Elijah 
is  said  to  have  lived. 

The  Old  Testament  does  not  determine  to  which 
of  the  tribes  Carmel  belonged,  whether  to  Asher, 
Zebiilim,  or  Manasseh.  At  various  times  it  was 
oomited  to  Galilee  and  to  Phenicia.  Tacitus,  asserts 
that  **  Carmel "  was  the  name  of  a  mountain  and  a 
deity,  and  Vespasian  had  the  oracle  there  consulted. 

The  coast  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  is  about 
100  yards  wide,  broadening  north  and  south.  At 
the  foot  of  the  bay  of  Akko  there  was  an  old  city 
called  Sycaminum  by  Greeks  and  Romans  and 
Haifa  in  the  Talmud,  coins  of  which  are  known. 
The  place  was  destroyed  and  the  material  used 
to  build  the  present  Haifa  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Kishon,  1760,  the  growth  of  which  in  recent  years 
has  been  quite  rapid.  (H.  Guthb.) 

Biblxoorapht:  C.  R.  Condor  and  H.  H.  Eatohener.  Survey 
of  Wealem  Paiettina,  Memoira,  i.  264  sqq.,  London,  1881; 
G.  A.  Smith,  HiHoricai  Geooraphy  of  Ikt  Holy  Land,  337- 
340,  7th  ed..  London.  1897;  E.  RobinBon,  Biblical  Re- 
oeanhet  in  PaUttine,  iii.  180,  Boston,  1841;  A.  Reland, 
PaliBuUna,  2  vols.,  Utrecht,  1714;  J.  de  8.  Th^rfese,  Le 
Sanctuaire  du  Mont  Carmti  depuia  aon  origine  iu$qu*h  noa 
joura,  Maraeilles,  1876;  T.  Saunders,  Introduction  to  ti^a 
Survey  of  Weatem  Palaatina,  London,  1881;  PEF,  Quar- 
terly Statementa,  particularly  for  the  years  1882-86;  G. 
Ebers  and  H.  Guthe,  PaUXatina  in  BUd  und  Wort,  ii.  106 
iqq.,  1884;  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent-work  in  Paleaiina,  new  ed., 
London,  1880. 

CARMELITES. 

Origin  and  Early  History  ((  1). 
Habit  and  Scapular  ((  2). 
Reforms  Within  the  Order  (|  3). 
Controversies  with  Other  Orders  (i  4). 
Present  Status  (S  6). 

Carmelites  (Ordo  fratrum  BeatcB  Virginia  Maria 
de  monte  Carmdo)  is  the  name  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
order  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  by  a  certain 
Berthold  (d.  after  1185)  on  Mount  Carmel,  whence 
the  order  receives  its  name.  Carmelite  tradition 
traces  the  origin  of  the  order  to  a  community  of 
hermits  on  Mount  Carmel  that  succeeded  the 
schools  of  the  prophets  in  ancient  Israel,  although 
there  are  no  certain  records  of  monks  on  this  moun- 
tain before  the  ninth  decade  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Berthold,  who  had  gone  to  Palestine  from  Calabria 
either  as  a  pilgrim  or  as  a  crusader,  chose  Mount 
Carmel  as  the  seat  of  his  community  because  it  was 
the  traditional  home  of  Elijah.  It  was  but  natural 
that  this  conmiunityof  Eastern  hermits  in  the  Holy 
Land  should  gain  constant  accessions  from  pil- 
grims, and  in  1209  they  received  a  rule  from  the 
patriarch  Albert  of  Jerusalem.     This 

z.  Origin  consisted  of  sixteen  articles,  which 
and  Early  enjoined    strict    obedience    to    their 

History,  prior,  residence  in  individual  cells, 
constancy  in  prayer,  the  hearing  of 
mass  every  morning  in  the  oratory  of  the  com- 
munity, poverty  and  toil,  daily  silence  from  ves- 
pers until  terce  the  next  morning,  abstinence  from 
all  forms  of  meat  except  in  cases  of  severe  illness, 
and  fasting  from  Holy  Cross  Day  (Sept.  14)  to 
Easter  of  the  following  year.  This  rule  received 
the  approval  of  Honorius  III.  in  1226.  With  the 
increasing  cleavage  between  the  West  and  the 
East,  however,  the  Carmelites  found  it  advisable 
to  leave  their  original  home,  and  in  1238  they  settled 


in  Cyprus  and  Sicily.  In  1240  they  were  in  Yiii 
land,  and  four  years  later  in  southern  Frsi 
whil<^  by  1245  they  were  so  numerous  that  tis- 
were  able  to  hold  their  first  general  chapter 
Aylesford,  England,  where  Simon  Stock,  tie 
eighty  years  of  age,  was  choeen  generaL  Durz^' 
his  rule  of  twenty  years  the  order  prospered,  espe- 
cially by  the  establishment  of  a  monastery  v> 
Paris  by  St.  Louis  in  1259. 

The  original  rule  of  the  order  was  now  chacft. 
to  conform  to  that  of  the  mendicant  ordeis  :•: 
the  initiative  of  Simon  Stock  and  at  the  commsi . 
of  Innocent  IV.  Their  former  habit  of  a  mstu 
with  black  and  white  or  brown  and  white  strrin 
was  discarded,  and  they  wore  the  same  habit  i: 
the  Dominicans,  except  that  the  cloak  was  vhhe 
They  also  borrowed  much  from  the  Dominiec 
and  Franciscan  rules.  Their  distinctive  ganDei: 
waa  a  scapular  of  two  strips  of  gnj 

3.  Habit    cloth,  worn  on  the  breast  and  bsei 
and        and  fastened  at  the  shoulders.    TU: 

Scapular,  according  to  the  traditions  of  the  oni<: 
was  given  to  Simon  Stock  by  tir 
Virgin  herself,  who  descended  from  heaven  u: 
promised  that  all  who  wear  it  in  this  world,  or  ^ 
least  in  the  hour  of  death,  should  be  saved,  ^ 
herself  going  each  Saturday  to  piu^gatory  to  rescae 
those  to  whom  this  might  apply.  Thus  arose . 
sodality  of  the  scapular,  which  affiliated  a  lare; 
nimiber  of  laymen  with  the  Carmelites.  The  wdt^ 
speedily  became  infected  with  arrogance,  bower^T 
contesting  the  invention  of  the  rosazy  with  tk 
Dominicans,  terming  themselves  the  brothers  i 
the  Virgin,  and  asserting,  on  the  basis  of  tbej 
traditional  association  with  Elijah,  that  all  ikf 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the  Yup^ 
and  the  Apostles,  had  been  Carmelites.  Their 
second  general,  Nicholas  of  Narbonne  (1263-?'!. 
protested  in  vain,  only  to  be  deposed  from  iu 
office. 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the 
Carmelites,  like  other  monastic  orders,  decline>i 
and  reform  became  imperative.  Shortly  before 
1433  three  monasteries  in  Valais,  Tuscany,  a&i 
Mantua  were  reformed  by  the  preaching  of  Th(»nss 
Conecte  of  Rennes  and  formed  the  congregatioa 
of  Mantua,  which  was  declared  independent  of 
the  order  by  Eugenius  IV.  In  1431  or  1432  the 
same  pope  sanctioned  certain  modifications  of  the 
Carmelite  rule,  and  in  1459  Hus  II.  left  the  rtpi- 
lation  of  fasts  to  the  discretion  of  the  gener&l 
Soreth,  who  was  then  general,  and  had  alre^dr 
established  the  order  of  Carmelite  nuns  in  145:^. 
accordingly  sought  to  restore  the 
3.  Reforms    primitive    asceticism,    but    died    d 

Within  poison  at  Nantes  in  1471-  In  1476 
the  Order,  a  bull  of  Sixtus  IV.  founded  the  Car- 
melites of  the  Third  Order,  who  re- 
ceived a  special  rule  in  1635,  which  was  amended 
in  1678.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  a  number  of 
short-lived  reforms,  but  it  was  not  until  the  secoaj 
half  of  the  same  century  that  a  thorough  refor> 
mation  of  the  Carmelites  was  carried  out  by  St 
Theresa,  who,  together  with  St.  John  of  the  Cro^ 
established  the  Discaloed  Carmelites.  In  oonsdo^ 
opposition  to  Protestantism  the  order  was  qot 


410 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oarmelitoa 
Oarolino  Books 


inspired  with  an  asceticism  and  a  devotion  hitherto 
unknown  to  it.  In  1593  the  Discaloed  Cannelites 
had  their  own  general,  and  by  1600  they  were  so 
numerous  that  it  became  necessary  to  divide  them 
into  the  two  congregations  of  Spain  and  of  Italy, 
or  St.  Elias,  the  latter  including  all  provinces  except 
Spain.  Henceforth  there  were  four  Carmelite 
generals:  the  general  of  the  Observantines,  of  the 
independent  congregation  of  Mantua,  and  of  the 
two  congregations  of  the  Discalced  Carmelites. 

By  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Carmelites  had  reached  their  zenith.  At  this 
period,  however,  they  became  involved  in  contro- 
vereies  with  other  orders,  particularly  with  the 
Jesuits.  The  special  objects  of  attack  were  the 
traditional  origin  of  the  Carmelites  and  the  source 
of  their  scapular.  The  Sorbonne,  represented  by 
Jean  Launoy,  joined  the  Jesuits  in  their  polemics 
against    the   Carmelites.     Papebroch, 

4.  Contro-  the    Bollandist    editor    of    the    Acta 
▼ersies  with  Sanciorumt  was  answered  by  the  Car- 
Other      melite   Sebastian   of   St.    Paul,   who 

Orders,  made  such  serious  charges  against  the 
orthodoxy  of  his  opponent's  writings 
that  the  very  existence  of  the  Bollandists  was 
threatened.  The  peril  was  averted,  however,  and 
in  1696  a  decree  of  Rocaberti,  arohbishop  of  Va- 
lencia and  inquisitor-general  of  the  holy  office,  for- 
bade all  further  controversies  between  the  Carmel- 
ites and  Jesuits.  Two  years  later,  on  Nov.  20, 1698, 
Innocent  XII.  issued  a  brief  which  definitely  ended 
the  controversy  on  pain  of  excommimication,  and 
placed  all  writings  in  violation  of  the  brief  upon 
the  Index. 

The  French  Revolution  and  the  sequestration  of 

monasteries  in  southern  Europe  were  heavy  blows 

to  the  Carmelites.    At  the  present  time  there  are 

five  provinces  of  Calced  Carmelites  (Rome,  Malta, 

Iceland,  England,  and   Galicia)  and 

5.  Present  eight    of    Discaloed    (Rome,    Genoa, 
Status.      Lombardy,    Venice,    Tuscany,    Pied- 
mont,  Aquitaine,  and   Avignon),    in 

addition  to  a  number  of  isolated  cloisters  and 
priories  of  both  Calced  and  Discalced  Carmelites 
in  various  countries.  (O.  ZOcKLERf.) 

Bibuoorapht:  For  souroes  consult:  ASB  for  Mar.  6 
and  20,  and  Apr.  8;  D.  Papebroch,  Retponaio  ad  ex- 
ponHanem  emrum  per  Sebaatian  a  8.  Paulo  «vi40olam, 
3  vob.,  Antwerp,  1606-00;  Chroniquea  de  Vordv  de»  Car- 
maUe»  de  la  Rifarme  de  3te,  TfUriee  ...  en  France, 
6  vols.,  Troyes,  1846-65,  second  series,  4  vols.,  Poitiers, 
1888-80.  Consult  further:  Heimbuoher,  Orden  und  Kon- 
greoaJtumen^  ii.  1-32;  Helyot,  Ordree  monaetiquee,  L  282- 
300;  H.  E.  Manning,  Life  of  St,  Tertaa,  London,  1866; 
H.  J.  Ck>leridge,  Life  and  Lettere  of  St.  Tereea,  3  vols.,  ib. 
1881-88;  F.  H.  Reusch,  Index  der  verbotenen  BUcher,  ii. 
267-276.  620-621,  601.  Bonn.  1886;  H.  H.  Koch.  Die 
KarmdHenkldeter  der  niederdetUachen  Provinx,  Freiburg, 
1880;  G.  W.  Currier,  Carmel  in  America,  Baltimore,  1800; 
idem,  Relioioue  Ordere,  pp.  284-304;  L.  A.  le  Moyne  de 
la  Borderie,  Hietoire  dee  Carmee  en  Bretagrte,  Rennes, 
1806;  J.  P.  Rushe,  Carmel  in  Ireland:  Narrative  of  iKe 
IrWi  Protfinee  of  CarmeHtee,  London,  1807;  B.  Zimmer- 
mann,  Carmel  in  England.  Hiet.  of  the  Eng,  Mieaion  of 
the  Carmelilee,  1615-1849,  London.  1800;  Life  of  St.  John 
of  the  Croee,  transl.  and  ed.  by  David  Lewis,  London, 
1807. 

CARNESECCm,    cOr'n^-sdc'^cht,    PIETRO.    See 
Italy,  Thb  Reformation  m. 


CAROLINE  BOOKS. 


Origin  of  the  Caroline  Books 

(8  1). 
Manuscripts     and     Editions 

(§2). 
Problem  of  Authorship  (I  3). 
The   Work    Sent    to    Pope 

Adrian  (|  4). 
Relation  of  Original  Work  to 

Larger  Recension  ((  6). 
Book  I.  (S  6). 


Book  II.  (S  7). 

Book  III.  (I  8). 

Book  IV.  (S  0). 

Characterisation  of  the  Caro- 
line Books  (I  10). 

Importance  of  the  Work 
(8  11). 

Theological  Standpoint  (1 12). 

Later  Influence  of  the  Caro- 
Une  Books  ((  13). 


"  Caroline  Books  "  is  the  name  given  to  a  criticism 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  Second  Council  of  Nicea 
(787),  which  appeared  under  the  name  of  Charle- 
magne toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  acts  of  the  council  had  been  sent  to  Charle- 
magne in  a  very  imperfect  Latin  version.  Already 
displeased  with  the  attitude  of  the  Byzantine  court 
and  the  equivocal  policy  of  Pope  Adrian  I.,  he  took 
occasion  to  have  the  whole  question  of  the  icono- 
clastic controversy  and  of  the  validity  of  the  coun- 
cil's action  discussed  by  his^  theologians,  and  sent 
on  the  report  of  its  proceedings  to  King  Offa  in 
England,  with  a  request  for  the  opinion  of  his 
bishops.  Alcuxn,  then  in  England,  drew  up  their 
reply,  and  brought  it  to  Charlemagne.  It  has 
been  lost,  and  thus  it  is  not  now  known  in  what 
relation  it  stands  to  the  work  which  the  emperor 
caused  to  be  written  about  the  same  time  (790 
or  soon  after),  and  promulgated  as  having  the 
assent  of  the  bishops  of  his  realm, 

X.  Origin    under  the  title  Opus  inlustrisHmi  el 
of  the       excellenHasimi  aeu  spectabUia  viri  Caroli, 

Caroline    nittu  Dei  regis  Francorum  .  .  .  contra 

Books.      Synodum,  qucB  in  partibiu  GrcBcice  pro 
adorandia  imaginibua  stolide  et  arro- 
ganler  gesta  eat.    The  work,  whose  contents  and 
spirit  are  sufficiently  indicated  by  this  title,  con- 
sists of  four  books  containing  120  chapters.     It 
is  preserved  in  two  manuscripts,  the  Codex  Pariai- 
nua  and  the  Codex  Vaticanua,  the  latter  somewhat 
defective  and  apparently  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century.    Two  more  were  known  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  but  have  since  been  lost. 
One  was  said  then  to  be  extant  in  Rome,  and  a 
chapter  from  it  was  quoted  by  Steuchi,  the  papal 
librarian,  in  a  polemical  work  against  Laurentius 
Valla.    The  other,  then  extant  in  France,  was  the 
basis  of  the  editio  princepa  of  1549, 
3.  Manu-    printed  probably  in  Paris  and  edited* 
Bcripts  and  by  Jean  du  Tillet,  later  bishop  of  St. 

Editions.  Brieux  and  of  Meaux.  This  edition, 
which  the  subsequent  ones  followed, 
was  used  by  the  Protestante  (Flacius,  Calvin, 
Chemnitz,  and  others)  in  their  attacks  on  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  and,  therefore,  put  on  the 
Index  by  the  popes  from  1564,  which  accounts  for 
its  rarity.  Of  the  subsequent  editions  the  best 
is  that  published  by  Heumann  in  1731,  which 
makes  use  of  all  the  materials  at  his  command 
and  gives  the  introductions  and  notes  of  previous 
editors.  The  less  perfect  edition  of  Goldast  (1608) 
is  followed  in  MPL,  xcviii. 

The  authenticity  of  the  work  was  denied  by 
many  of  the  older  Roman  Catholic  theologians, 
such  as  Surius  (who  thought  it  a  sixteenth-centuiy 
forgery),   Bellarmine,   Suarez,   Baronius,   and  as 


Caroline  Books 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


ti: 


recently  as  1860  by  Floes  of  Bonn,  who  succeeded 
in  convincing  Baur  that  it  was  at  least  doubtful. 
But  these  doubts  have  long  since  been  abandoned 
by  Catholic  theologians  (the  Jesuit  Sirmond, 
Natalia  Alexander,  Du  Pin,  Hefele).  The  oldest 
external  evidence  in  its  favor  is  the  letter  of  Adrian 
himself  (printed  by  Mansi,  Biigne,  and  Jaffd); 
the  next  is  that  of  Hincmar  of  Reims,  who  says  he 
has  seen  the  book  in  the  imperial  palace,  and  quotes 
a  chapter  (iv.  26)  from  it.  If,  however,  the  origin 
of  the  work  from  Charlemagne's  immediate  entou- 
rage and  by  his  authority  is  indubitable,  the  ques- 
tion as  to  the  actual  author  is  still 
3.  Problem  unsolved.  This  can  not,  of  course, 
of  Author-  have  been  Charlemagne  himself, 
ship.  though  his  name  is  used,  but  must  have 
been  one  (if  not  more  than  one)  of 
the  most  prominent  theologians  of  his  court.  The 
majority  of  scholars  are  inclined  to  favor  Alcuin; 
but  there  is  some  reason  to  think  that  it  may  have 
been  Abbot  Angilbert  of  St.  Riquier,  who  stood 
in  dose  relations  to  Charlemagne  and  was  en- 
trusted by  him  with  negotiations  at  Rome  regard- 
ing this  controversy. 

The  composition  of  the  work  was  begun,  as 
appears  from  the  preface  to  the  first  book,  not 
earlier  than  the  winter  of  78&-790  and  not  later 
than  the  summer  of  791.  When  it  was  completed 
is  not  now  known,  but  Charlemagne  was  not  likely 
to  have  granted  his  theologians  more  time  than 
was  necessary,  so  that  it  may  have  been  finished 
in  790  or  791.  It  was  intended  to  affect  public 
opinion  in  favor  of  Charlemagne's  rejection  of  the 
Nicene  decrees.  He  endeavored  to  obtain  like 
action  from  Pope  Adrian,  and  sent  Angilbert  to 
Rome  for  this  purpose.  Adrian's  answer  referred 
to  above  discusses  and  controverts  eighty- five 
chapters  somewhat  fully.  The  question  arises 
whether  Angilbert  laid  before  him  the  whole  work 
or  only  these  chapters,  and  whether 

4«  The  these  eighty-five  were  the  basis  for 
Work  Sent  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition,  or  a 

to  Pope     condensation  of  the  larger  work.    A 

Adrian,  supplementary  question  also  arises 
as  to  the  date  of  Angilbert's  mis- 
sion, whether  it  was  before  or  after  the  Synod  of 
Frankfort  in  794.  The  answer  to  the  first  ques- 
tion is  determined  by  Adrian's  assertion  that  he 
lias  answered  each  chapter  seriatim,  and  by  a 
similar  assertion  of  the  Council  of  Paris  (825). 
Hincmar  was  probably  in  error  when  he  said  that 
the  ''  not  small  volume "  which  he  saw  had  been 
sent  to  Rome.  The  second  question  involves  more 
difficulty.  The  theory,  recently  supported  by 
Hampe,  that  Adrian's  answer  led  to  the  expansion 
of  the  original  document  into  the 
5.  Relation  present  Caroline  Books  is  invalidated 
of         by  the  fact  that  in  their  present  shape 

Original     they  contain  no  reference  to  Adrian's 

Work  to    answer,  and  make  no  attempt  to  rebut 

Larger  Re-  it.    It  is  more  likely  that  the  eighty- 

cenaion.     five    chapters  consisted   of    extracts 

from   the  larger  work.    Adrian  was 

asked   to   condenm   certain    propositions,  not   to 

confirm    Charlemagne's    official    pronouncement. 

As  to  the  date  of  tiiis  proceeding,  it  must  have 


been  before  the  Synod  of  Frankfort,  whose . 
dsion  was  taken  in  the  presence  of  papal  lep^ 
and  its  validity  never  questioned,  while  the  r?;- 
tion  of  the  eighty-five  chapters  would  h&ire  [rr. 
tantamount  to  a  oondenonation  of  it.  Anfit''* 
was  in  Rome  in  792,  and  the  occurrence  probln 
took  place  then — ^possibly  not  till  the  next  ^ 
In  consequence  Chariemagne  laid  the  matter  to 
the  synod. 

We  come  now  to  the  contents  and  chancUr .: 
the  lAbri  Carolini,  Each  book  has  ita  own  \x- 
ace.  That  of  Book  I.  begins  with  a  rhetora: 
eulogy  of  the  Church  as  the  ark  of  aafety,  Ckrt- 
magne's  duty  to  which  leads  him  to  take  up  tb 
question.  Pride  and  ambition  have  led  the  Ea^te 
princes  and  bishops  to  introduce  innovatioDs  ici-: 
the  true  doctrine  "by  notorious  and  seoseb 
synods."  The  Coimcil  of  Constantmople  (T3i 
erred  in  one  direction,  by  abolishing  the  pictJ^ 
which  had  from  of  old  served  to  adom  the  chortba 
and  commemorate  past  events,  referring  what  Go: 
had  spoken  of  idols  to  images.  The  Mco 
Council,  on  the  other  hand,  three  years  befort  :> 
date  of  writing,  had  erred  not  less,  by  exborr:: 
the  people  to  worship  such  images.  Both  per- 
vert^ the  teaching  of  the  fathers,  who  aUotK 

the  possession  of  images,  but  ioAah 
6.  Book  L  the  worship  of  them.    We,  hower? 

resting  on  the  foundation  of  the  Scf - 
tures,  the  orthodox  fathers,  and  the  six  ecumaii&- 
councils,  reject  all  innovations,  espedallj  thoR : 
the  Nicene  Council,  whose  acts  have  r»cbed  & 
We  have  undertaken  to  combat  these  errors  rcz 
theassistanceof  the  clergy  of  our  kingdom.  Neitl^ 
of  these  councils  deserves  the  name  of  ecumenioL 
and  in  contrast  with  both,  the  tna  iMdia  must  be 
followed,  which  consists  in  neither  breaking  dor 
the  images  nor  worshiping  them,  but  retabi:< 
them  as  ornaments  and  memorials,  adoring  ^'^' 
alone  and  rendering  due  veneration  to  the  sais-^ 
The  standpoint  being  thus  set  forth  in  the  preisft 
the  polemic  of  Book  I.  is  directed  first  a^'o^  ^ 
imperial  sunmions  to  the  Nicene  Council,  wbc 
phraseology  is  oondenmed  in  four  several  poiO'* 
The  council  itself  is  accused  of  erroneous  exj<^ 
sition  of  the  Scriptures  and  erroneous  empIoyniS' 
of  patristic  citations.  The  author  thinks  it  oecfr 
sary  (i.  6)  to  express  his  acknowledgment  of  t:^ 
authority  of  the  Roman  Church,  both  in  faith  a^ 
in  worsUp,  founded  not  on  human  ordinances  H 
on  divine  prescription.  The  section  i.  7-ii  ^ 
examines  the  passages  of  Scripture  alleged  by  ttf 
council,  and  ii.  15-20  the  patristic  paasages,  soot 
of  which  are  not  authentic  and  others  incondiw^ 
In  iL  26  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that,  as  the  wj* 
of  Scripture  proclaims  in  thunder-tones,  "Godaka* 
U  to  be  worshiped  and  adored,"  the  "cultusofir 
ages  "  is  altogether  to  be  reprobated,  aa  contrary  tJ 
the  Christian  religion;  whether  or  not  pictures  aff 
retained  in  the  churches  is  a  matter  of  indiffero**; 

though,  indeed,  visible  memorials « 
7.  Book  n.  Christ  and  the  saints  are  unnecessary 

The  friends  of  images  (<*^"*^ 
eluding  the  pope)  are  warned  not  to  <^^^Jj^ 
peace  of  the  Church  and  the  prosperity  of  0^ 
kingdom  by  their  councils.    The  apostles  v^ 


121 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oaroline  Books 


taught  the  veneration  of  images  by  word  or  ex- 
unple;  it  is  an  error  to  compare  them  with  the  ark 
)f  the  covenant,  and  an  absurdity  to  place  them  in 
;he  same  category  with  the  eucharistic  host;  nor 
nust  they  be  likened  to  the  cross  of  Christ,  the 
lacred  vessels,  or  the  Scriptures,  all  of  which  are 
irenerated  in  their  own  way  and  measure  for  dif- 
ferent reasons.      • 

Book  III.  begins  with  a  confession  of  faith,  for 
;he  purpose  of  evincing  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Frank- 
sh  Church.  This  is  supposed  to  be  taken  from 
Ferome,  but  is  really  almost  verbally  the  profession 
>f  Pelagius  (the  LtbeUua  fidei  ad  Innocentium  of 
117),  which  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  was  re- 
ceived as  orthodox,  under  the  name  of  Symbolutn 
^ieronymi  or  Sermo  Auguatini.  The  author  then 
ittacks  the  patriarch  Tarasius  on  the  groimd  of  the 
rregularity  of  his  consecration  and  the  error  of 
lis  teaching  on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  latter  reproach  and  that  of  further  doctrinal 
iberrations  are  brought  against  the  other  members 
>f  the  council,  and  one  chapter  attacks  the  im- 
propriety   of    the    empress    Irene's 

8.  Book  in.  assumption    of    the    teaching    office. 

A  special  onslaught  is  made  on  a 
>ropo6ition  assumed  to  have  been  uttered  by  one 
>f  the  bishops  which  clearly  rests  upon  a  gross 
nistranslation.  A  distinction  is  drawn  between 
mages  and  relics;  and  even  if  it  is  true  that  some 
>f  the  former  have  worked  miracles,  no  adoration 
s  therefor  due  them.  Still  less  can  dreams  and 
nsions,  or  absurd  apocryphal  inventions,  be  ad- 
iuced  in  favor  of  the  "adoration  of  images."  Not 
;hi8,  but  the  keeping  of  the  divine  precepts,  is  the 
>eginning  of  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 

Book  IV.  continues  the  attack  upon  expressions 
>f  individual  members  of  the  coimcil,  and  upon 
ts  authority  as  a  whole.  It  can  in  no  wise  be  com- 
)ared  with  the  First  Nioene  Council;  that  asserted 
he  equality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  while  this 

places  pictures  on  a  level  with  the 

9.  Book  IV.  Trinity.    Apart  from  all  the  unseemly, 

obscure,  perverted,  absurd,  illogical, 
ind  untheological  expressions  to  be  found  in  the 
icts  of  the  latter,  it  does  not  deserve  the  name  of 
ecumenical  given  to  it  by  the  Greeks,  because  it 
leither  utters  the  pure  Catholic  faith  nor  is  recog- 
dzed  by  all  the  churches. 

The  Caroline  Books,  then,  in  their  fundamental 
inceptions,  attempt  to  preserve  the  golden  mean 
ndicated  by  Gregory  the  Great  in  his  letter  to 
k?renus  of  Massilia:  "  We  approve  unreservedly 
lecause  you  have  forbidden  to  worship  them 
images];  but  we  do  not  approve  of  their  being 
»roken;  if  any  one  wants  to  make  images,  at  least 
orbid  him;  but  shun  in  every  way  the  worshiping 
•f    them."    But   their   polemic    (apart   from   its 

vehement,  almost  passionate  tone) 
10.  Char-  does  material  injustice  to  the  Nicene 
Kcterization  Fathers  by  ignoring  their  distinction 
>f  the  Caro-  between  UUreia  [worship]  which  is  due 
line  Books,  to  God  alone,  and  proakuniaia  Hmitiki 

[honoring  obeisance]  which  may  be 
jven  to  creatures,  and  in  ascribing  to  them  the 
blasphemous  proposition  that  the  same  "  servitude 
f  adoration"  is  due  to  the  images  as  to  the  Holy 


Trinity.  This  is  explained  by  the  imperfection  of 
the  version  of  the  acts  sent  to  Charles,  which  al- 
wajrs  renders  the  Greek  praakuniaia  by  adoratio» 
and  by  a  particular  misunderstanding  or  wrong 
reading  already  referred  to. 

The  work  as  a  whole,  however,  may  be  taken  as 
giving  a  good  general  view  of  Frankish  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  theology  in  its  day,  of  considerable  impor- 
tance for  the  dogmatic,  exegetical,  dialectic,  and 
critical  attainments  of  the  age.  Of  special  interest 
is  the  attitude  assumed  toward  the  great  funda- 
mental questions  of  medieval  theology — the  rela- 
tions of  Scripture  and  tradition,  authority  and 

reason,  the  Roman  and  the  universal 

XX.  Impor-  Church.     In   spite   of   all   its   recog- 

tance  of    nition  of  the  teaching  authority  of  the 

the  Work.  Chiu'ch,  and  particularly  of  the  Roman 

Church,  the  work  postulates  the  right 
of  critical  examination  in  a  way  seldom  foimd  in 
the  Middle  Ages — ^though  it  will  not  do  to  interpret 
this  tendency  in  terms  of  modem  views.  The 
theological  standpoint  of  the  book  as  a  whole  ia 
that  of  Gregory  the  Great,  a  somewhat  weakened 
Augustinianism  which  allows  the  author  to  accept 
the  profession  of  Pelagius  as"  the  Confession  of  the 
Catholic  Faith."  He  follows  Gregory,  as  in  the  ques- 
tion of  images,  so  also  in  the  doctrines  of  original 
sin,  of  the  replacing  of  the  fallen  angels  by  an  equal 

number  of  redeemed  men,  of  purga- 

X2.  Theo-    tory  and  prayers  for  the  dead.    Other 

logical      patristic  authorities  cited  are  espe- 

Standpoint  cially    Augustine    and    Jerome,    and 

sometimes  Ambrose  and  Sedulius. 
The  author  attempts  to  show  his  universal  culture 
by  all  sorts  of  grammatical,  rhetorical,  philosoph- 
ical, historical,  and  literary  remarks;  by  quotations 
from  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Vergil  and  Cicero,  Ma- 
crobius  and  Apuleius,  Cato  and  Josephus;  and  by 
the  use  of  scientific  terminology  and  logical  formulas. 
The  work,  however,  has  not  the  character  of  a 
theological  treatise  written  by  a  private  person; 
it  is  a  state  document,  an  official  protest  on  the 
part  of  the  Frankish  Church  against  Byzantine 
and  Roman  superstition  and  against  the  unjus- 
tified anathemas  pronounced  by  both  the  Greek 
and  the  Roman  Church  on  all  who  differed  from 
them  as  well  as  on  their  own  purer  past. 

The  effect  of  this  protest  can  not  here  be  fol- 
lowed out  in  detail.  Adrian  was  cleariy  much 
disturbed  by  it,  and  sent  his  defense  to  Charle- 
magne with  many  conciliatory  expressions,  declar- 
ing that  he  had  not  as  yet  given  an  answer  to  the 
Byzantine  emperor,  because  the  latter  still  per- 
sisted in  his  usurpation  of  what  belonged  to  the 
Roman  See,  but  that  he  must,  following  the  ancient 
tradition  of  his  predecessors,  condemn  those  who 
refused  to  venerate  the  sacx^d  images.  Charles's 
answer  was  the  Synod  of  Frankfort,  the  presence 

at  which  of  the  papal  legates  beto- 

13.  Later    kened  Adrian's  submission.    The  pope 

Influence    died  on  Christmas  day,  795,  and  the 

of  the  Caro-  question  slumbered  until  it  came  up 

line  Books,  once  more,  under  Louis  the  Pious  and 

Eugenius  II.,  at  the  Synod  of  Paris  in 
825.  This  synod  adhered  to  the  position  of  the 
Libri    Carolini    and     the    Synod    of    Frankfort, 


Oaxpenter 
Carpsov 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


422 


venturing  openly  to  condemn  Adrian  for  encour- 
aging superstition,  though  unconsciously,  in  the 
cultus  of  images.  It  was  mainly  through  the 
influence  of  the  Caroline  Books  that  the  Prankish 
Church  excluded  this  cultus  all  through  the  ninth 
century.  Even  in  the  tenth  we  find  the  Nicene 
Council  spoken  of  as  "  The  pseudo-synod  falsely 
called  the  Seventh/'  and  the  principle  adopted  that 
pictures  are  tolerated  in  the  churches  ''only  for  the 
instruction  of  the  ignorant/'  without  any  attempt 
on  the  part  of  Rome  to  enforce  its  anathema. 

Charles  and  his  theologians  must  thus  have  the 
credit  of  holding  back  for  a  time  the  influx  of 
superstition  into  the  West,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  asserted  the  rights  of  Christian  art  and  its 
value  for  ecclesiastical  decoration.  When  in  the 
sixteenth  century  Tridentine  Catholicism  reaf- 
firmed the  proposition  assailed  in  the  Caroline 
Books,  that  veneration  was  paid  not  to  the  pictures 
but  to  their  subjects  {"  honos  refertur  ad  proto- 
typa  "),  and  on  the  other  hand  Swiss  Protestant- 
ism, in  its  abhorrence  of  idolatry,  renewed  the 
tumults  of  iconoclasm,  the  Lutheran  controver- 
sialists, especially  Flacius  and  Chemnitz,  with 
cheerful  confidence  "  went  back  to  the  moderation 
of  Charlemagne."  (A.  Hauck.) 

BiBLioaBAPHT:  A  luminoos  diBcuaaion  is  found  in  Hefele, 
ConcUienoetchiehU,  iii.  00&-717.  Consult:  H.  J.  Floss, 
Commentatio  de  »u$pecta  librorum  Carolinorum  fide,  Bonn, 
1860;  R.  Baxmann.  Die  PoliHk  der  PAptle,  i.  29  sqq.. 
207-299.  Elbertold.  1868;  H.  Reuter.  Qtechiehie  der 
AuJklArung,  i.  11  sqq..  Berlin,  1877;  F.  H.  Reusch. 
Index  der  verhotenen  BiUher,  i.  256,  Bonn,  1883;  O. 
Leist,  Die  UUeraariaehe  Bewegung  dee  BUderetreite,  vol. 
i.,  Magdeburg,  1871;  Neander,  Chrietian  Church,  iii. 
235-243  (still  of  great  value,  though  supplementary 
reading  is  neoensary);  Bchaff,  Chrietian  Church ,  iv.  467- 
468:  Hauck,  KD,  ii.  105.  110.  316  sqq.;  DCB,l  406-406; 
KL,  vii.  190-196;  and  the  literature  on  Charlemagne. 

CARPENTER,  J(OSEPH)  ESTLIN:  English  Uni- 
tarian; b.  at  Ripley  (22  m.  s.w.  of  London),  Surrey, 
Oct.  5,  1844.  He  was  educated  at  University 
College,  London  (1860-63),  and  Manchester  New 
College  (1860-66;  B.A.,  University  of  London, 
1863),  and  was  successively  minister  of  Oakfield 
Road  Church,  Qifton,  Gloucestershire  (1866-69), 
and  Mill  Hill  Chapel,  Leeds  (1869-75).  From 
1875  to  1906,  he  was  a  lecturer  on  Hebrew,  Old 
Testament  literature,  and  comparative  religion  in 
Manchester  New  College,  first  in  London,  then 
at  Oxford,  where  he  was  appointed  principal  in 
1906.  He  has  edited  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth 
volumes  of  Ewald's  History  of  Israel  (London, 
1871-74),  a  portion  of  the  Sumahgala  VUdainl 
(1886),  and  the  Dlgka  NikQya  (2  vols.,  1890- 
1903;  both  in  collaboration  with  Rhys  Davids); 
and  The  Hexateuch  According  to  the  Revised  Ver- 
sion (2  vols.,  1900;  in  collaboration  with  G.  Har- 
ford-Battersby);  and  has  translated  C.  P.  Tide's 
Geschiedenis  van  den  Godsdienst  tot  aan  de  heer^ 
schappij  der  Wereldgodsdiensten  (Amsterdam, 
1876)  imdcr  the  title  Outlines  of  the  History  of 
Religion  (London,  1878).  His  independent  works 
include:  Life  and  Work  of  Mary  Carpenter  (Lon- 
don, 1879);  Life  in  Palestine  when  Jesus  Lived 
(1889);  The  First  Three  Gospels,  Their  Origin 
and  Relations  (1890);  Composition  of  the  Hexa- 
teuch  (1902);   The  Bible  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen^ 


tury  ^903);  Studies  in  Theology  (1903;  in  col- 
laboration with  P.  H.  Wicksteed);  The  Place  oj 
Christianity  Among  the  Religions  of  the  World 
(1904);  and  James  Martineau,  Theologian  and 
Teacher  (1905). 

CARPElfTER,  LAKT:  English  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Kiddenninster  (15  m.  s.w.  of  Birmingham),  Worces- 
tershire, Sept.'  2,  1780;  lost  overboard  from  a 
steamer  between  Naples  and  Leghorn  Apr.  5, 
1840.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  College  1798-1801; 
became  a  popular  and  successful  school-teacher 
and  preacher;  was  minister  at  Exeter  1805-17, 
and  at  Bristol  1817-39.  He  did  much  to  broaden 
his  denomination  and  to  consolidate  its  scattered 
congregations;  was  a  leader  in  philanthropic  work; 
and  was  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  English  school- 
masters. His  publications  were  numerous,  the 
most  noteworthy  being:  An  Introduction  to  the 
Geography  of  the  New  Testament  (London,  1805); 
Unitarianism  the  Doctrine  of  the  Gospel  (1809;  Sd 
ed.,  with  alterations,  Bristol,  1823);  Systematic 
Edttcation,  in  collaboration  with  William  Shepherd 
and  Jeremiah  Joyce  (2  vols.,  1815);  An  Examina- 
tion of  the  Charges  Made  Against  Vnitarians  by  the 
Right  Rev.  Dr,  Magee  (Bristol,  1820);  PHnciplei 
of  Education  (London,  1820);  A  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  (Bristol,  1835).  After  his  death  appeared 
a  volume  of  Sermons  on  Practical  Subjects  (Bristol, 
1840),  edited  by  his  son,  Russell  Lant  Carpenter. 

Bibuooraprt:  R.  L.  Carpenter,  Memoire  of  the  Life  of 
Rev.  Lani  Carpenter,  toith  SetecUone  from  hie  Ccrreepond^ 
enee,  Bristol,  1842;  DNB,  ix.  167-159. 

CARPENTER,  MARY:  Philanthropist;  b.  at 
Exeter,  England,  Apr.  3,  1807;  d.  at  Bristol  June 
14,  1877.  She  was  the  eldest  child  of  Lant  Car- 
penter (q.v.),  and  received  an  excellent  education 
in  her  father's  school;  she  taught  for  several  years; 
became  interested  in  reformatory  movements  in 
India  through  the  visit  to  Bristol  of  the  Rajah 
Rammohun  Roy  in  1833,  and  also  in  work  for  desti- 
tute children  in  England  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  Joseph  Tuckerman,  of  Boston.  She  opened 
"  ragged  schools  "  and  developed  and  set  in  opera- 
tion a  plan  for  reformatory  schools  which  was 
legalized  by  Parliament  in  1854;  she  was  also  one 
of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Industrial  Schools 
Act  passed  in  1857.  She  visited  India  four  times 
between  1866  and  1876,  and  came  to  America  in 
1873.  Prison  reform  also  received  her  attention, 
and  she  was  earnest  in  advocacy  of  the  higher 
education  of  women.  She  wrote  much  in  behalf 
of  her  projects,  and  her  reports  and  memorials  to 
Parliament  had  no  little  influence  in  shaping 
legislation. 

BiBUoaRAPHT:  J.  E.  Oarpenter,  Life  and  Work  of  Mary 
Carpenter,  London.  1870;  DNB,  iz.  159-161. 

CARPElfTER,  WILLIAM  BOYD:  Church  of 
England  bishop  of  Ripon;  b.  at  Liverpool  Mar. 
26,  1841.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Catherine's 
College,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1864),  and  was  ordered 
deacon  in  1864  and  ordained  priest  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  successively  curate  of  All  Saints', 
Maidstone,  Kent  (1864-66),  of  St.  Paul's,  Qapham 
(1866-67),  and  of  Holy  Trinity,  Lee  (1867-70).  He 
was  then  vicar  of  St.  James's,  Holloway  (1870-79), 


L28 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Carpenter 
Oarpzov 


ind  of  ChriBt  Church,  Lancaster  Gate  (1879-^). 
He  was  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London  from 
1879  to  1884  and  canon  of  Windsor  from  1882  to 
1884,  while  he  was  also  honorary  chaplain  to  Queen 
iTictoria  in  1879-83,  and  chaplain  in  ordinary  in 
1883-84.  In  1884  he  was  consecrated  the  bishop 
>f  Ripon.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Cam- 
>ridge  in  1875  and  1877,  and  at  Oxford  in  1883-84, 
md  was  also  Hulsean  Lecturer  at  Cambridge 
n  1878,  Bampton  Lecturer  at  Oxford  in  1887, 
Pastoral  Lecturer  on  theology  at  Cambridge  in 
1895,  and  Noble  Lecturer  at  Harvard  University 
Q  1904.  He  has  been  a  clerk  of  the  closet  since 
.903,  and  is  also  a  knight  of  the  Prussian  Order 
»f  the  Royal  Crown.  In  addition  to  numerous 
relumes  of  sermons,  he  has  written:  ThoughU  on 
Frayer  (London,  1871);  Narcissus,  a  Tale  of  Early 
Christian  Times  (1879);  The  Witness  of  the  Heart 
o  Christ  (1879;  the  Hulsean  Lectures  for  1878); 
Oistrict  Visitor's  Companion  (1881);  My  Bible 
1884);  NatweandMan(lS88);  Permanent  Elements 
}f  Religion  (Bampton  Lectures  for  1887,  1889); 
Vhe  Burning  Bush  (1893);  Twilight  Dreams  (1893); 
'^ctures  on  Preaching  (1895);  Thoughts  on  Re- 
inion  (1895);  Religious  Spirit  in  the  Poets  (1900); 
Popular  Hilary  of  the  Church  of  England  (1900); 
ind  Witness  to  the  Influence  of  Christ  (Noble  Lec- 
ures  for  1904;  1905).  He  likewise  contributed 
.he  notes  on  Revelation  in  C.  J.  EUicott's  New 
Testament  Commentary  (London,  1879). 

CARPOCRATES,  cOr-pec'ra-tfs,  AND  THE  CAR- 
H>CRATIAIVS:  An  Alexandrian  Gnostic  of  the  first 
lalf  of  the  second  century  and  the  sect  which  he 
bunded.  His  teachings  rested  upon  a  Platonic 
)asi8,  and  were  interspersed  with  Christian  ideas. 
\coording  to  Irenseus  {Hosr.,  i.  25),  supplemented 
lere  and  there  by  Epiphanius  {Hear.,  xxvii.),  he 
aught  that  in  the  beginning  was  the  divine  primi- 
ive  source,  "  the  father  of  all,"  "  the  one  begin- 
ling  "  (Gk.  archi).  Angels,  far  removed  from  this 
ource,  have  created  the  world.  The  world-builders 
lave  imprisoned  in  bodies  the  fallen  souls,  who 
mginally  worked  with  God,  and  now  have  to  go 
hrough  every  form  of  life  and  every  act  to  regain 
heir  freedom.  To  accomplish  this  a  long  series  of 
ransmigrations  through  the  bodies  is  needed.  The 
irords  of  Jesus  in  Luke  xii.  58  (Matt.  v.  25)  ex- 
>ressed  this  thought  very  clearly  in  Carpocrates's 
riew;  the  "  adversary  "  is  the  devil,  who  drags 
he  souls  to  the  highest  of  the  world-builders;  the 
alter  delivers  them  to  another  angel,  his  messenger, 
o  be  incarcerated  in  bodies  until  they  have  paid 
he  last  farthing,  i.e.,  have  won  freedom,  and  can 
ise  to  the  highest  God.  During  their  transmi- 
^ations  the  souls  have  retained  the  power  of 
'cmembering  (Gk.  anamnisis),  though  in  different 
iegree.  The  soul  of  Jesus,  son  of  Joseph,  possessed 
,he  power  of  remembering  God  in  greatest  purity. 
Therefore  God  bestowed  upon  him  power  to  escape 
,he  world-builders  and  to  despise  the  Jewish  cus- 
toms in  which  he  was  brought  up.  Whosoever 
thinks  and  acts  like  him  obtains  the  same  power; 
Nrhosoever  is  still  more  perfect  can  reach  higher. 
Phis  is  the  faith  and  the  love  through  which  we  are 
laved;    everything  else,  essentially  indifferent,  is 


good  or  bad,  godless  or  shameless  only  according 
to  human  conceptions;  for  by  nature  nothing  is 
bad.  This  is  the  teaching  which  Jesus  himself 
gave  to  his  disciples,  "privately  in  a  mjrstery," 
ordering  them  to  disseminate  it  among  the  faithful 
("  the  worthy  and  believing ").  The  Carpocra- 
tians  rendered  divine  honor  to  Jesus  as  to  the  other 
secular  sages  (Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle).  They 
claimed  for  themselves  the  power  of  ruling  the 
world-builders:  magic  arts,  exorcism,  philters  and 
love-potions,  dreams  and  cures  were  at  their  com- 
mand, and  like  other  secret  societies  they  had  a 
special  mark  of  recognition,  which  they  burned 
with  a  hot  iron  on  the  back  of  the  lobe  of  the  right 
ear. 

Later  writers  follow  Irenseus.  Clement  alone 
adds  new  matter  in  some  quotations  from  a  Car- 
pocratian  manuscript.  He  Bays  that  Carpocrates 
had  a  son,  Epiphanes,  whose  mother  was  Alex- 
andria of  Cephalonia;  that  this  son  became  an 
author,  died  when  seventeen  years  old,  and  was 
honored  as  a  god  at  Same  in  Cephalonia.  This 
story  has  been  declared  mythical  (cf.  Volkmar.  in 
the  Monatsschrift  des  wissenschaftlichen  Vereins  in 
Zurich,  1858,  pp.  276-277;  Lipsius,  Zur  QueUen- 
kritik  des  Epiphanius,  pp.  161-162,  Leipsic,  1865), 
and  it  is  maintained  that  traits  of  the  moon-god 
worshiped  at  Same  (Gk.  theos  epiphanis)  were 
transferred  to  Epiphanes,  the  Gnostic.  Though 
this  suggestion  is  striking,  there  is  hardly  reason 
for  making  a  myth  of  the  entire  statement  of 
Clement,  so  much  the  more  as  he  has  filled  out  his 
account  by  a  long  extract  from  a  work  of  Epiph- 
anes "  On  Righteousness."  In  this  work  the 
young  idealist  advocated  community  of  goods  and 
women  without  the  intention  of  preaching  general 
immorality.  Even  Irenseus  had  written:  "  I  can 
hardly  believe  that  all  the  ungodly,  unlawful,  and 
forbidden  things  of  which  we  read  in  their  books 
are  really  done  among  them."  One  needs  only  to 
reflect  how  inconsistently  highly  endowed  advo- 
cates of  similar  views  think  and  act  nowadays, 
though  of  course  it  must  be  admitted  that  such 
conceptions  in  earlier  times  might  have  caused  in 
immature  minds  the  same  troubles  as  they  do 
to-day.  At  all  events,  Carpocratianism  can  not  be 
called  Christianity.  It  is  a  specifically  ethnic 
phenomenon,  easily  explicable  from  the  religious 
syncretism  of  the  second  century.     G.  KrCoer. 

Bibliogkapht:  The  Muroes  are  Moeasible  in  Eng.  in  ANF, 
i.  360.  ii.  382-404.  iu.  216.  651.  v.  113;  NPNF,  i.  114, 
170.  199.  Consult  also:  C.  W.  F.  Waloh.  HUtarU  der 
KtUereien,  i.  302-335.  Leipsic.  1762;  A.  Neander.  Oene- 
Hadte  Entwidctluno  der  vomehmalen  gnoalUehen  Syatemet 
pp.  355-360.  Berlin.  1818;  idem.  ChriMtian  Church,  i.  292. 
399.  449-451.  484;  W.  M6ller.  OnehichU  der  Koamolooie, 
pp.  335-343.  Halle.  1860;  A.  Hilffenfeld.  K§Uerge9ehiehU 
dea  Urckr%$Uniuma,  pp.  397-408.  Leipsic,  1884;  Har- 
naok.  Litteratur,  i.  161-162. 

CARPZOV:  A  family  of  German  lawyers  and 
theologians,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most 
important  members: 

1.  BenediktCarpzov:  Liawyer;  b.  at  Wittenberg 
May  27,  1595;  d.  at  Leipsic  Aug.  30,  1666.  He 
was  educated  at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  Jena,  and 
after  a  tour  through  Italy,  France,  and  England 
became  a  member  of  the  court  of  sheriffs  at  Leipsic, 


OarpBOT 
Carroll 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


42i 


where  he  remained  with  little  intemiption  for 
forty  years.  He  was  later  appointed  assessor  of 
the  supreme  court  in  Leipsic  and  counselor  of  the 
Dresden  court  of  appeals.  In  1645  he  was  made 
professor  in  the  faculty  of  law  at  Leipsic,  and  was  for 
eight  years  a  member  of  the  privy  coimcil  of  Dres- 
den, but  returned  to  Leipsic  in  1661.  Although 
he  had  not  a  creative  mind,  his  diligence,  judg- 
ment, and  system  enabled  him  to  become  the 
founder  of  German  jurisprudence,  and  in  his 
PracHea  nova  imperialis  Saxoniea  rerum  crimtno' 
Hum  (Wittenberg,  1638)  he  formulated  the  first 
system  of  German  criminal  law,  while  his  Juria- 
prudenHa  ecdenaatica  aeu  consiatorialis  (Leipsic, 
1649)  formed  the  earliest  complete  system  of 
Protestant  ecdedaatical  law.  He  distinguished 
carefully  between  ecclesiastical  and  canon  law, 
and  was  the  first  to  use  the  ordinances  of  the 
Evangelical  Church,  the  rescripts  of  the  sovereigns, 
and  the  decisions  of  the  consistories,  thus  simi- 
marizing  the  legal  development  of  Protestantism 
since  the  Reformation. 

2.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov  the  Elder:  Theolo- 
gian, brother  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Rochlitz  (16 
m.  n.n.w.  of  Chemnits)  Jime  22,^1607;  d.  at  Leipsic 
Oct.  22,  1657.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Wittenberg  from  1623  to  1627,  and  then  entered 
the  University  of  Leipsic.  In  1632  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Meuselwita  and  five  years  later 
became  deacon  at  the  Church  of  St.  Thomas  at 
Leipsic.  In  ten  years  he  rose  to  the  archdeaconry 
and  received  the  additional  appointments  of  as- 
sessor of  the  consistory  and  canon,  having  become 
professor  of  theology  at  the  university  in  1641, 
although  his  pastoral  duties  allowed  him  little 
time  for  teaching.  He  maintained  a  certain  reserve 
in  the  syncretistic  controversies  of  the  period,  and 
though  in  harmony  with  his  colleague  Holseinann, 
he  carried  on  a  friendly  correspondence  with  Caliz- 
tus  and  later  with  his  pupil  Titius.  His  most 
important  work,  which  has  won  him  the  title  of 
the  father  of  symbolics,  was  his  IsagOgi  in  libroa 
ecdesiarum  lAUheranamm  8ymboUeo8  (Leipsic,  1665), 
which  was  completed  after  his  death  by  Olearius, 
general  superintendent  of  Magdeburg.  Still  more 
famous,  however,  is  his  Hodegeticum  hrevibus 
aphoriamU  olim  pro  coUegio  concionatorio  conceptum 
et  nunc  reviaum  (1656),  which  gives  100  methods 
of  arranging  sermons. 

8.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov  the  Tounger:  The- 
ologian, son  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  Leipsic  Apr.  24, 
1639;  d.  there  Mar.  23,  1699.  He  was  educated 
in  his  native  city  and  at  Jena,  and  was  also  influ- 
enced by  Buxtorf  in  Basel  and  by  Johann  Schmid 
in  Strasburg.  In  1659  be  became  privat-dooent 
at  Leipsic,  and  in  1665  was  appointed  professor  of 
ethics.  Three  years  later  he  was  made  licentiate 
of  theology  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages. 
In  1684  he  became  professor  of  theology,  having 
already  been  made  deacon  in  1671,  archdeacon  in 
1674,  and  pastor  of  St.  Thomas's  in  1679.  His 
pastoral  duties  forbade  extensive  literary  activity, 
and  he  therefore  restricted  himself  to  editing  the 
works  of  others,  such  as  the  Jua  regium  of  Wilhelm 
Schickhard  (Leipsic,  1674),  the  In  Prophetaa 
Minorea  commentariua  of  Johann  Tamov  (1688),  the 


Hor€B  TalmudiccB  et  Hebraicca  of  John  Lightfoot 
(1674),  and  an  enlarged  edition  of  hia  father's  Hd^ 
geticum  (1689).  Through  this  last-named  works^ 
interest  was  aroused  in  homiletics  which  oompkttlj 
overshadowed  philosophy  and  exegesis.  Thoe  wi< 
gradually  evolved,  therefore,  an  antagoniflmbetTes 
Carpsov  and  Spener,  which  increased  in  bittentei 
until  in  1691  three  programs  assailed  Pietki 
and  five  years  later  Carpaov  attacked  Thomfr-im 
in  his  I>e  jure  decidendi  controveraiaa  theobgksi 
(1696),  vainly  attempting  to  support  a  failing  exst 

4.  Samuel  Benedikt  Carpzov:  Theologian,  eoco: 
Johann  Benedikt  the  ESder;  b.  at  Leipsic  Jan.  17. 
1647;  d.  at  Dresden  Aug,  31,  1707.  After  studyins 
philosophy  and  philology  at  the  university  of  his 
native  city  from  1663  to  1668,  he  went  to  Wittoi- 
berg,  where  he  became  a  close  friend  of  Calov  &£i 
Aegidius  Strauch.  In  1674  he  was  called  to  DresdeB 
as  court-preacher,  and  five  3rears  later  he  n« 
transf  erred  to  the  Kreuzkirche,  being  also  appoints: 
superintendent  and  thus  given  the  right  to  atta: 
the  sessions  of  the  high  consistory.  He  conducted 
the  negotiations  for  the  call  of  Spener,  and  proved 
himself  a  true  friend  of  the  Pietist  until  his  broths 
at  Leipsic  became  the  leader  of  the  opposition  asd 
persuaded  him  to  change  his  attitude.  After  tke 
retirement  of  Spener  and  the  death  of  Gieen, 
Carpaov  was  chosen  to  succeed  them,  aad  he 
accepted  with  much  hesitation,  althou^  be  h^ 
the  position  for  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

6.  Johann  Gottlob  Carpzov:  Theologian,  sod  of 
the  preceding;  b.  at  Dresden  Sept.  26,  1679;  d,  at 
Labeck  Apr.  7,  1767.  He  was  educated  at  Leip« 
and  Altdorf ,  and  though  the  most  learned  theo- 
logian of  his  family,  was  indoctrinated  with  ^ea^ 
tionaiy  principles  by  his  father  and  uncle.  Is 
1708  he  went  from  Dresden  to  Leipsic  as  deacon 
He  ranked  among  the  foremost  of  Old  Testamat 
scholars,  although  in  the  preface  to  his  Inirodvdio 
in  libroa  Veteria  TeatamenH  (Leipsic,  1721)  he  d^ 
dared  that  only  the  entire  absence  of  such  a  wori 
had  rendered  it  possible  for  him  to  publish  his  ovu 
This  book,  like  his  CHHca  aaera  (1728),  is  cha^a^ 
terised  by  clear  arrangement,  deep  knowledge. 
and  thorough  criticism.  Equally  valuable  waa  his 
Apparatua  hiatorico-criHeua  onHquiiatum  Ydtni 
TeatamenH  (1748).  His  chief  attacks  were  reserwd 
for  R.  Simon,  Clericus,  and  Spinoza,  as  repreeat- 
atives  of  the  new  criticism,  and  hia  point  of  viev 
was  that  of  Buxtorf  and  Hottinger,  so  that  he  p(»- 
tulated  the  verbal  inspiration  of  the  text  of  the 
Bible,  and  admitted  no  error  whatsoever.  He 
was,  moreover,  a  consistent  opponent  of  Pietian 
and  the  Moravians,  and  gladly  accepted  a  c^ 
superintendent  to  the  orthodox  city  of  Luheck 
in  1730,  after  having  been  obliged  to  decline  a 
similar  invitation  to  go  to  Danaig.  There  he  cod- 
tinned  his  polemics  against  the  Moravians,  p^ 
lishing  in  1742  one  of  the  sharpest  of  all  attacks 
on  them  in  his  ReHgumaunterauchung  der  hchni- 
achen  und  mOkriachen  Bruder  von  Afibegv»  wff 
Gemeinden  hia  auf  gegenw&rtige  Zeiten. 

6.  Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov:  CUasical  seboUr 
and  theologian,  grandson  of  Johann  Benedikt  tbe 
Younger;  b.  at  Leipsic  May  20, 1720;  d.  at  Kom^ 
lutter  (9  m.  w.n.w.  of  Helmst&dt)  Apr.  18,  !»»• 


426 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OarpsoT 

OarroU 


He  was  educated  at  the  univeraity  of  his  native  city, 
where  he  was  appointed  associate  professor  in  1747, 
but  was  called  in  the  following  year  as  professor 
of  Greek  to  Helmst&dt,  and  in  1757  became  abbot 
of  Kdnigslutter.  Adhering  to  the  orthodoxy  of 
his  family,  he  was  conmiissioned  by  the  duke  to 
save  the  reputation  of  the  imiversity,  endangered 
by  the  rationalism  of  Albrecht  Teller,  and  he  accord- 
ingly published  his  Liber  dodrinalia  theologicB  puri- 
oris  (Brunswick,  1768).  His  philological  learning 
was  shown  in  his  editions  of  the  classics  and  in  his 
SacrcB  exercUatianes  in  eputolam  ad  Hebraos  ex 
PhUone  Alexandrino  (Hehnstftdt,  1750);  Stric- 
turcB  theologica  in  eputolam  S,  PauLi  ad  Homanos 
(1756);  and  Epiaiolarum  caiholicarum  eeptenaritu 
(Halle,  1790).  His  lectures,  which  he  delivered 
in  Latin,  were  devoted  to  classics,  the  New  Testa- 
ment, patristics,  and  Dolsdus's  Greek  translation 
of  the  Augsbuig  Confession. 

(Gboro  Mueller.) 

BiBUoaRAPBT:  On  the  fftinily  oonsiilt:  ADB,  iv.  10-26; 
R.  Stintxinc,  OMchiekle  der  deutaiMn  Rschitwittantekaft, 
i.  723,  iL  66,  Munich,  1880.  On  Benedikt  Carpiov  oon- 
flult:  K.  Rieker,  Die  rtehaicKB  Stellung  der  evatHfeliachen 
Kirdie  DeuiedUande,  pp.  218-220,  Leipaio,  1893.  On 
Johann  the  Elder  consult:  A.  H.  Kreyng,  ABmm  der 
evangeliech'lutiieriedten  OeietliA^n  in  .  ,  .  Satheent  PP. 
265-267.  Drewlen.  1883;  T.  Spiiel,  Vehu  aeademia  Jeeu 
Chriati,  pp.  227-233,  Augsburc.  1671.  On  Johann  the 
Younger  consult:  H.  Pipping,  Saeer  deeadum  eepienariue 
menwriam  Iheolooorum  .  .  .  ,  pp.  763-784,  Leipaio,  1706; 
K.  Rieker,  ut  sup.,  pp.  220-222;  A.  H.  Kreysig,  ut  sup., 
pp.  266,  277.  On  Samuel  Benedikt  consult:  J.  A.  Gleieh, 
Annalium  eedeeiaeHeorum,  ii.  522-^660,  Dresden,  1730; 
O.  L.  Zeissler,  Oeeehiekle  der  adeheiaehen  Oberhofpredioer» 
pp.  111-110.  Leipsie,  1866.  On  Johann  Gottlob  consult: 
A.  H.  Kreysig.  ut  sup.,  pp.  106,  266;  L.  Diestel,  Oe- 
ediichte  dee  AUen  Teatamenta  in  der  ehriaUicKen  Kirdte,  p. 
362,  Jena,  1860.  On  Johann  Benedikt  consult:  F.  Kol- 
dewey,  Geaehichte  der  klaaaiaehen  Philoioffie,  pp.  166-168, 
Brunswick,  1997  (gives  further  literature). 

CARRANZA,  cOr-rdn'tha,  BARTGLOME:  Arch- 
>ishop  of  Toledo;  b.  at  Miranda  (175  m.  n.e.  of 
Madrid),  Navarre,  1503;  d.  at  Rome  May  2, 1576. 
fie  entered  the  order  of  the  Dominicans  and  from 
1528  lectured  on  philosophy  and  scholastic  the- 
>logy  at  Alcala,  afterward  at  Valladolid.  Charles 
V.  offered  him  the  bishopric  of  Cuzco  in  Peru,  but 
ic  declined.  At  the  request  of  the  emperor  he 
ook  part  in  the  deliberations  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  after  1546,  and  insisted  that  the  bishops 
ihould  reside  in  their  own  dioceses.  Strange  to 
By,  Carranxa  came  into  conflict  with  the  Roman 
heologians  because  he  asserted  that  the  bishops 
lad  their  rights  jure  divino,  not  by  papal  appoint- 
nent.  When  the  council  was  suspended  he  might 
lave  gone  to  Flanders  as  confessor  of  the  infante 
'hilip,  but  he  declined  this  influential  position  to 
rork  in  Spain  as  provincial  of  his  order.  He  ao- 
ompanied  Philip  to  England  (1554)  when  the  lat- 
er was  married  to  Mary  Tudor,  and  shared  in  the 
crsecution  of  the  Protestants  there.  For  this 
le  was  rewarded  by  Philip  in  1557  and  made  arch- 
ishop  of  Toledo,  which  proved  the  culmination  of 
lis  career.  When  Charies  V.  was  dying  (1558), 
barranca  gave  him  the  sacrament.  His  opponents 
irculated  the  report  that  the  emperor  had  not 
ied  in  the  faith  of  the  Church  and  that  this  was 
wing  to  Carransa.    The  Inquisition  had  state- 


ments made  by  prisoners,  which  offered  sufficient 
material  to  justify  intervention,  and  his  enemies, 
especially  the  inquisitor-general  Valdez  and  Mel- 
chior  Cano,  called  attention  to  his  catechism  (Co- 
mentarioe  del  reverendiesimo  Fray  BartolonU  Car^ 
rama  eobreel  CatechismoChristiano,  Antwerp,  1558), 
which  contained  anything  but  Protestant  doc- 
trines, but  deviated  in  some  expressions  from  the 
Roman  tradition.  Carransa  was  imprisoned,  his 
papers  were  confiscated,  and  some  further  material 
for  charges  was  found.  The  examinations  of 
Protestants  in  Valladolid  which  he  held  in  1558  and 
1559  were  especially  scrutinized,  and  it  was  foimd 
that  on  the  doctrine  of  justification  and  purgar 
tory  he  had  made  oral  statements  which  were  not 
Catholic.  In  spite  of  his  appeal  to  the  pope,  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  kept  him  in  prison  eight  years 
and  when  he  was  transferred  in  1567  to  Rome  at 
the  behest  of  Pius  V.  he  was  kept  there  under 
examination  nine  years  longer.  The  Roman 
process  ended  with  a  solemn  abjuration  of  four- 
teen statements  especially  taken  from  his  wri- 
tings and  with  canonical  punishment.  He  was 
suspended  for  five  years  and  died  in  Rome 
without  returning  to  Spain.  The  court  of  in- 
quisition had  overcome  in  his  person  the  highest 
episcopal  dignitpry,  but  Gregory  XIII.  allowed 
a  laudatory  epitaph  to  be  set  up  in  Santa  Maria 
Bopra  Biinerva.  K.  Benrath. 

BiBuooBArar:  Carransa't  moet  noted  work,  Summa  eon- 
eiliorum  et  pontifieum  (a  churoh  history  to  Julius  III.), 
waa  published  at  Venice,  1646  and  often.  His  life,  by 
H.  Langiwiti,  Bariholomeo  Carranaa,  BrAiaehaf  w»n  To- 
ledOf  waa  published  at  Kempten,  1870.  Consult  also: 
J.  Qutftif  and  J.  6chard,  Scripioraa  ordinia  prcadioatorum, 
vol.  ii.,  Paris,  1721;  F.  H.  Reusoh,  Der  Index  der  esr- 
botenen  Blieher,  i.  254.  308,  688  et  passim,  Bonn.  1883; 
Moeller,  Chriatian  Church,  iii.  317;  H.  G.  Lea.  Inquieition 
in  Spain,  ii.  46-87,  iv.  16.  486. 602.  New  York,  1006. 

CARRASCO,  cOr-rOs'co,  AUTONIO:  Spanish 
Protestant;  b.  in  Malaga  Jan.  19,  1843;  lost  with 
the  steamer  "  Ville  du  Havre "  Nov.  22,  1873, 
while  returning  home  from  the  Sixth  General  Con- 
ference of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held  in  New  York 
Oct.,  1873.  He  was  converted  at  sixteen  and 
joined  a  band  of  Bible-readers  in.  Malaga  connected 
with  Manuel  Matamoros  (q.v.);  was  imprisoned 
for  two  years  (1860-62),  and  then  condemned  to 
the  galleys  for  a  term  pf  nine  years,  but  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  supported 
by  representations  of  the  Prussian  government, 
the  sentence  was  changed  to  banishment  (1863). 
He  studied  theology  in  Geneva;  on  the  downfall 
of  Queen  Isabella  in  1868  he  returned  to  Spain  and 
undertook  the  work  of  evangelization;  at  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  pastor  of  the  Free  Church  in 
Madrid,  with  a  membership  of  700,  and  president 
of  the  Protestant  Synod  of  Spain. 

Bibuooeapbt:  A  brief  sketch  of  his  life  may  be  found  in 
the  Hiatory,  etc.,  of  the  Sixth  General  Conference  of  the 
Evangdieal  AUiance,  p.  764.  New  York,  1874. 

CARROLL,  HENRY  KINO:  Methodist  Episco- 
palian; b.  at  Dennisville,  N.  J.,  Nov.  15,  1848. 
He  was  self-taught,  and  eariy  entered  journalism, 
being  successively  editor  of  the  Havre  Republican, 
Havre,  Md.  (1868-69),  and  assistant  editor  of 
The  Methodiet,  New  York  (1869-70),  and  of  the 


Carroll 
Oarthsffe 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


426 


Hearth  and  Home,  New  York  (1870-71).  From 
1876  to  1898  he  was  religious  and  political  editor 
of  The  Independent,  New  York,  but  resigned  in  the 
latter  year  to  accept  the  appointment  of  special 
conmiissioner  of  President  McKinley  to  Porto  Rioo. 
In  1881  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Ecimienical 
Methodist  Conference  in  London,  and  in  1884  was 
organising  secretary  of  the  Methodist  Centennial 
Conference,  of  which  he  edited  the  proceedings  (New 
York,  1885),  while  in  1890  he  was  special  commis- 
sioner of  the  United  States  census  for  religious 
denominations.  In  1900  he  was  elected  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Methodist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, and  was  reelected  four  years  later.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  Methodist  Historical  Society,  a 
manager  of  the  Methodist  Sunday  School  Union  and 
of  the  American  Sabbath  Observance  Society,  and 
a  trustee  of  the  United  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor. In  theology  he  is  in  thorough  accord  with 
the  doctrinal  position  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  addition  to  a  number  of  minor  con- 
tributions, he  has  written:  Religious  Forces  of  the 
UniUd  States  (New  York,  1893,  2d  and  enlarged 
ed.,  1895). 

CARROLL,  JOHN :  First  Roman  CSatholic  bishop 
in  the  United  States;  b.  at  Upper  Marlborough, 
Prince  George's  C])oimty,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735;  d.  in 
Baltimore  Dec.  3,  1815.  He  studied  with  the 
Jesuits  at  Bohemia,  on  the  east  shore  of  Bfaryland, 
and  at  the  C])ollege  of  St.  Omer,  France;  joined  the 
Jesuits  in  1753;  was  ordained  priest  in  1759;  taught 
at  St.  Omer,  Li^ge,  and  Bruges;  traveled  through 
Europe  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
nobleman;  returned  to  America  in  1774  and 
became  missionary  and  priest  of  his  native  region 
with  headquarters  at  his  mother's  residence  at 
Rock  Creek,  not  far  from  Washington.  Like  his 
kinsman  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  he  warmly 
supported  the  cause  of  the  colonies  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary war.  When  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States  was  organised  as  a  distinct 
body,  free  from  the  authority  of  the  vicar  apos- 
tolic of  London,  he  was  made  prefect  apostolic 
in  1784;  in  1789  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Balti- 
more and  consecrated  in  England  in  1790;  in  1808 
he  became  archbishop.  He  founded  Georgetown 
College  in  1791. 
Bibliographt:  John    Q.    Shea    givw   CaarroU*a   LiU   oind 

Timea  in  History  of  the  Catholic  ChurA  in  tk$  U.  8.,  vol. 

ii..  New  York,  1888. 

CARROLL,  JOHN  JOSEPH:  American  Roman 
Catholic;  b.  at  Enniscrone,  Coimty  Sligo,  Ireland, 
June  24,  1856.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Bfichaers 
College,  Toronto  (B.A.,  1876),  and  St.  Joseph's 
Provincial  Theological  Scminaiy,  Troy,  N.  Y., 
from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1879.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  was 
appoint^  assistant  rector  of  the  Cathedral  of  the 
Holy  Name,  Chicago,  and  since  1887  has  been 
rector  of  St.  Thomas  Church  in  the  same  city.  In 
1898  he  was  elected  chairman  of  Gaelic  history  in 
the  Gaelic  League  of  America  and  in  1902  was 
chosen  national  librarian  of  the  same  organisation. 
He  has  written:  Notes  and  Observations  on  the  Aryan 
R^ce  and  Tongue  (Chicago,  1900);  Tale  of  the 
Wanderings  of  the  Red  Lanes  (1902);   and  Pre- 


christian  Occupation  of  Ireland  by  the  GaeUe  Arym 
(2  vols.,  1903-06). 

CARSON,  ALEXANDER:  Irish  Baptist;  b.  at 
Annahone,  near  Stewartstown  (30  m.  w.  of  Bel- 
fast), County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  1776;  d.  at  Belfast 
Aug.  24,  1844.  He  studied  at  Glasgow  and  was 
ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister  at  Tobeimore. 
near  Coleraine,  County  Londonderry,  1798.  Aftn- 
a  few  years  he  left  the  Presb3rteria]is  and  publisiied 
as  justification  of  his  action  Reasons  for  Separatir.^ 
from  the  General  Synod  of  Ulster  (Edinburgh,  1804 
a  portion  of  his  congregation  followed  him,  and  h: 
ten  yesjB  he  preached  in  bama  or  the  open  air.  A 
stone  church  was  built  for  him  in  1814.  In  th« 
eariy  part  of  his  independent  career,  while  studyx^ 
the  New  Testament  in  order  to  confute  the  BaptL^^^, 
he  became  a  Baptist  himself,  and  thenceforth 
advocated  their  views  with  the  exception  of  da«e 
communion.  His  Baptism  in  Its  Mode  and  ShJth 
jects  Considered  (Edinburgh,  1831;  enlarged  cd. 
1844)  is  a  Baptist  classic.  His  other  writings  were 
numerous  and  treat  topics  of  Bible  interpietatioE. 
philosophy,  doctrinal  and  practical  theology,  asd 
the  like.  He  was  a  bitter  oontroversialist.  His 
collected  works  were  published  in  six  volumes  at 
Dublin,  1847-64. 

Bibuoorapht:  Q.  C.  Moore,  lAfe  of  AlesBonder  Canot^ 
New  York,  1851;  John  Douclaa,  A  Bioffrapkieol  SktiA 
of  ...  A.  Carbon,  London,  1884;  DNB,  ix.  186. 

CARSTARES,  WILLIAM :  Scotch  clergyman  ami 
political  leader;  b.  at  Cathcart  (5  m.  wji.w.  of 
Glasgow)  Feb.  11,  1649;  d.  in  Edinburgh  Dec,  2S, 
1715.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  (graduated  1667) 
and  at  Utrecht,  whither  he  went  because  of  the 
political  troubles  at  home,  in  which  his  father  was 
implicated.  Toward  the  close  of  1674  he  was 
arrested  in  London,  being  suspected  of  having  a 
hand  in  the  distribution  of  a  seditious  pamphlet 
and  of  being  the  bearer  of  despatches  to  the  dis- 
affected in  Scotland  from  their  sympathisers  in 
Holland;  he  was  kept  in  confinement  till  Aug.,  1679. 
When  released  he  entered  actively  into  the  plots 
which  were  then  rife,  and  appears  at  different  times 
in  Ireland,  En^and,  Scotland,  and  Holland.  After 
the  discovery  of  the  Rye  House  plot  (a  scheme  to 
assassinate  Charles  II.)  in  July,  1683,  he  was  cao^t 
in  Kent,  and  was  sent  to  Edinbturgh  and  examined 
under  torture  before  the  Scottish  Coimcil,  but  dis- 
played **  great  discretion  "  in  the  disclosures  which 
he  made.  In  1686  or  1687  he  settled  at  Leydea, 
and  thenceforth  was  seldom  separated  from  William 
of  Orange,  whom  he  had  known  from  his  student 
days  in  Utrecht  and  who  trusted  him  implicitly 
and  often  took  his  advice,  especially  on  Scotch 
affairs.  After  William  became  king  of  En^and, 
he  made  Carstares  chaplain  for  Scotland,  and  the 
latter  rendered  valuable  services  both  to  his  ooimtiy 
and  his  king,  especially  in  reconciling  the  Scot-cb 
Presbyterians  to  the  new  regime.  His  person^ 
influence  at  court  ceased  with  the  death  of  William, 
and  thenceforth  he  resided  in  Edinburgh,  where  he 
was  made  principal  of  the  university  in  1703;  be 
also  became  minister  of  the  Gray  Friars'  Church, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  both  capacities.  He 
retained  his  position  as  royal  chaplain  under  Anne, 
and  at  the  accession  of  George  I.  was  chosen  by  the 


427 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OarroU 
Oartha«re 


General  Aesembly  to  make  the  usual  congratulatory 
speech.  But  for  his  mfluence  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
Scotch  parliament  would  have  passed  the  Act  of 
Union  in  1707,  and  again  in  1712,  when  the  Pres- 
bjrterians  were  deeply  incensed  and  alarmed  by 
the  course  of  the  government,  he  averted  serious 
consequences  by  counseling  moderation  both  in 
England  and  Scotland.  He  was  four  times  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly. 

Biblioorapht:  SteU»-Papera  and  LetterM  Addreated  toWiU- 
iam  CarBtarea,  with  life  by  J.  M'Cormick,  Edinburgh, 
1774;  R.  H.  Story.  WiUi4xm  Caratares,  a  character  and 
career  of  the  revolutionary  epoch,  1649-1716,  London,  1874; 
DNB,  ix,  187-190. 

CARTER,  JAMES:  American  Presbyterian;  b.  m 
New  York  Oct.  1,  1853.  He  graduated  at  Colum- 
bia College  in  1882,  and  at  Union  Theological 
Seminary  in  1885.  He  was  pastor  at  Williamsport, 
Pa.,  from  1889  till  1905,  when  he  became  professor 
of  church  history  and  sociology  in  Lincoln  Uni- 
versity, Pa.  He  has  written  the  biography  of 
his  father,  Walter  Carter  (New  York,  1901),  and 
two  volumes  of  poems. 

CARTESIANISM.    See  Descartes,  RenA. 

CARTHAGE,  SYNODS  OF. 

I.  Synods  before  and  under  Cyprian. 
11.  Ssmoda  during  the  Donatist  Controveray. 

III.  Synods  in  Connection  with  the  Pelagian  Controvergy. 

IV.  Concluding  Synods. 

Carthage,  the  ancient  rival  of  Rome,  preserved 
a  renmant  of  its  former  greatness  in  the  conmiand- 
ing  position  assumed  by  its  bishops,  at  least  from 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  in  the  North- 
African  Church.  By  right  of  their  see,  they  were 
ex  officio  primates  of  their  province,  while  this 
position  in  Numidia,  and  later  in  the  other  prov- 
inces of  North  Africa,  went  by  seniority.  But 
many  bishops  of  these  provinces  paid  great  heed 
to  the  counsels  of  the  bishop  of  the  capital,  at 
least  in  Cyprian's  time,  and  even  earlier  than  that 
had  formed  the  habit  of  meeting  there  for  con- 
ference. The  decisions  taken  in  regard  to  the  con- 
troversies agitating  the  African  Church,  especially 
the  Donatist  and  Pelagian,  were  of  permanent 
Eind  far-reaching  importance  for  the  development 
[>f  theology. 

L  Synods  before  and  under  Cyprian:  (1)  That 
under  Bishop  Agrippinus  (c.  220),  to  whose  de- 
cision Cyprian  appealed  in  the  controversy  about 
baptism  by  heretics.  (2)  That  held  c.  240  at  Lam- 
7ese  in  Numidia  (or  Carthage),  which  condenmed 
/he  heretic  Privatus.  (3)  The  first  under  Cyprian 
ifter  his  return  to  Carthage,  just  after  Easter,  251. 
ifter  a  long  debate,  it  decided  that  the  lapsed, 
specially  those  who  had  offered  sacrifice,  should 
>e  restored  only  on  an  extended  penance,  except 
n  danger  of  death,  while  the  libeUatici  (see  Lapsed) 
aight,  provisionally  at  least,  be  at  once  received, 
t  seenis  to  have  been  customary  at  this  time  to 
lold  an  annual  Easter  synod;    and  at  least  one 

4)  is  known  in  252,  to  which  probably  the  letter 
>f  Cyprian  and  sixty-six  bishops  to  Fidus  (Epist,, 
xiv.)  refers;  here  Privatus  attempted  to  have  his 
ase  reopened,  but  was  refused  and  joined  the 
pposition  that  set  up  Fortunatus  as  a  rival  bishop. 

5)  In  253,  with  reference  to  the  new  persecution 


under  Gallus,  the  procedure  in  the  case  of  the 
lapsed  was  modified,  so  that,  if  truly  penitent, 
they  might  be  at  once  restored  (Epiat ,  1  vii. ).  Subse- 
quent synods  dealt  with  baptism  by  heretics,  con- 
cerning which  the  African  bishops  held  strict  views: 
(6)  One  attended  by  thirty-one  bishops  in  255 
{Epiat,  Ixx.) .  (7)  A  more  general  one,  of  seventy-one 
bishops,  from  Numidia  as  well,  in  the  spring  of  256 
(Epiat,  Ixxiii.).  (8)  One  of  eighty-seven  bishops, 
this  time  including  the  Mauritanians,  in  September 
of  the  same  year.  The  views  expressed  in  the  last- 
named  were  controverted  by  Augustine,  De  bap' 
Hsmo  contra  DonaHaUu,  vi.,  vii. 

IL  Synods  during  the  Donatist  Controyeisy: 
(1)  In  312,  composed  of  seventy  bishops,  opponents 
of  Cbdlian,  who  was  excommunicated.  (2)  One 
of  270  Donatist  bishops,  about  330,  which  showed 
a  conciliatory  spirit,  and  sanctioned  the  admis- 
sion of  traditores  to  communion.  The  succeeding 
synods  for  some  time  are  all  on  the  Catholic  side, 
and  show  a  more  or  less  severe  attitude  toward  the 
Donatists  according  to  the  position  taken  at  the 
time  by  the  schismatics.  (3)  The  so-called  "  First 
Council  of  Carthage,"  between  345  and  348,  at- 
tended by  fifty  bishops,  at  the  close  of  a  heavy 
persecution.  This,  like  8,  10,  11,  15,  and  20,  dealt 
only  cursorily  with  the  Donatist  question,  while  4, 
5,  6,  7,  9,  and  18,  as  far  as  we  know,  did  not  touch 
upon  it  at  all.  Under  Bishop  Genethlius  of  Car- 
thage, who  was  much  esteemed  by  the  Donatists, 
took  place  (4)  a  synod  in  the  "  Prsetorium,"  and 
a  year  later,  or  in  390,  (5)  the  so-called  ''  Second 
Council  of  Carthage,"  attended  by  sixty  bishops. 
Under  his  successor,  Aurelius,  twenty  synods  are 
said  to  have  been  held,  in  the  most  important 
of  which  Augustine  participated.  In  a  general 
African  council  held  at  Hippo  in  393  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  various  provinces  should  take  turns 
in  holding  such  general  gatherings;  but  this  system 
was  difficult  of  execution,  since  Mauritania  and 
TripoUs  were  too  distant,  and  the  latter  had  only 
five  episcopal  sees.  Among  such  general  councils 
may  be  reckoned,  besides  that  of  Hippo  which 
began  the  series,  that  of  Hadrumetmn,  394,  those 
numbered  here  3,  5,  8,  11,  12,  15,  and  20,  and  that 
of  Bfileve,  402.  In  407  it  was  decided  to  abandon 
the  attempt  and  call  them  when  and  where  it 
seemed  expedient,  while  the  provincial  synods 
were  to  go  on  as  before.  (6)  and  (7)  Two  synods 
held  respectively  on  June  26,  394,  and  June  26,  397, 
of  which  little  is  known. 

What  is  known  as  the  Breviarium  canonum 
Hipponensiwn  corresponds  substantially  with  (8) 
the  Carikaginienae  III.  of  the  Spanish  collection, 
Aug.  28,  397.  The  canons  of  393  and  397,  con- 
firmed at  Mileve  in  402,  give  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  church  life  of  the  time.  The  most  famous 
is  that  containing  the  list  of  Scriptural  books,  and 
dealing  with  the  reading  of  the  martyrologies. 
The  position  of  the  presbyters  in  relation  to  the 
bishops  is  restricted,  aggressions  by  bishops  on 
neighboring  dioceses  reprobated,  and  the  whole 
conduct  of  the  clergy  within  the  bounds  of  the 
Church  regulated.  In  regard  to  the  Donatist 
matter,  a  change  is  made,  allowing  clerics  coming 
from  the  schism  to  exercise  their  function,  imder 


Cmrthmf 

Oarthualana 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


428 


oertain  conditions,  where  formeriy  they  had  been 
relegated  to  lay  communion.  Legations  from  the 
court  often  appeared,  aa  at  (9)  a  synod  of  Apr.  27, 
390,  when  the  right  of  asylum  in  churches  was 
considered.  From  401  on  more  attention  is  paid 
to  the  Donatist  controversy,  at  first  in  a  concilia- 
tory spirit;  in  that  year  two  synods  were  held 
(10)  on  June  16  and  (11)  on  Sept.  13,  both  of  which 
occupied  themselves  also  with  the  removal  of  the 
remains  of  paganism.  (12)  The  general  synod  of 
Aug.  25,  403,  laid  down  a  formula  to  be  accepted 
by  the  Donatists  which  only  increased  the  bitter- 
ness, and  the  following  synod  (13)  of  June  16,  404, 
appealed  to  the  emperor  to  repress  the  schisznatics 
by  legal  measures.  This  was  done,  and  tho  next 
synod  (14),  Aug.  23,  405,  returned  thanks  to  him. 
At  the  general  synod  (15)  of  June  13, 407,  measures 
were  adopted  to  facilitate  the  reception  into  the 
Church  of  entire  schismatic  communities;  and, 
after  the  issue  of  an  imperial  decree  which  mitigated 
the  former  severity,  both  on  (16)  June  16  and  (17) 
Oct.  13,  408,  delegations  were  sent  to  impress  the 
eeclesiastical  view  on  the  emperor.  The  only 
extant  provision  of  (18)  the  provincial  synod  of 
June  15,  409,  has  no  direct  connection  with  the 
burning  question;  but  after  the  issue  of  a  decree 
of  toleration,  the  next  (19),  on  June  14,  410,  sent 
another  delegation  to  the  emperor,  and  this  time 
with  success.  (20)  The  synod  of  May.l,  418,  is 
occupied  again  with  the  reception  of  Donatist  com- 
munities and  the  duty  of  the  conversion  of  heretics; 
while  some  of  its  provisions  look  forward  to  the 
next  division. 

nL  Synods  in  Connection  with  the  Pelagian  Con- 
trover^.    For  these  see  Pslaoiub,  Pelaoianibm. 

IV.  Concluding  Synods:  At  the  head  of  these 
comes  the  frequently  cited  synod  of  419,  attended 
by  217  bishops,  which  held  two  sessions.  May  25 
and  30  (designated  in  the  Hispana  as  Carthaginienae 
VI,  and  VIL).  It  codified  and  to  some  extent 
shortened  the  preceding  legislation.  Part  of  its 
work  dealt  with  the  claims  of  the  Roman  See,  based 
improperiy  on  the  decrees  of  the  First  Coimcil  of 
Nicea.  It  drew  up  also  a  reply  to  a  letter  of  Pope 
Boniface,  who  had  laid  four  points  before  it — the 
question  of  appeals,  the  journeys  of  the  African 
bishops  to  the  imperial  court,  the  right  of  excom- 
municated clerics  to  apply  for  restoration  to  neigh- 
boring bishops,  and  the  conduct  of  the  bishop  of 
Sicca  in  deposing  a  priest  who  had  appealed  to 
Rome.  The  council  temporised  on  the  first  and 
third  points,  agreed  to  the  restoration  of  the  priest, 
though  not  in  the  same  diocese.  A  still  firmer  tone 
was  taken  toward  Rome  by  the  synod  which 
(after  422)  wrote  to  Pope  Celestine  in  connection 
with  the  priest  above  mentioned,  which  showed 
that  the  ancient  independence  and  conciliar  spirit 
of  the  African  Church  were  still  unbroken. 

But  with  the  invasion  of  the  Vandals  from  the 
west,  threatening  Carthage  in  439,  the  existence  of 
the  Church  of  North  Africa  drew  to  a  close.  In 
the  face  of  such  dangers  as  the  persecutions  of  the 
Arian  kings  brought  upon  the  Christians  of  those 
parts,  minor  differences  disappeared.  The  con- 
ference on  religion  held  in  484  did  not  give  them 
much  relief;   but  more  was  accomplished  by  the 


synod  of  Feb.  5,  525,  in  the  reign  of  Hilderie,  at- 
tended by  sixty  bishops  froai  different  provinces. 
After  the  annexation  of  North  Africa  by  the  Byisn- 
tine  government,  Bishop  Reparatus  held  a  sjdM 
of  217  bishops  in  535;  it  dealt  with  Rome  aboL*. 
the  reception  of  converted  Arians  into  the  senia 
of  the  Church,  regulated  the  relation  of  monasteritt 
to  the  bishops,  and  sent  a  deputation  to  Justin  ias 
to  ask  the  restoration  of  property  and  privilep^ 
Thenceforth  the  history  of  the  North-Africa 
Church  is  merged  in  the  general  development  c: 
the  state  religion,  and  has  no  more  a^>arate  im- 
portance before  its  final  extinction  by  the  Arabs. 
(Edoab  HsNirscKs.) 

Bibuoorapht:  For  Um  ouxms  of  the  BsriKMiB  eonmlt:  W 
Bervridce,  Synodikan,  tim  pandtetm  eamommm^  Oxfcru 
1672  (indudes  the  oanona  of  the  AMean  eynods);  G.  l\ 
Fueho,  BibUo^A  der  Kirekmoenamwdmng,  in.  1-476, 
LeipBio,  1783.  On  the  geoei«l  question  eooBult:  F. 
Meewen,  OttdkidU*  der  QtuiUn  witf  dm-  lAtmuiur  dm 
kawmUtknt,  JUAta,  L  149  miq..  Gims.  1870;  J.  Uoyi, 
Th4  North  African  Chwrek,  London,  1870;  O.  RitacLi 
Cyprian  von  KarOnago,  pp.  163  aqq.,  Gfittincen,  IS^^cs 
Hefele,  ConcUionoootkUkla,  vc^  L,  ii.  peiwriin,  EInc.  tr»&«l. 
Tola.  L,  ii.  peanm;  the  brothen  Ballerini  in  Appendix  to 
the  Optra  of  Leo  I.,  yoL  i.,  ehapp.  iii,  xxi.-xxix..  Venice. 
1767.  Detailed  treatment  may  be  found  in  Neaadrr. 
ChriaHan  Churck,  yob.  L,  ii  panim.  eonralt  Index  undrr 
"  Oounei]*  and  Synods."  Short  diaounicMks  are  also  ji 
Sehaff.  ChruHan  ChwrtK,  iii  703.  798;  Moeiler.  Ckn*- 
Uan  Churek,  L  263.  267.  832.  447.  462-^463.  457;  DC  A, 
i,  36-89;  and  literature  under  Domxtism . 

CARTHUSIAHS. 

The  Life  of  St.  Bruno  (S  1).      Guthuaans  in  Italy  (|  3\ 
Foundation    of    Chartreuse    Growth  of  the  Order  (f  4). 
(I  2).  Onaniaation  (i  6). 

Seholardiip  (S  6). 

The  Carthusians  are  a  Roman  Catholic  order 
founded  by  St.  Bruno  of  Cologne  at  Grande  Char- 
treuse (14  m.  n.  of  Grenoble)  in  Dauphin^  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century.  The  period 
was  particularly  favorable  to  the  formation  of  nev 
monastic  orders.  The  monastery  of  Quny  (q.v.) 
inspired  a  tendency  to  the  religious  life  throughout 
the  surrounding  regions,  but  tMs  cloister,  which  had 
adopted  the  cenobitic  monastidsm  of  St.  Bcne^ 
diet,  gave  no  impetus  to  eremitic  life.  In  the 
course  of  time,  however,  the  longing  for  me<ii- 
tation  in  solitude  peopled  the  wastes  of  Burgundr 
and  Lorraine,  apparently  gaining  inspiration  from 
Italy  by  way  of  Dauphin^.  To  this  period  be- 
longed Hugo,  bishop  of  Grenoble  (1080-1 132^ 
who  had  barely  ascended  the  episcopal  chair  when 
he  renounced  it  to  bury  himself  in  the  monastery 
of  Chaise-Dieu,  whence  he  was  recalled  to  his  hich 
office  by  the  mandate  of  Gregory  VII.  In  a  like 
spirit  two  canons  of  St.  Ruf us  in  Dauphin^  retinJ 
to  the  north  of  France,  returning  after  some  years 
with  Bruno. 

He  was  bom  of  noble  parentage  at  Cologne 
before  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  and 
educated  at  the  cathedral  school  of  Reims.  Sue> 
cessively  canon  of  St.  Cunibert  at  Cologne  an<i 
scholastic  of  the  cathedral  of  Reims,  Bruno  haii 
held  this  latter  office  with  distinction  for  some 
twenty  years  and  had  diligently  inculcated  the 
stem  principles  of  Hildebrand  and  the  monks  of 
Cluny.  Appointed  chancellor  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Reims  in  1075,  Bruno  relaxed  his  energies  as  s 


4dO 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Uartnave 
OarthualAns 


teacher  to  ajBsail  the  simony  of  his  own  archbishop, 
Manasseh  of  Goumey   (1067-80).    After  a  long 
Btruggle,  in  which  Bruno  was  seconded  by  the  best 
element  in  his  chapter,  as  well  as  by 
z.  The  Life  the  neighboring  clergy,  Manasseh  was 
of  St'      deposed.    His    antagonist,    however, 
Bruno,      had  become  disheartened  with   the 
condition  of  the  Church.    In  equal 
despair  regarding  the  theology  to  which  he  devoted 
tiimself ,  he  resolved  to  abandon  the  world  and  live 
the  life  of  a  hermit.    Where  he  met  the  two  canons 
'who  were  later  to  take  him  to  the  Chartreuse  is 
vmcertain,  but  at  all  events  he  retired  with  a  few 
friends  of  like  sympathies  to  Molesme  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Langres  to  live  the  life  of  an  anchorite  in 
the  center  of  French  asceticism.    He  there  joined 
the  adherents  of  Robert,  then  abbot  of  Molesme 
&nd  later  founder  of  the  Cistercians,  and  with  his 
permission  established  a  small  conmiunity  of  her- 
mits in  the  neighboring  Sdche-Fontaine.     Feeling 
that  this  refuge  was  insufficiently  sundered  from 
the  world,  Bruno  left  all  his  followers  but  six  in 
S^che-Fontaine,  pushed  southward,  and  in  1084 
reached  Grenoble,  where  the  little  company  was 
welcomed  by  Hugo,  who  had  but  recently  resumed 
his  episcopal  office. 

Partly  through  the  influence  of  the  abbot  of 
Chaise-Dieu,  Bruno  and  his  companions  received 
from  Hugo  the  lofty  and  almost  inaccessible  valley 
of  Cartusia  as  their  place  of  refuge,  and  on  Jime  24, 
1084,  they  began  the  construction  of  the  hermitage, 
originally  consisting  of  three  wretched  huts,  each 
to  be  occupied  by  two  anchorites,  and  a  chapel. 
At  first  the  new  community  had  no  special  rule, 
although  they  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by 
the  Italian  Camaldolites  in  many  respects.    They 
were  clad  in  white,  and  were  bound  to  perpetual 
silence,  to  the  observance  of  the  monastic  hours, 
to  the  most  rigorous  renunciation  and  mortifica- 
tion, and  to  the  copying  of  books  of 
3.  Foimda-  devotion.    After   directing  his   little 
tion  of      colony  of  hermits  for  six  years,  Bruno 
Chartreuse,  was  sunmioned   to  Rome  by  Urban 
II.,  who  had  once  been  his  pupil  at 
Reims.    Bruno  obeyed  with  reluctance,  but  went 
accompanied  by  some  of  his  monks,  while  others 
remained  in  their  hermitage,  although  for  some 
time  they  proved  restive  under  the  administration 
of  Landuin,  whom  Bruno  had  placed  at  their  head. 
In  Rome  the  hermits  found  themselves  longing 
for  their  mountain  valley,  and  Bruno  obtained 
permission  for  them  to  return,  bearing  letters  of 
commendation  from  the  pope  to  Hugo  of  Grenoble 
and  Hugo,  archbishop  of  Lyons.    Bruno,  however, 
remained  in  Rome,  although  he  was  neither  ener- 
getic enough  nor  polemical  enough  to  exercise  an 
influence  on  Urban's  rule  of  the  Church.    He  de- 
clined the  proffered  archbishopric  of  Reggio  in 
Calabria,  and  shortly  before  the  first  crusade,  ap- 
parently in  1001,  he  retired  to  the 
3.  Carthu-  wild  region  of   La  Torre  near  Squil- 
aians  in     lace  in  Calabria,  where  he  gathered 
Italy.       about  him  a  number  of  hermits  and 
formed  a  community  like  that  at  the 
Chartreuse.    In    1097   Count   Roger  of  Calabria 
gave  him  La  Tone  and  Santo  StefanoinBosco,  and 


two  years  later  presented  him  with  San  Jaoobo 
de  Mentauro,  so  that  he  was  able  to  establish  two 
large  cloisters  for  his  order.  He  was  buried  in 
Santo  Stefano  in  1101,  but  the  monastery,  which 
then  contained  thirty  monks,  soon  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Cistercians,  nor  was  it  imtil  1137  that 
the  Carthusian  cloisters  even  reached  the  number 
of  four,  all  situated  in  France. 

After  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  order 
steadily  increased,  and  in  1170  the  Carthusians 
were  deemed  worthy  of  the  special  protection  of  the 
pope  and  were  officially  recognised  by  Alexander 
III.  In  1258  the  monasteries  of  the  order  num- 
bered fifty-six,  but  in  1378  the  Carthusians  were 
obliged  to  contend  with  a  division  corresponding 
to  the  papal  schism  and  lasting  until 
4*  Growth  the  Council  of  Pisa.  The  entire  body 
of  the  of  Carthusians  recognised  Martin  V. 
Order,  as  pope,  and  the  two  generals  of  the 
order  resigned  in  favor  of  John  of 
Greiffenberg,  the  prior  of  the  Carthusian  monastery 
of  Paris,  who  thus  became  sole  general.  In  1420 
Martin  V.  granted  the  order  exemption  from  tithes 
for  all  its  estates,  and  in  1508  Julius  II.  issued  a 
bull  enacting  that  the  prior  of  the  mother  house 
should  always  be  the  general  of  the  order,  and  that 
the  annual  chapters  should  be  held  there.  Five 
years  later  the  Calabrian  monastery  of  Santo 
Stefano,  where  the  founder  of  the  order  was  buried, 
was  restored  to  the  Carthusians,  and  in  1514  Bruno 
was  canonised.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  Carthusian  monasteries  numbered  170, 
of  which  seventy-five  were  in  France.  The  Revo- 
lution struck  the  order  a  heavy  blow,  but  it  sur- 
vived and  in  1819  the  mother  house  near  Grenoble 
was  again  occupied.  In  1905,  in  consequence  of 
the  legislation  enacted  in  France  concerning  re- 
ligious orders,  the  Grande  Chartreuse  of  Grenoble  as 
well  as  the  other  Carthusian  monasteries  was  again 
vacated,  and  most  of  the  monks  retired  to  Spain. 

The  Carthusian  spirit  may  be  learned  from  its 
rule.  Until  1130  the  order  had  no  special  regu- 
lations, but  in  that  year  Guigo  de  Castro,  the  fifth 
prior  of  Chartreuse,  prepared  the  Conauetudinea 
CartusicB.  In  1258  the  resolutions  of  the  chapters 
from  1141  were  collected  by  Bernard  de  la  Tour 
and  designated  SUUuta  antiqua,  while  additional 
collections  were  made  in  1367,  1509,  and  1581. 
The  chief  aim  of  them  all  was  the  most  absolute 
detachment,  not  only  from  the  world  and  all  its 
attractions  and  interests,  but  even 
5.  Organ!-  from  the  brother  monks  of  the  order 
zation.  and  the  monastery.  The  lay  brothers, 
who  are  divided  into  the  three  classes 
of  convern,  donoH,  and  redditi,  are  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  the  professed.  Each  monastery 
is  strictly  separated  from  the  surrounding  popu- 
lation and  from  all  other  orders,  while  every  form 
of  ecclesiastical  and  secular  influence,  whether 
active  or  passive,  is  carefully  avoided.  The  faithful 
adherence  of  the  Carthusians  to  their  rule  spared 
them  the  necessity  of  reform  felt  by  many  orders 
in  the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to  modem 
times. 

The  Carthusians  now  control  twenty-six  monas- 
teries, and  still  retain  their  absolute  retirement 


Oarthnsiaiia 
Oartwriffht 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


430 


from  the  world.  The  order  likewise  includes 
Carthusian  nuns,  who  are  said  to  have  existed  as 
early  as  the  twelfth  century,  although  in  the  eight- 
eenth only  five  nunneries  were  known,  all  dating 
from  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  Over 
these  convents  Carthusian  monks  presided,  who 
as  vicars  ranked  above  the  prioresses  and  lived  in 
separate  houses  with  other  professed  and  lay 
brothers.  The  nuns,  who  were  first  permitted  to 
become  professed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  may  eat  together  and  converse 
more  frequently  than  is  allowed  to  the  monks. 

Although  in  scholarship  the  Carthusians  can  not 
rival  the  Benedictines,  Dominicans,  or  Jesuits, 
they  are  not  without  their  men  of  fame.  From 
the  pre-Reformation  period  mention  may  be  made, 
in  addition  to  the  Guigo  already  noted,  of  such 

authors  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
6.  Scholar-  centuries  as  Ludolf  of  Saxony,  Hen- 
ship,       drikof  Coesfeld,  Gerhard  of  Schiedam, 

and  Henry  of  Kalkar,  as  well  as  of 
Jacob  of  jQterbogk  and  Dionysius  of  Rickel. 
Noteworthy  names  of  later  date  are  the  hagiog- 
raphers  Lorenz  Surius  and  H.  Murer,  and  such 
historians  of  the  order  as  Petrseus,  Le  Vasseiur,  and 
Le  Couteulx.  In  recent  times,  moreover,  the  order 
entered  upon  a  revival  of  literary  activity. 

(O.  ZttCKLBRt.) 

Bxbuoorapht:  Heimbucher,  Orden  und  KongregtiiUment 
i.  261-263;  Le  Vaaseur,  Sphemeridea  ordinU  Carthuaisn- 
«M,  2  ToU.,  Montreuil,  1802  (a  biography  airaiuied  by 
theoalendar,  goes  only  to  July  31;  the  author  died  1093); 
Helyot,  Ordre*  moruuHguM,  vii.  366-^406;  Magna  VUa 
S.  HugonU,  ed.  J.  F.  Dimoek  for  RolU  SeriM,  no.  37, 
London,  1864;  F.  A.  Lefebure,  8.  Bruno  et  I'ordre  dea 
Chartrtux,  2  vols..  Paria.  1883;  idem.  La  ChartreuBede  Ndire- 
Dame-dea-PrM  h  Neuv^le,  Neuville,  1890;  C.  Reichenlech- 
ner,  Der  KarthAuserorden  in  DetUacMandt  WQnburg, 
1885;  C.  le  Ck>uteulx,  Annalea  ordinia  CartuaienaU,  1084- 
1429,  2  vols.,  Montreuil,  1887-^;  G.  Boutraia,  Ths  Mon- 
oMtery  of  tho  Oranda  Chartreuaa,  London.  1893;  Vie  de  8. 
Bruno,  Montreuil,  1898;  H.  Ldbbel.  Dar  Stiftar  daa  Kar- 
ttULuaarordena,  .  .  .  Bruno  aua  Kdln,  MOnater,  1899; 
Currier,  Raligioua  Ordera,  pp.  153-161.  On  the  Eng. 
Garthusiana  oonault:  W.  H.  Brown,  CharUrhouaa,  Paat 
and  Preaenl;  a  Brief  Hiatory,  London,  1876;  W.  D. 
Pariah.  Lw<  of  Carihu»iana,  1800-1879,  ib.  1880;  T.  Moi- 
ley,  Raminiacanoaa  of  Towna,  ViUagaa,  and  Sehoola,  i.  376- 
436,  ib.  1885;  D.  L.  Hendrika,  London  Charterhouae,  Ita 
Monka  and  Martyra,  ib.  1889. 

CARTWRI6HT,  PETER:  American  Methodist; 
b.  in  Amherst  County,  Va.,  Sept.  1,  1785;  d.  near 
Pleasant  Plains,  Sangamon  County,  111.,  Sept.  25, 
1872.  His  parents  removed  to  Kentucky  while 
he  was  a  ch^d,  and  there  he  was  "  converted  "  in 
1801 ;  he  was  licensed  as  an  exhorter  in  1802,  and 
spent  eight  years  in  the  old  Western  conference, 
four  in  the  Kentucky,  eight  in  the  Tennessee,  and 
forty-eight  in  the  Illinois.  He  is  said  to  have 
received  more  than  10,000  members  into  the 
Church,  baptized  more  than  12,000  persons,  and 
preached  more  than  15,000  sennons.  He  was 
known  as  the  "  backwoods  preacher,"  and  it 
is  reported  that  when  moral  suasion  proved  in- 
effective with  the  rough  characters  with  whom  he 
had  to  deal  he  was  able  and  willing  to  quiet  them 
by  physical  force.  He  was  once  a  member  of  the 
Illinois  legislature  and  was  defeated  for  Congress 
by  Abraham  Lincoln  in  1846. 


Bxbliooiiapht:  He  wrote  aeveral  tracts,  an  Aviobio^vpi,. 
ed.  W.  P.  Strickland,  New  York,  1856.  aod  F^tg  Yfsrt 
a  Praaiding  Elder,  ed.  W.  8.  Hooper,  Cinciimati.  1872. 

CARTWRI6HT,  THOMAS. 

Leader  of  the  Puritan  Party  (§1). 

Controversial  Writings  (i  2). 

Minister  in  Antwerp  (f  3). 

Atain  in  England  (|  4). 

Attitude  Toward  the  Browniats  (f  5). 

Thomas  Cartwright,  English  Puritan  and  Pres- 
byterian, was  bom  in  Hertfordshire  1535;  d.  %i 
Warwick  Dec.  27,  1603.  He  was  matriculated  ^ 
a  sizar  of  Claire  Hall,  Nov.,  1547,  and  as  3 
scholar  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Not. 
5,  1550.  Being  a  Protestant  and  refusing  U 
return  to  the  Roman  Church,  he  was  debarreti 
from  the  university  during  Mary's  reign  (1553-59  <. 
In  1560  he  became  a  minor  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  and  on  Apr.  6  of  the  same  year  a  fd- 
low  of  St.  John's  College;  in  Apr.,  1562.  a 
major  fellow  of  Trinity  College.  In  1567  be  took 
his  bachelor's  degree,  and  in  1569  was  chosen  Ladj 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity,  and  began  to  lectisc 

on   the  Acts   of   the   Apostles.    Els 

X.  Leader    lectures    were    exceedingly    popukr, 

of  the  Pun-  and  made  a  profound  impresaoo  is 

tan  Party,  favor    of    his    distinctively    Puritan 

views,  but  created  a  storm  of  expo- 
sition from  the  Prelatical  party,  headed  by  Dr. 
Whitgift.  This  conflict,  under  these  two  grea: 
champions,  continued  to  grow  more  and  mott 
severe,  and  was  continued  by  their  successors  m 
two  great  parties  in  the  Church  of  England — the 
Presbyterian  and  the  Prelatical.  The  Puritan 
platform  is  well  stated  in  the  six  propositions 
which  Cartwright  delivered  imder  his  own  hazMl 
to  the  vice-chancellor,  the  grounds  of  his  persecu- 
tion by  the  Prelatists: 

1.  That  the  names  and  functions  of  archbishops  and  srch- 
deaoons  ought  to  be  abolished.  2.  That  the  offices  of  U» 
lawful  ministers  of  the  Church,  vis.,  bishops  and  deacocs, 
ought  to  be  reduced  to  their  apostolical  institution:  bishops 
to  preach  the  word  of  God,  and  pray,  and  deaoons  to  b«  em- 
ployed in  taking  care  of  the  poor.  3.  That  the  gorrmuneat 
of  the  Church  ought  not  to  be  entrusted  to  bishop's  chsa- 
cellors,  or  the  officials  of  archdeacons;  but  every  ehureb 
ought  to  be  governed  by  its  own  ministers  and  presbyto^ 
4.  That  ministers  ought  not  to  be  at  large,  but  every  ooe 
should  have  the  charge  of  a  particular  congregation.  5.  That 
no  man  ought  to  solicit,  or  to  stand  as  a  candidate  for  tiie 
ministry.  6.  That  ministers  ought  not  to  be  created  by  the 
sole  authority  of  the  bishop,  but  to  be  openly  and  fsiitr 
chosen  by  the  people. 

Having  been  deprived  of  his  professorship  Dec.  11, 

1570,  and  of  his  feUowship  at  Trinity  College  in  Sept., 

1571,  Cartwright  went  to  the  Continent,  and  in 
Geneva  conferred  with  Beza  and  other  chiefs  oi 
the  Reformed  Chiurches.     He  was  prevailed  upoo 

by  his  friends  to  return  in  Nov.,  1572. 
a.  Contra-  An  Admonition  to  Parliament  far  the 
verBial      Reformation  of  Church  Discipline  had 
Writings,    been  issued  by  his  friends  John  Field 
and  Thomas  Wilcox,  for  which  they 
had  been  cast  into  prison.    Cartwright  espoused 
their  cause,  and  issued  The  Second  Admonitum, 
iffiih  an  Humble  Petition  to  Both  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Relief  Against  Subscription,  1572.   Whitgift 
replied  in  An  Answers  to  a  Certen  Ltbell,  IntituUd 
An  Admonition  to  the  Parliament,  1572.    Cartwright 


431 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oarthualana 
Oartwriffht 


rejoined  in  A  Replye  to  an  Answere  Made  of  M. 
Doctor  WhiUgifte  Againste  the  AdmonUion  to  the 
Parliament,  1573.  This  was  a  renewal  of  the  old 
discussion  on  a  larger  scale,  going  to  the  roots  of 
differenoe;  Cartwright  and  the  Puritans  contend- 
ing that  the  church  government  and  the  discipline, 
as  well  as  the  doctrine,  must  be  reformed  according 
to  the  Scriptures.  The  discussion  took  a  wide 
range — ^as  to  the  standard  of  church  government, 
the  choice  of  ministers,  the  offices  of  the  Christian 
Church,  clerical  habits,  bishops,  archbishops,  the 
authority  of  princes  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  con- 
firmation, etc.  Whitgift  replied  in  A  Defense  of 
the  Ecdeeiasticall  Regiment  in  Englande  Defaced  by 
T.  C.  in  hia  Replie  againsU  D,  Whitgifte,  1574,  and 
also  The  Defense  of  the  Answere  to  the  Admonition, 
against  the  Replye  of  T,  C,  1574,  pp.  812,  folio. 

An   order   for   Cartwright's   apprehension   was 
issued  Dec.  11,  1574;  but  he  fled  to  the  Continent, 
and  became  minister  of  the  English  congregation 
of   merchants  at  Antwerp  and   Middelburg.     In 
1576  he  went  to  the  isles  of  Jersey  and 
3.  Minister  Guernsey,  aided  the    Puritans   there 
in  Antwerp,  in    settling    the    discipline    of    their 
churches,     later   returning    to    Ant- 
werp, where  he  preached  for  several  years.     While 
abroad,  he  wrote  the  Second  Replie  of  Thomas 
Cartwright  AgaynstMaister  Doctor  Whitgiftes  Second 
Answer  Touching  the  Churche  Discipline,  1575,  and 
also  The  Rest  of  the  Second  Replie,  1577.     He,  in 
1574,  prepared  also  a  preface  to  the  Latin  work  of 
William  Travers,  and  translated  it  imder  the  title 
A    FvU  and  Plaine  Declaration  of  Ecclesiasticall 
Discipline  owt  off  the  Word  off  God  and  off  the 
Declininge  off  the  Churche  off  England  from  the 
Same,  1574.  which  still  more  embittered  his  foes. 
In  1583,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester, 
and  Lord  Treasurer  Burleigh,  and  a  large  number 
of  Puritan  friends,  he  imdertook  to  write  a  confu- 
tation of  the  Rhenush  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  took  him  many  years;  but  he  was  prevented 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  England  from 
publishing  his  work.     The  year  before  his  death, 
however,  his  Answere  to  the  Preface  of  the  Rhemish 
Testament,  1602,  was  issued;   but  the  work  itself, 
not  until  1618,  under  the  title  A  Confutation  of 
the  Rhemists  Translation,  Glosses,  and  Annotations 
on  the  New  Testament,  so  farre  as  they  contains 
Manifest  Impieties,  Heresies,  Idolatries,  etc.,  fol., 
pp.  Iviii.,  761,  xviii.,  Leyden.     In  1584  he  was  in- 
vited to  the  divinity  chair  in  St.  Andrews,  Scotland, 
but  declined. 

In  1585  Cartwright  returned  to  England  without 
the  royal    permission,  and  was  apprehended  by 
Bishop  Aylmer  of  London  and  cast  into  prison, 
where  he  remained  from  April  until  Jime,  when 
he  was  released  through  the  influence  of  his  power- 
ful friends,  and  the  Earl  of  Leicester 
4.  Again  in  appointed   him  master  of  a  hospital 
England,    which  he  had  founded  at  Warwick. 
His   preaching  was  opposed   by   his 
enemies,  but  without  success,  imtil  1590.     During 
ihis  time  he  went  over  a  great  part  of  Proverbs 
uid    Ecclesiastes.     The  latter  was  published   in 
1604    under  the   title  Metaphrasis  et   homilue  in 
ibrum  Solomonis,  qui  inscr^ur  Ecclesiastes,  4to; 


the  former  in  1617,  Commentarii  sucdncti  et  delu- 
cidi  in  Proverbia  Solomonis,  4to.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  preacher  in  England  who 
practised  extempore  prayer  before  sermon,  although 
he  usually  employed  forms  of  prayer.  During  this 
period  the  ecclesiastical  conflicts  waxed  hotter  and 
hotter.  The  Puritans  had  been  making  rapid  prog- 
ress. The  first  presbytery  was  organized  at  Wands- 
worth within  the  Church  of  England  in  1572. 
Classes  were  rapidly  organized  in  all  parts  of  Eng- 
land, but  secretly.  In  1583  a  rough  draft  of  a 
book  of  discipline  was  drawn  up  by  Thomas  Cart- 
wright and  Walter  Travers,  and  at  an  assembly 
held  either  at  London  or  Cambridge  it  was  re- 
solved to  put  it  in  practise.  It  was  revised  at  a 
national  synod  in  London  (1584),  and  referred  to 
Mr.  Travers  "to  be  corrected  and  ordered  by 
him."  It  was  then  passed  around  the  various 
classes.  It  was  adopted  and  subscribed  by  an 
assembly  of  all  the  classes  of  Warwickshire  in 
1588,  and  then  by  a  provincial  synod  in  Cam- 
bridge; and  by  1590  the  Directory  had  spread  all 
over  England,  and  was  subscribed  to  by  as  many 
as  500  ministers.  The  episcopal  party  were  greatly 
alarmed,  and  determined  to  arrest  Cartwright 
with  the  other  leaders  and  to  destroy  as  large 
a  number  of  copies  of  the  Holy  Discipline  as  pos- 
sible. A  few  copies  were,  however,  preserved, 
two  copies  in  manuscript,  one  in  the  British 
Museimi,  another  in  Lambeth  Palace,  in  Latin, 
entitled  Disciplina  ecclesia  sacra.  These  were 
discussed  and  the  Lambeth  manuscript  published 
by  F.  Paget  in  his  Introduction  to  the  Fifth  Book  of 
Hooker's  Treatise,  London,  1899,  pp.  238  sqq.  An 
edition  in  English  with  slight  modifications  was 
issued  in  1644  by  authority  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, entitled  A  Directory  of  Church  Government 
anciently  contended  for,  and  as  farre  as  the  Times 
would  suffer,  practised  by  the  first  Non-Conform- 
ists in  the  Daies  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Found  in 
th£  study  of  the  most  accomplished  Divine,  Mr. 
Thomas  Cartwright,  after  his  decease;  and  re- 
served to  be  published  for  siich  a  time  as  this. 

The  discussion  between  the  Presbyterians  and 
the  Prelatists  was  complicated  by  the  Brownist 
party   and   the   Marprelate   tracts   (q.v.),   which 
bitteriy  satirized   the   bishops.    Cartwright  took 
strong  groimd  against  the  Brownists 
5.  Attitttda  and  their  doctrine  of  separation,  and 
Toward  the  opposed   the   Marprelate   method   of 
Brownifts.  controversy;    but  it  was  the  policy 
of  the  Prelatists  to  make  the  Puritans 
bear  all  the  odimn  of  the  weaker  and  more  obnox- 
ious party.     Manuscripts  of  Cartwright  against  the 
Brownists  are  preserved  and  lately  published  (see 
Browne,  Robert).     In  May,  1590,  he  was  sum- 
moned before   the  High  Commission,   and   com- 
mitted   to   the    Fleet.     He   and    his    associates 
were    confronted    with     thirty-one     articles     of 
charges,   afterward  increased  to  thirty-four,  be- 
sides   articles    of    inquiry.     He   was  willing  to 
reply  to  the  charges,  but  refused  to  give  testimony 
against   his   brethren.    He   was   then  summoned 
before   the  Star  Chamber  with    Edmimd    Snape 
and  others;  but  the  case  never  reached  an  issue. 
Powerful    friends    worked    in    his    behalf,    and 


Oama 
Oaaslitifl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


432 


he  was  finally  released  from  prison  in  1592,  on 
the  promise  of  quiet  and  peaceable  behavior, 
in  broken  health.  From  1505  to  1598  he  lived  on 
the  island  of  Guernsey,  and  afterward  at  Warwick. 
To  a  bitter  attack,  he  wrote  A  Brief  Apoloffie 
of  Thamaa  Cartwright  against  all  auch  daunderouB 
Accusations  as  it  pleaseth  Mr.  Sutcliffe  in  his  Sev- 
erall  pamphlets  most  injuriously  to  load  him  with, 
etc,,  4to,  pp.  28,  1596.  In  the  main,  the  Presby- 
terian churches  of  Great  Britain  and  America  still 
stand  by  his  principles. 

Other  worlu  besides  those  mentioned  in  their 
historical  connections  were  published  after  Cart- 
wright's  death  by  his  disciples:  A  Catechisms, 
1611;  A  Treatise  of  the  Christian  Religion,  1611 
(anonymous),  2d  ed.,  4to,  1616,  edited  by  Will- 
iam Bradshaw;  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians,  1612;  Harmonia  Evangelica,  Am- 
sterdam, 4to,  1627;  Commentaria  Practica  in  totam 
Histariam  Evangelicam,  1630,  3  vols.,  4to.  See 
also  Puritans,  PuaiTANisif,  {  7. 

C.  A.  Brioos. 
BiBuooaArar:  C.  H.  and  T.  Cooper,  AAmus  Cantabrigitn- 

■M,  ii.  3eo-36e,  London.  1861;  B.  Brook.  JAvm  of  Ou 

PurUafu,  iL  136  Kiq..  3  vob.,  ib.  1813;  idem.  Mmurir 

of  Iks  Lif€  attd  WHHnga  of  Thomas  Cartwright,  ib.  1845; 

F.  L.  Colvile,  WorthtM  of  Wanriekahin,  pp.  92-100.  878. 

ib.  1870;  J.  B.  MuUingw.  Historv  of  tike  Univsniiy  of 

Camhridgt,  ib.  1888;  DNB,  ix.  226-230. 

CARUS,  PAUL:  Philosopher  and  student  of 
comparative  religion;  b.  at  Ilsenburg  (27  m.  s.e. 
of  Brunswick),  Germany,  July  18,  1852.  He  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Tobingen,  Greifs- 
wald,  and  Strasburg  (Ph.D.,  Tttbingen,  1876), 
and  after  teaching  in  two  realgymnasia  in  Dresden 
and  in  the  Royal  Saxon  Cadet  Corps,  he  came  to 
America  in  1883,  and  since  1887  has  been  editor 
of  The  Open  Court,  Chicago,  also  editing  The 
Monist,  Chicago,  since  1890.  He  has  been  secre- 
tary of  the  Religious  Paiiiament  Extension  since 
its  inception,  and  was  the  inaugurator  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Parliament  of  Religions  held  at  Chicago 
in  1893.  He  is  also  a  member  of  the  Leopoldina, 
Germany,  the  Press  Club,  Chicago,  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  and  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science.  In  theology  he  holds 
that  religion  is  to  be  purified  by  scientific  criticism 
and  ultimately  to  be  based  upon  the  facts  of  ex- 
perience. He  has  written,  in  addition  to  a  large 
number  of  minor  articles  and  contributions:  Helgi 
und  Sigrun,  ein  episches  Gedicht  der  nordischen  Sage 
(Dresden,  1880);  Metaphysik  in  Wissenschajt, 
Eihik  und  Religion  (1881);  Algenor,  sine  episch- 
lyrische  Dichtung  (1882);  Oedichle  (1882);  Lieder 
einee  Buddhisten  (1882);  Uraache,  Grund  und 
Zweck  (1883);  Aus  dem  ExU  (1884);  Monism  and 
Meliorism  (New  York,  1885);  Fundamental  Prob- 
lems (Chicago,  1889);  The  Ethical  Problem  (1890); 
TheSoulofMan  (1891);  HomUies  of  Science  (1892); 
Primer  of  Philosophy  (1893);  The  Religion  of 
Science  (1893);  Truth  in  Fiction  (1893);  The 
Gospel  of  Buddha,  According  to  Old  Records  (1894); 
De  rerum  nalura,  philosophisches  Gedicht  (1895); 
Religion  of  Enlightenment  (1896);  Buddhism  and 
its  Christian  Critics  (1897);  Chinese  Philosophy 
(1898);  Kant  and  Spencer  :  A  Study  of  the  Fal- 
lucies  of  Agnosticism  (1899);  Sacred  Tunes  for  the 


Consecration  of  Life  (1899);  The  Dawn  of  a  Sew 
Era,  and  Other  Essays  On  Religion  (1899);  Whence 
and  Whither :  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  the 
Soul,  Its  Origin  and  Its  Destiny  (1900);  The  History 
of  the  Devil  and  the  Idea  of  Evil  (1900);  The  Surd 
of  Metaphysics  (1903);  Friedrich  Schiller  (1905): 
Magic  Squares  (1906);  and  The  Rise  of  Man  ( 1906). 
His  works  of  fiction  include:  Karma  :  A  Story  of 
Early  Buddhism  (CSiicago,  1895);  Nirvana:  A 
Story  of  Buddhist  Psychology  (1897);  The  Chiefs 
Daughter:  A  Legend  of  Niagara  (1901);  The 
Crown  of  Thorns :  A  Story  of  the  Time  of  Christ 
(1901);  and  Amitabha  (1906).  He  has  also  trans- 
lated from  Latin  the  Eros  and  Psyche  of  Apuleius 
(Chicago,  1900),  and  from  German  the  Xenums  of 
Goethe  and  Schiller  (1896)  and  Kant's  Prolegomena 
to  any  Future  Metaphysics  (1902),  while  he  has 
edited  and  translated  the  Chinese  texts  of  ULo- 
tse's  Tao-Teh-King  (Chicago,  1898),  as  well  as 
the  Kan  Ying  P'ien  (1906)  and  the  Yin  Chih  Wen 
(1906). 

CART,  ALICE:  Poet  and  hymn-writer;  b.  on 
a  farm  8  m.  n.  of  Cincinnati  Apr.  26, 1820;  d.  in 
New  York  Feb.  12, 1871.  Her  name  is  inseparably 
connected  with  that  of  her  sister,  Phoebe,  b.  Sept. 
4, 1824;  d.  at  Newport,  R.  L,  July  31,  1871.  Both 
began  to  write  verses  eariy  and  published  jointly 
a  volume  of  Poems  in  1850.  In  1850-51  they 
removed  to  New  York,  where  they  supported 
themselves  by  literary  work  and  gathered  a  wide 
circle  of  friends.  Alice  was  the  more  productive 
writer  and  published  stories  and  novels  as  well  as 
poems.  BaUads,  Lyrics,  and  Hymns  (Boston,  1865) 
is  her  most  important  volume  of  verse.  Phoebe 
published  independently  Poetns  and  Parodies 
(1854)  and  Poems  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Love  (1868); 
with  Dr.  Charles  F.  Deems  she  compiled  Hymns 
for  all  Christians  (1869).  The  poems  of  both 
sisters  are  collected  in  the  "  Household  Eldition  '' 
(Boston,  1882)  and  Early  and  Late  Poems  (1887). 
The  most  familiar  of  their  hjrmns  is  Phoebe's 
"  One  sweetly  solemn  thought  comes  to  me  o'er 
and  .o'er." 

Biblioobapht:  Mary  Clemmer  Ames,  Metnorial  of  Aliet 
and  Ph<Bb0  Cory,  New  York.  1872;  8.  W.  Duffield.  Bng- 
luh  Hymna,  pp.  447-440.  ib.  1886;  Julian.  Hymtnoloffy. 
p.  214. 

CART,  GEORGE  LOVELL:  Unitarian;  b.  at 
Medway,  Mass.,  May  10,  1830.  He  was  educated 
at  Harvard  College  (B.A.,  1852),  and  was  acting 
professor  of  Greek  in  Aiitioch  College,  Yellow 
Springs,  O.,  in  1856-57,  being  appointed  full  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  and  Latin  in  the  following  year  and 
serving  in  this  capacity  until  1862.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  made  professor  of  New  Testament 
language  and  literature  in  Meadville  Theological 
School,  where  he  remained  until  1902,  when  he 
became  professor  emeritus.  He  was  also  acting 
president  of  the  institution  in  1890-91  and  presi- 
dent in  1891-1902.  His  theological  position  is, 
in  general,  that  of  modem  Unitariamam.  He  has 
written:  An  Introduction  to  the  Greek  of  the  New 
Testament  (Andover,  Mass.,  1878)  and  The  Syn- 
optic Gospels,  Together  with  a  Chapter  on  the  Text- 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  (New  York,  1900). 


133 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oarua 
OaasliUB 


CARY,  HENRY  FRANCIS :  Translator  of  Dante; 
>.  at  Gibraltar  Dec.  6,  1772;  d.  in  London  Aug.  14, 
1844.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (M.A., 
1796),  took  orders,  and  became  vicar  of  Abbot's 
Bromley,  Staffordshire.  In  1800  he  removed  to 
.vingsbury,  Warwickshire,  and  after  1807  lived 
n  London.  He  was  assistant  keeper  of  printed 
>ookB  in  the  British  Museum,  1826-37.  His 
xanslation  of  Dante  was  begun  in  May,  1800,  and 
inished  twelve  years  later;  the  Inferno  was  pub- 
ished  in  1805  and  the  completed  work  in  1814.  It 
Lttracted  little  attention  at  first,  but  was  com- 
nended  by  Coleridge  in  his  lectures  in  1818,  and 
^uthey  afterward  pronounced  it  **  one  of  the  most 
nasterly  productions  in  modem  times."  Four 
Kiitions  were  issued  during  Gary's  life,  and  it  still 
-emains  the  standard  translation  in  English  blank 
•rerse. 
)xblioorapht:  Henry  Gary,  Memoir  of  Rsv.  H.  F.  Cory, 

2  vols.,  London.  1847;  DNB,  ix.  242-244. 

CARYL,  JOSEPH:  English  Independent  clergy- 
nan;  b.  in  London  1602;  d.  there  Mar.  10,  1673. 
Ele  studied  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  became 
preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inn;  was  appointed  minister 
>f  St.  Magnus'  Church  near  London  Bridge,  1645; 
ejected  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1662,  but  gathered 
%  new  congregation  and  continued  to  preach  in  the 
same  neighborhood.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly  and  one  of  the  triers  for  the 
approbation  of  ministers  in  1653.  He  is  remem- 
t>ered  for  his  ExpoHtion  with  Praetical  Observations 
yn  the  Book  of  Job  (12  vols.,  4to,  London,  1664-66; 
2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  folio,  1676-77;  abridged  ed.  by 
Berrie,  Edinburgh,  1836). 

CASALI  DEL  DRAGO,  cd-saOl  del  dra'gO,  6X0- 
/AlfNI,  j&-van'nt,  BAPTISTA,  bflp-tis'tfl:  Car- 
dinal; b.  at  Rome  Jan.  30, 1838.  He  was  educated 
eit  the  Roman  Seminaiy,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1860.  Six  years  later  he  was  ap- 
f>ointed  chamberlain  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  and  was 
then  canon  successively  of  the  Lateran  (1867-71) 
and  of  St.  Peter's  (1871-78).  In  1878  he  became 
domestic  prelate,  and  in  1895  Leo  XIII.  created 
bim  titular  Latin  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
received  the  carcQnal's  hat  in  1899,  being  created 
cardinal  priest  with  the  title  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Victoria. 

CASAKAS  Y  PAGES,  ca-sa'nyOs  t  pQ-H^z^  SAL- 
^ATORE,  B0y'y(X-t6'T^:  Cardinal,  b.  at  Barcelona, 
Spain,  Sept.  5,  1834.  He  was  educated  in  his 
native  city,  and  in  1879  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Keramus  and  seven  months  later  be- 
c;amc  bishop  of  Urgel.  In  1901  he  was  translated 
to  his  present  see  of  Barcelona,  and  in  1895  was 
created  cardinal  priest  of  Santi  Quirico  e  Giulitta. 

CASAS,BARTOLOMEDELAS.    See  Lab  C as  as. 

CASAUBON,  ca-sfilaon  or  ca''z6"b«n',  ISAAC: 
Scholar;  b.  in  Geneva  Feb.  18,  1559;  d.  in  London 
July  12,  1614.  His  father  was  a  poor  Huguenot 
preacher,  who  could  give  his  son  little  education, 
nevertheless  he  came  to  be  considered  the  most 
learned  man  in  Europe  after  Joseph  Scaliger.  He 
was  professor  of  Greek  at  Geneva,  1582-96,  at 
Hontpellier,  1596-99;  in  1600  he  went  to  Paris, 
II.— 28 


where  he  might  have  been  professor  in  the  univer- 
sity if  he  had  embraced  Roman  Catholicism;  this, 
however,  he  refused  to  do,  although  he  offended 
the  rigid  Calvinists  by  denying  their  extreme  posi- 
tions. He  was  given  a  pension  by  Heniy  IV.  ( 1600), 
and  in  1604  became  sublibrarian  of  the  royal 
library.  In  1610  he  went  to  England,  where  he 
was  well  received  by  King  James  and  the  Anglican 
bishops  and  was  made  prebendary  of  Canterbuiy 
and  Westminster.  His  works  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  the  field  of  classical  scholajship,  but  he 
edited  a  Greek  New  Testament  (Geneva,  1587),  and 
published  some  minor  pamphlets  of  theological 
interest;  his  criticism  of  the  Annates  of  Baronius^ 
begun  at  the  request  of  King  James,  was  left  un- 
finished. His  letters  (in  Latin),  with  life,  were 
published  by  D'Almeloveen  (Rotterdam,  1709); 
his  diary,  Ephemerides,  ed.  Russell,  was  printed  at 
Oxford,  1850. 

BxBLiooaAPHT:    ICark  Pftttiaon,   I§aae  Ca$aubon,  London, 
1875.  2d  ed..  by  Nettleship,  1892. 

CASELIUS,  cansdOi-us,  JOHANlfES,  yfr-hOn^es: 
German  scholar;  b.  at  (>Ottingen  1533;  d.  at 
Helmstadt  Apr.  9,  1613.  He  belonged  to  the 
Dutch  family  of  Chessel,  which  during  the  Refor- 
mation period  had  emigrated  on  accoimt  of  its 
faith.  His  father,  Matthias  Bracht  von  Chessel, 
foimd  a  refuge  at  GOttingen  and  became  a  teacher 
there.  Johannes  studied  at  Wittenberg  under 
Melanchthon  and  at  Leipsic  under  Joachim  Came- 
rarius.  Under  their  guidance  he  became  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  humanists  of  Germany;  he 
was  made  a  doctor  of  law  at  Pisa  in  1566,  and  was 
ennobled  in  1567  by  the  emperor  MftYimilmn  II. 
From  1563  to  1589  he  labored  at  Rostock  and  then 
accepted  a  call  to  Hehnst&dt.  He  enjoyed  there 
the  favor  of  his  prince,  Duke  Henry  Julius  of 
Brunswick,  and  the  fame  of  his  learning  made  him 
a  kind  of  European  celebrity.  But  the  orthodox 
theologians  in  the  imiversity,  who  opposed  Melanch- 
thonianism,  soon  attacked  Caselius.  The  leader 
of  the  orthodox  was  Professor  Daniel  Hoffmann 
(q.v.),  who  considered  all  use  of  reason  and  phi- 
losophy in  theology  as  dangerous,  because  the 
revealed  truth  Ib  injured  thereby.  In  this  and 
similar  tendencies  Caselius  saw  the  approach  of  a 
new  barbarism,  and  he  was  not  far  wrong.  He 
had  the  encouragement  of  a  few  bright  pupils, 
including  the  young  Georg  Calixtus  (q.v.),  and 
comforting  messages  came  to  him  from  friends 
abroad.  But  unfortimately  his  material  cireum- 
stances  became  more  and  more  wretched,  and  for 
this  reason  his  life  ended  in  discord  and  dark- 
ness. In  the  barbarism  which  came  over  Ciermany 
with  the  Thirty  Years'  War  his  numerous  writings, 
distinguished  by  spirited  contents  and  elegant  form, 
were  soon  almost  forgotten.  As  far  as  they  are 
printed,  they  can  only  be  found  in  larger  libraries. 
They  refer  to  Greek  authors,  ancient  grammar, 
hermeneutics,  and  rhetoric,  as  well  as  to  pedagogics 
and  political  science.  .  Caselius  was  the  firet  to 
separate  political  science  from  the  Roman  juris- 
prudence and  raise  it  to  a  distinct  discipline. 

Paul  Tbchackebt. 

Bxbuographt:  For   the    letters   consult:  J.    a   Draasfeld, 
Opu9  epiatolieum  /.   CoMlii,  Frankfort,   1687;  ComiiMr- 


Oasparl 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


43( 


eium  liierarum  darorum  virorum  «  muMo  R.  A.  NoUeniit 
Bremen,  1737.  See  Calixtus.  Consult:  E.  L.  T.  Henke, 
CalixtuM*  BrUfwechMel,  Halle.  1833;  idem.  O.  Calixtua  und 
teins  Zeil,  vol.  i..  Halle,  1866;  ADB,  iv.  40  sqq.  F.  Kol- 
dewey  has  projected  a  monograph  on  Oaeeliufl,  for  which 
he  hat  aooesa  to  the  best  sources. 

CASPARI,  cOa'pa-ii,  CARL  PAUL:  Norwegian 
Lutheran;  b.  at  Dessau  Feb.  8,  1814;  d.  at  Ck^a- 
tiania  Apr.  11,  1892.  He  was  of  Jewish  parentage 
and  was  brought  up  in  the  faith  of  his  fathers. 
From  1834  to  1838  he  studied  at  Leipsic,  where 
he  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Persian 
under  Fleischer.  Partly  from  the  influence  of 
fellow  students,  among  whom  was  Franx  Delitssch, 
he  adopted  Christianity  and  was  baptised  in  1838. 
His  Jewish  training  naturally  fitted  him  for  work 
in  Old  Testament  exegesis,  and  he  spent  two  years 
at  Berlin  under  Hengstenberg.  In  1842  he  became 
doctor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  in  1847  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Christiania,  where  he  remained 
from  choice  the  rest  of  his  life,  declining  calls  to 
Rostock  in  1850,  to  Dorpat  in  1856,  and  to  Er- 
langen  in  1857  and  again  in  1867.  His  linguistic 
ability  enabled  him  speedily  to  master  the  Nor- 
wegian language,  so  that  he  could  begin  lectures 
in  less  than  a  year.  He  was  made  fiill  professor 
in  1857.  In  Us  university  work  Caspari  inter- 
pieted  various  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments and  treated  Old  Testament  introduction. 
His  lectures  were  inspiring,  thorough,  earnest,  and 
bore  evidence  of  a  living  Christian  faith.  In  his 
exegesis  and  apologetics  he  followed  Hengstenberg, 
and  he  remained  to  the  end  an  opponent  of  modem 
critical  scholarship.  But  his  work  and  interest 
were  not  confined  to  the  Old  Testament  field.  In 
1825  a  Danish  preacher,  Nioolai  Frederik  Severin 
Grundtvig  (q.v.),  propounded  peculiar  views,  vi«., 
that  the  baptismd  formula,  the  renunciation,  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  words  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
come  directly  from  the  Lord,  have  never  been 
changed,  and  therefore  stand  above  the  Scriptures. 
The  view  foimd  adherents  in  Denmark  and  Norway, 
and  fear  was  felt  that  the  formal  principle  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  was  in  danger.  Caspari  undeiv 
took  a  careful  investigation  of  the  questions  con- 
nected with  the  baptismal  formula  and  its  history 
and  thus  was  led  on  to  extensive  ecclesiastico- 
patristic  studies.  He  published  a  long  series  of 
articles  and  books  as  the  result,  most  of  them  in  the 
Norwegian  language.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Norwegian  Bible  Society  he  assisted  in  making  a 
new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was 
completed  for  the  seventy-fifth  anniversary  of  the 
Society,  May  26,  1891;  at  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  working  on  the  New  Testament  (see  Biblb 
Versions,  B,  XV.,  §  2).  He  was  a  member  of  the 
central  committee  of  the  Bible  Society,  president 
of  the  Norwegian  mission  among  the  Jews,  and 
belonged  to  numerous  learned  and  honorary  so- 
cieties. 

His  meet  important  publications  were:  A  commentary  on 
Obadiah  (in  Dselitssch  and  Caspari 's  ExeaeUaehet  HantBtueh 
9u  den  PropheUn  det  AUen  Bundes,  Leipsic,  1842);  Gram- 
matioa  Arabiea  (2  parts,  Leipsic,  1844-48;  5th  Germ,  ed., by 
August  Mailer.  Halle.  1887;  Eng.  ed..  by  W.  Wright.  Lon- 
don. 1859-62, 1874-76;  by  W.  Robertson  Smith  and  M.  J.  de 
Goeje,  Cambridge,  1896-98);  BeitrOoe  wur  EifUeitung  in  da» 
Buck  Jmaia  und  tur  OmAiehU  dtr  jtaaianUdten  ZeU  (voL 


ii.  of  Delitisch  and  Caspari 's  BibUack-tkeoUtgudte  wd  r.'  ■ 
0€Haeh-4crUUehe  Studien,  Berlin,  1848);  Ueber  dn  ir* 
tvkraimiHathen  Krieg  unier  Jotham  und  AhoM  (Chr.-'-au 
1849);  Ueber  Michn  den  Moraethiien  und  aeine  pnrpke:' 
Schnft  (2  parts.  1851-52);  UngedruekU,  unheadim  u^ 
wenig  heachtete  QuMen  gur  Geechiektt  dee  Tauft]f^tM»  a 
der  Olaubeneregel  (3  vob.,  1866-75);  Zur  EinfiArmg  i*  a 
Bueh  Danid  (Leipsic,  1869);  Alie  und  neue  QvtGn  a 
Oeeckiehte  dee  Taufeymbole  und  der  GUntbenertgd  (CtuiAsa. 
1879);  an  edition  of  Martin  of  Bracara's  De  eama^n 
rusfioorum  (1883);  Kir€h«nkietariedie  Aneedota  luta  ana 
Auegaben  patrteUed^er  und  kirdUidkr^nitleUilterlicka'  Sdr.v 
(1883);  Eine  Auffuslifi  /dlscA/idk  beiodegU  HamOia  it  «r^ 
legiie  (1886);  Brief e,  Abhandluttgen  und  Predigin  eu  u 
ewei  Idxien  Jahrhunderten  dee  kirdUidten  Alter^vj  a 
demAnfang  dee  MiUdaUere  (1891);  DaeBuA  Hiob  i*H'- 
nvmue'e  Uebereeteung  (Christiania,  1893).  Drr  Gleti'  r 
der  TriniUU  OoUee  in  der  Kvrdudee  erUenduiiduKnJr 
hundertenadigewieeen  (Leipsic.  1894).  In  Xorwcguo  br  po- 
lished a  translation  of  the  Book  of  Concord  iCbrbtau 
1861);  an  essay  upon  the  Wandering  Jew  (lS62r,  ftM> 
mentary  on  the  firit  six  chapters  of  Isaiah  (IS^v  a  t> 
torical  essay  on  the  confession  of  faith  at  baptism  'is''. .  . 
Abraham's  trial  and  Jacob's  wrestling  with  (jod  'S 
on  Abraham's  call  and  meeting  with  Mdchisedek  .h'- 
a  volume  of  Bible  essays  (1884);  etc  With  ltt»  frv:. 
Q.  C.  Johnson  (q.v.)  he  established  in  1857  the  Ti^^^ 
Tidekrift  far  den  evangeliek^uikereke  Kirke  i  Sjt^  ■ 
which  a  volume  appeared  annually  till  shortly  brfore  l» 
pari's  death.  Most  of  the  articles  were  written  by  the ^i-i  **• 
and  in  this  and  other  periodicals  a  large  number  d  Cb^' 
writings  were  originally  published. 

J.  Beiseedl 

CASPARI,  WALTER:  German  theologiM: - 
at  Sommerhausen  (a  village  of  Lower  FnmxLi 
June  19,  1847.  He  was  educated  at  the  ul'" 
sities  of  Munich,  Erlangen,  and  Leipsic  from  y^ 
to  1868,  after  which  he  was  pastor  in  Memminft: 
and  Ansbach  until  1885.  In  the  last-named  y- 
he  was  appointed  associate  professor  of  prac^  "*' 
theology,  pedagogics,  and  dogmatics,  andunireiv' 
preacher  at  Erlangen,  and  became  full  pro-^-^' 
two  years  later.  In  addition  to  contribution^ ' 
the  Hauck-Herzog  RE  and  briefer  studies,  be  b» 
written:  Auagew&hlU  Lesestucke  der  audaruii^f^ 
lAUratur  (Munich,  1877);  Die  epistolischen  Fr- 
kopen  nach  der  Auswahl  van  Dr.  Thomasius  r:^y  j 
tisch-homiUHsch  erkldrt  (Erlangen,  1883);  DiVf' 
gelische  Konfirmatum  (Leipsic,  1890);  and  ^' 
ffeschichUiche  Grundlage  des  gegenwdrtigen  ««^*' 
lischen  Gemeindelebena  (1894). 

CAS-SANa>ER,6E0RGIUS:  Roman  Catholic  > 
ologian;  b.  at  Pitthem  (15  m.  s.e.  of  Bruges  .U 
24,  1513;  d.  in  Cologne  Feb.  3,  1566.  Heleci::^ 
at  Bruges  and  Ghent  on  antiquities,  theology,  ^' 
canon  law,  but  retired  to  Cologne  in  1549  i- 
devoted  himself  to  study.  The  Duke  of  C.f ' 
employed  him  in  an  effort  to  win  back  tbeA^' 
baptists  in  Duisbuig,  and  still  more  important  v->' 
the  charge  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  ^' 
endeavored  to  unite  the  Catholics  and  P^ote^li  ■' 
in  his  territories.  Cassander  had  already  pubii>^'^ 
anonymously  an  irenic  writing,  De  officio  p"/* 
publiciB  tranquiUUatia  vere  amanHs  rin  v^  '^ 
religionie  dissidio  (Basel,  1561),  which  elidt^^^ 
sharp  rejoinder  from  Calvin.  Strict  ^^. 
Catholics  also  disliked  the  work,  and  it  was  p|>^^ 
on  the  Lisbon  Index  in  1581.  At  the  emperor-'*' 
quest  Cassander  prepared  a  ConsuUatio  de  orf '^ .  | 
inter  Catholico8  et  Protestantes  controversis,  *^ 
he  presented  to  Maximilian  II.  in  1564,  Feric^ 
having  died  in  the  mean  time  (published  at  Lv^ 


435 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oasporl 
Oa4Mianiui 


1608;  ed.  H.  Grotius,  Amflterdam,  1642).  To 
bring  about  a  union  Cassander  starts  with  the 
"  consensus  ''  of  the  most  ancient  chiurch,  expressed 
in  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Though  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture is  to  be  authoritative,  he  wishes  to  maintain 
the  importance  of  tradition,  especially  of  the  great 
Church  Fathers  (down  to  Gregory  I.);  only  a  dif- 
ference which  concerns  the  position  to  Christ 
himself,  not  "  opiniones  "  or  "  ritus,"  may  become 
a  cause  of  division,  but  the  bond  of  **  caritas  " 
is  by  no  means  to  be  violated.  In  the  doctrine  of 
original  sin,  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  justification, 
he  tries  to  mediate.  He  is  even  inclined  to  give 
the  cup  to  the  laity,  and  he  will  also  admit  of  the 
marriage  of  the  clergy  as  a  makeshift.  In  the  other 
controversial  questions  (worship  of  saints,  monas- 
ticism,  indulgences,  papal  power)  he  tries  to  soften 
the  difficulties  and  do  away  with  exaggerations. 
A  recantation  before  his  death  has  been  imputed  to 
him.  It  iB  hard  to  save  him  for  the  Roman 
Catholics,  however,  and  still  less  can  he  be 
claimed  by  the  Ftotestant  side.  Seckendorf  is 
correct  when  he  says  in  the  CammerUariiu  (Frank- 
fort and  Leipsic,  1680,  p.  347):  "  Georgius  Cassan- 
der, a  good  theologian,  to  be  sure  not  a  Lutheran, 
but  a  lover  of  truth."  K.  Benrath. 

Biblxogbapht:  The  Opera  sppMirad  Paris,  1616.  Consult 
F.  H.  Reusch,  JmUz  der  verhoUnen  BUdier,  i.  361  sqq., 
Bonn,  1883. 

CASSEL,  CONFEREIfCE  OF:  A  religious  col- 
loquy at  Cassel,  July  1-9,  1661,  between  certain 
Reformed  theologians  from  the  University  of 
Marburg  and  Lutheran  theologians  from  the  Uni- 
versity of  Rinteln,  arranged  by  Landgrave  William 
VI.  of  Hesse.  The  aim  was  to  bring  about  agree- 
ment or  at  least  mutual  toleration.  They  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  some  not  imessential  points,  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  predestination, 
the  person  of  Christ,  and  baptism,  on  which  both 
parties  agreed.  It  was  resolved,  moreover,  not 
to  revile  one  another  in  the  future  because  of  the 
differences  still  remaining,  to  free  sermons  from  the 
burden  of  confessional  polemics,  and  in  any  case 
no  longer  to  attack  an  opponent  personally.  But 
this  peaceful  agreement  did  not  meet  with  a  kind 
reception  in  the  rest  of  Germany.  Frederick 
William,  the  Great  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was, 
to  be  sure,  an  exception,  and  the  Reformed  party 
in  France  and  Holland  were  inclined  to  come  half- 
way; but  the  Lutherans  rejected  the  arrangement 
absolutely.  The  union  became  the  subject  of 
lively  literary  combats,  and  the  final  result  was  a 
further  intensification  of  confessional  differences. 

Carl  Mirbt. 

Biblzoobapht:  E.  L.  T.  Henke,  Dae  UnionekoUoquium 
tuCaaeel  leei,  Marbuis.  1861;  H.  Heppe,  Ktrehenge- 
BchichU  beider  Heeeen,  vol.  ii.,  ib.  1876;  H.  Landwehr, 
Die  KirehenpoUUk  Friedrich  Wilhelme,  Berlin,  1894. 

CASSEL,  PAULUS  STEPHANUS  (SELI6):  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian;  b.  at  Grosa-Glogau 
(55  m.  n.w.  of  Breslau),  Silesia,  Feb.  27,  1821; 
d.  at  Friedenau,  a  suburb  of  Berlin,  Dec.  23,  1892. 
He  was  of  Jewish  parentage,  studied  history  at 
Berlin,  and  from  1850  to  1856  edited  a  newspaper 
at  Erfurt.    On  May  28,  1855,  he  was  baptised  at 


Bilssleben  near  Erfurt,  and  the  next  year  became 
librarian  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Erfurt.  In  1859  he 
settled  at  Berlin,  where  he  acted  as  tutor  and  devo- 
ted himself  to  literary  work.  In  1866-67  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Prussian  Parliament,  then  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  London  Jewish  Missionary  Society 
and  became  its  minister  at  the  Christuskirche  in 
Berlin.  In  1891  he  resigned  his  position  and  died 
shortly  afterward.  Cassel  was  a  most  prolific  writer, 
and  his  article  on  the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  to  the  year  1847, 
written  while  still  a  Jew  for  Ersch  and  Gruber's 
AUgemeine  Enq^klopddief  sect.  II.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp. 
1-238,  Leipsic,  1850,  is  still  valuable.  By  public 
lectures  delivered  in  different  cities  of  Germany, 
he  tried  to  influence  the  educated  Jews  in  favor 
of  Christianity,  and  baptized  many.  He  also 
combated  anti-Semitism.  Other  works  by  him  in- 
clude the  commentaries  on  Judges  and  Ruth  in 
Lange's  Commentary;  also  Weihnachten,  UrsprHnge, 
Braucheund  Aberglauben  (Berlin,  1862);  AWcirch- 
licher  Festkalender  nach  Uraprungen  und  Br&uchen 
(1869);  VomWegenachDamaskus  (Gotha,  1872); 
Die  QerechiigkeU  aua  dem  Glavben  (1874);  Dob 
Buck  Esther  (Berlin,  1878);  and  Die  Symbolik  des 
Blutes  (1882).  (H.  L.  Strack.) 

CASSETTA,  cOs-set'tO,  FRANCESCO  DI  PAOLA: 

Italian  cardinal;  b.  at  Rome  Aug.  12,  1841. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Roman  Seminary  and 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1865.  In 
1884  he  was  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Amiata 
and  appointed  canon  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
and  three  years  later  became  titular  archbishop  of 
Nicomedia  and  grand  almoner  to  Pope  Leo  XIII. 
As  titular  patriarch  of  Antioch  he  was  nominated 
vicegerent  of  Rome,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  as 
the  deputy  of  the  cardinal  vicar.  He  was  created 
cardinal  priest  of  Santi  Vito,  Modesto  e  Crescenzia 
in  1899,  and  is  titular  bishop  of  Sabina,  perpetual 
abbot  of  Farfa,  apostolic  visitor  of  the  Hospice 
of 'the  Catechumens,  commissioner  for  the  apos- 
tolic visitation  of  the  Italian  dioceses,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Congregations  of  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
the  Coimcil,  the  Index,  the  Consistory,  the  Prop- 
aganda, the  Propaganda  for  the  Oriental  Rite, 
and  Indulgences. 

CASSIAIf :  A  martyr  whose  death  is  described 
by  Prudentius  in  the  ninth  hymn  of  his  Peristepfui- 
mm.  The  poet  says  that  he  saw  the  martyr's 
grave  at  Forum  Comelii  (Imola),  with  a  picture  of 
him,  and  that  the  custodian  related  that  Cassian 
had  been  stabbed  by  his  own  pupils  with  their  styli 
and  otherwise  cruelly  handled.  Gregory  of  Tours 
gives  substantially  the  same  account.  The  Mar- 
tyrologium  Hieronymianum  names  Aug.  11  as  the 
day  of  his  death.  The  fact  of  his  martyrdom  at 
Forum  C]k)melii  need  not  be  doubted,  but  the  man- 
ner related  by  Prudentius  is  improbable,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  fix  the  date.  (A.  Hauck.) 

CASSIANUS,  cas"s!-a'nn8,  JOHANNES:  Monk  of 
the  fifth  century  and  the  real  founder  of  Semi- 
Pelagianism  (q.v.);  b.  probably  in  Provence  c. 
360;  d.  at  Marseilles  c.  435.  He  received  a  thor- 
ough education,  and  then  visited  the  East  with  an 


iflianua 


Oastellii 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


486 


older  friend  named  Gennanus.  At  Bethlehem  he 
entered  a  cloister,  but  the  desire  to  know  the 
famous  Egyptian  hermits  led  him  and  Germanus 
to  Egypt,  where  they  remained  seven  years,  after 
which  they  revisited  Bethlehem,  but  soon  re- 
turned to  Egjrpt.  Thence  Cassianus  went  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  became  the  pupil  of  John 
Chxysostom,  who  ordained  him  deacon.  The 
exile  of  Chiysostom  in  403,  however,  obliged  Cas- 
sianus and  Germanus  to  take  refuge  with  Innocent 
I.  When  Cassianus  was  ordained  priest  and 
returned  home  is  unknown,  and  the  fate  of  Ger- 
manus is  equally  uncertain.  At  Marseilles  Cas- 
sianus foimded  two  cloisters,  one  for  monks  and 
the  other  for  nuns,  and  seems  to  have  died  shortly 
after  completing  his  polemic  against  Nestorius. 

His  earliest  work,  written  before  426,  was  en- 
titled De  inatUutU  eotnobufnun  et  de  odo  princi- 
palium  vUiorum  remediia  lihri  ducdecim,  and  was 
composed  at  the  request  of  Castor,  bishop  of  Apta 
Julia,  who  wished  to  introduce  the  Oriental  and 
especially  the  Egjrptian  rules  into  the  monastery 
which  he  had  founded.  His  second  work  was  his 
CoUaHones  viginti-^iucUtuar,  completed  before  429. 
Both  were  widely  spread  throughout  the  Occident; 
Benedict  of  Nursia  commanded  that  they  be  read 
to  the  monks  in  the  refectory;  Cassiodorus  es- 
teemed them  highly,  although  he  warned  his  monks 
against  the  heretical  views  of  the  author  con- 
cerning the  freedom  of  the  wUl;  and  Gregory  of 
Tours  mentions  them  as  used,  together  with  other 
Oriental  rules,  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Yririz. 
A  brief  compend  was  made  by  the  friend  of  Cas- 
sianus, Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  which  served 
as  a  source  for  the  Concordia  refftikaruin  of  Benedict 
of  Aniane. 

The  thirteenth  collation  of  Csssianus  is  impor- 
tant in  the  controversy  on  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
grace.  Against  his  enemies,  who  were  centered 
in  Marseilles,  the  latter  addressed,  shortly  before 
his  death,  his  De  proBdeaHnoHone  sanctorum  and 
De  dono  pereeveranHce,  his  chief  opponent  being 
Cassianus,  who  in  this  collation  had  enunciated 
the  doctrine  called  Semi-Pelagianism  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  although  it  might  more  properly  be  termed 
Semi-Augustinianism,  since  Cassianus  separated 
himself  sharply  from  Pelagius  and  branded  him 
as  a  heretic,  while  he  felt  himself  in  complete  har- 
mony with  Augustine.  His  Greek  training,  how- 
ever, rendered  it  impossible  for  him  to  accept 
Augustine's  doctrine  of  unconditional  predestina- 
tion, particular  grace,  and  the  absolute  denial  of 
the  freedom  of  the  will.  Cassianus,  on  the  other 
hand,  recognized  the  necessity  of  divine  grace 
throughout  the  process  of  salvation,  while  postu- 
lating the  existence  of  free  will  as  a  necessary 
condition  for  the  operation  of  grace,  and  asserting 
that  God  never  destrojrs  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
even  in  such  an  extraordinary  case  as  the  conver- 
sion of  Paul.  He  regarded  it  as  a  religious  axiom, 
therefore,  that  salvation  through  Christ  is  not 
restricted  to  a  small  number  of  the  elect,  but  is 
intended  for  all.  This  non-Augustinian  concept 
of  the  process  of  salvation  conditions  Cassianus's 
view  of  original  sin.  He  believed  that  the  fall 
of  Adam  had  brought  destruction  on  the  whole 


human  race,  although  it  still  retained  the  power 
to  seek  goodness  in  virtue  of  its  original  state  <^ 
immortality,  wisdom,  and  complete  freedom  of  the 
will.  After  the  victory  of  a  modified  Augustiniaih 
ism  at  the  Synod  of  Orange  in  529,  the  doctriiui 
of  Cassianus  were  generally  regarded  as  heterodox, 
although  this  did  not  injure  his  fame  as  a  monastic 
author,  and  in  southern  Gaul  he  was  officiaUj 
honored  as  a  saint.     See  Ssmi-Pelaoianism. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Cassianus  oecame 
involved  in  the  Nestorian  controversy,  and  at  the 
request  of  the  archdeacon  Leo  (later  Pope  Leo  I.) 
wrote  his  De  incamatume  Domini  contra  NesUnivn 
libri  aeptem,  the  date  being  subsequent  to  the 
letters  written  by  Nestorius  to  Pope  Celestine  in 
430.  The  work  lacks  the  importance  which  it  wouU 
otherwise  possess  as  the  only  extensive  contribu- 
tion of  an  Occidental  to  the  Nestorian  controversy, 
through  its  restriction  to  personal  attacks  on  the 
opponent  of  its  author  and  a  complete  omi86io& 
of  positive  and  independent  Christological  state- 
ments. Cassianus  sought  to  prove  that  the  di- 
vinity of  Christ  had  existed  from  eternity  and  had 
never  been  renounced,  so  that  Mary  must  be  called 
not  merely  the  mother  of  Christ,  as  Nestoriiu 
taught,  but  the  mother  of  God.  The  work  is 
especially  valuable  as  showing  the  close  sympathy 
of  the  interests  and  methods  of  Nestorianism  and 
Pelagianism,  while  Cassianus,  following  the  Gallic 
monk  Leporius,  who  had  renounced  Pelagianian 
in  426,  held  that  Christ  possessed  in  a  single  per- 
son the  two  coexistent  substances  of  God  and  man. 

(G.  GhOtsicacher.) 

BnuooaAPHT:  The  Opera,  ed.  A.  GftsauB.  were  publiahed 
at  Douai,  1616.  reprinted  in  AfPL.  xliz.,  1.;  best  ed.  by 
M.  Petecbenig.  in  C8BL,  2  vole.,  1886-«8.  An  Eog. 
tnxul.,  witb  a  well-written  Life,  is  eontained  in  NPNF, 
2d  teries,  zi.  163  sqq.  Coneult:  G.  F.  Wicgen,  Pra^- 
maiucKe  DareleUuiHf  dee  AwiffueHemue  und  Pdoffianitmiti, 
ii.  7-163.  Berlin.  1833;  A.  Hamaok.  Doomenoeeehiehle,  iil 
154.  Tabinsen.  1897,  Eng.  transl.,  ▼.  246  Kiq..  253  sqq. 
Boston.  1809;  A.  Hoeh.  Die  Lehrm  dee  J,  Caeeiane  eoa 
Naiurund  Onade,  Freiburg,  1895. 

CASSIANXTS,  JULIUS.    See  Docetism;  Encra- 

TITE8. 

CASSIODORUS,  cas^'si-^MK^rus  (CASSIODO- 
RIUS),  ICAGKUS  AURELIUS:  Roman  historian, 
statesman,  and  monk;  b.  at  Scylacium  (the  mod- 
em  Squillace,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  40  m. 
s.s.e.  of  Gosenza),  Calabria,  c.  480;  d.  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Vivarium,  near  Scylacium,  c.  570.  Ow- 
ing to  the  esteem  in  which  his  father  was  held 
by  Theodoric,  a  public  career  was  early  open  to 
him;  and  he  pursued  it  until  he  had  reached  the 
highest  dignities  under  the  Ostrogothic  monarcha. 
He  stood  in  close  personal  relations  with  Theod- 
oric, with  whose  efforts  to  bring  about  a  fusion 
between  the  Germanic  and  Roman  elements  among 
his  subjects  he  thoroughly  ssrmpathised.  About 
540  he  retired  from  public  life  to  the  peace  and 
quiet  of  the  monastery  founded  by  him  on  his  own 
estates  at  Vivarium.  Here  he  devoted  himself 
to  literary  work,  of  which  he  had  already  made 
a  beginning  amidst  his  political  activity,  and 
pursued  it  lealously  until  his  ninety-third  3rear. 
He  insisted  on  the  duty  of  intellectual  labor  for 
his  monks,  helped  their  studies  by  evexy  means 


IT 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oasfllanna 

Oaatellion 


Ills  power,  of  which  his  own  example  was  not 
e  least,  and  so  contributed  largely  to  the  estab- 
liment  of  the  tradition  which  made  the  monas- 
riesy  especially  of  the  Benedictine  order,  the 
»iiiee  of  learning  throughout  the  dark  ages. 
His  literary  work,  like  his  life,  falls  into  two 
kriods.  To  the  first  belong  a  consular  chronicle 
ritten  in  519;  twelve  books  of  Gothic  history, 
imposed  in  the  spirit  of  the  policy  of  fusion  already 
ferred  to,  known  to  us  only  in  the  recast  version 
Jordanes,  De  origine  actibuaque  Getarum  (the 
ork  of  Cassiodorus  seems  to  have  borne  the  same 
tie);  panegyrics  on  the  kings  and  queens  of  the 
oths,  of  which  only  dubious  fragments  remain; 
collection  (made  about  538)  of  rescripts  com- 
osed  by  him  during  his  long  and  varied  official 
fe,  and  formulas  of  appointment  to  a  great  va- 
ety  of  offices,  in  twelve  books,  under  the  title 
"^aricg  ;  a  small  philosophical  work,  De  animaf 
rritten  immediately  after  the  completion  of  the 
''arice,  at  the  request  of  friends,  whose  questions 
bout  the  soul  he  answers,  following  Claudianus 
iamertus  and  Augustine.  The  last-named  work 
orms  a  sort  of  transition  to  those  of  the  second 
period.  The  most  important  of  these,  composed 
>robably  in  544,  is  the  InstihUianea  divinarum  et 
tigctdarium  litterarum  (or  better  lectumum).  The 
irst  book  is  devoted  to  spiritual  learning,  the 
lecond  to  secular;  and  both  together  form  the  first 
;>art  of  a  complete  course  of  instruction  designed 
3y  Cassiodorus  for  the  Western  clergy,  and  espe- 
cially for  his  own  monks.  The  first  book  is  only 
an  introduction  to  the  study  of  theology,  explaining 
the  most  important  preliminary  knowledge  re- 
quired and  the  literary  helps  at  the  student's  com- 
mand for  his  further  education;  the  second  gives 
brief  compendiums  of  various  branches  of  secular 
learning.  To  this  the  last  work  of  Cassiodorus, 
De  orihographia,  forms  a  supplement.  Another 
voluminous  theological  work,  begun  before  the 
Institutionea  but  finished  long  after,  was  a  full 
explanation  of  the  Psalms  in  their  threefold  aspect, 
spiritual,  historical,  and  s3rmbolic.  He  wrote 
other  exegetical  works,  of  which  his  CompUxumea 
in  epiatolaa  et  acta  apoatohrum  et  apocalypain  is 
still  extant.  Of  much  greater  value  to  posterity  is 
his  Hisiaria  ecdeaiaatica  tripartita  in  twelve  books, 
composed  of  extracts  from  the  Greek  historians 
Socrates,  Soaomen,  and  Theodoret,  whose  works 
he  had  translated  by  Epiphanius.  It  is  in  no  sense 
an  original  work,  and  is  put  together  in  a  patchwork 
fashion;  but  it  filled  up  a  great  gap  in  the  general 
Western  knowledge  of  church  history,  and,  incom- 
plete as  it  is,  was  the  principal  handbook  used  in 
the  Middle  Ages  for  its  period. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

BxBLiooRAnrr:  The  Varia  and  OraOonum  rdiquim, 
with  introduction,  are  in  MOH,  AueL  anL,  xii.  1-386, 
45^-484;  the  Varia  are  aleo  in  MPL,  Ixix.  The 
Letten  of  CasHodonu,  a  Condtnttd  Trantl.  of  th«  Varim, 
•d.  T.  Hodskin,  appeared  London,  1886.  Consult:  A. 
OUeris,  Catoiodoro,  eonaervaieur  deo  l%vro§  de  VanHquiti 
Uitine,  Paris.  1841:  R.  KOpke,  Deutodte  Fonchungen. 
Dm  Anf&ngo  deo  Kfhiiatum;  pp.  78-04,  Berlin.  1850; 
A.  Tborbecke,  Cauiodorut  Senator,  Heidelberg.  1867; 
A.  Freni.  M.  Attreliut  Caoaiodorius  Senator,  Breslau.  1872; 
H.  Ton  Sybel.  Entatehung  dee  detttacken  Kdnifftuma,  pp. 
184-20B.  Frankfort,  1881;   A.  Ebert.  QoackiehU  dor  Lu- 


Uratur  dea  MiUdaltera,  i.  108.  408-514,  Leiprie.  1888. 
For  further  literature  ooneult  Potthast,  Wetneoiaer, 
p.  108. 

CASSOCK.  See  Vebtmentb  and  Inbionia, 
Ecclesiastical. 

CASTBLL,  EDMnHD:  English  Orientalist;  b.  at 
East  Hatley  (12  m.  s.w.  of  Cambridge),  Cambridge- 
shire, 1606;  d.  at  Higham  Gobion  (10  m.  s.s.e.  of 
Bedford),  Bedfordshire,  1685.  He  studied  at 
Emmanuel  and  St.  John's  colleges,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1625;  M.A.,  1628;  B.D.,  1635;  D.D.,  1661). 
He  assisted  Walton  on  his  Polyglot  (1657),  con- 
tributing the  editions  of  the  Samaritan,  Syriao, 
Arabic,  and  Ethiopio  versions,  and  other  (unac- 
knowledged) portions,  and  also  spent  freely  of  his 
own  fortune  for  the  work.  In  1669  he  brought  out 
in  two  volumes,  folio,  at  London,  his  Lexicon 
Heptaglotton,  Hebraicum,  Cftaldaicunif  Syriacum, 
Samaritanum,  ^tkiopicum,  Arabicum,  eonjunctim  ; 
et  Peraicum  aeparatim,  specially  prepared  to  sup- 
plement the  Polypi,  This  work  was  the  result  of 
eighteen  years  of  the  most  unremitting  labor, 
cost  the  author  £12,000,  and  left  him  ruined  in 
fortune  and  health.  His  work  was  enthusiastically 
received  on  the  Continent,  but  neglected  in  Eng- 
land. Late  in  life  he  received  some  favor  from 
the  king,  was  appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  in 
1666,  prebendary  of  Canteibuiy  and  professor 
of  Arabic  at  Cambridge  1667,  and  was  successively 
vicar  of  Hatfield  Peverell,  Essex;  rector  of  Wode- 
ham  Walter,  Essex;  and  rector  of  Higham  Gobion. 

Bibuoqrapht:  A.  h  Wood,  AtKena  Oxonienaaa,  ed.  P.  BUm, 
iii  883.  4  role.,  London,  1813-20;  twenty-three  of  hit 
letten  appear  in  J.  Lightfoot.  WhoU  Worka,  ed.  J.  R. 
Pitman.  13  voU.,  London,  1822-25.  Ooneult  DNB,  ix. 
271-272. 

CASTELLIO(lf),  SSBASnAHUS  (SEBASTIEN 
CHATEILLON):  French  Reformer;  b.  at  Saint- 
Martin  du  Fresne  (30  m.  w.  of  (Geneva)  1515;  d.  at 
Basel  Dec.  29, 1563.  He  pursued  his  studies  under 
difficult  circumstances  until  he  became  tutor  to  three 
young  noblemen.  In  1540  he  went  to  Strasburg, 
lived  in  Calvin's  house,  and  accompanied  him  to 
Geneva,  where  on  Calvin's  recommendation  he  be- 
came rector  of  the  high  school.  But  disagreement 
soon  arose  between  him  and  the  great  Reformer, 
Castellio  holding  views  of  his  own  concerning 
election  and  Christ's  descent  into  hell,  and  re- 
garding the  Song  of  Solomon  as  an  erotic  poem 
which  should  be  exclude<i  from  the  canon.  He 
left  Geneva  in  1544  and  settled  in  Basel,  where  he 
lived  in  great  poverty  till  1552,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek  literature.  His  first 
publication  was  Dialogi  aacri  (Geneva,  1543;  Eng. 
transL,  The  History  of  the  Bible,  collected  into  119 
dialoguea,  London,  1715;  again  under  the  title, 
Youth*a  Scripture  Remembrancer,  1743),  much  used 
as  a  school-book.  In  1551  he  published  in  Basel 
his  chief  work,  an  elegant  annotated  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  which  he  dedicated  to  Edward 
VI.  of  England  (12th  ed.,  Leipsic,  1778).  The 
notes  gave  offense,  as  they  betrasred  skepticism 
as  to  the  attainability  of  religious  truth,  and  the 
dedication,  a  noble  plea  for  religious  toleration, 
was  imacoeptable  to  the  age.  In  1555  he  published 
at  Basel  a  complete  French  translation  of  the  Bible, 


Oastor 
Caawall 


THE  NEW  SCnAFF-HERZOQ 


438 


with  a  dedication  to  Henry  II.  of  France.  It  also 
had  notes,  but  is  not  of  great  importance.  He  was 
violently  attacked  by  Calvin  and  Beza  because  of 
his  criticism  of  their  conduct  in  burning  Servetus, 
but  defended  himself  vigorously  in  his  De  hceretp- 
eis,  writing  under  the  pen-name  of  Martinus  Bel- 
lius  (Basel,  1554);  and  in  Contra  libeUum  Calvini,  in 
quo  ostendere  conatur  hogreticoa  jure  gladii  coercendos 
€886,  Calvin's  influence  suppressed  the  latter,  and 
it  was  not  published  till  1612. 

Biblioobapht:  F.  Buiflson,  SSb.  CagMlum^  aa  vie  §t  9ou 
€tuvre,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1802  (i,  p.  xvii.  gives  Utoratura  oon- 
oerning  him;  ii.  341  sqq.  gives  list  of  his  writings);  C.  Jarrin, 
Deta  oubliia;  Sib,  Ctutdlion,  lAonard  RaeU,  Paris,  1806. 

CASTOR,  SAINT:  According  to  legend,  a  com- 
panion of  St.  Maximin  of  Treves,  who  had  an  influ- 
ential career  as  a  missionary  and  ascetic  on  the 
lower  Moselle.  But  these  assertions  can  not  be 
traced  further  back  than  the  Carolingian  period; 
and  nothing  is  said  of  him  by  Gregory  of  Tours, 
who  had  a  great  devotion  to  Maximin.  His  relics 
are  said  to  have  been  miraculously  discovered  imder 
Bishop  Weomad  (d.  791).  They  were  first  placed 
at  Carden  on  the  Moselle  (the  Roman  Caradunum); 
but  in  836  a  part  of  them  was  translated  to  Co- 
blenz  (of  which  city  Castor  has  since  been  known 
as  the  patron)  by  Archbishop  Hetti  of  Treves,  and 
preserved  in  the  minster  founded  there  by  him. 

(A.  Hauck.) 

CASUISTRT:  The  name  of  a  special  form  of 
dbcipline,  or  branch  of  ethics,  constituting  a  some- 
what elaborated  scheme  of  doctrine  concerning 
proper  moral  action  in  single  and  concrete  instances. 
The  evaluation  of  this  kind  of  activity  evolves 
itself  generally  as  consequence  of  a  lawful  and 
rightful  apprehension  of  the  moral  walk,  whereby 
we  accentuate  external  conduct  according  to  defi- 
nite prescriptive  rules.  Coordinately  with  a  fun- 
damental moral  code  for  this  action,  certain  ethical 
norms  with  legal  adjuncts  were  in  practical  opera- 
tion so  far  back  as  the  Jewish  "  scribes  and  Phar- 
isees." Jesus  came  forward  in  sharpest  contrast 
with  this  casuistical  doctrine  of  morals. 
Teaching  As  he  suffered  his  disciples  to  become 
of  Jesus  derivately  participant  of  his  integral 
and  PauL  community  with  God,  he  kindled  in 
them  a  love  to  God,  which  was  to 
verify  itself  in  love  to  men.  To  this  love  he  brought 
back  the  conception  of  the  Law  fulfilled;  and  accord- 
ingly he  teaches  in  the  place  of  casuistry  a  direction 
of  life  spontaneously  individual.  Even  where  he 
appears  himself  to  set  up  casuistical  requirements 
(Matt.  V.  21  sqq.,  vi.  1  sqq.,  xxii.  17  sqq.;  Luke 
xiv.  3  sqq.)  it  is  always  expressly  in  order  to  lay 
emphasis  upon  the  spiritual  interpretation  of  the 
Law,  over  against  legalizing  constructiveness. 
These  thoughts  were  but  dialectically  expanded 
through  Paul's  epistles,  inasmuch  as  he  teaches 
that  faith  in  God's  grace  in  Christ  has  its  operation 
in  the  love  which  fulfils  the  requirements  of  God's 
will  in  agreement  with  the  spirit  of  the  Law.  Yet 
he  knew  that  even  though  faith  and  love  be  present, 
still  the  certainty  is  not  immediately  vouchsafed 
as  to  what  is  right  in  this  or  that  particular  in- 
rtance  (Rool  xii.  2;  Phil.  i.  9,  10).    He,  therefore, 


dwells  on  a  persistently  proving  examinatian  of 
God's  will,  and  gives  corresponding  instructions  to 
his  own  congregations;  which  instructions  now 
and  then  through  their  touching  upon  particular 
conditions  have  a  certain  casuistic  stamp  about 
them  (cf.  I  Cor.  vii.  8,  10);  but,  in  distinction  fr(»n 
every  form  of  casuistic  legalism  by  means  of  morally 
postulated  direction,  they  seek  to  develop  the  proper 
moral  consciousness  of  the  congregations  thon- 
selves. 

But  even  eariy  in  the  postapostolic  age,  the 
tendency  set  in,  coordinately  with  a  one-sided 
intellectualizing  conception  of  the  faith,  to  regu- 
late by  outwajpd  legaUsm  the  moral  life  as  thus 
robbed  of  its  religious  mainspring;  and  the  same 
tendency  involved  the  casuistical  treatment  of 
ethics.  Still  further  was  this  disposition  fostered 
in  Western  theology  through  the  influence  of 
Stoicism,  and  in  part  through  the  legalizing  devel- 
opment of  ecclesiastical  doctrine.  It  shows  itself 
even  in  Augustine,  despite  his  obliteration  of 
ethics,  and  continued  to  be  characteristic  of  the  en- 
tire Western  Catholic  ethical  system.  What  min- 
istered still  more  widely  to  the  development  of 
casuistry  was  the  very  eariy  and  momentously 
elaborated  ecclesiastical  institution  of 
Devel-  penance,  with  the  infliction  of  ecde- 
opment  of  siastical  penalties  for  individual  sma. 

Casuistry.  The  appertaining  customary  rules  of 
the  ancient  forms  of  procedure  and 
the  relevantly  codified  decrees  of  separate  synods 
were  brought  together,  supplemented,  and  arranged  j 
by  the  compilers.  There  thus  arose  the  definite  ' 
manuals  on  penance  for  the  use  of  confessors;  i 
among  which  the  best  known  were  those  attributed  | 
to  Archbishop  Theodore  of  Canterbury  (d.  690) 
and  the  Venerable  Bede  (d.  735).  A  still  greater 
amplification  of  casuistry  was  promoted  by  the 
entire  method  of  the  scholastic  ethics,  with  its 
subtle  disputations;  by  the  influence  of  the  canon- 
ical repetition;  and  by  the  universally  obligatoiy 
institution  of  auricular  confession  (1215).  Under 
such  influences  there  arose  a  distinctive  system- 
atic discipline,  which  in  contradistinction  to  the 
philosophic  and  legal  came  to  be  designated  as 
theological  casuistry.  The  scholars  who  cultivated 
the  same  constituted,  under  the  name  of  casuists 
or  schemists,  both  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  at 
Roman  Catholic  universities  much  later  still,  a 
special  class  of  teachers,  notably  so  as  against  the 
canonists.  The  writings  which  embodied  this  dis- 
cipline were  the  so-called  "  surnma  of  cajses  of 
conscience "  (summts  casuum  consdenHa).  Of 
these  the  most  ancient  was  compiled  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  Raymond  of  Pefiaforte  (printed 
at  Lyons,  1719).  There  then  followed  a  good  many 
such  writings  while  scholasticism  was  approaching 
the  term  of  its  decay  through  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  The  most  renowned  of  these 
8umm<Bf  which  are  usually  designated  in  brief  by 
the  author's  name  or  birthplace,  are  the  following: 
the  Asteaana  (printed  1468,  and  often);  PisaneUc 
(written  1338;  printed,  Paris,  1470);  Padfica 
(written  0.  1470;  printed,  Venice,  1576);  Rosella; 
Angelica;  and  lastly  the  one  usually  known  as 
I  summa    summarum :     property    the    compilation 


k30 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Castor 
Oaawall 


tnerely  of  Sylvester  Plierias,  which    dates    from 
the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  period. 

As  the  Reformers  revived  the  Pauline  idea  of  a 
free  motive  power  in  faith,  casuistry  proper  was 
riindamentally  set  aside,  and  they  even  occasion- 
ally  declared  themselves  expressly  opposed  to  it 
(Calvin, "  Institutes,"  IV.  x.  1  sqq.;  Luther,  Reaol  i. 
concl,  Ecc.,  n.).  Existing  conditions  nevertheless 
gave  rise  to  a  certain  evangelical  ooimterpart  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  casuistry.    The  Reformatory 
movement  introduced  a  multitude  of  new  problems 
in  morality.    So  in  difficult  contingencies  people 
frequently    appealed    for   enlightenment    to    the 
Reformers  and  other  persons  of  esteem,    or  in 
turn  to  the  theological  faculties.     In  this  way  the 
collected  letters  of  Luther  and  Calvin, 
Casuistry   as    well    as   Melanchthon's    counsels 
in  Protes-  (Berathaehlagimgen,    etc.,    issued    by 
tantism.     Petsel,  1601),  have  furnished  copious 
illustrations  at  large  in  the  matter  of 
evangelical  resolutions    of    conscience.     The  sys- 
tematic collections  of  faculty  decisions  (Thesaurus 
ctmsUiorum,    etc.,    by    Dedekenn;     Gerhard's   In 
richtigerer  Ordnung,  1676)  even  early  denote  the 
transition  to  a  distinctive  evangelical  casuistry. 
The  more  legalizing  spirit  of  the  post-Reformation 
era  became  thus  practically  effective.    Even  here, 
however,  the  various  particular  moral  transactions 
were  not  viewed,  in  their  development,  as  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  casuistry,  but  as  fruits  of  faith, 
of  knowledge  in  part,  and  of  the  life  according  to 
the  spirit  of  Christ.    The  Reformed  theology  took 
precedence  in  the  elaboration  of  casuistry.    The 
first  treatise  of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  Cambridge 
professor  William  Perkins  (d.  1602;  see  Perkins, 
William),    Decisions  of  Certain  Cases  (originally 
in  English;    Latin  by  Mager,  1603),  of  a  strict 
Puritan  tone.    A  similar  book  of  kindred  thought 
was  written  by  his  pupil  the  Scotchman  William 
Ames  (De  eonscienHa,  Amsterdam,  1630).    Some- 
what prior  to  this,  the  German  theologian  Alstedt 
had   published   a  work   on   casuistry   (Theologia 
casuum,  Hanover,  1621).    But  although  he  rep- 
resented casuistry  as  a  singularly  important  science, 
there   were    in    the    Reformed    Church    only   a 
few  English  theologians  that  still  espoused  caa- 
uistry.    The    first   Lutheran   work   on    casuistry 
grew  out  of  lectures  delivered  by  Professor  Baldwin 
at  Wittenberg  in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
casuistry,  and  with  the  design  of  systematically 
setting  forth  the  import  of  the  faculty's  opinions. 
His  manuscript  was  published  after  his  death  by 
the  Wittenberg  Theological  Faculty  (TraeUUus  de 
casHms    conscienHce,    Frankfort,    1659).    Of    the 
remaining  Lutheran  writings  of  this  nature,  there 
should  still  be  noted  the  works  of  Dannhauer  (1679), 
Bechmann  (1692),  and  Johannes  Olearius  (1699). 
Pietism,  although  Spener's  views  on  moral  ques- 
tions  {Tkeoloffische  Bedenken,   1700;    Leizte  iheo- 
logische  Bedenken j  1711)  have  a  casuistical  tone, 
still  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  shelving  of  cas- 
uistry, in  that  it  deepened  the  imderstand[ing  with 
reference  to  the  interdependency  of  the  Christian's 
total  transactions  with  his  religious-mond  basic 
intmtions.    After  Buddeus  in  his  moral  theology 
had  shown  casuistry  to  be  superfluous,  only  isolated 


works  on  the  subject  appeared  in  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  on  the  contrary, 
the  ethics  of  the  Jesuits  came  to  be  out  and  out 
easiustical.  And  even  t^art  from  them,  in  that 
quarter,  casuistry  was  cultivated  (cf.  P.  Lambertini, 
Casus  conscienticB,  Augsburg,  1763;  S.  Sobiech, 
Compendium  theologia  moralis,  Breslau,  1822). 

F.  SiBFFERT. 
BiBUooaAPHT:  F.  D.  Maurice,  The  Conaeienee:  Leetuns 
on  CannUry,  London,  1872;  K.  F.  StAudlin,  OtachidUB 
dmr  ehruUidiMn  Moral,  Gfitiingen,  1806;  W.  M.  L.  de 
Wette,  Chrigaichs  SUtenUhre,  vol.  ii.,  part  2,  Berlin,  1821; 
S.  Pike  and  8.  Hayward,  Rdiounu  Ctuet  cf  Coiueienoe, 
new  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1850;  C.  Beard,  Port  Royal,  pp. 
262-201,  London.  1861;  J.  Cook,  The  Coiueierux,  Boa- 
ton,  1870;  W.  Oaoa,  Ge$eh%chl0  der  chrUUidien  Bthik,  i..  ii., 
parts  1-2,  Berlin,  1881-87;  W.  T.  Daviaon,  The  Chrit- 
tian  ConaeUnee,  a  CorUribuHon  to  Ethiet,  London,  1888; 
C.  E.  Luthardt.  GMchichle  der  chrUUichen  Ethik,  2  vols.. 
Leipsie,  1888-^.  Many  of  the  treatiaee  on  ethics  deal 
with  the  subject  of  casuistry. 

CASUS  RESERVATI  ("Reserved  Cases"):  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  cases  in  which  abso- 
lution can  be  given  only  by  a  priest  specially  author- 
ised. The  practise  of  such  reservation  is  defended 
on  the  ground  that  Christ  granted  the  power  of 
absolution  only  to  the  apostles  and  their  successors 
(John  zz.  21-23),  and  that  the  pope  and  bishops 
have  thus  the  right  to  reserve  to  themselves  as 
much  of  this  power  as  in  their  judgment  the  good 
of  the  Church  requires.  This  view  is  formally 
sanctioned  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV., 
cap.  vii.,  de  pcmitentia,  11).  The  cases  in  question 
are  **  certain  graver  cases  of  offense,"  **  certain 
more  atrocious  and  graver  offenses  " — grave  external 
sins,  definitely  completed  and  specifically  deter- 
mined by  the  legislator,  i.e.,  by  the  pope  or  bishop. 
The  details  were  gradiially  fixed  in  practise.  Or- 
dinarily speaking,  the  popes  reserved  to  themselves 
only  sins  for  which  excommunication  was  the  pen- 
alty, from  which  only  the  apostolic  see  could  re- 
lease the  culprit,  though  there  are  some  to  which 
this  did  not  apply.  The  principal  instances  are 
those  named  in  the  bull  In  caena  Domini  (q.v.). 
Where,  in  these  cases,  the  sin  is  not  matter  of  public 
knowledge,  the  bishops  are  allowed  to  absolve  (in 
person  or  by  deputy)  in  foro  conscienHce  ;  and  other 
cases  reserved  to  the  pope  are  placed  in  their  juris- 
diction by  their  quinquennial  faculties  (see  Fac- 
ULTiBs).  The  constitution  ApostoliccB  sedis  of  Pius 
IX.  (1869)  gives  predse  details  on  the  different 
classes  of  reserved  cases  at  the  present  day.  The 
cases  reserved  to  the  bishops  vary  according  to  the 
locality;  in  general,  they  include  a  number  of  the 
graver  sins,  certain  forms  of  unchastity,  homicide, 
breach  of  the  seal  of  confession  by  priests,  etc. 
Bishops  commonly  depute  their  powers  over  a 
number  of  these  cases  to  subordinates,  either  per- 
manently or  for  special  seasons.  In  all  kinds  of 
reserved  cases,  however,  a  penitent  may  be  ab- 
solved by  any  priest  in  case  of  urgent  necessity, 
such  as  approaching  death.  (E.  Friedbero.) 
Bibuooraprt:  M.   Hausmann,   CfsediiehU  der  pApeUichen 

ReeerpatflkUe,  New  York,   1868:  H.  C.  Lea.   Hietory  of 

AurietUar  Confeeeion  and  indulgenoee  in  the  LaHn  Church, 

I  312  sqq.,  Philadelphia,  1890. 

CASWALLy  EDWARD:  Hymn-writer;  b.  at 
Yateley  (35  m.  w.b.w.  of  London),  Hampshire,  July 


Oataoomba 
Oataoheaia 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


44£ 


15,  1814;  d.  at  the  Oratory,  Edgbaston,  near 
Biimingliam,  Jan.  2,  1878.  He  studied  at  Braae- 
noee  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1836;  M.A.,  1838);  was 
curate  of  Stratford-sub-Castle,  near  Salisbury, 
184(M7;  in  1850  he  joined  the  Oratory  of  St. 
Philip  Neri  under  Newman,  to  whose  influence  his 
conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism  was  due.  He 
wrote  original  poems,  but  Lb  best  known  for  his 
translations  from  the  Roman  breviary  and  other 
Latin  sources,  which  are  marked  by  faithfulness 
to  the  original  and  purity  of  rhythm.  They  were 
published  in  Lyra  Caiholica,  containing  all  ths 
breviary  and  missal  hymns  (London,  1849);  The 
Masque  of  Mary  (1858);  and  A  May  Pageant 
(1865).  Hymns  and  Prose  (1873)  is  the  three 
books  combined  with  many  of  the  hymns  rewritten 
or  revised. 

CATACOHBS.   See  Cbhxterieb,  I.;  II.,  3;  III.,  1. 

CATAFALQUE:  A  structure  erected  to  repre- 
sent a  corpse  lying  in  state,  decorated  with  em- 
blems of  mourning  (also  called  tumba,  castrum 
doloris).  The  custom  of  erecting  such  structures 
arose  in  the  Catholic  Church  when  the  corpse  of 
the  deceased  was  no  longer  brought  into  the  church, 
where,  according  to  the  Roman  rite,  the  office  of 
the  dead,  the  requiem-mass,  and  the  Libera  were 
to  be  sung,  before  the  interment.  The  object  of 
the  cataf^que  was  to  keep  the  older  custom  in 
mind,  and  to  add  greater  solemnity  to  the  service 
The  bier  is  covered  with  black  hangings,  and  sur- 
rounded with  lights.  The  officiating  priest  sprin- 
kles it  with  holy  water,  as  a  s3rmbol  of  the  purifying 
blood  of  Christ  and  the  water  of  eternal  life,  and 
then  censes  it  as  a  token  of  honor  to  the  body  of 
the  deceased,  which  has  been  the  temple  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  as  a  symbol  of  the  prayers  for  the 
departed  soul  which  are  to  go  up  as  a  sweet  savor 
before  the  Lord. 

CA-TAL'DTJS:  According  to  legend,  a  native  of 
Ireland  and  bishop  there  of  a  place  called  Rachan, 
otherwise  unknown.  He  is  said  to  have  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  and  to  have  been  directed 
in  a  vision  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen  at 
Tarentum.  With  signs  and  wonders  he  performed 
his  mission,  became  bishop  of  Tarentum  or  even 
archbishop,  and  converted  the  entire  region  before 
his  death.  The  historical  fact  which  underlies 
the  legend  is  probably  that  a  pious  Irishman 
named  Cataldus  or  Cathaldus  ( ^  Cathal  or  Cathald, 
a  real  Irish  name)  preached  in  Lower  Italy.  His 
time  can  not  be  earlier  than  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century.  The  veneration  of  Cataldus  begins  in 
the  early  Middle  Ages.  His  relics  were  discovered 
in  1071,  and  many  churches  are  dedicated  to  him 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  also  in  France,  where  he  is 
honored  as  St.  Carthauld  or  St.  Catas.  He  is 
commemorated  on  Mar.  8,  May  8,  and  May  10, 
the  last  being  the  day  of  his  death  according  to  the 
Martyrologium  Romanum, 

(O.  ZdCKLERf.) 

Bibliography:  A  SB,  May,  ii.  56^-677;  J.  Colgan,  Ada 
•ancUmun  veterU  et  majoria  ScoHm  aive  Hibemimt  pp. 
544-662,  Louvain,  1645;  Lanigaa,  Ecd.  Hist,  iii.  121- 
128;  J.  Healy.  intula  Sanctorum,  pp.  457-465,  Dublin, 
1800. 


CATECHESIS,  CATECHETICS. 

Orisin  and  Sisnifieation  of  the  Terms  (f  1). 

Divergent  ViewB  of  the  Object  of  CktJichMin  (f  2). 

Tnw  Aim  of  Oateohesb  (f  3). 

Methods  of  Oatechesis  (f  4). 

Praetical  Application  of  Cateeheais  (f  5). 

Relation  of  Cateohesis  to  ConfirmAtioa  (|  6). 

The  education  which  the  Christian  Church  im- 
parts to  its  immature  members  through  its  dioss 
servants,  and  the  theory  of  this  education,  is  caOed 
catechesis.  The  Greek  word  kaUchein,  laeaa 
literally  "  to  sound  downwanL"  Hippocrate&,  om- 
necting  it  with  the  accusative  of  the  petson.  sf- 
nified  by  it  the  oral  instruction  which  the  phjsseb:: 
imparts  to  the  layman  concerning  the  nature  and 
treatment  of  disease.  Lucian  applied  the  wm 
in  a  similar  sense  to  the  relation  of  the  dram^ 
poet  to  his  audience.  Thus  it  g;radually  came  tc« 
denote  the  making  of  an  oral  oommunicatio&  tc' 
another  (Acts  xxi.  21,  24),  or  the  instructicm  d 
another.     It  is  used  in  the  sense  d 

z.  Origin    religious    instruction    in    Luke   L  4 
and  Signifi-  Acts  zviii.  25;    Rom.  ii.    18;    I  C<?. 

cation  of  xiv.  19;  Gal.  vi.  6.  In  ecdeoaftiai 
the  Terms,  usage  it  signified  preparation  d 
adults  for  baptism  (see  Ga-tecbt- 
menate).  Here  instruction  waa  the  piincipd, 
but  not  the  only  factor;  heart,  will,  and  oond&et 
were  to  be  influenced.  The  word  catechedi. 
therefore,  properly  covers  the  whole  training  gives 
by  the  Church  to  its  children.  It  is  difltingiwhei 
from  Christian  pedagogics  in  that  it  funiishes 
only  an  elementary  knowledge  of  Chriatian  truth, 
while  pedagogics  leads  to  a  detailed  and  adentific 
knowledge. 

In  the  ancient  C!hurch  ecdesiaatical  educati<iB 
began  as  soon  as  a  heathen  announced  his  willing- 
ness to  be  received  into  the  Church.  He  was  then 
accepted  among  the  catechumens  and  bore  the 
name  of  Christian.  Nowadays  Christian  educa- 
tion is  concerned  no  longer  primarily  with  the 
heathen,  but  with  the  childien  of  Christiana  Tbey 
are  baptized  in  infancy,  on  condition  that  their 
parents  promise  to  give  them  a  Christian  educadcm. 
Moreover,  the  baptised,  when  they  come  to  yean 
of  discretion,  must  evince  a  desire  for  the  ble»- 
ingB  of  the  Church,  and  give  promise  of  Christiaa 
conduct. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  define  the  aim  of  eccle- 
siastical education.  This  can  not  be  intellectual 
only;  for  catechesis  is  to  lead  to  Christian  feeling, 
to  a  Christian  formation  of  will  and  conduct.  Nor 
is  it  merely  to  inculcate  obedience  to  the  teach- 
ings and  commandments  of  the  Church;  for 
catechesis  is  intended  to  lead  to  personal  convic- 
tion. Others  have  considered  qualification  for  the 
Lord's  Supper  as  its  aim,  but  this  definition  hep 
the  question;  for  who  is  really  qualifif>i 

a.  Diver-    for  the  Lord's  Supper?    Others  regard 
gent  ViewB  living  faith  as  the  aim  of  Christian  edu- 
of  the       cation;  but  children  of  Christian  par- 
Object  of  ents  can  not  be  regarded  as  unbelievers. 
Catechesis.  They  come  from  Christian  surround- 
ings and  possess  already  a  certain  un- 
conscious faith  in  God  and  the  Savior;  ecclesiastical 
education  is  rather  to  confirm  this  implicit  faith 
and  develop  it  into  Christian  conviction  and  conduct 


441 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oataoombfc 
Cateohesls 


Thus  faith  is  the  presuppositioQ  of  ecclesiastical 
education,  but  not  its  aim.  As  to  what  this  really 
is,  Scripture  does  not  give  a  definite  answer;  the 
distinction,  however,  between  immature  and  mature 
Christians  (I  Cor.  iii.  1;  Eph.  iv.  13;  Heb.  v.  12) 
brings  nearer  to  a  solution  of  the  problem.  There 
is  a  childlike  faith  in  the  Lord  which  is  still  ignorant 
and  without  a  firm  hold,  and  there  is  a  faith  of  the 
adult  who  has  attained  a  convinced  knowledge  of 
Christian  truth  and  a  certain  perfection  in  Christian 
conduct.  Whoever  of  his  own  will  and  upon  the 
basis  of  his  faith  seeks  conununion  with  Christ 
in  the  means  of  grace  and  in  prayer  is  mature, 
and  ecclesiastical  education  exists  for  the  purpose 
of  attaining  that  maturity.     It  is  evident  that  no 

definite  age  can  be  laid  down  for  such 

3.  True  Aim  an    attainment,    because    faith    and 

of         Christian    conduct    are    based    upon 

Catechesis.  moral     freedom.     Maturity    depends 

altogether  upon  the  individual,  and 
can  not  be  affirmed  of  any  one  because  the  heart 
can  not  be  read.  On  that  account  every  person 
must  be  considered  matiu«  who  possesses  a  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  Christian  truth  and  who 
promises  to  lead  a  Christian  life.  Maturity  is,  there- 
fore, more  than  a  qualification  for  the  reception  of 
the  Lord's  Supper;  a  child  of  ten  years  may  have 
the  faith  and  knowledge  necessary  for  receiving 
the  sacrament  in  a  becoming  manner,  but  he  is  not 
mature.  Ecclesiastical  education  must  be  con- 
tinued after  the  first  communion.  This  further 
growth  may  be  gradually  attained  by  the  contin- 
uation of  Christian  fellowship  in  the  family  and 
in  the  Church;  but  since  this,  imder  the  conditions 
of  modem  life,  is  not  always  applicable,  theologians 
usually  lay  down  the  necessity  of  special  institu- 
tions whose  educational  work  shall  continue  until 
the  attaiimient  of  maturity. 

Instruction  is  the  principal  although  not  the  only 
means  of  education.  ReUgious  instruction  is  first 
and  foremost  instruction  of  the  heart,  intended  to 
lead  to  a  knowledge  of  God.  But  this  knowledge 
is  based  upon  irmer  experiences,  and  these  expe- 
riences again  have  their  foundation  in  observation. 
God  has  revealed  himself  in  nature,  but  more  com- 
pletely in  the  spiritual  life.  This,  as  manifested  in 
Christ,  is  the  perfect  revelation  of  God;  and  as  the 
record  of  this  life  is  foimd  in  Holy  Scripture,  the 
Bible  is  the  principal  book  of  instruction.  Owing 
to  the  wealth  of  material  contained  therein,  it  has 
been  considered  advisable  to  condense  and  select 
certain  stories  specially  adapted  for  the  young 

without  paying  particular  attention  to 

4.  Methods  their  cormection  as  a  whole.     From 

of  this  book  of  stories  the  pupil  is  grad- 

Catechesis.  ually  led  to  the  Bible  itself.    He  is  to 

memorise  certain  passages  and  read 
different  portions  of  it  in  order  to  penetrate  its 
spirit  and  attain  practise  in  its  use.  The  Gospels, 
some  historical  sections  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  Psalms  are  best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 
Another  source  of  material  for  religious  instruction 
is  found  in  the  Church  hymns,  which  awaken  relig- 
ious sentiment  and  enable  the  pupil  to  participate 
intelligently  in  public  worship.  After  the  pupil  has 
acquired  a  number  of  religious  tmths  from  the 


selections  or  from  the  Bible  itself,  it  is  possible  to 
present  these  truths  in  their  most  concise  form  and 
in  their  connection.  This  Ib  necessary  in  order 
to  give  the  pupil  a  clear  survey  of  the  Christian 
truths  and  to  strengthen  his  conviction.  Such  an 
epitome  is  given  in  the  catechism.  The  part  of 
it  longest  in  use  is  the  Apostles'  Creed;  next  fol- 
lowed the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages 
the  decalogue  was  added  as  a  basis  of  instruction, 
to  give  a  proper  understanding  of  sin.  These  three 
articles  form  the  main  portions  of  the  Evangelical 
catechism;  from  the  law  the  pupil  learns  the  great- 
ness of  his  sin,  in  the  creed  he  professes  his  faith 
in  the  means  of  salvation  from  it,  and  in  the  Lord's 
Prayer  he  expresses  his  longing  for  Christian  con- 
duct as  a  disciple  of  Christ.  Since  the  immediate 
aim  of  religious  instruction  is  participation  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  forms 
the  fourth  division  of  the  Catechism.  This  is  the 
order  of  the  Reformation  catechisms;  and  though 
objections  have  been  made  to  it,  they  may  be 
shown  to  be  unfounded. 

As  the  catechist  has  not  only  to  commimicate 
knowledge,  but  to  move  the  heart  and  will,  the 
instmction  must  be  oral  and  personal.  No  book 
ought  to  be  used  in  religious  instruction,  except 
the  Bible  at  the  time  fixed  for  reading  it.  Biblical 
stories,  hymn-books,  and  catechisms  are  only  aids 
to  be  used  at  home.  As  children  like  to  hear 
stories,  the  teacher  should  begin  his  instruction 
with  telling  them.  Verses  of  hymns,  texts  and 
answers  from  the  catechism  are  to  be  used  mainly 
in  illustration  of  the  Biblical  story.  As  the  child's 
attention  is  attracted  only  a  short  time  by  the  talk 
of  the  teacher,  his  interest  has  to  be  retained  by 
asking  him  questions.  There  is  a  distinction  made 
between  analytical  and  synthetical  instmction. 
In  analytical  instmction  the  material  is  ready  at 
hand,  as  in  the  Biblical  story,  in  Scripture-reading, 
and  hymns,  and  the  religious  tmth  is  developed 
from  it.  In  synthetical  instruction  only  the  theme 
is  given,  as  m  the  catechism  and  Bible  texts,  and 
the  material  has  to  be  gathered  elsewhere. 

Owing  to  the  amount  of  material,  religious  in- 
struction must  be  spread  over  several  years.  In 
the  German  system  it  covers  eight,  during  the  first 
four  of  which  the  Bible  story  forms  the  basis  of  in- 
stmction. In  the  fifth  year  hymns  are  treated  in 
connection  with  the  church  year,  and  Bible-reading 
and  instruction  in  the  catechism  are  begun.  The 
pupils  receive  practise  in  the  use  of  the  Bible,  and 
some  portions  of  the  historical  books  are  read 
in  connection  with  the  Biblical  stories.  The  deca- 
logue, the  creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  briefly 
explained  and  thus  stamped  upon  the  memory. 
The  last  two  years  place  Bible-reading  and  the 
catechism  in  the  foregroimd.  The  instmction 
should  be  imparted  by  both  pastor  and  teacher. 
It  is  advisable  that  the  pastor  should  instmct  the 
pupils  at  least  two  years;  he  should  confine  him- 
self mainly  to  the  catechism  in  connection  with 
Bible-reading,  and  leave  the  Biblical  stories  and 
hymns  to  the  teacher.  On  any  arrangement  it  is 
essential  that  pastor  and  teacher  should  work  in 
harmony,  each  with  an  e3re  to  the  special  instmction 
imparted  by  the  other. 


Oateoheaia 
Oataobiams 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


442 


As  religioufl  education  addresses  itself  to  the 
heart  as  well  as  to  the  mind,  the  cultivation  of  the 
former  is  not  less  the  duty  of  the  catechist.  Com- 
mon devotional  exercises  are  held,  consisting  of  the 
singing  of  hymns,  reading  of  Scripture,  and  an  ex- 
tempore prayer  by  the  teacher.  Moreover,  observ- 
ance  of  Sunday  and  regular  attend- 

5.  Practical  anoe   on  the  Church   services  should 
Application  be  required  of  the  children.    As  the 

of  sermons  at  those  services  can  not  be 

Catechesis.  sufficiently  grasped  by  younger  chil- 
dren, special  services  are  to  be  arranged 
for  them.  With  the  religious  practise  moral  prac- 
tise must  go  hand  in  hand.  Order,  diligence, 
modesty,  obedience,  truth,  and  other  virtues  must 
be  inculcated. 

While  the  pupil  must  be  taught  obedience  and 
respect,  the  teacher  should  not  be  immoderate  and 
unjust  in  his  demands  or  irascible.  If  he  shows 
the  least  partiality  or  injustice,  he  weakens  his 
authority.  Reproof  should  come  before  punish- 
ment, and  should  be  made  to  suffice  as  long  as 
possible,  so  that  the  teacher  shall  not  come  too 
soon  to  the  end  of  his  resources.  Older  scholars 
should  be  won  by  private  exhortation  where  neces- 
sary, and  led  to  self-examination  and  self-judg- 
ment, so  that  they  may  find  the  path  of  goodness 
for  themselves. 

Christianity  as  a  spiritual  religion  demands  a 
definite  religious  conviction  and  moral  sentiment. 
The  Christian  Church,  therefore,  receives  as  mem- 
bers only  those  who  make  their  confession  of  faith 
and  promise  Christian  conduct.  In  the  early 
Church  a  profession  of  faith  and  a  vow  were  made 
before  baptism,  and  the  first  communion  followed 
after  it.  When  infant  baptism  became  general, 
the  need  was  felt  of  bringing  in  this  profession  and 
vow  later  as  a  preliminary  to  the  first  communion. 
In  this  way  originated  the  rite  of  confirmation 
(q.v.)  in  the  Protestant  churches.  Confirmation 
is  not  a  declaration  of  maturity.  The  faith  of  a 
child  may  be  of  such  a  kind  as   to 

6.  Relation  admit  him  or  her  to  the  Lord's  Sup- 

of         per,  but  not  yet  to  a  life  that  may 
Catechesis  dispense   with   all    further    religious 
to  Confir-  aid.    The    profession   and   the    vow 
must  be  spontaneous,  they  must  pro- 
ceed from  the  candidate's  own  moral 
decision;  therefore,  the  child  should  not  be  forced  to 
confirmation  at  a  fixed  age.    The  custom  of  con- 


mation. 


firming  children  as  a  matter  of  course  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  has  led  to  insincerity  ajid  hypocrisy,  ani 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  Church  to  check  it  as  mir^ 
as  possible,  which  can  to  a  certain  extent  be 
accomplished  by  emphasizing  the  purely  volununr 
character  of  the  act,  and  by  having  an  interveniaz 
time  between  the  examination  in  religious  knovi- 
edge  and  the  profession  of  faith. 

If  the  confirmed  are  still  immature  in  the  r^gio:is 
sense,  their  education  must  be  continued.  TLe 
influence  of  the  Christian  home  and  of  chuira 
fellowship  are  hardly  sufficient  for  this.  Our  an- 
cestors in  both  the  Lutheran  and  the  Refonned 
churches  demanded  that  the  children  should  ccsi- 
tinue  to  participate,  even  after  their  first  commu- 
nion, in  the  regular  catechetical  instruction  of  tbe 
Church  until  their  eighteenth  year  or  until  tfcd: 
marriage.  These  customs  have  disappeared  is 
the  last  century  because  confirmed  children  h^vt 
been  considered  mature,  but  this  is  a  grave  mistake. 
in  view  of  the  diminution  of  wholesome  familj 
influence  and  the  observance  of  Sunday,  and  tL< 
reform  of  these  conditions  is  an  urgent  necesiitj 
of  our  modem  Church.  (£.  Sachsse.) 

The  preceding  article  is  written  from  the  staaJ- 
point  of  a  subject  of  Germany,  where  Church  and 
State  are  united  and  religious  instruction  is  con^ 
quently  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  the  schoot>. 
A  treatment  of  catechetics  from  a  more  geneni 
point  of  view  is  given  by  impUcation  in  Catechismi 
(q.v.). 

Bibuoorapht:  The  bibliographies  under  Catkchh^hs  •at' 
Catechumen ATB  should  be  consulted;  C.  I.  Nitzt>ch, 
Praktiaehe  Theaiooie,  ii.  133-235.  Bonn.  1860;  C.  Pabn^^r. 
Evangaitehs  KatecKeHk,  Stuttgart,  1875;  R.  Kubd,  Kaii- 
chstik.  Barmen,  1877;  J.  G.  Wenham.  The  Caieehumn, 
London,  1881;  E.  Daniel.  How  to  Ttatk  Ihe  Churtk  Caie- 
chum,  ib.  1882;  T.  Hamaek.  Kateeheiik,  Erlangen.  ISSJ: 
8.  J.  Hulme.  PrineiplM  of  the  Caiechitm  of  the  Churrh  ^ 
England,  Stow-on-the-Wold,  1882;  N.  Haas.  Wie  toU  der 
ReligioneUhrer  dffenUieh  katechUiennf  RegenaburK.  1SS5. 
E.  Bather.  Hinta  on  Ae  Art  of  Caiechieing,  London.  1888; 
K.  Buchruoker,  Orundlinien  dee  kirchlithen.  Kattehiemsit, 
Berlin.  1880;  J.  £.  Denison.  Caiechieing  on  the  Caieehifsi, 
London.  1880;  F.  A.  P.  Dupanloup.  The  Minis^  <?f 
Caiechieing,  ib.  1801;  P.  Schaff.  Thedogical  Propadn^, 
xwrt  ii..  pp.  500-504.  New  York.  1803;  K.  ScfaultK. 
Evangelied^  VolkeeAuikunde,  Gotha.  1803;  G.  R.  Crooks 
and  J.  F.  Hurst,  Theoiogieal  EneycLoptedia^  pp.  514-S^ 
New  York,  1804;  E.  Sachsse,  Die  Lehre  von  der  hirdir 
lichen  Enithung,  Berlin,  1807;  E.  0.  Achelia,  Prakhtche 
Theologiet  ii.  1-176,  Leipaic.  1808;  J.  Latkemann.  An- 
leUung  xur  Kaiediiemueldtrej  Hermannaburs.  1898;  R. 
Staude,  Der  Kaiedtiemueunterrit^  Pr^iparaHonen^  3  voJa.. 
Dresden,  lOOO-Ol. 


CATECHISMS. 


I,  The  Middle  Ages. 

Need  of    Catechetical  Instruction 

(§1). 
Influence  of  Confession  ({  2). 
Pre-Reformation  Catechisms  ({3). 
IL  The  Post-Reformation  Period. 

Early  Lutheran  Catechisms  ({  1). 
Gradual    Supremacy   of   Luther's 

Smaller  Catechism  ((-2). 
Early  Catechisms  Based  on  Luther's 

Work  (5  3). 

Orthodox  and  Pietistic  Catechisms  England  ({  13). 

({  4).  France  ({  14). 

Catechisms  are  written  or  printed  summaries 

of  the  principal  doctnnes  of  the  Christian  faith,  in- 

t<?nded  for  the  instruction  of  the  uoleamed  and  the 


the 


Rationalistic  Catechisms    of 
Eighteenth  Century  ({  5). 

Modem   German  Lutheran    Cate- 
chisms ({  6). 

Modem    German  Reformed   Cate- 
chisms ({  7). 

Switxerland  ({  8). 

Austria-Hungary  ({  0). 

Slavic  Countries  ({  10). 

Scandinavian  Countries  ({  11). 

Holland  (S  12). 


Italy  (J  15). 

American     Lutheran     Gafeeehisns 

(I  16). 
Tbe     Moravians    and     Bobeoaiu 

Brethren  ({  17). 
Methodist  Catechisms  (S  IS). 
Baptist  and  Irvingite  Catechisms 

(I  10). 
Unitarian  Catechisms  (§  20). 
Roman  Catholic  and  Old  Catholie 

Catechisms  ({  21). 
The  Greek  Church  (§  22). 


yoimg.  These  formal  aids  to  systematic  instniction 
are  of  comparatively  modem  growth.  For  the  sys- 
tem of  the  primitive  Church,  see  Catechxjmenats. 


443 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oateoheaia 
Oatechisma 


L  The  Middle  Ages:  The  beginningiB  of  modem 
catechetical  inBtruction,  as  to  the  development 
of  which  see  Catechesis,  Catechetics,  are  foimd 
principally  in  the  Geimanic  Churches.  Here,  as 
in  primitive  days  and  for  the  same  reason,  it  orig- 
inally addressed  itself  chiefly  to  adults.  Some- 
times whole  tribes  had  been  converted  to  Christi- 
anity in  which  the  individuals  did  not  possess  the 
most  elementary  knowledge  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  impart  by  further  teaching 
what  had  been  neglected  at  the  time  of  baptism. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  and  afterward  Charle- 
magne, under  the  influence  of  his  Anglo-Saxon 
adviser  Alcuin,  decreed  that  every  baptized  person 
should  know  by  heart  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  But  the  rising  generation  was  not  left 
altogether  out  of  view.  There  was  from  the  begin- 
ning an  indefinite  feeling  among  the  Teutonic 
Churches  that  the  Church,  by  its  acceptance  of 
infant  baptism,  was  bound  to  care  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  children  thus  brought  into 
o  ^^  ^'  ^^  '°^^'  ^*  ^^  naturally  impossible, 
^!^T  *"  "*  ^®^  ^^  *^®  widely  scattered  parishes 
struotion  *"^^  *'^®  necessity  of  instruction  being 
almost  exclusively  oral,  to  imdertake 
the  actual  teaching;  but  the  need  was  to  some 
extent  indirectly  met  by  the  requirement  that  no 
sponsor  should  present  a  child  for  baptism  without 
being  able  to  recite  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
and  that  sponsors  should  teach  the  same  articles 
to  their  godchildren. 

Another  influence  that  helped  to  enforce  a  certain 
amoimt  of  Christian  knowledge  was  the  system  of 
regular  confession,  especially  after  an  annual  con- 
fession was  made  obligatory  by  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  of  1215.  With  the  act  of  confession  was 
usually  connected  a  recitation  of  the  articles  which 
the  sponsors  were  supposed  to  have  impressed  upon 
their  godchildren.  The  system  further  led  to  an 
enlargement  of  the  scope  of  regular  instruction. 
As  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
ofOon't^  *^*^^y  ^°™®^  *  suitable  basis  for  the 
fesaion.  confession  of  sins,  there  originated 
lists  of  the  sins  which  required  .eccle- 
siastical penance;  and  these,  with  corresponding 
lists  of  virtues,  were  often  ordered  to  be  learned 
by  heart;  in  this  connection  the  decalogue  was 
redeemed  from  obUvion.  It  became  a  regular 
practise  to  preach  sermons  on  the  Ten  Conmiand- 
ments  in  Lent,  the  most  usual  time  for  confession; 
and  thus  catechetical  preaching  developed.  The 
reformers  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
such  as  Gerson  and  Geiler  von  Kaisersberg,  were 
strong  advocates  of  these  sermons  on  the  foimda^ 
tions  of  Christian  doctrine.  The  Ave  Maria  was 
included  among  the  articles  to  be  learned,  and  came 
to  take  equal  rank  with  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  The  tendency  was  to  enlarge  the  material, 
though  some  attempts  were  made,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  condense  it;  thus  Johann  Wolf  of  Frank- 
fort showed  that  all  the  articles  used  in  confession 
could  be  traced  to  the  decalogue.  He  also  laid 
special  emphasis  upon  the  religious  instruction  of 
youth  in  a  period  when  the  councils  of  the  Church 
paid  no  particular  attention  to  it  as  a  distinct 
branch  of  church  work.     The  beginning  of  a  refor- 


mation in  this  respect  was  the  work  of  humanists 
like  Jakob  Wimpheling  and  Erasmus.  Colet  in 
England  drew  up  a  manual  of  religious  instruction 
imder  the  title  of  Catechyzon  for  the  boys  of  St. 

Paul's    School,    which    Erasmus    put 

3.  Pre-Bef-  into  Latin  hexameters,  thereby    per- 

ormation    haps  giving  the    impulse    to    Petrus 

Catochlama.  Tritonius  to  produce  a  similar  work. 

Outside,  however,  of  such  efforts, 
which  were  rather  scholastic  than  ecclesiastical, 
catechisms  in  the  modem  sense,  or  compilations 
of  the  principal  articles  of  faith  for  children,  were 
practically  imknown  to  the  medieval  Church. 

There  were,  indeed,  such  compilations  for  the 
clergy,  which  with  the  invention  of  printing  began 
to  circulate  widely  among  the  laity.  The  Tafd  dea 
chrUUichen  Leberu  (c.  1480)  is  in  more  ways  than 
one  a  direct  predecessor  of  Luther's  smaller  cate- 
chism, but  a  comparison  shows  the  characteristic 
difference  between  the  medieval  and  the  Evan- 
gelical Church.  In  the  Catholic  table  are  foimd 
numerous  pieces  without  any  explanatory  word, 
sacred  formulas  that  were  frequently  repeateii 
without  comprehension;  in  Luther's  catechism 
appear  the  five  main  articles,  with  the  emphasis 
laid  upon  the  explanation.  Great  importance  was 
attached  to  the  religious  instruction  of  youth  by 
the  Bohemian  Bretl^n  and  the  Waldenses.  The 
InterrogacUms  menora  of  the  Waldenses  date  from 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  or  at  least  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth,  century.  The  Kinderfragen 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  are  still  older,  since  they 
served  as  a  model  for  the  IrUerrogaciona. 

IL  The  Post-Reformation  Period:  From  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation  care  was  taken  to 
provide  for  the  religious  instruction  of  youth. 
Almost  simultaneously  the  two  places  where  the 
movement  had  its  origin  established  institutions 
which  were  followed  as  models;  in  1521  Johann 
Agricola  was  appointed  catechist  at  Wittenberg, 
and  in  1522  systematic  instruction  of  youth  in  the 
Christian  faith  was  established  in  Zurich  in  place 
of  the  Roman  confirmation. 

Luther's  popular  expositions  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  Creed,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
especially  his  Kurze  Form  and  his  Betbuchleirif  are 
not  catechisms  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word, 

but  rather  prepared  the  way  for  them. 

1.  Early     Several   adaptations   of   the   Kinder- 

Lutheran   fragen    of    the    Bohemian    Brethren, 

Oataohlama.  German  translations  of  Melanchthon's 

Enchiridion  and  Scholia^  and  numer- 
ous other  compilations  of  the  Christian  truth 
adapted  for  children  show  the  demand  for  an  Evan- 
gelical text-book.  Toward  the  end  of  1524  Justus 
Jonas  and  Agricola  were  ordered  to  write  such  a 
book;  they  did  not  execute  their  commission,  but 
toward  the  end  of  1525  there  was  published  the 
Buchlein  fur  die  Laien  und  Kinder  (possibly  by 
Bugenhagen),  which  provisionally  at  least  supplied 
the  want.  About  the  same  time  Luther  urged,  in 
his  Deutsche  Meaae^  the  introduction  of  religious 
instruction  for  children.  His  appeal  called  forth 
numerous  expositions  of  the  articles  of  faith,  and 
in  many  places  systematic  teaching  was  begun. 
In  1529  Luther  published  his  Smaller  Catechism 


Cl>tiw)***  *"* " 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


444 


(sometimes  known  as  Enchiridum),  and  with  it 
the  material  of  the  catechism  was  firmly  estab- 
lished for  the  future  (see  Luthsr'b  Two  Catb- 
cbismb).  In  some  places,  especially  under  the 
influence  of  the  Nuremberg  Kinderpredigten  (1533), 
the  power  of  the  keys  was  added  as  a  sixth  article, 
and  is  still  used  as  such  in  some  of  the  churches 
of  Germany. 

At  first  Luther's  catechism  was  merely  one  among 
several  others,  though  it  was  almost  universally 
adopted  in  both  parts  of  Saxony,  in  Brandenburg, 
and  in  Pomerania.  Apart  from  manuals  produced 
under  the  influence  of  the  Swiss  theology,  like 
those  of  Leo  Jud  and  Bullinger,  there  are  others 
which  follow  Luther's  doctrine,  among  them  Kaspar 
L6wer's  Unterricht  dea  Olauberu  (1529),  Johann 
Brens's  FragestUcke  (1535),  which  is  still  used  in 
Wttrttemberg,  Butler's  catechisms  for  Strasburg 
(1534  and  1537),  and  others.  It  was  only  by 
degrees  that  Luther's  work  assumed  the  supremacy 
over  other  catechisms  of  the  same  tendency,  until 
it  finally  attained  the  importance  of  a  standard  of 
doctrine.     It  was  treated  as  such  for 

2.  Oradnjal  ^^®  ^'^^  ^^®  ^  ^^^  ^  ^^®  articles 
Supremaoy  o^  LOneburg,  where  it  had  its  place 
of  Luther's  beside  the  Augsburg  Confession,  the 
Smaller  Apology,  and  the  Schmalkald  Articles 
Oafchlsm.  (see  Corpus  Doctrine).     It  attained 

a  still  stronger  position  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (q.v.).  The 
latter,  which  from  the  first  was  considered  in  the 
light  of  a  confession  of  faith,  was  compiled  in  1563 
by  Olevianus  and  Ursinus  from  the  catechisms  of 
Leo  Jud  and  Bullinger,  from  the  Emden  cate- 
chism of  1554,  from  Calvin's  catechism  of  1542 
(see  below),  and  from  two  catechisms  used  among 
Low-Oerman  emigrant  churches  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  was  soon  introduced  in  all  countries 
where  the  Reformed  faith  prevailed.  In  1580  the 
Smaller  Catechism  was  included  in  the  Book  of 
Concord,  and  took  rank  everywhere  as  the  corre- 
sponding standard  of  Lutheran  doctrine.  While 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  as  the  more  compre- 
hensive work,  retained  everywhere  its  old  form, 
Luther's  Endiiridion  formed  frequently  only  the 
basis  for  fuller  expositions,  in  connection,  e.g.,  with 
Brenz's  Fragutucke  of  1535  and  a  booklet  printed 
in  1549  at  Erfurt  under  Luther's  name,  though 
really  compiled  by  Johann  Lang,  entitled  Frcbge- 
Hacke  fur  die,  so  turn  Sacrament  gehen  wdllen. 

No  little  influence  on  the  development  of  a 
traditional  form  for  catechisms  was  exercised  by 
the  Latin  ones  prepared  for  the  Latin  schools. 

The  material  of  these,  based  partly 

8.  Barly     upon  the  Loci  of  Melanchthon,  grew 

Oateohlsmato    such    an    extent    that    they    al- 

Baaod  on    most  formed  regular  dogmatic  works. 

Luther's    Among  the   catechisms  which    origi- 

Work.      nated  from  such  sources  on  the  basis 

of  Luther's  Encheiridion  the  Kleiner 
Cateehiemua  D.  M.  Lutheri  by  Nicolaus  Herco  (1554) 
shows  a  fairiy  definite  form  already  assumed  by  the 
development.  A  wider  circulation  was  attained 
by  the  Frageetucke  of  Bartholomseus  Rosinus 
(1580).  The  first  regular  catechism  with  expo- 
sitions was  the  Ooldene  Kleinod  of  Johann  Tetelbach 


(1568);  and  the  first  of  such  to  receive  official 
sanction  was  the  Nuremberg  Kinderlehrbiichlein 
(1628). 

During  this  whole  period  catechetical  instruction 
consisted  of  nothing  more  than  the  memorixing  by 
the  children  of  the  catechisms.  Further  expla- 
nations were  left  to  the  catechetical  sermons  which 
gradually  became  more  common,  modeled  after 
Luther's  Larger  Catechism  and  the  Nuremberg 
Kinderpredigten  of  1533.  Frequently  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  children  should  be  questioned  on 
these  sermons.  On  the  other  hand,  efforts  were 
eariy  made  to  guard  children  against  a  mechanical 
memorizing  by  making  the  text  intelligible  to  th^n. 
A  school  edition  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (1610) 
gives  four  rules  in  tbjs  respect;  (1)  dif- 
4.  Orthodox  ficult  passages  are  to  be  explained; 
andPietls-  (2)  a  long  paragraph  is  to  be  con- 
tie  Oats-  densed  by  the  pupil;  (3)  the  text  of 
oMsms.  the  catechism  is  to  be  analysed  by  the 
teacher,  putting  questions  which  the 
children  have  to  answer  from  the  text;  (4)  the 
catechism  is  to  be  confirmed  and  proved  by  Bible 
texts  and  stories.  The  method  laid  down  in  these 
rules  dominated  catechetical  instruction  until  a 
late  time  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Orthodox 
and  pietistic  catechists  agreed  in  the  use  of  the 
analytical  method;  but  the  latter  emphasized  more 
stron^y  the  cultivation  of  the  heart,  and  in  fonnu- 
latlng  the  questions  and  answers  of  the  catechism 
laid  stress  upon  the  practical  side  of  life,  as  may  be 
seen  from  Philipp  Jakob  Spener's  Tabtdce  caU- 
cheiiccB  (Frankfort,  1683).  The  two  principal 
pietistic  catechisms  are  Spener's  Erkldrung  der 
ehristlichen  Lehre  (1677)  and  the  Dresden  Kreuz- 
Kateehiemue  (1688).  But  even  Pietism  could  not 
hinder  the  gradual  degeneration  of  catechetical 
instruction  into  mere  formalism. 

A  fresh  impulse  was  received  from  the  new  methods 
introduced  by  the  rationalist  school.  Starting 
from  rationalistic  premises,  Johann  Bemhard 
Basedow  (q.v.)  demanded  in  his  Abhandlung  vom 
Unterricht  der  Jugend  in  der  Religion  (LObeck,  1764) 
that  children  should  not  be  forced  to  memorise 
anything  but  what  they  already  understood,  and 
that  they  should  be  left  to  acquire  new  knowl- 
edge only  by  their  own  thinking,  with 
6.  Bation-  ^^®  ^®^P  ^^  instructive  questions, 
alistio  Oat-  Basedow  laid  down  these  views  in  his 
eohismaof  catechism  for  two  grades  entitled 
theBlffht-  Orundrisa  der  Religion,  welche  durch 
aenth  Oen-  \achdenken  und  Bibelforechen  erkannt 
^^*  wird  (1764).  This,  which  gradually 
became  known  as  the  Socratic  method, 
was  developed  fiuther  by  Kari  Friedrich  Bahrdt 
in  his  PhUanthropinischer  Erziehungeplan  (Frankfort, 
1776)  and  confirmed  from  the  philosophy  of  Kant 
by  Johann  Friedrich  Christian  Graeffe  in  his  VoU- 
stdndigee  Lehrbuch  der  allgemeinen  Katechetik 
(G6ttingen,  1799).  Its  most  prominent  repre- 
sentatives were  Johann  Peter  Miller,  Johann  Chris- 
tian Dolz,  and  especially  Gustav  Friedrich  Dinter. 
With  these  new  ideas  new  manuals  appeared  wliich 
either  dropped  altogether  the  old  catechisms  bsAed 
on  the  articles  of  faith  or  relegated  them  to  an 
appendix.     Johann    Gottfried    Herder    attempted 


445 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ctatteohisma 


to  explain  the  smaller  catechism  of  Luther  accord- 
ing to  the  new  principles  (Weimar,  1800).  The 
ivcak  point  of  the  Socratic  method  is  its  inseparable 
cx>nnection  with  rationalist  theology.  Pestalozzi 
criticized  this  method  because  it  tried  to  elicit 
from  children  what  is  not  in  them.  Schleiermacher 
pointed  out  that  the  Socratic  method  ignored  the 
revelation  of  the  Christian  religion  and  its  history. 
Marheinecke,  Nitssch,  Kraussold,  Harms,  and  Htlf- 
f  ell  followed  him  in  opposition  to  it.  The  modem 
method  of  catechizing  has  retained  from  the  So- 
cratic method  its  feature  of  development;  it  does 
not,  however,  consider  human  reason  and  natural 
religion  as  the  basis  of  this  development,  but  rather 
the  docimients  of  revelation  and  the  history  of  the 
Church. 

The  catechisms  used  in  the  different  territories 

of  Germany  are  too  numerous  to  mention.     In  the 

territories  of  the  Evangelical  Union  as  well  as  among 

the  orthodox  Lutherans  the  Smaller  Catechism  of 

Luther  forms  the  basis  of  instruction. 

^' ^^^f"^  But  in  accordance  with  their  peculiar 

-  *Jwa  ^^octrines  the  Unionists  have  made 
Gatecbisma  coii<*88ions  to  the  Reformed  teach- 
*  ings,  so  that  their  manuals  represent 
more  or  less  a  compromise  between  Luther's  Smaller 
Catechism  and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  The 
chief  country  of  the  Union  is  Prussia,  and  here 
the  consistories  in  agreement  with  their  respect- 
ive provincial  synods  have  selected  a  nimiber 
of  compendiums  to  be  used  in  instruction.  Man- 
uals of  the  same  sort  are  foimd  in  the  other 
Unionistic  territories.  Anhalt,  Baden,  Hesse, 
Waldeck,  Hanau,  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  Nassau, 
and  Birkenfeld. 

In  the  distinctively  Lutheran  territories  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  is  used  everywhere,  in  Hesse  in 
connection  with  the  so-called  Hessiache  Frage- 
stuckef  in  WQrttemberg  with  Brenz's  catechism. 
The  text  is  at  present  formulated  after  the  revision 
proposed  by  the  Evangelical  conference  held  at 
Eisenach  in  1882.  In  the  selection  of  aids  to  be 
used  besides  the  text  a  certain  freedom  exiits  in 
Saxe-Coburg,  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  in  Hamburg,  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
of  the  pro^nnce  of  Hanover,  and  in  Frankfortr-on- 
the-Main.  In  certain  places  besides  the  text  of 
the  Smaller  Catechism  are  mostly  SpruchbUcherf 
that  is,  collections  of  Bible  texts  and  hymns. 
The  use  of  such  books  for  the  explanation  of  Lu- 
ther's catechism  has  been  made  obligatory  in  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  Altenburg,  Meiningen,  the 
principalities  of  Reuss,  in  Sleswick-Holstein  and 
Eutin,  in  Oldenburg  and  Schaumburg-Lippe.  Be- 
sides the'  Spruchbucher,  various  expositions  of  Lu- 
ther's catechisms  have  been  introduced,  the  use  of 
which  has  been  made  obligatory  in  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  LObeck,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  Brunswick, 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  the  former  coimty  of  Schaumburg,  Weimar, 
Bavaria,  and  in  the  Free  Lutheran  Church  of 
Prussia. 

As  regards  the  Reformed  territories,  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism  is  used  in  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Lippe-Detmold,  in  the  Reformed  congregations  of 
East  Friesland,  in  the  former  county  of  Bentheim, 


in  the  synodal  district  of  Bovenden  (near  GOttingen), 

and  in  the  confederation  of  Reformed  Churches  in 

Lower    Saxony.     In    the    Reformed 

7.  Modem  territories  of  the  consistorial  district 
Oerman  Be- of  Cassel  (Lower  Hesse)  and  in  the 
formed  Cat-  synodal    district    of    Hamburg    the 

eohiama.  Hesaischer  Landeskatechismus,  a  Re- 
formed revision  of  Luther's  Smaller 
Catechism  with  the  Hessische  FragestUcke  inserted, 
is  used.  In  Bremen  and  in  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Alsace-Lorraine  no  special  manual  for  religious 
instruction  is  prescribed. 

In  Switzerland  there  appeared  at  St.  Gallen  in 
1527  a  compilation  of  the  Kinderfragen  of  the 
Bohemian  Brethren.  About  the  same  time  (Eoo- 
lampadius  published  his  Kinderbericht  for  Basel. 
In  1534  Leo  Jud  published  his  catechism  for 
Zurich.  An  epitome  of  it  followed  in  the  next 
year,  which  in  1598  was  declared  obligatory  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  catechisms  of  Heinrich  Bullinger 
(1550)  and  Burckhardt  Leemann  (1583),  and  was 
introduced  also  in  Orisons  and  Schaffhausen.  In 
1536  Kaspar  Grossmann  (Megander) 

8.  Switaer-  revised  Jud's  catechism  for  Bern;   as 
land.       in  the  course  of  time  it  was  made  to 

serve  the  views  of  Zwingli,  it  had  to 
be  revised  anew,  and  in  this  form  became  known 
as  the  Bern  Catechism.  These  old  catechisms  were 
either  superseded  or  influenced  by  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism.  The  Zurich  Catechism  of  1609,  the 
work  of  Marcus  Bftumlein,  originated  in  a  combi- 
nation of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  with  those  used 
in  Zurich.  It  was  introduced  in  different  cantons 
and  used  imtil  1839.  Under  the  influence  of  ration- 
alism most  of  the  cantons  adopted  new  catechisms 
between  1830  and  1850.  Basel  took  the  lead  in 
1832,  then  followed  Zurich  with  a  new  catechism 
(1839).  In  French  Switzerland  Calvin's  CaU- 
ehismua  Genevenaia  (1542)  was  used  at  the  beginning. 
In  the  canton  of  Vaud  it  was  replaced  in  1552  by 
a  translation  of  the  Bern  Catechism,  which  gave 
way  to  that  of  Heidelberg  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1734  there  appeared  in  Geneva  the  small 
catechism  of  Jean  Fr^^ric  Osterwald,  which,  after 
revision,  was  also  adopted  in  Vaud.  About  1620 
Stephen  Gabriel,  pastor  at  Ilanz,  compiled  a  cate- 
chism for  the  Romance  districts  which  remained 
in  use  even  after  a  translation  of  Osterwald's  cate- 
chism had  appeared.  But  entire  freedom  exists 
as  to  the  choice  of  religious  manuals  in  Switseriand. 
In  many  cases  the  individual  preachers  write  their 
own  books  of  instruction. 

Since  the  edict  of  toleration  of  Joseph  II.,  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Austria  has  used  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  and  the  Reformed  Church  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism.  According  to  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Austria,  all 
further  guides  in  religious  iastruction  have  to  be 
sanctioned  by  the  Evangelical   Supreme  Church 

Council  in  Vienna,  and  approved  by 

9.  Austria-  the  ministry  of  ecclesiastical  affairs 
Hungary,   and  public  instruction.    Some  of  the 

approved  manuals  are,  in  German, 
Buchrucker's  and  Emesti's  editions  of  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism,  in  Bohemian  that  of  Molmar. 
Among  those  approved  for  the  Reformed  Church 


Oateohisms 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


446 


may  be  mentioned  the  enlarged  German  edition  of 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  by  Frana  (Vienna,  1868), 
and  the  Bohemian  by  Von  Tardy  (Prague,  1867), 
and  by  Vesely  (1885).  In  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania the  same  conditions  exist  as  in  Austria. 

In  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia  an  Esthonian 
translation  of  the  Smaller  Catechism  seems  to  have 
appeared  as  early  as  in  1553.  In  1586  a  Lettish 
translation  by  J.  Rivius  was  printed  at  Kdnigsberg. 
It  was  revised  in  1689  by  E.  GlUck  and  used  a  long 
time  among  the  Lettish  congregations  of  Livonia. 
Another  by  H.  Adolphi  i^peared  in 
10.  Slavlo  1685  and  found  a  large  circulation  in 
Oountrles.  Courland.  In  accordance  with  a  reso- 
lution of  the  Synod  of  Livonia  and 
Courland  in  1898,  a  new  Lettish  standard  text 
has  been  established  (Riga*  1898),  which  has  sup- 
planted all  earlier  translations.  An  Esthonian 
exposition  of  the  Smaller  Catechism  was  intro- 
duced in  Esthonia  in  1673  as  the  official  catechism, 
and  used  almost  exclusively  until  1866.  The 
catechism  of  Martin  KOrber  (1864),  modeled  after 
the  official  catechism  of  Neustrelits,  has  found  a 
considerable  circulation.  The  Germans  in  the 
Baltic  provinces  also  produced  nimierous  inter- 
pretations of  their  own;  Jodocus  Hoist,  EinfdlHffe 
Attalegung  des  Kleinen  KaUckismua  LtUhen  (Riga, 
1596);  Immanuel  von  Essen,  ChrisUiche  KfUechis- 
musubung  (1781);  Werbatus,  Dr,  Martin  Luthera 
Kleiner  Katechismua  (1895);  and  many  others. 
For  the  Lutheran  congregations  of  Poland  there 
has  been  recently  approved  McUy  Katechizm  Doh- 
tora  Marcina  Lutra  (Lublin,  1900).  It  is  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Smaller  Catechism  by  Alexander 
Schdnaich,  preacher  at  Lublin.  An  official  text 
of  the  Smaller  Catechism  has  been  published  for  the 
RussianHspeaking  Lutherans  (St.  Petersburg,  1865). 
The  first  catechetical  writings  in  Sweden  were 
a  working-over  of  Luther's  Betbiichlein,  a  translar- 
tion  of  the  revision  of  the  Kinderfragen  of  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  published  at  Magdeburg  in 
1524,  and  a  translation  of  the  Handbhchlein  fur 
junge  Christen  by  Johann  Toltz.  The  Smaller  Cat&- 
chinn  was  translated  by  Laurentius  Petri  into 
Swedish  perhaps  as  early  as  1548;  the  oldest 
extant  copy  dates  from  1572.  In  1595  the  Smaller 
Catechism  v/as  officially  introduced, 
11.  Soandl-  but  came  into  general  use  only  after 
navian  the  Church  Order  of  1686.  An  official 
Oountrles.  translation  of  Luther's  Larger  Cate- 
chism dates  from  1746.  The  expo- 
sition of  the  Smaller  by  Olaf  Swebelius,  which  had 
been  in  use  for  some  time,  was  revised  in  1811  by 
Archbishop  J.  Axel  Lindblom  and  introduced  as  an 
official  catechism.  In  1843  a  new  revision  ap- 
peared, but  in  1878  the  Doktor  M&rien  Luthers 
Lilla  Katekes  med  kort  tUveckling,  stad/det  af  kon- 
tingen  den  11.  Oktober  1878  took  its  place  and  is 
still  used.  In  1532  the  Smaller  Catechism  was  trans- 
lated into  Danish  by  Jorgen  Jensen  Sadolin.  In  1537 
there  appeared  almost  simultaneously  two  further 
translations.  Den  lUle  danake  Catechi/nnus  by  Frans 
Wormodson  and  Luthera  liUe  Katektsmus  by  Petrus 
Palladius.  The  latter  was  republished  in  1538  as 
Enchiridion  sive  Manuale  lU  vocamt  and  officially 
recognized.     H.  P.  Petersen  edited  the  Latin  text 


of  the  Smaller  Catechism  side  by  side  with  a  Danish 
translation  for  the  use  of  schools  (1608).  In  ItLT 
he  used  the  Danish  text  for  a  miunial  destined  for 
popular  instruction.  The  text  deviates  frequently 
from  the  original,  and  these  variants  have  crepc 
into  other  compilations  modeled  after  it.  It  re- 
tained its  authority  in  Denmark  until  1813.  in 
Norway  imtil  1843.  The  standard  work  for  Nor- 
way is  at  present  Dr,  M,  Luthers  lAUe  Kaieki^mut 
(9th  ed.,  Christiania,  1897),  and  for  Denmaik 
C.  F.  Balslev's  Luthers  Kaiekiemus  meden  koH 
Forklaring  (Copenhagen,  1899). 

In  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  absolute  free- 
dom exists  in  the  choice  of  guides  to  be  used  is 
^  religious  instruction.     Besides  the  Gt- 

j^^  "    neva  and  Heidelberg  catechisms,  Abra- 
ham Hellenbroek's  Vorbeeld  der  god- 
delyke  Waarheden  has  been  used. 

The  Established  Church  of  England  usoi  tcMiaj 
the  catechism  from  the  Book  of  Common  Prajer. 
with  but  slight  changes  from  the  original  form  of 
1 552.    An  exposition  of  it  by  John  Palmer  (Londcm, 
1894)  shows  the  text  of  the  original  catechism  in 
prominent  type  and  provides  each  individual  para- 
graph with  an  introduction.     The  Congr^ational- 
ists  have  also  adopted  the  catechism  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  but  besides  this  they  use  a  manual 
by  Samuel   Palmer,   A   Catechism   for   Protestant 
18  Bnff-    J^^w»««<«^    (London,   1772,   29th   ed., 
•J^T^"    1890),  which  contains  a  brief  history 
of  non-conformity  and  treats  of  the 
reasons  for  it.    In  the  Sunday-schools  the  Gcmgre- 
gationalists  use  a  catechism  by  J.  Hilton  Stowell 
revised  by  A.  M.  Fairbaim  (1892).     The  Presby- 
terian Church  of  England  and  the  Church  of  Soot- 
land  have  accepted  the  Westminster  Catechism  as 
the  basis  of  their  instruction.     It  is  divided  into 
the  doctrines  we  are  to  believe  and  the  duties  we 
are  to  perform  (The  Moral  Law;  Faith  and  Repent- 
ance;   Sacraments;    Prayer).    The  form  of  relig- 
ious instruction  chiefly  cultivated  in  EIngland  is 
the  Sunday-school,  for  which  the   Sunday-school 
Union  furnishes  manuals.     Dr.   Watt's  first  and 
second  catedusms  have  also  found  a  large  circu- 
lation;  the  former  contains  a  short  survey  of  the 
doctrines  of  Christian  salvation  and  especially  a 
catechism  on  Scriptural  names,  the  latter  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  decalogue  and  information  on  the 
sacraments  and  prayers.    Before  the  catechism  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  appeared,  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism  was  used  for  several  years  in 
England;  at  the  instance  of  Cranmer  the  Nuron- 
berg    Kinderpredigtsn  which  interpret  it  was   in 
1548  translated  into  En^h  under  the  title  A 
Short  Introduction  into  the  Christian  Religion. 

In  the  French  Reformed  Church  Calvin's  cate- 
chism of  1542  was  at  one  time  almost  universally 
used,  later  with  Osterwald's  smaller  catechism, 
but  has  now  been  superseded  by  Bonnefon's 
Nouveau  aU^chisme  ^Umentaire  (14th 
14.  France,  ed.,  Alais,  1900)  and  Decoppet's  Cate- 
chisme  popuknre  (Paris).  Leas  popular 
are  Babut's  Cours  de  religion  chritienne  (6th  ed,. 
1897)  and  Nyegaard's  CatSchisme  h  Vusage  des 
Sglises  evang&iques  (13th  ed.,  1900).  The  Free 
Crhurch  uses  the  same  catechisms.    In  the  "f 


447 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oateohismfl 


de  la  Confession  d' Augsbourg "  Luther's  Smaller 
Catechism  has  always  been  in  use.  The  Petit  cate- 
chisme  de  Luther  (Chateauroux)  has  added  to  Lu- 
ther's text  Bible  texts  and  stories  and  renders 
the  Ten  Commandments  exactly  as  they  are  found 
in  Ex.  XX.  1-17,  combining  the  ninth  and  tenth 
commandments  and  treating  the  prohibition  of  the 
worship  of  images  as  a  separate  commandment. 

Ab  a  result  of  the  Evangelical  movement  in 
Italy,  there  originated  about  1535  the  ''  Christian 
Instruction  for  Children  "  by  Juan  de 
16.  Italy.  Vald^,  apparently  first  written  in 
Spanish,  but  published  first  in  Italian 
and  then  translated  into  various  languages  (cf. 
the  polyglot  edition  of  E.  Bdhmer  under  the  title 
Instruction  cristiana  para  loa  nifiae  por  Juan  de 
Valdee,  Bonn,  1883).  To-day  the  "  Free  Church  " 
uses  II  catechismo  ossia  eunto  delta  dottrina  cristiana 
secondo  la  paroladi  Dio,  by  G.  P.  Meille  (Florence, 
6th  ed.,  1895).  Of  a  similar  nature  are  the  cate- 
chisms used  by  the  Waldenses,  Caiechismo  delta 
Chiesa  evangelica  Valdese  o  Manuale  d'istruziane 
cristiana  ad  uso  dei  catecumeni  di  delta  Chiesa  (1866) 
and  Caiechismo  evangelica  ossia  sunto  delta  dottrina 
cristiana  (1895). 

The  Lutherans  in  the  United  States  use  Luther's 
Smaller  Catechism,  which  exists  in  many  German, 
English,    and    German-English   editions.    In   the 
Synodical  Conference  the  Dresden  Kreuzkatechis- 
mus  of  1688  has  a  large  circulation,  in  the  Missouri 
Synod   Dr.   M,   Luthers   Kleiner   Katediismus   in 
Frage  und  Aniwort  grundlich  ausgelegt  by  J.  K.  Die* 
trich  (St.  Louis,  Mo.)  and  a  condensed  edition  of 
the  same  are  much  used;   the  former  also  in  Eng- 
lish.   In  the  Ohio  Synod  originated  Der  Kleins 
Catechismus  Dr.  M.  Luthers  mil  erkl&renden  und 
heweisenden  BtbelsteUen,  also  in  Eng- 
16.  Ameri-  iish    (Allentown,    Pa.).     It    contains 
can  Luther-  besides   the   Smaller   Catechism    the 
an  Gate-    «  Order  of  Salvation,"  that  is,  a  sur- 
ohioms.     yey  ^f  ^ike  whole  contents  of  Christian 
doctrine,  an  analysis  of  the  catechism 
formed  like  Spener's  catechetical  tables,  and  the 
Wdrttemberg  Konferew^Examen,  which  is  an  epi- 
tome of  the  Xiruier^^re  introduced  in  1682  in  Wflrt- 
temberg.    Prof.  M.  Loy,  Prof.  F.  W.  Stellhom,  and 
Rev.  C.  H.  Rohe  wrote  an  exposition  of  the  Smaller 
Catechism  on  the  basis  of  Dietrich's,  under  the 
title  Dr.  M.  Luthers  Kleiner  Katechismus,  in  Frage 
und  Antwort  ausgelegt  (Columbus,  O.,  1882).    On 
the  basis  of  Caspari's  catechetical  exposition,  W. 
J.  Mann  and  G.  F.  Krotel,  of  the  Synod  of  Penn- 
sylvania, published  Luthers  Kleiner  Katechismus  in 
Fragen  und  Antworten  zum  Gebrauch  in  Kvrche, 
Schule  und  Haus  (Allentown,  1863).    The  General 
Council  uses  also  a  catechism  which  contains  the 
WUrttemberg  Konferem-Examen  as  an  appendix. 
It  appeared  under  the  title  Dr.  M.  Luthers  Kleiner 
Katechismus   mil   ErkUbrung   fUr   die   evangelischr- 
lutherische  Kvrche  in  den  Vereinigten  Staatenf  also 
in  English    (New  York).     A  recent  addition  ex- 
plains Luther's  text  by  Bible  texts  and  stories — 
Luthers    Kleiner  .  Katechismus    mil    Bibelspruchen 
(Philadelphia).  •  The    German-Evangelical    synod, 
which  is  akin  to  the  Evangelical  Union  in  Germany, 
has  published  its  own  official  catechism,  Kleiner 


evangelischer  Katechismus,  also  an  edition  with 
German  and  English  on  parallel  pages  (St.  Louis). 
It  is  a  free  revision  of  the  Smaller  Catechism,  dif- 
fering from  it  especially  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
sacraments.  The  German-Reformed  Church  uses 
a  catechism  prepared  in  1862  by  Philip  Schaff  and 
entitled  ChrisUicher  Katechismus :  ein  Leitfaden 
eum  Religionsunterricht  in  Schule  und  Haus  (Phila- 
delphia). These  rather  comprehensive  books  are 
intended  for  the  school  and  especially  for  yoimg 
people  to  be  confirmed.  In  the  numerous  Simday- 
schools  the  children  are  frequently  instructed  only 
in  Biblical  stories.  A  catechism  intended  for  that 
purpose  is  The  Little  Lamb's  Catechism  by  J.  R. 
Lauritzen  (Knoxville,  Tenn.).  The  same  author 
wrote  another  manual  which  has  become  very 
popular — Dr.  M.  Luther's  Kleiner  Katechismus, 
also  in  English  (Knoxville,  Tenn.).  The  German- 
Evangelical  Synod  possesses  an  excellent  manual 
for  the  instruction  of  Sunday-schools  in  Kurte 
Katechismuslehre  (St.  Louis,  1899),  which  extends 
its  material  over  three  grades  and  is  considered  a 
preparation  for  the  catechism  proper. 

In    the    German    Moravian    congregations    the 

department  for  churches  and  schools  under  the 

direction  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum  has  reserved  to 

itself  the  right  of  selecting  manuals  to  be  used  in 

instruction.    Luther's   Smaller   Cat&- 

17.  The     chism  is  chiefly  used,  in  some  places 

Moravians  ^^  HaupHnhalt  der  chrisUichen  UeHs" 

and  Bohe-  lehre  sum  Oebrauch  bei  dem  Unterricht 

mian       der  Jugend  in  den  evangelischen  BrUder^ 

Brethren,  gemeinden    (8th    ed.,  Gnadau,  1891), 

compiled  by  Samuel   LieberkUhn  in 

1769.    Among  the  Bohemian  Brethren  the  Kale^ 

chismus  der  christlichen  Lehre  eum  Gebrauch  bei  dem 

Unterricht  der  Jugend  in  den  evangelischen  Briider^ 

gemeinden  (Dauba)  has  become  the  standard.    It  is 

based  upon  a  catechism  written  by  L.  T.  Reichel  for 

the  American  congregations  of  Brethren.     Among 

the  earlier  catechisms  which  are  out  of  use  now 

may  be  mentioned  Zinsendorf 's  works — Kus  strange 

production  Lautere  Milch  der  Lehre  von  Jesu  Christo 

(1723)  and  Kus  Gewisser  Grund  christlicher  Lehre 

naeh  Anleitung  des  einfachen  Catechismi  seel.  Herm 

Dr.  Luthers  {1725). 

Among  the  Germannspeaking  Methodists  of 
the  United  States  the  only  books  used  are 
the  manuals  written  at  the  order  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  in  1868  by  WUhelm  Nast  in 
Cincinnati,  especially  with  the  aid  of  Schaff's 
catechism,  Der  grdssere  [kleinere]  Katechismus  fitr 
die  deutschen  Gemeinden  der  Bischdf^ 
2f/-??Jir  '*c*«^  Methodistenkirche  (Cincinnati). 
The  English  Methodists  use  A  Brief 
Catechism  for  the  Use  of  Methodists 
Compiled  by  Order  of  the  Conference  (London)  and 
The  Catechism  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  (ib.). 
The  latter  work  consists  really  of  three  catechisms, 
arranged  in  gradation  for  pupils  of  different  ages. 

The  manuals  used  among  the  Baptists  in  Ger- 
many are  Rode's  ChrisUicher  Religionsunterricht  far 
die  reifere  Jugend  (Hamburg,  1882)  and  Kaiser's 
Leitfaden  fur  den  Religionsunterricht,  which  first 
appeared  in  English  under  the  title  of  Prize  Cate^ 
Msm.     Besides  these,  Weert's  Katechismus,  ein 


odlat  Cate- , 


Cateohisxns 
OateohnmMiato 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


AAA 


Leitfaden  fUr  den  ReligumninUrrichi  (Caasel,  1899) 
is  used.  [Several  catechisms  were  prepared  by 
English  Particular  Baptists  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury: A  Sold  Searching  Catechism,  by 
19.  Baptist  Christopher  Blackwood  (1653);  CaU- 
and  Xrvlnff*  ehism  for  Children,  by  Heniy  Jessey 
ite  Cate-    (1673);  The  Child's  Instnuior :  a  New 

ohiams.  and  Easy  Primer,  by  Benjamin  Krach 
(1664).  The  General  Assembly  of  the 
Particular  Baptists  at  its  session  in  London  in 
June,  1693,  requested  William  OoUins  to  draw  up 
a  catechism  "  containing  the  substance  of  the 
Christian  reUgion,  for  the  instruction  of  children  and 
servants."  It  hajB  been  reproduced  in  authentic 
form  in  Confessions  of  Faith,  and  oiher  Documents, 
edited  for  the  Hanserd  KnoUya  Society,  by  E.  B, 
I'nderhUl  (London,  1854).  Among  the  Baptists  of 
the  United  States  in  the  South  and  Southwest 
Question  Books  (four  series)  by  A.  C.  Dayton,  and  a 
Catechism  by  J.  A.  Broadus,  have  been  widely  used. 

A  H.  N.] 

The  catechism  of  the  Irvingites  contains  three 
chapters;  the  first  two  represent  practically  the 
Prayer-book  catechism;  the  third  part  treats  of  the 
doctrines  peculiar  to  the  Irvingites,  the  doctrine 
of  the  Church  and  its  offices. 

[For  the  catechisms  used  in  most  Presbyterian 
communions  see  Webtminbter  Standards.] 

The  English  Unitarians  use  especially  two  small 

manuals — Ten   Lessons   in   Religion    by   Charles 

Beard  (London,  2d  ed.,  1897)  and  A  Catechism  of 

Religion  by  H.   W.  Hawkes.    While 

20.  TTnita-  the  former  contains  only  an  exposition 
rianOate-   of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  instruction 

ohlams.  qq  the  Bible,  the  latter  treats  in 
fifty-two  questions  of  the  most  im- 
portant terms  in  Christian  faith  and  interprets 
them  in  the  Unitarian  sense.  The  latter  is  in  some 
respects  dependent  on  An  Evangelical  Free  Church 
Catechism  for  Use  in  Home  and  School  (London), 
which  is  used  by  Unitarians,  Methodists,  Baptists, 
Congregationalists,  Presbyterians,  and  some  smaller 
denominations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  learned  from  the 
Evangelicals  its  solicitude  for  the  religious  in- 
struction of  youth.  Numerous  manuals  appeared 
as  imitations  of  Evangelical  catechisms.  The  cate- 
chism of  John  Dietenberger,  a  vexy  popular  book, 
was  in  some  passages  copied  verbatim  from  Luther's. 
But  all  the  catechisms  previously  published  were 
far  surpassed  in  popularity  by  the  Summa  doctrines 
ehrisHancB,  per  qucsstiones  tradUa  et  ad  capitum  rudv- 
orum  accommodata  (1556)  by  the  Jesuit  Peter 
Canisius.     It  forms  an  epitome  of  his 

21.  Soman  fSumma  doctrina  christianfB  of  1555 
Oathollc  <^cl  was  translated  into  all  European 
and  Old  languages.  It  was  used  even  in  India 
Cathollo    and  remained  for  about  two  centuries 

Cataohiams.  the  principal  catechism  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  1559  Canisius 
enlarged  it  under  the  title  Parvus  Catechismus 
eatholicorum,  which  became  the  model  for  numerous 
expositions  of  the  Summa,  In  1566  appeared  the 
Catechismus  ex  decreto  Concilii  Tridentini  ad 
Parochos  Pii  V.  Pontificis  Maximi  iussu  edUus, 
intended  as  a  homiletical  and  catechetical  hand- 


book for  the  clergy;  but  the  influence  of  the  Jes- 
uits was  so  great  that  it  could  not  compete  with 
the  catechisms  of  Canisius;  and  even  thoee  of 
Bellarmin,  which  appeared  in  1598,  did  not  attain 
equal  popularity  with  them.  The  Roman  Catholic 
books  of  instruction,  like  the  Evangelical  catechisms, 
did  not  escape  the  influenoe  of  rationalism,  at  first 
in  method  and  then  even  to  some  extent  in  con- 
tents. A  return  to  the  stricter  teaching  of  the 
Church  made  itself  felt  in  the  first  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Since  1847  J.  Dehaibe's 
catechisms  have  been  generally  recognised  as 
standard  works.  They  include  Katholischer  Kale- 
chismus  fur  Stadt-  und  Landschulen  (Regensburg, 
1847);  and  Kleiner  katholischerKatechismustundchst 
far  soUhe  Landschulen,  welche  nur  w&krend  des 
Sommer-  oder  WirUersemesters  hesucht  toerden  (1847). 
In  the  United  States  the  Catholic  Church  provides 
manuals  of  catechetical  instruction,  such  as  those 
edited  by  W.  Faerber  in  Gennan  and  English  (St. 
Louis,  1897  and  often),  and  Catechisms  of  Catholic 
Teaching  (New  York,  n.d.). 

The  Old  Catholic  Church  hajs  two  ofiidal  cate- 
chisms, the  Katholische  Kalechismus,  herausgegeben 
im  Auftrage  der  aUkatholischen  Synods  (Bonn)  and 
Leitfaden  fOr  den  katholischen  Rdigumsunterritht 
an  hdheren  Schulen,  herausgegeben  im  Auftrage  der 
aUkatholischen  Synods  (Bonn,  1877). 

In   1721   the  synod  of  the  Russian  Orthodox 

Church  decreed  that  three  small  manuals  for  the 

instruction  of  youth  and  the  common  people  should 

be  made,  one  on  the  principal  doctrines  of  faith 

and  on  the  decalogue,  a  second  on  the 

82.  The     q)ecial  duties  of  each  class,  and  a  third 
Greek       containing  sermons  on  the  principal 

Ohuroh.  doctrines,  virtues,  and  vices.  On  the 
strength  of  this  order  there  appeared  a 
book  entitled  *'  First  Instruction  of  Youth,  Contain- 
ing a  Primer  and  a  Short  Exposition  of  the  Decalogue, 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  Oeed,  by  order  of  his 
Majesty  Peter  I.,  emperor  of  all  the  Russias,"  which 
is  probably  the  first  real  catechism  in  the  Greek 
Church.  The  catechism  used  at  the  present  time, 
the  **  Complete  Christian  Catechism  of  the  Ortho- 
dox CathoUc  Eastern  Church,"  first  published  in 
1839,  originated  under  the  influence  of  a  manual 
composed  by  Jeromonach  Platon  in  1765  for  the 
heir  to  the  throne,  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  Petrovitch, 
which  is  influenced  in  the  arrangement  of  material 
by  the  Confsssio  orthodoxa  of  Peter  Mogilas  (1643). 
Like  the  latter,  it  groups  its  material  under  the 
three  Christian  virtues  of  faith,  hope,  and  love. 
After  an  introduction  on  revelation,  Holy  Scripture, 
and  catechetical  teaching,  it  begins  with  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Nicene  Creed,  followed  by  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Beatitudes,  the  union  between 
faith  and  love,  and  an  exposition  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. The  book  closes  with  the  application 
of  the  doctrine  of  faith  and  of  piety. 

(Ferdinand  Cohrs.) 

BisLiooBAraT:  The  works  under  Catschxsib,  CATScsmcB; 
CATBCiriTifBMATa;  LirrRBR'8  Two  Catbchibiis;  and  Hn- 
nsLBVRo  Catbchisii  should  be  oonnulted.  Collections  of 
early  catechismB  are  made  in  Monumettta  Germ€ini(B  pada- 
oogica,  ed.  C.  Kehrbarh,  vols.  4.  20-.33.  39.  Berlin.  1887- 
1907.  and  in  JCatech«fi«eA«  HandMbliothek.  ed.  F.  Walk, 
Kempten,  1891-1905  (containing  not  only  oatMdiisms  but 


>4e 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oataohisma 
Oataohimienata 


works  on  oataelMtiei).  On  the  oatachiams  of  the  ICiddla 
Acea  oontult:  Q.  LAngemaek,  HiUoria  eateduHea,  vol.  L. 
Str&lmind.  1729;  J.  Geffeken,  D€r  BUdmrkaUekiwmuM  dM 
fQnfxehnUn  Jahrhundmi»  und  dU  kaUAetUehmi  Haupt- 
mtUcJte  in  diamr  Z0U  6m  ati/  LulW.  vol.  i.,  Leipaic.  1865; 
H.  Bruck,  Dm-  nlUfidM  UnlerridU  .  .  .  in  Deutaehland, 
Mains.  1876;  P.  GAbl,  ChnkUhtB  do-  Kateehtm  im  Abmtd^ 
landm  aom  VtrfaU  dM  Katttkumtnat  6m  turn  End»  dm 
MxtUUMUmrM,  Kemptan,  1880;  F.  Probst.  GeackickU  dmr 
kaiholUcUn  Kataehsm,  Bradau,  1887;  F.  Falk,  Dm-  Unitr- 
riehi  dsa  VoUu  tn  dtn  katachaliadtm  HaupiaUiekmi  am 
Bndm  dst  MiUOaiUn,  in  HuterMcA-poltliMAa  BUlUtr,  eviii 
(1891).  S63  aqq.,  682  aqq.,  ox  (1892)  81  aqq..  721  aqq.; 
P.  Hahlmann,  DeuUddand^  kalOuiiimshB  KatmhUmtn  6m 
au«f»  KndB  dm  teehutknim^  Jahrhundmit,  Mflnster,  1894; 
Hauok,  KD,  vok.  i.-iii. 

For  eoUaetioDfl  of  oataohismB  in  post-Raformation  times 
in  Germany  consult,  besides  the  collections  of  Kehrbach 
and  Walk,  ut  sup.:  J.  Hartmann.  AdiuU  kaUd^stische 
OmUtvnale  dm  mtanodimktn  Kinke,  Stuttgart.  1844;  F. 
W.  Bodemann,  KatmktHacka  DmUemdU  dm  wvanQeliad^ 
hUKmritehen  Kirtkt,  Harburg.  1861;  G.  Kawerau,  Ztosi 
^Uteafa  Kaimkimmn  dm  luikerUehsn  lUfcrmaHon,  Halle. 
1890.  For  a  bibliogr^hy  of  newer  literature  consult: 
F.  Schneider.  KriHmhm  W^gwtiam  durek  dU  LUUratwr 
d€9  Kcnfirmandmiunlmri^tB  und  dm  affenUithen  CAHsten- 
lehrm,  Stuttgart,  1899.  The  history  of  catechisms  is 
treated  in:  G.  Langemack,  ut  sup.,  vols.  iL-iii.,  Stralssund. 
1730-40;  K.  J.  Lteohke,  Du  nlioidM  BUduno  dm  Ju- 
gend  und  dm  tUOieh^  Zuatand  dm  SchuUn  im  16.  JaMiun^ 
dmrt,  Breslau.  1846;  F.  R.  Ehrenfeuchter.  Zur  Osso^icMt 
de»  KaUcMmnuM,  GAttingen.  1867;  K.  Neumann.  Dm 
«win4ftUmh9  iMttfiofManltrricM  im  ZmiaUm  dm  Reforma- 
tion, Berlin,  1899. 

On  other  than  German  lands  consult:  8.  Hess.  OsseAieMt 
dea  Zlirehm-KatediiamuM,  Zurich.  1811;  TmemUenary 
Monument,  in  CommmnoraHon  of  Aa  Thrm  Hundredth 
Annvvmrnry  ef  A*  HeidtOmg  CaimkUm,  Philadelphia, 
1863;  C.  A.  Toren.  Der  evangelieelie  Reli4fion»-UnimridU 
in  Deutikkmd,  Orossftrilanfiisa  und  DOnemark,  Gotha, 
1866;  H.  Bonar,  Caimhimne  of  the  ScoUiah  refomMMon, 
London.  1866;  A.  T.  fiCitehell,  Caiediiema  of  Uis  Second 
Reformation  .  .  .  iriHb  Hialorieal  Introduction,  London, 
1886;  A.  C.  Bang.  Dokumenim  og  etudim  vedr&rende  den 
luihereke  katekiemue'  hielorie  in  Nordene  kirkm,  2  vols., 
Christiania.  1893-99;  I.  Moechakes,  Cated^iem  of  Ihe 
Orthodox  Saalem  Chunk,  London.  1894;  J.  Poynet.  The 
Real  Reformation  CatedUem  of  155S,  ib.  1894;  W.  Eamee, 
Early  New  Bnoiand  Cateckieme.  A  bOMographical  Ac- 
count of  eome  Cateckieme  puUidied  before  1800,  Worcester. 
1808. 

The  literature  on  Roman  OathoUe  catechisms  is  very 
voluminous;  the  following  may  be  consulted:  The  Cate- 
diiem  of  John  Hamilton,  Oxford,  1844;  C.  Moufang,  Die 
Mainam  Kateekiemen  von  dm  Brflnduno  dm  Buchdrucker' 
kunH  bU  sum  Bnde  dee  at^teehnten  JahrhunderU,  Mains. 
1877;  Commentaire  eur  le  catkkieme  dee  protfincee  eorUei- 
aetiquee  de  Quebec,  Montreal,  OUawa,  Montreal.  1897;  F. 
X.  Thalhofer.  Bntwidedung  dee  kaOuiiedien  Kaiediiemue 
in  Deutedtland  von  CaniHue  bu  Ddutrhe,  Freiburg.  1899; 
F.  Spirago,  The  Catediiem  Bxplained.  New  York.  1899;  T. 
E.  Oox.  BikUeal  Treaeury  of  the  Catediiem,  ib.  1900;  T.L. 
Kinkaad.  B^vlanalKon  of  A*  Baltimore  Catediiem,  ib.  1902; 
J.  Parry.  foplomUum  s/  Ae  CaJtediiem,  St.  Louii^  1903. 

CATBCHUllEirATB. 

Eariiect  Data  (|  1).  Second  Period  of  Develop- 

Aooording    to    the    Church  ment  (f  4). 

Fathers  (f  2).  Deelina  of  the  Oataehuma- 

First  Period  of  Devefepment  nata  (f  6). 

(f  3).  Ritual  Survivals  (f  6). 

Gatechumenate  u  a  tenn  applied  to  the  method 
of  receiving  and  instructing,  in  preparation  for 
baptism,  those  who  applied  for  membership  in  the 
early  Christian  Church.  As  soon  as  the  apostolic 
mission  had  reached  the  stage  of  founding  a  Chris- 
tian society,  it  was  natural  that  those  who  wished 
to  enter  it  should  be  required  to  go  through  a 
course  of  instruction  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  hopes 
'vhich  it  held  out  and  the  demands  which  it 
11.-20 


of  its  members.  Our  information  as  to  the  method 
pursued  in  the  earliest  period  is  very  scanty.  Ap- 
parently the  gatherings  of  the  disciples  were  at  fint 
freely  opened  to  any  one  (I  Cor.  xiv.  24)  who 
desired  to  know  more  of  their  faith  and  practise; 
and  baptism  was  probably  often  administered 
with  but  a  short  delay.    As  time  went  on,  more 

care  was  exercised;    the  need  of  it 

I.  Earliest  was  demonstrated  by  cases  of  relapse 

Data.       into  heathenism  and  of  the  seeldng 

of  membership  from  interested  or 
treacherous  motives.  We  find  traces  of  this  greater 
caution  as  early  as  the  first  Apology  of  Justin 
(c.  150).  A  demand  is  made  for  some  security 
as  to  the  belief  and  conduct  of  the  candidate,  who 
is  not  apparently  admitted  to  the  assembly  of  the 
faithful  until  he  has  been  adjudged  worthy  of 
baptism.  How  this  security  was  obtained  is  not 
dear;  the  preparation  seems  to  have  been  private, 
and  the  one  who  conducted  it  probably  answered 
for  the  candidate,  as  at  once  sponsor  and  catechist. 
Tertullian  portrays  a  somewhat  different  system; 
though  catechumens  are  still  excluded  from  the 
assembly,  the  application  of  this  name  to  them 
implies  that  they  were  already  reckoned  as  in  a 
sense  belonging  to  the  Church  and  under  its  care. 
This  is  still  more  deariy  the  case  in  Origen's  account. 

The  much  discussed  passage  Contra  CeUr 

a.  According  sum,  iii.  51  showsplainly  that  there  was 

to  the      a  definite  system  of  examination  and 

Church     of  instruction.    It  gives  also  the  fact 

Fathers,     that  at  this  period,  besides  the  class 

which  (as  in  Justin  and  Tertullian) 
is  excluded  from  the  assembly,  there  is  another 
which  has  advanced  far  enough  to  daim  the  priv- 
ilege of  admission,  and  is  only  waiting  for  the  last 
decisive  step  of  baptism.  It  is  a  mistake  to  at- 
tempt to  deduce  from  his  words  three  dasses 
divided  by  a  hard  and  fast  line,  or  to  apply 
to  these  dasses  the  names  aitdienUs  {Ok.  akrod- 
menoi) ,  genufledenie  (jgontiklinontea),  and  sompeUn- 
tea  {phlUuomerun),  The  last  occurs  in  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  and  in  Cjrril  of  Jerusalem  passim, 
for  the  candidates  approaching  baptism,  who  are 
definitely  distinguished  from  the  catechumens. 
The  name  akroOmenoi  occurs  for  the  first  time  in 
the  passage  of  Origen  referred  to,  but  without  a 
distinct  meaning;  its  use  later  in  the  prodama- 
tion  of  the  deacon  in  the  liturgy,  summoning  those 
not  entitled  to  be  present  to  depart,  relates  to  a 
dass  of  penitents  not  allowed  to  hear  a  part  of  the 
service  to  which  catechumens  were  admitted.  In 
like  manner  the  application  of  gontdUinonteB  to  a 
dass  of  catechumens  rests  on  a  misunderstanding 
of  the  corrupt  Greek  text  of  the  fifth  canon  of  the 
Synod  of  Neoccesarea  (314),  which  really  means 
that  catechumens  falling  into  sin  are  to  be  put 
among  the  penitents,  and  expelled  altogether  if  they 
do  not  amend. 

To  sum  up,  then,  what  has  been  said,  Origen 
shows  a  development  of  the  catechumenate  from 
what  Justin  gives,  while  Tertullian  exhibits  an 
intermediate  stage.  We  must,  however,  remember 
that  these  witnesses  are  from  different  parts  of 
the  Chureh.  The  development  was  probably 
largely  influenced  by  local  conditions.    In  Tar- 


&1 


>tiiohwin<m>t6 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


450 


tullian'B  time,Septiiniu8  Sevenishad  forbidden  oon- 
verrions  to  Christiaiiity,  and  fonnal  arrangements 
for  the  preparation  of  ccmverts  would  have  been 
direct  rebellion.    In  Origen'e  day,  on  the  other 
handi  the  Churoh  had  enjoyed  a  long  period  of 
peace,  and  was  not  afraid  to  allow 
3.  Flzit     trusted  catechumens  to  be  present  at 
Period  of  its  services;  but  the  large  number  of 
Develop-    converts  made  it  more  probable  that 
ment      some  unworthy  ones  would  be  among 
them,  and  so  to  the  ori^^nal  exam- 
ination  before   baptism,    a   second    and   earlier 
one  was  added.     Origen's  account  of  the   cato- 
chumenate   gives   all    the   essential    features    of 
the  institution,  as  we  meet  with  it  when  fully 
established,  after  persecution  had  ceased.     Chris- 
tianity had  become  the  state  religion,  and  it  was 
possible  to  work  out  in  detail  institutions  which 
had  been  carefully  planned  in  the  daric  days  pre- 
ceding. 

This  second  or  established  period  coven  roughly 
the  fourth  and  early  fifth  centuries.  The  can- 
didate, accompanied  by  a  sponsor,  announces  his 
desire,  normally  to  a  deacon,  who  infoims  the 
bishop  or  presbyter.  The  grounds  of  fcds  desire  are 
investigated;  people  of  certain  sinful  or  dubious 
occupations  are  ipso  facto  ezduded  unless  they  will 
abandon  them.  If  the  candidate  is  acceptable, 
he  receives  a  preliminaiy  instruction,  and  is  then 
set  apart  by  the  sign  of  the  cross,  laying  on  of  hands, 
and  (in  the  West)  with  blessed  sdt,  as  a  catechumen. 
For  a  time  he  receives  no  special  instruction,  shar- 
ing that  which  the  whole  congregation  gets  in  the 
misso  oatachummorwn,  though  depart- 
4*  Second  ing  before  the  later  and  more  solemn 
Period  of  part  of  the  liturgy.  After  two  (or 
Develop-  three)  years,  he  may  ask  for  baptism; 
ment  he  enters  the  dass  of  competenlM,  and 
his  name  is  inscribed  on  the  church 
list  The  inmiediate  preparation  indudes  special 
instructions,  usually  given  by  the  bishop;  certain 
ceremonies,  especially  of  exorcism,  which  show 
the  influence  of  the  pagan  mysteries;  and  finally 
the  tradUio  tymboli,  or  instruction  in  the  precise 
words  of  the  baptismal  creed,  whose  general  sense 
has  long  been  Imown  to  him.  After  learning  and 
repeating  this,  he  is  taught  the  words  of  the 
Lord's  I^yer,  which  has  alio  been  withheld  from 
him  until  now  by  the  Areani  dudpUna  (q.v.).  The 
redtation  of  the  creed  as  a  solemn  act  and 
the  final  renunciation  of  paganism  acccunpany  the 
act  of  baptism,  which  usuidly  takes  place  in  the 
night  before  Easter.  During  the  following  week 
the  neophyte  recdves  further  instructions,  and  on 
the  next  Sunday,  still  wearing  his  white  iM^tismal 
fobe,  he  takes  his  place  among  the  congregation 
as  a  baptiaed  Christian,  and  joins  in  the  redtation 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  prayer  of  the  children  of 
God.  As  to  the  matter  contained  in  the  instruc- 
tions to  the  catechumen  in  this  period,  fullest  in- 
formation comes  from  Augustine  in  the  West  and 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  the  Einst. 

The  decline  of  the  institution  was  brought  about 
by  the  constantiy  increasing  numbers  of  those 
who  sought  admisdon  to  the  Church.  A  thorough 
examination  of  them  all  became  impossible;   t£e 


preliminaiy   instruction   was    gradually  dropped, 

and  the  catechumenate  was  reduced  to  the  inuitf- 

diate  preparation  for  baptism.  Tbe 

5.  Decline  growing  practise  of  baptiiiiig  infanti 
of  the  Gate-  and  young  children  completed  tb 
chomenate.  process,  since  there  was  no  pUce  for 

instructicm  in  their  case.  Samethi&g 
still  remained,  however,  of  the  andent  prooedoR. 
On  the  Monday  after  the  third  Sunday  m  IM 
notice  was  given  to  present  the  children  who  ven 
to  be  baptised  at  Easter.  On  the  following  Wedoes- 
day  their  sponsors  brought  them  to  the  churdi, 
where  their  names  were  registered.  The  cen- 
monies  of  dgning  with  the  cross,  laying  on  of  hands, 
exorcism,  giving  of  salt,  and  a  final  pnyer  madi 
them  catediumens.  Seven  masses  were  said  oa 
succeeding  days,  five  containing  similar  oereinoiiie% 
while  the  last  two  were  especially  sdemn.  The 
sixth  contained  the  "  opening  of  the  ears,"  a  r^ 
minder  of  the  andent  tradiHo  gymboH ;  the  book 
of  the  Qofipds  was  home  in  proceadon  to  the  alter 

and  a  short  extract  from  each  Gospel 

6.  Ritual    read,  after  which  the  creed  was  ^m 
Survivals,   to   the   candidates,   and  an  aoolyte 

brought  forward  two  children,  a  bof 
and  a  giri,  and  redted  the  creed  for  than  (the 
andent  reddUio  9ymbolx)\  with  the  subeequest 
conununication  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  were  uniallf 
connected  short  expodtions  of  each  dauae.  Tbe 
last  "  scrutiny  "  todc  place  the  day  bdore  Eaater, 
and  followed  much  the  same  order,  but  more  sol- 
emnly and  formally;  and  baptism  took  place  at 
the  traditional  time. 

When  the  time  came  that  nothing  lemained  d 
the  original  institutions  of  the  catechumenate  except 
the  outward  ceremonies,  these  were  more  and  more 
condensed,  until  they  formed  but  a  single  rita 
leading  up  to  the  baptism  which  immediatelj 
followed  them.  In  the  Onio  iNiptismt  of  the  RomaB 
Ritual  the  order  of  the  andent  preparatioDa  for 
baptism  may  still  be  traced  without  difficulty,  and 
not  a  few  relics  of  it  remain  in  the  evan^cal 
baptismal  ceremonies  (see  Bapttbic). 

(Ferdinand  Oobbs.) 

A  very  interesting  survival  of  the  andent  cate- 
chumenate is  found  in  the  Armenian  woik  found 
among  the  modem  PauHdans,  trandated  and  edited 
by  F.  C.  Conybeare  {The  Key  of  Truth :  A  Mimud 
of  the  Paulieian  Church  of  Armenia,  Oxford,  ISSS) 
and  bdieved  by  the  editor  to  have  been  written  not 
later  than  the  ninth  century  and  to  represent  an 
almost  primitive  foim  of  Oriental  (%ri8tianit]r.  It 
is  adoptionist  in  its  OhrisUdogy  and  drastic  in  its 
oppodtion  to  infant-baptism.  It  provides  iot  * 
solenm  consecration  of  the  infant  of  Ghriatian  pa^ 
ents  by  the  minister  when  it  is  seven  days  old,  the 
careful  training  by  parents  and  churdi  until  oa- 
turity  is  reached,  the  thorough  testing  of  the  caD- 
didates  for  baptism  in  life  and  in  knowledge  of  Om^ 
tian  doctrine  and  morals^  and  the  adminisintiaD 
of  baptism  with  condderable  ceremony  to  those 
who  have  fulfilled  all  the  conditions  and  h^ 
attained  to  the  age  at  which  Christ  was  baptiied. 
A  brief  catechism,  embracing  the  points  of  doctnoe 
in  which  catechumens  must  be  grounded,  is  ff^ 
at  the  end.  AH.N. 


461 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDU 


Oateohumenato 


Bibuoorapht:  The  aoureefl  are  to  be  found  in  the  worics  of 
Justin  Martyr,  Origen's  Contra  CtUum,  the  '*  Catechetical 
Leetuiea "  of  Cyril  of  Jemaalem,  Auguetine't  D€  ealeeki' 
aandia  rudihv,  and  the  Didaofte,  all  of  which  are  acoccaible 
in  Enc  tranal.  The  history  of  the  institution  is  traced  in: 
G.  von  Zeaschwits.  SyaUm  dtr  tkritmd^tn  Kaitek^Hk, 
2  vols.,  Leipnc  1863-72;  J.  Mayer.  OtadUdUg  dM  JCote- 
ekumtnaiB  .  .  .  ia  den  enkn  tacAs  JahrhunitHin,  Kemp- 
ten,  1866  (Boman  GathoUo);  A.  Weiai,  Di$  aWnrdtUdU 
Pamdagogik  .  .  .  d«r  eraUn  weeha  Jakrhundsrie,  Fieiburs, 
1869;  F.  X.  Funk,  in  TlMnotr  ThaolaoiadiM  QuartaltdiHtU 
1883,  pp.  41-77,  1886.  pp.  868  eqq..  1899,  pp.  484  aqq.; 
E.  Hatch,  OrgmUaaa&n  of  At  Early  ChtmAm,  London, 
1888;  J.  Heron,  Churdi  of  Svb-Apoitoiie  Aov  Of  Life, 
Warahip,  and  Organisation,  London,  1888;  E.  SaehsM, 
SvanoaHaeho  KateduHk:  dU  Ldnf  von  dor  kirdUidton 
BrHohung,  Berlin,  1897;  F.  Wiccand,  Dio  Stdlvng  doo 
apootoliadion  SymboU  im  ktrdOidiim  Ld)on  dot  MittdaUtra, 
L  Symbol  und  KataAumianai,  Leipde.  1899;  Neander. 
ChriaHan  Churchy  vols,  i  and  ii.  oontain  much  valuable 
matter,  eonsult  the  Index;  Schaif,  Ckriakan  Chunk,  ii. 
25&-267:  Bincham,  Originaa,  books  z.,  si.,  nv.;  DC  A, 
L  317-319;  the  literature  on  the  Didadka  (q.v.)  usually 
discuaaee  the  cateohetics  of  the  eariy  Ghureh. 

CATENA. 

Origin  (f  1).  Form  (|  6). 

Meaning  of  the  Term  (I  2).  Catena  Previous  to  the  Four- 
Souroee  (f  8).  teenth  Century  (|  7). 

Value  (I  4).  Medieval  Catens  (f  8). 

Method  <f  6).  Post^Reformation  Catena  (f 9). 

The  ienn  catena, "  a  chain  "  (plural,  catena),  des- 
ignates a  commentary  on  Holy  Scripture  made  up 
by  piecing  together  short  extracts  from  the  Fathers 
and  older  writers.  This  pUn  of  construction  was 
suggested  by  the  accumulation  of  ezegetical  mate- 
rials made  both  by  Origen  and  his  school  and  by 
the  theologians  of  Antioch  in  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries. 

The  principal  motive  which  impelled  later  scholars 

to  collect  and  examine  the  eariy  utterances  was  a 

dogmatic  one.    After  the  conversion  of  Gonstan- 

tine,  the  Church  was  anxious  to  put  together  in 

a  dear  and  systematic  form  the  results 

X.  Origin,  of  previous  theological  work,  and  to 
emphasise  the  connection  of  the  past 
with  the  present.  For  this  purpose  in  regard  to 
doctrine  the  decrees  of  the  ecumenical  coundhi 
answered  admirably;  but  it  was  not  so  easy  to 
attain  the  same  result  in  the  exposition  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  problem  was  to  represent  the  results 
arrived  at  by  the  recognised  commentators  in 
propositions  that  had  a  unity  of  scheme  and  an 
admitted  authority.  The  principles  of  its  solution 
are  laid  down  in  the  nineteenth  canon  of  the  Quini- 
sext  (Second  Trullan)  Council:  that  Holy  Scripture 
is  the  standard  of  truth,  that  the  limits  of  doctrine 
already  fibced  and  the  traditions  of  the  Fathers  are 
not  to  be  transgressed,  and  that  if  any  question 
eonceming  the  Sksripture  comes  up,  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pounded in  no  other  way  than  as  the  great  teachers 
of  the  past  have  given  it  in  their  works.  The 
exposition  of  the  Scripture  was  thus  firmly  at- 
tached to  the  recognised  orthodox  doctrine.  The 
second  canon  of  the  same  council  had  named  some 
of  the  "  U^tB  and  doctors  "  who  were  to  be  fol- 
lowed, and  the  first  canon  had  given  warning  against 
all  heretics,  not  merely  against  Arius,  Maoedonius, 
ApoUinaris,  and  Nestorius,  but  also  against 
Theodore  of  Mqpsuestia,  Origen,  Didymus,  Eva- 
gnus,  and  Theodoret.  It  was,  however,  found 
impossible  to  carry  out  tliese  principles  strictly. 


The  writings  of  the  authors  suspected  of  heresy 
offered  material  too  valuable  to  be  neglected;  and 
it  was  found  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  unity  of 
results  in  an  anthology  of  this  kind  without  doing 
violence  to  the  individuality  of  the  authors  and 
damaging  their  authority,  so  that  nothing  could 
be  done  but  to  put  together  what  was  selected. 

In  this  manner  arose  the  collections  of  extracts 
which  are  so  characteristic  of  Bysantine  theology, 
covering  all  the  books  of  the  Bible  (especially 
Genesis,  Job,  the  Pbalms,  Canticles,  Isaiah,  Mat- 
thew, and  John)  by  extracts  from  patristic  com- 
mentators, and  setting  an  example  of  method  whicl^ 
was  widely  followed  in  Western  and  medieval  com- 
mentaries.   These  collections  are  usually  known 
as  Catenm  (Seirai).    The  origin  of  the  name  is 
obscure,  but  its  meaning  is  plain.    It  refers  to 
collections  of  material  put  together 
a.  Meaning  in  a  purely  external  but  visible  con- 
of  the      nection,  and  strung  upon  the  thread 
Term.      of  the  text.    There  may  have  been 
originally  a  mystical  significance  at- 
tached to  it.    As  the  hermetic  chain  of  the  later 
Neoplatonists  symbolised    the  harmonious  con- 
junction of  the  bearers  of  wisdom  to  the  worid, 
hand  joined  in  hand  from  the  earliest  to  later  times, 
so  the  line  of  the  Fathers  was  to  hand  down  the 
Improved  expositions  of  the  one  true  Church. 

The  first  compUers  have  no  fixed  phrases  to 
describe  their  process;  but  their  lengthy  titles 
give  an  idea  of  the  pUn  they  set  before  them. 
They  collected  their  material  according  to  the 
maxim  of  Seneca,  Quod  verum  esf,  meum  eai  ("  What 
is  true  is  mine  ").  The  manner  in  which  literary 
property  was  handled  in  the  ancient  worid  per- 
mitted not  only  straightforward  appropriation  of 
other  people's  work,  but  the  utmost  freedom  in 
adaptation  to  the  borrower's  special  purpose.  The 
retention  of  the  original  authors'  names  here  is  an 
evidence  of  the  wei^t  attached  to  their  testimony 
as  authoritative  expositors;  where  the  compiler 
adds  comments  of  his  own,  he  is  usually  careful 
to  distinguish  his  additions.  Great  variety  is 
found  in  the  manner  of  reproduction  and  in  the 
extent  of  the  material  included.  In  Uie  Catena  of 
Possinus  on  Matthew  we  have  one  constructed  on 
the  exact  lines  laid  down  by  the  Quinisext  Council — 
a  mosaic  of  verbal  citations  from 
3.  Sources,  commentaries  or  other  writings  of 
orthodox  Fathers.  Where  the  com- 
piler, like  Nicetas  of  Serre,  added  reflections  of 
his  own,  he  generally  put  them  at  the  head  of  the 
group  of  quotations  following  a  fresh  section  of 
the  text.  Where  he  adapted  and  condensed,  he 
either  kept  to  the  serial  order,  or  worked  over  all 
the  material  he  had  accumulated  without  making 
divisions  for  the  separate  authors.  This  is  the 
manner  adopted  by  Procopius,  (Ecumenius,  and 
Theophylact,  who  emphasise  at  the  same  time  the 
fact  that  thfiy  are  not  originators  but  transmitters. 
There  is  no  sharp  dividing  line  between  this  kind 
of  Catena  and  the  Bysantine  commentary;  for 
the  latter  also  patristic  tradition  is  the  standard, 
though  the  sources  are  not  indicated  in  the  margin, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  the  Catence,  and  the  expo- 
sition proceeds  wiUiout  a  break. 


Oatenas 
Oatharine 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


452 


The  value  of  the  Catens  is  measured  by  their 
judgment  in  selecting  and  their  skill  in  combining 
the  material  they  borrow.  The  difficulty  of  choice 
is  increased  by  the  dogmatic  limitations,  which 
are  sometimes  in  inevitable  conflict  with  the 
scholarly  interest.  Origen,  for  instsuioe,  the  first 
great  Christian  critic  and  commentator,  was  of 
inestimable  value  to  exegesis;  and  for  the  Old 
Testament  Catens  both  Philo,  who  had  been 
studied    by    all    learned    theologians 

4.  Value,    from  Origen  down,  and  Josephus  were 

invaluable  authorities.  A  compro- 
mise was  reached  in  the  principle  (still  followed 
by  Roman  Catholic  commentators)  of  Cyril  of 
^exandria:  "  We  need  not  avoid  or  question 
everything  that  heretics  have  said;  for  they  con- 
fess many  things  which  we  also  confess."  Another 
difficulty  was  found  in  the  occasionally  conffict- 
ing  expositions;  their  diversity  was  explained  by 
Drungarius,  with  reference  to  the  obscurity  of  the 
text,  as  providential.  He  contents  himself  with 
placing  side  by  side  the  varying  renderings  and 
explanations  of  Isaiah,  leaving  the  reader  to  form 
his  own  judgment. 

The  simplest  method  of  making  a  Catena  was  to 
follow  one  principal  authority,  to  whose  expo- 
sition shorter  scholia  are  added  from  other  sources. 
Thus  Chrysostom  is  the  main  source  in  the  Catena 
of  Possinus  on  Matthew,  as  well  as  in  the  Gospel 
commentaries    of    Euthymius    and    Theophylact, 

though  all  of  these  differ  in  the  ad- 

5.  Method,  ditions  they  make  to  what  they  take 

from  him.  Other  Catense  are  indis- 
criminate anthologies,  no  one  authority  being  pre- 
ferred. Of  this  type  are  those  of  Procopius  and 
Nioetas,  and  most  of  those  on  the  Epistles. 

The  external  form  of  the  Catense  differed  accord- 
ing to  their  extent.  Where  they  were  not  too 
extensive,  the  text  was  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  page,  surrounded  by  the  exposition,  usually  in 
smaller  characters,  sometimes  even  in  tachygraphy. 
The  names  of  the  authorities  are  sometimes  in  the 
margin,  sometimes  in  the  body  of  the  exposition, 
as  a  rule  abbreviated.  Occasionally  diacritical 
marks  show  the  connection  between  text  and  com- 
mentary. If  the  Catena  is  too  extensive  to  allow 
this  arrangement,  the  sections  of  the  text  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  commentary,  in  separate  paragraphs, 
with  the  authors'  names  on  the  margin,  or  else  writ- 
ten without  a  break.  The  manuscripts,  of  which  few 
date  further  back  than  the  tenth  century,  differ 
much  in  execution.  Some  are  of  admirable  work- 
manship, with  illustrations;  others 
6.  Form,  are  plain  copies  for  students,  with  the 
marks  of  long  use  upon  them,  and 
some  seem  to  have  been  hastily  and  carelessly  made 
to  supply  the  demand  of  the  bookselling  trade. 
Besides  the  commentaries,  the  Catense  contain  a 
good  deal  of  introductory  or  illustrative  matter. 
Thus  the  Gospels  are  frequently  prefaced  by  the 
canons  of  Eusebius  and  his  epistle  to  Carpianus,  as 
well  as  by  arguments  and  biographies  of  the  evan- 
gelists; the  Pauline  epistles  have  a  life  of  Paul,  a  list 
of  his  journeys,  and  an  account  of  his  martyrdom. 

Whether  the  beginnings  of  the  manufacture  of 
Catense  can  be  traced  back  to  the  patristic  period 


it  is  impossible  to  say  with  certain^,  tttougb  i 
seems  not  improbable.  After  Eus^ius  the  wed 
of  theologians  to  a  great  extent  took  the  direccks 
of  codifying  and  criticizing  what  had  been  faaaskd 
down.  But  Procopius  (d.  528)  is  the  first  who  oi 
be  demonstrated  to  have  made  C^teos.  Tbe 
value  of  his  work,  which  rests  not  only  upon  tbe 
Fathers  from  the  third  to  the  fifth  oentuiy  bs 
upon  Josephus  and  Philo  and  upon  some  of  tbe 
teachers  before  Origen,  gave  it  an  ^x>clHBiskii£ 
position.  From  the  manner  in  which  be  speaSs  d 
his  task  in  the  prefaces  to  Genesis  and  Isaiah*  vc 
may  conjecture  that  he  was  not  ii 
7.  Catenas    imitator  of  others  but  an  oriffnaUx  'z 

Previous     this  line.     Other  extant  Catois  vs* 

to  the       compiled   by  Andreas   the  pxesbjtc: 

Fotirteenth  (seventh  to  tenth  centuzy);  Johim^ 

Century.  Dnmgarius  (tenth  century);  Micfua 
Psellus,  and  Nioetas,  bishop  of  Sens 
later  metropolitan  of  Heradea  in  Thrace  (elereoL. 
century);  Nicolaus  Muzalon  and  Neophytus  E> 
cleistus  (twelfth  century);  and  Haearius  Chxysv 
cephalus  (fourteenth  century).  To  these  may  be 
added  not  only  the  conunentaries  arranged  mat 
or  less  in  catena  style,  though  without  names  ci 
authorities:  CEcumenius,  of  whose  date  and  per- 
sonality we  know  nothing  certain,  though  be  w^ 
probably  a  contemporary  of  Arethas  of  Cappadom: 
and  the  Gospel  commentaries  of  Thec^hjiact  asd 
Euthymius,  composed  under  the  ConinenL  Then 
is,  however,  a  much  larger  number  of  anonymoi^ 
Cateme;  and  this  fact  is  surprising,  since  Byzss- 
tine  theologians  were  not  given  to  hiding  their  b'gbt 
under  a  bushel.  It  may  possibly  be  explained  bj 
the  theoxy  that  these  Catens  were  produced  cot 
by  any  one  man  but  by  a  group  of  collab<»ators 
Their  dates  are  very  hard  to  determine;  the  surest 
way  to  reach  conclusions  on  this  point  is  by  exam- 
ining their  relations  to  those  whose  dates  we  know, 
which  requires  a  good  deal  more  investigation  thai 
has  yet  been  given  to  them.  In  fact,  what  hss 
been  done  in  the  way  of  scientific  study  of  the  C^ 
tense  in  general  has  only  covered  certain  spedie 
points;  and  those  which  have  been  printed  cover 
only  a  small  part  of  the  extant  material,  and  that 
not  always  selected  with  judgment. 

The  catena  form  impressed  itself  as  a  modd 
upon  medieval  exegesis  in  the  West,  which  sUo 
imitated  the  spirit  in  which  the  Eastern  compOen 
went  about  their  work.  Here  too  the  aim  vai 
to  preserve  the  tradition  of  the  Church  in  a  uni- 
form arrangement  of  Scriptural  exposition.  ''§0 
that  the  line  of  prophetic  and  apostolic  interpn- 
tation  may  follow  the  nonn  of  the  ecclesiastical 
and  catholic  sense "  (Vincent  of  Lerins).  The 
principal  sources  were  AJmbroee,  Hilaiy,  Augostioe. 
and  Jerome;  less  often  the  Greek  Fathers,  such  u 
Origen,  Chrysostom,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  are 
cited.  The  prototypes  of  the  medieval  catoa 
conmientaries  may  be  seen  in  the  expositioDS  of 
Cassiodorus  and  Isidore  of  SeviDe. 
8.  Medieval  On  the  Carolingian  period  the  nuzDO^ 

Catene.     ous  commentaries  of  Bede  exercised 

a  decisive  influence.     He  knew  Greek. 

and  shows  some  feeling  for  textual  critidam;  but 

he  was  not  an  exegetical  individuality.    He  eo^ 


453 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oatenn 
Oatharine 


lects  his  fragments  of  exposition  mainly  from 
Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Gregory,  and 
lays  his  chief  stress  on  the  edifying  explanation  of 
the  moral  and  mystical  sense.  In  this  tendency 
he  was  followed  by  Alcuin,  Rabanus  Maurus,  Wala- 
fried  Strabo,  Dietrich  of  Hersfeld,  Haimo,  and 
Remigius  of  Auxerre,  all  less  careful  in  the  repro- 
duction of  their  sources  than  Bede,  with  whom 
it  was  a  matter  of  principle  to  designate  clearly 
the  intellectual  property  of  his  authorities.  Among 
later  commentaries  of  the  catena  sort  especial 
influence  was  exerted  by  that  of  Peter  Lombard 
on  the  Pauline  epistles,  which  made  no  pretense  of 
indicating  sources,  and  the  Catena  Aurea  of  Thomas 
4quinas  on  the  Gospels,  which  makes  use  of  some 
Greek  Fathers  as  well  as  of  Augustine,  Jerome, 
Rabanus,  and  Remigius.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  "  fosses  " — the  Glossa  ordinaria  of 
Walaf ried  Strabo,  the  Glossa  interlinealis  of  Anselm 
of  Laon  (1110),  and  the  PosHllce  perpetual  of 
Nicholas  of  Lyra  (1340;    see  Glosses,   Biblical. 

AND    EcCLEBIASTIGAL). 

These  works  lead  up  to  the  exegetical  collections 

which  were  made  after  the  Reformation  and  under 

its    influence.    The    expository    standpoint    was 

different,  but  the  method  of  compilation  remained 

the  same.    They  either  gave  the  ob- 

9.  Poet-     servations  of  certain  selected  exposi- 

Refonna-  tors  side  by  side  without  change,  or 
tion        they  made  groups  of  extracts  from  as 

Catense.  large  a  number  as  possible.  Instances 
of  the  first  method  are  the  Btblia 
magna  of  De  la  Haye  (Paris,  1643),  the  Biblia 
maxima  (ib.  1660),  the  English  Annotations  upon 
ail  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  (London, 
1645),  and  the  Critici  sacri  edited  by  J.  Pearson 
and  others  (ib.  1660).  The  second  class  is  repre- 
sented by  Matthew  Pole's  Synopsis  criticorum 
aliorumque  scriptura  sacra  interpretum  et  commenta- 
torum  (London,  1669),  which  contains  the  most 
varied  extracts  from  more  than  eighty  theologians 
of  all  ages  and  beliefs,  even  including  the  Jewish. 
The  Roman  Catholic  expositors,  such  as  Cornelius 
a  Lapide,  Estius,  and  Calmet,  followed  the  lines 
laid  down  by  the  older  Catens,  to  which,  however, 
with  their  uncritical  subservience  to  a  tradition 
presupposed  as  authoritative,  they  are  far  inferior. 

(G.  Heinrici.) 

CATHARL    See  New  Manicheans,  II. 

CATHARINB,  SAINT,  OF  ALEXAl^RIA.  See 
Catharine,  Saint,  the  Martyr. 

CATHARINB,  SAINT,  OF  BOLOGNA:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Bologna  or,  according  to  other 
accounts,  at  Verona  Sept.  8,  1413;  d.  at  Bologna 
Mar.  9,  1463.  About  1430  she  entered  the  order 
of  the  Poor  Clares  at  Ferrara  after  having  been  a 
lady  of  honor  at  the  court  of  Princess  Margaret  of 
Este  for  about  two  years.  She  later  became  abbess 
of  a  convent  of  her  order  which  was  founded  at 
Bologna.  Her  name  was  included  in  the  Roman 
martjrrology  in  1592,  and  she  was  canonized  by 
Benedict  XIII.  in  1724.  Later  tradition  wove 
many  legends  about  her  name,  and  her  body  was 
preserved  undecayed  in  her  convent  until  recent 
years.    To  St.  Catharine  is  ascribed  a  prophetic 


work  entitled  RevelaOoneSf  sive  de  septem  armis 
spirittuUibus,  composed  about  1438  and  first  edited 
probably  at  Bologna  in  1475  and  repeatedly  since. 
In  art  she  is  represented  in  the  habit  of  the  Poor 
Clares,  carrying  the  Christ-child,  since  the  Virgin 
is  said  to  have  appeared  to  her  and  to  have  placed 
in  her  arms  the  infant  Jesus  in  his  swaddling- 
clothes.  (O.  ZOCKLERf.) 
Bxblioorapht:  The  Vita  which  is  the  earliest  source  was 
published  «t  Bologna,   1502,  from  which  a  number  of 
biographies  were  drawn  in  the  next  century.     Consult: 
J.  Gdrres,  Die  chriaaiche  MyWc,  ii.  53  sqq.,  158-159,  4 
vols.,  Regensburg,  1836-12. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  GENOA:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Genoa  1447;  d.  there  Sept.  14, 
1510.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Roberto  Fieschi, 
who  had  been  viceroy  of  Naples  under  Ren4  of 
Anjou.  Despite  her  desire  for  a  life  of  religion, 
she  was  obliged  to  marry  a  nobleman  of  her  native 
city  named  Giuliano  Adomo,  whence  she  is  often 
called  Catharina  Fiisca  Aduma.  After  a  life  of 
extravagance  her  husband  died  in  1474,  but  not 
before  he  had  been  converted  by  his  wife's  piety 
and  had  become  a  Franciscan  of  the  third  order.  Fof 
the  remainder  of  her  life  his  widow,  as  a  member 
of  the  order  of  the  Annunciation  of  St.  Marcellina, 
was  distinguished  both  for  her  care  of  the  sick  in 
the  Genoese  hospital  Pammatone  (especially  during 
the  plagues  of  1497  and  1501)  and  by  her  extreme 
asceticism.  For  twenty-three  years  during  the 
seasons  of  Lent  and  Advent  she  is  said  to  have 
fasted  absolutely,  taking  at  most  a  j^ass  of  water 
with  salt  and  vinegar  "  to  cool  the  raging  jQame 
within."  She  was  formally  canonized  by  Clement 
XII.  in  1737,  and  the  following  pope,  Benedict  XIV., 
placed  her  name  in  the  Roman  martyrology,  ap- 
pointing her  feast  for  Mar.  22.  St.  Catharine  was 
one  of  the  numerous  msrstic  and  prophetic  authors  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  wrote  Demon- 
stratio  purgatorii  or  Tractatus  de  purgatorio  (ed. 
C.  Marabotto  and  E.  Vemazza  in  their  biography 
of  St.  Catharine,  Genoa,  1551 ;  Eng.  transL,  London, 
1858),  Dialogus  animam  inter  et  corpus,  amorem 
proprium,  spiritumy  humanitatem  ac  Deum,  and  a 
treatise  on  the  Christian  life  (both  contained  in  the 
edition  already  mentioned).  Her  visions  were 
assailed  by  Adrian  Baillet  in  his  Vies  des  saints 
(Paris,  1701)  from  the  Gallican  point  of  view,  but 
other  Roman  Catholic  authorities,  such  as  St. 
Francis  of  Sales  and  the  modem  Jesuit  Christian 
Pesch,  have  esteemed  them  highly. 

(O.  ZOCKLBRf.) 
Bibuooraphy:  The  anonymous  VUa  with  commentary  is 
in  ASB,  Sept.,  v.  123-176,  and  was  translated  into  French 
by  the  AbM  Piot,  Paris,  1840.  Consult:  P.  Lechner, 
Ld>en  und  Schriften  der  heilioen  KaUiarina  von  Oenua, 
Regensburg.  1S50;  T.  de  Bussibre.  Vie  et  eruvret  de  S. 
Catherine  de  Ginee,  Paris,  1873;  P.  Fliche,  S.  Catherine 
de  Qtnee,  Paris.  1880;  F.  von  HOgel,  in  The  Hampetead 
Annual,  1808,  pp.  70  sqq. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  THE  MARTYR  (SAINT 
CATHARINE  OF  ALEXANDRIA):  One  of  the 
most  honored  saints  both  of  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Church.  Many  modem  hagiographers 
identify  her  with  a  wealthy  and  noble  Christian 
lady  of  Alexandria  who,  according  to  Eusebius 
{Hi8t.  eccl.,  VIII.  xiv.  15),  resisted  the  licentious 
advances  of  the  emperor  Maximinus,  and  was  oon- 


Omthmxinm 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ00 


■equently  deprived  of  her  estates  and  banished. 
This  identification,  however,  does  not  agree  with 
the  statement  of  Rufinus  {Hist,  eecL,  viii.  17)  that 
this  lady  was  named  Dorothea,  nor  does  it  har- 
monise with  the  legend  of  St.  Catharine  as  given 
both  by  £fimeon  Metaphrastes  and  the  Roman 
martyrology.  According  to  these  sources,  St. 
Oatharine  was  a  maiden  of  royal  birth  (the  daughter 
of  King  Konstos,  in  the  Gredc  Offidum),  and  of 
extraordinary  wisdom  and  beauty.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen,  she  engaged  in  a  controversy,  at  the  com- 
numd  either  of  Maximinus  or  Maxentius  (althouf^ 
the  latter  never  ruled  Alexandria),  with  fifty  pagan 
philosophers,  whom  she  converted  so  signally  that 
they  remained  faithful  to  Christianity  even  to 
martyrdom.  In  prison,  a  few  days  before  her  own 
execution,  she  converted  the  empress,  the  general 
Porphyrius,  and  his  200  soldiers,  all  of  whom 
suffered  death  by  the  sword  for  their  faith.  Resist- 
ing both  the  pleadings  and  the  threats  of  the  tyrant, 
Catharine  remained  unharmed  by  torture,  even 
on  a  machine  of  sharp-pointed  wheels,  until  she 
was  finally  beheaded  by  the  command  of  Maxi- 
minus. 

The  day  of  St.  Catharine  is  celebrated  either  on 
Nov.  26  or  on  Mar.  5.  Her  body  is  said  to  have 
been  borne  by  angels  to  Mount  Sinai,  where  Justin- 
ian I.  built  a  cloister  in  her  honor  and  where  her 
bones  were  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Eg3rp- 
tian  Christians  in  the  eighth  century,  thus  giving 
rise  to  the  feast  of  the  discovery  ^  the  body  of 
St.  Catharine  on  May  13  or  26.  About  1027  Sim- 
eon, a  monk  from  Sinai,  is  said  to  have  carried  a 
portion  of  the  relics  of  St.  Catharine  to  Rouen, 
and  her  monastery  on  Mount  Sinai  now  retains 
only  her  head  and  one  hand  fThese  are  en- 
closed in  a  marble  sarcophagus.]  Inspired  by  the 
tradition  of  her  victory  over  the  philosophers  of 
Alexandria,  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  later  chose  her  as  their  patron  saint 
According  to  Occidental  tradition,  she  is  one  of  the 
fourteen  "  helpers  in  need,"  the  only  other  fem- 
inine members  of  this  band  being  SS.  Barbara  and 
Margaret.     See  Helpers  in  Need. 

In  Christian  art,  both  of  the  East  and  the  West, 
St.  Catharine  is  an  important  figure.  Her  usual 
attributes  are  a  sword  and  a  wheel  (either  entire 
or  broken),  through  which  curved  knives  are  thrust. 
To  these  are  frequently  added  a  palm  of  victory, 
a  book  in  token  of  her  learning,  and  oocarionaily 
a  crown,  or,  more  often,  a  bridal  ring  which  the 
Christ^child  himself  is  said  to  have  placed  on  her 
finger  in  emblem  of  betrothal.  The  oldest  Oriental 
picture  of  this  saint  is  a  mosaic  over  the  apse  of  the 
basilica  of  the  Transfiguration  in  the  monastery 
on  Sinai,  which  represents  simply  a  female  head 
without  attributes.  In  a  picture  by  £&non  of 
Sienna  (d  1344)  she  bears  in  her  hand  a  palm  and 
a  book.  Among  the  numerous  representations  of 
St.  Catharine  in  Western  art,  special  mention  may 
be  made  of  the  works  of  Altichiero  da  Zevio  (c. 
1380)  in  the  frescos  of  the  chi^l  of  St.  George  at 
Padua,  the  frescos  of  Masaodo  (c.  1420)  in  the 
upper  church  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome,  eleven  marble 
bas-reliefs  (probably  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century)  in  the  church  of  &mta  Chiara  in  Naples, 


nine  pictures  of  1385  in  the  doisler  of  St  Pad  i 
Leipsie,  and  the  miniatures  in  the  Vie  dt  Sa\ 
Caiherine  d^ Alexandria  by  Jean  Mielot,  ieocta: 
of  Philip  the  (kod,  duke  of  Burgundy  (c  14Si! 
After  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  oki 
noteworthy  artists  of  Italy,  Flanders,  and  Germii; 
such  as  Flesole,  Raffael,  Gario  Dolce,  Ja&  n 
Eyck,  Hans  Memling,  and  Lukas  Craaach,  t» 
with  one  another  in  the  production  of  pictom  < 
St.  Catharine,  and  the  medieval  Christiaii  dn= 
repeatedly  represented  the  legend  of  the  samt  i 
mysteries,  the  earliest  being  that  of  the  Nonsi 
Geoffrey,  abbot  of  St.  Albans,  which  waa  plsji 
at  Dunstable  about  1120.  (O.  ZdCKUB^ 

Biblioobafbt:  TktLeomial  SL  KaAtrim,td.frm*)^ 
inOtsCifliimLibraryhwJ.McrtimfiirAtAhboltfmiCk 
London.  1841;  Lt/«  and  Martyrdom  of  SL  KtAmMt 
AUxtutdria,  Roxburcbe  Gliib  publicatioM»  bo.  H,  i 
1884;  lAf€  of  8t  J?a£h«risM.  ed.  E.  Emenktl  for  Im 
Tizt  Soeiety.  ib.  1884;  Ths  ZAfmMttneai,hjJ.Ca9pm 
«L  F.  C.  HincMton.  is  In  RoOa  Smim,  no.  1,  pp.  ST- 
864,  ib.  1858.  Conault:  C.  Hnitlwiek.  Biataneal  Iwfm 
Tauikino  SL  CaAmim  cf  AUaamdria,  CSuibndfB.  Hi 
H.  Kniut,  0€tdUdUB  der  Ugmidmn  der  htSUgtn  CtAma, 
Hallo,  1800.  On  the  art  aide,  oonmlt:  Mn.  Juon 
aaend  cmd  Ugmtdary  AH,  ii.  74-07,  Bovton.  IM,  I 
Wipfli  nndJ.  J.  Ton  Ah,  Dn  Ltbtm  dtr  hmUftn  Mmm 
von  AUxaniritn,  Einnadein,  1808. 

CATHARIHB  DB'  RICCI,  rtt^cht,  SADIT:  Roac 
Catholic  saint;  b.  at  Florence  [Apr.  23]  1522;  i  ^ 
Prato  (11  m.  n.w.  of  Florence)  Feb.  2  [1590].  i^ 
was  educated  in  a  convent  at  Monticdli  snd  at  tb 
wish  of  her  father  lived  in  the  worid  for  a  sho^ 
time,  after  which  she  took  the  vefl  and  entend  tbi 
Dominican  nunnery  of  St.  Vincent  at  Prato.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-five  she  became  priores,  ss; 
spiritual  counsel  was  sought  from  her  bj  bubcpi 
cardinals,  and  princes.    She  was  also  a  dosefns^ 
of  St  Philip  Neri,  with  whom  she  msintaiiwi  £ 
active  correspondence.    The  intensity  of  heroKC- 
tation  on  the  Passion  was  such  that  she  actusij 
felt  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  frequently  tbt^ 
blood  as  if  from  scourgings   and  wounds.  Si 
Catharine  was  canonised  by  Benedict  XD'.  ^ 
1746  and  her  feast  was  appointed  for  F^.  13.  I^ 
art  she  has  the  attributes  of  the  crown  of  ibons 
and  a  marriage  ring.    The  elegant  style  of  tg 
letters  ranks  her  as  one  of  the  best  Italian  dtfsfl 
of  the  second  half  of  the  sucteenth  oentuiyH^ 

Gheraidi,  Fkxenoe,  189(q.  (0.  ZikxmV 

I 

BiBXJOOBAPar:  F.  M.  Cupm,  Uf9<^8L  CaAmae^Bitd  l» 
don,  100ft,  whiohgiYMairanal.  ofattumberofherktua  I 

I 

CATHARIHB,    SAIRT,    OF    SIBRHA:  Bm , 
CathoUc  saint;  b.  at  Sienna  [Mar.  2q  1347;  d  >^ 
Rome  Apr.  20, 1380.   Shewa8thetwent74bm)^ 
of  a  dyer  named  Jaoomo  Benincssa.    Her  w 
home  in  the  vicinity  of  a  Dominicsn  nwMj^ 


made  a  deep  impression  on  the  senstive 


0, 


and  she  believed  that  St.  Dominic  hiinfldf  ^>P»J*^ 
to  her  in  a  dream  and  urged  her  to  enter  hii  oj^ 
Disregarding  her  mother's  wish  that  ^jZ 
marry,  Catharine,  then  about  twelve  J®""^ JJJ 
cut  off  her  long  blond  hair  to  escape  oj**'^ 
attentions.  Three  years  later  smallpox  <k^||7 
her  beauty  and  she  was  able  to  fulfil  \«sj^ 
desire,  to  which  her  mother  had  ooDaeoted  n^ 


455 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oatluurlne 


time  previoudy,  by  entering  the  order  of  peni- 
tents of  St.  Dominic.    She  no  longer  drank  wine, 

while  her  only  food  was  micooked 
Early  Life,  herbs,  taken  as  a  salad,  or  with  oil, 

fruit,  and  bread.  She  scourged  her- 
self thrice  daily  according  to  the  most  rigid  Domin- 
ican custom,  once  for  herself,  once  for  the  living, 
and  once  for  the  dead.  Under  her  habit  she  wore  a 
shirt  of  haircloth  for  which  she  substituted  later 
an  iron  chain  about  her  waist.  She  passed  the 
night  in  prayer  until  the  bells  on  the  monastety 
called  to  matins  and  then  lay  down  between  boards 
which  symbolised  her  coffin.  This  asceticism  she 
practised  in  a  tiny  room  in  her  father's  house  which 
■he  scarcely  left  for  three  yean  except  to  attend 
mass  in  the  neighboring  Dominican  church.  After 
1366,  however,  she  appeared  more  frequently  in 
pubUo  and  became  conspicuous  for  her  deeds  of 
mercy  to  the  poor  and  sick,  especially  during  the 
plague  of  1374.  Through  her  devotion  and  her 
piety  she  gathered  around  her  a  spiritual  house- 
hold of  about  twenty  persons  of  both  sexes, 
chiefly  members  of  the  Dominican  order. 

The  chief  cause  of  St.  Catharine's  fame  was  her 
reputation  for  visions  and  for  prophecy.  Even 
during  the  time  of  her  novitiate  ^e  believed  that 
Christ  often  appeared  to  her  and,  toward  the  end  of 
this  period  of  preparation,  that  he  himself  betrothed 
her  formally  as  he  had  the  first  St.  Catharine  (see 
CATHARiini,  Saint,  thb  Mabttr),  by  placing  a 
ring  upon  her  finger.  This  marriage  symbol, 
she  dedared,  was  always  visible  to  her,  although 
no  other  eyes  might  see  it.  Her  union  with  Christ 
was  further  sanctified  by  an  interchange  of  hearts 

and  finally  by  the  divine  stigmata, 
IHstons.     beginning  with  the  print  of  a  nail  on 

her  hand  and  ending  with  the  painful 
impress  of  the  four  other  wounds.  This  stigmati- 
aation  also,  as  in  the  case  of  her  Gennan  con- 
temporary, Bfargareta  Ebner  (q.v.)  of  Medingen, 
always  remained  invisible,  whereas  in  St.  Francis 
and  the  majority  of  the  stigmatists,  the  wounds 
might  be  seen  of  all.  She  ^ewise  believed  that 
she  associated  much  with  the  Virgin  and  with 
Christ,  not  only  being  convinced  that  she  drank 
the  blood  from  the  wounded  side  of  the  Lord,  and 
the  milk  from  Mary's  breast,  but  also  that  she 
received  divine  instruction,  admonition,  and  com- 
forts, which  she  was  frequently  able  to  conunu- 
nicate  to  others  in  her  ecstasies.  Many  of  her 
letters  and  writingpi,  especially  her  ''  Dialogues," 
were  dictated  by  hmr  ia  trances.  She  once  fasted 
during  the  forty  days  from  Easter  to  Ascension, 
being  supported  solely  by  the  Eucharist  and  thus 
becoming  a  model  for  later  saints,  particularly 
for  the  two  Catharines  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Despite  her  death  to  the  worid,  St.  Cathiuine 
was  compelled,  during  the  closing  years  of  her  life, 
to  take  part  repeatedly  in  the  political  and  ecd^ 
aiastical  affairs  of  her  country.  After  1374  she 
frequently  left  Sienna  for  the  promotion  of  peace 
between  the  hostile  nobles  of  Tuscany.  In  1375 
she  was  in  Pisa,  where  she  wrote  Queen  Joan  of 
Naples  to  undertake  a  crusade  to  free  the  Holy 
Land.  A  year  later  she  went  to  Avignon  to  reoon- 
dle  the  republic  of  Florence  with  Gregory  XI., 


but  was  imsuccessful  on  account  of  the  treachery 

of  the  Florentines.    Later,  however,  after  she  had 

in  great  measure  been  instrumental 

Political     in  securing  the  return  of  the  pope  to 

Activity.  Rome,  she  effected  her  purpose  by  a 
journey  to  Florence  in  1378.  The 
schism  between  Urban  VI.  in  Italy  and  Clement 
VII.  in  Avignon  also  engaged  her  attention.  She 
was  a  firm  partisan  of  the  former,  who  summoned 
her  to  Rome  and  after  listening  to  her  exhortations 
of  peace  sent  her  to  the  court  of  Joan  together  with 
St.  Catharine  of  Sweden  to  win  the  queen  from 
Clement  to  himself.  The  mission  failed,  since 
Bridget's  daughter  would  not  be  subordinate  to 
her  sister  saint,  but  Catharine  of  Sienna  lived  to 
see  the  longed-for,  thou^^  brief,  adherence  of 
Naples  to  her  pope.  She  was  recalled  to  Rome 
by  this  turmoil  and  struggle  and  there  died.  She 
was  buried  in  the  Dominican  Church  of  Bfinerva  in 
Rome,  although  her  skull  is  said  to  be  in  the  Domin- 
ican CSiurch  of  her  native  dty.  She  was  canonised 
by  Pius  II.,  in  1461,  while  Urban  Vin.  i^pointed 
her  feast  for  Apr.  30.  She  is  represented  in  art  as 
carrsring  a  crucifix  with  stigmata  on  her  hands, 
as  well  as  with  the  bridal  ring.  Occasionally  she 
carries  in  her  hand  a  lily  or  a  book. 

The  chief  writings  of  St.  Catharine  of  Sienna 
are  373  letters  (best  separate  edition  by  N.  Tom- 
maseo,  Le  LeUere  d%  Santa  Caterina  da  Siena,  4 
vols.,  Florence,  1860),  many  of  them  addressed  to 
popes,  cardinals,  princes,  and  nobles,  and  impor- 
tant for  the  history  of  the  period.  She  likewise 
wrote  twenty-six  prayers,  various  short  prophetic 
oracles,  and  a  dialogue  between  herself  and  God 
the  Father,  dictated  in  a  trance  in  1378,  under  the 
title  Libro  deUa  Divina  DoUrina  (Eng.  transl.,  by 
A.  Thorold,  Dialogue  of  ths  Serajiue  Virgin  Cathr 
anne  of  Sienna,  London,  1806),  later  divided  by 
G.  Gif^  into  four  treatises  on  religious  wisdom, 
prayer,  providence,  and  obedience;  an  (Ader  di- 
vision is  into  six  treatises  under  the 

Writings,  title  Dialogi  de  promdenHa  Dei.  His- 
torically, the  most  interesting  of  these 
treatises  is  the  one  on  prayer,  in  which  St.  Catharine 
emphasises  the  value  of  the  prayer  of  tbid  heart, 
which  needs  no  words,  in  contradistinction  to 
mere  formalism.  In  her  criticisms  she  spared 
neither  priests,  cardinals,  nor  pope,  sternly  re- 
proving them  for  their  derelictions  and  admonish- 
ing them  of  their  high  duty.  Yet  thou^^  she  pro- 
claimed the  necessity  of  reformation,  she  derired 
it  to  be  within  the  Church  and  was  unswerving  in 
her  orthodoxy  and  in  her  allegiance  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  Her  complete  works  were  first 
edited  by  Aldus  at  Venice  in  1500,  but  the  best  of 
the  older  editions  is  that  of  G.  Gif^,  UOpere  deHa 
Serafiea  Santa  Caterina  da  Siena  (5  vols..  Sienna, 
1707-26).  (O.  ZOcKLBBt) 

Biblioobafbt:  The  Mrly  VUa  and  othar  doeumsnto  m 
eoUeoM  in  A8B,  April,  iii.  86a-«78.  For  letar  Utm 
and  tfitioism  eontnlt:  A.  Gkpe«eUtro.  Staria  di  Cot&rina 
da  Buna  «  dd  Papato  dd  9uo  tempo,  4th  ed.,  Sienna,  1878; 
Auaiusto  T.  Dimne,  HiH,  of  St  CoAmiM  of  Sirnia  and  km' 
CompamonM,  2  voli..  London,  1887;  A.  H.  Chiimt,  8. 
CaOkorim  ds  Sunns  ti  V*gli»»  au  14^  tUd^  Tmria,  1888; 
JoMphine  E.  Butler,  ColftorifM  of  Signa,  London.  1805; 
de   FUrisny.  S,  Catkmine  de  Sienm,    Pftria, 


Sal 


.tholio  Apostolio  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


456 


1805;  Vldft  D.  8oudd«r.  St  CoDUKim  of  Sima  m  mm 
ill  h0r  L§ttar9,  New  York.  1006;  St.  Caiherine  of  Sisna 
and  H€r  Timf,  London.  1006:  E.  Q.  Qftrdner,  St. 
Catherine  of  Siena,  London  and  New  York,  1007.  Al«> 
L.  Gaiet,  Le  Orand  Sekieme  d*Oeadeni,  2  toU..  FkranoBb 
1880. 

CATHARINE,  SAINT,  OF  SWEDEN:  Roman 
Catholic  saint;  b.  in  Sweden  1331  or  1332;  d.  at 
Vadfltena  (130  m.  8.w.  of  Stockholm)  Mar.  24, 
1381.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of  St.  Bridget, 
the  founder  of  the  Brigittines  (see  Bridqet,  Saint, 
OF  Sweden).  At  the  age  of  thirteen  or  fourteen 
she  married  a  young  nobleman  of  German  extrac- 
tion named  Eggart  of  Karnen->the  marriage  was, 
however,  by  mutual  consent  only  nominal,  and  both 
parties  preserved  a  lifelong  virginity.  During  the 
Ufetime  of  her  husband,  Catharine  accompanied  her 
mother  on  the  last-named's  first  journey  to  Rome, 
where  through  a  vision  of  St.  Bridget  she  learned 
of  her  husband's  death  in  Sweden.  She  then  made 
a  pilgrimage  with  her  mother  to  the  Holy  Land, 
but  was  in  Rome  with  her  brother  Birger  when 
St.  Bridget  died  there  in  1373.  She  wbb  one  of 
those  who  escorted  her  mother's  bones  to  Sweden, 
and  she  then  took  up  her  abode  at  Vadstena,  the 
mother  house  of  the  Brigittines,  where  she  ruled 
as  the  successor  of  St.  Bridget.  About  the  time 
of  the  return  of  the  popes  from  Avignon,  St.  Cath- 
arine again  resided  for  some  years  in  Italy  and 
twice  secured  papal  confinnation  of  the  rule  of  her 
order,  first  from  Gregoxy  XI.  in  1377  and  again 
from  Urban  VI.  two  years  later.  The  day  ap- 
pointed for  her  feast  in  the  Roman  martyrology 
is  Mar.  22.  In  art  her  attribute  is  a  hind.  She 
wrote  a  ''  Consolation  of  the  Soul,"  which  has  been 
lost  According  'to  the  preface,  it  was  a  compila- 
tion from  many  books  and  treated  of  the  ten  com- 
mandments, the  seven  benedictions,  the  seven  joys 
of  Mary,  the  seven  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
the  seven  deadly  sins.  (O.  ZOcKLERf.) 

Biblioobafbt:  The  early  Viia  with  eommentary  is  in  ASB, 
March,  ii.  603-631,  and  in  E.  M.  Fant,  Script  rer.  Sueeir 
eorum,  iii..  section  2,  pp.  244r-276;  cf.  A.  Butler,  Livet  of 
Ae  Faihen,  Martifn,  and  Other  Sainie,  Not.  26th,  London, 
1860;  XL.  vii.  344-346. 

CATHARnmS,  AMBROSIUS:  The  monastic 
name  of  Lancelotto  Politi,  Dominican,  bishop  of 
Minori  and  archbishop  of  Consa;  b.  in  Sienna  1487; 
d.  in  Naples  Nov.  8,  1553.  In  1517  he  entered  in 
Florence  the  monastery  of  Savonarola,  against 
whom  he  wrote  a  polemic  treatise  in  1548.  Eager 
in  opposing  evexy  form  of  heresy,  he  appeared 
against  Luther  in  1520  with  an  Apologia  pro  veri- 
tate  eaiholiccB  ae  apostolica  fidei.  Luther  replied 
in  1521  {Ad  Hbrum  A,  CaUiarini  responHo),  and 
Catharinus  answered.  Then  he  went  to  France, 
and  wrote  in  Paris  against  a  member  of  his  own 
order.  Cardinal  Cajetan,  Annotationes  in  commen- 
taria  Cajetani.  After  returning  to  his  coimtry  he 
wrote  against  his  fellow  townsman  Bemaxdino 
Ochino,  who  in  the  mean  while  had  fled  from  Italy 
to  live  according  to  his  own  belief  (see  Ochino, 
Bernardino).  A  little  later  Catharinus  issued 
two  treatises  against  Italian  Protestant  works; 
viz.,  TraUato  utiliaHmo  del  benefino  di  Gemi  Criato 
crodpMO  and  Sommario  deUa  Sacra  Scrittura.  The 
polemic  theologian  was  present  at  the  Council  of 


Trent.  He  arrived  in  1545  with  the  legate  Del 
Monte  and  made  a  speech  at  the  third  Ktsai 
As  a  reward  for  his  servioea  Paul  IH.  made  hb 
bishop  of  Ifinori  in  1546.  Julius  IH.  made  him 
archbishop  of  Consa  in  1552,  and  was  on  thepdis 
of  woming  ||ini  Cardinal  when  Catharinus  died.  Tbe 
eariiest  of  the  works  of  Catharinus  are  odlected 
in  his  Opuacula  (Leyden,  1542),  but  there  is  so 
complete  edition.  K  BsniATE. 

BnuooBAPHT:  The  life  And  writinse  of  Cfetfaarinw  are  d» 
euaeed  in:  J.  Qu^tif  And  J.  Echard,  Script  ardimi  frw& 
eatorum,  u.  144  aqq.,  332,  885;  K.  Werner.  Gndudikie 
apoloffoHetAen  und  polemiedien  lAieraittr,  vol  ir.  pan. 
Sehaffhausen,  1866;  F.  H.  Retiaeh.  Der  Index  der  te- 
6oteiMfi  BUeher,  toL  L  panim,  Bonn,  1883. 

CATHCART,  WILLIAM:  American  Baptist;  b. 
at  Londonderry,  Ireland,  Nov.  8,  1826.  Eene 
educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  Horton  (nofr 
Rawdon)  Baptist  Theological  CoU^e,  Yoriofaire, 
En^^and,  from  which  he  waa  graduated  in  ISS^l 
He  was  minister  of  a  Baptist  church  at  BainsI?. 
near  Sheffield,  from  1850  to  1853,  when  he  irsit 
to  the  United  States,  and  accepted  a  call  to  Mystic 
River,  Conn.,  where  he  remained  four  yean.  He 
was  then  pastor  of  the  Second  Baptist  dnird 
Philadelphia,  from  1857  to  1884,  and  was  alao 
president  of  the  American  Biq[>tiBt  Historical  So- 
ciety from  1876  to  1884.  He  has  written:  Tk 
Papal  SyaUm,  from  lU  Origin  to  the  PreterU  Titu 
(Philadelphia,  1872);  The  Boptieta  and  the  Ameri- 
can RevoltOion  (1876);  and  The  Baptim  oj  ih 
Ages  and  of  the  Nations  (1878),  and  edited  Tht 
Baptist  Eneydopesdia  (Philad^phia,  1881).  Sna 
1884  he  has  held  no  regular  charge,  his  health  not 
pennitting  him  to  accept  a  pastorate,  althoogii 
he  has  been  able  to  devote  part  of  bis  time  to 
literary  labors. 

CATHEDRA:    The  ancient  Latin  title  for  tbe 
special  seat  occupied  by  the  bishop  \n  Christuo 
churches.    Even   in    the   catacomhB  such  sots 
were  used,  either  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock  or  port- 
able.   In  the  basilicas  the  cathedra  stood  at  the 
back  of  the  semicircular  apse,  behind  the  altar, 
which  was  on  the  chord  of  the  arc;  but  when  it 
became  customary  to  place  the  altar  back  against 
the  wall,  the  bishop's  seat  was  brought  down  into 
the  choir  and  placed  on  the  north  or  gospel  side. 
The  eariy  Church  preserved  with  great  reverence 
the  seats  of  its  first  bishops;  thus  it  is  leaned  from 
Eusebius  {HieL  ecd,,  VH.  xix.  32)  that  the  churA 
of  Jerusalem  preserved  that  of  James,  and  t« 
church  of  Alexandria  that  of  Marie.    A  very  ancteot 
chair  traditionally  believed  to  be  that  of  Peter  ia  pic- 
served  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  waa  ii»d  for 
many  centuries  for  the  enthronement  of  new  popes> 
until  Alexander  VII.  (1655-67),  for  its  bcttwprej 
ervation,    had    Bernini   endoee  it  in  a  coloaw 
bionse  throne.    At  the  celebration  of  the  cighteatt 
centenary  of  the  apostie's  martyrdom  in  lw7, 
Pius  IX.  had  it  again  exposed  to  view;  an  enf 
description  and  picture  of  it  may  be  ^^^^ 
Kraus,    Roma   sotterranea,    Freiburg,   ^^'^ 
bishop's  seat  was  often  used  as  a  symbol  of  t^ 
teaching  oflice  of  the  Churdi,  excrciaed  through 
him;   this  is  frequentiy  referred  to  in  the  moautf 
and  carving  of  extant  chairs  dating  fra&  ^  °^ 


457 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oathaxlne 

Oatholio  Apoatollo  Ohiiroh 


to  the  ninth  century.  Thus  in  the  definition  of 
the  doctrine  of  papsl  infallibility,  the  pope  is  said 
to  speak  ex  cathedra  when  he  proclaims  a  doctrine 
"  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  as  pastor  and  teacher 
of  all  Christians." 

CATHEDRAL:  In  the  churches  with  episcopal 
organisation,  the  principal  church  of  a  diocese, 
the  especial  seat  of  the  bishop.  It  is  the  normal 
place  for  the  principal  episcopal  functions,  such 
as  ordination,  and  is  directly  under  the  charge  of 
the  bishop,  who  is  assisted  in  its  administration 
and  in  the  performance  of  divine  service  by  a  body 
of  canons  (see  Chapter),  whose  head  is  a  dean  or 
provost.  In  Eln^and,  from  the  Reformation  until 
1840,  a  distinction  was  drawn  between  cathedrals 
of  the  old  and  of  the  new  foundation.  The  former 
were  those  where  the  chapter  had  been  always 
composed  of  secular  canons,  and  whose  constitu- 
tion remained,  therefore,  unchanged;  in  the  latter, 
after  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henxy 
VIII.,  a  new  organisation  was  required  to  replace 
the  earlier  monastic  chapter.  The  older  cathe- 
drals, from  their  rank  and  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  offer  some  of  the  most  splendid 
and  imposing  examples  of  Christian  architecture. 
See  Arcbitkcture,  Ecclesiastical. 

Bibuoqbapht:  M.  E.  C.  Walcott,  Cathedralia:  o  ConatUu' 
tional  Hialory  of  CcUh^raU  of  th*  Weaiem  Churth,  London, 
1865  (authoritative);  idem.  Documentary  HUiory  of  EnQ' 
liah  CathedraU,  London,  1866;  J.  8.  Howson,  ed.,  E99av§ 
on  CathedraU,  hy  variout  trntert,  London,  1872;  C.  A. 
SwainBon,  HiH.  of  a  CcUhedral  of  the  Old  Foundation^ 
London,  1880;  P.  Schneider,  Die  bUchdfliohen  Domkajriid, 
Mains,  188fi;  BeU'§  CcUhodral  Seriee,  35  vols.,  London, 
1896-1903  (deals  with  history  and  archeology);  J.  J.  Bou- 
rasstf.  Le$  pZus  beUs$  eathidralet  de  France,  Paris,  1896;  L. 
Cloquet,  Le$  Orandet  Cathidralet  du  monde  caiholigue, 
Paris,  1897;  7A«  CaihedraU  of  England  and  WaUe,  New 
York,  The  Churchman  Company,  1907. 

CATHOLIC  (Gk.  katholikoSf  "general,  univer- 
sal," from  kath*  hoUm,  "on  the  whole"):  The 
phrase  hi  katholiki  ekkliaia,  "  the  catholic  church," 
was  first  used  by  Christian  writers  to  distinguish 
the  entire  body  of  beUevers  from  individual  bodies. 
it  then  came  naturally  to  designate  the  orthodox 
in  distinction  from  heretics  and  schismatics.  Later 
it  was  applied  to  faith,  tradition,  and  doctrine; 
it  was  understood  as  expressing  the  universality 
of  the  Church  ("  in  Greek  that  is  called  '  catholic ' 
which  is  spread  through  all  the  world,"  Augustine, 
Epist.,  lii.  1);  it  distinguished  a  cathedral  from 
parish  churches,  or  the  latter  from  oratories  or 
monastic  chapels.  After  the  separation  between 
the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  the  epithet  ''  cath- 
olic "  was  assumed  by  the  latter,  as  "  orthodox  " 
was  by  the  former.  At  the  Reformation  it  was 
claimed  by  the  Church  of  Rome  in  opposition  to 
the  Protestant  or  Reformed  churches;  in  England 
the  theory  was  maintained  that  the  national  Church 
was  the  true  catholic  Church  of  the  land,  and  the 
expression  "  Roman  Catholic  "  came  into  use  for 
the  sake  of  distinction.  "  Anglo-Catholic "  was 
coined  by  analogy  with  this  at  the  time  of  the 
Traetarian  movement.  On  the  Continent  the  single 
word  "  catholic  "  is  the  common  designation  for 
that  branch  of  the  Church  in  affiliation  with  Rome. 
By  Protestants  the  term  has  generally  been  inter- 
preted to  mean  the  entire  communion  of  the  saved 


in  all  time  and  places.  The  word  *'  catholic  "  in  the 
phrase  "  the  holy  cathoUc  Church  "  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed  is  explained  by  Pearson  {Exposition  of  the 
Creed,  art.  ix.)  as  indicating  that  the  Church  is  to 
be  disseminated  through  aU  nations,  extended  to 
aU  places,  and  propagated  to  all  ages;  that  it 
contains  in  it  aU  truths  necessary  to  be  known, 
exacts  absolute  obedience  from  aU  men  to  the 
commands  of  Christ,  and  furnishes  us  with  aU 
graces  necessary  to  make  oiu*  persons  accepta- 
ble and  our  actions  well-pleasing  in  the  sight  of 
God.  The  word  was  not  in  the  eariiest  form  of  the 
Creed. 

CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH:  The  out- 
come of  a  religious  movement  which  began  in 
Scotland  in  1830,  but  took  its  full  and  distinctive 
form  in  1835.  Its  adherents  do  not  use  the  term 
"The  Catholic  Apostolic  Church"  as  implying 
that  they  alone  constitute  the  Church,  but  as 
affirming  that  they  are  members  of  it.  It  em« 
braces  dl  the  baptised. 

In  1828  about  fifty  gentlemen,  some  clergymen 
and  some  laymen,  but  mostly  of  the  Church  of 
England,  met  at  the  country  seat  of  Henry  Drum- 
mond  (q.v.)  at  Albury,  West  Surrey,  for  the  study  of 
the  prophetic  Scriptures.  The  subjects  considered 
were  those  connected  with  the  return  of  the  Lord 
and  the  present  office  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Church. 
In  Feb.,  1830,  some  members  of  a  Presbyterian 
family  living  near  Glasgow  began  to  speak  in  what 
were  believed  to  be  supernatural  utterances.  They 
affirmed  that  their  oigans  of  speech  were  used  by 
the  Spirit  of  God  to  express  the  divine  mind  and 
will.  It  is  said  by  one  who  had  intimate  personal 
knowledge    of    those    speaking    that 

Supemat-  the  subject  of  spiritual  gifts  had  not 
oxal  Utter-  at  all  occupied  their  attention;  much 
ancsi.  less  had  they  any  thought  or  expec- 
tation of  their  revival.  These  utter^ 
ances,  both  from  the  religious  character  of  those 
speaking  and  from  their  own  intrinsic  nature, 
awakened  great  attention  in  all  the  region  round; 
and  having  come  to  the  knowledge  of  certain  gentle- 
men in  London,  some  of  whom  had  attended  the 
conferences  at  Albury,  a  deputation  was  sent  up 
to  Scotland  in  July  to  inquire  into  them,  and  ascer- 
tain whether  the  utterances  were  of  the  Spirit,  or  not. 
They  returned  fully  convinced  that  the  utterances 
were  divine.  In  May,  1831,  like  utterances  were 
heard  in  London,  the  first  in  a  congregation  of  the 
Churoh  of  Ehigland.  This  being  reported  to  the 
bishop,  he  forbade  them  in  the  future  as  inter- 
fering with  the  service.  Their  occurrence  in  several 
dissenting  congregations  brought  forth  similar 
prohibitions,  and  this  led  to  the  utterances  being 
made  chiefly  in  the  church  of  Edward  Irving  (q.v.), 
he  being  a  believer  in  their  divine  origin.  But 
they  were  not  confined  to  London.  At  Bristol  and 
other  places  the  same  spiritual  phenomena  ap- 
peared. Of  these  utterances  one  of  the  earliest 
was,  "Behold  the  Bridegroom  oometh.  Go  ye  out 
to  meet  him";  and  another  often  repeated,  "  The 
body  of  Christ." 

llie  meaning  of  this  was  for  a  long  time 
not    understood,    but    it    was    gradually    made 


OathoUo  Apoatollo  Ohnroii 
Oatholio  Bmanolpation 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4a 


plain  that  the  Lord  oould  not  return  till  due 
spiritual  preparation  had  been  made  in  the  Church, 
and  that  thu  oould  be  effected  only  through  the 

Spirit  working  in  all  the  ministries 

Apottlet    and  ordinances  appointed  by  God  in 

Appointed,  it.    It  was  also  made  known  that  it 

was  his  purpose  to  restore  the  ministiy 
of  i^XMitles;  and  twelve  men  were  designated  as 
such  by  the  Spirit  speaking  throu^  prophets. 
The  first  was  so  designated  in  1832;  but  it  was  not 
until  1835  that  the  number  was  completed,  and 
in  a  solemn  service  they  were  separated  to  their 
work  as  an  i^xMtolie  college.  The  names  of  the 
apostles  were  J.  B.  Cardale,  H.  Drummond,  H. 
IQng-<:;hurdi,  S.  Perceval,  N.  Armstrong,  F.  V. 
Woodhouse,  H.  Dalton,  J.  O.  Tudor,  T.  Gariyle, 
F.  Sitwell,  W.  Dow,  and  D.  Mackensie.  The  fol- 
lowing account  has  been  given  of  their  antecedents 
by  one  who  knew  them  personally: 

Climud  by  their  religkmi  podtion,  dsht  of  tiiaia  wwa 
mambera  of  the  Chureh  of  Engluid;  three  of  the  Chureh  of 
8cotl*iid;  And  one  of  the  Independenta.  deieed  by  their 
oeeupatioiM  and  eoeiel  poeitions,  three  wera  eleronwii, 
three  were  membera  of  the  bar,  three  beloncad  to  the  gentry, 
tiro  of  them  beinc  membera  of  PerliMnent;  end  of  the  re- 
maining three,  one  wea  an  artiat,  one  a  merehant,  and  one 
held  the  poat  of  Keeper  of  the  Tower.  Some  of  them  were 
of  the  higfaeat  atanding  aociaUy  and  politicaUy,  aome  of 
them  of  graat  ability  aa  acholara  and  theologiana;  and  all  of 
them  men  of  unblemiahed  eharmeter,  aoundneaa  in  the  faith, 
and  abundant  aeal  in  all  Chriatian  Isbora. 

To  prepare  them  for  their  work  two  thingn  were 
necessary — ^knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  Ckxl  in 
the  Chiut^,  and  of  its  present  actual  condition. 
Their  separation  was  followed  by  a  retirement  to 
Albury  that  the  Scriptures  might  be  read  with  such 
light  through  prophecy  as  God  might  please  to  give, 
llkter  they  visited  the  several  countries  of  Christen- 
dom, which  were  divided  among  them,  to  seek  for 
all  that  was  good  and  true  in  doctrine  and  ritual. 
Another  step  was  a  work  of  testimony  to  the 
Church  in  general  of  the  Lord's  acts  in  the  restora- 
tion of  his  ministries.  In  1836  they  delivered  an 
address  to  the  king  of  En|^d  and  the  privy 
coundbrs,  and  another  later  to  the  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  the  United  Churdi  of  En^^and 
and  Ireland;  and  in  1837  a  testimony  addressed 
to  the  rulers  in  Church  and  State  in  Christian  lands. 
So  far  as  practicable,  these  testimonies  were  deliv- 
ered by  the  i^)0stle8  in  person  to  the  patriarchs, 
archbishops,  bishops,  emperors,  kings,  and  sover- 
eign princes  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 

In  these  documents,  as  well  as  in  the  whole 
course  of  their  i^xMtolio  labor,  the  i^postles  wit- 
nessed to  such  things  as  these: — ^That  the  Churdi 
is  the  company  of  the  baptised,  the  body  of  Christ, 
and  constituted  by  God  in  infinite  wisdom  that 
the  Head  in  Heaven  might  manifest  himself  through 
it  in  word  and  act;  that  its  constitution  was  per- 
manent, having  a  fourfold  ministry — i^)ostle8, 
prophets,  evangelists,  pastors;  that  these  minis- 
tries were  adi^ted  to  the  mental  and  spiritual 
constitutions  of  man;  that  all  were  needful  that 
the  Head  might  carry  on  his  work  and  perfect  his 
saints;  that  the  Head  only  could  appoint  his 
ministers;  that  apostXea  chosen  by  him  were  his 
representatives,  the  bond  of  unity,  having  universal 
jurisdiction;  that  prophets  speaking  throu£^  the 


Holy  Ghost  were  media  of  light  from  God  to  ik 
apostles;   that  evangelista  were  to  preadi  to  tb» 

without  the  Churdi,  bringmg  Uxq^ 
Doctrines,   baptism,  and    then   to  transfer  tbs 

to  the  pastor;  that  the  pastonl  m 
istry  embraces  bishops,  priests,  and  deaeoDs;  ;k 
the  retention  by  the  Churdi  of  the  paitonl 
ministry  only  points  to  its  having  d^Mrted  ii 
measure  from  the  ways  of  the  Lord,  and  that  tk 
departure  ultimatdy  leads  to  the  apostaqr  i&d 
the  man  of  sin  spoken  of  by  St.  Paul  The  adk- 
ents  of  this  movement  point  to  the  apottoiieafr 
gregations  as  the  true  credentials  of  apostkMle 
faith  in  the  Scriptures,  their  order,  their  obedios. 
their  worship,  their  calm  and  patient  waitiof  ra 
the  Lord,  their  catholic  spiritw 

The  gathering  of  these  congregatiaEis  wu  i 
necessity,  not  of  choice,  as  otherwise  the  dhir 
order  in  ministries  and  worship  oould  not  be  mas- 
fested.  Their  rdation  to  the  memben  of  tiie 
Church  in  general  is  thus  defined:  "  We  are  a^ 
separatists  nor  schismatics.  We  are  not  gathocd 
together  and  distinguished   from  others  in  i:? 

hostile  or  aggressive  attitode.  IV 
Congrega-  Head  is  not  erecting  new  altan,  b^ 
tions  and  rebuilding  that  which  was  dectjed' 
Wonfaip.    The  liturgy  used  was  not  a  mere  ea& 

pilation  from  existing  lituzgies,  M 
was  based  upon  the  Mosaic  ritual,  its  spaitd 
antitype  and  fulfilment.  In  the  worship  the  tlon 
great  creeds  of  the  Churdi,  the  Apostles',  Sim 
and  Athanasian,  are  used.  In  all  oongieptiQai 
suffidently  large,  daily  worship  is  appointed  atsx 
▲.If.  and  five  p.ic.,  the  opening  and  dosing  itoon 
of  the  day.  The  Eucharist  is  the  chief  foiocxs 
service  on  eveiy  Lord's  day,  and  at  other  timai' 
appointed.  The  ministers  of  each  fully  orgaoiaii 
local  church  are  a  chief  pastor,  or  ang^,  or  bisbcfK 
and  under  him  priests  and  deacons.  All  memben 
pay  tithes  of  income  as  of  obligation,  and,  ss  able, 
voluntary  offerings. 

As  no  official  statistics  of  the  number  of  eonp- 
gations  have  ever  been  published,  it  is  impossl^ 
to  say  how  many  there  may  now  be,  but  oonfftp- 
tions  are  formed  in  most  of  the  largo-  dtiei  d 
Christendom.    The  death  of  the   apostfea  made 
necessary  some  changes  in  the  administntkn  au 
worship,  but  the  faith  is  apparently  ^*'^^^^^ 
the  Lord  will  in  some  supmatural  way  tpem 
confirm  the  work  already  done,  and  will  cam^^ 
(Samuel  J.  AHDEBWst)  ^ 
This  body  repudiates   the  title  "Lringit^ 
by  which  it  is  generally  known  (see  Ikvwo.  E^ 
ward).     In  the  eariy  days  of  the  movement  that 
was  no  little  uncertainty  aa  to  the  final  ainnfiDa| 
of  the  offices  and  jealouay  between  the  diffa^ 
ranks.    In  1830  Cbodale  was  recalled  bom  ies 
second  mission  abroad  to  compose  the  diff««^ 
which  had  arisen  on  account  of  the  daim  of  the  el- 
ders, which  was  supported  by  the  ^^^"^ 
voice  in  the  government  of  the  church,  tte  tp*^ 
late  succeeded  in  suppressing  this  revolt,  m^ 
avoid  any  recurrence  ci  it  the  full  genenl  con^ 
was  not  again  convoked,  and  ody  revived  m  w'J 
in  the  form  of  a  conference  of  the  sevea  sn|P^ 
London  under  the  presidency  of  the  apostle- 


450 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OathoUo  Apostolio  Oburoh 
Oatholio  BnuuioixMttion 


the  same  ends  (1840)  the  principle  was  laid  down 
that  the  purity  of  the  prophets'  doctrine  must  be 
attested  by  the  apostles,  and  thXis  the  superiority 
of  the  apostolio  office  vindicated.  The  same  year 
marks  the  beginning  of  another  important  ohimge. 
The  apostles  who  had  been  traveling  on  the  Conti- 
nent had  oome  there  into  contact  with  Roman 
Catholicism,  and  the  result  was  a  definite  assimila- 
tion to  its  ways  of  the  "  Catholic  Apostolic  Church," 
as  it  was  now  officially  called.  All  traces  of  Scotch 
Presbyterian  or  Encash  non-confonnist  traditions 
were  gradually  eradicated.  Altars  were  now  erected 
separated  from  the  body  of  the  church  by  a  rail 
at  which  the  communicants  knelt.  The  people 
were  taught  to  regard  the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice 
of  praise  and  thanksgiving  in  which  the  elements, 
changed  by  the  Holy  Ghost  into  the  body  and  blood 
of  Cbist,  were  offered  to  God  in  commemoration 
of  his  death.  The  same  tendency  appeared  in  the 
liturgy  introduced  in  1842  and  drawn  up  mainly 
by  Cardale,  which  went  back  to  eariy  forms.  East- 
ern as  well  as  Western.  The  eucharistic  vestments 
were  adopted  practically  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church;  extreme  unction  was  introduced  in  1847; 
from  1860  the  consecrated  dements  were  reserved 
in  a  tabernacle  and  every  morning  and  evening 
(on  the  analogy  of  the  showbread)  exposed,  not 
as  objects  of  adoration  but  to  assure  the  people  'of 
the  Lord's  presence  and  abiding  intercession.  In 
1852  the  use  of  candles  on  the  altar  and  incense  was 
added,  and  in  1868  holy  water.  The  most  original 
ceremony  is  the  "  sealing,"  which  was  introduced 
in  1847  on  Cardale's  motion;  with  reference  to 
Rev.  vii.  3  sqq.  it  was  taught  that  those  who  were 
to  be  saved  must  be  sealed  in  order  to  escape  the 
great  tribdation.  This  was  to  be  done  by  the 
apostles  with  laying  on  of  hands  and  unction; 
candidates  must  be  at  least  twenty  years  old. 

The  result  of  the  discord  which  followed  these 
innovations,  of  the  defection  of  the  apostle  Macken- 
zie,  and  of  the  failure  of  prophecy  to  fix  the  exact 
date  of  the  Lord's  coming,  aJl  contributed  to  keep 
down  the  numbers  of  the  body,  which  in  1851 
counted  4,018  members  with  thirty-two  churches, 
a  decUne  from  the  days  of  the  first  enthusiasm. 
But  the  movement  had  already  spread  to  other 
countries.  In  1835-36  it  had  gained  a  foothold  in 
Geneva;  in  1841  a  propaganda  had  been  under- 
taken in  southern  Germany  by  Caird  (husband  of 
Mary  Campbell,  one  of  the  ori^nal  claimants  of  the 
gift  of  tongues),  and  still  more  lealously  in  northern 
Gennany  by  the  apostle  Thomas  Gariyle  (q.v.),  who 
established  public  worship  in  Berlin  in  1848.  Out- 
side of  Holland,  however,  little  progress  was  made 
in  other  countries.  Doubts  were  awakened  by  the 
death  of  one  apostle  after  another,  and  in  1860,  at 
a  meeting  of  the  apostolic  college  at  Albuiy  the 
prophet  Geyer  called  for  the  elevation  of  the  evan- 
gelists B6lun  and  Caird  to  the  apostolio  offiee. 
These  two  then,  and  in  1870  some  others,  were 
recognised  as  ccMuijutor  apostles.  Geyer  was  not 
satisfied,  and  in  1861,  being  in  Kdni^dwrg  with 
Woodhouse,  proclaimed  the  call  of  a  local  evangelist 
Rogasatski  to  the  apostolate.  The  latter  soon 
made  his  submission,  but  a  schism  ensued.  In 
1863  Geyer  himself  was  called,  and  ten  months 


later  one  Schwarts,  especially  for  Holland;  on  the 
assumption  that  there  must  always  be  twelve 
apostles,  there  were  six  in  Hamburg  and  three  in 
Amsterdam  by  1875.  Woodhouse,  the  last  En^^h 
apostle,  died  in  1901.  In  the  Eni^h  body  proph- 
ecy was  allowed  less  and  less  importance,  and  Oar- 
dale's  treatise  Prophesying  and  the  Ministry  of  the 
Propha  m  the  ChriaUan  Church  (1868)  practically 
gave  it  its  death-blow. 

The  accessible  figures  give  the  present  number 
of  churches  in  EIngland  as  about  eighty,  and  in  the 
United  States  as  ten,  with  1,401  communicants. 
Probably  more  numerous  are  the  followers  of  the 
Gennan  and  Dutch  branch,  which  has  increased 
in  strength,  though  its  separation  from  the  ^<^gl<«*» 
body  has  favored  a  tendency  to  fanatical  extrava- 
gance and  to  the  abandonment  of  the  likeness  to 
Roman  Catholicism  in  externals.  Apostles,  proph- 
ets, and  other  functionaries  appear  in  oidinaiy 
dress,  and  the  altar  is  usually  replaced  by  a  com- 
mon table.  The  element  of  adoration  in  public 
worship  ii  less  and  less  emphasised,  while  more  stress 
ii  laid  upon  conversion  by  preaching  and  prophecy 
and  the  assembling  of  the  faithful  for  the  speedy 
coming  of  the  Lord.  The  insistenee  on  the  numbw 
of  twdve  apostles  which  was  the  justification  for 
the  schism  is  now  considered  merely  as  the  letter, 
the  essential  being  the  pennanence  of  the  ofilce,  so 
that  in  1000  thm  were  fourteen  apostles  minia- 
tering  in  this  branch.  Its  principal  seats  are 
Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  KOnigsberg.  In 
recent  years  it  has  extended  also  to  North  and  South 
America,  and  claims  that  with  the  help  of  a  native 
missionary  no  less  than  15,000  converts  have  been 
"  sealed  "  in  the  island  of  Java.  Its  official  organ 
is  the  Wdchteretimmen  aue  Ephraim,  published 
monthly  by  the  apostle  Fr.  Krebs  at  Iseriohn, 
Westphalia,  Prussia,  containing  reports  of  the 
journeys  of  the  apostles  and  statistics  of  conver- 
siona.  (T.  Kolds.) 

BiBLiooBArBT:  ThewuroMMvfoiiiidinthe  writings  of  Ed- 
ward Irving,  and  in  the  following  works  on  his  life:  W. 
JoDm,BiogravKiealSk§iek  of  itsv.  Bdward  Irvino,  iriHb  f  *- 
tneiafromkU  .  .  .  PHndpai  ITrilintfs,  London,  1886;  W. 
Wilks,  Edward  irving,  an  BeeUtiaaUeal  amd  Wtrary  Biog- 
rapky,  ib.  1854;  Mrs.  O.  W.  OUphant,  Lt/s  of  Edward 
Irving,  lUmtitaitd  6|r  hi»  JoumaUand  CorntpandaneB,  S 
vols.,  ib.  1802,  new  ed..  1885  (on  ibis  eonsult  D.  Ksr, 
ObmrvaUone  on  Mrt,  OUphanfe  Life  of  Edward  Irving, 
Edinbingh,  1808);  T.  Cariyls.  In  his  Baminieeenem,  od. 
C.  £.  Norton,  2  vols.,  London,  1878;  T.  Kolde,  Edward 
Irving,  Lsipsie,  1001.  For  the  history  and  doetrins  of  the 
Choreh  eonsult:  J.  N.  KOhler,  tfsl /mtviseM,  The  Hague, 
1870;  E.  Miller,  HMorv  and  l>oe«rifM•o//^vifl0isn^  2  vols.. 
London,  1878;  H.  U,  Trior,  My  Esperianee  of  Ae  CaAoUe 
Apealolie  Ckwrtk,  ib.  1880;  B.  J.  Andrews,  Ocd'e  Asvslo- 
Uane  of  Himedf  to  Man,  New  York,  1880;  E.  A.  Boss- 
toussher,  Dsr  Aufbau  dm'  Kirdke  ChrioU  auf  don  wr- 
oprAnoUchonGrwndlagon,  BamA,  1880;  A.  B.  Dyer,  AMdbM 
«f  Bnglitk  NoneonfmmiiM,  London.  1808. 

CATHOLIC  BMANCIPATIOll:  The  name  £^ve& 
to  the  Act  by  which  Parliamenti  on  Apr.  13,  1829, 
finally  removed  the  civil  disabilities  under  which 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  England  and  Irehind  had 
labored  ever  since  the  reign  of  Elisabeth,  when 
those  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy 
and  conform  to  the  Established  Church  were  ex« 
duded  from  the  House  of  Commons  and  from  all 
political  power.    Tbay  suffered  from  a  mass  ol 


^thollo  Bmanoipation 


QathoU 
OMulda 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


460 


accumulated  dkabilities,  which,  if  the  law  had  been 
strictly  enforced,  would  have  deprived  them  of  their 
rights,  not  only  as  dtiaens,  but  as  parents,  proprie- 
tors, and  men.  With  the  growth  of  toleration,  a 
bill  abolishing  some  of  these  disabilities  was  passed 
in  1778,  to  be  followed  by  the  uprising  of  the  Lon- 
don mob  known  as  the  "  Gordon  Riots."  Pitt  had 
intended  that  the  union  between  Ehigland  and 
Ireland  should  be  followed  by  a  measure  admitting 
Catholics  to  Parliament,  with  a  provision  for  their 
clergy  and  a  commutation  of  tithes.  This  hope, 
informally  held  out,  probably  helped  to  win  their 
support  for  the  union;  but  George  III.  was  inflex- 
ibly opposed  to  this  measure  of  justice,  and  Pitt 
resigned  in  consequence  of  its  failure.  In  1821, 
with  Canning  for  its  eloquent  champion,  a  measure 
of  emancipation  was  carried  throu^  the  House  of 
Commons,  only  to  be  defeated  by  Lord  Eldon  in 
the  upper  house.  But  a  mighty  agitation  followed 
in  Ireland,  led  by  Daniel  O'Connell  and  fomented  by 
a  great  Catholic  Association.  This  body  was  dis- 
solved when  Canning  became  minister  in  1825, 
but  revived  when  he  was  replaced  by  the  anti- 
Catholic  ministry  of  Wellington  and  Peel,  and  soon 
showed  such  fonnidable  strength  that  the  great 
Duke,  with  his  political  insight,  saw  that  the  hour 
for  concession  had  come.  The  bill  which  Peel 
introduced  threw  open  to  Catholics  Parliament  and 
all  the  great  offices  of  state,  except  those  of  regent, 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  chancellor,  the 
crown  remaining  limited,  by  an  Act  of  Settlement 
to  the  Protestant  Concession,  and  gave  the  elec- 
toral franchise  to  English  Catholics.  As  the  re- 
moval of  an  unjust  anachronism,  this  measure  was 
inevitable;  but  it  failed  to  restore  tranquillity  to 
Ireland,  since  the  concession  had  been  robbed  of  its 
grace  by  delay  and  enforcement,  and  since  the 
chief  cause  of  Irish  disaffection  was,  after  all,  not 
the  religious  disabilities  but  the  tenure  of  land, 
as  the  sequel  clearly  showed. 

Biblioorafht:  fiouroes:  A.  Wellesley  (Duke  of  Wellincton). 
SuppUm^fUary  Deapatdie;  ediied  by  hit  toti,  7  July.  1812, 
London;  1867-80.  Speechet,  17  May,  1819,  2  voU.,  ib.  1854; 
F.  8.  Larpent,  PrivaU  Journal,  i.  95.  ii.  20,  London, 
1853;  Memoir  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  pt.  i..  The  Roman  Catholic 
QuetUon,  London.  1834;  J.  F.  Stephen.  Hietory  of  Crim^ 
inal  Law  of  Enifland,  ii.  476  sqq.,  London,  1883  (exceed- 
ingly valuable);  W.  J.  Amherst,  Hietory  of  Caiholie 
Emancipation  in  the  Britieh  ielee,  2  vole.,  London,  1886 
(fairly  eomplete). 

CATHOLIC  EPISTLES:  A  name  given  to  seven 
of  the  epistles  of  the  New  Testament;  viz.,  James, 
I  and  II  Peter,  I,  II,  and  III  John,  and  Jude. 
Different  explanations  have  been  given  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  name.  (1)  It  has  reference  to  the 
writers,  who  were  the  apostles  in  general,  whereas 
the  other  New  Testament  epistles  were  believed 
to  be  written  by  Paul.  (2)  It  refers  to  the  con- 
tents, which  do  not  treat  of  any  particular  topic, 
but  are  general.  (3)  It  refers  to  the  recipients, 
the  letters  not  being  addressed  to  a  particular 
church,  but  to  the  Church  universal.  (4)  It  refers 
to  opinion  concerning  these  writings  and  indicates 
that  they  were  generally  accepted  as  authentic, 
in  distinction  from  the  many  writings  current  and 
ascribed  to  apostolic  authorship  but  not  every- 
where so  received.     The  name  was  given  to  the 


First  Epistle  of  John  in  the  East  about  the  second 
century,  and  by  the  fourth  oentuiy  it  included  the 
seven  epistles  hamed.  In  the  West  they  were 
called  "  canonical  "  epistles.  Certain  non-canon- 
ical writings  (as  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the 
letter  from  the  apostles  at  Jerusalem  in  Acts  xv. 
23-29)  are  also  called  ''  catholic  "  by  eariy  writers. 
See  Canon  of  Scbipture,  II.,  2,  |  5. 
BxBLxooaAPHT:    The  Caiholie  Epistlee  are  of  oourve  dealt 

with  in  the  principal  worlu  on  the  N.  T.  Canon,  N.  T. 

Introduction,   and  in  the  Commentaries.    Conmilt:     P. 

J.  QkMC.  tntroducHon  to  the  Catholic  SpiaOee,  Edinbursh. 

1887;   W.  Sanday.  in  Biblical  inepiraiion,  London,  18«6; 

W.  H.  Bennett,  in  the  Century  Bible,  ib.  1901;  and  C.  A. 

Bin,  Commentary  on  8t  Peter  and  8t.  Jude,  Edinbuz^h. 

1902. 

CATHOLIC  OR  UllITBD  COPTS.     See  Uniates. 

CATHOLICUS:  In  the  time  of  Constantine,  a 
civil  oflicer  established  after  the  organisation  oi 
dioceses,  each  diocese  having  its  catholicus,  or 
receiver-general.  As  an  ecdesiastical  officer  occur- 
ring in  several  Eastern  churches,  the  catholicus 
occupied  a  position  between  the  metropolitan  and 
the  patriarch.  The  title  is  also  applied  to  the  head 
of  an  independent  or  schismatic  communion,  such 
as  the  Armenian  Church. 

CATTLE.    See  Pastoral  Lifb.  Hebrew. 

CAVAGIIIS,  ca"va"nyt8,  FELICE:  Roman  Cath- 
olic cardinal;  b.  at  Bordogna  (near  Bergamo, 
39  m.  n.e.  of  Milan)  Jan.  13,  1841;  d.  at  Rome 
Dec.  29,  1906.  He  was  educated  at  the  Roman 
Seminary,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in 
1863.  Three  years  later  he  became  a  teacher  at 
Celano,  and  later  became  a  member  of  the  faculty 
of  the  Roman  Seminary,  of  which  he  was  rector 
from  1 887  to  1 893.  Later  still  he  was  appointed  sec- 
retary of  the  Congregation  for  Extraordinaiy 
Ekiclesiastical  Affairs,  and  in  1901  was  created 
cardinal  deacon  of  Santa  Maria  ad  Martyres.  In 
addition  to  the  Congregation  for  Extraordinary 
Affairs,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Congregations  of 
the  Consistory,  the  Bishops  and  Regulars,  the 
Council,  the  Index,  and  the  Sacred  Visitation. 

CAVALIER,  JEAN.    See  Caiobards. 

CAVE,  ALFRED:  En^h  Congregationalist; 
b.  at  London  Aug.  29, 1847;  d.  there  Dec.  19,  1900. 
He  was  educated  at  New  College,  London  (B.A.. 
London  University,  1872),  and  was  Congr^ational 
minister  successively  at  Berkhampst^d,  Herts 
(1872-76),  and  Watford,  Herts  (1876-80).  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  church 
history  in  Hackney  College,  London,  in  1880,  and 
two  years  later  was  chosen  principal  and  professor 
of  apologetic,  doctrinal,  and  pastoral  theology  in 
the  same  institution,  retaining  both  these  positions 
until  his  death.  He  was  also  Congregational 
Union  Lecturer  in  1888,  vice-president  of  the 
London  Board  of  Congregational  ministers  in  1888 
and  1898,  and  Merchants'  Lecturer  in  1893-94. 
He  collaborated  with  J.  S.  Banks  in  translating 
the  System  der  christlichen  Olaubenslekre  of  I.  A. 
Domer  (2  vols.,  Beriin,  1879-81)  under  the  title 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine  (4  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1880-82),  and  also  wrote  the  independent  worb: 
Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sacrifiee  and  Atonement 
TEdinburgh,  1877);    An  Introduction  to  Theology: 


461 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Catholic  Bmanoipatlon 
Ceadda 


lU  PrincvpUB,  lU  Branehea,  lU  RenUta,  and  lU 
lAterature  (1886);  Ths  InMjriratUm  of  the  Old  Tes- 
iament  Inductively  Considered  (Congregational  Union 
Lectures;  London,  1888);  Ths  Battle  of  the  Stand" 
arda,  the  Old  Tentament  and  the  Higher  CrUidem 
(1890);  The  Spiriiwd  World,  the  Last  Word  of 
Philosophy  and  the  First  Word  of  Christ  (1894); 
and  The  Story  of  the  Founding  of  Hackney  College 
(1899).  An  enlarged  edition  of  his  Introduction  to 
Theology  appeared  in  1896. 

CAVE,  WILLIAM:  Church  of  England  patristic 
scholar;  b.  at  Pickwell  (13  m.  e.  by  n.  of  Leicester) 
Dec.  30,  1637;  d.  at  Windsor  Aug.  4,  1713.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  in  St.  John's  College,  and 
was  made  M.A.  in  1660,  D.D.  in  1672,  in  1681  D.D. 
by  Oxford.  He  was  vicar  of  Islington,  now  part 
of  London,  1662-^1;  rector  of  All  Hallows  the 
Great,  Thiunes  Street,  London,  1679-^;  became 
chaplain  of  Charles  II.  and  canon  of  Windsor  in 
1681;  and  in  1690  vicar  of  Isleworth,  London.  His 
reputation  rests  on  his  eminent  attainments  in 
patristics.  His  principal  works  are:  (1)  Primitive 
Christianity  (London,  1672;  reprinted,  Oxford, 
1840,  in  connection  with  his  Dissertation  Concerning 
the  Government  of  the  Ancient  Church  hy  Bishops, 
Metropolitans,  and  Patriarchs,  1683);  (2)  TabulcB 
ecclesiasiica,  tables  of  ecclesiastical  writers  (1674; 
improved  ed.  under  the  title  Chartophylax  eccle- 
aiasticus,  1685);  (3)  Apostolici,  or  the  Lives  of  the 
Primitive  Fathers  for  the  Three  First  Ages  of  the 
Christian  Church  (1677);  (4)  Ecclesiastici :  or, 
the  Histories  of  the  lAves,  Acts,  Deaths  and  Writings 
of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers  of  the  Church  Thai 
Flourisht  in  the  Fourth  Century  (1683;  3  and  4 
were  combined  and  edited  by  Henry  Cary  under 
the  title  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers  of  the 
Church  That  Flourished  in  the  First  Four  Centuries, 
3  vols.,  Oxford,  1840);  (5)  Scriptorum  ecdesiasti- 
eorum  hietoria  literaria  (1688;  in  Latin,  to  the 
fourteenth  century,  continued  by  others  to  1617 
and  reprinted,  Oxford,  2  vols.,  1740-43). 

Bibuoorapbt:  J.  Darling,  Cydopeedia  Bibliographiea,  pp. 
606-607.  London.  1854;  S.  A.  Allibone,  CrUieal  DieHonary 
of  EnolUh  LUmUure,  i.  356-367.  Philadelphi*.  1891;  DNB, 
ix.  341-343. 

CAVICCHI05I,  ca-vi'ch9''n!,  BEHJAMIN:  Ro- 
man Catholic  cardinal;  b.  at  Veiano  (a  village 
near  Viterbo,  42  m.  n.n.w.  of  Rome)  Sept.  27, 
1836.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1859,  and,  after 
teaching  for  several  years,  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
studied  canon  law.  In  1872  he  became  a  member 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  and  twelve 
years  later  was  consecrated  titular  archbishop  of 
Amidaand  appointed  apostolic  delegate  to  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  where  he  remained  until  1889. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
council,  with  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Nazianzum, 
and  in  1903  was  created  cardinal  priest  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Ara  Cceli.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Congre- 
gations of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  the  Council,  the 
Propaganda  for  the  Oriental  Rite,  the  Index,  and 
Indulgences. 

CAYET,  ca"y*'  (CAHIER,  CAIET,  Cajetanus), 
PIERRE  VICTOR  PALMA:  Roman  Catholic  con- 
vert;   b.  at  Montrichard  (18  m.  s.s.w.  of  Blois), 


Touraine,  1625;  d.  in  Paris  May  10  (or  July  22), 
1610.  He  studied  at  Paris  and  Geneva,  was  Prot- 
estant pastor  at  Poitiers  and  in  its  neighborhood, 
and  in  1584  became  chaplain  to  Catherine  of  Bour- 
bon, sister  of  Henry  IV.;  in  1595  he  embraced  Ro- 
manism, was  made  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
Sorbonne  in  1596,  and  became  priest  in  1600.  He 
was  accused  of  scandalous  writings  and  immoral- 
ity, but  claimed  that  all  charges  were  prompted 
by  ill  will  because  of  his  change  of  faith.  His  most 
noteworthy  writings  were  Chronologie  sepUnaire 
de  Vhistovre  de  la  paix  entre  le  roi  de  France  et 
d'Espagne  (Paris,  1605)  and  Chronologie  novinaire 
sous  le  rkgne  de  HenH  IV  (1608). 

CAZALLA,  cfl-thOl'ya,  AUGUSTmO:  Spanish 
Protestant;  b.  at  Valladolid  1510;  executed  by 
the  Inquisition  there  May  21,  1559.  He  was  a 
scholar  of  Bartholom^  Carranza  (q.v.)  and  stud- 
ied at  Valladolid  and  Alcala.  The  influence  of 
his  father,  the  chief  officer  of  the  royal  finances, 
opened  to  him  a  brilliant  career  in  the  Church,  and 
his  own  ability  won  him  the  reputation  of  being  one 
of  the  foremost  preachers  in  Spain.  In  1545  he  be- 
came chaplain  and  almoner  to  Charles  V.  and  accom- 
panied the  emperor  to  Germany  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Schmalkald  war.  There  he  undertook  to 
confute  the  Lutherans,  but  ended  by  accepting 
their  doctrines.  Returning  to  Spain  in  1552,  he 
was  cautious  at  first  in  expressing  his  opinions, 
but  ultimately  his  mother's  house  in  Vsdladolid 
became  the  meeting-place  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
city  and  Cazalla  himiself  the  head  of  the  congrega^ 
tion.  In  1558,  with  his  brothers  and  sisters  and 
about  seventy-five  others,  he  was  put  into  prison. 
On  Mar.  4,  1559,  when  threatened  with  torture, 
he  acknowledged  that  he  had  accepted  Luther's 
teachings,  but  denied  that  he  had  taught  them  to 
others  except  to  those  already  of  like  mind;  fur- 
ther concessions  he  steadfastly  refused  to  make. 
The  auto  da  f€  at  which  he  perished  was  the  first 
of  these  sad  spectacles.  Sixteen  persons,  including 
a  brother  and  a  sister  of  Cazalla,  brought  to  judg- 
ment at  the  same  time,  were  condemned  to  im- 
prisonment for  life;  two,  Cazalla's  brother  Fran- 
cisco and  Antonio  Herezuelo,  a  lawyer  of  Toro, 
were  burned  alive;  and  twelve  others,  including 
Cazalla,  were  strangled  before  being  burned.  At 
the  place  of  execution  he  was  persuaded  to  address 
his  fellow  prisoners.  (O.  ZdCKLERf.) 

Biblioobapht:  T.  McCrie,  HiwUrry  of  the  Proffnn  and  Sup- 
prt—ion  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  pp.  226-231,  285- 
289.  Edinburgh.  1829:  C  A.  Wilkens.  Oeediiehts  dee 
epaniechen  ProteetanHemue,  pp.  79  «qq.,  224  aqq..  234  sqq., 
Gttteraloh.  1888;  H.  C.  Lea,  Hietory  of  the  Inquiaition  in 
Spain,  ii.  318. 512.  Ui.  201.  430.  431.  438.  New  York.  1906. 

CEADDA  (CHAD),  ST. :  Third  bishop  of  Mercia; 
d.  at  Lichfield  Mar.  2,  672.  He  was  one  of  Aldan's 
pupils  at  Lindisfame  and  also  spent  some  years  at 
the  monastery  of  Rathmelsige  (Melfont,  near 
Drogheda?)  in  Ireland.  His  oldest  brother,  Cedd 
(q.v.),  chose  him  to  succeed  himself  as  abbot  at 
Lastingham,  Northumbrian  in  664.  After  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  (q.v.)  Wilfrid  was  elected  to  the  North- 
umbrian bishopric  and  went  to  Gaul  to  be  conse- 
crated. As  he  did  not  return  immediately  King 
Oswy  saw    fit    to   appoint   Ceadda,  and   he  was 


OelMtina 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOQ 


462 


oonsecratod  (6057)  by  Wine  of  Winchester  and 
two  British  bishc^.  Wilfrid  acquiesced  on  go- 
ing back  to  England,  but  when  Theodore  be- 
came archbishop  of  Canterbury  (660)  objection 
was  raised  to  Oradda's  consecration;  he  expressed 
his  willingness  to  lay  down  an  office  of  which 
he  had  never  deemed  himself  worthy,  retired  to 
his  monastery  in  Northumbria,  and  Wilfrid  was 
instated  in  his  place.  Theodore,  however,  impressed 
by  Oeadda's  humility  and  worth,  reconsecrated  him 
as  bishop  of  the  Mercians  to  succeed  Jaruman,  and 
he  fixed  his  residence  at  Lichfield  (S^t,  660). 
His  simplicity,  piety,  and  devotion  to  du^  won 
the  hearts  of  all,  and  in  later  times  he  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  English  saints. 

BnuooBAFHT:  Bede,  HitL  «eel.,  ill.  28, 24, 28;  iv.  2,  8;  t. 
19.  24;  FatH  Eboraemam,  ad.  W.  H.  Dixon  and  J.  lUiiM, 
L  47-«6.  LoDdon,  1868;  W.  Brisht,  Bwrly  Bngliak  Chunk 
Hittory,  pp.  248-246^  250-200,  Ozfoid,  1887;  DNB,  iz. 
801-808. 

CECIL,  RICHARD:  English  "evangelical ";  b. 
in  London  Nov.  8,  1748;  d.  at  Hampstead  (Lon- 
don) Aug.  16,  1810.  His  eariy  life  was  profligate, 
but  he  was  converted  about  1772,  and  in  1773 
entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford  (B.A.,  1777);  he 
was  ordained  priest  1777  and,  after  holding  various 
livings,  was  appointed  minister  of  St.  John's  Chi^, 
Bedford  Row,  London,  in  1780.  He  was  the  lead- 
ing "evangelical"  clergyman  of  his  time,  and 
exerted  a  wide  influence.  He  had  an  original  mind, 
dignified  carriage,  and  impressive  delivery.  His 
works  were  collected  and  published  with  memoir 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Pratt  (4  vols.,  London,  1811;  new 
ed.,  with  his  letters  and  memoir  by  ^^»  CecU, 
1854).  Ptohi^M  the  most  noteworthy  of  his  works 
is  The  Remains  of  Richard  Cecily  wUh  numeroue  ee^ 
UetUma  from  hie  worke,  new  ed.,  with  introduction 
by  his  daughter  and  preface  by  R.  Bickenteth 
(London,  1876),  containing  reminiscences  of  his 
oonversations. 

CBCnjA,  8AIHT:  Roman  maiden  of  noble 
family,  who  is  said  by  different  versions  of  the  un- 
certain and  contradictory  tradition  to  have  suf- 
fered martyrdom  under  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Oom- 
modus,  under  Alexander  Severus,  and  under 
Diodetian.  Her  Ada  relate  that  on  the  eve  of  her 
marriage  she  converted  her  husband,  Valerianus,  to 
Christianity.  Angels  appeared  to  both  Cedlia  and 
Valerianus  charging  them  that  her  virginity  should 
not  be  impaired.  Tibertiua,  the  brother  of  Valeri- 
anus, was  then  converted.  The  two  brothers,  refu- 
sing to  sacrifice  to  the  gods  at  the  bidding  of  the 
prefect,  Almachius,  were  executed  by  the  sword,  and 
Cecilia  was  exposed  to  death  in  an  overheated  bath 
in  her  own  house;  when  this  means  failed  she  too 
was  beheaded.  The  remains  of  the  three  martyrs 
were  placed  in  the  catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus,  whence 
Pope  Paschal  I.,  in  821,  is  said  to  have  removed  the 
relics  of  Cecilia  to  a  cfaureh  called  after  her  name 
(Sta.  Cecilia  in  Traatevere);  her  coffin  of  cypress 
wood  was  found  there  in  1609  (Baronius,  AnnaUe, 
ad  an.  821 ).  De  Rossi  discovered  what  is  probably 
the  original  crypt  of  Cecilia,  adjoining  the  papal 
crypt  in  the  cemetery  of  Calixtus,  and  has  at- 
tempted to  prove  that  she  belonged  to  the  old  pa- 
trician family  of  the  OBBcilii;  also  that  the  date  of  her 


martjrrdom  was  177  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  To- 
ward the  end  of  the  Bliddle  Ages  Cecilia  begiDs  to 
be  represented  in  art  with  musical  attributes. 
The  conception  of  her  as  patroness  of  the  organ 
dates  probably  from  Raffael's  painting  of  1513, 
now  in  Bologna,  and  may  be  baaed  upon  a  mis- 
understanding of  certain  words  of  her  Acta  which 
refer  io  the  (secular)  musical  instruments  at  her 
wedding,  but  were  thought  to  indicate  a  particular 
instrument  plajred  by  iwrself .  The  r61e  which  she 
fills  among  both  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants 
as  patroness  of  church  music  in  general  may  be 
due  to  the  founding  of  a  musical  aoidemy  at  Rome 
by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1584  under  her  protecdon 
and  named  after  her.  (O.  ZOcxuEBf.) 

BnuooBArar:  A8B,  April.  U.  208-211:  A.  Borio.  Acte  8, 
CmeiHa,  Rome,  IdOO  ed.  J.  lAderelii.  with  title.  Acta, 
8,  CmcOim  H  InnatiUrina  ba»aiea  Obuinia,  2  voli..  Borne, 
1722;  J.  B.  de  Romi,  Roma  mita  twimt  d^riatiama,  iL,  piK. 
zzadi.-^z]iiL.  119-161.  Borne.  1807,  EnctniuL.  i.  816-333. 
Loodoii,  1870;  Dom  OuAreDcer.  8la,  Cidla,  Ptoria»  1874 
(riohly  iUuetreted,  but  of  little  eeientifie  Taliie);  C.  Mertin. 
DiM  kmiica  CeeUia,  Maine.  1878;  Bertha  E.  LorewvO. 
Th§L%f€af8l.  Cmitia,  in  Yak  8ludim  in  Bn^Uk,  toL  iii^ 
New  York.  1808. 

CEDD  (CEDDA),  ST.:  Bishop  of  Essex;  d.  at 
Lastingham  (25  m.  n.n.e.  of  Yoi^),  Northumbrian 
Oct.  26,  604.  With  his  youngest  brother  Ceadda 
or  Chad  (q.v.),  he  was  brought  up  at  Lindisfame, 
and  was  sent  in  653  by  his  abbot,  Finan  (q.v.), 
and  Oswy,  king  of  Northumbria,  as  missionaiy, 
first  to  Peada,  Idng  of  Merda,  and  then  to  Sigbert, 
king  of  Essex.  He  was  very  successful  and  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  East  Saxons  by  Finan 
and  two  Scotch  bishops  in  654.  He  founded  two 
monasteries  in  Essex  and  the  one  at  Lastingham 
and  governed  them  stricUy,  according  to  the  Co- 
lumban  rules.  He  was  present  at  the  Synod  of 
Whitby  (q.v.)  in  664  and  acted  as  interpreter;  he 
inclined  to  the  British  side,  but  when  the  Roman 
prevailed  he  acquiesced.  He  died  of  the  plague 
while  on  a  visit  to  Northumbria.  He  has  been 
called  the  second  bishop  of  London,  but  Bede, 
who  is  the  source  of  all  information  concerning  him 
(Hiei.  eccL,  iiL  21-23,  25,  26,  28;  iv.  3),  never 
speaks  of  him  as  such. 

CBILLIER,  M'ly^,  RBKT:  French  bibfiogra- 
pher;  b.  at  Bar-le-due  ICay  14, 1688;  d.  at  Flavigny, 
near  Nan^,  Nov.  17,  1761.  He  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  St.  Vannes  (reformed  Benedictines) 
in  1705,  and  became  titular  prior  of  Flavigny. 
His  great  work  was  an  HieUnre  nerUraU  dee  auieure 
eaarie  ei  eccUeiaetiquee,  gui  anUierU  lew  vie,  le 
catalogue,  la  eriHgue,  le  jugemeni,  la  chronologie, 
Vatialuee,  el  le  dinombremenl  dee  diffArentee  SdiUone 
de  leure  ouvragee;  ee  gu*ile  rer^ermefU  de  plue  in- 
UreeeafU  eur  le  dogme,  sur  la  morale,  ei  eur  la  die- 
cipline  de  Vigliee  (23  vols.,  Paris,  1729-63;  Table 
g^rUrale  dee  maUiree  by  Rondet  and  Drouet,  2  vols., 
1782;  new  ed.,  16  vols.,  1858-«9).  This  work  is 
brought  down  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  oen- 
tury,  and  is  more  complete  and  exact  than  the 
similar  undertaking  of  Du  Pin  (q.v.),  but  is  in- 
ferior in  respect  to  style  and  eritioal  judgment; 
it  is  of  most  value  for  the  first  six  centuries,  for 
which  Ceillier  was  able  to  use  Tillemont  and  the 
BenedieUne  editions. 


168 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeoll 

OelMtina 


Siblioorapbt:  A.  Beugnet,  £tud€  hiooraphitus  ei  arUiqut 
9ur  I><nn  Bimi  CeiUiar,  Bai^le-Due,  1891. 

CELB,  JOHiUllTES:    Teacher  at  ZwoUe;    b.  at 
Zwolle,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century; 
d.  there  May  9,  1417.    He  received  his  eariy  edu- 
cation in  his  native  place,  continued  his  studies  in 
some  unknown  school,  and,  returning  to  Zwolle, 
in  1374  was  entrusted  with  the  school-management 
there.     Having  been  awakened  by  the  preaching 
of  Gerard  Groote,  he  thought  of  joining  the  order 
of  Minorites,  but  was  prevented  from  doing  so  by 
Groote,  who  advised  him  to  complete  his  studies 
at  Prague.    Whether  he  went  to  Prague  is  not 
known.     Depressed  in  mind.  Ode  spent  some  time 
in  the  monastery  at  Munnikhuisen  and  in  com- 
pany  with  Ruysbroeck.    Through  the  influence 
of  Groote,  in  spite  of  opposition,  Cele  was  made 
rector  of  the  school  at  Zwolle.    He  received  much 
help  from  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  and 
as^sted   them  especially  in  the  difficult  task  of 
securing  houses  at  Zwolle  for  their  adherents  and 
those  committed  to  their  charge,  but  he  did  not 
join  the  brotherhood,  remaining  rector  of  the  ever- 
growing   school,    which  numbered    1,000  pupils. 
He   taught  Latin,   grammar,   and  rhetoric,   and 
expounded  the  Scriptures,  admitting  laymen  to 
his  lectures  against  the  will  of  the  city  ministers. 
He  founded  a  large  library  by  buying  and  copying 
manuscripts.    For  more  than  forty  years  he  stood 
at  the  head  of  the  institution,  highly  esteemed  for 
his  learning  and  piety  and  his  lasting  influence  on 
his  pupils.    The  lasy  and  presumptuous  were  kept 
under  rigid  discipline.    All  wore  the  simple  dress 
of  the  brethren.    He  had  no  method  of  his  own, 
but  labored  in  the  spirit  of  his  friend  Groote,  recog- 
nizing in  a  pious  personality  the  source  of  all 
morality,  and  thus  he  gave  to  the  growing  human- 
ism the  right  direction  and  true  basis  in  the  Chris- 
tian faith  and  genuine  piety.    Many  prominent  men 
were  his  pupils,  such  as  Heinrich  von  Herxen, 
Wessel  Gansfort,  Alexander  Hegius,  Rudolf  Langen, 
Rudolf  Agricola,  Ludwig  Dringenberg,  Merits  von 
Spiegelberg,  and  Johannes  Busch. 

L.  SCHULZB. 

Bibuoobapbt:  Bendas  the  works  nMntioned  in  the  article 
CoimoN  LiFs,  Bbsthebn  of  tbb,  valuable  eouroes  for 
Cele  are  the  personal  reminieeenoeB  of  Thomas  k  Kempis 
in  the  Chronieon  wumaaUrii  8,  AgneH*^  ed.  H.  Bosweyde, 
p.  171,  Antwerp,  1616,  and  of  his  scholar,  Johannes  Busch« 
in  the  Chronieon  WindMhomente,  ed.  K.  Grube,  pp.  204r- 
222,  Halle,  1887.    Ck>nsalt  also  ^2>B,  iv.  70. 

CELBSmVE:    The  name  of  five  popes. 

Celastine  L :  Pope  422-432.  He  was  a  Roman  by 
birth,  and  only  a  deacon  when,  in  Sept.,  422,  he 
was  raised  to  the  episcopate.  The  main  endeavor 
of  his  pontificate  was  to  extend  the  jurisdiction 
of  his  see.  To  this  end  he  made  use  of  a  conflict 
which  had  been  going  on  for  years  in  the  African 
Church  in  order  to  assert  the  right  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  to  receive  appeals  thence.  He  restored  to 
communion  Apiarius,  an  African  priest  who  had 
been  deposed  by  his  bishop  and  had  appealed  to 
Rome  under  Zosimus  and  Boniface  I.  The  Afri- 
cans, however,  in  a  synod  at  Carthage  in  424  or 
425,  denied  his  right  to  interfere.  Celestine's  part 
in  the  dogmatic  oontrovenries  of  his  time  was  also 


influenced  by  political  considerations    (see  Semi- 

Pelaoianism  ;  Nestobius).    He  died  at  the  end  of 

July,  432.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:    Liber  pontifiealU,  ed.   Duchesne,   i.  280, 

Paris.  1886;    Jaifd,  Reonia,  i.  66;    Hefele.  Coneilimge- 

tchiehU,  ii.  160  sqq.,  Eng.  transl..  ii.  476  sqq.;  Bower, 

Popes,  i.  166-186;  Milman,  LaHn  Chrutiani^,  I  200-238. 

Cdastine  IL  (Guido  de  Castellis):  Pope  1143- 
1144.  He  was  a  Tuscan  of  noble  birth,  reputed  to 
be  learned  and  pious.  He  occupied  the  papal 
throne  only  from  Sept.  26  to  Mar.  8,  not  long 
enough  to  fulfil  the  hopes  which  his  elevation  had 
raised.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bzblxoobafht:  JmS4,  fit^stla,  ii.  1;   Bower,  Popes,  ii.  476. 

Celestine  HL  (Jacinto  Bobo):  Pope  1101-08. 
After  being  a  cardinal  forty-seven  years,  at  eighty- 
five  he  was  elected.  Mar.  30  (7),  1101,  the  first  pope 
of  the  house  of  Ondni.  The  times  were  troublous 
(see  CUEBiENT  in.),  and  the  aged  pope,  a  man  of 
mild  temper  and  inclined  to  hidf  measures,  was  no 
match  for  his  fonnidable  opponent  Heniy  VI., 
who  appeared  before  Rome  and  demanded  his 
coronation,  which  Celestine  was  obliged  to  per- 
form on  the  day  after  Easter.  Heniy  surrendered 
Tusculum  to  him,  but  later  forced  him,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  agreement  of  May  31, 1188,  to  give  it 
up  to  the  Romans  for  destructioiL  From  1104 
he  saw  the  Norman  kingdom,  with  which  his  pred- 
ecessors had  invested  Tancred,  in  the  possession 
of  the  hated  Hohenstauf en.  Heniy  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  fealty  or  to  pay  tribute;  he  appointed 
bishops  and  judged  them,  and  gave  the  lands  of 
Countess  Matilda  to  his  brother  Philip  in  fee. 
Celestine  did  not  venture  to  excommunicate  him, 
but  did  break  off  relations  with  him,  though  he 
offered  reconciliation  when  Henry  took  the  cross 
(May  31,  1105).  It  soon  became  evident  that 
Henry  was  a  crusader  only  for  political  advantage, 
and  the  territory  and  rights  of  the  Church  were 
invaded  in  various  quarters.  Humiliations  beset 
the  aged  pope.  He  was  obliged  to  release  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  from  his  unperformed  vow  to 
free  the  Holy  Sepulcher;  and  could  not  force  the 
recognition  of  his  legate  in  England,  William  of 
Longchamp  (the  bishop  of  E3y,  Richard  Cceur  de 
Lion's  chancellor),  by  Prince  John  and  the  barons; 
nor  did  Philip  Augustus  heed  his  admonitions 
against  the  arbitrary  dissolution  of  his  marriage 
with  Ingeborg  of  Denmark  and  the  contracting 
of  a  new  one.  His  fear  of  the  emperor  pre- 
vented him  from  protesting  against  Richard's  im- 
prisonment; only  after  the  English  king  had  paid 
his  ransom  did  he  excommunicate  Leopold  of 
Austria.  Celestine  survived  Henry  VI.  by  only  a 
few  months,  dying  Jan.  8, 1 108.  (A.  Hauck.) 

Bibuoobapht:    Jaff^,  Regmta,  ii.  677;    J.  M.  Watterieh, 

Pontifieym  Romanontm  vUa,  ii.  706.  Leiprio,  1862;    F. 

Grccoroviui,  OeeehitkU  dtr  Stadt  Rom,  ir.  601,  Stuttcart, 

1890,  Eng.  tranal.,  iv.  62<Mk30.  600,  London,  1806;  Bower. 

PopM,  U.  681-1634;  Hauok,  X2>,  iv.  663-681. 

Celestine  IV.  (Galfrido  di  Castiglione):  Pope 
1241.  A  Milanese  by  birth,  he  was  elected  pope 
in  a  conclave  held  by  permission  of  Frederick  II. 
on  Oct.  26.  He  was  old  and  feeble,  and  died,  be- 
fore he  could  be  consecrated,  on  Nov.  10. 

(A.  Hauck.) 
Bxbuoqbapbt:  Bower,  Popet,  ii.  660-660. 


CMMUaa 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4e4 


Cdeftine  V.  (Pietro  di  Murrbone):  Pope  1294. 
He  wai  bom  about  1216  in  the  Abnissi;    d.  at 
Fumone,  near  Anagni,  May  19,  1296.    At  twenty 
he  entered  the  Benedictine  order,  and  lived  for 
years  in  retirement  first  on  the  Murrhone,  then  on 
the  Majella,  where  numerous  followers  gathered 
around  him  (see  CKLSBTiNnX    After  the  death  3f 
Nicholas  IV.   (Apr.  4,   1292),  dissensions  among 
the  gftHiwi^l*  hindered  an  election,  until  in  March, 
1294,  Charles  II.  of  Naples,  who  needed  a  pope 
to  support  his  designs  on  Sicily,  took  up  the  matter. 
Since  there  was  no  hope  of  agreeing  on  a  cardinal, 
Latinus,  the  head  of  the  Angevin  party  in  the  sacred 
college,  drew  his  attention  to  the  hermit  of  the 
Abrusii,  whose  sanctity  was  universally  revered; 
and  Pietro  was  elected  on  July  6.    His  unfitness 
for  high  affairs  of  state  was  equally  well  known; 
the  various  leaders  hoped  to  rule  through  him. 
But  the  remarkable  choice  can  only  be  fully  ex- 
plained by  a  study  of  the  mystical  reform  move- 
ment represented  by  Joachim  of  Fiore  (q. v.),  which 
had  spr^  so  widdy  among  a  section  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order.    Their  prominent  men  favored  the 
election  of    Pietro  enthusiastically,  flocked  to  his 
coronation,  and  renewed  their  old  relations  with 
him  by  a  formal  embassy.    The  new  pope  sanc- 
tioned their  observance  of  the  rule  of  the  order  in 
its  strictest  form,  and  took  them  under  his  special 
protection,  allowing  them  to  be  known  by  the  name 
which  he  had  assumed  as  pope.     Meantime  Charles 
was  preparing  to  use  his  candidate  for  his  own 
purposes;   he  surrounded  him  with  Sicilian  coun- 
selors, and  brought  him  to  Aquila,  where  he  had 
him  crowned  in  the  presence  of  only  three  cardinals. 
The  king's  influence,  however,  finally  induced  the 
others  to  appear  one  by  one,  the  last  being  Bene- 
detto Gaetani,  Gelestine's  successor  as  Boniface 
VIII.,  and  the  coronation  ceremony  was  repeated. 
Celestine's  whole  interest  was  given  to  the  pro- 
motion of  monasticism;    in  other  things  he  was 
merely  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Charles,  who  got  him  to 
create  twelve  Angevin  cardinals,  confirm  his  treaty 
with  Aragon,  and  supply  large  sums  of  money  for 
the  Sicilian  war.  The  strict  regulation  of  Gregory  X. 
for  the  conclave  was  reenacted,  that  Charles  might 
have  the  next  election  also  securely  in  his  hands, 
and  in  October  the  curia  was  removed  to  Naples. 
Both  the  cardinals  and  the  pope  were  discontented 
with  the  state  of  affairs,  and  the  latter  began  to 
think  of  abdication,  that  he  might  be  able  to  give 
himself  once  more  wholly  to  his  ascetic  practises. 
The  thing  was  without  precedent,  and  offered  great 
constitutional  difficulties,  which,  when  Celestine's 
resolve  was  seen  to  be  fixed,  were  as  far  as  possible 
removed  by  the  legal  wisdom  of  Gaetani,  and  the 
abdication  took  place  on  Dec.  13.     While  Dante 
speaks  scornfully  of  the  pope  '*  who  made  the  great 
refusal,"  others  lauded  the  act  highly— Petrarch 
among  them,  who  regarded  it  as  an  example  of 
humility  entitling  the  poor  hermit  to  rank  above 
the  apostles  and  many  other  saints.    Gaetani  was 
later  accused  of  having  brought  about  the  abdica^ 
tion  by  guile  in  order  to  secure  his  own  advance- 
ment.   The  charge  is  not  justified,  but  he  un- 
doubtedly had  his  eye  on  the  tiara  in  view.   After 
be  had  attained  it,  he  wished  to  keep  his  prede> 


oessor  with  him  in  Rome,  lest  he  should  be  used 
as  a  tool  by  the  opposition;  but  the  ascetic  fled. 
and  was  finally  taken  and  in^>Tisoxied  in  the 
mountain  castle  of  Fumone,  where  he  died  the 
next  year.    He  was  canonised  by  dement  V. 

(HaN8  SCHULZ.) 

Biblioorapht:  The  older  documenta  are  eolleeted  in  ASS, 
May,  iv.  419-496,  cf.  Muratori.  Saripiarm,  lU.  i  613-641 
Consult:  A.  Potthast,  Reaeata  ponUficum  Romtanorym, 
u.  1916-22.  Berlin,  1875;  Don  Joeaphet.  D^  heuiffe 
Paptt  CotlMHn  v.,  Fulda.  1894;  F.  Gpe«orovit«.  6*- 
wdiidUe  tUr  Stadt  Rom,  v.  490  eqq..  Stuttgart.  1W2.  E^ 
traaal..  v.  623-634,  London,  1898;  Bower.  Popet.  m.  40-13 

CELESTDIES:    A  name  bome  by  two  mopa^k 
societies  which  owe  their  origin  to  Pope  Cdestine  V. 
(q.v.).    (1)  The  Benedictine  CeUstinee,  known  also 
as   Moronites   and    Murrhonites,    were   originaiij 
composed  of  men  who  were  monbers  of  the  Bene- 
dictine order,  but  lived  as  hermits  on  Monte  MaJeilA 
in  the  Abrusai  from  about  1258,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  future  pope  Celestine,  who  gave  them  a 
severer  rule  and  obtained  papal  confirmation  for 
the  congregation  from  Urban   IV.,  probably  in 
1264,  though  the  alleged  bull  of  this  year,  as  well 
as  another  of  Gregory  X.  from  1274,  is  of  doubtM 
genuineness.    The  «uly  history  of  the  congrega- 
tion is,  in  fact,  frequently  open  to  critical  objection: 
as,  for  example,  the  statement  that  it  already  had 
sixteen  houses  in  1274,  when  its  founder  is  said  to 
have  gone  to  the  general  oouncQ  at  Lyons  and 
attracted   great    attention   as   a    wonder-worker. 
After  about  1290,  the  mother  house  seems  to  have 
been  at  Monte  Murrhone  near  Sulmona.     On  the 
foimder's  elevation  to  the  pspacy  in  1294,  he  at- 
tempted by  rich  grants  of  indulgences  and  other 
privileges  to  give  it  a  commanding  position  in  the 
Benedictine  monastic  family;    ind€«d,  he  a^ired 
to  reform  the  mother  house  of  the  whole  order 
at  Monte  Cassino  on  the  principles  of  his  congre- 
gation.   But  the  brevity  of  his  pontificate  pre- 
vented the  execution  of  his  plans.    The  congrega- 
tion, however,  continued  to  grow,  until  in  Italy 
it  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
ninety-six  houses.     Its  rule,  which  in  some  points, 
especially   as   to    fssting,   surpasses    the   original 
Benedictine   rule   in   strictness,    was   revised  by 
Urban  VIII.  in  1629.    The  French  province  never 
got  beyond  twenty-one  houses.     In  Bohemia  sad 
Lusatia  the  congregation  had  some  famous  seats, 
as  at  Prague,  KOnigstcin,  and  Oybin  near  Zittau, 
the  last  of  which  was  founded  by  Charies  IV.  in 
1366  and  suppressed  in  the  sixteenth  century.— 
(2)  The  Franciscan  Celeetinee  (Poveri  eremiti  di  Ce- 
lesHno),  called  also  Fraticelli,  were  a  oongregatka 
within  the  Franciscan  order,  founded  in  1294.  <m 
an  impulse  given  by  Celestine  V.,  by  two  of  the 
"  spiritual "  sections  of  the  order,  Pietro  da  Macerate 
(Liberato)   and   Pietro  da  Fossombrone   (Angdo 
Claremo,  d.  1357).     It  existed  down  to  about  1340 
in  nearly  all  its  original  strength  as  a  oongre^ 
gation  of  the  Minorites.    See  Francis,  Saint,  or 

AfiSISI,  AND  THE  FRANCISCAN  OrDER. 

(O.  ZOCKUBt) 

Biblioorapht:  For  (1)  Helyot,  Ordrm  wummtHqitm,  t.  51 
■qq.,  vi.  180-101 ;  Heimbueher,  Ord^n  und  Kononoatienen. 
i.  134-136  (giVM  the  later  litermture);  Currier.  Rdiffiemt 
Ordm%  p.  147;  KL,  iii.  682-684.     For  (2)  Felioe  To«h 


466 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeleatlne 
OeUbaoy 


/  fratieeUi  o  poveri  eremxH  di  CeUtHno,  in  the  BoUeUino 
delta  aoeieih  ttoriea  AbruMMe§e,  vii.  (1886)  117-169. 

CELESnUS.    See  Pelaoiub,  Pelaqianibm. 

CELIBACY. 

Celibacy  in  the  Early  Choreh  (i  1). 

Marriace  of  the  Clergy  Still  Permitted  (i  2). 

In  the  Early  Roman  Catholic  Choroh  H  3). 

The  Medieval  Period  (i  4). 

The  Council  of  Trent  on  Celibacy  (i  6). 

Protestant  Rejection  of  Celibacy  (i  6). 

Celibacyi  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  rceans 
the  permanently  unmarried  state  to  which  men 
and  women  bind  themselves  either  by  a  vow  or  by 
the  reception  of  the  major  orders  which  implies 
personal  purity  in  thought  and  deed.    The  Jewish 
priests  and  high  priests  were  married,  being  re- 
stricted only  in  the  choice  of  a  wife  (Lev.  xxi.  7, 
S,  14,  15).    In  preparation  for  the  exercise  of  their 
office,  they  were  to  abstain  from  commerce  with 
their  wives,  which  was  also  required  of  the  whole 
people  before  the  reception  of  the  Law  on  Sinai 
(Ex.  xix.  16).    The  New  Testament  contains  no 
prohibition  of  marriage;  some  of  the  apostles  were 
married  (Matt.  viii.  14;    I  Cor.  ix.  5),  and  Paul 
recommended  marriage  to  the  heads  of  churches 
(I  Tim.  iii.  1),  though  he  considered  that  under 
some  circumstances  it  was  better  not  to  marry 
(I  Cor.  vii.  38).     Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  the  idea  grew  up  that  the  unmarried  state 
was  preferable  (Hennas,  I.  ii.  3;  Ignatius  to  Poly- 
carp,  v.),  and  grew  into  a  positive  contempt  of 
marriage  (Origen,  Ham,  vi.  in  Num. ;   Jerome,  Ad 
Jovinianumf  i.  4).    As  early  as  the  second  century 
examples  of  voluntary  vows   of   vir- 
I.  Celibacy  ginity  are  found,  and  the  requirement 
in  the  Early  of  continence  before  the  performance 
Church,     of   sacred  functions.    By  the  fourth 
century  canons  began  to   be  passed 
in  that  sense  (Synod  of   Neocsesarea,  314  a.d., 
canon  i.;  Synod  of  Ancyra,  314  a.d.,  canon  x.). 
Unmarried    men    were    preferred    for    ecclesias- 
tical  offices,   though  marriage  was  still  not  for- 
bidden;  in   act,  the  clergy  were   expressly   pro- 
hibited from  deserting  a  lawfully  married  wife  on 
religious   grounds    (Apostolic    Canons,  v.).     The 
Synod   of    Gangra   (3i557)   anathematized   in   its 
fourth  canon,  against  the  Eustathians,  those  who 
refused  to  accept  the  ministrations  of  a  married 
priest.    The  stricter  view  prevailed  so  far,  how- 
ever, that  the  Council  of  Nicsea  could  speak  of  it 
as  an  ancient  custom  that  priests  and 
9.  Marriage  deacons  should  not  marry  after  ordinap- 
of  the       tion,  unless,  in  the  case  of  deacons, 
Clexgjr  Still  they  had   expressed  an  intention  of 
Permitted,  marrying  at  the  time  of  their  ordina- 
tion— though  both  were  allowed   to 
retain  wives    already    married,  and  a    marriage 
contracted  in  contravention  of  this  regulation  was 
valid.    The  standpoint  of  the  Roman  Church  was 
different  from  this.    Thus  Pope  Siricius  declared 
in  385  that  priestly  marriage  had  been  allowed  in 
the  Old  Testament  because  the  priests  could  only 
be  taken  from  the  tribe  of  Levi;  but  that  with  the 
abandonment  of  that  limitation  this  permission 
had  lost  its  force,  and  that  "  obscoBms  cupiditates  " 
(i.e.,  marriage)  hindered  the  proper  performance 


of  spiritual  functions.  Succeeding  popes  adhered 
to  this  view  (cf.  decretals  of  Innocent  I.,  404,  405, 
and  Leo  I.,  456,  458),  and  the  rest  of  the  Western 
Church  came  to  it  (Synods  of  Carthage,  390,  401). 
Candidates  for  the  higher  orders  were  accordingly 
required  to  take  a  vow  of  celibacy,  and  from 
the  fifth  century  those  for  the  sub- 

3.  In  the    diaconate  also.    A  breach  of  this  vow 
Early  Roman  entailed  degradation  from  office,  but 

Catholic     not   the    nullity    of    the  marriage. 

Church.  Those  in  minor  orders  were  still 
permitted  to  marry,  but  not  a  widow 
or  for  the  second  time  (Fifth  Synod  of  Carthage, 
401;  Gregory  I.,  601).  Secular  legislation  con- 
firmed these  regulations  in  so  far  as  it  fort)ade 
married  men,  or  men  who  had  children,  to  be 
made  bishops,  and  even  went  further  by  declar- 
ing the  nuuriages  of  those  in  major  orders 
void  and  their  children  illegitimate.  The  Eastern 
Church  adhered  to  the  older  legislation,  with  the 
modifications  introduced  by  the  imperial  decrees 
just  referred  to;  prohibited  marriages  were  now 
declared  void,  but  mairied  men  could  still  be  ad- 
mitted to  orders  without  giving  up  their  wives, 
except  in  the  case  of  bishops  (Coundl  of  Constan- 
tinople, 692).  This  system  the  modem  Roman 
Catholic  Church  still  allows  for  the  Uniat  Greeks, 
as  explained  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  the  constitutions 
Etsi  paatoralis  (May  26,  1742)  and  Eo  quamviB 
tempore  (May  4, 1745).  But  within  its  own  bound- 
aries the  Latin  Church  has  held  more  and  more 
strictly  to  the  requirement  of  celibacy,  though  not 
without  continual  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
clergy.  The  large  niunber  of  canons  on  this 
subject  enacted  from  the  eighth  century  on  shows 
that  their  enforcement  was  not  easy.  After  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  the  new  ascetic 
tendency  whose  champion  was  Gregory  VII.  had 
a  strong  influence  in  this  matter.  Even  before 
Hildebrand's  accession  to  the  papacy,  the  legis- 
Ution  of  Leo  IX.  (1054),  Stephen  IX. 

4.  The      (1058),  Nicholas  II.  (1059),  and  Alex- 
Medieval    ander  II.  (1063)  had  laid  down  the 

Period,  principles  which  as  pope  he  was  to 
cany  out.  In  the  synod  of  1074 
he  renewed  the  definite  enactment  of  1059  and 
1063,  according  to  which  both  the  married  priest 
who  said  mass  and  the  layman  who  received  com- 
munion at  his  hands  were  excommunicate.  Urban 
II.  decreed  in  1089  that  the  marriage  of  one  in 
major  orders  should  be  punished  by  the  loss  of 
both  office  and  benefice.  The  Coundls  of  Reims 
(1110)  and  of  the  Lateran  (1123)  ordered  that  the 
parties  to  such  a  marriage  should  be  separated 
and  sent  to  places  of  penance.  The  Lateran  Council 
of  1139  confirmed  this  provision,  with  the  dedarar 
tion  "  that  such  connection  was  not  nuuriage." 
These  strict  principles  were  not  extended  to  the 
minor  orders.  It  is  tme  that  Alexander  III.  and 
Innocent  III.  prescribed  the  loss  of  clerical  rank  and 
privileges  for  even  the  holders  of  these  in  case  they 
married;  but  Boniface  VIII.  (1298)  and  Oement 
V.  (1311)  reasserted  the  older  law.  After  the 
Reforaiation  had  done  its  work,  Charles  V.  endeav- 
ored by  the  Interim  of  1548  to  bring  about  the 
abolition  of  these  rules,  and  with  several  other 


CaUbAoy 
Oelsna 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HEUZOG 


4at 


princes  requested  the  discussion  of  the  question 
at  the  Council  of  Trent.    The  council,  however, 
maintained  the  system  as  a  whole, 
5.  The     and  the  following  rules  are  now  in 
Coiindl  of  force:  (1)  through  the  reception  of  ma- 
Trent  on    jor  orders  or  the  taking  of  monastic 
CelibAcy.    or  other  solemn  vows,  celibacy  becomes 
so  binding  a  duty  that  any  subsequent 
marriage  is  null  and  void.  (2)  Any  one  in  minor  or- 
ders who  marries  loses  his  office  and  the  right  to  go 
on  to  major  orders,  but  the  marriage  is  valid.     (3) 
Persons  already  married  may  receive  the  minor 
orders  if  they  have  the  intention  of  proceeding  to 
the  major,  and  show  this  by  taking  a  vow  of  per- 
petual abstinence;  but  the  promotion  to  the  higher 
orders  can  only  take  place  when  the  wife  expresses 
her  willingness  to  go  into  a  convent  and  take  the 
veil.    The  Council  of  Trent  further  lays  down  that 
the  fimctions  of  the  minor  orders  may  be  per- 
formed by  married  men  in  default  of  unmarri^ — 
though  not  by  those  who  are  living  with  a  second 
wife.     In  the  nineteenth  oeutuiy  attempts  were 
not     lacking,   even  within   the   Roman   Catholic 
Church,  to  bring  about  the  abolition  of  celibacy. 
They    were    rather    hindered     than    helped    by 
temporal  governments,  and  always  firmly  rejected 
by  Rome.     Celibacy  has  been  abolished  among  the 
Old  Catholics;  and  modem  legislation  in  Germany, 
France,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  Switzeriand  authorises 
the  marriage  both  of  priests  and  of  those  who  have 
taken  a  solemn  vow  of  chastity.     Austria,  Spain, 
and    Portugal    still    forbid    it.    The    evangelical 
churches  at  the  very  outset  released 
6.  Protes-  their  clergy  from   the   obligation  of 
tant  Rejec-  celibacy,  professing  to  find  no  validity 
tion  of     in  the  arguments  adduced  in  its  favor 
Celibacy,    on  the   Roman   side.    The    question 
is    carefully    discussed    and    decided 
against  the  Roman  practise  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession (xxiii.)   and  the  Apology   (vi.).      Similar 
ground  is  taken  in  Art.  xxxvii.  of  the  first  Helvetic 
Confession  and  Art.  xxix.  of  the  second,  as  well  as 
in  Art.  xxxii.  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.     Like- 
wise disapproval  is  expressed  of  binding  vows  of 
celiba'y  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  (xxvii.)  and 
Apology  (xi.).  (E.  Friedbero.) 

Bibuoobafbt:  The  book  best  worth  oonsulting  from  the 
Protestant  standpoint  is  H.  C.  Lea,  Sacerdotal  Celibacy  in 
ihe  Chrietian  Church,  3d  ed.,  2  vols..  London  and  New 
York,  1907;  for  the  CathoUc  presentation  consult  Migne, 
Eneydopidie  TMohgiQue,  vol.  xxv.,  "Otflibat,"  Paris. 
1856;  Dictionnaire  de  Thiologie  eatholique,  "  CAibat  eccl^ 
siastique."  ib.  1005.  Other  treatises  are:  J.  Schmitt. 
Der  Prieelercdlibat,  MQnster.  1870;  P.  M.  R.  des  Pilliers, 
Le  Cdibal  eecUeiaetique,  Chamb^ry,  1886;  CUrieai  Celibacy, 
Oxford.  1801;  F.  Chavard,  Le  Cilibat,  le  prHre  el  la 
femme,  Paris.  1804;  L.  Booquet.  Le  Cilibat  aocIMosfi^iM 
iuequ'au  eoncUe  de  Trente,  Paris.  1805;  A.  Vassal.  Le 
Cilibat  eccUnaMHque  au  premier  eiide  de  Viglim,  ib.  1806; 
Beeay  on  the  Law  of  Celibacy,  Woro&ster,  n.d.;  E.  Carry. 
Le  C&ibat  eccUeiaetique  devant  Vhietoire  el  devarU  la 
eonecienee,  Paris.  1005:  E.  A.  Sperry.  An  OuUine  of  Oie 
HieL  of  Clerical  Celibacy  in  Weetem  Europe  to  Ute 
CouncU  of  Trent,  New  York.  1006  (contains  a  bibliog- 
raphy). On  the  change  of  status  in  the  Eng.  Church 
consult  J.  Collier,  Ecdeeiaetieal  Hietory,  ii.  262  nqq..  Lon- 
don, 1714.  and  Q.  Burnet,  Hietory  of  the  Reformation, 
iL  84  sqq..  ib.  1715.  The  subject  of  celibacy  is  treated 
at  greater  or  less  length  in  the  church  histories,  e.g.,  Nean- 
der,  Chriatian  Church,  consult  the  Iiulex. 


CELL:  Usually  the  room  or  hut  in  viudi  1 
monk,  nun,  hennit,  or  friar  lives,  but  also  a  deps.i 
ency  of  a  large  monasteiy,  ruled  by  a  prior,  deia, 
or  abbot,  who  was  the  virtual  choice  of  the  abbot 
of  the  mother  house.  Such  "cells"  were  fre- 
quently country  houses  which  with  the  grouuk 
were  bestowed  upon  the  abbey  as  a  source  of  m* 
enue,  as  the  monks  living  therein  had  to  paj  & 
certain  part  of  their  revenue  to  the  mother  hocse 
Sometimes  the  "  cell "  was  an  important  buildinz 
as  Tynemouth  Priory  near  Newcastle,  Eo^LaDd 
which  was  a  "  cell "  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St. 
Alban's  (20  m.n.of  London);  orBeimondaer^vfaicL 
was  a  "  cell  "  of  the  Quniac  abbey  of  La  Charite 
(140  m.  s.  of  Paris).  Originally  a  "  cell "  was  in 
oratory  erected  over  the  grave  of  a  martyr  or  samt. 

CELLARIUS.    See  Borrhaus,  Mabtin. 

CELLITES  (CELLITA).     See   Aleziakb;  Bdt 

HARD6,  BeOUINES. 

CELSTTS:  A  pagan  philooopher  and  controrer 
sialist  against  Christianity.  In  the  period  of  peta 
which  the  Church  enjoyed  under  the  emperor 
Philip  in  the  year  248,  Origen  brought  to  notiet 
by  an  exhaustive  reply  (the  Contra  CeUumi  • 
treatise  written  about  seventy  years  eariier  agaiost 
Christianity  by  a  highly  educated  Platonist  IV 
occasion  of  this  reply  may  have  been  the  celebra- 
tion in  that  jrear  of  the  thousandth  anniversaiT 
of  the  founding  of  Rome,  which  gave  the  C3iristia&» 
reason  to  fear  religious  excitement  on  the  part  of 
the  pagan  population.  Origen  gives  the  aiguzDents 
of  Celsus  sometimes  word  for  word. 
Origen'i  sometimes  in  substance;  in  the  latter 
Contra  case  there  is  little  abbreviation  and 
Celsom.  not  many  omissions,  so  that  there  is 
very  fair  material  for  an  attempt  tc 
reconstruct  the  original  text  of  Cdsus.  This  at- 
tempt was  first  made,  not  very  systematically  or 
successfully,  by  Jachniann  in  1836;  in  1873  Keisi 
undertook  a  restoration  of  Celsus  in  a  Gennan 
version  which,  in  spite  of  its  defects,  has  many 
merits,  and  this  was  partially  improved  on  in  the 
French  version  of  Aub6  in  1878.  The  recent  leooo- 
struction  by  Neumann  in  the  Greek  shows  that  not 
more  than  one-tenth  of  the  original  has  been  lost, 
and  that  three-fourths  of  what  we  have  is  word- 
for-word  quotation. 

The  ''  True  IMscourse  "  of  Celsus  was  oomposRi 
in  the  last  years  of  Marcus  Aurelius.    It  notices 
the  rescript  of  that  emperor,  issued  in  177  (or  176  at 
the  earliest),  against  popular  tumults  caused  by 
the  introduction  of  a  new  religion  (viii.  69)-   Id 
viii.  71  the  author  speaks  of  two  emperors  reigDms 
at  the  time,  which  fixes  the  date  in  the  joint  role 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus,  from  177  to 
180.     He  was  thus  at  least  a  contemporary  of  the 
Celsus  to  whom  Lucian  dedicated  his  "Alexan- 
der," and  some  have  supposed  the  two  to  be  iden- 
tical.   Lucian's  friend,  however,  ww 
The  ''True  an  Epictuean,  while  our  Oeto,  '^ 
Discourse  "spite  of  Origen,   stands  out  deaitj 
of  Celsus.   as  a  Platonist;   and  the  boob  ^'* 
fidyuv    (Lucian,  Alex.,  hd.;    OngP^- 
i.    68,    Kord   futydac)  do  not  seem  to  fit  in  with 
the  conception  and  tone  of  the  "  True  Diacoune." 


4e7 


REIJGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oellbacy 
Oelsus 


Tlie  latter,  though  usually  divided  into  eight  books, 
seems  to  have  been  but  one  originally;    and,  ac- 
cording to  Origen  (viii.  76),  Celsus  intended  to  write 
another,  **  in  which  he  engaged  to  supply  prac- 
tical rules  of  living  to  those  who  felt  disposed  to 
embrace  his  opinions/'     In  iv.  36  Origen  mentions 
t  wo  more  books  written  by  a  Celsus  whose  identity 
>\'ith  ours  he  leaves  uncertain;   but  as  he  seems  to 
know  nothing  of  these,  it  is  at  least  possible  that 
he  has  misunderstood  a  notice  referring  to  the  two 
already  mentioned.     Keim,  followed  by  P^lagaud, 
places  the  home  of  Celsus  in  the  West,  probably 
in  Rome,  where  he  thinks  the  "  True  Discourse  " 
^^as  written — ^partly  on  the  ground  that  the  Jew 
depicted  by  Celsus  is  a  Roman  and  not  an  Eastern 
Jew.     The  old  view,  adopted  .also  by  Aub6,  that 
the  book  was  composed  in  the  East,  probably  in 
Alexandria,  rested  upon  its  accurate  knowledge 
of  Egypt;    and  this  view  might  be  supported  by 
the  contention  that  as  a  matter  of  fact  Celsus's 
Jew  is  really  not  the  Roman  type,  but  belongs  to 
those  Eastern  Jewish  circles  in  which  the  doctrine 
of    the  Logos  was  familiar;  thus  in  Origen,  ii.  31, 
the  Jew  of  Celsus  says,  "  If  your  Logos  is  the  Son 
of  God,  we  also  give  our  assent  to  the  same." 

After  the  introduction,  there  follow  objections 
against  Christianity  from  the  Jewish  standpoint, 
which  should  be  compared  with  Justin's  dialogue 
with   Trypho.     With  book  ill.   begins  the  direct 
attack,  which  is  directed  not  against  Christianity 
alone,  but  also  against  Judaism,  although  a  slight 
preference  is  shown  for  the  latter.     Celsus  shows 
a  good  knowledge  of  Genesis  and  Exodus;    Aub^ 
thinks  he  can  prove  an  acquaintance  with  the  Proph- 
ets and  with  the  Psalms,  and  a  reference  to  Jonah 
and  Daniel  is  indeed  foimd  in  vii.  53.    His  knowl- 
edge of  Christianity  is  sitffident  to  be 
Criticism    of  some  value  to  the  historian  of  to-day, 
of  and  Hamack  has  used  it  in  his  Dog- 

Celsus.  mengeschichU.  The  manner  in  which 
Celsus  employs  the  New  Testament 
corresponds  to  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
canon  which  the  Acts  of  the  Martyrs  of  Scili  show 
in  180.  He  knew  and  used  our  Gospels,  showing 
a  preference  for  the  synoptic  type;  his  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Acts  is  disputed,  while  familiarity 
with  Pauline  ideas,  though  not  with  the  epistles 
themselves,  is  generally  admitted.  Gnosticism 
he  knew  well;  his  relation  to  Marcion  needs  further 
investigation.  His  whole  criticism  is  not  irre- 
ligious; it  is  that  of  a  pious  pagan  of  Platonic 
tendencies,  though  his  Platonism  is  that  of  his  age, 
as  we  meet  with  it,  for  example,  in  Plutarch.  It 
is  the  religion  of  well-to-do,  self-confident  people, 
and  shows  no  conception  of  those  crying  needs  of 
the  time  which  helped  Christianity  to  spread  so 
rapidly,  of  the  reasons  why  it  was  welcomed  by  the 
poor  and  oppressed.  Again,  he  fails  to  appreciate 
the  significance  of  the  church  idea,  though  he  under- 
stands the  relation  of  the  local  communities  to  the 
Church  at  large  (v.  59,  61),  and  knows  that  all 
Christians  do  not  belong  to  the  latter  (iii.  12). 
But  it  presents  itself  to  him  rather  in  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  Gnostic  sects  than  as  a  great  bond  of 
unity,  whose  importance  he  undervalues  while 
seeing  in  the  conflict  of  sects  a  sign  of  weakness. 


Still,  Christianity  seems  to  him  important  enough 
to  make  him  desirous  of  winning  bade  its  adherents; 
and  he  closes,  not,  as  he  began  (i.  1),  with  the  ac- 
cusation of  secret  and  illegal  association,  but  with 
the  hope  that  an  understanding  may  be  reached. 

The  book  had  no  influence  on  the  attitude  of  the 
Roman  government,  and  SQarcely  a  trace  of  ac- 
quaintance with  it  can  be  found  in  classical  litera- 
ture. Such  traces  have  been  seen, 
Later       on  the  other  hand,  in  Minucius  Felix 

Histoiy  and  in  the  Apologeticum  of  Tertullian; 
of  His  but  Origen  was  the  first  to  call  gen- 
Work,  eral  attention  to  it.  The  Neopla- 
tonic  controversialists  naturally  went 
back  to  it;  certain  fundamental  thoughts  reappear 
in  Porphyry,  whom  Julian  follows,  and  the  Adyo* 
<^hi7Jidcii  ("Truth-loving  Discourses")  of  Hiero- 
cles  point  to  it  in  their  very  title.  Meantime, 
however,  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  had 
been  completed,  and  it  was  possible  for  assaults  on 
Christianity  to  take  the  form  of  assaults  on  its 
sacred  writings.  Later  Christian  antiquity  saw 
the  typical  literary  attack  from  the  pagan  side  not 
in  Celsus  but  in  Porphyry;  Theodosius  II.  ordered 
the  books  of  Porphyiy,  not  those  of  Celsus  or  of 
Julian,  to  be  burned  in  448.     (K  1.  Neumann.) 

According  to  the  account  of  Origen,  the  principal 
charges  brought  by  Celsus  against  Christianity 
were  as  follows.  The  Christians  were  members  of 
illegal  secret  associations  which  were  necessary  to 
them  because  they  would  suffer  death  if  their 
practises  were  known.  The  origins  of  Christianity 
were  derived  from  secondary  sources,  some  of  these 
even  barbarous,  and  Moses  himself  simply  borrowed 
the  ordinances  which  he  promulgated.  The  al- 
leged divinity  of  Jesus  can  not  be  proved  from  his 
miracles,  since  they  were  the  mere  tricks  of  a 
juggler,  while  the  indications  of  his  life  and  charac- 
ter are  equally  against  the  doctrine.  Jewish  con- 
verts to  Christianity  were  ipso  facto  renegades, 
since  the  new  religion  was  no  improvement  upon 
the  old.  Both  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  religions 
were  really  rebellious  against  the  state.  The 
alleged  theophanies  were  really  the  appearances 
of  demons,  and  the  Christian  eschatology  is  ir- 
rational and  incredible. 

Bibliography:  The  best  edition  of  Origen's  Contra  CtUum 
ia  by  P.  Koetschau,  Leiprie,  1899,  and  the  trauBUtion  is 
meet  accessible  in  ANF,  iv.  396  sqq.  T.  Keim,  CtUnu'  Wok- 
rea  Worl^  Zurich.  1893,  puts  together  in  German  the  quota- 
tions by  Origen  and  so  reconstructs  the  original  text.  Con- 
sult: K.  R.  Jachmann.  />«  CeUo  philotapko,  KOnigsberg, 
1836;  B.  Aub^.  La  PoUmiqiie  palenne  hla/lndu  deuxiime 
Biieie,  Paris,  1878;  E.  Pelagaud,  Un  contervateur  au  9eoond 
•i^de.  £tude  sur  CeUe,  Lyons,  1878;  C.  Bigg,  Chrutian 
PUUoniHM  of  Alexandria,  pp.  254-268.  Oxford.  1886; 
idem.  Neoplatonitm,  pp.  98-118.  London.  1895;  K.  J. 
Neumann,  Der  rdmiBche  Stoat  und  die  alloemeine  KirtJie^ 
i.  58-59.  256-273.  Leipsic.  1890;  J.  A.  Robinson,  On  the 
Text  of  Origen  contra  Celeum,  in  Journal  of  PhilolooVt 
zviii.  (1890)  288-296;  P.  Koetschau.  Die  Oliederung  dee 
AUthee  Logoe  dee  Celeue,  in  JPT,  xviii.  (1892)  604-632;  J. 
Patrick,  Apology  of  Origen,  Edinburgh.  1892;  F.  M.  MQIIer, 
Die  wahre  Oeeehichte  dee  COeue,  in  Deuteche  Runde(kau, 
Ixxxiv.  (1895)  7^-97;  Harnack.  Hietory  of  Dogma,  vols. 
i.-ii.,  paanm,  Boston,  1895-97;  idem.  Litteratur,  II.  L 
314-315;  A.  C.  MeOiffert.  in  his  edition  of  Eusebitti, 
NPNP,  L  278-279;  Moeller.  ChrieHan  Chwi%,  i.  169-170; 
Neander,  ChrtuHan  Church,  vol.  i.,  passim;  flchaff,  Ckrie* 
Han  Chwxh,  iL  8(^-93;   DCB,  i.  435-436. 


0«ltio  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


468 


CELTIC  CHURCH  IN  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


L  Origin  and  Early  History,  to  e.  500. 
1.  In  Britain. 

HereuM  (i  1). 
2>  In  Ireland. 

Native  Tradition  of  Origin  (i  1). 
The  Tradition  Unreliable  (i  2). 
Proeper's  Palladium  the  Same  as 

Patrick  (i  3). 
True  Origin  of  the  Iriah  Church 

(14). 
St.  Patrick  (i  6). 
3.  In  North  Britain  (Alba). 
n.  Development   and   Full   Maturity, 
600-800. 
1.  In  Britain. 
The  Churdi  in  Wales  (i  1). 


The  British  Church  and  Augustine 
(§2). 
2.  In  Ireland  and  North  Britain. 

The  Irish  Church  not  Revived  from 
Wales  in  the  Sixth  Century  (i  1). 

Learning  of  the  Irish  Monks  (i  2). 

Travels    and   Missionary    Labors 
(18). 

North  Britain  Christianised  (§  4). 

Relations  with  Rome  (i  5). 

The  Patrick  Legend  (i  6). 

Conforms  to  Roman  Uaage  (i  7). 
III.  Complete  Assimilation  to  the  Ro- 
man Church,  800-1200. 

1.  In  Wales. 

2.  In  Ireland. 


Incursioiis  of  the  No 
Irish    Monks    oi 

(*2). 
Rise  of  Armach  (|  3). 
The  Cukiees  (|  4). 
Final  Subjection  to  Rome  (f  5>. 
3.  In  North  Britain. 
IV.  Some  General  Consideratiaiia. 
Reason  for  the  Divetgences  iram 

Rome  (I  1). 
Consecration  by  a  Singie  Kibop 

(«2). 
Monastic  Character  of    the  hak 

Church  (f  3). 
The  Celtic  and  Bocnan  Spirit  (S  4.. 
(«  5). 


By  the  Celtic  Church  in  Britain  and  Ireland  is 
meant  the  Christian  Church  which  existed  in  parts 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  before  the  mission  of 
Augustine  (597),  and  which  for  some  time  thereafter 
maintained  its  independence  by  the  side  of  the  new 
An^o-Roman  Chureh.  It  comprises  two  branches, 
one  in  Roman  Britain  and  a  continuation  of  it  in 
Wales,  the  other  in  Ireland  and  Alba  (Scotland). 

L  Originand Early Hi8toxy,toc.500.—l.  In  Brit- 
ain: There  is  no  trustworthy  account  of  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity  into  Britain.  That  the 
British  Chureh  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century 
had  no  knowledge  or  tradition  of  the  time  or  man- 
ner may  be  inferred  from  the  silence  of  GQdas. 
The  Lucius  story  may  be  dismissed  at  once  as 
fabulous  (see  EixirrHERnB;  Chxtr,  BmHOPRic  of). 
Foreign  writers  give  no  more  reliable  infonnation 
than  the  native  sources.  The  arguments  of  Warren 
(pp.  46-62)  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Britain  from  Greek  churches  in  Lyons  and 
A^enne  as  a  consequence  of  the  persecutions  under 
Marcus  Aurelius  are  not  convincing  [cf.  F.  Haver- 
field,  Early  British  Christianity ,  in  The  English 
Historical  Review,  xi.  (1896)  418,  n.  2].  It  is  more 
probable  that  the  Gospel  came  to  the  island  by 
ordinary  intercourse  with  other  4X)imtrie8,  and  Gaul 
and  the  Lower  Rhine  lands  are  those  of  which  it  is 
most  natural  to  think.  Had  there  been  organised 
or  individual  missionaiy  effort,  tradition  would 
have  preserved  names.  That  Christianity  was 
widely  spread  in  Britain  by  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  can  hardly  be  inf ened  from  the 
notices  in  Tertullian  and  Origen  (Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  i.  3-^),  which  are  too  rhetorical  to  be  safe 
testimonies.  It  does  seem  certain,  however,  that 
much  progress  was  made  during  the  third  century. 
This  rests,  not  upon  the  sixth-century  tradition 
of  martyra  in  Britain  during  the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution, which  probably  did  not  have  any  note- 
worthy extension  into  Britain  (cf.  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  i.  5-6),  but  upon  the  fact  that  three 
bishops,  a  presbyter,  and  a  deacon  from  York, 
Lincoln  [according  to  others  Colchester  or  Carieon- 
on-Usk],  and  London  took  part  in  the  Synod  of 
Aries  in  816  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.  7).  The 
towns  from  which  they  came  as  well  as  the  localities 
assigned  for  the  martyrdoms  mentioned  by  Gildas 
rSt.  Albans,  Carleon-on-Usk)  show  distinctly  that 
Christianity  first  took  firm  foothold  in  the  cities 
and  stations  of  the  Roman  highways. 


The  records  are  sufficient  to  show  that  thiougjlK>ut 
the  fourth  century  there  was  a  weU-organued 
Church  in  Britain  which  stood  in  constant  touct 
with  the  rest  of  the  Church,  particulariy  in  GM 
and  considered  itself  an  active  member  of  that 
body  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.  7-12).  Britisii 
bishops  attended  the  synod  summoned  at  Ariminnin 
(Rimioi)  by  Constantius  in  359  [Haddan  and  Stubbs. 
i.  9-10],  and  their  presence  shows  that  their  Church 
was  ditiwn  into  general  doctrinal  disputes.  Gikls£ 
maintains  that  it  was  much  injured  by  Arianks 
(p.  32,  11.  20-25).  His  testimony  is  controverted 
by  that  of  Hilary  of  Poitters  (c  35S] 
1.  Heresies,  and  Athanasius  (363;  both  in  Had- 
dan and  Stubbs,  L  7,  9).  But  it  must 
be  admitted  that  Arian  views  found  acceptance  in 
Britain  during  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  oentuiy, 
and  as  the  Roman  power  was  waning  there  from 
that  time  on,  it  is  conceivable  that  such  views  may 
have  lingered  and  foimd  expression  as  late  as  GOQ, 
possibly  in  the  bi4>tismal  formula  (cf.  F.  C.  Cocy- 
beare.  The  Character  of  the  Heresy  of  the  E<jHy 
British  Church,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society 
of  Cymmrodarian,  1897-98,  pp.  84-117).  It  is 
noteworthy  that  a  life  of  GUdas  written  in  the 
eleventh  century,  but  based  upon  materials  taksi 
from  the  sixth  century,  and  a  life  of  Patrick  of 
the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century  lay  stress 
on  their  devotion  to  the  Holy  Trinity  (Chronica 
minora,  iii.  95,  U.  8-9;  TripartiU  lAfe,  ii  273, 
U.  12-13;  286,  U.  6-7);  and  Gregory  the  Great 
is  said  to  have  suspected  Columba  of  not  being 
quite  sound  in  the  doctrine  (Benuird  and  AtkiD- 
son,  i.  64,  ii.  25).  It  is  certain  that  Pelagianian 
appeared  in  Britain  during  the  'fifth  century  (see 
Aqricola).  Germanus  (q.v.),  bishop  of  Auxerre, 
was  sent  thither  in  429,  and  "  overthrew  the  her- 
etics and  directed  the  Britons  to  the  Catholic 
faith"  (Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  C^onicfe,  anno  429). 
Some  years  later,  on  a  second  mission,  he  com- 
pleted the  extirpation  of  Pelagianism  in  the  island 
(Vita  Germani,  used  by  Bede,  i.  17,  21).  Gildas» 
writing  a  century  later,  does  not  mention  the  heresy. 
For  a  hundred  years  after  the  mission  of  Germanus 
nothing  is  heard  of  the  Church  in  Britain.  Tbe 
land  was  abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  the  Anglo* 
Saxon  conquest  caused  Christianity  to  disappesr 
completely  from  the  East  With  those  Britcsis 
who  kept  their  independence  it  found  a  refuge  in 
the  mountaios  of  the  West,  whence  it  gradual]/ 


469 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeltlo  Ohnroh 


comes  again  into  view  in  the  sixth  century  (see 
below,  II.,  1). 

2.  In  Ireland:    There  is  native  tradition  of  the 

introduction  of  Christianity  into  Ireland,  the  two 

oldest  records  of  which  can  scarcely 

irS«^*  be  dated  earlier  than  the  last  quar- 

Tirramuon  ^^  ^^    ^^^    seventh    century.    They 

Origin.  ^^  W  ^h®  ^o  of  Patrick,  written 
by  M uirchu  Maccu-Machtheni  at  the 
wish  of  Bishop  Aed  of  Sletty  (d.  698),  and  (2)  the 
collections  of  a  certain  Tirechan,  a  pupil  of  Ultan 
of  Ardbrechan  (d.  656),  based  upon  information 
about  Patrick  which  his  teacher  had  communi- 
cated to  him  personally  or  had  left  in  his  papers. 
Both  records,  but  with  additions  and  amplificar 
tioDs,  are  in  the  Book  of  Armagh  {Liber  ArdriKP- 
chaniu)f  the  several  parts  of  which  were  written  be- 
tween 807  and  846.  In  brief  this  native  tradition 
is  as  follows:  In  431  Ireland  was  entirely  heathen. 
In  that  year  Pope  Celestine  I.  sent  a  certain  Pal- 
ladius  to  preach  to  the  people,  but  he  turned  back 
and  died  in  Britain.  His  place  was  at  once  (c. 
432)  taken  by  a  Briton,  Patrick,  who  in  his  youth 
had  been  a  prisoner  in  Ireland.  He  evangelized 
the  entire  land,  founded  churches  everywhere, 
ordained  bishops  and  presbyters,  and  died  (450) 
universally  revered  as  the  head  of  the  Chureh,  in 
which  he  held  a  sort  of  metropolitan  rank,  with  his 
see  at  Armagh  in  Ulster. 

Eveiything  discredits  the  authenticity  of  this 
tradition.  (1)  It  represents  Patrick  as  a  person- 
ality comparable  to  Martin  of  Tours  or  Columba, 
the  apostle  to  the  Picts;  such  men  do  not  fail  to 
find  a  biographer  among  their  admirers  and  asso- 
ciates; their  fame  grows  and  is  spread 
2.  The  1^  ^jjg  jjgj^  generation.  But  the  name 
'^^^^  of  Patrick  does  not  appear  tiU  the 
aWaT'  second  third  of  the  seventh  century, 
and  then  it  is  in  the  letter  of  Cum- 
mian  (q.v.)  to  the  abbot  Seghine  of  lona,  in  con- 
nection with  the  introduction  of  the  Dionysian  (I) 
paschal  computation,  which  is  ascribed  to  him. 
He  is  not  mentioned  in  the  full  report  of  the  Synod 
of  Whitby  (664),  although  the  arguments  were 
historical  and  the  Irish  referred  to  the  traditions 
of  their  forefathers  and  to  Columba  (Bede,  iii.  25). 
Bede  must  have  been  well  informed  concerning  the 
Chureh  in  North  Ireland  and  his  interest  in  the 
beginnings  of  Christianity  in  the  British  Isles  was 
keen;  yet  he  says  nothing  about  Patrick  in  his 
Historia  ecduiasHca.  It  seems  impossible  that 
there  can  have  existed  in  the  North  of  Ireland  in 
the  seventh  century  a  tradition  of  a  founder  of  the 
Irish  Chureh  called  Patrick.  And  yet  it  is  in 
the  North  (at  Armagh)  that  the  tradition  (the  first 
reports  of  which  come  from  the  South)  represents 
Patrick  as  having  his  see  and  ending  his  days. 
(2)  The  tradition  describes  the  Irish  Church  as 
epitcopal,  dependent  on  Patrick's  see  of  Armagh. 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  Church  of  Colimiba 
and  of  Finnian  of  Gonard,  i.e.,  from  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  is  a  numasHc  church 
without  central  organization  and  with  no  traces 
of  such  a  past  as  the  tradition  presupposes. 
How  intensely  the  Irish  cUng  to  the  customs  of 


their  fathers  was  shown  at  Whitby;   it  took  four 
hundred  years  to  transform  this  monastic  chureh 
of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  even  after  the 
theoretical  acceptance  of  an  episcopal  constitution. 
If,  then,  the  organisation  was  so  fundamentally 
changed  within  one  generation,  as  it  must  have  been 
if  the  tradition  be  correct,  an  explanation  is  needed. 
And   none   b   forthcoming.    (3)   There   ia   good 
reason  to  believe  that  Irehmd  was  not  entirely 
heathen  in  431.    The  island  is  easily  accessible  from 
Britain;   and  active  intercourse,  particularly  be- 
tween the  Southwest  of  Britain  and  the  Southeast 
of  Ireland,  existed  as  eariy  as  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries  (cf.  Zimmer,  Nenniua  vindicatus,  pp.  85- 
93,  Beriin,   1893;   Euno  Meyer,  Early  Relationa 
Between  Gael  and  Brython,  m  the  Tranaaetione  of 
the  Society  of  Cymmrodorion,  1895-96,  pp.  55-^). 
As  has  been  seen,  there  was  a  well-organised 
British  Church  in  the  fourth  century.    It  is  natural 
to  assume,  then,  that  Christianity  was  carried  to 
Ireland  from  Britain  before  the  time  assigned  to 
Patrick.    And  the  assumption  is  corroborated  by 
certain  saints'  lives,  particulariy  those  of  Dedan, 
Ailbe,  Ibhar,  Ciaran,  and  Abban  (ASB,  July,  y. 
590-608;    Sept,  iv.  26-31;   Apr.,  iii.  173;    Mar., 
i.  389-^99;    Oct.,  xii.  270-293;    cf.  also  Ussher, 
Aniiquitates,  ed.  of  1687,  pp.  408  sqq.).    In  all  these 
lives  Patrick  figures  as  "Archbishop  of  Ireland," 
but  this  is  due  to  the  time  of  redaction.    These 
same  men  are  not  only  Patrick's  contemporaries, 
but  older  contemporaries,  independent  of  him,  and 
recognised  as  the  apostles  of  their  districts.    Their 
locality  is  the  Southeast,  the  coast  counties  of 
Wicklow,  Wexford,  and  Waterford,  and  the  ad- 
joining inland  counties  of  Kilkenny  and  Tipperaiy, 
where  local  testimonies  to  their  cult  still  survive. 
Further  evidence  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  two  lives  of  Patrick,  mentioned  above,  limit 
his  activity  to  the  North.    The  Patrick  legend 
originated  in  the  South  and  was  forced  upon  the 
North  from  the  time  of  Cununian's  letter,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  win  over  the  North  Irish  to  conformity 
with  the  Roman  Church.    But  this  alone  does  not 
explain  the  silence  of  the  lives  concerning  the  South. 
It  must  be  that,  while  the  Southemere  were  willing 
to  acknowledge  Patrick  theoretically  as  apostle 
of  the  North  with  his  see  at  Armagh,  hoping  there- 
by to  win  over  the  mainstay  of  the  opposing  party, 
the  abbot-bishop  of  Armagh,  the  traditions  in  the 
South  concerning  the  founders  of  the  monasteries 
there  were  too  well  known  to  admit  of  a  description 
of  Patrick  as  the  apostle  of  the  South.    A  third 
testimony  is  the  fact  that  Ireland  cherished  the 
memoiy  of  the  heredaroh  Pelagius  and  was  weU 
acquainted  with  his  writings  (cf.  Bede,  ii.  19).    In 
the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  the  Irish 
Church  possessed  the  original  unmutilated  com- 
mentary of  Pelagius  (when  it  had  disappeared 
everywhere  else  in  the  West)  and  knew  that  Pela- 
gius was  the  author.    Pelagius  may  himself  have 
been  an  Irishman  (cf.  Jerome,  in  MPL,  xxiv.  682a, 
758b).    He  was  a  sincere  and  earnest  thinker  and 
did  not  adopt  heretical  views  until  he  went  to 
Rome  (c.  400).    His  learning  was  great  and  would, 
naturally  gratify  the  pride  of  his  oountiymen.    If  he 


Ottltio  Ohoroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


47C' 


came  from  a  monastery  of  southeastern  Ireland, 
it  is  easy  to  understand  how  his  books  were  brought 
thither  and  how  they  came  to  be  preserved.  But, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  nationality  of  Pela- 
gius,  his  celebrity  in  Ireland  is  incompatible  with 
the  Patrick  legend.  Felagianism  was  annihilated 
in  the  Roman  State  and  See  by  Honorius  and 
Zosimus  in  418.  In  429  Germanus  successfully 
combated  it  in  Britain.  If,  then,  Ireland  was  wholly 
heathen  in  431  and  Patrick  Christianised  the  land 
and  organised  its  Church,  he  must  himself  have 
carried  Pelagianism  thither — ^which  is,  of  course, 
absurd.  But  if  the  South  was  already  Christian 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  fifth  century,  it  is  quite 
comprehensible  how  Felagianism  found  its  wav  to 
ihe  island.  (4)  Linguistic  facts  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity came  to  Ireland  from  Britain.  British 
and  Irish  are  Celtic  tongues,  but  certain  diCFerences 
of  sound  had  developed  by  the  fourth  century. 
Ecclesiastical  and  other  loan-words,  introduced  into 
Irish  from  Latin  with  the  Christian  religion,  show 
forms  hard  to  explain  if  they  came  directly  from 
the  Latin,  but  quite  comprehensible  if  they  came, 
through  the  medium  of  British  (cf.  GUterbock, 
Lateiniache  Lehnworter  im  Iri9cken,  pp.  01  sqq. 
Leipsic,  1882).  Patrick  himself  was  a  Briton,  it  is 
true;  but  he  is  said  to  have  studied  on  the  Conti- 
nent, and  his  associates  are  represented  as  of  Ro- 
mance origin  (Tripartite  Life,  ii.  273,  305;  Haddaa 
and  Stubbs,  ii.  292).  (5)  Among  the  writings  attrib- 
uted to  the  supposed  apostle  of  Ireland  are  two, 
the  so-called  '*  Confession  "  and  the  **  Epistle  Con- 
cerning Coroticus,''  which  are  undoubtedly  authen- 
tic. They  are  tbs  work  of  a  man  "  unlearned  and 
rustic,  not  at  all  such  a  one  as  later  times  extolled 
with  the  highest  praises  "  (SchOll,  p.  71;  cf.  p.  68),  or 
one  who  could  have  founded  in  the  fifth  century 
the  Irish  Church — a  Church  in  which  from  the 
sixth  to  the  ninth  century  Christian  and  classical 
learning  were  united  as  nowhere  else  in  the  West. 
Moreover,  the  **  Confession  "  is  the  work  of  a  man 
looking  back  upon  a  long  life,  complaining  bitterly 
of  ingratitude,  trying  to  defend  himself  from  the 
reprcMbch  of  having  presumed  to  undertake  a  calling 
above  his  capabilities,  and  threatening  to  turn  his 
back  on  Ireland  because  he  recognises  the  failure  of 
his  life's  work  there.  And  he  makes  not  the  slight- 
est mention  of  ever  having  consecrated  a  bishop  or 
established  a  single  church  in  the  island.  (6) 
Finally  there  is  the  definite  statement  of  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine  (Chron.,  anno  431)  that  Pope  Celestine 
"  ordained  Palladius  and  sent  him  as  their  first 
bishop  to  the  Irish  believers  in  Christ."  Prosper 
was  probably  in  Rome  in  431  and  issued  the  first 
edition  of  his  "  Chronicle,''  which  contains  the 
statement  quoted,  in  433.  Here  then  is  a  record, 
as  certain  and  credible  as  may  be,  which  con* 
firms  the  supposition  that  the  Irish,  in  part  at  any 
rate,  were  Christians  in  431.  The  meaning  of 
Prosper 's  expression  "  first  bishop  "  is  dear,  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  organization  of  the  Irish  Church. 
Palladius  was  the  first  bishop  canonically  ordained 
according  to  Proeper's  view,  in  distinction  from 
the  missionary  and  monastic  bishops  of  the  Irish 
Church  during  the  fifth  century.  In  his  later 
Jjiber  contra   coUatorem   (written   probably   about 


437),  in  the  course  of  a  fulsome  eulpgy  of  CeieEtinr 
Proe^)er  states  that  "  while  he  [Celestine]  endeav- 
ored to  keep  the  Roman  island  [Britain]  CsthoL-: 
he  made  also  the  barbarous  island  [Ireland]  Chn*- 
tian"  (in  AfPL,  Ii.  271b-c).  But  a  rfietork£ 
statement  of  this  sort  does  not  impair  the  vahje 
of  the  careful  entry  in  the  "  Chronide."  More- 
over, the  supposition  that  Celestine  ordjuned  i 
simple  deacon — ^for  such  Palladius  still  was  in  431— 
as  bishop  of  a  land  considered  wholly  heathen  is  in 
itself  untenable.  It  was  not  customaiy  to  eoo- 
secrate  "  bishops  "  for  lands  where  there  were  no 
Christians.  Augustine  was  sent  by  Gregory  to 
preach  to  the  Angles;  but  he  was  not  eonsecratea 
till  he  had  made  converts  among  them. 

Before  attempting  to  reconstruct  the  eariy  hi-^ 

tory  of  Christianity  in  Ireland,  it  must  be  noted  ttax 

the  historical  Patrick  and  Prosper.* 

8.  ProflpeT*s  PaUadius     are     the     same.     Various 

f!*T?*^'**  reasons  may  be  mentioned:    (1)  Pal- 
the  Same    ...  •  »^  »      »  - 

as  Pat-  1*^"^  ^^'^^  ^'^'^  Rome  to  the  Irti 
2^q]^  Christians  in  431;  Patrick  appearec 
in  Ireland  in  432.  In  view  of  xht 
difficulties  of  travel  of  the  time,  it  is  hardly  ood- 
ceivable  that  two  different  persons  should  have  bees 
despatched  to  Ireland  within  the  space  c^  one  year 
(2)  Palladius  went  as  the  ordained  bishop  of  tlie 
Irish  Christians;  Patrick  (in  the  first  sentence  of 
the  "  Epistle  ")  calls  himself  with  emphasis  the 
appointed  bishop  for  Ireland.  (3)  Palladius  is  fii^. 
mentioned  by  Prosper  under  the  year  429  as  in- 
stigating the  mission  of  Germanus  against  Pela- 
gianism, from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 
Palladius  was  a  Briton  and  stood  in  somewhai 
intimate  relations  with  Germanus.  This  is  true  ai 
Patrick  according  to  his  own  testimony  and  state- 
ments of  the  lives  ("  Confession,"  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  ii.  309,  U.  1-4;  Tripartite  Life,  iL  370.  U 
9-14;  fives,  ib.  ii.  272,  U.  4-5;  302,  U.  19-23) 
(4)  If  Palladius  was  a  Briton,  his  Romanised  name, 
according  to  the  general  custom  of  the  time,  shoulJ 
be  a  translation  of  his  native  name.  Hence  t:ie 
latter  should  have  some  such  signification  as  *'  war- 
like "  or  "  having  to  do  with  war."  Patrick's 
British  name  was  Sucat  (Muirchu,  Tripartite  Life,  ti. 
494, 1.  6;  Tirechan,  ibid.  302,  I.  5;  Fiacc's  Hymiu 
ibid.  404-405),  composed  of  «u,  "  good,"  and  orf. 
"  war,"  a  word  still  in  use  in  modem  Welsh  in  the 
form  hygad,  signifying  "  warlike."  If,  as  was  but 
natural,  he  resumed  his  native  name  on  reaching 
Ireland  and  the  name  Palladius  first  became  knowii 
there  from  Prosper's  work,  it  is  easy  to  understacu 
how  the  idea  of  two  persons  arose.  As  for  the  name 
Patrick,  it  is  not  improbable  that  Sucat-Palb- 
dius  assumed  it  himself.  He  was  especiaUy  procd 
of  his  alleged  aristocratic  descent  (cf .  his  words  in 
Haddan  and  Stubbs,  ii.  316,  U.  15-17;  306,  IL  26- 
27;  rrtportito  Li/e,  ii.  377,  U.  19-22;  368,  U.  1-J  . 
which,  however,  was  not  so  distinguished  as  be 
would  make  out.  In  Rome  at  that  time  the  title  I 
Patrtctiis  was  often  conferred  upon  high  offioAU  I 
of  the  empire  to  indicate  rank.  The  somewhat 
narrow-minded  Sucat,  applying  Roman  conditiocs 
to  the  little  British  country  town  of  BannavcnU, 
where  his  father  had  been  senator  or  mayor,  nuj 
have  taken  to  himself  the  title  Pofricitis.  and  so 


471 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Celtic  Church 


4.  Tme 
Origin 
of  the 
Irish 


figured  in  Ireland  as  Sucat  Patricius,  and  in  his 
writings  merely  as  Patridus.  If  this  name  entered 
into  the  Irish  vernacular  of  the  fifth  century,  ac- 
cording to  linguistic  laws  it  should  appear  in  Irish 
of  the  seventh  century  as  Cathrige  or  Cothrige. 
And  it  is  a  fact  that  a  number  of  sources  (Tirechim, 
Fiacc's  Hymn,  and  others)  state  that  Patrick  was 
also  called  Cothrige. 

As  a  result  of  the  foregoing  argument,  the  origin 
and  early  history  of  the  Celtic  Church  in  Irehmd 
seems  to  be  as  follows:  Christianity  was  brought 
to  Ireland  from  Britain  during  the 
fourth  century  as  a  natural  outcome 
of  the  dose  intercourse  between  south- 
west Britain  and  southeast  Ireland. 
Ohnroh.  The  actual  foundation  of  a  Church,  ex- 
tending over  large  parts  of  the  island, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  result  of  that  first  great 
wave  of  monasticism  which  swept  over  Gaul  and 
Britain  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  and 
carried  a  number  of  half-Romanised  Christian 
Britons  to  Ireland.  Two  facts  confirm  this  view: 
(1)  The  great  repute  of  Martin  of  Tours  in  Ire- 
land, so  great  that  in  the  ninth  century  it 
was  thought  dedrable  to  bring  the  new  apostle, 
Patrick,  into  dose  relations  with  Martin,  and  he 
was  even  accounted  the  latter's  nephew.  (2)  The 
difference  between  the  organization  of  the  Irish 
Church  and  that  of  the  British  Church  from  which 
it  sprang.  Just  how  fast  and  how  far  Christianity 
spread  can  not  be  ascertained,  but  it  seems  safe 
to  say  that  the  northeast  coast  was  Christian  about 
400.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Patrick,  in  the  two 
passages  of  the  "  Confession  "  where  he  speaks  of 
his  six  years'  captivity  in  North  Ireland  (Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  ii.  296, 11.  5  sqq.;  300, 11.  16  sqq.;  TrvpartUe 
Life,  ii.  367,  11.  7  sqq.;  361,  U.  10  sqq.),  does  not 
intimate  by  a  single  word  that  the  Irish  with  whom 
he  lived  were  heathen.  This  is  the  more  remark- 
able since  he  dwells  with  horror  on  the  paganism 
of  the  pirates  into  whose  hands  he  fell  when  he 
made  his  escape  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  ii.  301, 1.  16- 
303, 1. 2;  THvartiU  Life,  ii.  362, 1. 19-363, 1.  34).  No 
doubt  the  Saxons  drove  a  number  of  Christian 
Britons  into  Ireland,  as  well  as  to  the  Armorican 
coast  of  Gaul,  during  the  fifth  century. 

A  Briton  named  Sucat  played  a  prominent  part 

in  the  Irish  Church  during  the  second  third  of  the 

fifth    century.    The    following    out- 

riok  **"  ^*^®  ^'  ^**  ^^®  *®  based  upon  Ids  own 
statements  in  the  "Confession,"  and 
the  notices  of  Prosper,  interpreted  as  above.  He 
was  bom  about  386  in  the  borough  of  Bannaventa 
in  central  Britain,  probably  near  the  modem 
Daventry  in  Northamptonshire.  His  family  pos- 
sessed some  wealth  and  had  been  Christian  for 
generations.  He  led  an  easy  worldly  life  until  the 
age  of  sixteen  (402),  when  plimdering  Irish  carried 
him  off  as  a  slave  to  North  Ireland.  For  six  years 
(402-408)  he  was  a  swineherd.  Reflection  and 
changed  drcumstances  made  him  a  new  man.  He 
practised  austerities,  saw  visions,  and  heard  voices 
which  counseled  him  to  flee.  He  reached  the 
coast  and  fell  in  there  with  heathen  (doubtless 
Saxons),  who  took  him  to  Britain  and  led  him 
•bout  the  country  for  sixty  days.    Then  he  escaped 


and  finally  arrived  at  his  home  (408  or  409).  There 
he  became  a  deacon.  His  visions  continued,  and 
eventually  he  came  to  believe  himself  called  to  be 
the  bishop  of  Ireland.  In  his  native  place,  where 
he  was  looked  upon  as  an  enthusiast,  narrow- 
minded,  and  of  defective  education,  obstacles 
arose  to  his  consecration.  His  parents  and  friends 
were  against  it.  So  he  left  home  at  the  age  of 
thirty-eight  (c.  424),  and  followed  the  old  road 
by  way  of  Auxerre  (where  he  stayed  some  time 
with  Germanus),  through  the  Rhone  valley,  by 
way  of  Aries,  along  the  coast  of  Provence  and  the 
Lerinian  islands,  through  Upper  Italy,  to  Rome. 
If  Ultan  may  be  believed  (Tirechan,  Tripartite  Life, 
ii.  302, 11.  19-23),  he  spent  seven  years  wandering 
through  Gaul  and  Italy.  His  barbarian  name  was 
Latinized  into  Palladius.  At  Rome  he  gained  in- 
fluence, probably  the  more  readily  since  for  twenty 
years  Britain  had  been  separated  from  the  em- 
pire and  the  connection  between  the  British  Church 
and  Rome  had  become  difficult.  Perhaps  also 
he  exaggerated  his  family's  position  and  influence 
to  the  leading  ecclesiastical  circles.  In  429  he 
was  instrumental  in  sending  Germanus  of  Auxerre 
to  Britain,  and  in  431  he  attained  his  heart's  desire 
and  was  consecrated  epiecojms  for  Ireland.  He 
reached  Ireland  in  432,  dropped  the  Roman  trans- 
lation of  his  name,  and  assimied  in  its  stead  the 
title  Patridus.  There  are  no  trustworthy  details 
of  his  activity  in  Ireland.  But  he  was  never  recog- 
nized as  its  ''  appointed  bishop."  In  the  letter  on 
Coroticus  he  says  oomplainingly  ''although  now 
I  am  despised  by  some,"  and  in  the  "  Confession," 
written  near  the  end  of  his  life,  he  characterizes 
himself  as  "  despised  by  most."  His  very  limited 
literary  education  may  well  have  aroused  the  scorn 
and  derision  of  his  more  cultured  assodates.  How 
far  he  extended  his  misdonary  efforts  in  Connaught 
and  the  Northwest,  where  there  must  still  have 
been  opportunity  for  such  work,  can  hardly  be 
ascertained  from  the  "  Confesdon,"  the  only  source 
of  any  authority.  Its  words  are  those  of  a  monk- 
ish ascetic  to  whom  convertere  ad  deum  is  identical 
with  "  to  enter  a  monastery,"  and  definite  infer- 
ences can  not  be  drawn  from  its  statements. 

There  are  some  indications  of  the  locality  where 
the  historical  Patrick  lived.  Muirchu  ( Tripartite  Life, 
ii.  275, 1.  13)  says  that  the  legendary  Patrick  landed 
at  a  port  called  Hostium  Dee,  near  the  present 
Wicklow.  As  the  tendency  of  the  legend  required 
Patrick  to  settle  in  the  North  as  soon  as  posdble, 
it  is  probable  that  an  item  of  true  tradition  is  pre- 
served here.  Muirchu  was  himself  from  0)unty 
Wicklow  and  used  the  "  CSonfesdon  "  and  "  Epistle  " 
of  Sucat  as  sources  of  his  life.  Aed,  at  whose  re- 
quest Muirchu  wrote,  was  bishop  of  Sletty  in 
Queen's  Coimty,  near  Carlow.  Cummian,  who  was 
the  first  to  mention  the  legendary  Patrick,  was 
also  a  native  of  the  South.  Therefore  the  South 
of  Ireland  possessed  the  material  left  by  the  his- 
torical Patrick  (the  Confeeeio  and  the  Epistold)  as 
well  as  notices  of  his  life.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  Patrick  settled  somewhere  in  County  Wicklow. 
He  died  Mar.  17,  459,  according  to  the  statement 
in  the  Luxeuil  Calendar  and  the  most  trustworthy 
entries  of  the  Annals.    He  was  soon  forgotten, 


OeltioOhuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


472 


save  in  the  district  of  his  special  activity;  and 
bere,  in  the  seventh  century,  under  the  influence 
of  a  specific  tendency,  he  was  resurrected  and  made 
the  apostle  of  the  Irish,  as  Augustine  was  the 
BpoBtle  of  the  Saxons  and  Columba  of  the  Picts. 

It  is  not  possible  to  say  definitely  why  Patrick 
does  not  mention  his  consecration  by  Pope  Celes- 
tine  in  the  "  Confession."  But  it  may  be  recalled 
that  for  three  hundred  years  the  Roman  Empire 
was  a  standing  menace  to  the  liberty  of  the  Irish. 
Without  doubt  bitter  feelings  and  hatred  were 
Btill  alive  in  432,  and  the  Irish  were  not  likely  to 
distinguish  carefully  between  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral Rome.  If,  therefore,  when  Patrick  arrived 
in  Ireland  he  tried  to  impress  the  Christian  Irish 
with  his  ordination  by  Celestine,  he  must  soon  have 
found  out  his  mistake.  With  his  religious  feelings 
and  views,  Patrick  would  look  upon  Celestine 
merely  as  the  instrument  of  God,  who  had  himself 
appeiu:«d  to  him  in  visions  and  dreams  and  ap- 
pointed him  apostle  to  the  Irish.  And  it  was  only 
natural  that  to  the  old  man  on  the  brink  of  the 
grave  Celestine's  slight  and  casual  intervention  in 
his  life  should  fade  away  before  the  image  of  God 
Almighty,  whose  chosen  one  he  was.  (For  other 
views  concerning  St.  Patrick,  see  the  article  Pat- 
BicK,  Saint.) 

8.  In  North  Britain  (Alba):  From  statements  by 
Bede  (iii.  4)  we  know  that  a  Briton  named  Nynia 
(St.  Ninian,  q.v.)  founded  a  monastery  on  the 
peninsula  of  Wigtown,  in  the  extreme  Southwest 
of  Scotland,  about  400,  and  thence  spread  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Picts  south  of  the  Grampians. 
The  germs  of  the  young  faith  seem  to  have  been 
destroyed  in  the  confusion  which  arose  in  North 
Britain  early  in  the  fifth  century.  In  two  passages 
of  his  letter  concerning  Coroticus  Patrick  with 
evident  anger  calls  the  Picts  "  apostates  **  (Haddan 
and  Stubbs,  ii.  314,  L  13;  318, 1.  5;  TripartUe  Life, 
ii.  375,  1.  26;  379,  1.  7).  Coroticus  was  probably 
a  king  of  the  Strathclyde  Britons,  ruling  near  the 
modem  Dumbarton  between  420  and  450.  His 
subjects  were  Christians;  and  as  Patrick  does  not 
reproach  the  Irish  {ScoUi),  living  to  the  northwest, 
with  paganism,  it  may  be  that  they  also,  like  their 
countrymen  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Antrim,  were 
Christians. 

IL  Development  and  Full  ICaturity,  500--800. 
—1.  In  Britain:  The  British  Church  reappears  in 
Wales  in  the  second  third  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  is  the  direct  continuation  of  the  Church  of  the 
fourth  century.  That  the  latter  consisted  mainly 
of  Roman  residents  of  the  towns  while 
Qj*'  ^?_  the  Britons  in  the  oountiy  remained 
Wales,  ^^^^^^y  ^^'^  ^^^  the  Celtic  Chiirch 
first  arose  after  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Romans,  is  an  opinion  based  upon  defective 
knowledge  of  conditions  in  Roman  and  post- 
Roman  Britain  and  is  disproved  by  the  fact  that 
the  Christian  missionaries  to  Ireland  in  the  fourth 
century  and  the  Christians  who  settled  in  Armorica 
in  the  fifth  spoke  British,  i.e.,  they  were  native 
Britons ,  not  Roman  occupants  of  the  country.  The 
external  organization  of  the  sixth  century,  how- 
ever, is  not  an  imintemipted  development  from 
the  fourth.    When  the  Britons  fled  from  the  Saxons 


to  the  thinly  populated  hill-regions  of  the  West, 
they  foimd  there  no  cities  to  serve  as  centers  d. 
ecclesiastical  organization.  But  monastidsxn,  wfakh 
had  flourished  in  Britain  from  the  end  of  t\m 
fourth  century,  soon  created  new  oenteis.  Dio- 
ceses were  formed,  each  based  on  the  mooasterj 
of  a  clan  and  comprising  the  territory  beLoogii^ 
to  the  dan.  In  time  these  were  oambined  into 
larger  organisms,  and  during  the  seventh  oentuij 
the  ecclesiastical  organization  of  Wales  was  defini- 
tively fixed  by  the  constitution  of  four  Inshof)- 
rics,  corresponding  to  the  four  political  diviskȣ, 
viz.:  Bangor  on  Menai  Straits  in  Gwynedd;  St 
Asaph  in  the  Northeast  in  Powys;  Menevia  (St 
David's)  in  the  Southwest  in  Dyfed;  and  TJand^ 
in  the  Southeast  in  Gwent  They  were  inde- 
pendent of  one  another  and  based  on  the  disd 
monasteries  of  the  territories  named.  Abbo4 
and  bishop  were  generally  the  same.  According 
to  the  Annales  Cambria^  the  foxmders  of  the 
four  bishoprics  died  in  584  (Daniel  of  Bangorl 
601  (David  of  Menevia),  and  612  (Dubridus  ol 
Llandaff  and  Kentigem  of  St.  Asaph). 

The  result  of  Gregory's  mission  to  the  Saxocs 
(see  Anqlo-Saxonb,  Conversion  of  the;  Augc^ 
TINE,  Saint,  of  Canterbury)  was  to  intensify  and 
perpetuate  the  isolation  from  which  the  Britidi 
Church  already  suffered.  Two  conferences  were 
held  between  its  representatives  and  Augustine 
(602  or  603),  but  the  Britons  rejected 

2.  The      tbo    proposals    of    the    Roman    mis- 

Britlsh  sionary  and  refused  to  have  him  for 
Ohnroh  and  archbishop  (Bede,  ii.  2;  cf.  Bright,  pp. 
Auffustine.  86-03).  Augustine's  unskilful  man- 
agement may  have  contributed  to  the 
result — ^he  is  said  to  have  offended  the  Britons  bj 
not  rising  to  meet  them — ^but  he  offered  to  overiook 
all  other  differences  if  the  Britons  on  their  part 
would  accept  the  Roman  computation  for  Easter, 
would  remove  divergences  from  Roman  practise  in 
the  baptismal  rite,  and  would  join  him  in  preaching 
the  Gospel  to  the  Saxons.  The  third  requirement 
was  probably  the  chief  obstacle,  and  union  was  not 
effected  because  the  Britons  regarded  the  miaaon- 
ary  as  the  representative  of  their  hated  foes.  In 
his  disappointment  Augustine  is  said  to  have 
threatened  the  obstinate  Celts  with  death  at  Uie 
hands  of  the  Eng^h  if  they  would  not  preach  to 
them  the  way  of  life.  Eight,  or  perhaps  twdve, 
years  after  Augustine's  death  Ethelfrid,  the  heathen 
king  of  Northumbria,  massacred  a  large  company 
of  British  priests  and  the  monJks  of  Bangor  at 
Chester,  and  the  prophepy  was  thought  to  be  ful- 
filled. 

When  the  South  Irish  C^iurch  conformed  to 
Rome,  about  630,  the  Welsh  Church  was  cut  <^ 
on  both  sides,  and  this  isolation  proved  fatal  to  its 
spiritual  culture.  Its  most  eminent  representative 
in  the  sixth  century  is  Gildas,  and  after  him  there 
is  no  one  of  greater  literary  merit  than  Nennius 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  According  to  the 
Annales  Cambria,  Elbodug,  bishop  of  Bangor, 
adopted  the  Roman  Easter  computation  in  768: 
the  Chronicle  of  Welsh  Princes  gives  the  date  as 
755  and  says  that  South  Wales  followed  in  777 
(Haddan  and  Stubbs,  L  203-204).    But  opposition 


4T8 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oaltio  Ohuroh 


d.id  not  oease  at  that  time,  for  the  same  source 
says  that  when  Elbodug  died  in  809  "  a  great  con- 
troversy arose  because  of  Easter." 

8.   In  Ireland  and  North  Britain:    The  earliest 
native  and  foreign  sources  show  a  flourishing  church 
in  Ireland  in  the  sixth  century.    Its  type  is  that 
of    a  mission-church,    resting  not  on  the  labors 
of   a   single  man,   but  growing,  without  central 
organization,   in    a   land    divided    among    many 
clans,   through  the  constant  activity  of   a   mis- 
sionary  monkhood.    It   is    the   natural  develop- 
ment of  the  seed  sown  in  southeastern  Ireland 
by  British  missionaries  from  the   middle   of  the 
fourth  century,  springing  up  and  increasing  un- 
disturbed   by  outside    influences.    This    view   is 
quite  different  from  the  prevalent  one,  which  as- 
Btunes,  on  the  one  hand,  a  complete  collapse  of  the 
Irish  Church  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
1.  The  Irish  century,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
^^t  Sh     ^^^^  ^  *^®  ""^  century  due  to  the 
vived^m  "*^"®°^  ^^  *^®  Welsh  Church,  and 
"Walesln   P&>^cul&i^ly  of  such  men  as  Gildas, 
the  Sixth  Cadoc,  and  David.    A  collapse  about 
Centary.    500  is  inexplicable,  and  is  assumed 
only    because    necessitated    by    the 
Patrick  legend  and  the  hypothesis  of  a  revival 
from  Britain  in  the  sixth  century.    This  hypoth- 
esis   rests  upon:   (1)    statements    concerning  the 
activity  of  Gildas  in  Ireland,  made  in  his  life  writ- 
ten at  Ruys  in  Brittany  in  the  eleventh  century; 
(2)  the  view  of  the  Irish  Church  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  found  in  the  eighth  century  CaU>- 
logua  aanctarum  Hibemice  >;   and  (3)  notes  of  cer- 
tain saints'  lives  [such  as  that  of  St.  Disibod,  q.v.], 
certainly  not  older  than  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
centuiy  (cf.   Haddan  and  Stubbs,  i.    115,  n.a.). 
On  the  other  hand,  a  mere  enumeration  of  dates 
shows  that  the  Irish  Church  was  in  no  need  of 
revival.    Finnian  of  Clonard,  the  father  of  the 
"  twelve  apostles  of  Ireland,"  died  in    648.    Co- 

1  ThiB  doeument  is  Um  source  of  the  familiar  divisioii  of 
Irish  saints  into  three  **  orders."  It  sUtes  that  the  first 
order  belonged  to  the  time  of  Patrick.  They  were  all  bish- 
ops, 350  in  nmnber,  founders  of  churches.  They  had  one 
head,  Christ,  and  one  lord,  Patrick;  they  observed  one  mass, 
one  celebration,  and  one  tonsure  from  ear  to  ear;  they  kept 
one  Easter,  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  moon  after  the 
vernal  equinox;  and  what  was  excommunicated  by  one 
ehuroh  all  excommunicated.  They  did  not  reject  the  serv- 
ices and  society  of  women,  because,  founded  oa  the  rock 
of  Christ,  they  feared  not  the  blast  of  temptation.  This 
order  lasted  through  four  reigns,  and  its  members' wete  all 
bishops,  from  the  Romans,  the  Franks,  the  Britons,  and 
the  Irish  (5esffi). 

In  the  second  order  bishops  were  few  and  presbyters  many, 
300  in  number.  They  had  one  head,  our  Lord;  they  cele- 
brated different  tneiiwes  and  had  different  rules,  but  their 
Easter  and  tonsure  were  as  in  the  first  order.  They  re- 
jected the  services  of  women,  separating  them'^from  Um 
monasteries.  They  lasted  through  four  reigns,  and  received 
a  mass  from  Bishop  David,  and  Gildas,  and  Docus,  the 
Britons. 

The  members  of  the  third  order  were  holy  presbyters  and 
a  few  bishops,  100  in  all.  They  dwelt  in  solitary  places, 
and  lived  on  herbs  and  water  and  alms,  shunning  private 
property.  Their  rules,  masses,  tonsure,  and  Easter  were 
all  different,  and  they  lived  through  four  reigns. 

The  first  order  was  sanclisMmiw;  the  second,  »anetu9 
9anetorum:  the  third,  §anetua.  They  were  like  the  sun, 
the  moon,  the  dawn.  These  three  orders  were  foreseen  by 
Patrick  in  a  vision  from  on  high.  Consult  w^H^w  and 
Stubbs,  iL  292-294. 


lumba  founded  the  monastery  of  Deny  about  546 
and  Durrow  before  560.  Ciaran  founded  Clon- 
macnoise  541  and  died  548.  Comgall  founded 
Bangor  in  Ulster  554  or  558.  Brendan  founded 
Clonfert  in  Longford  552.  In  563  Columba  went 
to  lona.  The  authority  of  an  eleventh-century 
monk  of  Ruys  is  not  to  be  put  above  such  evidence 
as  this.  Nor  can  the  statements  of  ignorant 
authors  of  saints'  lives,  who  confuse  different 
centuries,  furnish  the  basis  for  a  historical  con- 
struction at  variance  with  all  fixed  dates.  There 
is  no  evidence  of  British  influence  in  Ireland  apart 
from  the  visit  of  Gildas  there  in  566  (cf .  Mommsen, 
Chronica  minora,  iii.  6,  11.  3-23).  [This  visit  is 
considered  doubtful  by  some;  see  Gildas.]  The 
Church  of  Gildas,  Cadoc,  and  David,  it  may  be 
noted,  was  epiaeapal ;  if  then  these  men,  and  men 
like  them,  revived  the  dying  Irish  episcopal  Church, 
why  did  they  substitute  another  entirely  monasti6 
with  no  trace  of  an  episcopal  character?  Further- 
more, the  Church  in  Britain  at  this  time  was  in  no 
condition  to  infuse  fresh  life  into  the  Irish  Church. 
In  the  trouble  and  turmoil  of  the  fifth  century  it 
had  lost  all  organization,  and  Gildas  himself  draws 
a  gloomy  picture  of  the  state  of  things  in  Britain 
before  547.  Ireland,  however,  did  not  suffer  from 
barbarian  attacks,  and  her  Church  was  able  to 
develop  undisturbed.  Hence  the  natural  suppo- 
sition is  that  at  this  time  the  Irish  Church  was  the 
giver  and  the  British  Church  the  recipient.  And 
we  know  that  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  sixth 
centuiy  Irish  clerics  went  to  southwest  Britain 
and  to  Brittany,  giving  and  spreading  knowledge 
not  receiving  it.  The  foundation  of  new  monaa- 
teries  in  Ireland  by  Finnian  of  Clonard  and  men 
regarded  as  his  disciples  between  520  and  560  can 
not  be  considered  a  restoration  or  reformation  of 
the  Irish  Church.  There  was  already  a  large  num- 
ber of  older  monasteries,  such  as  Exnly  in  Munster 
and  Armagh  in  Ulster,  which  for  centuries  played 
a  greater  rdle  in  the  entire  life  of  the  Irish  Church 
than  any  of  these  new  foundations.  Finnian  was 
a  sort  of  Irish  Benedict  of  Nursia;  he  established 
his  new  house  at  Clonard  by  the  side  of  the  older 
institutions — rather  mission-stations  than  monas- 
teries— ^with  stricter  rules,  and  through  the  influence 
on  Comgall  and  Columba  it  became  the  model  of 
the  Irish  monasteries  in  North  Britain  and  on  the 
Continent.* 

*  Irish  monasticism  of  the  sixth  eentury  was  very  different 
from  that  of  a  later  period.  It  lias  been  characterised  as 
the  transition  from  the  hermit  life  to  the  religious  orders  of 
the  Middle  Ages — a  transition  that  was  soon  made  in  the 
East,  but  in  Ireland  proceeded  more  slowly  and  lasted  till 
the  subjection  to  Rome.  The  primitive  Irish  monasteries 
were  of  the  same  tsrpe  as  those  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Thm 
nucleus  was  a  church  or  oratory,  always  oblong  (from  tea 
to  forty  feet  in  length,  rarely  sixty),  and  without  chancel, 
aisles,  or  apse.  No  rteoains  have  been  found  showing  any 
approach  to  the  basilica  form  or  anything  of  Roman  type. 
Round  the  church  were  grouped  "  beehive  "  huts  or  cells, 
each  for  a  single  occupant,  and  the  whole  was  surrounded 
by  a  wall  or  rampart,  with  a  ditch,  and  a  hedge  or  palisade 
on  top.  There  is  mention  of  kitchens  and  the  "  great  house  " 
(refectory);  and  there  were  also  guest  houses,  storehouses 
and  bams,  workshops,  and  the  like.  The  so-called  "  Round 
Towers  "  are  always  connected  with  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tions, and  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries.  They  probably  served  as  bell-towers,  for  refuge 
or  defense  in  case  of  attack,  and  as  beacons  and  lichthniisos 


Oaltlo  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


474 


The  Irish  Church  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  centuries,  then,  was  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  of  the  fourth  and 
^^?S"  ^^^^   centuries,   without   interference 
j^j^  *  from  outside.    This  freedom  accounts 
Honks.     ^^^  ^^®  ^^h  standard  of  learning  main- 
tained by  the  Irish  monasteries  till 
the  ninth  century.    They  kept  the  knowledge  and 
culture  received  with  Christianity,  and  cherished 
it  at  a  time  when  everywhere  else,  in  Britain,  Gaul, 
and  Italy,  barbarian  hordes  came  near  to  stamping 
it  out.  The  erudition  of  the  Irish  monks  in  the  sixth 
century — surely  not  derived  from  a  Church  whose 
greatest   scholar   was    Gildas — surpassed    on    the 
whole  that  of  Italy.    Greek  was  studied  at  Bangor 
when  Gregory  the  Great  probably  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  the  language.     In  the  seventh  century 
Aldhelm,  writing  to  a  young  friend  returning  home 

The  whole  eatobliohmnit  wm  called  a  "  dty "  (eivtiat), 
and  the  deasnatioo  ie  not  inapt  for  the  larger  oommunitiea, 
with  two  or  three  thonwand  members,  eaeh  havinc  hie  own 
house,  and  its  oomplez  of  public  or  common  buildincs.  The 
first  step  in  the  foundation  was  to  obtain  a  site,  which  was 
frequently  given  by  the  chieftain  when  he  was  converted, 
and  sometimes  was  his  fortress.  It  was  often  necessarily 
in  the  forest,  as  the  extent  of  cleared  land  was  very  limited. 
The  building  material  was  most  commonly  wood  or  wattles 
and  day.  but  stone  sometimes  was  used;  the  earliest  stone 
structures  are  without  mortar.  As  the  first  building  opera- 
tion was  ooomionly  the  driving  of  stakes,  *'  to  drive  "  came 
to  be  the  usual  expression  to  designate  the  founding  of  a 
monastery.  Each  monastery  had  its  own  rules,  followed 
also  by  the  affiliated  bouses,  which  were  governed  by  a  local 
head  under  the  abbot.  The  abbot  was  not  chosen  by  the 
monks,  but  was  appointed  by  the  chieftain,  generally  from 
his  own  famUy  or  that  of  the  founder,  and  hence  was  known 
as  the  ooar6  or  heir  of  the  founder.  He  was  seldom  a  bishop, 
but  there  were  always  one  or  more  bishops  in  each  commu- 
nity, always  subject,  however,  to  the  abbot.  Poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience  were  considered  essential.  The 
rule  of  St.  Columban  (q.v.)  no  doubt  represenU  the  life  and 
practise  of  the  Irish  monasteries,  particularly  that  at  Bangor, 
of  which  Columban  had  been  a  member.  Adamnan  also 
gives  many  interesting  details  of  the  life  at  lona  in  Columba's 
time,  and  this  monastery,  doubtless,  did  not  differ  materi- 
ally from  the  others.  Divine  service  and  private  devotion, 
study,  and  manual  labor  occupied  the  time  of  the  brethren. 
Sundays  and  saints'  days  were  marked  by  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist,  rest  from  toil,  and  an  allowance  of  better  food. 
Easter  was  the  chief  festival  and  during  the  Pnwrhaln  Diet 
(from  Easter  to  Whitsunday)  there  was  some  relaxation 
in  the  severity  of  disdpline.  Christmas  was  the  other  great 
festival.  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  were  fast-days  except 
during  the  Pa9chale9  Diet.  Lent  was  strictly  kept,  and  the 
forty  days  before  Christmas  were  observed  by  some  in  a 
like  manner.  Holy  Scripture  was  the  chief  object  of  study 
and  the  Psalms  were  learned  by  heart.  Much  effort  was 
spent  in  the  copying  of  books  and  there  are  two  Irish  manu- 
scripts of  the  Vulgate,  known  respectively  as  the  Book  of 
KeU9  and  the  Book  of  Durrow  and  dating  from  the  seventh 
century,  which  are  among  the  finest  extant  specimens  of 
illuminated  work.  It  is  a  question  where  such  work  was 
done,  as  it  must  have  besn  impossible  in  the  poorly  lighted 
cells;  perhaps  it  was  executed  in  the  open  air,  and  we  read 
of  the  monks  writing  "  on  thdr  knees."  Be!a<ie8  writing, 
the  production  and  preparation  of  food  was  tae  chief  labor. 
Htrangere  were  hospitably  received  and  fasts  were  relaxed 
in  their  honor.  Consult:  Reeves's  Adamnan,  pp.  339-8dD. 
Dublin,  1867;  J.  T.  Fowler's  Adamnan,  pp.  xxxvii.-!. 
Oxford,  1804;  J.  Lanigan.  EecUaiaatical  History,  iv.  348  sqq. 
Dublin,  1820;  F.  E.  Warren,  Liturov  and  Riiwd,  chap,  ii.', 
Oxford,  1881;  O.  T.  Stokes,  Ireland  and  the  Celiic  Chvreh, 
lectures  ix.  and  xi.;  Q.  Petrie,  Eecleeiaetieal  Arehiteeture  of 
Ireland,  Dublin,  1846;  Margaret  Stokes,  Early  Chriatian 
Art  in  Ireland,  London,  1887;  J.  Anderson,  Scotland  in 
Early  ChriaHan  Timee,  2  vols..  Edinburgh,  1881;  J.  Healy, 
Inaula  eanetorum,  pp.  144-150,  Dublin,  1800. 


from  the  Irish  schools  {MPL,  Izxzix.  Ok-d;, 
reluctantly  admits  the  superiority  of  Irish  scfaobr- 
ship.  And  in  the  eighth  century  Bede  speaks 
with  admiration  of  Irish  learning  (iiL  7,  27;  [d 
Plummer's  note  to  iii.  27,  p.  192]).  Besides  tbdr 
seal  for  learning,  a  noteworthy  love  of  wandering 
characterised  the  Irish  monks.  Singly  or  in  groups 
they  went  forth  from  the  great  monk-colonies— 
for  such  the  monasteries  really  were- 
®'  ^|J*J*^*  to  seek  a  form  of  the  anchorite^s  life. 

^oniurT    T'**®^  ^^^  content  at  first  with  the 

lAbora.  ^^^  ^^  their  own  lakes  and  rivers; 
then  they  betook  themselves  to  tbe 
many  islands  of  the  Irish  coast;  then  to  the  Heb- 
rides, the  Orkneys,  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  and 
before  800  they  had  reached  Iceland.  At  the  sant 
time  others  went  to  Britain — ^where  many  Chiis- 
tian  inscriptions  of  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
centuries  with  Irish  names  and  written  in  Ogham 
bear  witness  to  their  presence  north  and  south  of 
the  Severn  estuaiy — ^and  to  Brittany,  and  tbeo 
through  the  land  of  the  Franks  to  the  Alps 
and  across  the  Alps,  so  that  Bobbie  (periiaps  Tarra- 
tum;  see  Gataldus;  Ck>LUMBAN)  became  the  south- 
ern, as  Iceland  was  the  northern,  limit  of  tbdr 
wanderings.  Their  primary  puzpoae  was  not  mis- 
sionaiy  work;  but  circumstances  made  them  mis- 
sionaries and  teachers  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  settled  to  lead  the  contemplative  life. 

The  greatest  achievement  of  the  Irish  Qiurcfa 
and  its  monks  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries, 
the  Christianiaation  of  North  Britain, 

^!lJiI^T?  ^^^  **  regarded  from  the  same  point 
of   view.     With  twelve   oompanioni 
Columba   (q.v.)  left  Ireland  in  563. 
"  wishing  to  go  into  exile  for  Christ " 
(Adanman's  Life  of  Columba,  p.  9).    They  settled 
on  the  little  island  of  lona  (Eo,  lo.  Hi),  bdon^g 
to  the  Irish  (Christian)  state  nortii  of  the  Clyde, 
took  up  missionaiy  work  among  the  heathen  Picts 
of  the  neighborhood  and  rapidly  extended  it,  so 
that  when  Columba  died  (597),  the  mainland  north 
of  Glasgow  and  Edinburi^,  as  wdl  as  the  westen 
blands,  was  studded  with  monasteries,  whose  in- 
mates looked  after  the  spiritual  wdf are  of  the  ndgh- 
boring  population,  all  of  them  dependent  on  the 
mother  monastery  at  lona  (q.v.)-    A  generation 
later  Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria,  who  hsd  been 
converted  to  Christianity  during  a  seventeen  yeai^ 
exile  in  Ireland,  applied  to  Columba's  successor  for 
missionaries  to  introduce  Christianity  in  his  realm. 
Aidan  (q.v.)  was  sent  (635)  and  under  his  lead  and 
that  of  his  successors,  Finan  (652--661)  and  Col- 
man  (661-664),  with  the  earnest  support  of  Oswald 
and  his  brother  Oswy,  the  Gospel  made  rapid  and 
splendid    progress.    Monasteries    were    founded, 
such  as  Mailros  (Old  Melrose)  by  Aidan,  tbe  first 
nunnery  by  Heiu  at  Hartlepool,  the  double  naonas- 
tery  for  both  men  and  women  at  Coldingfaam 
by   Oswald's  half-sister,  Ebba,  the  monastery  at 
Whitby  by  Hilda,  and  others.    Christianity  and  the 
Irish  Church  reached  to  the  Angles  living  south  of 
the  Humber. 

This  flourishing  state  of  the  Irish  Church  was 
disturbed  by  the  Roman  mission  to  the  Saxons  in 
597.      Like  the  British  Church,  that  of  Ireland 


Britain 
Ohristian- 


476 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeltlo  Ohumll 


differed  in  some  respects  from  the  Roman  Church 
of  Gregory's  time,  the  most  important  divergen- 
ces  being  the  form  of  the  tonsure  and 
tioka  with  *^®  method  of  computing  Easter  [cf . 
Rome.  Plummer's  Bede,  ii.  348^54;  Bright, 
pp.  86-93, 224-225].  In  604  Augustine's 
Buccessor,  Laiirence,  with  his  fellow  bishops,  Mel- 
litus  and  Justus,  sent  a  letter  to  Ireland  exhorting 
to  conformity  to  Roman  usage,  but  without  success 
(Bede,  ii.  4).  A  party  favorable  to  conformity 
gradually  arose  through  visits  of  Irish  clerics  to 
Gaul  and  Rome,  and  partly  perhaps  through  in- 
fluence of  the  Anglo-Roman  Church,  but  in  627 
it  was  still  in  the  minority,  for  the  exhortation  of 
Pope  Honorius  I.  to  conform  in  628  was  again  un- 
successful (Bede,  ii.  10).  Honorius  then  excom- 
municated Ireland  (Cummian's  letter,  977, 11.  6-6) 
and  in  629  the  Southeast  generally  observed  the  Ro- 
man date.  Farther  west  opinions  wavered,  but  in 
630  the  abbots  met  in  a  synod  at  Mag  Lena  near 
Tullamore,  and  decided  to  celebrate  Easter  the 
next  year  with  the  Roman  Church.  Opposition, 
however,  made  another  meeting  necessary  and  the 
Roman  party  failed  to  win  a  decisive  victoiy. 
They  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  which  returned 
in  633.  Through  the  influence  of  this  embassy 
and  the  death  (636)  of  Fintan,  abbot  of  Taghmon 
in  County  Weidford  (see  Fintan,  Saint),  leader  of 
the  opposition,  the  Roman  party  finally  prevailed 
in  the  South.  The  North  held  out  stubbornly  for 
sixty  years  longer.  Cummian's  letter  to  Seghine, 
abbot  of  lona  (634),  and  a  letter  from  Pope  John 
IV.  (partly  preserved  by  Bede,  ii.  19)  in  640  to  the 
prominent  abbots  of  the  North  were  ineffectual. 
The  details  of  the  struggle  are  not  known,  but  it 
may  be  assumed  that  the  Patrick  legend  was  not 
the  least  important  of  the  expedients  resorted  to 
to  work  upon  the  North  Irish. 

It  was  natural  for  the  Irish  to  seek  for  an  apostle 
who  should  be  to  them  what  Columba  was  to  the 
Picts  and  Augustine  to  the  Saxons. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Wicklow  a 
certain  Patridus  was  remembered 
who  had  called  himself  the  "  appointed 
bishop  of  Ireland."  Is  it  imreasonable  to  assume 
that  about  625  it  came  to  be  believed  in  the  South- 
east that  the  apostle  was  found  in  this  man?  The 
scanty  history  of  Patrick  was  filled  out  by  analogy 
with  that  of  Columba  and  Augustine.  The  Irish 
were  supposed  to  have  been  all  heathen  in  432  as 
the  Picts  had  been  in  563  and  the  Saxons  in  597. 
Patrick  converted  the  land  in  a  brief  time,  estab- 
lished a  Christian  Church,  and  won  the  favor  of 
King  Laeghaire  as  Columba  had  that  of  King  Brude 
and  Augustine  that  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent.  This 
legend  was  at  once  utilized,  if  not  invented,  by  the 
Roman  party,  as  is  evident  from  the  first  mention 
of  it  in  Cummian's  letter.  He  attributes  to  Patrick 
the  introduction  of  the  Dionysian  cycle  in  Ire- 
land, although  it  was  not  introduced  in  Rome  till 
the  sixth  century  (col.  975c). 

The  legend  was  also  useful  in  winning  over  the 
bishop  of  Armagh.  As  the  presumed  successor  of 
St.  Patrick  he  was  acknowledged  in  the  South  as 
metropolitan  (cf.  Tripartite  Life,  iL  346, 11.  21-24). 
The  claims  of  Armagh,  however,  met  with  violent 


6.  The 
Patrick 
I«effend. 


opposition  in  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  both 
in  Connaught  and  Munster.  Northumbria  con- 
formed  to  Rome  after  the  Synod  of 
formal  Whitby  (q.v.)  in  664,  whereupon  the 
Boman  ^'^^  returned  to  their  native  land  (see 
jj^a^gs,  CoLMAN,  Saint).  Adamnan,  ninth 
abbot  of  lona  (679-704),  was  persuaded 
to  yield  while  visiting  the  court  of  Aldfrid  in  North- 
umbria in  686  or  687-688,  but  was  unable  to  control 
the  abbots  of  the  dependent  monasteries  or  his 
own  monks  at  lona  when  he  returned  home  (Bede, 
V.  15).  Then  he  went  to  North  Ireland  and  with 
an  Angle,  Egbert  (see  Egbert,  Saint),  took  the 
lead  in  efforts  to  win  over  the  Irish  party.  The 
bishop  of  Armagh  yielded  in  697. .  The  0)lumban 
monasteries  continued  obstinate.  In  713  Naiton, 
king  of  the  Picts,  enlisted  the  services  of  Ceolfrid 
(q.v.),  the  distinguished  abbot  of  Wearmouth  and 
Jarrow;  the  latter  wrote  a  long  letter  on  the  Easter 
question,  which  Naiton  sqpt  in  copy  to  all  clerics  in 
his  dominion  with  an  order  to  obey  (Bede,  v.  21). 
Those  who  continued  recalcitrant  were  expelled  from 
the  country  in  717.  In  716  Egbert  persuaded  the 
abbot  and  monks  of  lona  to  celebrate  Easter  at  the 
Roman  date.  Their  compliance,  however,  came 
too  late  to  save  the  position  of  lona  as  the  center 
of  a  great  monastic  church.  It  was  reduced  to  a 
mere  parent  monastery  with  a  few  affiliated  houses 
on  the  west  coast  of  North  Britain  and  belonging 
to  the  Irish  state.  Armagh,  on  the  other  hand, 
by  timely  yielding  and  a  skilful  use  of  the  Patrick 
legend  had  prepared  the  way  for  becoming  the 
head  of  an  episcopal  chureh  comprising  all  Ireland. 
HL  Complete  ABsimilation  to  the  Roman  Church, 
8OO-X20O. — 1.  In  Wales:  The  Chureh  in  Wales, 
having  been  episcopal  from  the  first,  differed  from 
the  Roman  Chureh  only  in  subordinate  points 
after  it  had  conformed  in  respect  to  Easter  and  the 
tonsure.  Political  conditions  hastened  its  com- 
plete assimilation  to  the  Roman-Saxon  Church. 
From  the  time  of  Egbert  of  Wessex  (d.  836)  the 
weaker  Welsh  chieftains  sought  the  protection  of 
the  English  kings  against  their  more  powerful 
countrymen.  The  attacks  of  the  Northmen  also, 
which  from  853  on  were  felt  more  and  more  severely 
in  Wales,  promoted  friendly  feelings  and  relations 
between  the  two  nations.  That  the  culture  of  its 
clergy  was  higher  after  the  isolation  of  the  Welsh 
Church  was  ended  is  evident  from  the  appointment 
and  position  of  Asser  (q.v.),  a  nephew  of  Bishop 
Novis  of  Menevia,  aa  teacher,  counselor,  and  friend 
of  Alfred.  At  the  end  of  the  tenth  and  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  consecration  of  bishops  of 
Llandaff  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  seems 
to  have  been  the  rule,  and  there  is  some  reason  to 
believe  that  an  earlier  bishop,  Cyfeiliawc  (d.  927), 
was  so  consecrated.  The  Anglo-Norman  areh- 
bishops  Lanfranc  (1070-^9)  and  Ansehn  (1093- 
1109)  repeatedly  interfered  in  Welsh  matters  as  if 
the  Welsh  bishops  stood  legally  under  the  primate 
of  England.  Disputes  concerning  the  boundaries 
of  the  Welsh  dioceses  of  St.  David's  and  Llandaff 
and  the  English  diocese  of  Hereford  between  1119 
and  1133  were  referred  to  Rome.  About  this  time 
the  bishop  of  St.  David's  began  to  set  up  the  daim 
to  metropolitan  rank,    After  1187,  when  Aroh- 


Celtic  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOO 


476 


bishop  Baldwin  of  Canteibuiy  as  papal  legate  held 
a  visitation  in  parts  of  Wales  and  preached  the 
Crusade,  the  yfeXaih  Church  may  be  regarded  as 
part  of  the  English  Church,  although  as  late  as 
1284  the  bishop  of  St.  David's  formally  protested 
against  the  visitation  of  Archbishop  Peckham  of 
Canteibury.  [Welsh  tradition  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  Lollard  movement  in  the  fourteenth 
century  spread  among  the  English-speaking  people 
on  the  borders  of  Wales  favor  the  theory  that  the 
ancient  British  fonn  of  Christianity  persisted  in 
Wales  throughout  the  Middle  Agr^^  side  by  side 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  estabushment.  The 
mountainous  character  of  the  country  and  the 
character  of  the  language,  which  Englishmen  rarely 
acquired,  were  favorable  to  the  perpetuation  of 
evangelical  dissent.  A.  H.  N.] 

8.  In  Ireland:   A  systematic  sketch  of  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Irish  branch  of  the  Celtic  Church 
in  this  period  is  not  yet  possible  owing  to  the  de- 
fective character  of  the  special  investigations.    A 
factor  deserving  more  attention  than  it  has  com- 
monly received  is  the  influence  of  the  incursions 
and    settlements   of    the    Norsemen. 
I.  Xnoor-   rj^^  Viking  period— beginning  in  795 
tholTonio-  ^"^^  lasting  more  than   150  years— 
^^^^    "  brought  indescribable  wo  to  all  Brit- 
ain and  particularly  to  Christian  Ire- 
land.   Churohes  and  monasteries,  as  the  centers 
of  civilisation  and  the  Christian  religion,   were 
marked  for  destruction  by  the  heathen  Norwegians 
and    Danes.    Certain    of    the    Irish    monasteries 
(such  as  lona,  Bangor  in  Ulster,  and  many  others) 
lay  temptingly  exposed  to  seafaring  robbers.     The 
rivers  gave  them  easy  access  to  the  heart  of  the 
land  from  both  the  east  and  the  west  coast.    The 
wooden  structures  of  the  monasteries  were  an  easy 
prey  to  the  flames,  in  which  both  books  and  monks 
perished.    If   any   manuscripts   escaped    biuning 
they  were  thrown  into  the  water.    A  heathen 
Vildng  state  in  Armagh  between  832  and  845  com- 
pelled the  abbot-bishop,  Forindan,  to  flee  to  Mun- 
ster.    At  the  same  time  the  Norwegian  heathen 
were  settling  in  the  interior,  but  they  were  either 
ultimately   expelled  or  absorbed   by   the  native 
population  and  became  Christian.    In  852,  how- 
ever, a  Viking  kingdom  was  set  up  at  Dublin,  which 
remained  heathen  and  plundered  Ireland  and  all  the 
coasts  of  the  Irish  S^  for  more  than  a  century. 
Under  such  conditions  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
exodus  of  Irish  monks  to  the  Conti- 
8.  Ush     ngnij   continued  and   increased   from 
Se  OontU  ^^  ^^'    ^^  *^®  ninth  century  they 
nent.    *  ^^^  teachers  in  the  monastic  schools 
everywhere  in  the  land  of  the  Franks, 
at  St.  Denis,  Pavia,  and  on  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Rhine,  and  they  spread  the  repute  of  Irish  learn- 
ing so  that  it  is  almost  a  truism  to  say:  Whoever 
knew  Greek  on  the  Continent  in  the  days  of  Charies 
the  Bald  was  an  Irishman  or  had  learned  it  from 
an  Irishman  (cf.  H.  Zimmer,  Ueber  die  Bedeutung 
dea  vrischen  Elements  fur  miUelaUerliche  KuUur,  in 
PreueHeche  JahrbUcher,  lix.,  1887,   pp.  27-59;  L. 
Traube,  0  Roma  nohilia,  in  Ahhandlungen  der  pMUh 
sophiech-phUologischen  KUuse  der  kdniglich-bayeri- 
Mchen  Akademie,  xix.,  1892,  pp.  332^363) .    They  took 


their  manuscripts  with  theih  in  audi  numben  that 
no  fewer  than  117  Irish  manuscripts,  or  fragmeDts 
of  such,  older  than  the  eleventh  century  are  still 
extant  in  Continental  libraries,  not  counting  those 
in  the  Vatican  or  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale(cf. 
W.    Schultse,    Die    Bedeutung    der   iraeehoiHKhen 
MOnche,  in  CentralblaU  fur  Biblicthekewesen,  6th 
year,  1889,  pp.  287-298).    But  if  this  was  the  Con- 
tinent's gain,  it  was  Ireland's  loss.    King  Biun 
(1002-13)  had  to  send  across  the  sea  "  to  buj 
books  "  (J.  H.  Todd,  The  War  of  the  GaedhU  viA 
the  Oaiil,  RoUe  Seriee,  no.  48,  p.  138,  London,  1867). 
The  standard  of  education  in  the  monasteries  sank 
with  each  generation,  and  the  new  and  inferior 
priesthood  had  less  power  to  resist  the  forces  which 
were  substituting  for  the  native  monastic  chuith 
an  episcopal  church  with  metropolitan  head.   The 
Irish  chieftains  and  princes  also,  instead  of  uniting 
against  the  common  foe,  thou^t  the  time  moEt 
fitting  to  fight  out  their  domestic  feuds.   The 
monasteries  were  involved  in  these  quarrels,  not  to 
mention  fierce  and  bloody  disputes  between  moo- 
asteries  themselves  when  their  interests  happened 
to  dash.    Thus  the  old  organization  was  wnkkened 
and  broken  up.    Furthennore,  the  Patrick  legend 
became  a  sort  of  dogma  during  the  eighth  century; 
and  its  view  of  the  Christianisation  of  Irehind  ssd 
the  position  of  the  episcopue  in  church  govemmeat 
was  an  additional  force  shaking  the  firmly  built 
edifice  of  the  monastic  church  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh   centuries.    It  can   be   shown  from  the 
Annals  of  Ulster  that  the  abbot-bishop  of  Aima^ 
making  free  use  of  his  opportunities, 
8.  Blse  of  between  730  and  850  att^ed  to  some 
Armagh,    extent  to  that  primacy  in  the  Irish 
Church  which  was  the  logical  outcome 
of  the  Patrick  legend.    The  year  805  was  decia?e 
for  Meath,  824  for  Connaught,  and  822,  as  weU  as 
Forindan's  stay  in  Munster  from  841  to  845.  for 
South  Ireland;  thenceforth  the  see  of  Armagh  had 
its  tax-gatherers  for  Patrick's  pence  in  all  Ireland, 
excluding  of  course  the  Viking  state  whose  ruler 
resided  at  Dublin.    In  943  this  ruler,  Amlaib  mac 
Sitricca  (Norse,  Olafr  Sigtriggvasonr),  became  a 
Christian  in  England  and  was  bi^tixed  by  Wulf- 
helm,  archbishop  of  Canteri>uiy,  Edmund,  king  of 
EIngland,  standing  as  his  godfather.    As  Christi- 
anity spread  among  his  subjects  they  natuiallj 
looked  toward  Canterbury  and  drew  their  derics 
from  England.    The  incumbents  of  newly  estab- 
lished Norse  bishoprics  of  Dublin,  Waterford.  and 
Limerick  were  consecrated  at  Canteifouiy.   This 
was  not  satisfactory  to  the  bishop  of  Armagh,  who 
desired  revenues  from  the  rich  Norse  settlements 
in  Dublin.    He  again  had  recourse  to  the  Patnck 
legend,  utilizing  a  detail  of  it  which  had  already 
become  current;  namely,  that  Patrick  had  coo- 
verted  the  Vikings.    One  of   his  adherents,  vii- 
tmg  about  1000,  tells  how  the  saint  had  ooDverted 
the  heathen  Norse  of   Dublin,  and  consequently 
asserts  that  the  successor  of  "  Patrick  of  Armagh 
with  the  great   revenues"    had    a   right  to  an 
ounce  of  gold  "  from  each  nose  "  in  the  Dublin 
Viking  state  (cf.  H.  Zimmer,  KeUieche  Beiirage.  E, 
in  Zeitechrift  fur  deulachee  AUerthum,  xxxv.,  lS9l, 
pp.  54-85). 


477 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oeltlo  Ohnrch 


Another  phenomenon  in  the  inner  development 
of  the  Irish  Church  in  this  period  which  deserves 
attention  is  the  appearance  of  the 
4.  The  so-called  Culdees  (Irish,  cd/id^;  Latin, 
ChUdees.  colidei).  It  is  difficult  to  define  ex- 
actly the  origin  and  position  of  these 
men.  The  Irish  name  does  not  furnish  a  trust- 
worthy clue.  It  meant  originally  one  who  enters 
God's  service  and  devotes  himself  to  him  to  death, 
and  could  be  applied,  like  vir  dei  in  Latin,  to  monks 
and  anchorites  in  general.  Hector  Boece,  the 
Scottish  historian  of  the  sixteenth  century,  started 
the  theory  that  the  Culdei,  as  he  calls  them,  were 
the  direct  continuation  of  Irish  monastidsm  of  the 
cdxth,  seventh,  and  eighth  centuries,  or  even  of 
Celtic  monastidsm  in  general.  But  Bishop  Reeves 
has  shown  that  the  term  as  used  from  the  ninth 
to  the  twelfth  century  was  applied  to  members 
of  spiritual  associations  whose  existence  can  not 
with  certainty  be  traced  earlier  than  about  800. 
Hence  the  associations  of  the  Cclidei  must  have 
been  formed  in  Ireland  about  this  time  and  an  ex- 
isting term  of  general  application  was  given  a  more 
limited  signification  to  designate  their  members. 
Apparently  Chrodegang's  monastic  rule  (749), 
designed  originally  for  Meti,  was  brought  to  Ire- 
land in  the  eighth  century,  and  Irish  anchorites, 
who  were  not  under  regular  monastic  rule,  were 
first  associated  in  accordance  with  it.  The  Culdees 
were  never  of  great  importance  in  Ireland.  They 
are  mentioned  in  nine  places,  often  in  connection 
with  monasteries  to  which  the  house  of  the  Culdees 
forms  a  sort  of  annex.  The  care  of  the  sick  and 
the  poor  was  their  chief  charge,  and  they  also  seem 
to  have  been  entrusted  with  the  choral  part  of  the 
service.  In  North  Britain,  however,  whither  they 
went  from  Ireland,  they  attained  to  greater  im- 
portance. Naiton's  expulsion  of  the  refractory 
monks  of  lona  in  717  left  gaps  in  the  clergy  which 
the  new  associations  of  the  Colidsi  helped  to  fill. 
They  appear  in  Scotland  as  a  mixture  of  secular 
clergy  and  anchorites  organized  after  monastic 
pattern;  at  a  later  time  they  resemble  the  regular 
canons  of  the  Continent.  There  was  a  want  of 
connection  between  different  oonvente  due  to  the 
lack  of  a  common  head  and  fixed  forms.  Hence 
there  were  wide  divergences,  and  contemporary 
descriptions  and  opinions  differ  greatly.  They 
were  ultimately  absorbed  in  the  Roman  orders, 
which  were  introduced  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
during  the  twelfth  century. 

The  full  subjection  of  the  Celtic  Church  of  Ireland 

to  that  of  Rome  was  accomplished  after  1050. 

Archbishop   Lanfranc  of  Canterbury 

6.  Final     found  opportunity  to  interfere  in  Ire- 

SuhJeotlon  land  in  1074  and  sent  a  letter  to  the 

to  Borne,    king,  Toriogh  O'Brian,  through  Gil- 

patrick,  the  Norse  bishop  of  Dublin. 

In^igated  by  both,  Gregory  VII.  sent  a  letter  to 

Ireland  and  appointed  Gilbert,  the  Norse  bishop  of 

Limerick,   papal  legato  for  Ireland.    As  in   the 

seventh  century,  so  now,  the  bishop  of  Armagh 

resisted.    But  in  the  end  Gilbert  found  a  man  who 

fell  in  with  his  views,  when  in  1106  Celsus  succeeded 

to  the  see  of  Armagh.    At  the  Synod  of  Rath- 

breasail  in  1120  it  was  decided  to  divide  Ireland 


into  twenty-foiu-  dioceses,  all  except  Dublin  sub- 
ordinate to  Armagh.  In  1152  a  synod  was  held  at 
Kells,  under  the  presidency  of  the  papal  legato, 
Paparo,  and  Ireland  was  divided  into  four  prov- 
inces, Armagh  was  selected  as  the  see  of  the  pri- 
mate, and  the  bishops  of  Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Timm 
were  promoted  to  archbishops  and  received  pallia 
brought  from  Rome.  The  complete  Romanization 
of  the  Irish  Church  in  internal  affairs  was  effected 
in  furtherance  of  the  political  interests  of  the  Anglo- 
Normans  at  a  synod  held  at  Cashel  in  1172  by  com- 
mand of  Henry  II. 

8.  In  North  Britain:  In  844  Eeimeth  mac  Alpin, 
ruler  of  the  Irish  state  in  North  Britain,  mounted 
the  throne  of  the  united  North  and  South  Picte, 
and  thereby  created  a  united  kingdom  of  Alba, 
later  known  as  Scotland.  In  850  Kenneth  had 
the  bones  of  Columba  removed  from  lona  (which, 
because  of  constant  attacks  from  the  VUdngs,  had 
fallen  into  complete  decay)  and  deposited  at  Dun- 
keld,  in  the  land  of  the  South  Picto,  the  mainstay 
of  his  power.  At  the  same  time  he  established  a 
bishopric  at  Dunkeld,  apparently  aiming  to  form 
here  a  center  for  a  national  church  like  lona  in  the 
seventh  century,  with  a  different  basis,  however, 
the  abbot-bishop  of  Dunkeld  being  at  the  head  of 
the  church  government  as  bishop  and  not  as  abbot. 
In  865  Kenneth's  son,  Constantine,  removed  the 
see  of  the  bishopric  to  Abemethy,  leaving  Dunkeld 
with  an  abbot  only.  In  008  the  see  of  the  primato 
was  transferred  to  St.  Andrews  and  a  pariiament 
of  the  same  year  exempted  the  Church  from  taxar 
tion.  Margaret,  grandniece  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor and  queen  of  Scotland  1069-03,  took  ener- 
getically in  hand  the  reformation  of  the  Scottish 
Church  according  to  Roman  rules  and  usages. 
She  received  efficient  support  from  her  confessor, 
Turgot,  abbot  of  Durham  (see  Tuboot).  Her  sons, 
Edgar  (1097-1107),  Alexander  (1107-24),  and 
David  (1124-53)  continued  and  completed  their 
mother's  reforms.  In  1107  Turgot  was  appointed 
to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews  and  was  consecrated  at 
York.  His  successor,  Eadmer,  a  Canterbury  monk, 
at  the  desire  of  King  Alexander  was  chosen  and  con- 
secrated by  Ralph,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1115).  By  1188  the  outward  and  inward  trans- 
formation of  ecclesiastical  Scotland  into  a  Roman 
province  was  complete.  It  was  then  declared  in- 
dependent of  Canterbury  and,  like  the  Irish  Church, 
came  directly  under  the  sovereignty  of  Rome 
through  a  bull  of  Clement  III.  (cf.  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  ii.  273-274).  The  land  was  divided  into 
nine  dioceses  with  strictly  defined  boundaries,  and 
Augustinian,  Benedictine,  and  Cistercian  monks 
were  introduced  and  absorbed  the  renmant  of 
the  national  Celtic  monastidsm. 

IV.  Some  General  Considerations:  Concerning 
institutions  and  doctrine,  neither  tradition  nor  his- 
tory offers  any  support  to  the  view  that  the  Celtic 
Church  in  ite  prime  almost  reproduced  the  Church 
of  the  Apostolic  Age.  The  British  Church  of  the 
fourth  century  was  a  part  of  the  Catholic  Church 
of  the  West,  just  as  Britain  was  a  part  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire.  And  the  Irish  Church  was  an  off- 
shoot of  the  British  Church.  The  divergences  from 
Rome  which  both  branches  of  the  Celtic  Church 


CMtlo  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


478 


■howed  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 

are  easily  explicable.    It  must  not  be  forgotten 

that  the  position  of  the  bishop   of 

1.  Season  Rome  in  the  time  of  Leo  the  Great 
for  the     (440-461)  was  different  from  that  of 

Diverven-  Pope  Gregory  the  Great   (590-604); 

oee  flfom  that  the  fourth  century  knew  nothing 
**"*••  of  that  rigid  uniformity  of  institutions 
which  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century  was  looked  upon  as  an  essential  reqiiirement 
of  the  unitoB  eaiholica;  and  that  innovations 
domesticated  themselves  slowly  in  the  more  dis- 
tant members  of  the  Church.  About  400  the 
British  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  cut  off 
because  political  Rome  lost  its  hold  on  Britain. 
A  series  of  events  of  the  eariy  fifth  century  is  in- 
structive for  the  inunediate  consequences.  The 
popes  Innocent,  Zosimus,  and  Boniface  (401-422) 
energetically  opposed  the  teaching  of  Pelagius, 
and  the  emperor,  Honorius,  supported  them  by 
issuing  a  rescript  (Apr.  30,  418)  threatening  ban- 
ishment to  every  Pelagian.  The  suppression  of 
the  heresy  in  the  empire  was  thus  due  to  the  civil 
power.  But  the  arm  of  the  emperor  did  not  reach 
to  Britain  and  in  429  Pope  Celestine  could  only 
send  Germanus  of  Auxerre  thither  to  eradicate  the 
heresy  by  moral  suasion.  Later  all  connection 
between  the  Celtic  Church  and  Rome  was  broken 
for  150  years  by  a  double  and  threefold  wall  of 
barbarians — ^Burgundians,  Visigoths,  Franks,  and 
Saxons.  The  development  of  the  Western  Church 
during  all  this  time  left  no  impress  on  the  Celtic; 
and  local  conditions  could  not  fail  to  influence  the 
latter.  This  explains  how  a  Columban  of  Luxeuil 
presumes  to  address  the  pope  in  a  way  which  two 
hundred  years  earlier  would  not  have  been  remark- 
able in  a  bishop  of  North  Africa  or  Alexandria.  It 
explains  why  the  Welsh  Church  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury knew  only  of  independent  bishops  without 
metropolitan;  the  British  Church  in  400  knew 
nothing  of  this  institution.  The  difference  in  the 
date  of  Easter  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  600  the 
Celtic  Church  still  used  the  older  mpputaHo  Ro- 
mana,  which  had  been  followed  by  Rome  till  343, 
but  was  then  superseded  by  the  younger  mpputaHo 
Romana.  Other  changes — the  paschal  table  of 
Zeitz  in  447,  the  nineteen-jrear  cyde  of  Victorius 
in  501,  the  cycle  of  Dionysius  about  550 — ^were  all 
unknown  to  the  Celtic  Church. 

The  representatives  of  Britain  at  the  Synod  of 

Aries  subscribed   the   canon  that  when  possible 

seven,  and  in  any  case  three,  bishops 

2.  Oonae-   should  take  part  in  the  consecration 
oration  by  of  a  bishop.    Yet  consecration  could 

a  Slnffla  be  performed  by  a  single  bishop  in 
Bishop,  both  the  British  and  Irish  Churches 
long  after  their  contact  with  Rome. 
This  is  not  as  surprising  as  it  has  been  thought  (cf. 
Warren,  pp.  68-69).  In  the  nature  of  things,  partic- 
ulariy  in  the  earlier  period,  consecration  often  had 
to  be  by  one  bishop  if  it  took  place  at  all.  Gregory 
the  Great  recognized  the  necessity  and  gave  Au- 
gustine permission  to  consecrate  alone  with  the  re- 
mark, "  Since  you  are  the  only  bishop  in  the  English 
Church  you  can  not  ordain  otherwise  than  without 
other  bishops  "  (Bede,  i.  27).    Boniface  V.  gave  the 


same  permission  to  Justus,  Augustine's  third  suc- 
cessor, "when  the  occasion  made  it  necessary" 
(Bede,  ii.  8).  Custom  with  the  English  makes  lav 
without  specific  enactment.  Hence  it  is  oompreben- 
sible  how  consecration  by  a  single  bishop  became 
first  established  usage  and  then  law.  In  re^»ect 
to  the  markedly  monastic  character  of  the  Irish 
Church  and  the  position  of  the  bishop  in  it  unlike 

that  in  the  Western  Church,  it  must 

8.  SConaatlo  \^  noted  that  in  the  older  monastenes 

^^^*t^^  (such  as  Armagh  in  the   North  and 

^*  j^      Emly  in  Tipperary)  the  abbots  were 

Churoh.     ^^^  bishops;  that  is,  the  beads  of  the 

dioceses  were  abbots  and  bishops  in 
one  person,  but  their  power  of  church  government 
rested  on  their  position  as  abbots.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  political  and  social  conditions  of  the 
Celts  and  the  time  and  manner  of  their  conversion. 
The  first  step  was  the  establishment  of  a  monastic 
missionary  station  with  a  clan.  A  member  of  the 
chief's  family  inevitably  became  the  head  of  such 
a  station.  In  some  cases  the  right  of  succession 
to  the  abbacy  remained  hereditary  in  the  chiefs 
family  for  centuries.  The  necessity  for  some  one 
to  perform  episcopal  fimctions  would  not  be  felt 
immediately.  When  it  did  arise  an  original  lay 
abbot  may  have  received  consecration,  but,  living 
as  he  did  far  from  the  sight  and  influence  of  an 
episcopal  church,  it  was  only  natural  that  he  should 
continue  to  perform  the  duties  of  church  govern- 
ment in  the  church  of  the  clan  by  virtue  of  his 
position  as  abbot  and  member  of  the  chiers  family 
It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  a  complete  picture 
of  the  doctrines  and  institutions  of  the  Celtic  Church 
in  its  prime.  The  material  at  hand  is  not  sufficient, 
although  it  is  adequate  to  support  the  conclusion 
that  the  Celtic  Church  of  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  was  a  reproduction  of  the  Western  Church 
of  the  fourth  century,  modified  only  in  special 
points.  An  important  difference,  however,  must 
be  noted.  The  spirit  of  the  Roman  and  Celtic 
Churches  when  they  first  came  in  conflict  was  not 
the  same.  The  representatives  of  the  former  were 
intolerant  and  uncharitable,  as  Augustine  toward 

the  British  bishops  (Bede,  ii.  2),  Wil' 

4.  The      frid  toward  Cohnan  (ib.  iii.  25),  AW- 

<^o  •»*  heUn  in  his  letter  to  Geraint   {MGH, 

^Jjj^      Epist.,  iii.  231-235).  The  Irish,  on  the 

other  hand,  such  as  Columban  on  the 
Continent  and  Aidan  and  the  rest  in  Northumbria, 
only  asked  that  they  be  allowed  quietly  to  foUov 
the  customs  of  their  fathers.  As  soon,  however, 
as  an  Irishman  went  over  to  the  Roman  party  a 
new  spirit  entered  into  him.  Ronan,  an  IrishxnaD 
who  had  been  in  Gaul  and  Italy,  began  the  quarrd 
in  Northumbria  with  the  gentle  Finan  (Bede,  iii. 
25).  Cummian  in  his  famous  letter  express^  the 
pious  wish  that  God  would  ''  strike  "  Fintan  (his 
chief  opponent)  "  as  he  would  "  (ool.  977b),  al- 
though four  or  five  years  earlier  he  had  himself 
kept  Easter  at  the  Celtic  date.  Again,  the  spirit 
of  deliberate  falsification  to  serve  church  interesti 
does  not  appear  in  the  Irish  Church  before  its  con- 
tact with  Rome.  That  it  appears  immediately 
thereafter  is  abimdantly  shown  by  the  history  of 
the  Patrick  legend.    Lastly,  the  new  ^irit  which 


470 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Celtic  Ohureh 


begins  to  pervade  the  Irish  Church  in  the  seventh 
century  is  indicated  by  the  unprecedented  ex- 
tension of  the  cult  of  relics.  Ireland  had  no  mar- 
tyrs. There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  relics 
were  known  or  honored  in  any  part  of 
6.  Selice.  the  Irish  Church  before  contact  with 
Rome.  In  633  the  embassy  sent  to 
Rome  because  of  the  Easter  contest  (see  above, 
p.  475)  returned  laden  with  books  and  relics.  And 
the  next  jrear  Cummian  writes  to  Seghine:  "  And 
-we  have  proof  that  the  virtue  of  God  is  in  the  relics 
of  holy  martyrs  and  the  writings  which  they  have 
brought.  We  have  seen  with  our  own  eyes  a  girl 
totally  blind  open  her  eyes  before  these  relics  and 
a  paralytic  walk  and  many  demons  cast  out " 
(col.  978b).  Everything  here,  even  to  the  word- 
ing (rdiquice),  is  Roman,  not  Irish.  Muirchu 
Maccu-Machtheni's  life  of  Patrick  witnesses  the 
progress  of  the  cult  of  relics  in  South  Ireland  dur- 
ing the  seventh  century.  Speaking  for  his  own 
time  (before  697),  the  author  mentions  with  em- 
phasis that  in  three  different  places  in  the  Roman- 
Irish  territory  relics  are  worshiped  and  he  even 
makes  Patrick  prophesy  such  worship  (Tripartite 
Life,  ii.  281,  U.  1-2;  283,  11.  3-5;  497,  U.  14-19). 
To  Adamnan,  writing  his  life  of  Columba  in  North 
Ireland  at  the  same  time  and  before  he  had  joined 
the  Roman  party,  relics  are  utteriy  unknown. 
But  no  sooner  did  Roman  influence  find  entrance 
in  the  North  through  the  yielding  of  Armagh  (697) 
and  lona  (716)  on  the  Easter  question  than  the 
same  change  of  attitude  took  place  which  had 
occurred  seventy  years  earlier  in  the  South.  The 
Annals  of  Ulster  give  much  information  on  the 
history  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries  they  contain  not  a  single  entry  respecting 
relics.  In  726,  however,  occurs  the  first  of  a  long 
series  of  entries  recording  the  transference  or  en- 
shrining of  relics,  and  a  little  later  Armagh  ex- 
hibited at  the  great  fairs  of  Ireland  the  relics  of 
Patrick,  supposed  to  have  been  found  at  Down- 
patrick  in  733,  and  took  them  to  Connaught  and 
Munster. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  spirit 
which  animated  the  Celtic  Church  about  600  was 
quite  different  from  that  which  the  emissaries  of 
the  Roman  Church  brought  to  the  British  Isles. 
Both  had  the  same  dogmas.  But  on  the  one  side 
was  a  striving  after  individual  freedom  and  per- 
sonal CJhristianity,  on  the  other  side  a  bigoted  zeal 
for  rigid  uniformity  and  systematizing.  The  Olt 
emphasized  a  Christianity  manifesting  itself  in 
word  and  deed,  the  Roman  Catholic  valued  a 
formal  Christianity  above  all  else.  As  has  been 
said,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  Celtic 
Church  greatly  resembled  the  Apostolic  Church  in 
institutions  or  doctrines.  But  the  practical  results 
of  its  teaching  as  seen  in  the  life  of  such  men  as 
Aidan  and  Finan  (cf.  Bede,  in.  17)  unquestionably 
oome  nearer  the  popular  conception  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Age  than  does  the  spirit  manifested  by  the 
representatives  of  Rome. 

(H.  ZimoBB.) 
Ribuoobapbt:    A.  W.  Haddan  and  W.  Btubbs,  CouneiU  and 
SedMiaHical  DoeumenU  RdoHnp  to  Qrtat  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, a  eonTvnient  ooUectioo  of  the  BOttrora  with  valuable 
iiotes.  vol.  i.,  Oxford.  1860.  dealins  with  the  Biitiah  Chureh 


in  Roman  times  and  the  period  of  Anglo-Saxon  eonqueat, 
the  Church  in  Walea  and  Cornwall;  vol.  ii.,  part  i.,  1878, 
with  the  Church  in  Cumbria  or  Str«tbclyde,  branches  of 
the  British  Church  in  Armorica  and  Gallida,  the  Church 
of  Scotland  till  declared  independent  of  York;  vol.  ii., 
part  ii.,  1878,  with  the  Church  in  Ireland  and  the  memo- 
rials of  Patrick;  vol.  iii.,  1871.  with  the  English  Chureh 
during  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  Adamnan 's  Lt/«  of  St. 
Columba,  ed.  W.  Reeves.  Dublin,  1857,  Edinburgh,  1874 
(see  Adamnan).  Bede,  HiMtoria  eedmaatica  gontU  An- 
gUtrum^  ed.  A.  Holder,  Freiburg,  1800,  ed.  G.  Plununer, 
2  vols.,  Oxford,  1806.  Cummian's  letter  to  Seghine, 
abbot  of  lona,  in  MPL,  Ixxxvii.  060-078.  Gikias  and 
Nennius,  [Historia  Britonum,  ed.  T.  Mommsen,  in  MOH, 
AucLarU.,  xiii.,  Chronica  mtfuira  »(Beuhrum  tv.-vti.,  iii., 
1808.  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  Chronicon,  ed.  idem,  ib.  i. 
Auet.  ant,,  ix.,  1802.  The  Tripartite  Life  of  Patrick  with 
Other  Docwnenta  BeloHng  to  That  Saint,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes, 
in  RoOe  Seriee,  no.  80,  2  vols.,  1887  (see  Patrick.  Saint). 
The  Livee  of  the  Cambro-Britieh  Sainta  of  the  Fifth  and 
Immediate  Succeeding  Centuriea,  ed.  W.  J.  Rees,  Llando- 
very, 1853,  dating  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies, which  is  also  true  in  part  of  the  material  in  the  so- 
called  Liber  Landaveneie  ("  Book  of  LlandaflT,"  ed.  W.  J. 
Rees.  Llandovery,  1840;  ed.  J.  G.  Evans,  Oxford,  1803). 
The  ilcia  eanetorum  Hibemiee  ex  eodiee  Salmanticenei,  ed! 
G.  de  Smedt  and  J.  de  Backer,  Edinburgh,  1888,  and  Livee 
of  Sainie  from  the  Bo€.k  of  Liemore,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes, 
in  Anecdota  Oxonieneia,  1800.  also  present  only  relatively 
late  material.  The  various  annalistic  works  give  impor- 
tant data  for  ecclesiastical  history,  vis.:  for  the  British 
and  Welsh  Church,  the  Annalee  Cambrice,  ed.  J.  W.  ab 
Ithel,  in  RoUe  Seriee,  no.  20,  1860;  the  oldest  part  also 
in  Y  Cymmrodor,  ix.,  1888;  for  the  Irish-Scotch  branch, 
the  Annate  of  Tigemach,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes,  in  Revue 
CelHque,  xvi.-xviii.,  1805-07;  the  Annale  of  Uleter,  ed. 
W.  M.  Hennessy  and  B.  MacCarthy.  4  vols.,  Dublin,  1887- 
1001;  the  Chronicon  Scotorum,  ed.  W.  M.  Hennessy,  in 
RoUe  Seriee,  no.  46,  1866;  Annale  of  Ireland,  Three  F^oq- 
mente,  ed.  J.  O'Donovan,  Dublin,  1860;  Annale  of  (he 
Kingdom  of  Ireland  by  the  Four  Maetere,  ed.  idem,  7  vols., 
1848-51 ;  Annale  of  Clonmaenoiae,  ed.  D.  Murphy,  Dublin, 
1806;  Chronidee  of  the  PicU  and  ScoU,  ed.  W.  F.  Skene, 
Edinburgh,  1867.  The  oldest  of  the  Irish  collections  is 
that  of  Tigemach  (d.  1088).  Since  the  sources  upon 
which  they  are  based  are  all  lost,  and  the  sources  them- 
selves appear  in  part  to  have  been  compilations  of  the 
eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  oenturies  from  older  monastic 
annals,  it  is  clear  that  statements  concerning  Irish  diuroh 
history  of  the  fifth  century  have  no  decisive  value  when 
they  coincide  with  the  views  concerning  the  earlier  period 
current  after  750.  In  using  the  collections  of  Welsh  and 
of  Irish  laws  (Ancient  Lowe  and  InetihUee  of  Walee,  Lon- 
don, 1841;  Ancient  Lawe  of  Ireland,  6  vols.,  Dublin,  1865- 
1002)  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  former  dates  from 
the  tenth  century  and  the  latter  can  not  be  mudi  older. 
Other  sources  are:  the  Stowe  Mieeal,  ed.  F.  E.  Warren, 
in  The  Liturgy  and  Ritual  of  the  Celiie  Church,  pp.  106-268, 
Oxford.  1881 ;  the  AnHphonary  of  Bangor,  ed.  idem,  and  the 
Irieh  Liber  Hymnorum,  ed.  J.  H.  Bernard  and  R.  Atkin- 
son for  Hehry  Bradshaw  Society,  iv.,  x.  and  xiii.,  xiv., 
1803-08;  F.  W.  H.  Wasserschleben,  Die  Bueeordnungen 
der  abfiTuUAndiedien  Kirche,  Halle,  1851 ;  idem.  Die  vieehe 
Kanoneneammlung,  Leipsic,  1885;  the  Filire  of  Oengue, 
ed.  Whitley  Stokes,  Dublin.  1881;  the  Martyr^ogy  of 
Tatlat^,  ed.  M.  Kelly,  Dublin,  1857;  the  Martyrology  of 
Donegal,  ed.  J.  H.  Todd  and  W.  Reeves,  Dublin.  1864; 
the  Martyrology  of  German,  ed.  Whitley  Stokes,  for  Henry 
Bradshaw  Society,  ix.,  1805. 

The  father  of  Oltio  church  history  was  Arehbiahop 
Ussher,  whose  work,  Britanniearum  ecdeeiarum  antigui- 
taiee,  Dublin,  1630;  2d  ed..  enlarged,  London,  1687. 
however,  has  now  only  historic  interest.  The  mono- 
graph of  G.  SchfiU,  De  eedeeiaetica  Britonum  Scotontmque 
hietoria  fontibue,  Berlin  and  London,  1851,  and  the  intro- 
duction and  notes  of  Reeves's  Adamnan,  u.8.,  were  pio- 
neer work  in  the  critical  investigation  and  appreciation 
of  the  sources;  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  not  all  their  sue- 
cessors  have  continued  in  the  same  spirit.  The  legends  of  the 
Celtic  Chureh  are  briefly  but  fully  toki  in  Cardinal  Newman's 
Life  of  8L  Auguetine,  ohaps.  i.-v.,  London,  1845.  Works 
dealing  with  the  Celtic  (Thurch  in  both  Britain  and  Irelai>d 
are:  J.  H.  A.  Ebrard.  Die  iroeehottieche  Mieeienakirrhe 
dee  eeektten,  eiebenten  und  achten  Jahrhunderto,  Gaten|lo^ 


Oeltio  Ohuroh 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


480 


1873;  F.  E.  Warren,  Liturgy  and  Ritual,  u.a.;  F.  Loofi, 
Antiiqu9  Britonum  Scotcrumque  eedsaiw  quale»  fueruni 
mare§,  Leipaio  and  London,  1882;  W.  Cathcart,  The  Aneienl 
Britiah  and  Iriah  Churchs;  Philadelphia.  1894  (advene  to 
Roman  Catholic  claims);  H.  Zimmer,  Ths  Cdtic  Church  in 
Britainand Irtiand,  London,  1902.  For  the  British  branch 
noteworthy  works  are:  R.  Rees,  An  EBtay  on  <lb«  Wtiah 
Sainia,  London,  1836;  J.  H.  Overton,  The  Churth  in 
England,  i..  The  National  Churehea,  2  vols.,  London,  1891; 
H.  Williams,  Some  Aepeete  of  the  ChrieUan  Church  in 
Walee  during  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Centuriee  (London,  1895. 
reprinted  from  the  TraneacUcne  of  the  Society  of  Cymm- 
rodorion,  1893HM,  pp.  6&-132);  E.  J.  NeweU,  A'Hietory  of 
the  WOeh  Church  to  the  Dieeolution  of  the  Monaeteriee, 
London,  1895;  J.  W.  W.  Bund,  The  Cdtie  Church  of 
Walee,  ib.  1897;  W.  Bright,  Chapter*  of  Early  Bn^iiieh 
Church  Hietory,  Oxford,  1897;  J.  W.  W.  Bund,  The 
Celtie  Church  of  Walee,  London,  1897;  W.  £.  Collins. 
The  Beginning*  of  Engli$h  Chrietiani^,  ufith  epedal  Ref- 
erence to  the  Coming  of  St.  Auguetine,  London,  1898;  W. 
Hunt,  The  Bngliah  Church  from  Ita  Foundation  to  the 
Norman  Conqueet,  London,  1899.  For  Ireland:  J.  Lan- 
igan.  An  Bcdeeiaetieal  Hietory  of  Ireland  to  Oie  TMrteenlh 
Century,  4  vols..  Dublin,  1829;  R.  King,  A  Primer  of 
Ou  Hietory  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland  to  the 
Formation  [of  the  Modem  Branch  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  2 
vols,  and  supplement.  Dublin,  1851;  idem,  A  Memoir 
Introductory  to  the  Early  Hietory  of  the  Frimaey  of  Armagh, 


Armagh,  1854;  C.  J.  Greith,  OeeAidUe  der  ofitnit&a 
Kirehe,  Freiburg,  1867;  W.  D.  Killen.  The  EedaieAed 
Hietory  of  IreUtnd,  2  vols..  London,  1875;  G.  T.  Stoko^  Irt- 
iand and  the  CeUie  Church,  Oth  ed..  London.  1907:ideci, 
Some  Worthiee  of  Ote  IriehXhurck,  ib.  1900;  J.  Hesly.  /v 
•Ilia  eandorumetdoetorum  or  Irdand'e  AndeniSdudie^ 
Seht^are,  Dublin,  1890;  A.  Belledbetm,  Geedddtk  6e 
kathaliechen  Kirehe  in  Irland,  3  vols..  Mains.  ISOHl. 
T.  Olden,  The  Church  of  Ireland,  in  The  NaUomd  Chedu, 
London,  1892;  J.  Heron,  The  Celtic  Chunk  is  /raba^ 
London,  1898;  Eleanor  Hall,  Early  ChriiHan  Iniad, 
Dublin,  1905.  For  Scotland:  W.  F.  Skene,  Cd&c  Sot- 
land,  iL,  Church  and  Culture,  3  vola.,  EdinboTKb.  ISST: 
A.  Belleeheim,  QeeAiehle  der  katkoUechmn  Kirdie  iii  StU^ 
land,  2  vols..  Mains,  1883.  Eng.  trans!.,  with  additkc* 
and  notes,  by  D.  O.  H.  Blair.  4  vols.,  Edinboigh.  ISST- 
1890;  H.  M.  Luckoek,  The  Church  in  Scotland,  in  The  S> 
Honal  Churdkee,  London,  1893;  J.  Dowden,  The  C^Hk 
Church  in  Scotland,  London,  1894;  W.  Stephen,  Hiilmjti 
the  Seottieh  Church,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1894-96;  Dm 
Columba  Evans,  The  Early  Seottieh  Chunk,  Lofidot, 
1900  (claims  original  Roman  supremacy).  For  the  Cb- 
dees:  W.  Reeves.  TheCuideeeof  theBritiakIaiand»aMThii 
Appear  in  Hietory,  Dublin,  1864;  Skene,  u.8.,  pp.  226-57: 
J.  von  Pflugk-Hartung.  Die  Kuldeer,  in  ZKG,  xiv.  am 
169-192.  Fuller  bibliographies  may  be  found  in  Wvm. 
U.S.,  pp.  ziiL-ziz.;  Bellesheim,  IrUmd,  pp.  xix.-ixB.; 
SckiMand,  pp.  vii.-zv.;  and  Olden,  pp.  430-<32. 


I.  Names  Used  in  Early  Times. 
II.  Christian  Burial  and  IBurial-Flaees 
in  General. 

1.  Fundamental  Ideas. 

2.  Predecessors  of  the  Cemeteries. 

8.  Development  of  ^Cemeteries  and 

Their  Types. 
Origin  of   the   General    Cemetery 

(ID. 
Period  of  the  Catacombs  (f  2). 
Burial  in  Mausoleums  and  Churches 

(13). 

4.  Establishment  and  Administration 

of  Cemeteries. 
Foesores  (|  1). 
Administrative  Officials  (|  2). 

5.  Acquisition,  Use,  and  Protection 

of  Graves. 
Purchase  of  Graves  (i  1). 
Hie  Same  Clrave  Used  for  Several 

Bodies  (i  2). 
Violation  of  Graves  (|  3). 

6.  Commemoration  of  the  Dead  in 

the  Ometeries. 


CEMBTERIBS./ 

Various  Commemorations  (I  1).  a.  Plan  and  Construction. 

Ceremonies     of     Commemoration  In  the  Open  Air  (|  1). 


III. 


(§2). 
Arrangement,       Structure, 
Grave-Formation  of   the 
teries. 

1.  Subterranean  Burial-Plaoea. 
A.  The  Oriental  Group. 

Palestine  (|  1). 
Syria  (I  2). 
Mesopotamia  (|  8). 
Asia  Minor  (I  4). 
Egypt  (I  5).       . 
Cyrenaica  (|  6).  v. 
b.  The  Western  Group. 
North  Africa  (|  1). 
Sicily  (I  2).    -. 
MalU  (I  3).  ^ 
Melos  (i  4).  ) 
Apulia  (I  6). 
Naples  (i  6).      -. 
Castellamare  (|  7). 
Rome  (I  8). 

2.  Cemeteries  Above  Ground. 


Cemeteries  is  a  tenn  used  to  designate  the  burial- 
places  of  the  eariy  Christians,  including  the  sub- 
terranean buiying-grounds  oonunonly  known  as 
catacombs. 

L  Hames  Used  in  Early  Times :  Among  the  vari- 
ous titles  by  which  the  Christians  of  the  first  few 
centuries  designated  the  burial-places  of  their  dead, 
the  most  frequent  and  probably  the  oldest  is  the 
Greek  koimStSrion  or  the  equivalent  Latin  ccbtm- 
terium.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Septuagint  or  in  the 
New  Testament,  but  the  verb  koimaMai,  "  to  lie 
down  to  pest,"  "  to  sleep,"  occurs  in  both  the  literal 
and  the  metaphorical  sense,  usually  the  latter  in 
the  New  Testament  (metaphorical:  Matt,  xxvii. 
62;  Acts  vii.  60,  xiii.  36;  I  Cor.  vii.  39,  xv.  6,  18, 
20,  51;  I  Thess.  iv.  13;  II  Peter  iii.  4;  literal: 
Matt,  xxviii.  13;  Luke  xxii.  45;  Acts  xii.  6). 
While  the  word  koim&erian  is  oi  rare  occurrence  in 
classical  Greek  (it  was  applied  by  the  Cretans, 
according  to  Athensus,  to  a  room  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  guests),  it  was  constantly  used  by 
both  Christians  and  Jews  for  single  and  family 
l^ves   and  for  larger  burying-grounds,  whether 


Memorial  BuiWings  (i  2). 
Ground-Plan  and  Fonn  (|  3). 
Cemeteries  Connected  with  Chunaa 

(§4). 
b.  Types  of  Graves. 
The  Ordinary  Grave  (i  1). 
The  Coverinc  of  the  Grave  (i  2). 
Saroophaci  (i  3). 
Other  Receptacles  (i  4). 
rV.  Equipment     and     Deoontioo  d 

Tombs. 

1.  The  Grave  Itself. 

a.  The  Interior. 
Objects  Pertaininc  to  the  Gape 

(ID. 
Disposition  of  the  ConMe  (1 2). 
Gifts  to  the  Dead  (i  3). 

b.  The  Exterior. 
Vessels  for  Licht  and  InoeDse  [\  V.. 

'  Marks  of  Identification  (|  2). 
-  Inscriptions  and  Paintinp  (1 3L 

2.  The  Chambers  and  Paas&ca. 

above  groimd  or  under  ground.  On  thfi  other 
hand,  there  is  only  one  doubtful  case  of  its  use  ic  i 
heathen  inscription  for  a  burial-place  (CIL,  tjL 
7543),  against  thousands  in  which  other  terms  ut 
used.  That  the  expression  was  recognised  as  % 
distinctly  Christian  and  Jewish  term  is  evident  f roD 
the  way  in  which  it  is  used  as  an  unfamiliar  tern 
in  the  edicts  of  the  Roman  emperors  (Eusebii& 
Hist,  ecd,,  VII.  xi.  13).  Latin-speaking  Christiaos 
also  occasionally  employed  the  term  oKubUorixiM. 
which  originally  meant  (from  the  Roman  habit  d 
reclining  at  table)  a  dining-room.  These  words 
show  their  connection  with  the  Christian  hope* 
which  saw  in  death  only  a  sleep.  Besides  these 
specifically  Christian  expressions,  the  ioacriptioo^ 
give  a  number  of  others,  of  a  more  general  oaturt 
Besides  some  of  minor  importance,  there  is,  for 
example,  hypogceum  (or  in  one  place  Gk.  katagaip^) 
to  designate  small  underground  burial-plaoes  amoog 
both  Christians  and  pagans.  Modem  scholars  in- 
quently  employ  this  term  to  designate  uodfr- 
ground  burial-places,  no  matter  what  their  siie 
or  arrangements.    Tlie  word  <xrea  is  also  fouou 


4ei 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCIX)PEDIA 


Oeltio  Oliiiroh 
OemeteriM 


axnong    the    Latin-speaking    races,    especially    in 
North  Africa,  and  it  has  become  customary,  fol- 
lomring  De  Rossi,  to  use  it  for  all  surface  burying- 
groimds    of    the    primitive    Church.    The    name 
"  catacomb  "  is  more  recent  than  any  of  the  above- 
xiamed,  but  has  come  into  more  general  use  to  desig- 
nate not  only  the  subterranean  burial-places  of  the 
primitive  Christians  but  frequently  also  those  of  the 
Jeiws  and  other  races.    It  is  first  met  with  in  con- 
nection with  the  circus  of  Maxentius  near  the 
A^ppian  Way  outside  of  Rome,  in  an  inscription 
Tnrhich  has  the  phrase  fecU  et  circum  in  eaiecumbas, 
A3   relating  to  a  Christian  burial-place,  it  is  not 
clemonstrable  before  the  year  354,  when  it  appears 
as    a  specific  designation  of  the  cemetery  of  St. 
Sebastian  on  the  Appian  Way,  to  which  it  was 
limited  for  centuries.    Johannes  Diaconus  is  the 
eaxliest  evidence  for  its  application  to  other  Chris- 
tian cemeteries,  outside  of  Rome  as  well  as  within. 
Familiar  as  the  word  now  is,  however,  there  is  no 
certainty  as  to  its  original  signification.    The  most 
probable  theory  is  t^t  of  De  Waal,  followed  by 
Schultze,  that   the  circus  of  Maxentius  and  the 
cemetery  of  St.  Sebastian  were  called  in  cataewnbas 
(Gk.  kaia  kumbas,  "  in  the  ravine  ")  because  of  the 
sudden  dip  which  the  land,  including  the  Appian 
^Way,  takes  at  that  point  into  a  deep  hollow. 

IL  Christian  Burial  and  Burial-Places  in  GeneraL 
— 1.  Fnndamental  Ideas:  The  burial  of  Christ  in 
the  garden  was  taken  as  the  model  for  that  of  his 
disciples.    The  fact  that  never  in  the  oldest  Chris- 
tian literature  (including  the  New  Testament)  and 
not  often  later  is  a  prohibition  of  cremation  found, 
and  the  absence  of  traces  of  cremation,  cinerary 
urns,  and  the  like,  demonstrate  that  burial  in  the 
earth  was  the  unwritten  law.    Based  originally 
upon  the  example  of  Christ,  it  was  supported  later 
by  reasoning  which  connected  the  resurrection  of 
the  body  more  or  less  with  its  burial.    Minucius 
Felix,  however,  prefers  burial  to  cremation  merely 
as  "  the  older  and  better  custom  "  (OctaviuSf  xxxiv. 
11).    Augustine  (De  civitate  Dei,  i.  22;  De  cura 
pro  mortuis,  iii.,  etc.)   takes  burial  for  granted, 
and  so  does  Origen  in  the  East  (Contra  Celsum,  v. 
23,  viii.  49;  De  principiie,  ii.  10).    It  is  impossible 
to  decide  how  far  Christians  of  the  Apostolic  Age 
were  buried  in  Jewish  and  pagan  graveyards;   but 
later  a  strict  line  of  demarcation  was  drawn,  at 
least  as  early  as  Tertullian.    The  Christian  graves 
were  not  required  to  be  at  a  great  distance,  but 
there  was  to  be  a  distinct  interval  between  them 
and  the  heathen,  and  the  burial  of  individual  Chris- 
tians in  heathen  graveyards  was  strictly  forbidden, 
and  vice  versa.    Primitive  Christianity  was  thus 
as  exclusive  in  death  as  in  its  worship  during  life. 

2.  PredaoaMors  of  the  Oemeteriea:  While  Chris- 
tian antiquity  agreed  in  condemning  cremation,  it 
made  no  attempt  at  enforcing  uniformity  in  the 
manner  of  buriid.  Both  of  the  earlier  methods  of 
sepulture,  under  and  above  the  ground,  were  em- 
ployed. The  choice  between  the  two  was  deter- 
mined partly  by  the  geological  conformation  of  the 
place,  though  perhaps  not  as  largely  as  has  been 
usually  assumed.  Other  prevailing  reasons  are  to 
be  sought  in  the  customs  of  pre-Christian  times  in 
regard  to  the  disposal  of  corpses.  That  the  eariy 
II.— 31 


Christians  should  have  undertaken,  in  the  absence 
of  any  definite  prescription,  to  strike  out  wholly 
new  lines  for  themselves  in  this  matter  is  unlikely, 
especially  since  they  did  not  attempt  this  in  the 
analogous  matter  of  the  construction  of  their  houses 
and  dhurches.  Naturally,  therefore,  they  adopted 
in  each  place  the  prevailing  local  custom — ^the 
Hebrew  Christians  of  Palestine  following  the  Jewish 
mode,  and  the  Gentile  Christians  of  Sicily  that  of 
their  pagan  neighbors.  The  fuller  our  kaowledge 
grows  of  both  ancient  Christian  and  ancient  pagan 
burial-places,  the  more  clearly  is  this  theory  de- 
monstrated, not  only  in  regard  to  the  choice  men- 
tioned above,  but  equally  in  regard  to  the  shape, 
decoration,  and  equipment  of  the  sepulchers.  Thus 
it  may  be  remarked,  without  anticipating  too  much 
what  will  be  said  later,  that  private  vaults,  holding 
but  a  small  number  of  bodies,  are  characteristic  of 
the  earliest  period  of  Christian  burial.  As  far  as 
inscriptions  and  other  indications  go,  these  were 
restricted  to  the  members  of  one  family,  its  friends, 
etc.,  with,  it  is  true,  the  addition  (as  in  the  famiiia 
of  the  imperial  period)  of  Christian  freedmen  and 
their  Christian  offspring.  It  is  not  yet  certain 
whether  so  early  as  this  (on  the  analogy  of  the  older 
Roman  and  later  Christian  custom)  individuals 
joined  together  in  associations  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  a  common  burial-place.  In  a  word,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  primitive  Christians  followed 
Jewish  modek  in  Palestine  and  pagan  elsewhere, 
almost  without  exception. 

8.  Development  of  Oemeteries  and  Their  Types: 
As  in  other  things,  so  here  Christianity  proved  itself 
a  religion  of  development;  and,  once  more  follow- 
ing the  general  rule,  this  development  was  more 
rapid  in  the  West  than  in  the  East.  To  take  but  a 
single  important  point,  the  development  from  the 
family  vault  to  the  general  cemetery,  the  East 
never  went  beyond  a  few  experiments,  and  bury- 
ing-grounds  for  the  whole  of  a  local  church  re- 
mained exceptional,  even  at  a  much  later  period. 
The  West,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  began  with 
the  family  vault,  and  examples  of  this  form  persist 
through  the  whole  of  Christian  antiquity,  was  not 
long  in  adopting  the  large  common  cemetery.  The 
development  was  not  everywhere  equally  rapid; 
Sicily  was  least  affected  by  it,  and  Rome  most. 
By  the  third  century  the  common  cemetery  was 
the  rule  here. 

The  Roman  catacombs  mark  the  highest  point 
reached  in  the  development  of  ancient  ChriBtian 
burial,  the  greatest  and  most  speedy  advance  upon 
its  pre-Christian  prototypes  and  upon  its  own  begin- 
nings. The  most  strildng  feature  of  this  is  not  the 
immense  extent  attained  by  the  wonderful  under- 
ground city,  but  the  motive  power  which  created  it 
— the  spirit  of  brotheriy  love  and  esprit  de  corpe. 
As  neariy  as  the  obscure  beginnings  can  be  traced, 
this,  rather  than  practical  oonsidera- 

^'  ^^'S*  tio^w  or  needs,  was  responsible  for  the 
^^C  ^"^  extension  of  the  system.   Before 

•^^^J^y^*'  the  advent  of  Christianity,  it  was  not 
uncommon  for  philanthropists  to  pro- 
vide either  individuals  or  whole  classes,  principally 
among  the  poor,  with  burial-places,  and  there 
was  nothing  in  itself  remarkable  about  Christiana 


0«m«t«ria« 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


4sa 


being  inspired  with  the  same  benevolent  idea. 
But  the  earlier  jnat-ft^ftftw  were  the  product  of  mere 
Idndnefls  of  heart,  while  the  motive  of  the  Christian 
benefactions  was  distinctly  the  spirit  of  brotherhood. 
The  most  famous  among  those  who  thus  endowed 
the  oldest  Ronum  church  was  a  member  of  the  im- 
perial family,  Flavia  Domitilla,  who  possessed  an 
estate  on  the  Via  Ardeatina,  of  which  she  allowed 
portions  to  be  used  for  burial.  The  largest  com- 
mon cemetery  of  Rome,  the  catacomb  wbdch  bears 
her  name,  was  constructed  on  this  spot,  and  some 
of  her  own  relations  buried  in  it.  Other  Christians 
followed  her  example,  and  the  Church  as  a  whole, 
so  renowned  for  its  spirit  of  charity,  can  not  have 
been  idle  in  this  good  work. 

These  beginnings  date  from  the  second  century; 
the  third  is  the  great  epoch  of  subterranean  burial 
in  Rome;  and  the  new  development  ceased  there 
first,  as  it  had  begun  there.  It  is  true  that  new 
catacombs  were  established  in  the  fourth  century, 
such  as  that  of  St.  Felix  on  the  Yi&  Aurelia,  but 
their  number  and  extent  were  comparatively  insig- 
nificant. Burial  on  the  surface,  previously  rare, 
increased  in  frequency  with  the  cessa- 

8.  Period  tion  of  persecution,  and  by  the  begin- 
of  the  ning  of  the  fifth  century  became  the 
OataoomlMi.  nde.  The  dated  inscriptions  give  an 
accurate  view  of  the  change:  if  their 
proportion  may  be  taken,  on&-third  of  the  burials 
between  338  and  360,  half  between  364  and  369, 
two-thirds  between  373  and  400,  and  after  450 
all  those  who  died  were  buried  outside  the  cata- 
combs. This  striking  change  is  not  sufficiently 
explained  by  the  recognition  of  Christianity;  the 
decisive  change  does  not  coincide  with  the  date  of 
the  Edict  of  Milan  (313),  and  both  in  Sicily  and  in 
Palestine  burial  continued  to  be  as  before — ^in  the 
former  on  the  surface,  in  the  latter  underground. 
It  may  perhaps  be  better  taken  as  merely  an  ex- 
pression of  the  general  consciousness  of  the  change 
in  the  Church's  position  during  the  century,  cor- 
responding to  the  change  which  has  been  noticed 
in  the  ideal  portrait  of  Christ  in  the  same  period 
(see  Jesus  Christ,  Pictureb  and  Imaoib  ofX 

After  the  Roman  catacombs  ceased  to  be  burial- 
places,  they  were  by  no  means  deserted,  but  re- 
mained the  destination  of  pious  pilgrimages.  The 
veneration  of  the  martyrs  and  their  relics  received 
a  great  extension  in  the  fourth  century,  and  the  use 
of  the  ancient  burial-places  in  this  way  was  fur- 
thered by  the  restoration  of  the  passages  and  cham- 
bers and  the  opening  of  new  approaches  by  Pope 
Damasus.  A  number  of  fifth  and  sixth-century 
popes  followed  his  example.  The  old  chambers 
were  enlarged  into  chapek,  or  regular  basilicas 
were  established  in  the  catacombs  (Sanf  Agnete, 
San  Lorenso  fuori  le  Mura,  Santi  Nereo  ed  Acl^eo). 

While  burial  either  in  catacombs  or  in  the  open 
ground  was  the  common  practise  of  primitive  Chris- 
tianity, it  sometimes  took  place  in  mausoleums  or 
churches.  The  construction  of  churches  to  mark 
the  sepulchers  of  the  martyrs  and  render  them 
accessible  to  large  numbers  of  the  faithful  began 
soon  after  the  recognition  of  Christianity.  In 
churches  of  this  kind  burial  was  practised,  either 
by  graves  dug  in  the  earth  or  by  sarcophagi.    The 


principal  churches  used  in  this  way  in  Rome  vere 
those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  St.  Laurence  asd  Sl 
Agnes  without  the  Walls,  and  St.  Rmms,  in  aad 
aroimd  which  large  numbers  of  Christiaos  vee 

buried  until  late  in  the  sixth  oentoiy. 

8.  Bozialin  ^  ^   ^^    fi«^    **"^   centuries  the 

Mauso-     Christians    had    respected   the  dii 

leums  and  ordinance  which  required  boxiai  oil' 

Ohorohes.  side  the  walls  of  cities,  the  fourtli  wit- 

nessed  a  tendency  to  break  down  these 
restrictions.  In  Constantinople  this  took  plaee 
about  381;  in  the  mean  while  the  relics  of  inaityn 
had  been  translated  to  the  churches  witiiin  the 
dty,  and  promoted  the  desire  of  others  to  be  boiied 
in  their  neighborhood,  so  that  an  imperui  edid 
was  required  which  strictly  prohibited  such  intrsr 
mural  burial.  Chrysostom,  however,  who  fasd 
sanctioned  this  restriction,  was  himsdf  buiied  in  % 
church  in  Constantinople  in  438,  and  near  him  & 
number  of  persons  of  prominence.  The  indeasai 
prevalence  of  the  practise  gradually  broke  thioogh 
the  law;  in  Rome  there  were  intramural  buisl- 
places  in  the  sixth  century — a  oemetoy  on  the 
Esquiline  and  a  number  of  places  in  and  aroimd  the 
churches  of  the  city,  though  the  solemn  translatioa 
of  the  relics  of  martyrs  from  the  cemeteries  ootnk 
to  the  dty  churches  did  not  begin -till  the  eigbth 
and  ninth  centuries. 

4.  Bstablishment  and  Administration  of  0«t- 
teries:  The  same  spirit  of  love  ^4iich  watched  ore 
not  onJy  the  poor  and  the  sick  but  also  the  dead  ia 
the  primitive  Church  must  have  had  before  it  tJie 
problem  of  the  setting  i^art  of  definite  officers  for 
the  care  of  this  part  of  its  work.  It  seems  probabte 
that  as  eariy  as  Cjrprian's  day  qpedal  persons  wee 
offidally  charged  with  the  care  of  funerals.  Wboe 
vaults  were  hewn  out  of  the  rock  or  built  up  is 
masonry,  spedal  grave-diggers  were  not  requiied: 
but  the  laying  out  of  the  larger  catacombs  requiied 
the  services  of  technical  knowledge.  Thus  it  iap- 
pens  that  next  to  nothing  is  heard  about  the  orpn- 
izers  of  cemeteries  before  the  reign  of  ConstantiDe. 
and  in  and  after  that  rdgn  more  in  the  East  thao 
in  the  West.  The  Roman  Church  had  no  spedal 
offidals  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  but  at 
Cirta  in  North  Africa  as  eariy  as  the  begiimiDg  d 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian  fos^orf  appear  as  tbe 
lowest  of  the  derical  orders    (see  Foss-utuxs). 

Acoordin^y  they  came  to  be  reekooed 
1.  Posaores.  among  the  derics  between  250  and 

350.  Outride  of  Africa  the  /««« 
are  sometimes  named  before  the  ostiorii.  1^ 
function  was  to  dig  the  graves  and  act  as  custo- 
dians of  the  cemeteries.  In  the  catacombs  there 
are  a  number  of  pictures  which  show  them  at  tlxir 
work;  here  they  are  evidently  of  a  higher  class  than 
mere  laborers.  In  view  of  the  complicated  nature 
of  their  task,  they  are  rather  to  be  compared  «ith 
architects.  They  seem  to  have  been  supported  at 
first,  like  other  church  ofiidals,  from  thA  free-will 
offerings  of  the  faithful ;  but  a  number  of  fourth  wd 
fifth-century  inscriptions  imply  that  they  recaw 
condderable  sums  from  the  sale  of  graves.  'Hue 
sort  of  traffic  probably  led  to  abuses,  and  so  ulti- 
mately to  the  decline  of  the  order  as  an  order.  It 
seems  to  have  been  definitely  suppreased  in  Raoe 


483 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


0«meteriea 


in  the  fint  half  of  the  fifth  oentuiy.  GonBtanti- 
nople  abo  had  its  official  grave-diggera,  though 
here  they  were  not  reckoned  among  the  clergy. 
As  a  class  established  by  Constantino  and  added  to 
by  Anastaaius,  they  attended  to  burials  without 
charge,  but  received  immunity  from  taxation  and 
other  privileges,  so  that  their  position  was  a  desir- 
able one,  and  coveted  even  by  well-to-do  trades- 
men. It  is  learned  from  Ambrose  {MPL,  xvii.  745) 
that  in  the  church  of  Milan  the  whole  charge  of 
burials  was  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  but  he  gives 
no  details. 

Earlier  and  fuller  information  is  extant  in  regard 
to  the  officials  who  had  the  administration  of  the 
cemeteries.  With  the  development  from  private 
vaults  to  burial-grounds  for  the  whole  local  church, 
this  naturally  came  within  the  bishop's  sphere  of 
influence.  He  would  of  course  deputise  some  of 
his  clergy  to  assist  him,  and  in  Rome  from  the  third 
century  the  names  of  such  clerics 
2.  Admin-  appear  as  administrators  of  the  oom- 
istrative  mon  burying-ground;  the  first  who 
OflLolaU.  can  be  positively  identified  was  in 
deacon's  orders.  The  Liber  porUifi' 
calls,  in  its  account  of  Pope  Dionysius  (259-268), 
implies  that  each  of  the  titular  or  parish  churches 
of  Rome  had 'one  cemetery  specially  assigned  to  it, 
and  that  the  priest  of  each  church  had  the  oversight 
of  the  corresponding  cemetery.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century,  the  growth  of  the  local 
church  required  an  exilargement  of  the  number, 
and  a  redistribution  was  made  (again  according  to 
the  Ldher  pontificalia)  by  Pope  Marcellus  (308-309). 
Assistants  of  the  parish  priest  in  this  matter  were 
those  called  from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  pree- 
ponft,  who  had  charge  of  the  more  important 
cemeteries,  and  the  manHonarii,  who  had  charge  of 
the  less  important  burial-places.  The  prcBpanH 
of  the  catacomb  of  St.  Calixtus,  which  was  not 
classed  with  the  others,  and  of  St.  Peter's,  St. 
Paul's,  and  St.  Laurence's,  were  subject  not  to 
parish  priests  but  directly  to  the  pope. 

6.  AoqnUltion,  Use,  and  Protaotion  of  Oraves: 
In  Christian  antiquity  graves  were  acquired  and 
prepared  as  in  pre-Christian  times,  either  by  pur- 
chaJae  or  gift,  and  in  the  lifetime  of  the  destined 
occupant  or  at  death.  People  provided  their  rel- 
atives, friends,  and  servants  with  graves  by  their 
wills  or  by  deed  of  gift.  The  only  innovation  is 
that  which  has  been  already  remarked,  that  local 
churches  provided  burial-places  for  the  poor  out 
of  the  common  funds.  Both  single  graves  and 
family  vaults  were  frequently  purchased,  and  the 
^  p^  records  of  the  transaction  sometimes 
ohase'of  ^^®^Py  nioro  space  than  the  fimeral 
Graves,  inscription  proper,  giving  the  names 
of  buyer,  seller,  and  witnesses,  the 
price  and  location  of  the  grave.  In  some  of  the 
Roman  inscriptions,  probably  relating  only  to  par- 
ticular churches,  the  permission  of  the  pope  is 
mentioned.  In  cases  where  the  purchase-price  is 
mentioned,  though  it  may  have  included  the  cost  of 
construction,  it  seems  in  some  instances  to  be  ex- 
cessive, and  the  fosaores  are  likely  to  have  driven  a 
good  bargain,  especially  for  places  near  the  tombs 
of  the  martyrs,  for  wUch  there  was  an  increasing 


demand.  Gregory  the  Great  set  his  face  against 
the  selling  of  graves,  but  after  his  death  the  system 
seems  to  have  revived.  Though  the  question  can 
not  be  positively  decided,  it  seems  that  in  Chris- 
tian antiquity  the  practise  of  providing  a  burial- 
place  during  life  was  more  common  in  the  East 
than  in  the  West,  and  during  the  period  after  Con- 
stantino than  that  before. 

A  passage  in  Tertullian  (De  animaj  li.)  and  the 
decrees  of  certain  councils  against  the  crowding  of 
bodies  on  top  of  one  another  or  dose  together  has 
led  many  archeologists  to  believe  that  in  the  primi^ 
tive  Church  each  Christian  had  a  grave  to  himself. 
But  this  view  is  untenable,  as  is  shown  especially 
by  the  excavations  of  Paolo  Orsi  in  the  cemeteries 
of  Sicily,  where  he  frequently  found  more  than  one 
body  in  a  grave,  and  in  one  case  as  many  as  eighteen. 
Even  in  Rome,  where  more  respect 
^'  Sr  ^*"  P*^^  ^  *^®  dead,  the  inscriptions 
~**7™^*not  seldom  show  that  an  old  grave 

Several'    ^^  ^^^^  again  for  fresh  interments, 

Bodies.  ^^®  original  tablet  being  reversed  and 
made  to  bear  the  name  of  the  new 
tenant.  The  practise  seems  to  have  originated 
and  to  have  been  carried  on  with  the  least  scruple 
in  the  East,  where  as  early  as  the  third  century 
measures  had  to  be  taken  against  the  violators  of 
graves,  not  merely  those  who  opened  them  for  the 
purpose  of  interring  more  corpses,  but  some  even 
who  did  not  shrink  from  robbing  them. 

The  custom  of  putting  an  inscription  on  a  tomb 
to  guard  it  from  profanation  is  very  old,  and  on 
the  other  hand  was  common  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  Christian  inscriptions  of  this  kind  warn  those 
who  read  them  most  frequently  and  expressly 
against  the  use  of  the  grave  for  burial  by  imau- 
thorized  persons;  but  the  writings  of  fourth-cen- 
tury Fathers  and  the  edicts  of  Christian  emper- 
ors in  the  same  period  show  that  this  was  not 
the  only  danger  feared.  Gregory  Nazianzen  has 
left  more  than  eighty  epigrams  directed  against 
grave-robbers,  and  John  Chrysostom  was  obliged  to 
_.  ^^  scourge  this  abuse  again  and  again  in 
tlon^of     ^°  sermons.    A  startling  fact  is  that 

Ghaves.  ^^®  Christian  inscriptions  affixed  to 
graves  as  a  protection  seem  to  be 
addressed  miunly  to  Christians,  if  one  may  judge 
from  their  appeals  to  God  and  the  last  judgment. 
In  all  the  principal  sections  of  the  ancient  Church 
numerous  inscriptions  are  found  which  threaten 
violators  of  tombs  either  with  secular  or  with 
divine  penalties,  or  with  both;  but  they  are  no- 
where so  numerous  as  in  Phrygia  and  the  adjoining 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  This  frequency  may  be 
explained  partly  by  the  open  and  comparatively 
unprotected  natiure  of  the  cemeteries  there,  al- 
though such  inscriptions  are  foimd  also  in  the 
Roman  and  Sicilian  catacombs;  but  it  is  probably 
due  more  largely  to  the  pre-Christian  tradition  in 
Asia  Minor,  where  pagan  inscriptions  of  the  kind 
were  very  numerous — while  in  Rome,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  are  equally  rare  among  pagans  and 
Christians.  Secular  rulers  imposed  heavy  penal- 
ties upon  violators  of  graves;  they  were  excluded 
from  profiting  by  the  usual  Easter  indulgences,  and 
their  wives  were  allowed  to  get  a  divorce  from  them. 


Ocmetortos 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


484 


Nor  was  the  Church  behindhand  in  warning  and 
punishing  offenders.  But  the  evil  was  so  deeply 
rooted  thkt  in  spite  of  all  these  measures  it  lasted 
much  longer  than  Christian  antiquity. 

6.  Oommeiiioratlon  of  the  Deadin  the  Oemeteriee: 
Besides  the  solenmitiea  of  interment,  the  primitive 
Church  had  a  niunber  of  arrangements  for  the  sub- 
sequent commemoration  of  the  dead.  The  eailiest 
recorded  is  the  annual  oonmiemoration  at  the  grave 
of  Polycarp  on  the  day  of  his  martyrdom  (Marty- 
Hum  Polyoarpi,  xviii.).  In  the  time  of  Tertullian 
it  was  customary  in  Africa  to  celebrate  the  anni- 
versary of  the  death  of  other  Christians  (Z>e  coronaj 
iii.;  De  monogamia,  x.;  cf.  also  Apostolic  Con- 
stifuKons,  viii.  42;  Qsrprian,  EpisLj  xzziz.3).  Other 
commemorations  took  place  on  the 
1.  VATious  third,  seventh,  ninth,  thirtieth,  and 
Oommemo-  fortieth  days  after  death  or  burial, 
rations.  As  has  been  seen  in  regard  to  the  mode 
of  burial,  so  here  also  these  variations 
may  be  referred  to  the  influence  of  pre-Christian 
local  customs,  whether  Jewish  or  pagan.  Thus 
Ambrose  {De  cbitu  Theodonif  in.)  ascribes  the  cele- 
bration of  the  thirtieth  day  to  the  example  of 
Deut.  xzziv.  8  and  of  the  fortieth  to  Gen.  1.  3;  and 
Augustine  (QuautUmea  in  Heptateuchum,  i.  172) 
shows  the  pagan  origin  of  the  ninth  by  objecting 
to  it  as  reminding  people  of  the  Roman  nensendial 
and  being  without  Biblical  precedent. 

The  place  of  these  commemorations  is  not  always 
mentioned  in  the  eariy  authorities.  Those  de- 
scribed in  the  Martipium  Polycarpi  and  the  eariy 
Gnostic  Acta  Joannia  took  place  at  the  sepulcher. 
What  may  be  inferred  from  the  latter  to  have  been 
the  practise  of  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor  is 
shown  by  Tertullian  and  Qyprian  to  have  pre- 
vailed also  in  Africa — the  celebration  of  the  Eucha- 
rist in  connection  with  these  observances.  By 
this  sacred  feast,  which  consolingly  united  the 
living  with  those  who  had  gone  before,  the  memorial 
ceremonies  acquired  a  specifically  Christian  char- 
acter.  Later  it  came  to  be  surrounded 
?*'*\  by  a  number  of  other  ceremonies.  Of 
Oommemo-  ^^^"^  ^^®  ^^  ^  come  up  was  a  meal, 
ration.  ^^^  ^^®  ancient  offape  but  one  par- 
taken of  in  the  ordinary  way  as  simple 
nourishment.  These  feasts  on  the  anniversaries 
of  the  saints  led  to  abuses  and  excesses  which  are 
frequently  rebuked  by  the  Fathers,  especially  in 
Africa,  but  also  at  Milan  and  in  Rome.  Offenses 
not  merely  against  temperance  but  against  morality 
seem  to  have  taken  place  on  these  occasions  in  the 
East,  according  to  Chrysostom,  and  also  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  in  Spain,  where  a 
council  legislates  against  them.  In  fact,  the  influ- 
ence of  the  pagan  dies  parentalea  and  femoroKa 
continued  to  be  felt,  as  was  clearly  the  view  of 
Ambrose  and  Augustine  when  they  endeavored 
to  regulate  such  customs,  and  especially  to  abolish 
anything  which  could  seem  like  the  heathen  custom 
of  offering  food  and  drink  to  the  dead  (Augustine, 
De  moribue  eccksicB  caJthoUca,  i.  34;  Confeeaionee, 
vi.  2;  and  a  canon  of  the  Second  Synod  of  Tours, 
667).  These  authorities,  however,  do  not  raise 
any  objection  to  other  survivals  of  pie-Christian 
customs,  such  as  the  offering  of  balsam  and  other 


sweet-smeUing  spices,  which  were  frequently  poured 
into  the  grave  in  liquid  form,  through  spedaliy  pie- 
pared  openings  such  as  are  still  to  be  seen  in  one  of 
Orsi's  discoveries  in  the  catacombs  of  Syracuse,  and 
at  San  Paolo  f  uori  le  Mura  in  Rome.  Incense  was 
also  used.  It  was  a  conmion  practise  to  dedc  the 
graves  with  flowers,  and  li^ts  were  sometiiiMs 
burned,  though  this  was  forbidden  by  the  Synod 
of  Elvira  on  the  singular  ground  that  "  the  spirits 
of  the  saints  are  not  to  be  disturbed."  This  custcHn 
is  evidenced  by  the  large  numbers  of  small  lan^is 
found  in  the  catacombs,  either  placed  in  nicies  or 
fastened  to  the  walls,  which  can  hardly  have  been 
intended  merely  for  lighting  the  dark  passages. 

IIL  Arrangement,  Structure,  and  GraTe-Forma- 
tion  of  the  Cemeteries:  In  the  considnation  cl 
these  points,  the  geographical  divisi<m  is  evidently 
the  right  one;  but  lack  of  space  will  allow  it  to  be 
carried  out  only  in  the  description  of  the  subter- 
ranean burial-places,  while  a  generic  dassification 
will  have  to  be  adopted  for  those  above  grouiML 

1.  Subterranean  Bazial-Plao«i.—«.  The  Oziantal 
Chronp  (Asia  Minor,  the  Crimea,  Lower  £!gypt,  and 
Qyrenaica):  Palestine  is  rich  in  tombs  holloved 
out  of  the  rock,  more  or  less  reminding  the  beholder 
of  the  sepulcher  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xxiiL,  xxv.  9). 
There  has  not  been  suflident  scientific  investiga- 
tion into  their  origin  and  age  to  enable  an  accurate 
distinction  to  be  drawn  between  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian tombs  in  the  individual  instances.  Elitber 
naturally  perpendicular  or  artificially  fiDed-ouk 
walls  of  rock  were  dug  into  horiiontally,  or,  where 
such  were  difllcult  of  attairmient,  an  excavation  , 
was  made  downward  in  suitable  rocky  gromui 
into  which  a  flight  of  steps  or  a  ladder  led  down.  I 
Places  for  single  or  family  graves  were  excavated 
horiiontally,  with  a  low  and  narrow  door  to  eadi, 
closed  with  a  stone,  often  cylindrical 
^^ae**"  in  foim.  In  the  single  graves  a  sort 
of  niche,  or  sometimes  two,  were 
chiseled  out,  at  the  base  of  which,  on  the  semblanGe 
of  a  couch,  the  corpse  was  laid,  wrapped  in  doths 
without  a  ooflin.  A  variant  or  development  of  this 
was  the  hollowed-out  grave,  corresponding  to  the 
arcoaolium  of  the  Roman  catacombs,  allowing  the 
body  to  be  laid  in  an  excavation  resembling  a  coffin. 
The  best-known  sin^e  graves  in  Palestine  are  thoae 
called  the  tombs  of  Absalom  and  of  Zechariah  &t 
Jerusalem  and  a  number  of  tombs  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Valley  of  Hiimom.  The  family  tombs 
present  the  same  forms,  and  later  frequent  instanoei 
are  found  of  another  kind,  in  which  the  excavation 
in  the  walls  is  shaped  so  as  to  allow  the  body  to  be  ' 
pushed  in  head  or  feet  foremost;  of  these  a  Urge  I 
number  have  been  found  in  Palestine.  This  latter  j 
class  may  be  taken  to  be  exdusively  Jewish  in 
origin,  and,  where  they  are  found  in  connection 
with  indisputably  Christian  graves,  it  is  commoolf 
assumed  that  the  Christians  merdy  appropriated 
them.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Jewish  Christians 
also  used  the  hollowed-out  and  the  vertically  sunk 
graves.  An  interesting  burial-place  with  the  latter 
type  of  grave  is  that  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  whidi 
in  more  than  one  particular  differs  from  the  normal 
arrangement  in  Palestine,  and  probably  bdongs  to 
a  comparatively  late  period  of  Christian  antiquity- 


485 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Cemeteriaa 


E^lsewhere  in  the  country,  even  down  to  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries,  the  original  character  of  both 
single  and  family  tombs  was  preserved. 

Syria  offers  a  considerable  number  both  of  an- 
cient church  buildings  and  of  ancient  cemeteries, 
both  above  and  below  ground,  and  a  type  which  is 
a  combination  of  the  two,  at  once  hollowed  out  in 
the  rock  and  built  over  above.  The  openings  to 
the  subterranean  burial-places  are  either  vertical 
or  horizontal.  In  the  former  case  they  are  covered 
by  a  stone  like  the  lid  of  a  sarcophagus,  or  some- 
times by  a  roof  with  columns  or  a 
8.  Syria,  complete  chamber;  in  the  latter,  a 
door  leads  directly  into  them  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  or  one  passes  first  through  a  portico 
or  anteroom.  The  inner  space,  usually  rectangu- 
lar, has  in  most  cases  two  or  three  hoUowed-out 
and  vaulted  graves,  each  along  one  wall;  six  is  the 
largest  number  cited  by  De  VogQ^.  The  coflin- 
shaped  place  for  the  body  is  generally  covered,  not 
by  a  slab,  but  by  a  heavy  stone  shaped  like  the 
arched  sarcophagus-lids.  The  principal  difference 
between  the  known  Christian  burial-places  of 
Syria  (mostly  fifth  century,  to  judge  from  the 
inscriptions)  and  their  pagan  prototypes  is  the 
almost  universal  choice  of  the  arcosolium  form 
among  those  used  in  pre-Christian  times. 

The  cemeteries  of  Mesopotamia  seem  to  corre- 
spond in  their  main  features  to  those  of  central 
Syria,  including  structures  wholly  or  partially 
above  groimd  and  excavations  in  the  rock.  An 
important  necropolis  is  that  outside  the  walls  of 
Constantina  in  northern  Mesopotamia,  above 
ground,  containing  nearly  2,000  graves.  The 
subterranean  burial-places  seem  to 
'  have  been  mostly  connected  with 
ancient  stone-quarries,  and  some  of 
them  are  more  extensive  than  the  similar  ones 
in  Syria,  though  numerous  smaller  ones  have 
been  foimd. 

The  best-known  early  Christian  cemeteries 
in  Asia  Minor  are  in  the  extreme  southeast- 
em  provinces  of  Isauria  and  Cilida,  of  which 
the  former  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  explored  by 
L.  Duchesne.  Near  the  ancient  Seleucia  (now 
Selefkeh)  are  numerous  rectangular  chambers  at 
irregular  distances  from  each  other,  excavated  in 
soft  limestone  and  entered  by  doors.  They  con- 
tain from  three  to  ten  graves  apiece,  somewhat 
like  arcosolia,  but  standing  out  further  from  the 
walls.  Rock-chambers  and  isolated  aroosolia  are 
also  foimd  near  the  village  of  Libas,  and  many 
isolated  coffins  were  scattered  around  three  basil- 
icas at  Mout,  the  ancient  Claudiopolis,  as  well  as 
graves  dug  straight  down  and  covered  with  stone 
slabs.  Anazarbe  in  Cilida  has  a 
*lA"^*  large  necropolis  dating  from  a  late 
^'*  period  of  Christian  antiquity,  in  which 
both  roek-chambers  and  rock-coffins  are  found,  as 
also  at  Elsussa.  A  still  larger  cemetery  was 
probably  that  of  Corykos  (now  Ghorigos),  where 
chambers  are  excavated  in  the  rock,  sometimes  in 
several  lines  one  above  another.  These  seem  to 
have  been  all  for  families  or  small  groups.  All 
about  the  neighboring  hills  are  large  isolated  sar- 
cophagi with  saddle-back  covers.    In  Pisidia,  at 


S.  SCesopo-  I 


Termessos,  there  are  burial-chambers  which  the 
crosses  show  to  have  been  Christian.  Since  Arme- 
nia has  Christian  rock-tombs  at  Arabissos  (now 
Yarpua),  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  intervening 
province  of  Cappadoda  will  yet  furnish  some  ex- 
amples. It  is  possible  that  the  lack  of  interest  hith- 
erto shown  in  the  Christian  cemeteries  of  Asia  Minor 
is  due  to  the  close  resemblance  between  them  and 
the  pagan  burial-places;  and  evidence  is  not  lack- 
ing to  support  the  theory  that  a  considerable 
number  which  have  heretofore  been  classed  as 
pagan  will,  upon  further  investigation,  be  proved 
to  be  Christian. 

Accurate  modem  sdentific  investigation  of  the 
Christian  sepulchral  remains  of  Egypt  has  borne 
no  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the  northern  part 
of  that  country  in  the  early  Church,  and  the  ques- 
tion must  be  here  discussed  prindpally  from  the 
evidences  to  be  found  in  Alexandria.  Among  the 
catacombs  to  which  access  was  gained  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  best  known  is  that  discovered 
in  1858,  lying  near  the  Serapeum  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  andent  dty.  A  ffight  of  steps 
leads  down  into  a  square  anteroom,  with  a  semi- 
drcular  niche  adjoining  it  on  the  west  dde,  and 
two  burial-chambers  extending  out  from  it.  One 
of  these  is  long  and  narrow,  vaulted  above,  and 

containing  thirty-two  tombs  of  the 
6.  Sffypt.  kind  into  which  the  body  is  pushed 

head  or  feet  first.  The  other,  smaller 
and  square,  has  three  hollowed-out  graves,  one  on 
each  side,  and  another  sunk  in  the  floor.  That 
these  were  used  by  Christians  is  demonstrated  by 
paintings  and  inscriptions,  though  more  recent  in 
date  than  the  construction.  N^routsos,  the  most 
thorough  student  of  the  Alexandrian  catacombs, 
mentions  another,  discovered  in  1876,  which  he 
believes  to  be  Christian.  In  this  the  anteroom 
resembles  a  Greek  or  Roman  OBdieula,  though  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  are  decorated  with  lotus- 
flowers  instead  of  acanthus-leaves.  The  oblong 
burial-chamber  leading  out  of  this  has  on  three 
sides  rows  of  graves  of  the  kind  described,  at  right 
angles  with  tibe  wall,  one  above  another,  to  the 
number  of  fifty-four.  These  cemeteries  were 
probably  family  burial-places,  serving  for  more 
than  one  generation.  The  pagans  and  Jews  of 
Alexandria  undoubtedly  began  with  this  system, 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Christians 
did  not  always  adhere  to  it. 

Cyrenaica  contains  a  great  number  of  burial- 
places  hollowed  out  in  the  rock,  both  pagan  and 
Christian,  espedally  in  the  old  capital  dty;  but 
they  have  not  been  explored  with  suffident  com- 
pleteness and  accuracy  to  allow  the  formation  of 
definite  conclusions.  As  far  as  can  be  determined, 
most  of  the  burial-places  of  Cyrene  are  excavated 
in  the  dde  of  perpendicular  cliffs  near  the  dty. 
Only  a  few  of  them  give  podtive  evidence  of  Chris- 
tian use,  though  there  is  reason  to  think  that  these 
are  not  all.  A  great  variety  of  methods  appears, 
g  Q  including    movable    and    immovable 

naloaT"    stone    sarcophagi,     arcasolia,    toculi, 

graves  sunk  in  the  floor,  and  long, 
narrow  holes  in  the  cliff  in  which  the  dead  were  laid 
one  above  another^  separated  by  horizontal  slabs. 


OMn«teri«« 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


486 


The  aroosolia  show  oonmderable  artistic  feeling, 
and  where  the  vaulted  roof  occurs  it  resembles  not 
a  little  the  vaulting  of  the  apse  in  early  churches, 
like  which,  again,  it  is  often  painted.  In  these 
catacombs  several  chambers  are  sometimes  united 
to  form  a  larger  whole,  evidently  serving  for  more 
than  one  family,  and  in  one  case  it  is  possible  to 
conclude  with  certainty  that  it  was  a  common 
burial-place  for  the  Christian  community.  In  this 
particidar  alone  the  Christians  of  Cyrenaica  devel- 
oped beyond  their  predecessors,  whom  they  followed 
only  in  the  variety  of  shapes  used  for  the  graves. 
b.  The  Western  Oroup:  Even  if  the  assiunption 
frequently  made  that  there  were  no  subterranean 
cemeteries  in  North  Africa  is  abandoned,  it  is  true, 
at  least,  that  they  have  but  little  significance  com- 
pared with  the  large  number  in  the  open  air  or  in 
and  near  buildings  above  grotmd.  There  seem 
really  to  be  but  two  subterranean  burial-places  to 
consider.  One  at  Tipasa  has  ten  adjoining  cham- 
bers dug  out  of  the  rock  of  the  foot- 
1.  North  hills.  The  chamber,  trapezoid  in 
Africa,  form,  approximately  ten  feet  by 
nine,  has  an  arcoaolium  on  each  of 
three  sides  and  three  graves  dug  in  the  floor,  ap- 
parently covered  with  flat  sli^.  Gavault,  its 
discoverer,  compares  it  with  some  chambers  in  the 
Roman  catacombs,  but  it  is  more  analogous  to 
the  Oriental  and  Sicilian.  The  other  cemetery, 
discovered  in  1885,  is  at  Arch-Zara.  The  accessible 
portion  is  elliptical  in  shape,  tenninating  in  a  sort 
of  apse.  Four  parallel  passages,  the  longest  about 
eighty-eight  yards,  crossed  by  others  at  right 
an^es,  are  found  in  it.  In  the  walls  of  these  gal- 
leries are  placed  loctdi,  closed  by  slabs  of  brick.  It 
is  quite  possible  that  the  place  extends  further  in, 
or  even  that  there  is  a  second  level  below  the  one 
which  has  been  excavated. 

The  cemeteries  of  Sicily  surpass  in  number  those 
of  any  other  province  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
show  more  varied  forms  than  even  Rome  itself  can 
offer.  Each  of  the  races  which  successively  ruled 
the  island  brought  its  own  customs  with  it,  while 
none  was  strong  enough  to  enforce  them  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  old.  In  dealing  with  the  problem 
of  sepulture,  Christianity  had  a  number  of  methods, 
both  aboriginal  and  mixed,  to  choose 
8.  Sloily.  from,  and  needed  only  to  adopt  or 
adapt.  Nor  was  it  limited  to  Sicilian 
types;  the  many  ties  which  connected  the  island, 
even  in  Christian  times,  with  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Egypt,  North  Africa,  and  Rome  rendered  it  pos- 
sible for  still  other  architectural  types  to  find  an 
entrance.  The  geological  formation  of  the  island 
favored  the  excavation  of  subterranean  burial- 
places.  Limestone  and  tufa  abound,  the  latter 
usually  of  firmer  substance  than  the  tufa  ffranu- 
lare  of  the  neighborhood  of  Rome. 

The  first  stage  in  the  development  is  formed  by 
the  family  vaults,  of  which  the  simplest  show  a 
square,  oblong,  or  trapezoid  form  with  graves  in 
the  walls,  usually  of  the  arooiolium  or  loculua  type. 
Next,  the  small  vault  developed  into  a  hall,  from 
which  recesses  ran  off  on  each  side,  usually  shaped 
like  a  bell  or  a  flower-pot,  though  sometimes  square, 
with  an  opening  at  the  top  for  light  and  air.     Struc- 


tures based  upon  older  cisterns  are  confined  to  the 
vicinity  of  Girgenti,  and  tombs  with  a  bald&chin 
covering,  to  eastern  Sicily  and  Malta.  Some  of 
these  stand  free  from  the  walls  with  the  ooveiing 
supported  by  pillars  on  all  sides,  like  the  ciboiium 
of  an  altar;  others  are  supported  from  one  ade 
on  pillars,  and  from  the  other  connect  with  the 
wall.  In  the  eastern  part  are  some  with  deooratiTe 
facades  in  front  either  of  a  single  grave  or  of  & 
group,  furnished  with  doors  and  windows. 

The  main  differences  in  structure  depend  upoo 
the  sise  of  the  cemetery.  The  galleries  of  the  lai^ger 
catacombs  were  laid  out  with  one  or  more  main 
alleys  and  a  number  of  smaller  ones  running  acrasB 
or  parallel  to  them.  The  passages  are  as  a  rule 
comparatively  wide,  much  wider  than  in  Rome 
Occupying  an  intermediate  position  between  pas- 
sages and  chambers  are  the  recesses,  as  wide  as  or 
wider  than  the  corridors,  but  shorter.  These  are 
met  with  frequently  in  Sicily,  and  often  contain 
(besides  other  types  of  graves)  sarcophagi,  some- 
times arranged  in  terraces.  Where  chambers  occur 
in  the  large  catacombs,  they  are  connected  with 
the  galleries,  and  are  in  shape  square,  oblong,  trap- 
esoid,  or  circular,  the  last  being  especially  pi«- 
ferred  in  the  principal  catacombs  of  Syracuse. 
The  rectangular  ones  have  either  a  fiat  or  a  vaulted 
roof,,  the  circular  are  often  covered  with  a  cupola. 
with  an  opening  in  the  top  for  light  and  air.  Where 
the  size  was  sufficiently  great  to  admit  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  fall  of  the  roof,  this  was  guarded  against 
by  the  construction  of  pillars  out  of  the  solid  rock 
or  by  the  erection  of  columns.  The  corridors  and 
chambers  are  sometimes  all  on  one  level,  some- 
times in  different  stories. 

The  variety  of  grave-forms  is  even  greater  than 
that  of  the  general  structure.  In  most  places  the 
commonest  type  is  the  arcoiolium,  sometimes 
double,  one  above  another.  Single  graves  are 
foimd  relatively  seldom;  usually  severaJ  occur  in 
a  row  (up  to  fifteen  or  even  more)  under  the  same 
vaulted  roof.  In  Sicily  loctdi  are  much  less  com- 
mon than  arcoaolia,  and  where  they  are  numerous 
certain  corridors  contain  them  almost  exclusively 
for  children.  The  "  table-tomb  "  and  the  graw  at 
right  angles  with  the  wall  are  rare.  Sarcophagi, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  oonmion,  either  cut  out  of 
the  natural  stone,  built  up  with  masonwork,  or 
made  of  better  material,  such  as  marble;  and  so 
were  graves  simk  in  the  floor  of  chambers,  recess©, 
and  galleries,  to  the  extent  of  forming  a  character- 
istic of  the  Sicilian  cemeteries.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  all  the  Sicilian  catacombs  was  that  of  San 
Giovanni  near  Syracuse,  which  in  extent  and  skil- 
ful laying  out  surpasses  even  the  Roman. 

In  Malta  most  of  the  ancient  cemeteries  lie  near 
the  capital,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Carthaginian 
burial-places.  Where  the  sides  of  rocky  diffs 
were  accessible,  the  excavations  were  horiiontal, 
vertical  in  the  flat  coimtry.  Some  of  these  h&y^ 
nothing  but  galleries,  others  nothing  but  chambers. 
As  a  rule,  the  galleries  are  few  and  short,  their 
height  that  of  a  man.  Among  the  grave-fonD5 15 
one  which  so  far  has  not  been  found  outside  of 
Malta,  known  for  convenience  as  the  "  oven-grsv^" 
This  is  an  opening  in  the  wall  at  a  greater  or  les^ 


<B7 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oem«teri«B 


<li8tanoe  from  the  floor,  with  the  bottom  and  sides 
straight,  and  the  top  in  the  shape  of  either  an  arch 
or  a  shell,  or  sometimes  straight.  These  external 
parts  are  carefully  constructed  and  decorated,  often 
^th  pilasters  in  the  front;  at  the  back  ia  a  reo- 
langular  opening  which  gives  access  to  the  length 
of  a  grave  usually  for  two,  less  often  for  one  or  three 
bodies.  These  graves  are  generally  arranged  in 
a  row;  in  the  catacomb  of  Tal-Liebru 
8-  Malta,  there  are  two  rows,  one  above  the 
other.  This  peculiar  form  can  hardly 
be  of  Christian  origm,  but  is  rather,  as  Mayr  has 
shown,  the  development  of  a  type  used  by  the 
Phenician  population  of  the  island.  In  a  niunber 
of  burial-places  it  is  the  only  form  used,  in  others 
it  appears  concurrently  with  the  more  usual  types, 
among  which  the  arcowlium  is  the  most  frequent. 
Both  in  the  oven-graves  and  in  the  others  a  head- 
rest with  a  semicircular  depression  is  common. 
The  Maltese  cemeteries,  most  of  which  date  from 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  are  as  a  rule  small, 
and  must  have  served  for  families  or  other  small 
groups.  Only  a  single  catacomb  is  known  on  the 
neighboring  island  of  Gozzo. 

Near  the  village  of  Trypiti  in  Melos,  surrounded 
by  pagan  tombs,  is  a  Christian  necropolis  unques- 
tionably used  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  com- 
posed originally  of  five  separate  catacombs,  four 
of  which  were  afterward  connected;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  others  still  lie  concealed  in  the  vicinity. 
The  oldest,  that  in  the  middle,  consists  of  a  broad 
main  gallery  and  several  side  corri- 
4.  scales,  dors.  The  width  of  the  galleries 
varies  from  3  ft.  3  in.  to  16  ft.  4  in., 
the  height  from  4  ft.  7  in.  to  7  ft.  6  in.  The  walls 
contain  arcosolia  with  semicircular  arches  and  a 
few  loctili,  and  there  are  graves  sunk  in  the  floor 
of  all  the  passages,  usually  in  pairs.  The  three 
undoubtedly  Christian  catacombs  have  no  cham- 
bers, but  the  other  two,  which  are  probably  Chris- 
tian, have  them.  Bayet  coimted  150  arcosolia 
and  sixty-six  sunk  graves  in  the  whole  five. 

Far  as  Melos  and  Apulia  are  from  each  other, 
it  would  be  difllcult  to  find  a  closer  affinity  between 
types  of  catacombs  than  exists  between  these  just 
described  and  those  of  Venosa,  of  which  the  one 
most  fully  studied  \a  apparently  of  Jewish  origin. 
Here  again  one  finds  the  same  unusual  breadth  of 
galleries,  in  spite  of  the  friable  nature  of  the  tufa, 
the  arcoBoUum  is  the  predominant 
6.  Apvdla.  form,  at  least  in  the  main  galleries, 
and  the  floor  is  full  of  sunk  graves, 
while  chambers  are  once  more  lacking.  The  prin- 
cipal difference  is  in  the  form  of  the  carcosolia,  which 
in  Melos  are  of  only  one  kind,  in  Venosa  of  several, 
answering  to  the  Sicilian  variety;  and  in  fact  the 
Jewish  catacomb  of  Venosa  offers  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent the  intennediate  step  between  Melos  on  one 
side  and  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  on  the  other. 

The  catacombs  of  Naples  are  the  most  impor- 
tant among  those  of  Campania;  and  of  these  the 
largest  and  oldest  are  those  of  San  Gezmaro  dei 
Poveri,  whose  beginnings  apparently  go  back  to 
the  first  century.  Four  are  enumerated  nowadays; 
but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  there  were 
originally  more.    The  oldest  is  trapezoid  in  ground- 


plan,  with  a  maximum  width  of  thirty-three  feet 
and  length  somewhat  more.  Other  smaller  rooms 
open  from  it  to  left  and  right,  the  latter  of  which 
was  later  remodeled  into  a  churoh.  At  the  back 
of  the  laige  hall  are  the  entrances  to 
6.  Naples,  two  parallel  galleries  nearly  100  yards 
long,  connected  by  numerous  trans- 
verse passages.  From  the  outer  side  of  each  of 
these  stretch  out  other  chambers  and  galleries, 
which  in  their  turn  ramify  still  further,  though  to 
a  much  less  extent  than  in  the  Roman  catacombs. 
The  second  catacomb  is  less  important,  and  the 
other  two  still  less.  They  exhibit  three  types  of 
graves — ctrcowlia,  loculi,  and  sunk  graves.  The 
first  are  the  most  numerous  in  the  halls  and  cham- 
bers, as  well  as  in  the  oldest  and  most  important 
galleries;  unlike  the  Roman,  but  like  those  of 
Melos  and  Sicily,  they  are  sometimes  in  two  rows, 
one  above  the  other.  From  the  irregular  dispo- 
sition of  the  loculh  which  look  as  if  they  had  been 
crowded  in,  it  is  safe  to  attribute  a  later  date  to 
them.  They  form,  however,  an  actual  majority  of 
the  total  number  of  graves. 

At  Castellamare  there  is  a  later  but  not  uninter- 
esting catacomb,  named  after  St.  Blasius.  Besides 
a  nearly  square  entrance-hall,  it  contains  a  main 
gallery  nearly  twenty-two  yards  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  9  ft.  10  in.,  lined  with  arcoaolia. 
On  the  left  of  it  three  side  galleries 
7.  Oastella-  branch  out,  and  at  its  further  end  is 
mare,  a  chamber  from  which  further  galler- 
ies continue.  The  weight  of  evidence 
is  in  favor  of  a  Christian  origin.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  graves  in  the  chambers  at  Castellsr 
mare  and  Sorrento  is  peculiar;  they  are  placed  in 
rows  one  above  another  so  as  to  resemble  a  honey- 
comb, a  form  which  is  lacking  in  the  older  cata- 
combs, though  it  ia  impossible  to  say  whether  it 
originated  with  the  Christians  of  these  places. 

The  history  of  the  immense  and  widely  known 
catacombs  of  Rome  begins,  as  is  the  case  else- 
where, with  the  family  plot.  In  the  first  two  cen- 
turies, and  even  later,  individual  Christiahs  picked 
out  places  for  the  interment  of  themselves  and 
their  families,  including  in  some  cases  their  freed- 
men.  The  arrangement  of  the  first 
8.  Borne,  cemeteries  is  not  demonstrably  derived 
from  pagan  models,  since  there  were 
many  Jews  in  Rome  and  in  the  primitive  Church 
there,  and  these  also  buried  their  dead  in  subter- 
ranean cemeteries.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that,  while  it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  Jewish 
traditions  had  no  influence  on  the  early  develop- 
ment, the  first  beginnings  of  the  Christian  burial 
system  in  Rome  were  derived  rather  from  pagan 
prototypes. 

With  the  extension  of  the  family  plot  into  the 
common  cemetery  for  the  faithful,  underground 
Rome  became  apparently  a  labyrinth,  though  really 
its  plan  is  more  simple  and  intelligible  than  that  of 
some  of  the  larger  catacombs  outside  of  Rome. 
Since  the  ground  was  either  flat  or  slightly  rolling, 
the  excavation  was  begun  by  digging  down  at  an 
angle  into  the  earth,  the  descent  being  furnished 
with  steps,  usually  covered  with  brick  or  marble. 
After  it  had  reached  the  required  depth  (averaging 


OemetariM 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


488 


about  twenty  feet),  the  excavation  continued 
hoiuontally  in  a  main  gallery  and  others  roughly 
parallel  with  it,  connected  by  cross  passages  into 
a  regular  network.  The  dead  were  interred  usually 
in  the  walls,  less  often  in  the  floor  of  the  passages. 
Here  and  there,  at  the  side,  end,  or  intersection  of 
passages,  doors  were  cut  which  led  to  one  or  more 
chambers  (cubieula).  The  shape  of  these  was  as  a 
rule  nearly  rectangular,  less  often  polygonal,  semi- 
circular, or  circular;  the  roof  nearly  or  quite  flat 
or  cross-vaulted  in  the  rectangular  ones,  and  of 
the  nature  of  a  cupola  in  the  polygonal  or  circular. 
The  later  catacombs  usually  have  smaller  cham- 
bers, sometimes  not  more  than  about  four  square 
yards  in  extent. 

As  to  the  form  of  the  tombs,  the  loculu»  here  is 
the  most  frequent,  laiger  than  necessary  in  the 
oldest  cases,  but  later  dosely  following  the  shape 
of  the  body.  Sometimes  they  were  dug  in  deep 
enough  to  afford  room  for  several  bodies.  Above 
the  arcoeolia  there  was  usually  a  neariy  or  quite 
semicircular  arch.  If  two  bodies  were  to  be  buried 
together  in  these,  a  loculus  was  cut  at  the  back  of 
the  hollowed-out  space,  or  sometimes  the  arch  was 
carried  further  back  and  two  spaces  hollowed  out 
side  by  side;  or  again  locuH  were  cut,  especially 
for  children,  in  the  lunette  of  the  arch.  A  com- 
bination of  the  loculua  and  the  arcosoltum  is  the 
so-called  loculua  a  merua  or  "table-tomb."  The 
grave  dug  in  the  floor  is  found  less  often  than  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  most  of  those  which 
exist  probably  date  from  a  time  when  the  walls 
were  already  full.  Sarcophagi  were  also  used, 
made  of  marble  in  most  cases;  these  were  placed 
mostly  in  the  cubieula  and  galleries,  but  sometimes 
on  the  side  of  the  stairs.  When  the  wall-space  of 
a  catacomb  was  filled,  the  /oMores  gained  more 
room  by  digging  the  floor  of  the  passages  deeper. 
When  this  had  gone  so  far  as  to  threaten  the  sta- 
bility of  the  walls,  a  second  shaft  or  gallery  was 
begun  at  a  downward  an^e  from  the  first,  and  the 
whole  process  repeated.  Thus  in  the  catacombs 
of  St.  Calixtus  and  St.  Domitilla  five  different  levels 
are  found,  the  lowest  more  than  eighty  feet  be- 
neath the  surface.  An  i^proximate  conception 
of  the  vast  extent  of  the  Roman  catacombs  may 
be  gained  from  the  calculations  of  Michele  Stefano 
de  Rossi  and  of  Marchi.  The  former  estimated  the 
total  length  of  the  passages  at  550  miles,  the  latter 
at  750.  The  number  of  bodies  buried  there  is 
variously  given  as  from  three  and  a  half  to  six 
millions. 

The  catacombs  of  the  towns  around  Rome  and  in 
Etruria  resemble  the  Roman,  it  is  true,  more  than 
the  Sicilian;  but  there  are  striking  differences,  as 
in  the  typical  ones  of  Bolsena,  Chiusi,  and  Soriano, 
which,  when  examined  in  detail,  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  influence  of  the  ancient  Etruscan 
burial-customs  had  much  to  do  with  them.  It 
extended,  in  fact,  very  nearly  to  the  gates  of  Rome, 
and  some  of  its  cluu'acteristics  are  foimd  in  the 
catacombs  of  Rignano  and  at  the  twentieth  mile- 
stone on  the  Via  Flaminia. 

2.  Cemeteries  Above  Qronnd.— a.  Plan  and 
Oonatraotion:  The  simplest  form  of  cemeteries  in  the 
open  air  is  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  where,  in  order 


to  save  the  soil  available  for  agriculture  and  at  the 
same  time  to  protect  the  graves  from  inundaticio. 

the  Christians  laid  their  dead  to  rest 
1.  In  the  on  the  border  of  the  desert,  in  lai^e 
Open  Air.  cemeteries  used  by  a  oonaiderable  d^ 

trict.  TTiey  seldom  used  woodea 
coffins,  but  tied  the  corpse,  mummified  with  as- 
phalt or  natron,  to  a  sycamore  board,  then  wr^yped 
cloths  around  it  and  buried  it  in  an  ordinary  grave. 
The  discovery  in  1S73  of  a  cemetery  dadng  from 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centiuies  at  Portogruaro,  the 
ancient  Julia  Concordia,  gives  an  accurate  idea  of 
other  vanished  burying-groimds,  especially  in 
northern  Italy.  Several  hundred  sarcophagi  of 
Istrian  limestone  rest  either  directly  on  tl^  ground 
or  on  large  square  bases.  They  are  carved  out  of 
a  single  block  of  stone,  usually  without  anything 
on  their  sides  except  inscriptions,  and  covered 
with  heavy  roof-shaped  covers.  The  cemeteries 
of  Aries,  Vienne,  and  Treves  were  sioiilarly  l^ 
out.  At  Aries  five  layers  of  graves  ultimatdy 
existed,  one  above  another,  separated  only  by  a 
layer  of  earth — ^the  lowest  heathen,  the  upper 
ones  Christian.  Much  the  same  was  the  arrange- 
ment at  Vienne  and  at  Treves,  except  that  in  the 
latter  there  are  both  sarcophagi  and  graves  lined 
with  masonry  or  brick  and  covered  with  slabs  of 
brick,  limestone,  or  sandstone.  Here  again  Uie 
lowest  layer  contains  a  number  of  pagan  inscrip- 
tions and  sarcophagi,  the  most  probable  inference 
being  that  the  Christians  in  Gaul  and  the  Rhine 
country  occupied  former  pagan  burial-places.  The 
arecB  of  northern  Africa  attained  a  certain  celebrity 
even  during  the  epoch  of  peraecutiony  and  weie 
carefully  investigated  by  French  scholars  during 
the  nineteenth  century.  One  at  Lambdse,  about 
sixty-five  by  fifty-three  yards  in  extent,  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  sli^t  wall,  and  apparently  contained 
nothing  but  ordinary  graves.  Elsewhere,  in  ad- 
dition to  these,  small  vaulted  structures  w&e 
erected  over  the  bodies,  as  at  Csaarea  (modem 
Cherchel)  in  Mauretania.  Two  important  open- 
air  cemeteries  existed  at  Tipasa;  in  the  center  of 
one  was  a  basilica  erected  over  the  body  of  the 
martyr  Salsa. 

The  word  *' mausoleum,"  now  usually  restricted 
to  large  and  imposing  monuments,  was  used  in 
ancient  times  for  less  important  tombs,  and  memona 
is  also  frequently  employed.  These  small  memo- 
rial buildings  have  mostly  disappeared.  They 
must  have  been  particularly  numerous  in  r^ons 

where  the  small  family  burial-place  was 

riS*^  ^^®  "^®'  *"*^  where  the   custom  of 

Bnildlnffs*  ^'^^^^  them  had  been  prevalent  in 

pre-Christian  times.  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia have  supplied  a  considerable  proportion 
of  them,  and  Asia  Blinor  probably  had  as  many; 
but  they  existed  also  in  countries  where  the  com- 
mon burying-ground  was  the  rule.  Borne  stood 
among  graves  in  the  open  air,  as  above  the  Cata- 
comb of  St.  Calixtus  in  Rome;  others  near  or 
attached  to  churches,  as  at  Tipasa  and  two  that 
adjoined  the  old  St.  Peter's  in'Rome;  others,  again, 
were  isolated,  like  the  tomb  of  Galla  PUddia  and 
that  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna. 
The  frequency  of  neariy  or  quite  rectangular 


489 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oemeterlflfl 


grave-chambers    in    the    underground    cemeteries 
^virould  lead  to  the  expectation  of  finding  the  same 
structure  above  ground;  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  is  the  rule  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  while  the 
eaxly  existence  of  numerous  examples  of  this  class 
may  be  inferred  from  paintings  and  sculptiues 
representing  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  which  nearly 
always  depict  an  oblong  tomb  like  a  house  or 
temple.    Actual  examples  from  the  West  are  one 
built  like  a  tower  above  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Calix- 
tus  in  Rome,  another  vaulted  one  at  Tropea,  two 
adjoining  ones  by  the  side  of  a  basilica  at  Morsott, 
and  another  at  Tipasa  in  North  Africa.    Occa- 
sionally to  the  rectangular  ground- 
s' Ground-  plan  was  added  a  semicircular  ter- 
Plan  and  mination  at  the  rear,  as  in  the  group 
JFoTm.      of  tombs  in  the  cemetery  of  Manas- 
tirine    near    Salona,    of    the    fourth 
century  or  earlier,  and  other  examples  at  Tipasa 
and  Anoona.    The  rotimda  shape,  however,  was 
also  of  frequent  occurrence  from  the  earliest  times. 
Two  large  mausoleums  of  this  shape,  Santa  Petro- 
nilla  and  Santa  Maria  della  Febbre,  stand  near 
St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  and  the  church  of  St.  George 
at    Salonica  was   probably  sepulchral   in  origin. 
The  tomb  of  Theodoric  at  Ravenna  is  externally 
a  decagon,  on  the  groimd  floor  within  a  Greek 
cross,    and    circular    above.    After    semicircular 
additions  to  an  original  rectangular  plan  became 
common,  suggesting  the  form  of  a  cross,  the  idea 
received   further  development   at   the   hands   of 
Christians.    The   most   prominent    representative 
of  this  was  the  mausoleum  of  the  firet  Christian 
emperors,  the  church  of  the  Apostles  at  Constan- 
tinople, of  whose  sumptuous  structiue,  unhappily, 
little  more  is  known  now  than  that  it  had  the  shape 
of  a  Greek  cross.    The  tomb  of  Galla  Pladdia  at 
Ravenna  also  deserves  study  from  this  point  of 
view.     Probably  earlier  than  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine  is  the  original  construction  of  the  two  mausole- 
ums above  the  catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus,  which 
later  received  the  names  of  St.  Sixtus  and  St.  Soter. 
When,  after  the  cessation  of  persecution,  the 
erection  of  churches  over  or  near  the  graves  of  the 
saints  was  carried  out  on  a  large  scale,  the  develop- 
ment of  cemeteries  in  connection  with  them  fol- 
lowed as  a  consequence  of  the  desire  of  Christians 
to  be  buried  near  the  resting-place  of  the  martyrs. 
In  spite  of  the  ancient  law  forbidding  burial  within 
the  walls  of  the  city,  such  burials  continued  after 
the  relics  of  the  martyrs  were  brought  in  to  the 
principal  churches  of  various  places  (see  Church- 
tard).    Burial  within  the  church  itself  was  not 
everywhere  approved.    In  Spain  and  Gaul,  par- 
ticulariy,  it  was  even  a  subject  of  adverse  oonciliar 
legislation,  although  this  barrier  did  not  suffice 
to  keep  back  the  flowing  tide  of  popu- 
4.  Geme-    ^  piety.    Both  literary  and  monu- 
teries  Oon-  mental  evidence  attests  the  existence 
neoted  with  in  the  most  widely  separated  portions 
Ohurohea.  of  the  primitive  Church  of  buildings 
used  both  for  worship  and  for  inter- 
ment.   A  large  number  of  them  arose  outside  the 
walls  of  Rome.  Unfortunately  many  smaller  build- 
ingpi  of  this  class  sank   into    decay   or   oblivion 
during  and  after  the  Middle  Ages,  while  the  larger 


ones  were  so  transformed  in  course  of  time  that 
to-day  they  have  scarcely  a  trace  of  their  original 
use.  It  is  thus  easier  to  examine  the  extant  ruins 
in  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the  construction  adopted 
in  the  first  instance.  Of  these  undoubtedly  the 
most  significant  is  that  discovered  and  explored 
by  Delattre  at  Damous-el-Karita  near  Carthage. 
Here,  in  the  church  proper  and  atrium  as  well  as 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  more  than  14,000 
inscriptions  or  fragments  of  inscriptions  were 
brought  to  light.  The  dead  were  buried  in  ordi- 
nary sunk  graves,  lined  and  covered  with  slabs, 
though  some  were  constructed  of  masonry,  fre- 
quently covered  with  stone  slabs,  and  a  number 
of  sarcophagi  were  found,  these  latter  sunk  flush 
with  the  floor.  Of  the  great  biuial-churches  in 
Rome,  the  best  example  was  imtil  recently  fur- 
nished by  that  of  Santi  Nereo  ed  Achilleo,  the  floor 
of  which  was  literally  crowded  with  graves  and 
sarcophagi.  The  church  of  St.  Paul  without  the 
Walls,  a^  at  Rome,  which  from  the  fourth  cen- 
tury was  a  favorite  burial-place,  was  siurounded 
by  a  space  intended  especially  for  interment, 
covered  by  a  roof  supported  on  columns,  and 
adorned  with  paintings;  and  that  of  St.  Balbina, 
also  outside  the  city,  had  a  teglata  under  which  the 
dead  were  buried. 

b.  Types  of  Qravea:  In  the  primitive  age,  the 
simple  grave  dug  in  the  earth  was  the  commonest 
form  for  cemeteries  above  groimd.  It  was  ordi- 
narily not  so  deep  as  the  graves  of  to-day,  and  was 
frequently  lined  with  slabs  of  stone,  with  brick,  or 
with  masonry.  This  custom  led  to  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  simple  grave  into  a  vault  capable  of 
holding  several  bodies.  Of  these  vaults  none  have 
been  so  thoroughly  investigated  as  were  those  of  the 
upper  cemetery  of  St.  Calixtus  and  the  churohes 
of  St.  Laurence  and  St.  Paul  without  the  Walls 
by  De  Rossi.  In  the  first-named  large  holes  were 
dug,  and  then  divided  off  by  partitions  into  spaces 

^  -^        each    large    enough    for    one    body. 
pJiiwJty   "^^^   materials   urod   in   construction 

Orave.  ^^^  ^^^'  brick,  marble,  and  thick 
layers  of  mortar.  In  these  compart- 
ments the  corpses  were  placed  one  above  another, 
a  slab  covering  the  one  first  buried  and  serving  as 
a  support  for  the  next.  The  place  of  the  slab  was 
occasionally  taken  by  an  arched  covering  of  brick 
or  by  a  layer  of  masonry.  In  this  particiidar  ceme- 
tery the  excavation  was  carried  deep  enough  to 
contain  ten  or  even  more  bodies  thus  superim- 
posed; the  average  is  between  eight  and  nine. 
The  same  system  is  found  at  Ostia,  Porto,  and 
Tropea  in  Calabria,  as  well  as  in  North  Africa  and 
at  Athens.  In  other  cases,  as  in  the  same  ceme- 
tery of  St.  Calixtus,  the  oorpsea  were  laid  side  by 
side  and  separated  by  an  upright  slab.  While 
the  usual  shape  of  all  these  graves  was  rectangular, 
some  occur  in  North  Africa  which  correspond 
roughly  to  the  shape  of  the  body,  and  are  rounded 
off  at  the  head  and  foot.  They  were  frequently 
also  wider  at  the  head  than  at  the  foot,  giving  a 
bell-shaped  type  which  corresponds  to  examples 
found  in  the  Sicilian  catacombs.  In  both  cases 
this  type  is  a  survival  of  native  pre-Christian  usage. 

The  closing  of  the  graves,  whichever  of  these 


THE  NEW  8CHAFF-HERZ0G 


400 


forms  they  took,  was  done  in  various  ways.  In 
Upper  £!gypt  commonly,  but  elsewhere  as  well,  the 
eaurth  removed  in  excavation  was  heaped  over  the 
grave.  In  other  cases  slabs  were  laid  either  flat 
on  the  ground  or  on  the  top  of  the  sides  where  an 
artificial  lining  was  placed  in  the 
*^^^^  grave.    These  slabs  were  frequently 

^J^J^  decorated  in  the  fifth  century  with 
Q^rt^^^,  mosaic,  including  an  inscription  and 
various  pictorial  representations,  some- 
times the  portrait  of  the  deceased  or  sjrmbolic 
designs.  Instead  of  slabs,  large  heavy  stones  cut 
into  a  rough  shape  were  used  in  some  places,  espe- 
cially in  ^  East,  and  in  North  Africa,  where  it 
was  an  inheritance  from  Carthaginian  custom. 

The  term  sarcophagus  was  originally  used  by 
the  ancients  in  connection  with  a  kind  of  stone 
found  near  Assos  in  Asia  Minor,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  have  the  property  of  consuming  the  flesh 
of  the  corpse  in  a  short  time  (Pliny,  Hiat,  not., 
XXXVI.  xvii.  27),  but  it  was  often  employed  for 
receptacles  made  out  of  other  stone.  The  early 
Christians,  taking  over  both  name  and  things, 
used  the  stone  they  found  at  hand. 

8.  Bar-     For  relief  decorations,  however,  the 

oophaffl.  porous  and  often  flawed  limestone 
was  ill  adapted,  and  marble  was  gen- 
erally selected  where  these  were  desired.  The 
most  usual  form  was  that  of  a  parallelepiped, 
hollowed  out  to  receive  the  body.  The  shape  of 
the  body  was  sometimes  partially  reproduced  on 
the  outside,  especially  in  North  Africa,  or  at  least 
the  head  was  semicircular;  while  at  Rome  the 
head  and  foot  were  alike.  Sarcophagi  for  children 
seldom  occur,  because  they  were  usually  buried  with 
their  parents  in  the  larger  ones.  When  more  than 
one  body  was  to  be  placed  in  the  same  sarcoph- 
agus, stone  partitions  were  sometimes  placed  in 
the  interior.  Christian  sarcophagi  were  frequently 
adorned  with  more  or  less  elaborate  decorations, 
usually  in  relief,  though  the  taste  of  the  North 
African  Christians  for  mosaic  led  them  to  employ 
it  in  some  cases. 

Wooden  coffins  were  also  used,  either  endoeed 

in  the  sarcophagi  or  buried  in  the  earth;   but  on 

account  of  their  perishable  material  they  have 

almost  disappeared.    A  coffin  of  cypress  was  found 

in   the    marble   sarcophagus   of   St. 

4.  Other    Cecilia,  and  Gsell  found  others  of  oak 

Beoepta-  and  pine  in  sarcophagi  at  Tipasa.  A 
oles.  plain  rectangular  chest  of  cedar,  but 
richly  decorated  with  plates  of  gold 
and  silver,  received  the  remains  of  St.  Paulinus  at 
Treves,  and  was  afterward  enclosed  in  a  large 
sandstone  sarcophagus.  Coffins  of  lead  were  also 
known;  but  the  most  peculiar  receptacles  were 
those  in  the  shape  of  an  amphora  or  large  water- 
vessel.  These  easily  held  the  corpses  of  little 
children;  when  they  were  used  for  full-grown 
persons,  they  were  sometimes  taken  apart  and 
lengthened  by  the  addition  of  cylindri(»d  pieces 
taken  from  other  amphoras,  and  then  cemented 
together. 

IV.  £(iuipment  and  Decoration  of  Tombs:  Cor- 
responding to  the  great  variety  of  arrangement 
and  structure  noticed  above  is  a  still  greater  wealth 


of  objects  pertaining  to  the  equipment  and  decora- 
tion of  the  resting-pUces  of  tt^  dead.  Many  of 
these  objects  seem  natural  and  intdligible  to^y, 
but  others  appear  peculiar,  especially  the  pro- 
vision of  household  utensils.  The  furnishing  of 
tombs  with  inscriptions  and  with  painted  or  carved 
images  is  but  an  inheritance  of  the  traditions  of 
earlier  civilised  peoples,  especially  the  Greeks  and 
Romans;  and  it  seems  on  the  face  of  it  not  unlikely 
that  the  provision  of  these  various  other  objects 
was  similariy  a  following  of  ancient  custom.  It  is  in- 
disputable that  these  pre-Christian  pec^les  regarded 
the  grave  as  a  house,  and  gave  it  corresponding 
arrangements  and  decorations.  Roman  tombs 
sometimes  accurately  resemble  dwelling-houses,  with 
atrium,  tridiniaf  and  the  like.  Nim:ierous  pagan 
inscriptions  designate  either  a  burial-vault  or  a 
single  grave  as  a  house,  the  eternal  house,  etc 
These  same  designations  and  an  analogous  fonn 
of  construction  are  not  uncommon  in  eariy  Chris- 
tian usage,  as  might  be  shown,  did  space  pennit, 
from  monuments,  inscriptions,  and  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers.  This  conception  of  the  grave  as 
a  house  offers  the  only  satisfactoiy  explanation 
of  what  would  otherwise  be  so  mysterious,  the 
character  of  the  objects  in  the  tombs  as  gifts  to 
the  dead.  In  themselves  unnecessary  if  not  sense- 
less additions,  they  merely  demonstrate  the  power 
of  long  custom,  from  which  even  medieval  Chris- 
tianity was  not  able  wholly  to  emancipate  itself. 

1.  The  QrtLve  Itself.— a.  The  Interior:  Proper 
clothing  for  the  corpse  was  universal,  no  matter 
what  form  of  grave  was  used.  Even  those  who 
died  of  the  plague  in  Alexandria  had  their  seemly 
vesture  (Eusebius,  Hiat,  ecd.,  vii.  22).  Linen  seems 
to  have  been  the  usual  material,  and  white  the 
color,  though  costly  stuffs,  such  as  silk  and  purple 
and  gold  brocade  were  sometimes  used.  Ambrose, 
Chr^^ostom,  and  Jerome  protested  against  the  use 
of  gold-embroidered  garments,  and  the  first  and 
last  also  against  silk.  At  a  later  period  synods 
even  found  it  necessary  to  legislate  against  luxury 
in  grave-dothes,  e.g.,  that  of  Auxme  in  578.  In 
the  same  century  Gregory  of  Tours  relates  that  a 
kinswoman  of  IQng  Childebert  was  buried  "  with 
great   ornaments   and   much   gold," 

1.  OhJects  which,  however,  were  aocm  stolen. 
Pertaininff  The  indications  thus  given  in  the 
to  the  literature  of  the  period  are  oonfiimed 
Corpse,  by  numerous  discoveries,  the  largest 
number  of  which  have  been  in  Upper 
Egypt.  Here  the  garments  are  mostly  of  linen,  less 
often  of  pure  wool  or  silk.  As  to  mere  ornaments, 
though  Gregory  of  Nyassa  says  that  the  body  of 
his  sister  Macrina  was  stripped  before  burial  of 
rings  and  necklaces,  the  discoveries  show  that  tbis 
was  not  the  common  practise.  On  the  contrary, 
the  number  of  such  objects  found  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  many  bodies  were  more  richly  adorned 
in  death  than  in  life.  Among  them  are  rings,  ear- 
rings, bracelets  and  anklets,  necklaces,  combs  and 
hairpins,  fibula,  etc.,  made  of  various  t»r^«i<i 
and  frequently  bearing  Christian  emblems,  such 
as  the  monogram  of  Christ,  the  Good  Shepherds 
the  dove,  fish,  and  cross.  With  these  oraaments 
it  is  easy  to  confuse  the  amulets  sometimes  founds 


491 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OcBMtaritts 


sinoe  many  of  them  were  made  in  the  shi^M  of 
iing8,  bracelets,  or  pendants  for  the  neck  (see 
Amulet). 

Where  the  grave-diggers  of  the  catacombs,  or 
the  stone-cutters  who  made  sarcophagi,  designed 
the  space  for  the  corpse,  as  was  often  the  case,  so 
that  its  head  was  higher  than  its  feet,  there  was 
no  need  for  any  support  for  the  head  But  in 
other  cases  such  supports  were  placed  in  the  tomb, 
the  most  primitive  sort  being  of  one  or  more  stones. 
In  Upper  Egypt  rich  leather  cushions  stuffed  with 
tow  have  been  found,  so  sumptuously 

2.  Dlspo-  decorated  as  to  deserve  the  name  of 
■Ition  of    works  of  art.     Vessels  of  day  served 

the  Corpse,  the  same  purpose  in  North  Africa. 
Sometimes  supports  were  provided 
for  the  whole  body — ^in  North  Africa  a  layer  of 
beton,  here  and  elsewhere  simple  arrangements 
of  flat  bricks,  in  Catania  perforated  brick  supports 
on  low  feet,  like  benches.  On  sanitaiy  grounds 
the  grave  was  often  lined  with  unslacked  lime, 
which  was  also  sprinkled  over  the  corpse.  Traces 
of  this  custom  have  been  found  in  the  Roman 
catacombs  and  elsewhere,  as  in  North  Africa. 
The  dead  were  also  laid  in  some  places  on  a  bed 
of  laurel  leaves. 

While  the  Christians  of  the  primitive  age  usu- 
ally contemned  the  use  of  perfumed  oils  and  waters, 
they  used  such  things  for  the  dead  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  dead  were  anointed  before  they 
were  dressed  for  burial,  and  then  sprinkled  with 
perfumes  or  regulariy  embalmed  with  spices, 
though  this  latter  practise  seems  to  have  been  com- 
paratively rare  in  Rome.  Anything  like  mtmmu- 
fying  was  still  more  uncommon,  outside  of  Egypt. 
Usually  cloths  wet  with  perfumes  were  laid  upon 
the  body,  especially  the  face,  and  vessels  of  the 
most  diverse  shapes  filled  with  perfumery  were 
set  near  it.  It  is  practically  certain  that  some  of 
the  vessels  known  as  AmpullcB  (q.v.)  contained 
these  perfumes,  and  others  wine.    As 

3.  Gifts  to  food  and  drink  were  set  out  for  the 
the  I>ead.   martyrs  and  other  saints  at  the  com- 
memorative feasts,  it  is  safe  to  say 

that  this  took  place  also  at  burials.  There  is  also 
the  often-discuissed  possibility  that  such  vessels 
contained  the  elements  of  the  Eucharist,  or  at 
least  the  consecrated  wine,  in  connection  with  the 
practise  condemned  at  the  Third  Council  of  Car- 
thage and  often  later,  of  making  the  dead  partakers 
in  the  communion. 

Another  dass  is  formed  by  the  large  number  of 
domestic  utensils  of  every  sort  which  have  been 
found  in  the  graves.  These  comprise  vessels  of  all 
kinds,  mostly  of  clay  but  sometimes  of  glass  or 
more  costly  materials,  knives,  forks,  spoons,  wri- 
ting-tablets, styluses,  ink-stands,  hammers,  nails, 
spinning-wheels,  chisels,  and  tools  of  many  different 
Idnds.  Other  objects  of  daily  use  pertain  less  to 
mere  utility  than  to  iuxury  and  adornment.  A 
varied  collection  of  artides  such  as  served  the 
women  of  those  days  for  tlie  toilet  have  been 
discovered  in  and  near  the  tombs  of  the  catacombs, 
made  of  metal,  mosaio,  ivory,  glass,  enamel,  and 
mother-of-pearl.  The  grave  being  conceived,  in  a 
certain   sense,  as  the  house  or  chamber  of  the 


departed,  there  is  nothing  surpriong  in  the  dis- 
covery that  parents,  for  example,  placed  near  the 
bodies  of  the  children  they  had  lost  even  the  trifles 
which  had  been  dear  to  them  in  life— dolls,  smalls 
figures  of  men  and  animals,  small  lamps,  spoons, 
etc.,  savings-banks,  and  ivory  letters  of  the  kind 
used  in  the  schools.  Even  things  relating  to  the 
amusements  of  grown-up  people — ^boards  for  games, 
dice,  and  the  like — ^are  occasionally  found.  Pieces 
of  money  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Since  there 
is  evidence  that  the  old  pagan  custom  of  providing 
the  dead  with  money  to  pay  Charon  for  the  ferriage 
persisted  among  Christians  in  Greece  and  else- 
where, there  is  no  doubt  that  at  least  some  of  these 
coins  were  placed  there  from  that  point  of  view. 

b.  The  Bzterior:    After  the  burial  was  finished, 

it  was  a  common  practise  to  fix  in  the  still  wet 

mortar  with  which  the  loadi  and  arcoBciia  of  the 

subterranean  cemeteries  were  dosed  small  vessels, 

usually  of  glass,  sometimes  shells,  for  the  same 

purpose  as  the  vessels  inside  the  grave.    A  repeated 

renewal  of  these  is  evidenced  by  the 

^*  '^•■"     tomb  of  one  Peregrina  (d.  462)  in  the 

Lirht  (Mid  ^**^°^^  ^^  S"*  Giovanni  at  Syra- 

^^cemse.    ^^^^^^'  several  glasses  must  have  been 

broken  and  replaced,  and  there  was 

also  a  clay  censer  still  containing  coals  and  some 

grains  of  incense.    The  lamps  similarly  afiixed  to 

the  outside  of  the  graves  were  intended  to  be  lighted 

at  the  funeral  and  on  memorial  days.    Semicircular 

niches  were  made  in  the  adjacent  walls  to  hold  them. 

From  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  lamps  burning 

at  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  were  kept  up  with 

special  reverence;  the  oil  from  them  was  credited 

with  miraculous  power,  and  pilgrims  often  took  a 

small  quantity  of  it  home  with  them. 

Many  of  the  objects  mentioned  above  (a,  |  3) 
are  found  embedded  in  the  mortar  outside  the 
graves,  sometimes  as  gifts,  but  in  other  cases  un- 
doubtedly as  means  of  identification  among  the 
thousands  of  graves  in  the  large  oata- 
8.  Xarks    combs,  the  majority  of  which  had  no 
of  Identi-   inscriptions,  possibly    owing    to    the 
floation.     poverty  of  the  survivors.    Some  of 
these  substitutes  for  the  regular  in- 
deed blocks  of  marble  or  other  stone  are  letters, 
numbers,  etc.,  embedded  or  scratched  in  or  above 
the  place  where  the  tomb  is  closed;    others  are 
small   objects  of  great   variety,   rings,   buttons, 
glasses,  bits  of  mosaic,  animals'  teeth,  shells,  coins, 
stones  of  fruit  and  leaves  of  plants,  fixed  in  the 
mortar  before  it  dried. 

In  thdr  use  of  sepulchral  inscriptions  the  early 
Christians  merely  continued  the  tradition  of  still 
older  dvilisations.    Outside  of  the  family  vaults, 
on  or  over  the  door  of  which  the  name  of  the  occu- 
pants or  owners  appeared,  the  inscriptions  were 
placed  on  or  at  least  near  the  graves.    The  most 
peculiar    exception    to    the    general 
8.  Insozip.  usage  is  formed  by  those  which  have 
tionsand  the    inscriptions    inside    the    graves, 
Paintings,  where  thqr  can  not  have  been  visible 
to    passers-by.    Kari    Schmidt    dis- 
covered a  number  of  inscribed  gravestones  in  the 
necropolis  of  Antinoe  in  Egypt  which  seemed  to 
have  been  laid  originally  well  down  in  the  graves, 


0«met«rlea 
Oensus 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


492 


at  the  foot,  with  the  writing  underneath.  The 
inacriptions  were  either  cut  with  a  chijsel  or  other 
sharp  tool,  scratched  with  a  sharp  point,  painted 
with  a  brush,  or  composed  in  mosaic.  These 
inscriptions  offer  most  trustworthy  and  striking 
evidence  of  the  mode  of  thought,  faith,  and  hope  of 
the  primitive  Christians,  especially  in  regard  to 
death,  the  grave,  and  the  resurrection  (see  In- 
BCRipnoNs;  Paimtino). 

8.  The  Chambers  and  PrnMa^ee:  In  these  the 
presence  has  already  been  noted  of  tables,  benches, 
and  chairs  for  the  observance  of  the  commemora- 
tions of  the  dead.  The  dimensions  of  such  tables 
as  have  been  discovered  imply  that  the  number  of 
participants  was  small.  While  such  furniture  is 
practiciedly  absent  from  the  Roman  Catacombs, 
where  wood  must  accordingly  have  been  used, 
several  tables  of  more  durable  material  have  been 
found  in  North  African  burial-places.  The  gal- 
leries and  chambers  of  the  catacombs  also  contained 
receptacles  for  the  materials  used  in  mixing  mortar 
for  closing  up  the  tombs.  Those  which  have  been 
preserved,  niade  usually  of  clay,  with  incrustations 
of  mortar  and  lime  still  upon  them,  may  have  been 
used  either  for  this  purpose  or  on  sanitary  grounds, 
to  counteract  the  effluvia  of  the  place.  Lighting 
arrangements  are  found  here  too,  although  the 
galleries  must  have  been  in  comparative  darkness, 
to  judge  from  the  way  in  which  Jerome  quotes  Ps. 
Iv.  15  and  Vergil,  ^neid,  ii.  755  in  connection  with 
the  memory  of  his  visit  to  the  Roman  Catacombs. 
As  the  arcoaolia  were  frequently  ornamented  with 
paintings  in  their  vaults  and  lunettes,  and  the  locuU 
on  their  exterior  side,  so  also  the  chambers  and  less 
frequently  the  galleries  of  the  catacombs  were  dec- 
orated in  the  same  way.  No  doubt  the  structures 
above  ground  connected  with  the  cemeteries  were 
painted  in  much  more  numerous  cases  than  the 
scanty  remains  extant  at  the  present  day  would 
lead  one  to  suppose. 

(NiKOLAUS  MtLLER.) 
Bibuoorapht:  J.  Towiuhend«  Caialooue  cf  Bo6k»  RdaHng 
io  the  DUpomd  of  Bodies  New  York,  1887.  On  the  gen- 
ermi  question  oonsolt:  F.  Piper,  Bifdntung  in  d%»  monti^ 
m^nUde  Theologie,  Ootha,  1867;  J.  Wilpert,  Principien^ 
fraoen  der  dkrMtftdk«n  Arckdologie,  Frsibuis.  1889;  F.  X. 
Kr»UB,  Vtber  Begriff,  Umfang  und  GetcftMAte  der  cAriaf- 
Udten  Arehdologis,  Freibuis.  1879;  idem,  Rml-Bneyklopii^ 
die  der  duieUidien  AUerthUmer,  2  vola..  ib.  1880-«6;  V. 
Sehultie,  Arehdologiaehe  Studien,  Vienna,  1880;  Die  Kata- 
komben,  die  alldurieaiehen  OrabataUen,  Leipoie,  1882; 
R.  Orounet,  6hule  ewr  Vhitloire  dee  earcopkegea  cAr^fiefM, 
Athena,  1885;  L.  Wagner,  Mannera,  Cuetoma  and  Obeerv- 
aneee^  London,  188fi;  A.  Haaenolever,  Der  aUt^rieUidie 
Gmberadifnuck,  Brunswiok,  1886;  H.  Maruochi,  £limenU 
d*arcMolooU  thriHenne,  Paria,  1900;  Neander.  Chrietian 
Chwch,  vols.  L-iy.,  oonsult  Index.  b.y.  *'  Burial ";  Sohaff, 
Cftrufian  Cikurcft.  iL  286-310,  380-385;  Moellet,  ChritHan 
Church,  I  279-283. 

For  burial  in  Palestine  oonsult:  T.  Tobler,  GoiifaAa, 
pp.  201  sqq.,  et  paanm.  St.  Gall.  1851;  idem,  Zwei  BlUker 
Tapographie  von  Jerutalem,  ii.  227  sqq.,  Berlin,  1854; 
J.  N.  Sepp,  Jeruealem  und  doe  heUige  Land,  i.  273  sqq., 
Behaflhauaen,  1873;  Survey  of  Weetem  PaieaUne,  London, 
1881  sqq.;  Mittheilungen  und  Naehriehlen  dee  deutaehen 
PalMtinorVereina,  Leipsio.  1895  sqq.;  Paleatine  Explora- 
tion Fund  Quarterly  Statement,  paasiro;  C.  Mommert, 
Oolgotha  und  doe  heilige  Orab  mu  Jeruealem,  Leipsic,  1900. 
For  Syrian  burial  consult:  F.  E.  C.  Dietrich,  Zvoei  aide- 
niadia  Inackriften,  pp.  11  sqq.,  Marbuig,  1855;  C.  J.  M.  de 
Voga^  Notice  archSdogiqua  awr  lea  monumente  encore 
exiatanta  en  Terra  Sainte,  Paris,  1870;  idem,  Syrie  centrale, 
Paris,  1866-77. 


For  North  Africa  eonsult:  A.  L.  Delattre,  Inaeripfum 
ekrUiennea  provenant  de  la  baaiUQue  de  Damoma  el  Kariii 
d  Carthage,  Gonstantine,  18G3;  idem.  Lea  Taetbeeia 
puniquea  de  Carthage,  Lyons,  1890;  idon.  Antiguiiia  (Are> 
tiennea,  Paris.  1900;  R.  M.  Smith  and  E.  A.  Porcfaer.  Hia- 
tory  of  the  Recent  Diacoveriea  at  Cyrene,  London,  1864; 
N^routsoe-Bey,  Notice  awr  lea  fouiUae  rieeniae  .  .  .  .  pp^ 
26  sqq.,  48,  Alexandria,  1875;  idem.  VAneiamme  Alaat^ 
drie,  pp.  38  sqq.,  53-64,  61,  Paris.  1888;  Pierre  GaTsah, 
in  BibtiotKbiiue  d'ardUologia  Afrieaine,  part  2.  18»7: 
S.  GselU  Reeherchea  arehSologiquea  en  Algirim,  Phria.  18»: 
idem.  Lea  Monumente  antiguee  de  VAlgSria,  ib.  18B9: 
M.  de  Bock,  MaUriaux  pour  eervir  d  VarekMogie  dc 
VAnfPte  chritienna,  St.  Petersburg,  1901. 

For  Asia  Minor  consult:  J.  T.  Wood,  Dieeoveriaa  et 
Epheeua,  pp.  12  sqq.,  London,  1877;  F.  Gomont,  MiJaega 
d'arehMogieetd'hietoire,  TV.  (1995)  2i5e€in.i  W.lLBaiD- 
say,  CiOaa  and  Biahoprica  of  Phn/giA,  toL  L,  parts  1,  2. 
Oxford,  1895-47;    idem,  in  Journal  ef  HeUeme  Stmdua, 


On  the  Greek  Islands  consult:  L.  Roea,  Reiaen  amf  de» 
griechiechen  Ineeln,  in.  145-151.  Stuttgart,  1S45;  L.  P.  di 
Gesnola,  Cyprua,  New  York,  1877;  C.  B«y«t,  in  BvEetiM 
de  eorreepondanee  HalUnigua,  ii.  847-359,  Plaria,  1878. 

On  the  cataoomba  at  Rome  the  literature  is  eoormooa. 
The  following  is  a  selection:  O.  B.  de  Roaai,  Roma  aaatr- 
tanea,  3  Tola.,  Rome,  1864-77  (the  one  great  boc^  laifeiy 
reproduced  in  English  in  J.  8.  Northcota  and  W.  R.  Bron- 
low,  Roma  eotlerranea,  2  vols.,  London,  1870,  an  anthorusd 
summary);  with  De  Rossi's  monumental  work  sfaookl 
be  mentioned  the  periodical  edited  by  him,  BoOeltine  d% 
anheologia  eriatiana,  Rome,  1863  sqq.  (tfaa  repooitonr  d 
reports  of  discovery  and  decipherment);  F.  X.  Kiaits 
Roma  Sotterranea,  Freiburg,  1879  (baaed  on  De  Rosa  sad 
Northoote  and  Brownlow);  S.  d'Aginoourt,  Hiakfirr  dt 
Vart  par  lea  mumumenia,  6  Tols..  Paris,  1800-23;  W.  Rot- 
tell,  in  E.  Z.  Platner  et  al.,  BeedureSbung  der  Sladt  Roet, 
i.  855-416.  Stuttgart.  1830;  O.  Marti,  ArAitettum  dOa, 
Roma  eotlerranea  criMtiana,  Home,  1844;  O.  IfaitlazMi 
Church  in  Ote  Calacombe,  London,  1847;  L.  Penvt.  La 
Cataeombea  de-Rome,  6  Tola.,  Paris,  1861-tt  (piatcs  an 
valuable,  the  text  ia  auperaeded);  W.  I.  Kip,  Cataoomba  ei 
Rente,  New  York,  1854;  D.  de  Riefaemont,  Lea  CeUt- 
eombea  de  Rome,  P^ria,  1870;  P.  Allard,  Rome  eouterraint. 
Paris,  1874;  J.  H.  Parker,  Arckaolegy  of  Roaae,  parts  ix.. 
X.,  xii.,  London,  1877  (a  standard  work);  T.  Roller.  Lm 
Cataeombea  de  Rome,  Paris.  1881;  W.  R.  Brownk3>w. 
Cemetery  of  SL  Priedtta  and  Recent  Diaeoveriee,  Loodoc. 
1892;  M.  Armellini,  Le  Cataeombe  romane,  Rome.  1880; 
idem,  OU  antidn  dmiteri  erietiam  tU  Rcana  e  d'ltalia, 
ib.  1893;  R.  I^ndani,  Ruina  and  Excavatione  of  Aneiemi 
Rome,  Index  '*  cemeteries,"  Boston,  1897;  A.  Weber.  I>i$ 
rOmiaehen  Kaiakomben,  Regensburg,  190a 

For  cemeteries  in  Italy  outside  Romeeonault:  G.  B.  Ps»- 
quini,  Un  anOeo  dmilaro.  Sienna,  1831;  idem,  Retaaieme  d» 
un  antieo  dmitero  .  .  . ,  Montipulciano.  1833;  C.  F.  Bel- 
lermaim,  Dia  tUteeten  ehrietUehen  BegriOmiaetatten,  Ham- 
burg, 1839  (at  Naples);  G.  ScheriUo,  Le  Calaoombe  Napo- 
Utane,  Naples,  1870;  F.  livrrani.  Le  Cotecom&e  .  .  .  di 
Chiuei,  Sieima,  1872;  T.  Roller,  DieKatakoenbenvomScm 
Oennaro  ...  in  NeapO,  Jena,  1877;  V.  Schultxe.  Die 
Kaiakomben  von  San  Oennaro,  ib.  1877;  F.  Cokmna. 
Seoperto  di  anOdUtk  in  Napoli,  1876-1897,  Naples.  1898. 

For  Sicily,  Malta,  and  Sardinia  consult:  G.  P.  Badger. 
DetcKplion  of  Malta  and  Sardinia,  pp.  256-280^  Malta. 
1838;  A.  A.  (}aniana,  IZseenl  Z>i«eo0m6s  ol  AToteftOe.  Uaha. 
1881:  idem,  A  Hypogeum  ....  ib.  1884;  B.  Lnpos. 
Die  Stadt  Syraeua  im  Alterthum,  pp.  271,  275.  323-3'J7. 
Straaburg,  1887;  V.  Straasulla,  inArekivio  etoneeSinlia»o. 
xxL  104-188.  Palermo.  1896;  J.  Filhrer.  in  AM  A,  I 
Klaaae.  xx.  (1897).  part  3;  idem,  Forechungen  awe-  SiciHe 
aotterranea,  Munidi,  1897  (a  work  of  the  fiiat  impor- 
tance). 

For  England:  Oaroline  B.  Southey.  Ckaptera  on  Ckmrk- 
yarda,  London.  1870;  E.  E.  Jarrett.  Laseoas  on  the  Ckmch- 
yard,  ib.  1880;  Mrs.  B.  Holmes,  London  Burial  Grotuela, 
ib.  1896. 

Gonault  alao:  J.  B.  D.  Oochet,  La  Nommniia  eoeter- 
raina  ou  NoHeaa  eur  dee  eimetiiree  romaine  et  dee  eime- 
tiiraa  franca,  Dieppe.  1855;  idem,  SipuUmee  gauLnaei, 
romainea,  franquea  et  narmandee,  2  Tola!,  ib.  1857. 

The  original  article  by  Mailer,  in  Hanok-Hersog.  RE,  x. 
794-877f.  ia  a  learned  treatise  and  sboufcl  be  oonadtcd  by 
advanced  atudenta. 


493 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Oemeteries 
Census 


CBNSER  OR  THURIBLE:  The  vessel  in  which 
incenae  is  burned  during  divine  service  in  the  East- 
em,  Roman  Catholic,  and  of  late  years  many 
Anglican  churches.  The  usual  shape  is  that  of  a 
small  metal  bowl,  with  a  base  on  which  to  stand  it 
^when  not  in  use,  and  fitting  over  it  a  high  conical 
cover  in  which  are  perforations  to  let  the  smoke  out. 
The  'whole  is  carried  by  three  chains,  on  which  the 
cover  slides  up  and  down,  when  it  is  raised  to 
allow^  incense  to  be  thrown  upon  the  live  coals 
contained  in  the  lower  part.  In  connection  with 
the  censer  another  smaller  vessel,  called  the  incense- 
boat,  is  used  to  carry  the  supply  of  incense;  as  its 
name  implies,  it  is  shaped  like  a  small  boat,  but 
with  a  lid  and  a  base  on  which  to  stand  it. 

CENSORSHIP  AND  PROHIBITION  OF  BOOKS: 

By  censorship  is  meant  the  provision  that  no  pub- 
lication shall  be  issued  without  preliminary  exam- 
ination and  permission  by  the  authorities,  either 
ecclesiastical  or  secular.    The  prohibition  of  books 
as  dangerous  to  religion,  to  morals,  or  to  the  State 
dates  back  to  an  early  period.    Thus  all  works  on 
magic  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  by  the  later 
Roman   Empire.    Constantine  issued 
Early       an  edict  that  the  works  of  Arius  should 
Jnmtmru^^m.  bo  bumcd,  sud  numcTous  like  edicts 
against  books  of  other  heretics  fol- 
lowed.   Those  who  used  or  possessed  such  books 
were  threatened  with  death.    The  Church  forbade, 
on  its  own  account,  the  reading  of  pagan  and   he- 
retical books  {Apostolic  ConMutums,  i.  6,  vi.  16; 
canon  xvi.  of  the  Council  of  Carthage,  308).    Dur- 
ing the  Bfiddle  Ages,  both  Church  and  State  ad- 
hered firmly  to  the  same  principles;  a  salient  in- 
stance is  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Constance 
against  the  writings  of  John  Huss  and  its  execution. 
After  the  printing-press  was  invented  and  used 
to  advance  the  cause  of  the  Refonnation,  measures 
for  its  regulation  were  introduoed  by  the  Church, 
which  first  established  a  formal  censorship  of  books. 
In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  archbishops  of  Cologne, 
Mains,  Treves,  and  Magdeburg,  Alexander  VI.  or- 
dered (1501)  that  no  b(x»k  shoidd  be  printed  with- 
out special  authorisation.    The  Lateran  Council 
of  1515  sanctioned  the  constitution  of  LeoX.,  which 
provided  that  no  book  should  be  printed  without 
having  been  examined  in  Rome  by 
Censor-    the  papal  vicar  and  the  master  of  the 
■hip  by  the  sacred  palace,  in  other  countries  by 
Church*     the  bishop  of  the  diocese  or  his  deputy 
and  the  inquisitor  of  heresies.   Further 
and  more  detailed  legislation  followed,  and  the 
CouncQ  of  Trent   decreed  (session  iv.):  "It  shall 
not  be  lawful  to  print,  or  cause  to  be  printed,  any 
books  relating  to  religion  without  the  name  of  the 
author;  neither  shall  any  one  hereafter  sell  any 
such  books,  or  even  retain  them  in  his  possession, 
unless  they  have  been  first  examined  and  approved 
by  the  ordinary,  on  pain  of  anathema  and  the 
pecuniary  fine  imposed  by  the  canon  of  the  recent 
Lateran  Council."    On  these  regulations  are  based 
a  number  of  enactments  in  different  dioceses  which 
are  still  in  force.    The  Council  decreed  also  that  no 
theological  book  should  be  printed  without  first 
receiving  the  approbation  of  the  bishop  of  the  dio- 


cese; and  this  rule  is  extended  in  the  monastic 
orders  so  far  as  to  require  the  permission  of  supe- 
riors for  the  publication  of  a  book  on  any  subject. 
The  Council  of  Trent  left  the  further  provision 
concerning  the  whole  subject  to  a  special  commis- 
sion, which  was  to  report  to  the  pope.  In  accord- 
ance with  its  findings,  Pius  IV.  promulgated  the 
rule  submitted  to  him  and  a  list  of  prohibited  books 
in  the  constitution  Domtnici  gregU  custoditB  of  Mar. 
24,  15d4.  Extensions  and  expositions  of  this  ru- 
ling were  issued  by  Clement  VIII.,  Six- 
Present  tus  v.,  Alexander  VII.,  and  other  popes. 
Practise.  The  present  practise  is  based  upon  the 
constitution  SoUicUa  ac  provida  of 
Benedict  XIV.  (July  10,  1753).  The  oudntenance 
and  extension  of  the  Index  Hbrorwn  prokibilorum 
was  entrusted  to  a  special  standing  committee  of 
cardinals,  the  Congregation  of  the  Index  (see 
Curia),  which  from  time  to  time  publishes  new 
editions  (the  latest,  Turin,  1805).  There  is  also  an 
Index  Itbrorum  expurgatorum,  containing  books 
which  are  tolerated  after  the  excision  of  certain 
passages,  and  another  Itbrorum  expurgandorum,  of 
those  which' are  still  in  need  of  such  partial  expur- 
gation. The  prohibition  to  read  or  possess  books 
thus  forbidden  is  binding  upon  all  Roman  Catho- 
lics, though  in  special  cases  dispensations  from  it 
may  be  (Stained.  The  most  recent  regulation  of 
the  whole  matter  was  made  by  the  bull  Officiorum 
ac  munerum  of  Leo  XIII.,  Jan.  25, 1807. 

The  State  in  many  cases  for  its  own  purposes  ap- 
proved the  principle  of  censorship  until  compara- 
tively recent  times.  In  Germany  it  was  abolished 
only  in  1848.  In  En^^and  after  the  Reformation 
the  licensing  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  aroh- 
bidiop  of  Canterbury;  after  Milton's  famous  on- 
slaught upon  it  in  the  AreopagUica  (1643),  it  came 
to  an  end  by  the  refusal  of  the  House  of  (Commons 
in  1605  to  renew  the  Licensing  Act.  The  Reformed 
Churoh  of  Germany  maintained  similar  regulations 
in  some  places,  where  the  synodal  form  of  organiza- 
tion prevailed.  Among  the  Lutherans,  the  matter 
was  as  a  rule  left  in  the  hands  of  the  State. 

(E.  Frixdberg.) 

Bduoobapbt:  E.  O.  Fdgnot,  Diefionnatrt  .  .  .  dM  prin- 
eipaux  livrM  eonda$nni§  au  feu,  Paris,  1806;  H.  Arndt, 
J>«  UbrU  prokibiiU,  Resensbuis.  1865;  J.  Feasler.  Die 
kirtkiidiM  BUdunmbot,  VMnna,  1850;  F.  Baehae.  Dm 
ilfi/ftfVt  der  BnAenenaur  in  DeuUdUani,  Leifwie,  1870; 
£«ppr«Mid  and  Cenaund  Book;  in  Edinbuirgh  Review,  vol. 
szzziv.,  July.  1871;  T.  Wiedamana,  Dm  kirdUidts  BUdter- 
Meneur  in  der  BrwdiOeeee  Wien,  Vienna,  1873;  F.  H. 
Bmseh,  Der  Index  der  eerhoienen  Budur,  Bonn.  1883  aqq.; 
O.  H.  Putnam.  Centorthip  of  ihe  CAurcA  and  He  Influenot 
,  .  LUerature,  2  vola..  1006;  JE.  iii.  642-652. 


CENSUS. 
I.  In  the  Old  TMtamant. 
II.  In  the  New  Testament. 

The  Roman  Census  of  Citiiens  (|  1). 

Provindal  Census  to  Regulate  Tribute  (|  2). 

Cases  and  Methods  of  Roman  Census  (|  3). 

Palestinian  Census  of  6  a.d.  Quirinius  (|  4). 

Luke  iL  2  in  Error.    Jesus  not  Bom  Under  Quirinius 
(§6). 

No  General  Census  Under  Augustus  (|  6). 

Solution,  a  Census  by  Herod  (|  7). 

Census  is  a  term  used  to  designate  an  enumera- 
tion of  the  people,  generally  for  purposes  of  taxa- 
tion or  for  service  in  the  army. 


Census 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


494 


[L  In  tlis  Old  Testament:  Of  oenBuaes  of  the 
whole  population  there  are  recorded  in  the  Old 
Testament  ten  caaee:  (1-2)  under  Moaes  (Ex. 
zxzviii.  20,  cf.  Num.  i.;  Num.  xxvi.);  (3)  under 
David  (II  Sam.  zxiv.  1-9;  aee  Datid);  (4)  under 
Solomon  (II  Ohron.  ii.  17-18);  (5)  under  Reho- 
boam  (I  Kin^pB  xii.  21);  (6)  under  Jehoshaphat 
(II  Chion.  xvii.  14-19);  (7)  under  Amasiah  (II 
Chron.  xzv.  5-6);  (8)  under  Usaiah  (II  Ohron. 
xxvi.  12-13);  (9-10)  under  Zerubbabei  (T)  and 
Eara  (Exra  ii.  64,  viii.  1-14).  There  are  other 
enumerations  given,  but  they  concern  merely  the 
strength  of  the  aimy,  as  in  II  Chron.  xiii.  3. 

n.  In  the  New  Testament:  The  subject  here  is 
of  interest  principally  in  its  relation  to  the  censiis 
mentioned  Luke  ii.  2  and  Acts  v.  37,  and  in  con- 
nection with  the  birth  of  Jesus.] 

Originally  the  Romans  made  a  census  of  Roman 
dtisens  only,  the  primaiy  object  being  the  adjust- 
ment of  their  quota  in  the  taxes  for  the  costs  of 
war.  This  census  was  intended  to  exhibit  not  only 
the  pecuniary  but  the  total  effective  utility  of  the 
individual  toward  the  State.  So  it 
I.  The      included  attestation  of  personal  cir- 

Roman     cumstances,  capacity  for  service,  civil 

Census  of  and  militaiy,  and  the  moral  worthi- 

Citizens.  ness  of  those  enumerated.  Gradually 
this  census  of  Roman  citisens  lost 
significance.  While  in  earlier  times  it  was  repeated 
every  five  yeans  in  connection  with  a  religious 
festivity  (fu^trum),  during  the  civil  wars  it  lapsed. 
Augustus,  it  is  true,  consistently  with  his  general 
policy  of  bringing  about  an  ostensible  restoration 
of  the  republican  order  (T.  Mommsen,  Rdmi»ches 
StaaUnehi,  ii.  337,  Leipsic,  1893),  adopted  the 
census  anew.  He  put  on  record  that  he  had  thrice 
held  a  complete  census  of  citisens,  vis.,  in  the  years 
29  B.C.,  8  B.C.,  and  14  a.d.  A  census  of  this  kind 
was  made  for  the  last  time  under  the  Emperor 
Vespasian. 

The  census  of  the  Roman  provinces,  introduced 
much  later,  was  quite  distinct  from  this  censiis 
of  dtisens,  the  difference  corresponding  to  that 
between  the  Roman  people  as  conqueror  and  the 
provinces  as  conquered.  Since  in  this  light  the 
provindal  census  was  designed  to  regulate  not  the 
rights  but  the  obligations  of  those  enumerated,  it 
served  only  to  define  military  service 

a.  Frovin-  and  tribute.  The  forms  of  the  latter 
cial  Census  in  the  various  provinces  showed  great 
to  Regulate  diversity.    There  was  doubtless  every- 

Tribttte.  where  some  sort  of  ground  tax  (faibu- 
tum  9(di),  usually  in  the  form  of  a 
definite  tribute,  partly  in  money,  partly  in  luttural 
products,  which  could  also  be  levied  as  communal 
tithes,  except  that  if  in  case  of  a  defective  harvest 
the  amount  of  the  requisite  tribute  was  not  realised, 
the  tithes  were  made  good  through  other  taxes. 
The  real-estate  tax  was  everywhere  supplemented 
by  a  personal  tax  (tributum  capitis),  wldch  might 
be  levied  as  a  uniform  capitation  tax  for  all,  or 
(as  in  Egypt)  as  a  graduated  poll-tax;  or  as  prop- 
erty or  income  tax.  In  all  forms,  however,  it  was 
let  by  contract  to  tax  farmers.  These  taxes,  which 
in  the  main  came  down  from  the  republican  era, 
were  in  the  earlier  period  regulated  partly  b^  means 


of  a  census.  But  only  from  the  time  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Augustus  were  they  organised  on  a 
more  extendve  basis.  Espedally  in  the  provinces 
incorporated  by  Ceesar  and  the  emperors  into  the 
Roman  Empire  were  the  fiscal  relations  thus  regu- 
lated. 

According  to  literary  records  well  known,  this 
was  done  three  times  in  Gaul  under  Augustus,  then 
under  Nero  and  Domitian;  in  Syria,  Judea,  and 
Spain  under  Augustus;  among  the  Clitie  under 
Tiberius;  in  Britain  under  Claudius ;  in  Dada  un- 
der Trajan.  Besides  these  provinces,  the  following 
are  named  in  inscriptions  as  subjected  to  a  census 
in   imperial   times:    Aquitania,    Bel- 

3.  Cases  and  giimi,  Lugdunensis,  Lower  Germany, 
Methods  of  Macedonia,      Thrace,      Paphlagonia, 

Roman  Africa,  and  liauritania.  In  the  re- 
Census,  publican  era  the  administration  of 
these  provincial  censuses  had  been 
combined  with  the  office  of  provincial  governor; 
but  in  imperial  times  it  was  transferred  to  the 
emperor.  Augustus  personally  executed  this  office 
in  Gaul,  in  other  cases  the  emperor  was  represented 
by  men  of  the  highest  rank;  for  entire  provinces, 
as  a  rule,  persons  of  senatorial  station  were  ap- 
pointed; for  smaller  districts,  knights.  At  the 
outset  in  the  imperial  provinces,  the  census  was 
delegated  only  occasionally  (Mommsen,  ut  sup.,  ii. 
410,  a,  4)  to  the  provincial  governor.  The  essen- 
tial uiiiformity  of  organization  of  taxes  and  assess- 
ments throughout  the  empire,  such  as  is  proved 
for  the  later  imperial  times  by  the  classic  legal 
sources,  although  no  traces  are  apparent  of  a  sudden 
reorganisation  in  relation  to  the  provinces  under  the 
earlier  period,  was  early  anticipated  by  the  census 
regulations  of  Augustus.  As  to  the  detailed  con- 
stitution of  this  provincial  census,  which  later 
became  universal,  there  is  still  some  debate;  it  is 
fairly  certain,  however,  that  it  regulated  a  real- 
estate  tax  for  proprietors  and  a  personal  tax  for 
the  landless;  that  it  included  the  taxpayera'  per- 
sonal assessment;  that  its  organization  was  not 
communal  but  provincial;  and  that  the  formal 
declaration  took  place  in  the  principal  centers  of 
the  fiscal  districts.  Of  the  interval  between  cen- 
suses there  IB  certain  knowledge  only  in  relation  to 
Egypt,  through  the  new  discoveries  of  Egyptian 
papyri  (U.  Wilcken,  Oriechische  Ostraka,  in  Archiv 
fUr  Papyntaforschung,  vol.  i.,  1899),  according  to 
which  in  that  country  two  kinds  of  assessments 
(apoffraphai)  were  executed  at  stated  times:  a 
popular  enumeration  every  fourteen  years,  and  a 
declaration  of  movable  property  annually. 

In  Palestine,  at  all  events,  a  census  quite  in  the 

Roman  manner  was  executed  in  the  year  6  a.d., 

though  only  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 

which  in  that  year  came  under  immediate  Roman 

jurisdiction.    The  Syrian  legate  Quiri- 

4.  Palestin-  nius  was  at  that  time  entrusted  with 
ian  Census  the  extraordinary  imperial  commission 
of  6  A.D.  of  undertaking  a  census  not  only  in 
Quirinius.    the  newly  annexed  coimtry  but  also 

throughout  Syria  (cf.  also  CILy  iii.. 
supplement,  no.  6687).  The  vehement  opposition 
which  the  regulation  provoked  among  the  Jewish 
population  and  especially  with   a  faction  whose 


495 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Census 


leader  was  Judas  of  Galilee  (q.v.)  shows  that  in  that 
form  it  was  new  to  the  region.  This  censiu,  as  the 
mention  of  Judas  of  Galilee  implies,  is  referred  to 
in  the  words  of  Acts  v.  37,  "  in  the  days  of  the  en- 
rolment." 

More  difficult  of  solution  is  the  other  New  Testa- 
ment passage,  in  which  mention  ia  made  of  a  cen- 
sus decreed  from  Rome  (Luke  ii.  2).    It  is  here 
distinctly  stated  that  this  census,  oonunanded  by 
CsBsar  Augustus  for  the  whole  Roman  Empire,  was 
the  first  which  took  place  in  Palestine  (as  decreed 
by   Augustus)  when   Quiiinius  was  governor  of 
Syria;  and  that  by  it  Joseph  was  obligated  to  go 
with  Mary  to  Bethlehem,  his  place  of  enrolment, 
where  the  birth  of  Jesus  came  to  pass. 
5.  Luke  IL  a  From  the  starting-point  of  Acts  v.  37, 
in  Error,    it  were  most  plausible  to  bring  the 
Jesus  not  birth  of  Christ,  according  to  Luke  ii., 
Bom  Under  down  to  the  time  of  the  census  of  the 
Quiiiniua.  year  6  a.d.    This  is  antagonised  by 
the  chronology  of  Luke   iii.  23,  also 
by  the  fact  that  both  Blatthew  and  Luke    pre- 
suppose the  birth  of   Jesus  during  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  Great,   who  died  in  the  year  4  b.c. 
of  the  Dionysian  era  (see  Herod  and  His  Family); 
that  IB,  the  birth  of  Christ  would  have  occurred  in 
the    last   preceding>  years.    But   in   those   years 
Quiriniua  could  not  have  been  governor  of  Syria, 
because  Sentius  Satuminus  was  governor  in  the 
years  8-6  b.c.  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XVI.  ix.  1),  and 
from  6  B.C.  until  after  Herod's  death  the  governor 
was  Quintilius  Varus  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XVII.  v.  2, 
X.  1 ).    It  has  been  therefore  proposed  on  exegetical 
grounds  to  set  aside  the  synchronism  between  the 
governorship  of  Quirinius  and  the  birth  of  Jesus. 
But  these  attempts  are  impossible  artifices.    It 
has  also  been  affirmed  on  the  strength  of  the  later 
governorship  of  Quirinius  in  the  year  6  a.d.,  that 
he  served  an  earlier  preceding  term  (T.  Mommsen, 
Res  gestcB  divi  Augustif  Berlin,   1865).    But  the 
evidences  of  this  are  quite  uncertain.    And  since 
in  no  case  can  an  earlier  term  of  Quirinius  as  gov- 
ernor coincide  with  the  reign  of  Herod  the  Great, 
it  would  not  elucidate  Luke  ii.  2.    If  it  be  assumed 
that  the  census  of  the  year  of  Christ's  birth  was 
begun  by  Satuminus,  continued  by  Varus,  and  com- 
pleted by  Quirinius  (Zumpt),  against  this  in  Luke 
ii.  2,  the  governorship  of  Quirinius  is  evidently 
intended  to  indicate  the  time  when  the  event 
recorded  there  took  place;    and  a  census  by  a 
Roman  officer  in  Judea  before  the  annexation  of 
that   country  is   improbable.    Accordingly   Zahn 
assumes  that  only  one  Roman  census  took  place 
in   Palestine,  namely,  under  Quirinius,  which  is 
meant  both  in  Luke  ii.  and  in  Acts  v.;   save  that 
this  occurred  not  in  the  year  6  a.d.,  but  in  the  year 
4  B.C.,  several  months  after  the  death  of  Herod. 
But  the  particularity  of  the  data  in  Josephus  con- 
tradicts this  hypothesis,  which  at  all  events  does 
not  clear  the  Gospel  of  Luke  of  error.    On  this 
accoimt  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  governorship 
of   Quirinius,  Luke  ii.   2,  has  been  erroneously 
traniqx)sed  from  the  census  of  the  year  6  to  the 
year  of  Christ's  birth. 

Still  again,  the  report  in  Luke  ii.  of  a  general  Ro- 
man imperial  census  is  not  historically  warrantable 


according  to  the  literal  text.    Disregarding  later 

untrustworthy  accounts,  there  are  no  literary  or 

epigraphic  traces  of  an  imperial  census 

6.  No  Gen-  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  such  an 
eral  Census  event  could  not  have  occurred  with- 

Under  out  leaving  some  traces.  And  from 
Augustus,  the  moniunent  of  Ancyra  it  is  evi- 
dent that  Augustus  did  not  hold  a 
census  of  Roman  citizens  in  the  period  from  8 
B.C.  to  14  A.D.  Only  in  the  emperor's  financial 
reform  projects  with  reference  to  the  whole  empire, 
and  in  the  assessments  held  by  him  in  many  parts 
of  the  empire,  appears  a  certain  nucleus  of  truth 
for  that  statement  in  Luke  ii. 

If  then  in  the  light  of  Luke  ii.  the  governorship 
of  Quirinius  and  the  Roman  imperial  census  can  not 
be  verified,  this  report  is  not  to  be  rejected  as  un- 
historical  in  all  other  respects.  That  Herod  at 
that  time  received  orders  from  Augustus  to  imder- 
take  a  census  in  his  country  is  not  an  impossi- 
bility. Highly  as  Herod  was  esteemed  even  by 
the  emperor,  he  nevertheless  remained  the  emper- 
or's subject.  This  is  manifest  from  the  words  of 
Augustus,  that  he  would  henceforth 

7.  Solution^  treat  him  not  as  his  friend  but  as  his 
a  Census  subject  (Josephus,  Ant.,  XVI.  ix.  3); 
by  Herod,   as  likewise  from  his  rating  in  the  num- 
ber of  the  Syrian  procurators  {^ArU., 

XV.  X.  3).  Consequently,  since  the  Jews  of  Pales- 
tine from  Pompey's  time  forth  had  been  obliged 
to  pay  tribute  in  various  forms  to  the  Romans, 
Herod  was  also  bound  to  the  payment  of  tribute 
promptly  after  his  appointment  as  king  (Appian, 
BeUa  civUia,  v.  75).  It  is,  therefore,  arbitrary  to 
doubt  (SchOrer)  that  he  also  paid  such  dues  con- 
tinually (cf.  Wieseler,  T8K,  1875,  pp.  541  sqq.). 
Nevertheless  he  was  not  deprived  of  the  right  of 
imposing  and  increasing  taxes  in  his  own  name 
(cf.  Josephus,  ArU.,  XV.  x.  4;  XVII.  ii.  1,  xi.  2). 
It  is  accordingly  to  be  assumed  that  he  had  to 
furnish  tribute  to  a  prescribed  amoimt  at  Rome 
the  collection  of  which  was  generally  left  to  him 
out  of  Jewish  revenues.  Where,  however,  the 
Roman  interest  required  it,  the  emperor,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  could  intervene  for  raising  the 
necessary  taxes  to  make  up  the  tribute.  T^  is 
apparent  from  a  similar  case,  wherein  Augustus 
oonmianded  Archelaus  to  remit  one-fourth  of  the 
Samaritans'  taxes  (Josephus,  Ant.i  XVII.  xi.  4). 
It  is  then  conceivable  that  he  commanded  Herod 
to  regulate  the  taxes  necessary  for  the  Roman 
tribute  by  means  of  a  census  by  virtue  of  the  forms 
already  in  vogue.  For  that  Augustus  did  not  at 
that  time  order  a  specifically  Roman  census  in 
Palestine,  but  adhered  to  the  Jewish  practises,  is 
borne  out  by  other  analogies  in  Roman  procedure 
(Tacitus,  Annales,  iv.  72),  by  the  operations  of  the 
Roman  census  of  the  year  6  a.d.,  and  by  indica- 
tions afforded  by  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  according 
to  which  the  census  in  question  was  decreed  con- 
formably to  Jewish  tribal  enrolments.  [For  reply 
to  above  see  Quirinius.]  F.  Sisffbbt. 

BiBuooaAniT:  The  older  literature  on  II.  is  given  in  TSK, 
1862,  pp.  663  sqq.  P.  E.  Husehke,  UAer  dm  cur  Zmi  dtr 
Geburi  ChritH  gehatUnen  Centua,  Breelau,  1840;  idem, 
Utber  d€n  Cenaua  und  di§  Steuervarfaamng  der  .  .  .  JCoimt- 
mii,  ib.  1847;    C.  Wieeeler,  ChnmoloQiteht  Bynopm  der 


Central  Amerloa 
CiiAloadon 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOa 


Aoe 


vier  BvantfdUn,  Hambuxi,  1843;  idem.  BeUriiQe  tur 
fidUio^n,  WikrdiaufiQ  der  Evanifelien,  Ctotha,  18d0;  idem, 
in  TSK,  1875.  pp.  435  sqq.;  J.  von  Gumpach«  in  TSK, 
1852,  pp.  663  eqq.;  A.  W.  Zwnpt,  CommenUMiionet  epi- 
orapkica,  ii.  73-74,  Berlin,  1854;  idem.  Dot  GtHnarUfohr 
ChriaU,  pp.  20  iqq.,  Leipae,  1860;  Aberle,  in  TQ,  1866. 
pp.  108  aqq.,  1868,  pp.  20  sqq.;  A.  Hilgenfeld.  in  ZWT, 
1865,  pp.  406  0qq.,  1870,  pp.  151  iqq.;  H.  Qerlaeh,  Die 
rOmiaeUn  Statthaiier  in  Syrian  und  Judda,  pp.  22  sqq. 
Berlin,  1865;  T.  Lewin.  FiuH  Saeri,  London.  1865;  H. 
Lutteroth,  L§  Reoenaement  da  Quiriniua  an  Judia,  Paris, 
1865;  C.  E.  Caspiui.  Chronolooiaeh-ifaographiaeha  Ein- 
laiiuno  in  daa  Leban  CkriaU,  Hamburg,  1860;  J.  Mar- 
quardt,  ROmiaeha  SiaaiavanDoUung,  vol.  i.,  ii.  204  iqq., 
Leipaie,  1881-84;  P.  Schegg.  Daa  Todaajahr  daa  .  .  , 
Harodaa  und  daa  Gaburtajahr  Chriati,  pp.  37  aqq.,  Munich, 
1882;  F.  Rieaa,  Nochmala  daa  Gahurtaiahr  CkriaU,  Frei- 
burg, 1883;  T.  Zahn,  in  NKZ,  1803.  pp.  633  sqq.;  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  in  Expoaitor,  1807,  pp.  274  sqq.,  425  sqq.;  idem, 
Waa  Chriat  Born  at  BaOUaham,  London.  1808;  SehOxer, 
Gaachiehta,  i,  506  sqq..  Eng.  transl.,  I.  i.  357,  ii  80,  105- 
143;  Hayerfield,  in  Claaaical  Raviaw,  July.  1000,  pp.  300 
sqq.;  DB,  iv.  183;  SB,  iv.  3004-06;  also  the  oommen- 
taries  on  the  passages  in  Luke  and  Aots,  and  the  works 
cm  the  Life  of  Christ. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA:  The  extreme  southern 
portion  of  the  continent  of  North  America,  including 
aeven  independent  .states,  as  follows,  enumerated  in 
geographicial  order  from  north  to  south: 

Area.  Popula- 

Square  miles.  tion. 

Colony  of  British  Honduras 7.562  40.000 

Republio  of  Guatemala 46.774  1,800.000 

RepubUc  of  Honduras 42.658  775.000 

HepublieofBalYador 8.130  1,000,000 

Republic  of  Nicaracua. 61.560  400.000 

HepubUe  of  Costa  Rica. 23.000  331.000 

RepubUc  of  Panama 81,800  330,000 

The  population  is  overwhelmingly  Indian,  negro, 
and  mixed.  In  British  Honduras  in  1891  there  were 
only  400  whites.  In  Guatemala  60  per  cent  of  the 
people  are  Indians  and  28  per  cent  mixed.  About 
one-twentieth  of  the  popidation  of  Salvador  and 
one-fifth  of  that  of  Nicaragua  are  classed  as  white. 
In  Costa  Rica  there  are  8,000  Indians,  and  the 
remainder  is  almost  entirely  creole.  The  Indians 
in  many  localities  retain  their  native  language  and 
live  in  almost  primitive  conditions;  where  classed 
as  Roman  Catholic  converts  their  relation  to  the 
Church  is  often  little  more  than  nominal.  But 
few  of  the  colored  population  still  persist  in  heath- 
enism. 

The  republic  of  Panama  was  formed  by  revolu- 
tion from  Colombia  in  1903.  Religious  statistics 
for  this  state  are  not  available,  but  it  may  be  said, 
in  general,  that  conditions  are  the  same  as  in  the 
rest  of  Central  America  and  the  mother  country 
(see  Colombia).  The  five  older  Central  American 
republics,  after  the  disruption  from  Spain,  formed 
from  1821  to  1839  the  "  United  States  of  Central 
America."  Their  present  independent  status  was 
attained  gradually,  often  after  internal  dissension 
and  warfare.  During  the  revolutionaiy  and  form- 
ative period  the  Church  sufifered  much.  Its 
property  was  confiscated,  monasteries  were  abol- 
ished, monks  were  banished,  and  the  secular  clergy 
were  persecuted.  Poverty  has  also  been  a  heavy 
burden  to  the  Church.  Ecclesiastical  a£Fairs  were 
regulated  by  a  series  of  concordats  with  Pope 
Pius  IX.  between  1852  and  1863  (see  Concordatb 
AND  Delimftino  Bullb,  VI.,  6). 

The  religion  is  everywhere  Roman  Catholic,  but 
toleration  is  now  legally  assured  in  all  states.    The 


diocese  of  Quatemala  was  founded  in  1534  and  raiseti 
to  archiepiscopal  rank  in  1743.  The  suffra^as 
bishoprics  are  Nicaragua  (1534),  Comayagus  ifor 
Honduras,  1561),  San  Salvador  (1842),  and  Ssn 
Jos^  of  Costa  Rica  (1850).  A  vicar  apostolic  hag 
resided  at  Beliie  in  British  Honduras  sinoe  1893. 

An  Ang^can  diocese  of  Honduras  and  Central 
America  was  founded  in  1883.  The  bishop  resdes  at 
Belise.  Guatemala  has  approximately  4,500  Protee- 
tants  representing  T<^gti«h  and  American  chureiiAs 
and  including  a  congregation  of  about  1,000  Gennans 
resident  in  the  capital.  Protestants  in  Hondursa 
number  about  1 ,000  and  in  Costa  Rica  3,200.  They 
are  barely  represented  in  Salvador.  In  Nicaragua 
are  fifteen  "  stations  "  of  the  Moravians. 

All  the  states  have  public  schools,  colleges,  and 
universities,  and  progress  is  being  made  in  bodi 
elementaiy  and  the  higher  education.  As  migtt 
be  expected,  however,  tiie  majority  of  the  popob- 
tion  is  illiterate.  Attendance  at  the  elementary 
schools  is  compulsory  in  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala, 
and  Honduras.  Wumkum.  Gocn. 

Biblioobapht:  In  general:  T.  Child,  Spaniak  Amerimm  Ra- 
pubiica,  London.  1892;  Etnoiogia  Canin>-Amerioana,  Madiid, 
1803;  C.  Sapper.  Daa  nOrdUeka  MiUei  Amerika,  Bnwsviek, 
1897;  idem,  MiUalamerika,  Raiaan  und  Siuditn,  ib.  19(S: 
C.  Haebler.  Dm  Ralioion  daa  MiUiaran  Amahka,  IfOzBlec. 
1880.  On  Britiah  HonduniK  A.  R.  Gibbe.  Brikak  Handana, 
London,  1883;  BriHak  Hondutaa  Almanac,  annual,  Befiae^ 
On  Quatemala:  O.  Stoll.  Raiaan  und  fidkOdenrntfrm  mk 
Oualamakt,  1886;  T.  Brisham,  Ouaiemaia,  New  YaA, 
1887;  A.  C.  Ifaudaley.  A  G/tmfMe  at  Ouaiemaia,  Loodoe, 
1800;  Miaaionary  Review  af  the  World,  xiv.  (1001)  188  mm. 

CBOLFRID,  chdHrid,  SAIRT:  Abbot  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow;  b.  of  noble  parents  in  Northum- 
bria  c.  642;  d.  at  Langres,  France,  while  on  his 
way  to  Rome,  Sept.  24,  716.  He  became  a  monk 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  was  made  prior  br 
Benedict  Biscop  (q.v.)  of  his  new  abbey  of  St 
Peter  at  Wearmouth,  which  was  begun  in  674; 
accompanied  Biscop  to  Rome  in  678;  becaine 
abbot  of  his  second  monastery  founded  at  Jairov 
in  681  or  682  (where  he  had  Bede  among  his  pupib), 
and  in  688  abbot  of  both  Wearmouth  and  Jamnr. 
He  was  a  good  manager  and  increased  and  enriched 
his  monasteries,  at  the  same  time  making  them 
centers  of  learning  and  industry.  He  took  special 
pains  to  learn  the  Roman  methods  of  reading  and 
singing  the  services  and  influenced  the  Irish  in 
Scotland  to  adopt  the  Roman  date  for  Blaster. 

BiBUOoaAPHT:  Bede,  HiaAoria  Mtaium;  abo  BiaL  trdL, 
iv.  18,  ▼.  21  (where  Ceolfrid'a  letter  toNaiton  (Necbun). 
king  of  the  Piots,  on  the  Easter  queetion.  is  given),  v.  24: 
also  the  anonymous  Hiatoria  abbatumt  by  a  nMMik  of  Wear* 
mouth,  contemporary  with  Ceolfrid,  in  Flnmmer's  Beda, 
i.  888-404;  W.  Bright,  BaHy  BngHak  Ckmrtk  Bidor^  I 
pp.  808-800,  Oxford.  1887. 

CERDO  (CERD05):    A  Syrian  Gnostie,  who,     i 
according  to  Irensus  (I.  xxvii.  1,   HI.  iv.  3)  and     ' 
Eusebius  {Chrcn.,  ed.  Schoene,  i.   168),  lived  in 
Rome  in  the  time  of  the  bishop  Hyginus  (c.  13&-     | 
140).    Epiphanius    (xli.    1)    connects    him   with 
Satuminus.     He  is  of  importance  chiefly  as  having 
been  the  teacher  of  Mardon  (q.v.).    O.  EBtosR.        i 

CERIMTUUS:    Qnostio  teacher  of  Asia  Ifinor,     < 
about  100  A.D.    According  to  IrensBUS  (I.  xxvi.  \i     \ 
he  taught  that  the  worid  was  not  created  by  the 
first  God,  but  by  a  subordinate  power.    Jesus  ?raa 


497 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Central  Amerioa 
Ohaloadon 


a  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary,  but  was  wiser  and  more 
righteous  than  other  men.  After  his  baptism  the 
spirit  of  the  all-sublime  power  of  God  descended 
upon  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove.  From  now  on  he 
preached  the  unknown  Father  and  performed 
miracles.  Finally  the  "  Christ "  forsook  him,  but 
"Jesus"  sufifered  and  rose  again,  whereas  the 
spiritual  Christ  did  not  suffer.  John  directed  his 
Gospel  especially  against  Cerinthus  (III.  xi.  l),and 
in  proof  of  the  aversion  which  the  apostle  felt 
toward  this  heretic  Irensus  (III.  iii.  4)  tells  a  stoiy 
from  Folycarp  that  the  two  met  once  in  the  baths 
at  Ephesus,  whereupon  the  apostle  fled,  "  lest 
even  the  bath-house  fall  down  because  Cerinthus 
is  inside."  In  the  main  the  story  is  credible,  but 
the  later  story  (cf.  Epiphanius,  Hear.,  zxviii.  and 
others)  of  the  Judaism  of  Cerinthus  is  an  invention. 
The  assertion  of  the  Roman  Caius  that  Cerinthus 
is  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse  is  certainly  erro- 
neous. G.  KBtQER. 

Biblioohapht:  R.  A.  Liprius,  Zur  QwHenkriHk  dM  Evir 
phaniu;  pp.  116-122.  Vienna,  1806;  A.  Hilgenfeld.  Ketzer- 
gemehidUe  dM  UrdtrigteTUum*,  pp.  411-421.  Leipmc.  1884; 
A.  Harnack,  Doomenoetehiehie,  i.  234-236,  Freibuis,  1894. 
Ens.  trans].,  iii.  14-10,  Boston.  1897;  T.  Zahn.  GeachichU 
dem  neuiuiamenUxdun  KanonM,  2  vols..  Erlanffen,  1888-92; 
KrOser.  Historyt  p.  68  and  literature  given  there. 

CESARIia,ch6''sa-ii'ni,  GIULXAHO  (JULIAN  CE- 
SARINI) :  Cardinal.  He  belonged  to  a  distinguished 
family  of  Rome  and  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
curia  as  a  humanist  and  teacher  of  law  at  Padua. 
Pope  Martin  V.  made  him  cardinal  (1426)  and 
Eugenius  IV.  promoted  him  to  cardinal  bishop  of 
Frascati.  His  knowledge  of  law  and  ability  as  a 
diplomatist  fitted  him  for  delicate  missions.  The 
Hussite  question  was  entrusted  to  him  and  he  en- 
tered Bohemia  with  a  crusading  army,  but  the  army 
was  defeated  and  the  cardinal  fled  ignominiously 
(1431).  From  1431  to  1438  he  presided  at  the 
Council  of  Basel  with  marked  ability.*  In  1438  and 
1439  he  was  active  in  Ferrara  and  Florence,  and 
shortly  after  went  to  Hungary  to  incite  King 
yiadislav  to  war  against  the  Turks.  He  succeeded, 
and  war  broke  out  in  1443,  but  Vladislav  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Varna,  Nov.  10,  1444,  and 
Cesarini  also  perished  while  trying  to  escape; 
he  was  probably  assassinated  and  robbed  while 
endeavoring  to  cross  the  Danube. 

Paul  Tschackbrt. 
Bibuographt:  The  older  aooounts  are  in  A.  Chacon,  Vita 
.  .  .  vonHfiewm  et  .  ,  ,  oardinalium,  ii.  861  sqq..  4  vols., 
Rome.  1677;  and  E.  Baluse.  Miaeellanea,  vol.  iii..  4  vols., 
Lucca,  1761-64.  Consult  also:  F.  von  BeioIdL,  KdrUg 
Siomund  und  die  Reidukriege  gegen  die  Htuiten,  3  parts, 
Munich.  1872-77;  Creighton.  Pavacy,  ii.  163-165,  104 
sqq.;  Hefele,  ConcUiengeediidUe,  vol.  vii.  paaaim;  XL, 
iii.  26-28. 

CHAD,  SAIHT.    See  Geadda,  Saint. 

CHADERT05,  LAUREITCE:  Puritan;  b.  near 
Oldham  (8  m.  n.e.  of  Manchester),  Lancashire, 
Sept.  14,  1536  or  1538;  d.  at  Cambridge  Nov.  13, 
1640.  He  studied  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge 
(B.A.,  1567;   B.D.,  1578;   D.D.,  1613),  and  there 

•  At  the  Council  of  Basel  Ceearini's  attitude  toward  the 
Hussites  was  highly  oonciliatory;  and  he  ui^ed  a  thorough 
reformation  of  ecclesiastical  abuses  as  the  only  safeguard 
against  further  schisms. — A.  H.  N. 

II.— 32 


embraced  the  Protestant  religion,  for  which  his 
father  threatened  to  disinherit  him.  He  became 
fellow,  dean,  tutor,  and  lecturer  of  his  college,  and 
as  afternoon  lecturer  of  St.  Clement's  Church, 
Cambridge,  for  nearly  fifty  years  acquired  fame 
as  a  preacher  and  exerted  a  far-reaching  influence. 
When  Sir  Walter  Mildmay  founded  Emmanuel 
College  in  1584  he  insisted  on  Chaderton's  becoming 
master,  and  the  latter  filled  the  office  with  much 
ability  and  success  till  1622,  when  he  resigned. 
From  1598  to  1640  he  was  prebendary  of  Lincoln. 
Though  a  Puritan  he  was  moderate  in  views  and 
oonciliatory  in  manners.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Hampton  Court  Conference  (q.v.),  and  was  one  of 
the  Cambridge  committee  of  Bible  translators. 
He  appears  to  have  published  nothing  except  an 
anonymous  tract,  De  juatificatione,  and  a  single 
sermon. 

Bibuoorapht:  W.  Dillingham,  Viia  Chadertoni,  ed.  J.  Dil- 
lingham, Cambridge,  1700,  Eng.  transl.  by  E.  8.  Schuck- 
buigh,  ib.  1884;  DNB,  ix.  430^132. 

CHADWICK,  JOHN  WHITE:  American  Uni- 
tarian; b.  at  Marblehead,  Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1840; 
d.  in  Brooklyn  Dec.  11,  1904.  His  father  was  a 
seafaring  man,  and  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker. But  in  1857  he  entered  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  and  while  there 
determined  to  become  a  minister.  From  the  Nor- 
mal School  he  passed  to  Phillips  Exeter  Academy 
and  the  Divinity  School  of  Harvard  University, 
from  which  latter  institution  he  was  graduated  in 
1864.  He  was  inunediately  asked  to  supply  for 
three  months  the  pulpit  of  the  Second  Unitarian 
Church  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  but  made  so  favorable 
an  impression  that  his  relation  became  a  permanent 
one  and  he  was  its  pastor  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
Besides  being  well  known  as  a  preacher  and  lec- 
turer and  highly  esteemed  as  a  man,  he  won  dis- 
tinction as  an  author  both  in  prose  and  poetry. 
He  described  himself  as  a  "  radical  Unitarian,"  but 
he  was  heard  with  respect  by  those  who  most 
dififered  from  him.  Besides  many  other  contributions 
to  the  press,  he  published:  Life  of  Nathaniel  Alexanr 
derStaplea  (Boston,  1870);  A  Book  of  Poenu  (1876, 
now  in  its  10th  ed.);  The  Bible  of  To-day  (New 
York,  1878) ;  The  Faith  of  Reaeon,  a  Series  of  Dw- 
courees  on  Leading  Topics  of  Religion  (Boston,  1879, 
2ded.,  1880);  Some  Aspects  of  Religion  (New  York, 
1879);  Belief  and  Life  (1881);  The  Man  Jesus 
(Boston,  1881,  2d  ed.,  1882);  Origin  and  Destiny 
(1883);  In  Nazareth  Town  :  a  Christmas  Fantasy, 
and  Other  Poems  (1883);  A  Daring  Faith  (1885); 
The  Good  Voices,  poems  (Troy,  N.  Y.,  1885); 
Charles  Robert  Darwin  (Boston,  1889);  Evolution 
and  Social  Reform  (1890) ;  Evolution  of  Architecture 
(New  York,  1891);  Evolution  as  Related  to  Citizen- 
ship (1892) ;  Oeorge  William  Curtis :  an  Address 
(1893) ;  TheOldandthe  New  Unitarian  Belief  (Bos- 
ton, 1894);  Theodore  Parker  (1900);  William  Ellery 
Channing  (1903);  and  Later  Poems  (1905). 

CHATTANYA,  choi^'tCl-nra:  Brahman  fonnu- 
latorof  the  doctrine  of  B^^/t.    See  India,  I.,  3,  |  3. 

CHALCEDOIT,  kal'se-den:  A  city  of  Bithynia, 
on  the  Bosporus,  near  Constantinople,  the  scene 
of  the  Fourth  General   Council    (451),   at   which 


Chaldea 
Ohamberlain 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


498 


Eutycbianism  was  oondemned   and  the  so-called 
Creed  of  Chalcedon  adopted.     See  Chbistologt, 

IV;   EUTYCHIANISM. 

CHALDEA.    See  Babtlonia,  VI,  7. 

CHALDEAN  CHRISTIANS.    See  Nxbtobians. 

CHALICE.    See  Vesselb,  Sacbed,  |  1. 

CHALLONER,  RICHARD:  English  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate;  b.  at  Lewes  (50  m.  s.  of  London), 
Sussex,  Sept.  29,  1691;  d.  in  London  Jan.  12,  1781. 
His  father  was  a  Protestant,  but  died  soon  after 
his  son's  birth,  and  the  latter  was  brought  up  by 
Roman  Catholics  and  embraced  their  religion  at 
about  the  age  of  thirteen.  In  1704  he  was  sent  to 
Douai  and  remained  there  as  student,  professor, 
and  vice-president  for  twenty-six  years  (B.D., 
1719;  D.D.,  1727;  oidained  priest  1716).  In  1730 
he  joined  the  London  mission,  and  in  1741  was  con- 
secrated coadjutor  to  Dr.  Benjamin  Petre,  vicar 
apostolic  of  the  London  district;  he  became  vicar 
apostolic  on  Dr.  Petre's  death  in  1758.  He  was  a 
learned  and  pious  man,  and  perfonned  his  duties 
with  faithfulness  and  ability,  in  the  midst  of  perse- 
cution from  the  penal  laws  and  the  fanaticism  of 
the  English  popidaoe.  He  wrote  upward  of  forty 
different  works,  controversial,  devotional,  histor- 
ical, etc.  His  Memoira  of  Missionary  Priests  .  .  . 
and  of  other  Caiholics  .  .  .  that  have  suffered  death 
in  England  on  rdigums  accounts  from  the  year  1677 
to  1684  (2  vols.,  London,  1741-42;  many  later  eds.) 
is  the  Roman  Catholic  "Book  of  Martyrs";  The 
Oarden  of  the  Soul  (1740)  is  still  the  most  popular 
prayer-book  with  English  Roman  Catholics;  and 
The  Rheims  New  Testament  and  the  Douay  Bible, 
with  annotations  (5  vols.,  London,  1749-50;  3d 
ed.,  revised,  1752),  prepared  by  Challoner  and 
under  his  direction,  is  the  best-known  version  of 
the  Douai  Bible.  His  Life  was  written  by  J.  Bar- 
nard (London,  1784),  and  by  Dr.  John  Milner 
(in  the  5th  ed.  of  his  Grounds  of  ihe  Old  Religion, 
1798). 

Bibuoobapbt:  J.  Banuutl,  Life  of  ...  R.  ChaUofm', 
London.  1784;  John  Milner.  Brief  Aeeount  of  ike  Life  of 
Ridiard  ChaUoner,  imfixed  to  the  0th  ed.  of  Challoner'e 
Chvunde  of  the  Old  Relioion,  ib.  1796;  J.  Gillow,  BibUo- 
Oraphioal  Dictionary  of  En(Hieh  CaiKoliee,  i.  447-467,  Lon- 
don (1886);  DJ^B.  iz.  440-443. 

CHALMERS,  JAMBS:  London  Mlssionaiy  So- 
ciety missionaiy;  b.  at  Ardrishaig,  Argyleshire, 
Scotland  (45  m.  w.  by  n.  from  Glasgow),  Aug.  4, 
1841;  d.  at  Risk  Point,  Goaribari  Island,  Gulf  of 
Papua,  New  Guinea,  April  8,  1901.  Converted  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  he  was  soon  after  called  to  the 
foreign  mission  field  and  after  study  at  Cheshunt 
College  and  at  Highgate,  an  institution  conducted 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society,  he  was  sent  by 
that  Society  to  Raratonga,  one  of  the  group  of  Cook 
Islands  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  where  he  arrived 
in  1867.  The  island  had  been  partially  Christianized, 
but  he  did  a  good  work  in  education  and  evan- 
gelisation. In  1877  he  removed  to  New  Guinea, 
where  he  encountered  cannibals  and  did  a  memo- 
rable work  at  the  constant  risk  of  life.  It  was  on 
one  of  these  many  journeys  that  he  was  killed.  He 
takes  his  place  beside  Williams  and  Patterson  as  a 
missionaiy  hero  in  the  South  Seas. 


Biblioorapht:  Contult  his  own  Pioneer  Life  and  Work  in 
New  Guinea,  1877-1894,  London  1895;  and  the  biogra- 
phies by  W.  Robaon.  ib.  1901;  C.  Lennox,  ib.  1902;  and 
R.  Lovett,  ib.  1902  (the  last-named  oontaining  Chalmers's 
Autobioffnjthy  and  Lettere). 

CHALMERS,  THOMAS:  The  leader  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland;  b.  in  East  Anstruther,  Fife- 
shire,  Mar.  17, 1780;  d.  in  Edinburgh  May  30, 1847. 
The  family  to  which  he  belonged  was  composed  of 
middle-class  people  of  the  strictest  type  of  Cal- 
vinism; and  hence  in  his  opening  years,  he  received 
thorough  indoctrination.  He  entered  St.  Andrews 
University  when  only  eleven  years  old,  and  con- 
fined his  attention  almost  exclusively  to  mathe- 
matics, but  did  not  give  up  his  original  intention 
of  becoming  a  preacher,  and  accordingly  was 
licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  St.  Andrews  Jan., 
1799.  His  character  eariy  developed  into  maturity. 
Instead  of  beginning  his  professional  work,  he  con- 
tinued the  study  of  mathematics  and  natural 
sdenoe;  and  during  the  winter  of  1802-03  he  acted 
as  assistant  to  the  professor  of  mathematics  at  St. 
Andrews.  He  showed  an  extraordinary  power  to 
awaken  enthusiasm  in  almost  any  topic  he  took 
up;  although  it  was  this  veiy  fact  whidi  at  that 
time  cost  him  his  place,  the  authorities  disliking 
the  novelty  of  his  methods.  He  settled  as  minister 
of  Kilmeny,  nine  miles  from  St.  Andrews,  May, 
1803,  and  in  the  following  winter,  while  preaching 
regularly,  opened  voluntaiy  and  independent  classes 
in  mathematics  at  the  university,  which  were  largely 
attended,  although  vigorously  discouraged  by  the 
authorities.  He  was  a  faithful  pastor  at  Kil- 
meny,  and   his   preaching   attracted 

Ministry  wide  attention,  but  his  heart  was  not 
at  in  his  work.    He  was  traomieled  by 

Kilmeny.  the  prevailing  moderatism,  which  put 
culture  above  piety,  and  state  support 
above  independence.  In  1808  evidence  of  the 
trend  of  his  thinking  appeared  in  his  Inquiry  into 
the  Extent  and  Stainlity  of  National  Besotarcea. 
The  supply  of  man's  physical  and  social  needs 
was  uppermost  in  his  mind.  In  the  midst  of  such 
work  he  was  visited  with  severe  domestic  afl9ic- 
tions,  and  a  serious  illness  brought  him  to  death's 
door;  but  he  recovered  after  a  year.  David  Brew- 
ster asked  him  to  contribute  to  his  Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia.  He  at  first  chose  "  Trigonometry," 
but  at  length  took  **  Christianity "  '  (separately 
published,  1813).  And  as  he  examined  the  doc- 
trines of  this  religion,  and  went  deeper  into  its 
mysteries,  he  realised  its  importance,  and  by  study- 
ing about  Christianity  he  became  a  Christian.  The 
parishioners  quickly  became  aware  that  he  had 
really  not  so  much  resumed  his  work  among  them 
as  begun  it.  His  whole  soul  was  on  fire,  and  his 
culture  was  now  used  to  make  the  saving  truth  of 
saving  power.  He  cut  loose  from  the  moorings  of 
moderatism,  and  became  a  decided  Evangelical. 
His  eloquence  was  expended  in  new  channels,  and 
with  great  results. 

In  July,  1815,  he  was  formally  admitted  as 
minister  of  the  Tron  Church,  GUu^w.  In  1816 
he  delivered  on  week-days  the  famous  series  of  seven 
Discourses  on  ihe  Christian  BevdaHon,  Viewed  in 
Connection  with  Modem  Astronomy.  In  Sept., 
1819,  he  removed  from  the  Tron  parish  to  that  of 


499 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ohaldea 
Ohamberlaln 


St.  John's,  in  order  that  he  might,  in  a  newly 
constituted  parish,  have  an  opportunity  of  testing 
the  practicability  in  a  large  dty  of  the  old  Scottish 
scheme  of  providing  for  the  poor.  In 
In  the  parish  there  were  two  thousand 
Glasgow,  families.  These  he  distributed  into 
twenty-five  divisions;  and  over  each 
such  district  he  put  an  elder  and  a  deacon — ^the 
former  to  attend  to  their  spiritual,  the  latter  to 
their  temporal  needs.  Two  commodious  school- 
houses  were  built;  four  competent  teachers  were 
employed,  and  by  school-fees  of  two  and  three 
ahiUings  each  a  quarter,  seven  hundred  children 
were  educated;  while  on  Simday  the  forty  or  fifty 
local  schools  supplied  religious  instruction.  Dr. 
Chalmers  not  only  presided  over  all  this  system 
of  work,  but  made  himself  familiar  with  all  the 
details,  even  visiting  personally  every  two  years 
each  family  of  the  parish,  and  holding  evening 
meetings.  lie  also  assumed  complete  charge  of 
the  poor;  and  by  thorough  system,  and  consequent 
weeding-out  of  unworthy  cases,  he  reduced  the 
cost  of  maintaining  them  from  fourteen  hundred 
to  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  per  annum. 
This  efficient  sjrstem,  however,  in  1837  was  given 
up;  and  the  "  English  "  plan  of  compulsory  assess- 
ments, which  requires  much  less  trouble,  and 
probably  does  much  less  good,  was  substituted. 
In  Nov.,  1823,  Dr.  Chalmers  became  professor 
of  moral  philosophy  in  St.  Andrews  University, 
and  in  Nov.,  1828,  professor  of  theology  in  Edin- 
burgh. In  1833  he  issued  his  Bridgewater  Treatise, 
On  the  Adaptation  of  External  Natwre  to  the  Moral  and 
Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man,  This  work  made 
a  great  sensation;  and  his  biographer,  Rev.  Will- 
iam Hanna,  says  that,  in  consequence,  he  received 
"  literary  honors  such  as  were  never  united  pre- 
viously in  the  person  of  any  Scottish  ecclesiastic." 
In  1834  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  and  soon  after  one  of  its  vice-presi- 
dents, in  the  same  year  a  corresponding  member  of 
the  Institute  of  France;  and  in  1835  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 
Up  to  this  time  he  had  taken  little  part  in  church 
government;  from  then  on  he  was  destined  to  have 
more  to  do  with  it  than  any  other  man  of  the  century. 
The  friction  between  Church  and  State  in  Scotland 
was  rapidly  producing  trouble.  The  attempt  to  settle 
ministers  who  were  obnoxious  to  the  congregations 
was  the  commonest  oomplamt.*  The  historic  case 
is  that  of  Mamoch.  Here  only  one 
The  Organ-  person  in  the  parish  signed  the  call; 
ization  of  and  yet  the  presbytery  of  Strathbogie 
the  Free  decided,  by  a  vote  of  seven  to  three,  to 
Church,  proceed  with  the  ordination,  and  did, 
although  these  seven  were  suspended. 
In  so  doing  they  were  upheld  by  the  dvil  authority, 
which  annulled  their  suspension.  But  this  case 
was  only  an  aggravation  of  a  common  ill.  Matters 
became  so  serious  in  all  parts  of  Scotland  that  a 
convocation  was  held  in  Nov.,  1842,  to  consider  the 
matter;  and  a  large  number  of  ministers  resolved 
that,  if  relief  was  not  afforded,  they  would  with- 

*The  point  at  issue  was  lay  patronage,  British  law  having 
eonferred  upon  landowners  the  right  to  nominate  to  pa»> 
iorates  in  their  possessions. — A.  H.  N. 


draw  from  the  Establishment.  No  help  came; 
and  accordingly,  on  May  18,  1843,  four  hundred 
and  seventy  clergymen  withdrew  from  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  and  constituted  themselves  into 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  electing  Dr.  Qial- 
mers  as  their  first  moderator.  He  had  foreseen 
the  separation,  and  drawn  up  a  scheme  for  the 
support  of  the  outgoing  ministers.  But,  after  he 
had  safely  piloted  the  new  church  through  the 
stormy  waters,  he  gave  himself  up  more  exclu- 
sively to  professional  work,  espedsilly  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  College,  Edinburgh,  of  which 
he  was  principal,  and  to  the  composition  of  his 
Inetituiea  of  Theology,    He  died  suddenly. 

Dr.   Chalmers  is   to-day  a  molding  influence. 
All  the  churches  of  Scotland  unite  to  do  him  rev- 
erence.   He  was  a  greater  worker  than  writer, 
and  a  greater  man  than  either.     It  was  surely 
enough  honor  for  one  life  to  inspire  spiritual  life 
throughout  an  entire  land;    and  as  the  tireless 
and  practical  reformer,  as  the  Christian  philan- 
thropist, and,  above  all,  as  the  founder  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  he  will  live. 
Bibuoobapht:  The  principal  Life  is   by  his   son-in-law, 
W.  Hanna,  Memoin  of  ihe  Life  and  Writinga  cf  TKotnaa 
Ckalmen,   4   vols.,  Edinburgh,  1849>52.    Consult   also: 
A.  J.  8[ymington],  TlumM  Chalmer9,  the  Man,  kU  Time; 
and  hie  Work,  Ardrossan,  1878;   D.  Eraser,  Thomae  Chat- 
mere,  London,  1881;    J.  L.  Watson.  The  Life  of  Thomae 
Chalmere,  Edinbuigh,  1881;   J.  Dodds,  Thomae  ChaJmsre, 
ib.  1802;    W.  G.  Blaikie.  Thomae  Chabn^re,  ib.  189e  (in 
Famoue  Seote  Seriee);    Mrs.  Oliphant,  Thomae  Chalmere, 
Preadur,    Philoeopher,    and   Staieeman,    London,    1896; 
DNB,  ix.  440^64. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  JACOB:  Reformed  (Dutch) 
missionary;  b.  at  Sharon,  Conn.,  Apr.  13, 1835;  d. 
at  Madanapalli,  Madras,  India,  March  2, 1908.  He 
was  educated  at  Western  Reserve  College,  O.  (B.A.y 
1856),  the  Reformed  Theological  Seminary,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  the  CoUege  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  New  York.  In  1859  he  went  as  a  medical 
missionary  to  the  Arcot  Mission,  Madras,  and  was 
stationed  successively  at  Palmaner,  Madras  (1860- 
1863),  and  at  Madanapalli,  Madras  (1863-1901). 
From  1891  he  was  lector  in  Biblical  languages  and 
prophecy  and  acting  principal  of  the  Theological 
Seminary  in  the  Arcot  Mission,  Palmaner.  He  was 
chairman  of  a  committee  for  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Telugu,  1873-94;  member  of  the  Telugu 
Revision  Committee  of  the  Madras  Tract  Society  in 
1873-i80,  and  in  1878  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  American  Tract  Society  for  India.  In  1901 
he  was  first  moderator  of  the  South  India  United 
Church  Synod,  and  since  engaged  in  literary  work 
in  Tamil  and  Telugu.  He  translated  the  litui^ 
of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  into  Telugu  (Ma- 
dras, 1873),  and  also  prepared  a  Telugu  version  of 
the  Hymns  for  Pvblic  and  Social  Worship  (1884), 
as  well  as  other  devotional  works  in  the  same  lan- 
guage. His  English  works  include:  The  Bible  Tested 
(New  York,  1878);  Native  Churches  and  Foreign 
Missionary  Societies  (Madras,  1879);  The  Religions 
oftheOrieni  (Clifton Springs,  N.  Y.,  1896);  Inthe Tiger 
Jungle  (Chicago,  1896);  The  Cobra's  Den,  and  Other 
Stories  of  Missionary  Work  Among  the  Tdugus 
of  India  (1900);  and  The  Kingdom  inlndia,  with 
introductory  biographical  sketch  by  Henry  N.  Cobb 
(1908). 


Ohamberlain 


THE  NEW  SCHAFF-HERZOG 


5oa 


CHAMBERLAIN,    LEANDER    TROWBRmOE: 

American  Presbyterian;  b.  at  West  Brookfield, 
Mass.,  Sept.  26,  1837.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
in  1863,  and  from  1863  to  1867  was  attached  to  the 
Pacific  Squadron  of  the  United  States  Navy.  Dur- 
ing this  period  he  made  explorations  in  the  Inca 
civilization  of  ancient  Peru.  He  studied  theology 
at  Andover  1867-69,  and  was  pastor  of  the  New 
England  Congregational  Church,  Chicago,  1869-76, 
of  the  Broadway  Congregational  Church,  Norwich, 
Conn.,  1876-^,  and  of  the  Classon  Avenue  Presby- 
terian Church,  Brooklyn,  1883-90.  Since  1890  he  has 
had  no  charge.  He  was  the  first  United  States  repre- 
sentative secretary  of  the  McCall  Bfission  of  France,  a 
delegate  to  the  Centennial  of  Sunday-schools  in  Lon- 
don in  1880,  and  a  delegate  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  United  States  to  the  Pan-Presbyterian 
Council  in  the  same  city  in  1888,  a  founder  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States  Evangelical  Alliance 
to  the  General  Conference  of  Evangelical  Alliances 
in  Florence,  Italy,  in  1891.  He  is  also  president 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  for  the  United  States, 
of  the  Philafrican  Liberator's  League,  and  of  the 
Thessalonica  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Institute, 
Macedonia;  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Christian  Union;  vice-chairman 
of  the  national  committee  on  arbitration  between 
the  United  States  and  other  countries;  custodian 
and  patron  of  the  collection  of  gems  in  the  National 
Museum,  Washington;  and  curator  of  Eocene  mol- 
lusca  in  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Phila- 
delphia. In  theology  he  is  a  Calvinistic  Pres- 
byterian. He  has  written:  A  Short  History  of  the 
English  BibU  (Norwich.  Conn.,  1881);  Citusen'a 
Manual  (New  York,  1898);  The  State,  Its  Origin, 
Nature,  and  Functions  (1898);  The  Colonial  Policy 
of  the  United  States  (1899);  Patriotism  and  the 
Moral  Law  (1900);  Evolutionary  Philosophy  (1901); 
Oovemment  not  Founded  in  Force  (1904);  The  Suf- 
frage and  Majority  Rule  (1904);  and  The  True 
Doctrine  of  Prayer  (1906). 

CHAMBERS,     TALBOT     WILSON:    Reformed 
(Duteh);    b.  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  Feb.  25,  1819;   d. 


in  New  York  Feb.  3,  1896.  He  was  graduated  at 
Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1834.  He 
studied  at  New  Brunswick  and  Princeton  Theo- 
logical seminaries,  became  minister  of  the  Secoad 
Reformed  (Duteh)  Church  of  Raritan,  at  Somer- 
ville,  N.  J.,  1839,  and  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Collegiate  Reformed  (Duteh)  Church  of  New  York 
in  1849  and  continued  there  till  his  death.  He  was 
a  leader  in  his  denomination,  was  president  of  its 
General  Sjmod  in  1863,  and  for  the  eight  years 
preceding  his  death  was  president  of  ite  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions;  he  was  one  of  the  organisers  of 
the  Presbyterian  Alliance  (q.v.)  and  chosen  its 
president  in  1892  and  expected  to  preside  over  its 
sixth  general  council  (1896).  He  was  a  mem- 
ber (from  1881)  and  president  (from  1892)  of  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  American  Tract 
Society;  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Ver- 
sions of  the  American  Bible  Society;  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Old  Testament  company  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee,  being  the 
only  pastor  in  the  Old  Testament  company.  Be- 
sides many  sermons,  addresses,  and  miscellaneous 
articles,  he  published:  The  Noon  Prayer  Meeting, 
Fulton  Street,  New  York  (New  York,  1858);  Mem- 
oir of  the  Hon,  Theodore  Frdinghuysen  (1863); 
The  Psalter  :  a  Witness  to  the  Divine  Origin  of  the 
Bible,  Vedder  lectures  at  New  Brunswick,  1876 
( 1876) ;  and  A  Companion  to  the  Revised  Old  Testament 
(1885).  He  was  editor  of  The  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  Review  and  of  the  eariier  Princeton  Re- 
view ;  translated  and  edited  SchmoUer  on  the  Book 
of  Amos  and  prepared  the  Book  of  Zechariah  for 
the  Schaff-Lange  conunentaiy  (1874);  edited  the 
American  edition  of  Meyer's  commentary  on  I 
and  II  Corinthians  (1884),  and  the  hoinilies  of 
Chrysostom  on  the  same  books  for  The  Post-- 
Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  xii.  (1889);  suggested  and 
with  the  Rev.  Frank  Hugh  Foster  contributed 
to  the  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge (1889),  edited  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Macauley 
Jackson. 

Bibuoo&apbt:  E.  B.  Coe,  Commemomtvte  Diaeourm,  New 
York.  189e. 


END  OF  VOL.  n. 


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